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ANNUAL REPORT

BOARD OF REGENTS

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,

SHOWING THE

OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND CONDITION OF THE
INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR

Ibe (ee.

WASHINGTON: |
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
1879.

FORTY-FIFTH CONGRESS—THIRD SESSION.

IN THE SENATE OF THE UNITED STATES,
March 3, 1879.

The following resolution was agreed to by the Senate February 10, 1879, and con-
curred in by the House of Representatives March 3, 1879:

Resolved by the Spnate (the House of Representatives concurring), That 10,500 copies
of the Report of the Smithsonian Institution for the year 1878 be printed, 1,000 copies
of which shall be for the use of the Senate, 3,000 copies of which shall be for the use
of the House of Representatives, and 6,500 for the use of the Smithsonian Institution.

Attest:
GEO. C. GORHAM,

Secretary.

LETTER

FROM THE

SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,

TRANSMITTING

The annual report of the Institution for the year 1878.
FEBRUARY 8, 1879.—Ordered to be printed.

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
February 7, 1879.
Srr: In behalf of the Board of Regents, I have the honor to submit
to the Congress of the United States the annual report of the opera-
tions, expenditures, and condition of the Smithsonian Institution for the
year 1878,
I have the honor to be, your obedient servant,
SPENCER F. BAIRD,
Secretary Smithsonian Institution.
Hon. W. A. WHEELER,
President of the Senate.

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION FOR 1878.

This document contains:

1. The annual report of the Secretary, giving an account of the opera-
_ tions and condition of the establishment for the year 1878, with the sta-
tistics of collections, exchanges, ce.

2. The report of the Executive Committee, exhibiting the financial
affairs of the Institution, including a statement of the Smithson fund,
the receipts and expenditures for the year 1878, and the estimates for
1879.

3. The proceedings of the Board of Regents for the sessions of May,
1878, and January, 1879.

4, x general appendix, including translations from foreign journals
or works not generally accessible, but of interest to the collaborators
and correspondents of the Institution, teachers, and others interested in
the promotion of knowledge.

4

THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

RUTHERFORD B. HAYES, President of the United States, ex officio Presiding Officer.

MORRISON R. WAITE, Chief Justice of the United States, Chancellor of the Insti-
tution (President of the Board of Regents).

SPENCER F. BAIRD, Secretary (Director of the Institution).

WILLIAM J. RHEES, Chief Clerk.

REGENTS OF THE INSTITUTION.

MORRISON R. WAITE, Chief Justice of the United States.
WILLIAM A. WHEELER, Vice-President of the United States.
HANNIBAL HAMLIN, member of the Senate of the United States.
AARON A. SARGENT, member of the Senate of the United States.
ROBERT E. WITHERS, member of the Senate of the United States.
HIESTER CLYMER, member of the House of Representatives.
ALEXANDER H. STEPHENS, member of the House of Representatives.
JAMES A. GARFIELD, member of the House of Representatives.
JOHN MACLEAN, citizen of New Jersey.

PETER PARKER, citizen of Washington, D. C.

ASA GRAY, citizen of Massachusetts.

HENRY COPPEE, citizen of Pennsylvania.

WILLIAM T. SHERMAN, citizen of Washington, D. C.

NOAH PORTER, citizen of Connecticut.

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OF ‘THE BOARD OF REGENTS.

PETER PARKER. JOHN MACLEAN. WILLIAM T. SHERMAN.

MEMBERS EX-OFFICIO OF THE INSTITUTION.

RUTHERFORD B. HAYES, President of the United States.
WILLIAM A. WHEELER, Vice-President of the United States.
MORRISON R. WAITE, Chief Justice of the United States.
WILLIAM M. EVARTS, Secretary of State.

JOHN SHERMAN, Secretary of the Treasury.

GEORGE W. McCRARY, Secretary of War.

RICBARD W. THOMPSON, Secretary of the Navy.
DAVID M. KEY, Postmaster-General.

CARL SCHURZ, Secretary of the Interior. .
CHARLES DEVENS, Attorney-General.

H. E. PAINE, Commissioner of Patents.

OFFICERS AND ASSISTANTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTI-
TUTION AND NATIONAL MUSEUM, JANUARY, 1879.

SPENCER F. BAIRD,
Secretary, Director of the Institution.
“WILLIAM J. RHEES,
Chief Clerk.
DANIEL LEECH,
Clerk, Correspondence.
CLARENCE B. YOUNG,
Clerk, Accounts.
HERMANN DIEBITSCH,
Clerk, Foreign Exchanges.
JANE A. TURNER,
Clerk, Library.
MAGGIE E. GRIFFIN,
Clerk, Distribution of Publications.
SOLOMON G. BROWN,
Clerk, Transportation.

G. BROWN GOODE,

Curator of the Musewm.
F. M. ENDLICH,

Assistant, Mineralogy.
ROBT. RIDGWAY,

Assistant, Ornithology.
TARLETON H. BEAN,

Assistant, Ichthyology.
CHAS. RAU,

Assistant, Archeology.
EDWARD FOREMAN,

Assistant, Ethnology.
F. H. CUSHING,

Assistant, Ethnology.

JOSEPH PALMER,
Taxidermist.

T. W. SMILLIE,
Photographer.

JOSEPH HERRON,
Janitor.

REPORT OF PROFESSOR BAIRD,

SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, FOR 1878.

To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution :

GENTLEMEN: I have the honor herewith to present the report of the
operations and condition of the Smithsonian Institution for the year
1878.

The most important event during that time, and, indeed, in the history
of the establishment, is the death of Professor Henry, its lamented Sec-
retary, to whom was intrusted its organization in 1846, and under whose
firm and judicious direction it has been carried safely forward, surmount-
ing in its progress many obstacles and trials, to its present condition of
efficiency and prosperity.

It is difficult to overestimate the importance to science and humanity
of the administration of Professor Henry in this connection. It was a
mere chance that the right man for the place would be selected, and
whether any other of the candidates would have done equally well it is,
of course, impossible to say. Itis very certain, however, that the chances
would have been adverse to such a result. The most logical methods
of operation and research, the strictest economy of administration, the
restriction of the Institution to its legitimate functions in the increase
and diffusion of knowledge among men, and the avoidance of all en-
tangling alliances of every kind, signally characterized the administra-
tion of affairs by Professor Henry for the long period of nearly one third
of acentury. This time sufficed to impress upon the Institution a defi-
nite policy, and one which will, I trust, be permanent. It will certainly
be my endeavor, as the successor of Professor Henry, vo carry out his
principles during whatever period Providence and your good-will may
grant me the direction of affairs.

The characteristics of the policy adopted by Professor Henry at the
beginning of his administration, and sanctioned by the Board of Regents,
were, first, never to attempt to do with the funds and appliances of the In-
stitution what could equally well be done by other appropriate agencies ;
secondly, to attempt nothing which might not strictly be considered as
coming within the department of science, theoretical or applied; thirdly,
to keep all expenditures within the income of the Institution, and never
to allow the operations of one year to be hampered by indebtedness
carried over from the preceding; and, finally, not to restrict the opera-
tions of the institution to Washington, or even to the United States;
but to extend its benefits to the whole world, in view of the proper inter-

7

8 REPORT Or THE SECRETARY.

pretation of the will of Mr. Smithson that the main functions of the
institution should be “the increase and diffusion of knowledge among
men.”

Numerous illustrations of the policy of Professor Henry in regard to
the first principle adopted by him can be adduced. No matter how
favorite the branch of research might have been with him, nor what
amount of reputation might be gained to the Institution by prosecuting
it, he was always ready to transfer it to those who could carry it on with
success. The most noteworthy instance, perhaps, was that in connection
with the subject of meteorology, which had from the beginning been one
of special interest tohim. The very earliest action in the scientific direc-
tion of the Institution had reference to the adoption of a general system
of meteorological observations throughout the United States and the
adjacent portions of America, and the proper reduction of the results in
a systematic form. Up to the time of the establishment of the Signal
Office, this was by far the most important feature of Smithsonian activity.
It embraced a connection with about six hundred observers from all
the walks of life and in ali parts of the country. With these, constant
communication was held, and from them were received monthly detailed
observations of various degrees of minuteness and accuracy on blanks
furnished to them previously by the Institution; and an extended
correspondence was maintained with them, not only on meteorological
subjects but upon others of scientific interest. For more than twenty-
five years this relation continued with the most important results, the
work extending and enlarging year by year in a rapid ratio.

As soon as the operations of the United States Signal Office were
established by government, under General Myer, Professor Henry
offered to turn over the Smithsonian system with its observers to that
establishment, and this offer being accepted the transfer was made;
since then the Institution has confined itself to working up the results
of a quarter of a century’s labors and publishing them in a systematic
and digested form. The series of such digests has been nearly com-
pleted and the whole will be finished as rapidly as the funds of the
Institution will permit.

It was to this restriction of effort to subjects of importance, in a scien-
tific or practical point of view, which were not otherwise provided for,
that is due the impression made upon the progress of learning by the
Smithsonian Institution as administered by Professor Henry. There
are numerous establishments in the United States, not of precisely sim-
ilar character, but with the same general object, and with equal or larger
funds of endowment, but which are scarcely known or even heard of
outside of the limits of the city in which they may happen to be sit-
uated. The name of the Smithsonian Institution, on the contrary, is a
familiar one in every part of the world; and it may almost be said that
it is even better understood, comprehended, and appreciated in the
remotest parts of Europe than it is in some sections of the United States.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 9

At the beginning of the active operations of the institution, Professor
Henry prepared what he called a “ Programme of organization.” This
was first submitted to the judgment of leading men of science through-
out the United States and Europe, and received general approval. It
was presented to the Board, and adopted as the basis of future opera-
tions. It is interesting to note that whatever new lines of research or
of practical work have been taken up from time to time by the Institu-
tion, were simply the carrying out into practical effect of one or other of
the subdivisions of the proposed programme.

The board at its special meeting, held on the 17th of May, 1878, di-
rected the preparation of a suitable biography of its late Secretary, and
also the holding of a memorial service in one of the halls of Congress, if
it could be obtained for the purpose. The preparation of this biography
was intrusted to a committee, consisting of President Porter, of Yale
College, Dr. Maclean, of Princeton, and Professor Gray, of Harvard ;
and it has been prepared by the latter gentleman, and will be submitted
by him to the Board.

The arrangements for the memorial services have been made, to take
place on the evening of Thursday, January 16, 1879. In addition to
the records prepared by the direction of the Board, two other memoirs
have been written, and were presented, October 26, 1878, to the Philo-
sophical Society of Washington, of which Professor Henry had been the
presiding officer from the time of its organization. One of these me-
moirs, by Dr. Welling, president of Columbian University, gave an
account of Professor Henry’s life and character with reference to his
personal, social, and educational qualities; and the other, by Mr. Will-
iam B. Taylor, set forth more particularly his scientific work and the
succession of his discoveries.

Professor Henry’s last illness dates from the autumn of the year 1877,
and was apparently induced in a considerable measure by exposure
while carrying on a series of experiments in behalf of the Light-House
Board. After hisreturn from Staten Island, he was able to bestow but
little attention to the details of the work of the Institution; although,
up to the very day of his death, he was directing and controlling it as
from the beginning. Shortly after his return in the autumn, he made a
visit to Philadelphia, for the purpose of being under the care of Dr. 8S.
Weir Mitchell, and came back to Washington after an absence of a few
weeks. His death took place on the 15th of May, 1878,—a peaceful and
happy death—surrounded by his family and friends.

After his decease, as in his life, he was signally honored. Congress
adjourned to attend the funeral, which was also marked by the presence
of the highest dignitaries of the country, including the President and
his cabinet, the justices of the Supreme Court of the United States, and
those of the District of Columbia, the diplomatic corps, and numerous
organizations of which he was a member, as well as others from abroad.

10 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Honored by the Board in being selected to succeed Professor Henry,
it was with the greatest diffidence, and with an unaffected distrust in my
ability to administer worthily the operations of the Institution, that I
accepted the trust. Animated by a desire to secure the continuance
of the wise policy inaugurated and maintained by Professor Henry,—
by a consciousness of familiarity with the varied duties required,—and
by a natural sympathy of purpose resulting from a long association with
him—holding steadily before me his example—lI venture upen the ex-
periment; hoping only that the contrast of the present administration
of the Institution with that of the past will not be too unfavorably marked.

I may, perhaps, be pardoned for calling attention to the fact that my
own connection with the Institution and association with Professor
Henry dates back to the year 1850, and that consequently, for more than
twenty-eight years, I have been engaged in carrying out the principles
established by the late Secretary, and that the details of administration,
and the general plans of operation, are consequently not unfamiliar to
me. My association has indeed been, indirectly, longer than the time
mentioned, since as early as 1848 I visited Professor Henry and was en-
gaged by him to carry out certain researches in reference to the natural
history of Pennsylvania, aided by a grant of money from the funds of
the Institution, for the purpose.

Although the fact of the death of Professor Henry was promptly
spread over the United States and transmitted throughout the Old
World by means of the telegraph, it was thought proper, in accordance
with the usage of similar establishments, to make a formal announce-
ment by a circular letter, addressed to the foreign correspondents of the
Institution. A circular was accordingly prepared in the name of the
Chancellor and widely distributed. This has elicited a great number of
responses, containing gratifying expressions of condolence and sympathy.

The regular session of the Board of Regents for the winter of 1877
was held in January, 1878, at which time the report for 1877 was pre-
sented by Professor Henry and approved. An extra meeting was called
on the 17th of May, on the day after Professor Henry’s funeral, at which
an election of his successor took place, and arrangements were made for
a proper eulogy and the memorial meeting in January, 1879.

The law of Congress establishing and organizing the Smithsonian
Institution makes no provision for the discharge of the duties of the
chief officer by any person other than the Secretary; and as no bills for
services, for salaries, labor, supplies, &c., can be paid without his
indorsement, the disability or death of the Secretary during the recess
of the meetings of the Board is likely to involve very serious Gifficulties.
For the purpose of providing for this contingency, Senator Hamlin, a
Regent of the Institution, has introduced a joint resolution into the
Senate, providing that in case of the death, disability, or absence of the
Secretary, the Chancellor be empowered to appoint some one to discharge

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. ie

his duties until any necessary provision can be made by the Board in
full session, it not being expected that the Board could be brought
together outside of the period of the meeting of Congress. This reso-
lution has already passed the Senate, and it is hoped will soon pass the
House and become a law.

The only change in the Board of Regents to be placed on record is
the resignation of Mr. Bancroft and the election of General Sherman, a
former Regent, to fill his place. General Sherman was also elected by
the Board at its special meeting of the 17th of May to serve as one of
the Executive Committee.

The continued expansion of the operations of the Institution, especially
those connected with its department of international exchanges, has
called for accommodations more extended than those that have been
available; and Professor Henry, for some time before his death, had in
contemplation a removal from that portion of the building occupied by
his family, to a private residence in the city. He was considering this
question more urgently when his illness supervened, and of course inter-
rupted any further action on his part.

Although the occupation of the east wing of the building free of rent
was one of the privileges of the Secretary of the Institution, I found
that all the rooms in the building could be used to great advantage as
offices of the Institution; and I therefore determined, with the consent
of the members of the Executive Committee, to devote them to that
purpose. A door was opened in the wall separating the present rooms
from the apartments adjacent to them, and some other trifling inex-
pensive alterations were made, by which the entire house was trans-
formed into a series of offices and work-rooms. Every room is now in
use, and the entire force of clerks and employés has been concentrated
in the east range and wing, so that they are closely connected in their
work, adding very greatly to the efficiency of operations.

A system of electric bells and telephones has been established through-
out the building, by means of which instant communication can be had
between the several offices and work-rooms without involving the loss
of time required to pass from one to another, or without calling any one
from his work.

FINANCES.

In the report of the Executive Committee will be found a detailed
statement of the finances of the Institution, which are believed to be in
a satisfactory state. The amount to the credit of the late Secretary at
the time of his death was $8,522.98. This was transferred on the 28th
of May, 1878, to the credit of his successor, with whom a new account
was opened at the Treasury. The premium oh the gold-bearing interest
of the Smithsonian endowment, which has heretofore constituted a more
or less prominent item of the receipts for the year, has, of course, disap-
peared; only a small percentage having been realized on the July pay-
ment. As the natural counterpart to this, however, the reduction in

12 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

the price of labor and the decrease in the cost of many articles of gen-
eral supply leaves the Institution in a correspondingly better financial
condition than before. ,

The following is a statement of the condition of the Smithson fund at
the beginning of the year 1879:
The amount originally received as the bequest of James

Smithson, of England, deposited in the Treasury of the
. United States in accordance with the act of Congress of

ANTOPOR OFS CD pa bot Cc eS SS Sa $515, 169 00
The residuary legacy of Smithson, received in 1865, depos-

ited in the Treasury of the United States in accordance

with the act of Congress of February 8, 1867.........-- 26, 210 63
Total bequestio£ Smithsom: 22. 42652. 25s6 ese). 541,379 63

Amount deposited in the Treasury of the United States,
as authorized by act of Congress of February 8, 1867,
derived from savings of income and increase in value of

NVESEMMOMES! Jo 1\ 5 2 h)4 5/0 agers) Patines 1 lca eae a as eres 108, 620 37
Amount received as the bequest of James Hamilton, of
Carlisle, Pa., February 24, Uae 148 (22 e e 132 eal =~ 1, 000 00

Total permanent Smithson fund in the Treasury of

the United States, bearing interest at 6 per cent.,
payable semi-annually in gold....-..--.-----.-- 651, 000 00

In addition to the above, there remains of the extra fund

from savings, &c., in Virginia bonds and certificates,

viz: Consolidated bonds, $58,700; deferred certificates,

$29,375.07; fractional certificate, $50.13; total, $88,125.20,

valued, January, 1879) :aib -)..mc2 mo n.6 aes eee 34, 000 00
Cash balance in United States Treasury at the beginning
of the year 1879, for current, expenses. <2 -- = 19, 632 57
Total Smithson funds January 8,1879..........-.. 704, 632 57
BUILDING.

Some damage was done to the Smithsonian building by the severe
storms of the summer of 1878, and considerable expense ineurred in re-
pairs. ‘The finial on the west tower was blown off and a large number
of slates torn away, all of which required reconstruction. The occasion
was taken to give the gutters, spouts, and lightning-rods a thorough
overhauling, leaving everything, it is believed, in the best condition.
The basement has been cleaned and whitewashed, and all unserviceable
material, including scrap-iron, &c., has been suitably disposed of.

PUBLICATIONS.

As has been frequently stated in former reports, the publications of
the Institution consist of three classes: The first, the “Smithsonian Con-
tributions to Knowledge”; the second, the ‘“‘Smithsonian Miscellaneous

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. ie

Collections”; and the third, the “Annual Reports of the Regents” of
the Institution. The works of the first class, the Smithsonian Contribu-
tions to Knowledge, are published in quarto form, and are intended to
embrace original memoirs, either the result of special investigations
authorized and directed by the Institution, or prosecuted under other
auspices and presented to it. The works of the second class, the Mis-
cellaneous Collections, are similar in plan and construction to the “ Con-
tributions,” but are in octavo form, and embrace more particularly mono-
graphie and descriptive papers in natural history, formal or systematic
lists of species of animals or plants, physical tables, reports on the pres-
ent state of knowledge in some department of physical or biologic sci-
ence, &c. As with the “Contributions,” each volume is composed of
several distinct and independent papers, having no necessary connection
with each other, the collection being determined chiefly by the aggregate
number of pages suitable for a volume of average size. The average
number of pages in the quarto volume is about 600; in the octavo volume,
about 800. Each paper or memoir in either class is separately paged and
indexed, with its own title-page, so as to be complete in itself, and sepa-
rately distributed according to its subject. Of the quarto “Contribu-
tions,” twenty-one volumes, and of the “Collections,” fifteen volumes
have been published.

The Smithsonian annual reports commenced in 1847, and being made
to Congress, are published by that authority, and not at the expense of
the Smithson fund. The earlier reports of the Secretary were printed
in small pamphlet editions, but were collected and reprinted with the
report for 1853, and with this the series of bound volumes may be said
to have begun. The number, or edition, ordered by Congress has varied
from year to year, but the proportion of copies placed at the disposal of
the Institution has been distributed to its correspondents as fully and
liberally as possible.

Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge published in 1878.—For sev-
eral years past the Institution has had in its archives a paper by the
late Prof. Henry J. Clark, relating to the Lucernarie, an extremely in-
teresting group of marine animals closely allied to the Acalephs, or
Jelly-fish. The death of the author before the work could go to press,
and the difficulty of finding any one willing to undertake the editing of
it, prevented immediate action on the memoir; but Prof. A. E. Verrill hay-
ing agreed to take charge of the work, it was at length put to press, and
was finally published in 1878. The memoir consists of 138 quarto pages
and eleven plates, and it has been distributed to the leading zoologists.
The Institution is under great obligations to Professor Verrill for the
careful and critical supervision of the typographical execution of the
work, as well as for some important notes and rectifications. Mr.
Samuel F. Clark, of Johns Hopkins University, is also entitled to the
thanks of the Institution for assistance in revising proofs during the
period when Professor Verrill was ill.

14 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

The second quarto memoir, published in 1878, is a paper by Mr.
William H. Dall, “On the Remains of later Prehistoric Man, obtained
from caves in the Catherina Archipelago, Alaska Territory, and espe-
cially from the caves of the Aleutian Islands.” In the Secretary’s re-
port for 1875 (page 48) will be found a brief notice of some interesting
mummified human remains from the Aleutian Islands presented by the
Alaska Commercial Company. These comprised a series of nine mum-
mies from Kagaymil Island and one from Prince William’s Sound. Mr.
Dall’s memoir on the subject has been printed, containing the result of
a careful examination of these remains and the relics found with them,
an account of the tradition and history relating to them, and such ex-
planations of the manufacture, character, and use of the various asso-
ciated articles as the author’s observations during eight years in that
region enabled him to furnish. Ten heliotype illustrations accompany
the memoir, which, though inferior to finely engraved views in an
artistic point of view, offer a style better suited to convey a correct idea
of the complicated details represented than any other mode of illustra-
tion at present in use.

Two remaining quarto papers now in press will be published early in
the year 1879. The first of these is the memoir of Dr. 8. Habel, describ-
ing “The Sculptures of Santa Lucia Cosumalwhuapa, in Guatemala.”
As this interesting work was quite fully described in the Secretary’s last
Report (for 1877, pages 13 to 16), it is unnecessary here to particularize
it further.

The other paper referred to (constituting the fourth of the above-
mentioned series) is ‘A Classification and Synopsis of the Trochilidz,”
by Mr. D. G. Elliot. The beautiful and brilliant-colored “ metallic”
plumage of the humming-birds in many instances assumes, among
individuals of the same species, widely-contrasted hues, rendering
the correct identification of the species by the naturalist only possible
through a considerable experience or the opportunity of examining a
large series of specimens. Within the past ten years a large number of
new species have been discovered in this group, supplying important
links between previously-known species that could not have been here-
tofore harmoniously ranged in the family. The vast collection which
has produced the material for this work contains many types and speci-
mens of great rarity, obtained from such well-known trochilidists as
Bourcier, Gould, Verreaux, &c. Of the 426 species acknowledged in the
work as worthy of such rank, 380 are contained in the author’s collection,
represented by about 1,800 specimens. A novel feature of the work is
the engraving that accompanies the diagnosis of each genus, illustrating
the characteristics by which any specimen may be readily referred to its
proper genus. The characters recognized as most important for deter-
mining a system of classification are taken from the male bird alone, it
being found impossible to harmonize in so large a group any that should
be selected from the two sexes indiscriminately. The present synopsis

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 15

will be useful both to the student and to the naturalist by enabling
them to easily identify their specimens, and will assist them to a natural
classification of the family.

Miscellaneous Collections published #1 1878.—Among the ‘ Collections”
published in the past year have been several very important circulars
intended to facilitate the collection of material for scientific research.
The first of these, prepared by Prof. O. T. Mason, at the request of the
Institution, relates to the various remains of American archeology scat-
tered throughout: different parts of our continent, consisting of mounds,
earthworks, ditches, graves, &e. A vast amount of isolated and discon-
nected research has been directed toward these objects, in most cases
by persons ignorant of the true method of examination or of the precise
nature of the problems to be solved in connection with them. The cir-
cular referred to comprises 15 pages, indicating the features of special
interest, a record of which it is desired to possess, and giving a table of
symbols to be used to seenre uniformity of illustration and facility of
reference. It also invites contributions of notes, surveys, maps, illus-
trations, &¢., of the objects, and also requests the contribution of such
specimens as may be found in the localities described, including stone
implements, pottery, bone tools, &c. Of this circular many thousand
copies have been distributed, and these have elicited a vast amount of
mnaterial. Thisis all carefully and systematically classified and arranged,
and as soon as it appears to be measurably complete it will be placed in
the hands of one or more specialists, by the aid of whom it is hoped the
Institution may be able to prepare an exhaustive treatise on the sub-
ject which will mark as important a stage of progress in the history of
American archeology as was done by its publication, in 1849, of Squier
& Davis’s work upon the ancient mounds of the Mississippi Valley.

The second circular published was one prepared by P. R. Ubler, of
Baltimore, in reference to the collection of specimens of craw-fishes. This
group of fresh-water crustaceans, whichis found in most parts of the world,
withsome curious exceptions, furnishes an interesting field for inquiry into
the modifications produced in animal forms by certain physical or other
conditions, Professor Huxley, among others, having lately prepared an
elaborate paper upon the subject. In previous years quite a number of
new craw-fishes were described from the collections of the National
Museum, by Mr. Charles Girard. The group was afterwards made the
subject of a very comprehensive investigation by Dr. H. Hagen, of
Cambridge. It is, however, thought that there is room for still further
inquiry, and the material in possession of the Smithsonian Institution
will be placed in the hands of competent specialists for investigation.
In the circelar an illustration of the craw-fish is given, for which the
Institution is indebted to Messrs. Appleton & Co., New York.

The third cireular, to form part of a forthcoming volume of Smithson-
ian Miscellaneous Collections, is in reference to the living reptiles of

16 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

North America. The United States Fish Commission, under the au-
spices of the Smithsonian Institution, exhibited at the Philadelphia
Centennial of 1876 an extremely interesting series of plaster and papier
maché casts of fishes, cetaceans, and some reptiles, all carefully colored
from nature, and representing a much larger number of such objects than
had ever been brought together under one roof. Since that time the
artists connected with the National Museum have been diligently en-
gaged in extending and improving the series, and for nearly two years
past their efforts have been conducted especially in the line of the rep-
tiles. The circular in question was intended to indicate precisely the
forms or species desired, and it has been extensively distributed. <As
the result, the Institution was the recipient, in 1878, of very large num-
bers of living turtles, serpents, lizards, salamanders, &c., the greater por-
tion of which has been carefully molded and reproduced in artistic style.
It is believed that no museum extant can show such a series of serpents,
in their natural attitudes, as is now on exhibttion in the National
Museum.

Another publication of 1878 is a new “ List of Foreign Correspond-
ents.” The rapid increase in the number of scientific establishments in
relationship with the Institution requires a new edition of this list every
few years; and although the present cne is much more extensive than
that published in 1872 (containing 2333 numbers of titles as compared
with 1919), even now arrangements are being made by the Institution fora
still more complete and exhaustive edition. With this view a circular
has been sent to all the names upon the present list, asking for rectifi-
cations or typographic corrections, and the addition of any addresses
of public libraries, learned societies, or scientific bureaus of govern-
ments not already included. The Institution alsorequested secretaries
of societies to furnish a list of the names and addresses of persons act-
ively engaged in scientific or literary investigations in their respective
towns, together with the particular branches of learning to which each
was devoted, with the view of facilitating communication and exchanges
with specialists in all parts of the world. The responses to these re-
quests are coming in rapidly ; and when all are received, a suitable ar-
rangement and publication of the material will be made.

Twenty years ago (in 1858), the Institution published a list. of the
Diptera (flies, musquitoes, &c.) of North America, by Baron R. Osten-
Sacken, at that time attached to the Russian Legation at Washington.
The author, although especially a student of the order of diptera, was
interested in other groups, and coming to the United States at a time
when our entomologists were few and widely scattered, he devoted a
considerable part of his leisure to travel over the country, making the
personal acquaintance of most of those interested in this branch of natu-
ral history. In that connection he rendered a valuable aid to the ex-
tension of American entomologic science, which is entitled to public
recognition. Through his efforts numexous entomologists, situated far

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 1%

apart, and prosecuting studies of a similar character, without the knowl-
edge of other labors than their own, were brought into relations of
correspondence and exchange, and thus, by their mutual sympathy and
support, and by the concentration of eftort on the part of each to some
special line of research, the common interest of science was advanced.
Ve regret to say that after many years sojourn in this country, Baron
Osten-Sacken has returned to Europe, where, however, his assistance
is continually invoked by entomologists desiring information in regard
to type specimens, books not procurable in the United States, We.

The list of Diptera aforesaid (published in the Miscellaneous Collec-
tions) brought together a mass of references to the descriptions of about
1,800 species, scattered in more than one hundred ditferent works
and scientific papers. Such a publication was an indispensable prelim-
inary step before any study of the diptera could be attempted. This
formed the first of a series of works undertaken by the Institution to
facilitate the study of entomology, which has included diptera, coleop-
tera, lepidoptera, neuroptera, and hymenoptera.

During the past year the work of Baron Osten-Sacken, much extended
by his later eritical studies, has been republished by the Institution.
This new edition of the work is not merely a revision of the catalogue
published twenty years ago; but it is an entirely new one prepared on
a different plan. The difference between eleven and sixty-six, the num-
ber of species of one genus, Trypeta, represents the addition made to
our knowledge during the interval between the two catalogues. Other
genera give similar results. Another important difference between the
old and new eatalogues consists in the fact that the majority of the
species enumerated in the latter are represented in a collection now in the
Museum of Comparative Zoology in Cambridge, Mass., which contains
over 2,000 named and described species of diptera from North America.
The region embraced in the present catalogue is the whole of North
America, including the West Indies. It has been the effort of the
author to make sure that every name in the list should actually rep-
resent a different species. To attain this result, he visited and examined
the museums in London, Paris, Lille, Berlin, Frankfort, Darmstadt,
Turin, and Vienna. Of all orders of insects the diptera offer probably
the most difficulties to the describer, arising from the minuteness of the
characters on which generic and specific distinction are based. Each
family requires a special study, and a ‘dipterologist may be very well
versed in some families, without being able to express any opinion with
regard to questions concerning others. In the introduction to the ecata-
logue, the author presents some recommendations as to the best course
to be pursued in the study of diptera, and advises specialization.
Amateurs may collect and name specimens, but should not publish
anything until they have chosen some single family and nearly ex-
hausted it by study and collecting. ‘The exhaustive study of a single
fainily is far more remunerative both in pleasure and in usefulness

S. Mis. 59

2

‘
18 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

than the random description of numerous new species.” The catalogue
forms an octavo volume of 324 pages, and includes a full index.
Another paper published in 1878, to be mentioned, is a “ Botanical
Index,” prepared by Prof. Sereno Watson, of Cambridge, Mass. The
purpose of this index is to furnish references to whatever has been pub-
lished respecting the plants of North America, under their Linnean spe-
cifie names, in works or papers that may be classed as belonging to sys-
tematic botany. For the region west of the Mississippi and for British
America, the literature of which is almost wholly fragmentary and
greatly scattered, and on account of which especially the work was orig-
inally begun, it is intended to be complete. And it is essentially so also
for the eastern flora, where, however, there is not the same necessity
that the citations should be exhaustive. To avoid the perpetuation of
errors it was desirable to eliminate false species and to correct wrong
determinations wherever they had gone upon record. This could not
have been thoroughly done without a complete revision of the flora
itself, which was of course out of the question; nevertheless it was ren-
dered to a considerable extent possible as respects the western flora, by
the author’s connection with the “ Botany of California”; and in many
other cases he was enabled to decide upon the validity of species, and
to verify determinations or to settle doubtful synonymy by comparisons
of specimens themselves in the collection of the Harvard Herbarium.
The delays that have arisen in the preparation of the volume have
not been without compensation in the far more complete and satisfactory
results Which were only thus made possible; and the deficiencies of the
earlier portions are largely supplied by the copious appendix, which
makes the whole essentially complete, up to the date of publication.
The portion now printed covers the ground of Torrey and Gray’s Flora
of North America, which was published in 1838-1840, and is now so com-
pletely out of date as to leave this portion of our botany nearly as much
in need of revision as any other. Until such revision can be made
(and it must still be delayed some years), the “‘ Index” will necessarily
be a partial substitute—in some respects sufficient, inasmuch as it shows
what genera and species are recognized as forming our flora, and also as
concerns the synonymy, which could not be given with any such com-
pleteness, within the limits of the desired revision, and moreover suffi-
cient in its references to all existing descriptions of those species. In
any given case, these descriptions may indeed be practically inaccessible,
or they may be incomplete or faulty, and it is herein that nothing can
be a substitute for a “ Flora,” which shall bring together into one vol-
ume perfected descriptions, together with such grouping of genera and
species as to indicate their natural affinities. For the preparation of
such a Flora, or for the study of any special portion ot the field, the
present Index will meantime be an important aid, giving as it were a
skeietonized history of each individual species, and affording a elue to
all that is known toward the needed filling out of the outline. The

\

i ee a

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 19

total number of orders given in the Index is 69; of genera, 545; of
species, 3,038. The work forms an octavo volume of 454 pages.

A work too long delayed, and constituting a most important addition
to the Miscellaneous Collections—a memoir of the founder, James Smith-
son, with a collection of his published contributions to science, followed
by a documentary history of the organization, rise, and progress of the
Tnstitution—has during the past year been collected and prepared, and
is Now in press.

At a meeting of the Board of Regents, held January 23, 1878, it was
resolved that the Secretary be requested to have a memoir of James
Smithson prepared and published, to include all his scientific papers now

accessible; and that the Secretary prepare and publish a history of the

origin and progress of the Institution. In accordance with these resolu-
tions, the Secretary directed Mr. William J. Rhees, the chief clerk, who
had been connected with the Institution for more than twenty-tive years,
to commence the collection of material for these works, and on the death
of Professor Henry, Mr. Rhees was requested to continue hislabors. No
compilation of this character having been previously attempted, the in-
vestigation involved a laborious research.

The scientific papers of Smithson, which originally appeared in the
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, and in Thom-
son’s Annals of Philosophy, have been collected and reprinted; they °
occupy 120 octavo pages. These memoirs were submitted to several chem-
ists and mineralogists for an estimate of the scientific value of Smith-
sow’s researches, and the present acceptance or recognition of the results
obtained by him.

The history of the Institution contains the will of Smithson, the man-
ner in which the bequest was obtained by the United States, the corre-
spondence between Hon. Richard Rush, the special agent of this govern-
ment, and the officials and attorneys in England, an account of the suit
in chancery which was found necessary to obtain the fund, an account
of the residuary legacy or sum left in England as the principal of an
annuity to the mother of the nephew of Smithson, and how this was
finally obtained and added to the fund. The legislation of Congress in
reference to the bequest is given, including a reprint of every resolution,
memorial, report, speech, and act from the proceedings of Congress that
have any reference to the fund or to the establishment and objects of the
Smithsonian Institution, from December 17, 1835, when President Jack-
son first informed Congress of the bequest, down to the Ist January,
1878.

The collection of this part of the history involved a minute examina-
tion of every page of the ““Globe,” containing the report of the proceed-
ings of Congress, and also a large number of documents and many of the
records printed and in manuscript on file at the Capitol or elsewhere.
The various plans proposed in the Senate and House of Representatives
for the carrying out the intentions of Smithson, by John Quincy Adams,

20 REPORT OF THE SECRITARY.

.

Mr. Robbins, Mr. Choate, Mr. Marsh, Mr. Owen, and many others are
given in full, and form an exceedingly interesting exhibit of the views
of men in political life as to the best means of increasing and diffusing
knowledge. This part also includes the history of the controversy in
relation to the management of the Institution arising from the resigna-
tion of Mr. Choate from the Board of Regents, and the speeches of Sen-
ators Pearce, Mason, Douglas, Badger, and Clayton, and of Representa-
tives English and Meacham, together with the reports of the Senate
Judiciary Committee, and of a special committee of the House. As
throwing light on much of Congressional action and to show the intense
interest Mr. John Quincy Adams felt in the bequest, copious extracts
are made from his diaries.

The volume also contains the various plans proposed for the organiza-
tion of the Institution by scientific and literary men, including Mr. Rush,
Dr. Wayland, Dr. Cooper, Dr. Chapin, with the report of the committe
of organization of the Board of Regents; the programme presented by
Professor Henry in December, 1847, and the opinions of this programme
expressed by Dr. Beck, Professor Silliman, Dr. Gray, the American
Academy of Arts and Sciences, the presidents of Columbia, Williams,
Hamilton, Delaware, Pennsylvania, Georgetown, Amherst, Saint John’s,
Brown, Bowdoin, Charleston, Hampden Sidney, Madison, William and
Mary, Cumberland, Alabama, Marietta, Tennessee, North Carolina,
Trinity, and many other colleges and societies.

These articles will form parts of the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Col-
lections, and will not only be of interest to the Regents and those imme-
diately connected with the management of the Institution, but to all who
wish to ascertain the views and acts of some of our most prominent men
in relation to science for nearly half a century. The history of the
Institution will show what difficulties surrounded its organization, the
diversity of opinion as to its proper functions, the opposition to be over-
come, and the value of the wide and comprehensive plans of the Secre-
tary, Professor Henry, to Whose clearness of conception, firmness. of
purpose, and purity of character the success of the Institution is mainly
indebted. His views, though but little understood and appreciated at
first, have steadily gained the favor of the scientific and literary world,
and are now universally recognized as the best adapted to accomplish
the great purpose of Smithson.

Bulletins of the National Museum.—In the Secretary’s Report for 1875
(page 14) it was stated that, during the past year another series of pub-
lications, which would form a part of the Miscellaneous Collections, had
been commenced under the abovetitle. Thisseries is intended to illustrate
the collections of natural history and ethnology belonging to the United
States, and constituting the stock of the National Museum, of which
the Smithsonian Institution is the custodian. These bulletins, prepared
at the request and mainly by the attachés of the institution, have been

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Ze

printed under the authority of the Secretary of the Interior. They form
an independent series, which has proved very acceptable to naturalists,
as enabling them to obtain prompt information as to the additions to
and the components of the National Museum. ;

The following is a list of the Bulletins already published:

No. 1. Check-list of North American Batrachia and Reptilia; by
Edward D. Cope. 1875. 106 pp.

No. 2. Contributions to the Natural History of Kerguelen Island; by
J. H. Kidder, M. D.; Part I, Ornithology; edited by Elliott Coues.
1875. 61 pp.

No.5. Contributions to the Natural History of Kerguelen Island; Pare
II, Gdlogy, Botany, Geology, Mammals, Fish, Mollusks, Insects, Crus-
taceans, Annelids, Echinoderms, Anthozoa; by Kidder, Coues, Gray,
Iwndlich, Gill, Dall, Osten-Sacken, Hagen, 8S. J. Smith, Verrill, and 8. F.
Clark. 1876. 122 pp.

No. 4. Birds of Southwestern Mexico; collected by Francis E. Sumi-
chrast. By George N. Lawrence. 1876. 56 pp.

No. 5. Catalogue of the Fishes of the Bermudas; by G. Brown Goode.
1876. 82 pp.

No. 6. Classification of the collection to illustrate the Animal Resources
of the United States; by G. Brown Goode. 1876. 139 pp.

No. 7. Contributions to the Natural History of the Hawaiian and
Fanning Islands, and Lower California; by Thomas H. Streets, M. D.
onde. Li2unps

No. 8. Index to the names which have been applied to the subdivisions

all erd

of the class Brachiopoda previous to the year 1877; by William H. Dall.
1877. 88 pp.

of Rafinesque’s Memoirs on North American Fishes; by David S. Jordan.
1Sit. 53 pp.

No. 10. Contributions to North American Ichthyology; Part II; Cot-
tid, Etheostomatide, Percide, Centrarchide, Aphododeridz, Doryso-
matidz, Cyprinidie, Siluride. By D. 8S. Jordan. 1878. 120 pp., with
45 plates.

No. 11. Not yet published.

No. 12. Contributions to North American Ichthyology; Part IIL; by
D.S. Jordan and A. W. Brayton. 1878. 237 pp.

Of the above, those published during the past year are the Bulletins
numbered 10 and 12. The former comprises the second part of Prof.
David 8S. Jordan’s Contributions to North American Ichthyology, and
includes notes on Cottide, Etheostomatid, Percide, Centrarchid,
Aphododeride, Dorysomatide, and Cyprinidae, with revisions of the
genera and descriptions of new or little known species; and Synopsis
of the Siluride of the fresh waters of North America, with a bibliogra-
phy of all the genera and species. It forms an octavo pamphlet of 120
pages, with 45 plates.

22 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

The latter (No. 12) comprises the third part of Contributions to North
American Ichthyology, including the distribution of the fishes of the
Allegheny region of South Carolina, Georgia, and Tennessee, with de-
seriptions of new or little known species; by David S. Jordan and
Alembert W. Brayton. This paper is based primarily on the collections
made by the authors and a party of students of Butler University,
Ohio, during the summer of 1877, in various streams in the Southern
States, classified under the following basins: 1, Santee; 2, Savannah;
3, Altamaha; 4, Chattahoochie; 5, Alabama; 6, Tennessee; 7, Cum-
berland. In the course of the investigations detailed in this paper some
light has been thrown on the laws which govern the distribution of fresh-
water fishes in general. A synopsis is also given of the family Catosto-
mid; by David S. Jordan, and a bibliography is given of all the known
works on Catostomidee.

Proceedings of the National Musewm.—In imitation of the practice of
those learned societies which publish periodically descriptions of new
species, &c., in the form of proceedings of weekly or monthly meetings,
and thus present to the world the discoveries connected with the estab-
lishment at the earliest practicable moment, it appeared to be very desir-
able that the National Muserm should have some medium of prompt
publication for announcing descriptions of specimens received (many of
which are new species), aS well as other interesting facts relative to
natural history furnished by the correspondents of the Institution. To
meet this want, an order was obtained from the honorable Seeretary of
the Interior, authorizing the publication of a volume of “ Proceedings
of the National Museum” for the year 1878, not to exceed 500 pages.

The publication of the ‘ Proceedings of the National Museum” has
accordingly been commenced, the work comprising short descriptions of
the additions to the Museum, and accounts of new species, or ilustra-
tions of species collected in particular regions of country. It is printed
in successive signatures, as fast as copy sufficient for 16 pages is pre-
pared, each signature having printed at the bottom of its first page the
date of actual issue, for settling any questions as to priority of publica-
tion. It is at once distributed to scientific societies and leading natu-
ralists in this country and in Europe. A large number of important -
articles of greater or less length have already been printed, to form the
volume for 1878, now nearly completed. They consist of articles
on new species of fishes collected by the United States Fish Commission ;
papers on the birds of the West Indies, collected under the auspices of
the Smithsonian Institution, &e. Of this series, about 250 pages have
been printed during the year 1878, being produced (as in the ease of
‘“‘ Bulletins”) at the expense of the Interior Department, by which all the
disbursements connected with the service of the National Museum are
made.

Reports of the United States Fish Commission.—A series of publications
which may be considered as in some respects connected with the work
of the Institution not only in the personnel, but in the subjects of natu-

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 2a

ral history discussed and in the resulting contributions to our knowledge
may properly be here noticed. ‘The present Secretary being at the head
of the United States Commission of Fish and Visheries, and the work
accomplished by this agency in increasing and diffusing scientific as well
as practical information being quite within the objects and province of
the Institution, much of the material would legitimately form a portion
of the Smithsonian Contributions or Miscellaneous Collections. These
reports are, however, published by the government, and are distributed
by Congress.

Four volumes of this series have been published, each being of octavo
size and comprising about 1,000 pages. The last of these reports, pub-
lished in 1878, contains 1,089 pages, and embraces: (A) General con-
siderations on the progress of operations; (B) Inquiry into the decrease
of the food-fishes; (C) The propagation of food-fishes, as the shad, the
salmon, the white-fish, and the carp; (D) Tables showing the distribu-
tion of shad, salmon, &c., the places, dates, and quantities hatched by
the United States Fish Commission from 1872 to 1876. The Appendix
contains a num ber of important papers, the most elaborate of which is a
history of the American whale fishery, by Capt. Alexander Starbuck.
This is followed by one on the carp and its culture, by Rudolph Hessel.

Smithsonian annual report.—The Annual Report of the Institution for
1877 was transmitted to Congress on the 6th of February, 1878, and
19,500 extra copies of it were ordered to be printed, 1,000 for the use
of the Senate, 3,000 for the House of Representatives, and 6,500 for the
Iastitution. It forms an octavo volume of 500 pages, with 49 wood-cut
illustrations. The principal articles in the Appendix are a list of the
more important explorations and expeditions, the collections of which
have constituted the main sources of supply fer the National Museum
from 1850 (and even earlier) to 1877; a translation of Holmgren’s memoir
on color-blindness, in connection with which is reprinted an article on
the same subject by Professor Henry, published in 1845; translations of
the reports of the transactions of the Geneva Society of Physics and
Natural History for 1875, 1876, and 1877, of Weisman’s article on the
change of the Mexican Axolotl toan Amblystoma, and of short memoirs
on meteorological subjects, by Hann, Reye, Sohncke, Colding, and Pes-
lin; notes on the history and climate of New Mexico, by Thomas Me-
Parlin, and brief articles on ethnological topics, by C. Rau, George L.
Cannon, Moses Strong, J. N. de Hart, E. E. Breed, M. W. Moulton, Mrs.
Gilbert Knapp, W. H. R. Lykins, James Shaw, J. Cochrane, George W.
Hill, H. B. Case, F. Miller, Joseph Friel, W. M. Clark, Charles C. Jones,
jr., W. B. F. Bailey, A. S. Gaines, K. M. Cunningham, 8S. S. Haldeman,
A.M. Harrison, 8. P. Mayberry, Wiliiam M. Taylor, Edwin M. Shepard,
George J. Gibbs, F..L. Galt, and Stephen Bowers.

ANTHROPOLOGY.

As inprevious years, the subject of the anthropology of North America
received special attention fiom the Institution. Its earliest publiea-

24 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

tion, constituting the first volume of the “ Smithsonian Contributions
to Knowledge,” was the work of Squier and Davis on the ancient
monuments of the Mississippi Valley; and to this the inquiries of the
past third of a century into the early history of man in the Northwest
owe their chief impetus. The book is a universal guide, and is even now
a standard. The edition at the command of the Institution has long
since been exhausted, and it has been proposed to republish it to meet
the urgent calls of the public. Unfortunately, the destruction of the
wood-euts by the fire of 1865 would render the cost of reproducing them
so great as to make it doubtful whether it would not be better to use the
money that would be needed for it in the preparation of a more ex-
tended work on the same subject, which has been in contemplation by
the Institution for several years past.

In the list of publications of the year is mentioned an archeological
circular, prepared by Professor Mason, and distributed in very large
numbers. The object of this has been to secure information of the
minutest details in reference to the construction of mounds, earthworks,
and other traces of aboriginal engineering, as well as of articles of every
description and character found in the mounds, in the graves, and in
the superficial soil.

The answers to this cireular have been unexpectedly abundant and
' varied, and a great mass of material is now in the possession of the In-
stitution and in process of elaboration. The papers in relation to the
mounds, earth-works, &c., are placed in the hands of Professor Mason, of
Columbian University, for critical investigation and examination; and
under his editorship they will be arranged and ultimately printed, to-
gether with numerous illustrations which accompany them. <A series
of maps will also be completed, containing information obtained from
these and other sources, so that we shall have some satisfactory idea of
their geographical distribution, extent, &c., throughout the country.

The investigation of the aboriginal relies is in charge of Prof. Charles
Rau, the superintendent of the archeological department of the National
Museum. As preliminary to a systematic work in this direction Prof.
Rau has lately completed the rearrangement of the archeological col-
lections of the Museum, carefully eliminating the duplicates, but retain-
ing whatever may serve to illustrate the geographical distribution of
forms and material, or the variation in pattern. Under his direction,
also, numerous drawings have been made on wood and partially engraved.

A detailed statement of the donations to the National Museum relat-
ing to this branch of science will be found in the list of Contributors to
the Museum, and also in the general account given subsequently, of
the several additions to the Museum. It may, however, be well to call
special attention to two northern collections in this department; one
received from Mr. E. W. Nelson, a signal-station observer at Saint
Michaels, in Alaska; the other from Mr. L. Kumlien, the naturalist of
the Howgate expedition to Arctic America. These illustrate very fully

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Za

the nature and character of art among the Esquimaux on both sides of
the continent, and with what has been heretofore obtained from the
same region, as also the coast of Arctic America, through the agency
of Mr. R. R. McFarlane, render this series the most complete of its kind
in existence.

Special acknowledgment is aue to the American Express Company, °
through Jas. C. Fargo, esq., general superintendent, for giving instruc-
tions to all the agents of the company to co-operate with the Institution
in the collection of archeological material for the Museum.

METEOROLOGY.

Among the first objects of consideration by Professor Henry, after
the commencement of active operations on the part of the Smithsonian
Institution, was that of meteorology, and for more than twenty-five
years ithas received alarge proportion of hisown attention and considera-
tion, as well as the aid of the Institution as far as its means would
permit. Prior to the period named more or less attention had been paid
to the subject, and efforts had been made to secure an extensive and
continuous series of observations. These, for the most part, however,
were limited to single places, and more rarely extended to counties or
States; and it is to Professor Henry that we owe the establishment of
a uniform system over an entire continent. Little by little the work was
extended until, at the time of its fullest activity, it had its agents in
nearly every county of most of the States of the Union; indeed, through-
out the whole of British North America, and even in the remotest post
of the Hudson’s Bay Company, in Mexico and Central America, the
services of observers were utilized. Some of these were provided with
full sets of meteorological apparatus, so that observations could be made
with the utmost precision; others had only a thermometer and barom-
eter, while still others had nothing but a thermometer.

Several different series of blanks were distributed by the Institution
corresponding to the ditierent classes. The blanks were returned
monthly and duly filed. In the earlier part of the work some instru-
ments were furnished, such as barometers and thermometers. Subse-
quently, however, it was found that the expense was too great, and only
occasionally were thermometers and rain-gauges supplied. There was,
however, no lack of persons who were ready to take part in this system,
and not only to give their time, but also to purchase their own instru-
ments.

The interest of the observers was maintained by a constant corre-
spondence with the Institution. Copies of the Smithsonian Reports
and other publications were duly transmitted to them, and any inquiries
or communications from them on scientific subjects were promptly re-
sponded to.

In this way a body of collaborators was secured to the Institution,
whose services cannot be overestimated, since they not only furnished

26 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

information relating to meteorology, but they were always ready to sup-
ply information and assistance in other directions. To that body of men
the National Museum owes a very large part of the extensive and com-
plete series of illustrations of North American natural history that gives
to it so great a prominence, this being the result of successive applica-
‘tions for aid from particular classes. Thus, whenever the attention of
the Institution was directed to the fact that some particular branch of
natural history required its fostering care, circulars were prepared and
issued to the meteorological correspondents, invoking co-operation, and
asking them to collect objects of the kind that might be found in their
neighborhood, so that, not only all North American species might be
gathered, but accurate determinations made of their geographical dis-
tribution. Very extensive responses usually followed these appeals,
and in many cases sufficient material was secured to place the subject
on a permanent and satisfactory basis. The works of the Institution on
many orders of insects and on fresh-water and land shells, reptiles,
birds, mammals, &c., were all based more or less entirely on collections
and information obtained by the Smithsonian observers.

As a result, therefore, of over twenty-five years’ observations by such
men, the mass of meteorological information obtained became very great,
and even though a certain per cent. of the observations could not lay
claim to that minute accuracy which is generally required, yet it was
found that, for many purposes, such as the general indications of varia-
tions in temperature, barometrical pressure, rain-fall, &e., in the colla-
tion of all observations the errors disappeared, and an average was se-
cured which did not differ essentially from what would have been derived
from more accurate observations.

The results of these observations have been published by the Institu-
tion in several forms. During the time when the werk was carried on
partly by the assistance of the Department of Agriculture, the reports
of that establishment contained the general results. In 1855, two quarto
volumes were published at the expense of the government. Subsequently,
however, a system of special digests was undertaken under the super-
vision of Professor Cofiin, for the winds; and of the temperature, rain-
fall, &e., under Mr. Charles A. Schott, of the United States Coast Sur-
vey, a full account of which will be found in the former reports of the
Institution.

A second edition of the work on the Winds of the Globe, commenced
by Protessor Coffin, and unfinished at his death, a few years ago, was
completed under the auspices of his son, and published by the Insti-
tution. This is one of the most important tréatises on meteorological
science that has ever appeared from any press.

Shortly after being honored with the appointment as Secretary, I in-

vited a committee, consisting of Mr. Charles A. Schott, Prof. Cleveland

Abbé, and Mr. William Ferrel, to consider the subject of the unfinished
meteorological work of the Institution, and to suggest a plan by which

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 20

it could be carried on and completed, with due reference to the state of
its finances. This committee met at the Institution and carefully con-
sidered the whole subject, with the manuscripts before them, and con-
cluded that a new edition of the rain-fall tables should be completed as
soon as possible, this being a subject of great interest, both theoretically
and in its practical applications. An allowance was therefore made for
the completion of this work, and it will be ready for the press during the
present year. The publication of this new edition of the rain-fall tables
will be commenced and completed as soon as practicable. The baro-
metrical reductions, the digest of the periodical phenomena of animal
and vegetable life, &c., will be prosecuted as rapidly as the funds of the
Institution will warrant.

It is, of course, unnecessary to refer to the fact that active operations
in regard to meteorological observations, in accordance with the policy
of Professor Henry have been transferred to the Weather Bureau of the
Signal Department of the United States Army, under the care of General
A. J. Myer, and that hereafter the meteorological expenditures will be
confined to completing the presentation of the results obtained during the
twenty-five years of the active work of the Institution in that direction.

RESEARCHES.

The appropriation made to Dr. H. C. Wood, jr. in 1876 and 1877 for
experiments to determine the nature and cause of the increased tempera-
ture of the body during fever has been expended and a report of the
investigations is being prepared for publication by the Institution. A
brief abstract of this memoir wil be found in the appendix to this
report.

The first point to be determined was whether fever was as complex
as it appears, or whether there be not some dominant symptom charac-
teristic of the process. By artificially heating living animals, generally
and locally, it was found that elevation of the bodily temperature is
sufficient to produce all the nervous and circulatory symptoms of fever
and that the cooling of the heated part is capable of removing the
symptoms, so that fever may be defined to be a morbid process which
produces elevation of the bodily temperature.

The next point was to determine whether the increase of the bodily
temperature in fever was due to an increase of the amount of heat pro-
duced, or to the failure of the body to throw off its heat. For this pur-
pose the laws governing the production and loss of animal heat in health
were studied by means of calorimetric and cardiometric observations on
animals under various conditions, and it was determined that there is in
the cortical region a nerve-center which controls the production of animal
heat.

The subject of fever itself was then investigated. The experiments
were mostly made upon dogs, each experiment continuing for from three
to six days. Thermometrical readings were made every twenty minutes

28 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

by night and by day, and the normal and febrile states were studied
both when food was administered and when withheld. The result of
this was to show that there are two sources of animal heat, one from the
stored-up materials of the body, and the other from the food, the first
being the one manifested in fever.

The results of the whole investigation are summed up in eleven con-
clusions which are given in the abstract referred to.

The publication of recent investigations of the motion of the moon*
has rendered a re-diseussion of the ancient solar eclipses desirable.
This work has been commenced under the auspices of this Institution
by Mr. D. P. Todd, M. A., Assistant Nautical Almanac Office. Hansen’s
tables of both the sun and moon are employed, the latter being corrected
from the results of Professor Newcomb’s researches. So far as the work
has now progressed, the computations relate to seven eclipses—those
of Thales, at Larissa, of Ennius, of Agathocles, at Stiklastad, and the
two eclipses of the thirteenth century which have been discussed by
Celoria, of Milan. The adopted value of the secular acceleration hay-
ing been deduced from entirely independent data, it is hoped that this
investigation will throw new light on the interpretation of the ancient
eclipses, and point toward the true value of the secular acceleration
which ought to be adopted in the construction of new tables of the moon.
The progress of this investigation will be much facilitated by the new
tables of eclipses, t now in press; and itis proposed to extend the original
scope of the research to include a large number of supposed ancient
ecliptic dates.

LABORATORY.

The original act of Congress calls for a laboratory as one of the ele-
mentary features of the Institution, and an establishment of this kind
has always been maintained, with a greater or less degree of efficiency.

In consequence of the limited appropriations by Congress for the
maintenance of the National Museum, it has for several years been im-
possible to secure the services of a mineralogist. Arrangements have
been made, however, for such an officer; the laboratory has been put in
thorough order; additional fittings have been introduced, necessary for
its efficiency, and a complete stock of chemicals and other materials
procured. It is now in proper condition for the prosecution of investi-
gations requiring chemical and mechanical appliances.

The principal work of the laboratory at present is.examining min-
erals sent to the Institution for that purpose from various parts of the
country, very few days passing without the reception of one or more pat-
cels, many of them from members of Congress, requiring consideration.
The Institution does not undertake to make quantitative analyses, ex-

* Researches on the Motion of the Moon. By Simon Newcomb, Professor U. 8. Navy.
Washington Observations for 1875, Appendix II.

tTables of Eclipses, from B. C. 700 to A. D. 2300. By Simon Newcomb, Superin-
tendent Nautical Almanac. Washington, 1879.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 29

cepting in behalf of the government, but is always ready to indicate
the general composition of specimens sent for the purpose.

The laboratory will also be used in the identification of large quanti-
ties of crude mineral substances in charge of the Institution, to be clas-
sified preliminary to the selection of duplicates and their distribution
to colleges and academies of the United States.

TELEGRAPHIC ANNOUNCEMENT OF ASTRONOMICAL DISCOVERIES.

As in previous years, the Institution has served as the medium for tel-
egraphic communication between astronomers of the Old and New
World, in regard to such astronomical discoveries as require prompt
announcement, for the purpose of having all their phenomena investi-
gated by concurrent action on both sides of the ocean. An accompany-
ing list represents the announcements referred to and the dates at which
they were respectively made. This feature of the work of the Institu-
tion is one of great importance, and is a very satisfactory demonstration
of the extent to which its labors are prosecuted for the world in general,
and not merely for a restricted portion of the United States.

The following is a list of the minor planets discovered in 1878:

. |
No. Name. Date. Discoverer. Discover- | Observatory.
er’s No. | :
NEON Garnmmd -sseesee-- | anuany) | 20) | Perrohines ses >= Sth. | Toulouse.
Sie Bucharis..--o-e----- Bebruany, 2 j.Cobtenot! === -- Ist. | Paris.
TIS) |p LONGUE See oe Seas oo Rebruany. jas ealisae ses ssee- 12th. | Pola.
Hea Shriayee eels cas oo eORUa i y= a Ones Open vecmetar 13th. | Do.
HSAs DELON eadeeeies sce) He@bLuary eee) ice adONasas esr 14th. | Do.
Son ebUMIKe).sss5se0 ---| March’ | lo |PPReterstszs<ca- 28th. | Clinton.
itch}. | CHIE ee see Saaeuee April 63ers Henny eee de ears:
Sven leap eRraee == sess =.) Aspril 1A Coomera pease cee: 2d. | Marseilles.
seni Menippem.ce-e-----| June 1st GPetersses2 see 29th. | Clinton.
ILS) [len Obie EAR e ace eeeeene September ONS. a 4d O) sasaiseee= 30th. Do.
SOR USMC Ceara see Sephemiben 22" as Oy cease ee 3ist. | Do.
Oi elo) coy eee el oepbember GO! |i2- 00) jas aa ssc. 32d. Do.

The comets of 1878 have been—

Comet I, discovered July 7, by Lewis Swift, of Rochester, N. Y.
This comet was observed in America by Dr. C. H. F. Peters only, the
majority of American observers being in the West on eclipse expeditions.
It is probably identical with a comet discovered by P. Ferrari at Rome
in July. On July 20, Tempel’s periodic comet was found by Winnecke,
quite away from its ephemeris place.

Encke’s comet was found on August 3 by Mr. Tebbutt, of Windsor,
Neder WV.

CORRESPONDENCE.

Mention has been made by my lamented predecessor on several ocea-
sions of the general character of the correspondence of the Institution,

30 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

and of its increasing extent. As might naturally be expected, this is
now greater than ever before.

During the past year the number of letters received and sent out ex-
ceeded that for any previous corresponding period in the history of the
establishment, the latter covering about 8,000 pages of press copy books.
This increase was largely due—

(1) To renewed activity in the department of exchanges ;

(2) To the execution of a comprehensive plan for extending the arche-
ological cabinet of the Institution ; and

(3) To the acknowledgment of letters of condolence on the death of
the late Secretary. ,

As explanatory of the first of these sources of increase in the corres-
pondence it may be stated that some months since a systematic effort
was made looking to the early completion of as many as possible of the
series of publications of foreign societies in the Smithsonian library,
and, reciprocally, to supplying deficiencies in the numereus series of
Smithsonian publications held abroad... To this end a communication
was addressed to each of the nearly 3,000 foreign establishments in cor-
respondence with this Institution, mentioning the volumes or parts of
their respective transactions not at the time in possession of the Insti-
tution, and requesting that these be supplied; one of the conditions of
a favorable response being a promise that the Smithsonian Institution
would, in turn, fill whatever gaps it could in its own series. The re-
sponses, as was expected, were very prompt and most gratifying. Re-
sulting therefrom, the Smithsonian library—now constituting the science
library of the government—has been enriched by the addition of hun-
dreds of valuable works of a character not usually obtained even by
purehase, while the Institution itself has been brought into closer and
more active relations than ever with its foreign correspondents of both
hemispheres.

Regarding the second source of increase in the correspondence, it
may be remarked that more recently a wide-spread distribution has been
made of a circular relative to archeology. Indeed, it is hardly too
much to say that this circular has been seattered broadeast over the
land. Not only was it distributed to organized establishments of a lit-
erary, educational, and scientific character, to newspapers, postmas-
ters, and, by generous permission of express companies, through their
agents to individuals who might be known to them as specially inter-
ested in the subject, but a copy was systematically mailed with each
written communication sent out by the Institution, no matter what the
subject. This circular has proved more prolific of correspondence than
was anticipated by its most sanguine friends. Inquiry soon followed
inquiry for more detailed information as to desiderata in the way of
specimens and information; requests were continuous to know if this or
that article would be welcome; offers to lend objects for copying were
numerous from individuals possessing unique and choice specimens, val-

i
oy

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. om

uable to them only as heirlooms or curiosities, but who, while easily
convinced of the little value of isolated collections in comparison with
the importance to science of one grand, complete series, could not be
persuaded to part with their archzeological treasures; now and then
private cabinets of more than ordinary character and extent have been
brought to light; and, finally, modern ‘“ manufactories” of relics have
been detected, and in this way forgeries, to some extent, driven from
the market. Thus an extra amount of correspondence has been en-
tailed that has proved no inconsiderable addition to the previous ardu-
ous labors of the officers of the Institution.

As the result, the Institution has received hundreds of specimens from
all parts of North America as gifts, while by making copies in plaster or
metal it has added to its cabinet many forms that would otherwise be
unknown and inaccessible to the student as well as tothe public at large.
Many of these objects have proved of great archeological interest, and
while not a few of them are almost indispensable for comparative study,
all are more or less, valuable in the elucidation of questions relating to the
geographical distribution of aboriginal remains in the United States, and
for filling gaps in State series. Moreover, by soliciting illustrations and
descriptions of the rarer or more curious forms in private cabinets, the
Institution has been saved much expense for transportation, its archzo-
logical experts rarely finding recourse to the original specimen necessary
in determining what is or is not a desideratum.

As in previous years, the Institution was the recipient in 1878 of a
large number of communications, having as a principal object the over-
turning of theories established by Newton and others, which, founded
on experiment and observation, have long since been accepted as true
by the scientific world. These, as is usual with papers of this class,
while purporting to furnish the only rational explanation of the pheno-
mena to be accounted for, generally displayed a degree cf assumption
entirely out of keeping with the spirit of true science; and while it
would not be a work of much moment to prove to the unprejudiced,
who may be acquainted with the subjects of such essays, that the pro-
positions enunciated are wholly at variance with the fundamental and
generally accepted principles of science, it is always exceedingly difficult
to convince the authors of these “new doctrines” that they are not in
accord with the scientific world. It would sometimes appear either that
they are incapable of receiving the truth, or that, convinced of the fal-
lacey of their reasoning, they prefer to cling to a false notion of original-
ity rather than confess their error. Such communications, never brief,
have, from time to time, been simply reiterations of previous expres-
sions. ‘Correspondence with this class” of writers, as has been most
truly observed by the late Secretary, is, indeed, “not only very onerous
but difficult to manage, inasmuch as the rejection of their propositions
is generally attributed to prejudice.”

Another class of communications of a more intelligent character was

32 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

also received during the past year, relating to subjects in physics and
chemistry. In accordance with the custom of the establishment, these
were submitted to gentlemen eminent in the several sciences to which
they pertained, who for many years have cheerfully acted as collabora-
tors of the Institution.

Although the Smithsonian system of meteorology was several years
ago transferred to the United States Signal Office, communications con-
tinue to be received on practical questions connected with this subject.
These with few exceptions have been referred to General Myer, and their
authors so informed.

But increase in the correspondence of the Institution is by no means
wholly attributable to the sources above mentioned. As the character
of the establishment has become more widely known from year to year,
the number of applications for information in the line of natural history
has annually increased, particularly in botany, zoology, and mineralogy.
In the last branch, supposed discoveries of mineral wealth are frequently
made known to the Institution, and the specimens forwarded for exam-
ination—which is always gratuitous. The determination of their char-
acter, however, seldom requires more than a qualitative analysis, and
in the great majority of instances the specimens are found to be of no
commercial value.

EXCHANGES.

There is, perhaps, no one feature of the Smithsonian Institution by
which its mission for the diffusion of knowledge, if not its increase, is
more thoroughly accomplished than by its extended system of interna-
tionalexchanges. This began in the earliest days of the Institution, from
the necessity of making some suitable arrangement by whieh its publi-
‘ations might be promptly transmitted to the learned societies of Amer-
ica and the world, and corresponding works received in return. This
required the organization of a thorough system, including special ar-
rangements for transportation agencies in the various parts of the United
States and of foreign countries; and as the machinery was sufficient to
earry a larger amount of material than that belonging to the Institution
itself, it was considered in strict accordance with the policy of the In-
stitution to offer its services to other establishments.

Year by year the number of participators in the exchange was in-
creased, and at the present date it is world-wide in its extent. With
very few exceptions the institutions of learning, not only of the United
States but of all America, carry on the greater portion of their scientifie
exchanges with the rest of the world through the Smithsonian Institu-
tion. Among the outside countries more especially to be mentioned
are Canada, Mexico, Chile, Venezuela, &c.

The institutions are for the most part scientific societies publishing
transactions, colleges and universities, State historical and agricultural
societies, and technological institutions. All the departments of gov-
ernment in Washington, with few exceptions, also depend upon the same

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. ae

system for their foreign relationships. The system also includes the ex-
change of publications of special students in science.

For a long time the Smithsonian Institution carried on this work by
the establishment of agencies through which its own transmissions were
distributed to their destination, and from which all the returns were col-
lected and forwarded to Washington. Of late years, however, in certain
countries, these labors have been materially lightened by a portion of
the exchange being undertaken by some learned society or by the gov-
ernment. These being constituted Smithsonian agents in their respect-
ive countries, receive whatever may be sent to them for distribution,
collect the returns and transmit them, thus giving to the Institution the
benefit of an intelligent superintendence of the work. The first of these
organizations was that established some years ago by the University of
Christiania, Norway; and by Holland in the patronage of the Scientific
Bureau at Harlem, under the efficient supervision of Dr. E. H. Von
Baumhauer. During the past year a similar organization has been
effected for Belgium, and it is hoped that their number will continue to
increase. Even now, without any formal arrangement to that effect, the
Academies of Science of Stockholm, of Copenhagen, of Madrid, and of,
Milan discharge the services of agerts of the Institution for their respect-
ive countries.

A still more recent movement has in contemplation the establishment
of departments of exchange in all countries under the direction of their
respective governments; and this is intended primarily to facilitate a
mutual interchange of government documents, but is broad enough in
its scope to include the publications of societies and of men of science.
At present this arrangement has only been carried out formally for Bel-
gium by the “Commission Belge d’Echanges internationaux,” and for
France by the “ Commission Francaise des Echanges internationaux.”

In the Appendix will be found the usual series of tables, showing,
first, the number of parcels sent out by the Institution in behalf of es-
tablishments in North America; and, secondly, the packages received
for the same parties. The total number of shipments of boxes, contain-
ing such transmissions, has not been quite so great in 1878 as in the
year preceding. This was due to the interruption of the business caused
by the death of Professor Henry, and in the desire, by the reorganiza-
tion of departments, to give greater efficiency to that of the exchanges.
On this account a large number of bundles have accumulated, which,.
however, will be distributed in the earlier months of the year; after
which there will be no interruption to the usual routine of transmission.

Up to the present time the entire expense of this system of interna-
tional exchanges has been borne by the Smithsonian Institution, be-
yond requiring that all outgoing parcels be delivered to the Institution
free of expense. The enormous increase, however, in the number and
bulk of the packages delivered to the Institution has made it necessary
to charge a small amount on this class of transmissions, and under the

S. Mis. 59 3

34 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

authority of the board, a circular has been prepared and issued, making
one of the conditions of receipt the payment of five cents per pound on
the parcels. This is actually below the cost, as it includes the expense
of wrapping, of boxing, of forwarding, and a share of the salary of em-
ployés and agents, and other incidentals. It is about the same rate as
is charged by the express companies for freight in bulk from Washing-
ton to Chicago.

To facilitate the business connected with the system of the Smith-
sonian exchanges the following rules have been adopted:

1. Transmissions through the Smithsonian Institution for foreign
countries to be confined exclusively to books, pamphlets, charts, and
other printed matter, sent as DONATIONS or EXCHANGES, and not to in-
clude those procured by purchase. The Institution and its agents will
not receive for any address apparatus and instruments, philosophical,
medical, &c. (including microscopes), whether purchased or presented;
nor specimens of natural history, except where special permission from
the Institution has been obtained.

2. The Departments or Bureaus of the United States Government to
pay the Smithsonian Institution five cents per pound on their packages,
which includes all expense of boxing, shipping, and transportation.

3. A list of the addresses and a statement of contents of each send-
ing to be mailed to the Smithsonian Institution at or before the time of
transmission.

4, Packages to be legibly addressed and to be indorsed with the name
of the sender and their contents.

5. Packages to be enveloped in stout paper, and securely pasted or
tied with strong twine—never sealed with wax.

6. No package to a single address to exceed one-half of one cubic foot
in bulk.

7. To have no inclosures of letters.

8. To be delivered to the Smithsonian Institution or its agents free of
expense.

9. To contain a blank acknowledgment, to be signed and returned by
the party addressed.

10. Should returns be desired, the fact is to be explicitly stated on or
in the package.

Unless these conditions are complied with, the parcels cannot be for-
warded by the Institution.

Statistics of exchanges sent during the last ten years.

1869. 1870. 1871. | 1872. 1873. | 1874. | 1875. | 1876. 1877. 1878.
<7 aa | ~|
Number of boxes.. 112 121 108 179 196 131 208 | 323 897 309
Bulk in cubie feet 1, 033 1, 189 772 954 1, 476 | 933)|) Sl 5038 2.261 2, 779 | 2,160
69, 220

Weight: ..-.-....- 23, 376 | 31,383 | 28, 950 | 26, 850 | 44,236 | 27,990 | 45,300 | 80, 750 | 99, 250 |
| | | | | |

ce NT a reel 2) Si 2 |e
The following table exhibits the number of foreign establishments
with which the Institution is at present in correspondence, or, in other

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 35

words, to which it sends publications and from which it receives others
in return:

Foreign institutions in correspondence with the Smithsonian Institution.

J JIG SR SACHS eos COMpCam mem poe Cie eelatidres scree torn eeepc aoa 4
Argentine Republic -=--5- 522.222-. ES EIN Ol aegseerta es ear ek eee 30
Australia and Tasmania-..........- Se Elli allivemetrereer cer wee anc area ee 187
astrO-MUNGALY ssc eee ase US De acy OH ype canara renee tee eee 6
ELST <2 ates este Seine dec scies= ae Ae Pacem eee s cue cca eee ‘. 5
IB OVIV LG calcite siteine seaiacinin ceocte cess did SEiberiaie so Serer sset S. os sca does 1
Siva ee eeoae Gas Nene e ac CenBeae DOs Ma nriiinstee seseesae se = san ee Soe oe 3
IBLIbIShMAIMerICatssceee cee aera eee Uo) MOXICOm mee eee ne cee Sana 16
British Gulanmareest oe seats sess 3S) | NGw Zeatamdsses 257k i ery 15
Cape Colony and St. Helena. --..-- dl MINOR Ars s=ite sets cise t oee eel ceeeles 25
CentraleAmenic¢aesen2ss--2-t2 53. SEP OLut /scies Ae eis Be eles eh pstey ss 4
Chilifets eu tesoees ac Secsveleceisse Sop hilippinesislandsieseee ees steeeee 3
CLUDE nee SBS een SESE Be aeaee LSP orto gal: saswe- cucee sees eae ees 32
Colombia: 2S tress Se sss oro ee es Op IRUSSIay oa eect arene ee ese 162
Denmark nn sece see sae mec mnemecees Hie) || Sehxokyaein MislbRnGi. ooo eos donaee Sone 2
WMimnGeheGutan ares. sees ss cee cece =e A bal itsy OE NEN ESE es ore ye Ye ee ae ae Al ay 4 24
WMEWAC OW ssisisesiooeine sclewisectecae eer bale Swed ent: seo ack cee anes 22
HOW Mb <sassie > sa) ccs ese he sets c ets Sileswiltzerland) ec encae tence sctese ere 73
GAT COMM alee salad oi nael acento ae 32 7a POU C Nie arene aimneee ieee eieiay elmira 12
Genmamyges essen eee atesncctces, O07 i Veneziela cts: - cee cs-tce5teeetee 2
Greambpribaim and Ireland(;.-2---4- 309) | WestIndies 2-.-2. 2.2. -sscsc-ss-5- 8
GMCOCOn seas see) aescinee scione Sea as 8 | International societies -......--... a
Holand 2.2. So ss=ccsce ts oecece 66

Motaleeecesieswehictiosases ccs Pe ooo

Special reference has been made in previous reports to the arrange-
ment by which Congress places fifty copies of all the publications of
the United States Government at the disposal of the Library Committee
of Congress. These copies are to be exchanged, under its direction,
through the Smithsonian Institution, for correspondingly complete series
of the publications of such other governments as agree to the proposi-
tion. At present, the number of sets amounts to thirty-two, and includes
the following governments. Of these, several came for the first time into
the arrangement during the year 1878, and seventy-three boxes of the
publications referred to, each box measuring seven cubic feet, have been
distributed :

International exchange of government publications in 1878.

Boxes Boxes.
IOeniiie REPUNING <..22.+sce0 «casas 2, | Pra Ge eee eeer rare ee ou hee Se cines Soe Ne
Rou V ABN S ets Spgs ee ane sabe Ld | GQeeman ys a Peet eA os ae
Brea pelea eects cee ree ISG ays Vip Greetee tee yeeSi ob dot CER 2
BAIA ne moist ote cete <n savece elbaida oti 2) || gia pita ees eee mens a rere espera a 2
PEO NOS CAVICR 4 ain aiocf Ps oh a Pe eect on 2s Wty liga LOme ae ei hae kA oa 2
EIR EGIEy (CORED) SER ee EP eae IRI LUS ETc t ets 9 Lt SE 7 i 2
Wanada(Loronto) ..<.05s<s00 000 = 2 | GMIGKIC OM Nee RE ea ete ee
bess) f85 22252 28a ei. doc dse se 2 | New South Weles::225ce22<. 22.28.22 2
SE SAM Gee 8 foi. Sans dsisiala 2k dan sa o's 2 | News Healanid sesity sci jg eee 2

36 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

BOXES BOXEs
INGER Yc ee or aoe veisews sccite. ace BUCS WROCRtemce cee ee eee eee 2
OUD OAL saat poe sasisccnc els ccscos sc) 2.) Switzerland <2 eee eee oteeeee 2
IGUISS Aine ese mies ssceem Gaecc tle see 2) Tasmania .o: <2 eee eee eee eaeeeee 2
Queensland eile cs scselsses oss Jaseae 2) 2Durkey ees -oe eee ee tee ees 2
SAXONY msisiaecis seis escisie ne ceiwcie eee 2_\ Venezuela is: 2.2). 226 see emeeeeeeeeee 2
SIECWENIG) Bae Ae a oldseaou seesosceE eases 2.\ NACbOLG so-3 J2-22 J sess 2
SOMUMPATIS bala solace eerste = ao oklee oe 2 —-
SHORT oosnse sosoco oben pede boob poGeoS 2 Total 322.2. /s.eceo te sese sie eee 37
LIBRARY.

In accordance with the arrangement entered into shortly after the
‘fire of 1865, between the Smithsonian Institution and the Congress of
the United States, all the publications received by the Institution, in
exchange or by donation, are transferred to the Library of Congress.
The following enumeration represents the sum total of such increment:

Statement of the books, maps, and charts received by the Smithsonian Insti-
tution during the year 1878, and transferred to the Library of Congress.

Volumes:
Octawo,-or Tess 7.’ 5 Ri Ea sie cee aa eee tee 860
Quarto, or “larger <a een eee eee eer 403
1, 263
Parts of volumes:
Pectavo wor less <2: Ascot os ee ON ee ee eee 2, 356
Quarto,or larger: GPF SoA the aes Sees 2, 620
—— 4,976
Pamphlets :
Octavio, OF JESS), 0 oy Sef go lets se ye ee 1, 953
Quarto, Or larger i022 Beto. fs aie eee eee eee 463
2, 416
Wig pS. amd “CHATES. a's soe neces vs ee een eal ert ne eae 74
ROG aa oo aS cca. 2 (are ny eta ae as oa a na) na tee eee 8, 729

Of course, as heretofore, the more important works, like the publica-
tions of the leading scientific and industrial societies and academies
throughout the world, by their aggregations have continued to render
the Smithsonian library one of the most valuable of the kind extant. Itis
believed that no collection elsewhere contains so large a number of vol-
umes of scientific transactions and journals, or in so complete a series.

For the purpose, however, of perfecting the catalogue, it is proposed,
in the early part of 1879, to print a list of what the Institution possesses
of this character, inviting contributions of deficiencies and promising
similar courtesy, so far as the publications of the Smithsonian Institu-
tion are concerned.

The following is a list of some of the principal works received by the
Smithsonian Institution in 1878:

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. oe

From the Ministry of Public Works, Commerce, and Industry, Lisbon:
O Archivo Rural, vols. i-xv, Lisboa, 1858-1874, 4to. Memoria sobre
a Populacéo e a Agricultura de Portugal, Lisboa, 1868, 8vo. Chimica
Agricola, por J. I. F. Lapa, Lisboa, 1875, 8vo. Geographia e Estadisticz
Geral de Portugal e Colonias, por G. A. Perry, Lisboa, 1875, 8vo. Re-
latorio do Conselho Especial de Veterinaria, Lisboa, 1873, 4to. Manual
de Viticultura pratica, por Visconde de Villa Major, Coimbra, 1875, 5vo.
A Agricultura no Districto de Vizen, por J. B. Reis, Lisboa, 1871, 4to.
Fomento da Povoacao Rural em Hespana.: por D. F. Caballero, Lisboa,
1872, 8Svo. A Lombardia a Suisse e 0 Monte Rosa, por E. de Laveleye,
Lisboa, 1871, Svo. Recenseamento Geral dos Gados no Continente do
Reino de Portugal en 1870, Lisboa, 1873, 4to and Atlas. A Vinha eo
Vinho em 1872, por A. B. Reis, Lisboa, 1873, 8vo.

From the Society of Medical Sciences of Lisbon: Journal da Socie-
dade das Sciencias Medicas de Lisboa, 1836-1877, Lisboa, 8vo (54 vols).

From the Ministerio dos Negocias da Marinha e Ultramar, Dire¢cao
Geral da Marinha, Lisboa: Bullarium Patronatus Portugallizw, curante
Vicecomite de Paiva Manso, vols. i-iii, and App., vol.i, Lisboa, 1868-1873,
4to (3 copies). Examen des Viagens do Doutor Livingstone, por José
de Lacerda, Lisboa, 1867, 8vo (3 copies). Relatorios dos Governadores
das Provincias Ultramarinhas, vols. i, ii, Lisboa, 1875, 4to (3 copies).
Tratado de Hygiene Naval, por J. B. Fonssagrives, Lisboa, 1862, 8vo
(3 copies). Deseripgao e Roteiro da Costa Occidental de Africa, por A.
Magno de Castilho, vols. i, ii, Lisboa, 1866, 8vo (3 copies). Africa Oc-
cidental, vol. i, Lisboa, 1864, 8vo (3 copies). Regulamento para o Ser-
vico de Sande Naval, Lisboa, 1871, 8vo (3 copies). Viagem da Corveta
Dom Joao La Capital do Japao no Anno de 1869, Lisboa, 1863, 8vo (3
copies). Historia Eeclesiastica Ultramarina pelo Visconde de Paiva
Manso, vol. i, Africa Septentrional, Lisboa, 1872, 8vo (3 copies). Ensaios
sobre 4 Estatistica das Possessdes Portuguezas no Ultramar, vols. i-v,
Lisboa, 1844-1862, 8vo (3 copies). Regulament para o Servico de-
Fazenda a Bordo dos Navias do Estado, Lisboa, 1875, 8vo (3 copies).
Relatorio Acerea do Servico de Sande Publica, Lisboa, 1871, 8vo (3
copies). As Possessdes Portuguezas na Oceania, por A. de Castro,
Lisboa, 1867, (2 copies). Codigo Commercial de Signals para uso Inter-
nacional, Lisboa, 1868, 8vo (2 copies), &e., &e.

From the Australian Museum, Sydney: The Mammals of Australia, il-
lustrated by Miss Harriett Scott and Mrs. Helena Forde. ‘With a short
account of all the species hitherto described. By Gerard Krefft. Syd-
ney, 1871. Folio.

From the Hellenic Philological Society of Constantinople: Periodical
Journal (Greek), vols. iv—viii, Constantinople, 1871-1874, small 4to.
Homeric Theology, by George Konstantinidos (Greek), Constantinople,
1876, Svo, Les Grees de ?Empire Ottoman, par A. Synvet, Constanti-
nople, 1878, 8vo.

From the Government of France: Direction Générale des Douanes.

38 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. -

Tableau général du Commerce de la France, avec les Colonies et les
Puissances étrangéres, 1869-1875, Paris, 1871-1876, 4to (7 vols.). Tableau
général des Mouvements du Cabotage, 1869-1875, Paris, 1871-1876, 4to
(7 vols.).

From the Medical Society of the State of New York, Albany: Trans-
actions, 1807-1831, 1867-1870, 1873-1877. Albany. 8vo (9 vols.)

From the State Library of Pennsylvania, Harrisburg: Reports on
Geology, Mineralogy, Oil-Wells, &c., &c. Harrisburg, 1876-1878. 8vo
(21 vols.).

From the Library of the German Parliament, Berlin: Stenographische
Berichte iiber die Verhandlungen des deutschen Reichstages. iil. sess.,
1875-76, vols. i-iii; iv. sess., 1876, vols. i-iil; i. sess., 1877, vols. i-ili;
Berlin, 1876-1877, 4to. Reichs-Gesetzblatt, 1875-1876, Berlin, 4to.

From the University of Chile, Santiago: Anales de la Universidad de
Chile, 1875-1876 (4 vols.), Santiago, 8vo. Memoria del Interior, 1876, vols.
i-ii, Santiago, Svo. Memoria de Relaciones Esteriores, 1876, Santiago,
8vo. Memoria de Justicia, Culto, &e., 1876, Santiago, 8vo. Memoria de
Hacienda, 1876, Santiago, 8vo. Memoria de Guerra y Marina, 1876, San-
tiago, 8vo. Sesiones del Congreso National de Chile, 1875 (4 vols.), San-
tiago, 4to. Anuario Estadistico de Chile, vol. xvii, Santiago, 1876, 4to.
1877, 8vo. Quinto Censo Jeneral de la Poblacion de Chile, 1875, Valpa-
raiso, 1876, 4to. Coleccion de Tratados celebrados por la Republica de
Chile con los Estados estranjeros, tomo ii, Santiago, 1875, 4to. La Chili
tel qwil est, par E. Seve, tomei, Valparaiso, 1876, 8vo. Historia de Chile,
1831-1871, por Don R. 8. Valdes, tomo i, Santiago, 1876, 8vo. La Cro-
nica de 1810, por M. L. Amunategui, tomo ii, Santiago, 1876,8vo. Ensaye
sobre los depositos metaliferos de Chile, por Don I. Domeyko, Santiago,
1876, 8vo.

From the Royal Academy of Sciences, Lisbon: Memorias da Acade-
mia, Nova Serie, tomo iv, v, parte i, Lisboa, 1872-1877, 4to. Decada 13
da Historia da India, i, ii, Lisboa, 1876, 4to. Portugallis Monumenta,
2 parts, Lisboa, 1873, folio. Subsidios para a Historia da India Portu-
gueza, tomo v, Lisboa, 1868, 4to. Corpo Diplomatico Portugueza, tomo
v, Lisboa, 1874, 4to. Quadro Elementar dus Relades politicas e diplo-
maticas de Portugal, vols. xii and xiii, Lisboa, 1874, 1876, 8vo. Flora
Cochinchinensis, vols. i, ii, Lisboa, 1790, 4to. Historia dos Estabeleci-
mentos scientificos e areisticos de Portugal, toms iii, vi, Lisbon, 1873-
1876, 5vo. Jornal de Sciences Mathematicas, toms iv, v, Lisboa, 1873,
1876, 8vo. Tratado Elementar de Optica, Lisboa, 1874, 8vo. Historia
de Congo, Lisboa, 1877, 8vo. Carro de Meteorologia, Lisboa, 1869, 8vo.
Chimica Agricola, Lisboa, 1875, 8vo.

From the British Government: Facsimiles of National Manuscripts of
Scotland, selected under the direction of the Right Hon. Sir William
Gibson-Craig, Bart., lord clerk register of Scotland, and photozinco-
graphed by command of Her Majesty Queen Victoria by Colonel Sir
Henry James, part iii, Edinburgh, 1872, folio.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 39

From the Royal Library, Stockholm: Government Documents, 1877,
1878, Stockholm, 17 vols. and 8 parts, 4to.

From the Government of South Australia, Adelaide: Acts and Ordi-
nances of the Province of South Australia, 1837-1835, Adelaide, 4to
(6 vols.). Proceedings of the Parliament of South Australia, 1857—8, 1,
ii; 1858, i, ii; 1859, i, ii; 1860, i-iii; 1861, i-iii; 1862, i-ii1; 1863, i; 1864,
i-iii; 1865, i, ii; 18656, i, ii; 1866-7, i-li; 1867, i-iii; 1568-9, 1-111;
186970, i-iii; 187071, i-iii; 1871, i, ii; 1872, i-iii; 1873, 1-11; 1874,
i-iii; 1875, i-iii; and special session, Adelaide, folio (53 vols.). Statis-
tical Sketch of South Australia, by Josiah Boothby, London, 1876, 8vo.

From the Norwegian Government, Christiania: Norges Officielle Sta-
tistik, 13 volumes and 43 parts, Christiania, 1870-1876. Forklaringer
til K. Norges Statsregnskab, 1875, Christiania, 1876, 4to.

From the second geological survey of Pennsylvania: Reports 1875-
1878 (20 volumes).

From the Universities of Wiirzburg, Marburg, Berlin, Louvain, Bonn,
Halle, Gottingen, Jena, Erlangen, Tae Zuxich, Greiswald, Heidel-
berg, Dorpat, and HST Ne: eae granite for 1877.

From Dr. A. Ernst, Caracas: Statistical documents, 24 volumes,
Caracas, 1875-1877, 4to.

From the Library of Parliament, Ottawa, Ontario: 18 volumes gov-
ernment documents.

From the State Library of Ohio: 14 volumes State documents.

An addition of special interest will be found in the paleontological
library of the late Prof. F. B. Meek, whose death at the Institution,
after many years’ sojourn within its walls, was recorded in the report for
1877 (p. 10). Mr. Meek died without any known heirs, and his books
being appraised in due legal manner, the Institution purchased them.
This was the more desirable as, in regard to many of the works there was
some uncertainty whether they had been presented to Professor Meek
in his individual capacity or as the officer in charge of the paleontolog-
ical department of the Institution. This question is, of course, now set-
tled. The books of this library (especially the volumes enriched by
copious manuscript notes and interpolations) have been repeatedly con-
sulted by paleontologists and conchologists.

NATIONAL MUSEUM.

The relations existing between the Smithsonian Institution and the
National Museum have been so frequently referred to by my predecessor
that it is only necessary to mention briefly that the Museum constitutes
no organic part of the Institution, and that, whenever Congress so
directs, it may be transferred to any designated supervision without
_ affecting the general plans and operations connected with the “increase
and diffusion of knowledge among men.” For the most part, the articles
consist of the collections made by the United States surveying and
exploring expeditions, and the expense of their care is entirely covered

AO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

by government appropriations, which have been sufficient to meet the
actual cost of maintenance and a restricted supervision, although with
a larger fund the Museum could be placed on a more satisfactory basis,
and one much more serviceable to science.

Attention has been called, in several previous reports of my lamented
predecessor, to the importance of suitable provision for the accommo-
dation of the vast amount of material now stored in the Armory build-
ing and in the basement of the Smithsonian edifice, and thus withdrawn
from public examination. This surplus consists of the following essen-
tial elements:

First, the collections made by the United States exploring expeditions.

Second, the contributions sent by private individuals who reside in
every section of the country.

Third, the exhibits of the Smithsonian Institution, the Indian Bu-
reau, and the United States Fish Commission, at the Centennial.

Fourth, the donations to the United States by domestic and foreign
visitors and commissions on that occasion.

The number of private contributions to the National Museum con-
tinues to increase in value and magnitude year by year, and embraces
specimens of mineralogy and geology, objects of American antiquity,
and other desirable articles. The government surveys, too, of Messrs.
Hayden, Wheeler, and Powell have furnished a very large number of
specimens of great value as illustrating the reports published by these
parties. It is, however, under the two last-mentioned heads (the Cen-
tennial exhibits and donations) that by far the greater amount of this
unexhibited material is comprised.

By means of an appropriation by Congress, as fully set forth in the
Reports for 1875 (pages 8 and 46) and for 1876 (pages 8-11, 42, and
75-77), the Smithsonian Institution was enabled to exhibit a very full
collection illustrating the animal and mineral resources of the United
States; the Fish Commission to present every variety of boat, net, hook
and line, harpoon, and other fishing implements, as well as models and
illustrations of all the fishes useful for food or other purposes; the In-
dian Bureau to show a valuable representative ethnological series of
ancient implements, of dressed figures, and of objects illustrating the
life and customs of the North American aborigines.

At the close of the Exhibition, the foreign commissioners, induced by
a desire to do honor to the United States, presented, ae scarcely an
exception, the whole of their exhibits (corresponding with those made
by the Smithsonian Institution) to the United States Government, em-
bracing the contents of many thousands of square feet in the different
Centennial buildings. Of forty-one foreign commissions, thirty-four gave
to the United States either the whole of their displays or a full series,
probably representing 75 per cent. of all such matter as was shown under
the patronage of the respective governments.

Many private exhibitors from abroad made similar contributions, some

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Al

of these valued singly at over $20,000 each. A large proportion, too, of
the more desirable exhibits by State commissions, as also of home ex-
hibitors, was added to the mass, and nearly two months were spent at
the close of the Exhibition in simply removing these articles to the gov-
ernment building and there packing them for transportation to Wash-
ington, a large force being required for the purpose.

The collection sent from Washington to Philadelphia filled twenty
freight cars, and the donations received at the Centennial required forty
more for their transportation, the entire amount to be brought to Wash-
ington making sixty car-loads, a quantity far beyond the storage capac-
ity of the basement of the Smithsonian building.

In anticipation of these donations, Congress had previously authorized
the transfer to the Smithsonian Institution, for the purpose of storage, of
the Armory building, on the square between Sixth and Seventh streets,
and made an appropriation to fit it up for the reception of the collections.
To this building a portion of these collections was transferred, where
they now fill four floors, of about 5,000 square feet each, from top to
bottom, the remainder being stored in the basement of the Smithsonian
Institution. At present, with the articles received from other sources,
it is estimated that the quantity of objects not exhibited represents
nearly five times the bulk of those at present displayed in the Smithson-
ian building.

It is to be understood, too, that these objects are not simply specimens
of natural history, possessing an abstract interest to the student, but
represent the application of natural objects to the industries, and as
such are of great importance. In what is now a fairly complete series
of economical minerals, such as ores, combustibles, building stones,
clays, earths, &c., from all parts of the world, with their incidentals of
reduction and application, and specimens of similar objects of art and
industry derived from them, we have a collection of very great indus-
trial importance, for it furnishes to the American manufacturer and de-
signer information of the utmost value. The illustrations of means and
appliances for the pursuit, capture, and application of food-fishes, from
all parts of the world, are also of exceeding value, while the articles of
Indian manufacture from Alaska, Washington Territory, and the Pry-
bilov Islands are of the utmost interest.

Several donations from foreign countries are of considerable magnitude
and importance; the first being from the King of Siam as a present to
the United States Government; the second the display of the manners
and customs of the Chinese made by the Chinese Commissioner; the
third an exhibition of the industries illustrating the manners and cus-
toms of the Japanese, presented by the Japanese Government. The
intrinsi¢ value of all these objects presented to the United States is very
great, having probably cost their respective contributors, either govern-
ments or individuals, not far from three-quarters of a million to a million
of dollars.

42 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

The necessity, therefore, of some adequate means of displaying this
rich collection, now withdrawn from the inspection of the public, has
weighed very heavily upon the officers of the Smithsonian Institution,
and several efforts have been made to secure an appropriation from
Congress for the erection of a fire-proof building sufficient to contain
it, but of the most inexpensive form of construction compatible with
protection against fire, and allowing the greatest convenience of display.
A plan was prepared on the basis of suggestions from General Meigs,
and approved by the Committees on Public Buildings and Grounds of
both the Senate and House. The Senate, at the second session of the
Forty-fourth Congress, passed a bill appropriating $250,000 for the
erection of a building of the kind, without a dissenting vote. This also
passed the House; but obtained only a majority vote, under cireum-
stances requiring a two-thirds vote.

A bill making an appropriation for the erection of such an edifice
was again introduced into Congress at the current session, which it is
hoped will be more successful. Owing to the particular form of con-
struction of the proposed building, it can be completed in probably not
more than a year, and the collections removed into it.

It is now proposed to place this building in the southeastern corner
of the reservation of 52 acres, situated between Seventh and Twelfth
streets and North and South B. It will be so situated as not to obstruct
the view of the Smithsonian from the Capitol or from any other impor-
tant point. As originally contemplated, the building was to oceupy the
space between the present Smithsonian edifice and Twelfth street; but
it was finally concluded that if placed there it would obstruct the view
of the Agricultural building, and the change of location was accordingly
determined upon.

Attention was called by the report for 1877 (page 36), to the continued
increase of the number and variety of the collections received during the
year, the exceptional year of the Centennial being the only one that fur-
nished a larger quantity of material. The returns for 1878 have again
been much larger than usual, exceeding considerably those of the pre-
vious year. The total number of donors was 635 for the year, to 335 in
1877, of which 180 were contributors to the collections of the United
States Fish Commission at Gloucester. The number of donations was
455, to 489 in 1877; and of separate packages 1,197, to 815 in 1877. A
large part of the increase is due to the extensive contributions made to
the United States Fish Commission by the fishermen and merchants of
Gloucester, Mass., in which city the Commission has had a station for the
prosecution of researches and the propagation of food-fishes during the
jast half of the year. The hearty appreciation, by all classes of the com-
munity, of the operations of the Commission, caused those fishermen re-
siding at the port to save many articles brought up on the trawls from
the deep water, and to bring them to the office of the Commission at
Gloucester. The result is to be seen in several hundred donations, some

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 43

of them embracing specimens of very great interest, and adding largely
to our knowledge of the distribution of animal life in the waters off the
coast of New England. As the result of these contributions, together
with the gatherings of the Fish Commission itself, many species of fishes
and of marine invertebrates have been added to the fauna of the coun-
try, several of them being entirely new; others were previously found
only in the deep waters off the European coast or in those of Spitz-
bergen and Greenland.

Reference is, of course, quite impossible to even a small percentage of
those collections added to the National Museum during the year covered
by the present report, and they will be found under the names of the
donors, alphabetically arranged, in the appendix. Even this, however,
fails to give a complete idea of the magditude of the additions, as a
collection embracing from five to twenty or more boxes may be included
in a single line of the record. The books of the Institution, in which all
these articles are entered systematically, give a more detailed statement;
and the fact that a portion of these has required 9,973 entries, will fur-
nish some idea of the aggregate.

Among the more important general collections received are those
made by the United States Fish Commission at Gloucester, as already
referred to, embracing a complete and exhaustive series of the marine
animals of the ocean between the New England coast and that of Nova
Scotia, Newfoundland, and the outer Banks, including the Georges, the
Grand Banks, Flemish Cap, Le Have, Bank Quero, &c. This material
embraces a great many duplicate specimens, which will, in time, be
distributed to the educational and scientific establishments of the United
States.

Next to this in importance and magnitude are two collections from the
far North, one from E. W. Nelson, Signal Office observer at St. Michaels,
in Alaska, consisting very largely of ethnological articles and birds; the
other made by Mr. L. Kumlien, while a member of the Howgate expedi-
tion to Arctic America, this embracing much the same class of objects
as those sent by Mr. Nelson.

The collection of birds and ethnological articles, gathered by Mr. Ober
in the islands of the West Indies, to which further reference will be
made, has also been of greati moment. Mr. J. Zeledon, formerly an as-
sistant in the Institution, and for many years resident in Costa Rica,
visited Washington in the spring of 1878, bringing a very large colleec-
tion of birds, mammals, &e., of his country.

Large collections have also been received from Lieut. George M.
Wheeler, the proceeds of the expeditions of 1877 and of earlier years,
transmitted by him in accordance with the law of Congress requiring
their deposit in the National Museum.

In another part of the report will be given a more detailed account
of some of the explorations to which reference has been made.

Following the plan of previous reports, we shall now proceed to indi-

A4 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

eate, briefly, the character of the more important additions to the Mu-
seum in systematic sequence with some reference to the result in in-
creasing our knowledge of particular regions.

Anthropology.—Beginning with anthropology as the most interesting
and important of such additions, I may refer again to the collections
made by Mr. Nelson at Saint Michaels. These are very exhaustive and
complete, and taken in connection with those sent by Mr. Lucien M.
Turner from the same region supply a very full illustration of man-
ners and customs of the Indian and Esquimaux races found in north-
western America. A special feature of Mr. Nelson’s collection, like that
of Mr. Turner, is the immense variety of carvings in bone and wood,
representing various animal forms either in contour or in simple lines ;
the latter calling to mind the engraving upon bone, especially of antlers
of reindeer found in the caverns of France and Germany, and throw
much light upon the region and character of these remains. Many
models of boats, traps for securing animals, fishing apparatus, articles of
clothing, and many other objects constitute the mass of the great collec-
tion sent by Mr. Nelson.

Not at all inferior in interest, and only less in extent, are the collections
of Mr. Kumlien made by him during several months’ residence at Cum-
berland Gulf, in Arctic America, and on the opposite coast of Greenland.
They include great numbers of ancient stone implements found in the
Esquimaux graves, and supply a previous deficiency in the collections
of the National Museum. There are also many articles of dress and
adornment, implements of war, and the chase, &c. In the last year’s
collections of both Mr. Nelson and Mr. Kumlien are many stone imple-
ments, objects of horn, bone, or wood, illustrating in a very high degree
the functions and applications of certain articles of stone familiar to the
American archeologist, the uses of which were previously conjectural.
These embrace scrapers, knives, planes, gouges, drills, and many other
articles.

During the past year the attention of the Institution has been called
especially to the subject of the soap-stone quarries, where the aborigines
obtained their material for soap-stone bowls, dishes, &c., constituting
so common a feature in American archeology, but the source of which
has been heretofore but little noticed. Of these quite a number were-
met with during the year, and an examination more or less extensive
has been made of each under the auspices of the Smithsonian Institution.

During the spring of 1875, some specimens of steatite were received
from the quarry of John B. Wiggin, in Chula, Amelia County, Virginia.
Among these were fragments of rude vessels, which, from their number
and unfinished condition, were regarded as indicating that the place in
question was once an aboriginal mine. Mr. Wiggin was requested to
carefully save and forward all specimens of the kind which he might
discover; and the receipt from him during the centennial year of an
additional collection proved beyond doubt the correctness of the con-
jecture.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. AD

Inasmuch as, at the time, no quarry of this kind had been discovered,*
and as, moreover, aboriginal methods of mining and working pot-stone
were entirely unknown, it was thought advisable to havea careful ex-
ploration of the place undertaken, which was intrusted to Mr. F. H.
Cushing, who visited the locality in June last, causing excavations
of sufficient extent to be made to reveal a large portion of the rock-
surface worked by the Indians. gain, in August and September, fur-
nished with suitable instruments, and a complete photographie outfit,
he continued these investigations, and, with the sanction and kindly aid
of Mr. Wiggin, was enabled to greatly extend the diggings, thus making
his examination very thorough and sufficient.

The surface indications of aboriginal quarrying were found to be shal-
low circular depressions, from ten to seventy feet in diameter. Mr. Cush-
ing began operations by causing a space of earth, 60 feet in length
by 40 in width at the base, to be cleared away from the center of the
largest of these depressions. Everywhere over the rock-surface, thus
exposed he found grooves and hollows made by the Indians in taking
out sugar-loaf shaped masses of the rock; and throughout the soil re-
moved he found numerous fragments of these masses mostly hollowed
as the beginning of pots, together with equally numerous rude quartz-
picks, some broken axes and mauls, and a few hammers of soapstone,
which had been used in quarrying and working the material.

From the base of the triangular excavation a cutting was made, about
17 feet in width by nearly 40 in length. This was extended to the left
18 feet, to remove the earth from around a large out-cropping bowlder,
from the base of which it was found that the Indians had cut the rock
away piece by piece, until only a slender stem remained as its sup-
port. Another extension, nearly 40 feet to the right and 30 feet wide,
laid bare one side and the center of a second quarry almost as much
worked as the first. From this last a ditch 3 feet wide was carried for-
ward more than 80 feet, all along the course of which were found Indian
cuttings wherever the rock-surface was exposed. Thus the area worked
over by the aborigines in one direction was shown to be not less than
180 feet. How far to either side of this their work extended can only
be conjectured. The number and extent of those depressions not exca-
vated, however, seemed to indicate that less than one-third of the In-
dian work was exposed by the diggings just described. Mr. Cushing
not only procured from the earth removed, a collection of several hundred
specimens, but also made and brought away photographic views and
accurate plaster models of portions of his diggings.

Attention being drawn to these explorations while in progress by no-
tices in some of the Washington newspapers, Mr. Elmer R. Reynolds, of
the city, brought to notice some similar specimens of vessels which he had
found within the District,on Soapstone Run, a branch of Rock Creek,

* Intelligence had been received of some surface workings in Chester County, Penn-
sylvania ; so slight, however, that they could hardly be regarded as quayryings.

A6 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

which were recognized at once as indications of another quarry, and Mr.
Cushing was directed to make a thorough examination of it.. Here, as
in Virginia, depressions along the hill-side in which the quarry occurred
showed that the Indians had worked the underlying ledge, although ex-
cavations subsequently made revealed the fact that they had depended
mainly upon surface material for their supply. Large numbers of un-
finished vessels, quartz-picks, hammer-stones, &c., were here found.

Another quarry has been repored by its proprietor, Mr. M. KE. Holmes,
as occurring on the right bank of the Potomac above Little Falls. This,
though rich in ancient remains, has not yet been thoroughly examined
by the Institution.

Mr. J. D. McGuire, of Ellicott City, Maryland, called our attention to
still another quarry, not unlike the one on Rock Creek, and remarkable
for the fine specimens of Indian work that it furnished. Through the
hospitality and kind assistance of this gentleman, Mr. Cushing was en-
abled during the month of December to make a personal examination
of the place, and secure for the museum nearly two hundred superior
specimens.

It may be well to add that since the discovery of the Virginia quarry,
public attention having been drawn to this kind of research by widely
circulated newspaper notices, similar sources of aboriginal supply have
been discovered in Rhode Island, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Pennsyl-
vania, Tennessee, Georgia, Alabama, and Wyoming, from several of
which the Institution has already received specimens.

An aboriginal quarry, recently discovered near Providence, R. I..on the
farm of Mr. Angell, was visited by myselfin July, accompanied by Pro-
fessor Jenks, through whose assistance I was enabled to obtain specimens
of the unfinished pots and of the mining apparatus.

Reference has already been made to the plans of an extensive work
on the American Stone Age, to be prepared under the direction of the
Institution, to serve as a manual for this department of archeology. The
publication of the circular referred to as among the publications of the
Institution for 1878 has been of great benefit in bringing in both large
and small collections, as will be seen by reference to the list of donations.
Every part of the country is represented in these returns, which are so
many indeed as to render it somewhat invidious to select any for special
notice. Justice, however, to the contributors, makes it proper that I
should mention a few of these in greater detail.

The first collection to be noted is that presented by Mr. A. B. Critten-
den, of Middletown, Conn., a large and extensive one, made during sev-
eral years of effort. This is particularly rich in the shell heap or Kj6k-
enmoedding deposits, from Cape Cod, showing a variety and complexity
not previously exhibited.

To one correspondent, Mr. J. E. Gere, of Riceville, Wisconsin, of the
Institution, is indebted for an important increase of its collection of
ancient copper implements. Mr. Gere, during a visit to the Institution,

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 47

three years ago, had his attention called to the paucity of such objects
in the National Museum, and offered his assistance in obtaining and
forwarding such specimens. As the result of his promise, the Institu-
tion has received from him during the year a large number of these
articles, greatly adding to the variety of the series. Masses of native
copper, plowed up by Mr. Gere on his own farm, were sent to illustrate
the source of the material of these implements, and to show that it does
not necessarily follow that it must have been obtained in barter or oth-
erwise from the copper mines of the Lake Superior region.

From Mr. William Brady, of Minong, in the Lake Superior region,
was received a barrel of hammers, used by the ancient miners in that
vicinity, enabling us to make a very interesting comparison between
these and corresponding instruments used by the Indians in working the
soapstone quarries already referred to.

The collections received from Dr. Frank L. James, of Arkansas, are
of great beauty and variety, as also those from Professor Randle, of
Kentucky.

The result of long-continued examinations of shell mounds in Florida
by Mr. Henry J. Biddle, of Philadelphia, is also of very great value.

Dr. Benjamin H. Brodnax, of Louisville, in continuation of previous
sendings, has contributed articles of special interest ; and the collec-
tions made in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, by Dr. T. H. Bean and
Mr. Galbraith, have also added greatly to the specimens from that
State.

Among the more important collections received from regions outside
of the United States is a number of implements, vases, &c., from Peru,
presented by Mr. W. W. Evans, who has been for many years a corre-
spondent of the Institution, and a contributor to the National Museum.

The archeology of Japan is represented by collections received from
Professor Morse, consisting of shell-heap pickings and mound diggings
on the Japanese coast. The fragments of pottery in this collection are
rude and unfinished, scarcely more advanced than those found in the
ancient graves and mounds of North America. They are supposed to
have been the production of the Ainos of the early days, who are believed
to have occupied, at one time, the entire country.

An interesting contribution to European anthropology was made by
Professor Kollmann, who presented a series of crania of the earlier, al-
though scarcely prehistoric, inhabitants of Germany.

Mammals.—While many single specimens or small collections of mam-
mals have been received from various parts of the country, those re-
ceived from Lieut. George M. Wheeler, of the Engineer Bureau, repre-
senting quite a variety of species, collected by Mr. Henshaw and other
collaborators of the survey, deserve special mention.

A series of the seals of Aretic America, both of skins and skeletons,
brought back by Mr. Kumlien, supplies a very important gap in the col-
lections of the National Museum, exhibiting the variations of condition

48 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

in several species, from the foetal to the adult state, of both sexes, with
corresponding skeletons of all these gradations.

The collection brought by Mr. Zeledon includes nearly all the known
mammals of Costa Rica, from the largest to the smallest, and in most
admirable condition of preservation, well fitted to mount for exhibition
in the National Museum.

The Zoological Society of Philadelphia has presented a specimen, in
the flesh, of the Aodad (Ovis Traglclaphus), which died in the menagerie
of that establishment.

From the Public Library and Museum at Calcutta, in India, under the
direction of Mr. Murray, was received quite a number of specimens of
Indian mammals, including skins of the smaller kinds, and a considera-
ble number of stuffed heads of tigers and other felidie, as well as several
erania of much value.

Birds.—The collections of birds received during the year have also
been extensive and important, as shown by the number of specimens
entered in the record book. Principally noteworthy is the donation by
Mr. George B. Sennett, of Erie, Pa., of a series of the collections made
by him during the preceding year in the vicinity of Brownsville, Tex.
This embraces several species new to the Museum. In view of their
admirable preparation, it is proposed to mount the greater part of them
for permanent exhibition in the Museum.

From Dr. James C. Merrill, U. 8. Army, stationed at Brownsville,
Texas, was also received a very acceptable collection of skins and eggs
of birds, from that region.

The collections of Mr. Nelson in Alaska and of Mr. Kumlien in Arctic
America, already referred to, embrace many species of much interest,
although none actually new to the Museum.

The more important addition made to the collection has beensa series
of oceanic birds, found off the coast of the United States. Mr. Raymond
L. Newcomb having been sent out by the Smithsonian Institution on
board the schooner Marion, Captain Collins in command, for the pur-
pose of ascertaining what were the birds occurring on the fishing-
banks, in such numbers as to be serviceable in furnishing bait for the
capture of codfish, he brought back a large and well-prepared collection,
embracing some quite rare species, although none previously unrepre-
sented. Some of the plumages were new, and it became possible, from
the collections and his notes, to interpret the meaning of various appella-
tions employed by the fishermen.

For the assistance rendered to Mr. Newcomb, as well as in furnishing
information to the Fish Commission, Captain Collins and his erew deserve
special mention.

Of extra-limital collections, those made by Mr. Fred. A. Ober in the
West Indies, referred to in another part of this report, are of particular
value and importance. As the result of these the National Museum is
now in possession of by far the most complete series extant of birds of

\

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 49

the West Indies, showing better than any found elsewhere the geo-
eraphical distribution peculiar to each island, and the precise distribu-
tion of those common to two or more islands.

To this end especially have contributed the labors of Dr. Henry
Bryant, in the Bahamas, and of Mr. William T. March, in Jamaica; of
Dr. John Gundlach, Mr. Charles Wright, and N. H. Bishop, in Cuba; of
Mr. Alfred Newton, in Santa Cruz; of Mr. George Latimer, and Mr.
Thomas Swift, in St. Thomas and Porto Rico; of Dr. Bryant, in Porto
Rico, and of Mr. Galody, in Antigua.

Not only were many species previously described contained in Mr.
Ober’s collection, but he furnished types of nearly twenty new species.

A series of memoirs, by Mr. George N. Lawrence, published in the
‘Proceedings of the National Museum,” includes lists of the collections
and embraces descriptions of the new species.

From foreign regions an interesting collection, for the most part of
water-birds, was sent from the Bosphorus by the Robert College of Con-
stantinople, and one from the coast of Syria by Mr. William T. Van Dyck.

Reptiles.—Reference has been made in previous reports to a very
extensive collection of casts of American fishes which were prepared
originally for exhibition at the Centennial, and continued since then by
the addition of new species, coming to the Institution in proper condition
for reproduction.

It was determined to include the North American reptiles in the series
of life reproductions of such objects asare not easily exhibited as stuffed
specimens. In order, therefore, to secure living objects from all parts
of the country, a circular was distributed, inviting contributions of ser-
pents, frogs, lizards, and salamanders, in all their variety; and, as in
previous appeals from the Institution for assistance, the response was
generous and extensive. A large number of specimens, both of rare and
common species, was received, and kept the entire force of Smithsonian
artists occupied during the year.

Resulting therefrom, the National Museum now has an extremely
interesting and attractive collection of these animals in their natural
attitudes, either as plaster or papier maché models, and very carefully
colored from sketches made while the animals were alive. In some cases
it was found possible to make the casts from the living specimens, and
in several different attitudes, from the same individual. As heretofore,
the casting and molding have been under the direction of Mr. Joseph —
Palmer, assisted by Mr. A. J. Forney and Mr. William Palmer. The
coloring of the reptiles has been performed by Mr. A. Z. Shindler ; that
of the fishes by Mr. J. H. Richard.

Besides the living reptiles referred to, quite a variety of species has
been obtained from other sources, among others from My. Ober in his
West Indian explorations. Dr. Ruth, U.S. N., the surgeon of the steamer
Enterprise, in which Captain Selfridge made his exploration of the Am-

S. Mis. 59 4

50 EPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

azon in 1848, also furnished a valuable collection from that river. From
Dr. Hering was also received a collection of the species of Surinam.

Fishes.—As might naturally be expected, from the close connection
of the operations of the United States Fish Commission with those of
the Smithsonian Institution, the additions in this department have been
especially noteworthy, and include not only various specimens of im-
portant scientific interest, but also many illustrating and attesting the
propriety of national aid in the multiplication of useful food-fishes.

It is considered especially desirable to bring together in Washington
a complete representation of the food-fishes of the United States, both
inland and marine; and also such kinds from other countries as tend to
illustrate the American species, or aS may suggest future action in the
‘way of their introduction and acclimation in the New World.

The series of species of the salmon family, contributed by Mr. Living-
ston Stone from the salmon-hatching establishment on the MeCloud
River, in the Upper Sacramento Valley; and those furnished by Mr.
Charles G. Atkins, from his works in Bucksport and Grand Lake Stream
in Maine, have constituted the most important additions of fresh-water
species; while the special labors of the United States Fish Commission
at Gloucester, Massachusetts, aided by the fishermen of that place, have
brought to light nearly 20 forms of deep-sea fishes, previously unknown.

Next to the collections from the station of the United States Fish
Commission at Gloucester, the most important additions to the marine
fishes have been received from Mr. Vinal N. Edwards, for a long time an
employé of the Commission, and stationed at Wood’s Holl, whose vigilant
attention to the subject brought to light a number of additional species,
so that now the Wood’s Holl record embraces nearly 140 different kinds.

From Mr. Silas Stearns, of Pensacola, while connected with the Pensa-
cola Ice Company; from Mr. James C. Leslie, of Charleston; from Mr.
Samuel Powel, of Newport; from Dr. Porter, U. S. A., and Mr. Moore,
of the Tortugas, have come many additions to our knowledge of the dis-
tribution of species, through their contributions to the National Museum.

The Museum is also indebted in a very marked degree, as for many
years past, to the services of Mr. E. G. Blackford, the well-known fish
dealer of Fulton Market, New York, for the transmission of many valu-
able specimens. By an arrangement with the wholesale dealers and the
fishermen, this gentleman is always notified of the appearance in the
market of specimens that are believed to have an interest, either from
their novelty or any other cause, and, in the exercise of an excellent
judgment, whatever is thought will be valued in Washington is promptly
transmitted to the National Museum. To no other single person is the
Institution indebted -tor so many favors in this direction as to Mr. Black-
ford.

From the museum of the Wesleyan University, at Middletown, have
been received a considerable number of fishes, collected in the Bermudas
by Mr. G. Brown Gocde; from Professor Felipe Poey also a number of

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY: it

Cuban fishes, which have an especial value, as being types of his proposed
memoir on the subject, which, should it appear on the scale contemplated,
will be-the most extensive work ever published on the fishes of any
country.

From the west coast of the United States the most important additions
have been of the fishes of Alaska, sent by Mr. E. W. Nelson, from Saint
Michaels, and those of Puget Sound, by Mr. James G. Swan.

In the collection of fishes gathered in Cumberland Gulf by Mr. L. Kum-
lien, while connected with the Howgate Expedition, were several of kinds
new to the fauna of northeastern North America, and others of great
value as illustrating the species obtained by the United States Fish
Commission at Gloucester, either by its own efforts or by the aid of the
fleet of fishermen belonging to that port.

The Natural History Museum of Paris has contributed a series of the
fishes of France and the Mediterranean. A series of the fresh-water
fishes of Northern Siberia has been furnished by Dr. Otto Finsch as the
result of his recent well-known explorations.

Among the more noticeable results of recent efforts to extend and
increase the useful food-fishes of the United States, that have come to
hand, are specimens of full-grown shad from the Sacramento River, con-
tributed by Mx. Thomas Bassett; a pair of shad from the Ohio, by Mr.
William Griffith, of Kentucky; a mature salmon from the Connecticut
River, obtained through Mr. E. G. Blackford; one from the Delaware,
weighing 23 pounds, presented by Mr. E. J. Anderson, Fish Commis-
sioner of New Jersey; and one of 19 pounds, taken in the Susquehanna,
by Mr. Frank Farr near the shad-hatching station of the United States
Fish Commission, five miles below the railroad bridge at Havre de Grace.
In addition to these, many specimens of young California salmon and
of landlocked salmon have also come to hand.

Invertebrates.—In the department of invertebrates the collections have
been largely confined to the marine species, especially as no particular
effort is now made to gather the insects which form the great body of
terrestrial forms. By an arrangement between the Smithsonian Institu-
tion and the Department of Agriculture, all the collections in the line of
insects and terrestrial articulates generally are transferred to the care
of that department, where, under the supervision of its entomologist,
they are likely to render excellent service.

Of land and fresh-water mollusca quite a number of specimens have
been received and properly cared for. Of marine invertebrata most
gatherings have been secured, especially through the efforts of the
United States Fish Commission, at Gloucester, the labor being per-
formed under the special direction of Prof. A. E. Verrill, of Yale Col-
lege, assisted by Messrs. Richard Rathbun and Warren J. Upham. In
this service, however, the work connected with the collection and ar-
rangement of the marine mollusca was under the direction of Mr. San-
derson Smith, of New York, a competent conchologist, the value of whose

52 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

gratuitous services to the Fish Commission and to the Smithsonian In-
stitution is not easily to be overestimated.

With the assistance of the extensive and powerful apparatus on board
the Speedwell vast numbers of specimens of all kinds were secured, ap-
propriately assorted, and packed by the gentlemen referred to, and are
now in charge of Professor Verrill at New Haven undergoing the neces-
sary examination for their arrangement and identification. A great
number of duplicates was obtained for the purpose of supplying sets to
educational and scientific institutions throughout the country.

A collection of fossiliferous rocks, brought up from time to time by
the trawls from the various banks of the New England coast, and found
jn the possession of various citizens of Gloucester, by Mr. Warren J.
Upham, while connected with the Commission, revealed, under the crit-
ical labors of Professor Verrill, Mr. Smith, and himself, the existence of
a submarine formation quite different from any now known on the land,
and embracing a number of new species, and others in peculiar combi-
nations. The idea has been suggested by Professor Verrill that at some
earlier day the whole or the greater part of the interval between North
America and Europe, extending possibly as far north as Iceland, was
occupied by a continent, which, after a certain amount of erosion and
excavation, was submerged, the plateaus or highest remaining portions
constituting a portion of the banks, which furnish such rich harvests.
The indications of this deposit are believed to be found at Gay Head on
Martha’s Vineyard, and possibly at Siasconset in Nantucket, in the
Georges, at’ Le Have and Quero Banks, the Grand Banks, Flemish
Cap, &c. Of course so important a generalization will require further
determinations, and it is hoped that the labors of the Fish Commission
dnring the coming year may tend to solve the problem.

In the collections made by the several methods, and from the several
sources referred to, are to be found all the orders and classes of marine
invertebrata, such as radiates, mollusks, worms, crustacea, We.

Apart from the collections of shells and of invertebrates referred to,
we may mention a valuable collection of shells of Florida, presented by
the Chicago Academy of Sciences, and of those of the German seas, by
Professor Mobius.

Of terrestrial fossil remains from the land no important additions have
been made. Among those received, however, there is an interesting
and valuable collection of species from California, presented by Hon. A.
A. Sargent, United States Senator from that State, and a Regent of the
Smithsonian Institution.

Reference has been made to the arrangement with the Department
of Agriculture, by which that establishment receives all the collec-
tions of land articulates; and a similar arrangement has been made in
regard to the plants, special efforts in regard to that branch of natural
history being left to the department. All the specimens offered spon-
taneously or collected by government expeditions have been turned over

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 53

to the department as soon as received. The most important of these
consist of a Series of species from Japan and Asia, presented by the
Botanie Garden of St. Petersburg. Professor Sargent. of the Botanic
Garden at Cambridge, has contributed quite a number of valuable living
aquatic plants fer the purpose of embellishing the United States carp-
ponds on the Monument lot in this city, and of furnishing desirable food
for the herbivorous fish.

Dr. William G. Farlow, of Cambridge, while associated with the Fish
Commission at Gloucester, made a large collection of marine alge, of
which, as heretofore, a part will be presented to the National Museum.

A circular issued by the Institution some years ago, relative to the
habits, &c., of the grasshopper and other insects, elicited many responses,
which were referred to Prof. S. H. Scudder. The material, however, was
never fully worked up, and it has been transferred, with the consent of
the Institution, by Professor Scudder, to the United States Entomolog-
ical Commission lately organized by Congress.

IT have thus furnished as briefly as possible a review of some of the
more important contributions to the National Museum, but as the limit
of space has prevented my going into much detail, I have been obliged
to make selections from large numbers of contributions of value fully
equal to those specially noted. All these, as stated, will be found in the
list of donations entered in the record-books of the Institution. Every
specimen received has, as far as possible, been recorded in its proper
register, with a number affixed in some irremovable form; and whenever
the size of the specimen would admit, with the name of the locality and
of the donor attached. Of these entries no less than 9,973 have been
made during the year, as shown by the table at the end of this Report.
As heretofore explained, however, one entry may embrace a large number
of specimens, especially of the same general character, without any spe-
cial individuality, gathered at the same date, in the same locality, and
received from the same person. It may fairly be assumed that the total
number of pieces actually recorded and provided with numbers amounts
to 15,000.

Considered with reference to geographical distribution—illustrating
the several faunas of the various quarters of the globe, as would nat-
urally be expected, by far the greater portion of these accessions has
been received from North America, the regions from which the most
important materials have been derived being Alaska, furnished by Mr.
Nelson, Arctic America, by Mr. Kumlien, and the eastern coast of New
England by the Fish Commission itself and its friends at Gloucester ;
of fishes and invertebrates from Puget Sound by Mr. Swan, fishes of the

Upper Sacramento by Mr. Stone, fishes of Florida by Mr. Stearns, Dr.

Porter, and Mr. Moore; and general collections by Mr. Ridgway, are
among the most noteworthy.
From South America were received ethnological specimens from Peru,

54 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

by Mr. W. W. Evans; fishes and reptiles from the Amazon, by Dr.
Ruth, U.S. N., of the United States steamer Enterprise.

From Mexico valuable specimens have been received from Professor
Dugés, consisting especially of mammals, birds, reptiles, and fishes;
illustrations of the ethnology and zoology of Guatemala have been fur-
nished by Dr. Flint and United States Minister Williamson.

Of the animals of Surinam, collections were sent by Dr. Hering; of the
vertebrata of Costa Rica, generally in a large variety, by Mr. J. Zele-
don; of the fishes of Cuba, by Professor Poey; general collections from
various islands of the West Indies, by Mr. Ober; fishes of Bermuda, by
the Wesleyan University, of Middletown, collected by Mr. Goode; fishes
and archeological remains from Japan, by Prof. E. 8S. Morse; the fishes
of France and the Mediterranean, by the Museum of Natural History,
Paris; of Northern Siberia, by Dr. Finsch, of Bremen; skins, skulls,
and heads of the mammals of India, by the Public Library of Kurra-
chee.

Mineralogy.—In the department of mineralogy and geology, as usual,
additions of many specimens, including several large collections, have
been received, as it has now become quite a common thing for people
all over the United States to send samples by mail or otherwise to the
Institution for determination.

Many valuable additions have been made by the officers of the Land
Department of the Interior, especially by Mr. John Wasson, surveyor-
general of Arizona, and Mr. Hardenberg, the surveyor-general of Cali-
fornia. By far the most noteworthy and important addition in this line,
has been that of the greater part of the Swedish exhibit of iron, steel,
and other metals, made at Philadelphia in 1876. The valuable iron
and steel exhibit by the Swedish Commission at the Centennial Ex-
position had in part been promised to the American Institute of Min-
ing Engineers, and at its solicitation any effort on the part of the Smith-
sonian Institution to secure the remainder for the government was
waived in its behalf. It appears, however, that the necessary arrange-
ments for their acquiring this collection were not completed, and during
the year 1878, Dr. Joshua Lindahl, the representative of Sweden in con-
nection with the Permanent Exhibition, offered the remainder of the col-
lection as it stood, to the National Museum. This proposition was, of
course, very gladly accepted, and the collection was duly transmitted
under the direction of Mr. Thomas Donaldson, including the greater part
of the display of the Iron and Steel Mining Company of Motala, and the
iron and steel of Sandvik, a well-known and conspicuous Swedish estab-
lishment. ;

The institution received also, on special deposit, through the aid of
Dr. Lindahl, the immense mass of native iron, weighing five tons, the
smallest of three nuggets brought from the island of Disco by the Swed-
ish Government, the one referred to having been presented to Professor
Nordenskj6ld, who had charge of the transfer, and by him sent for exhi-

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 55

bition to Philadelphia. Opinions of experts are at present divided as to
whether this is actually of meteoric origin, or a representative of almost
the single instance of metallic iron in considerable masses, as a native
metal. Whatever be the actual fact, it makes no difference in the in-
terest of the specimen ; and its acquisition, even for a short time, by the
National Museum, is a subject of congratulation.

Scientific investigation of collections.—As in previous years the collec-
tions of the National Museum, in charge of the Smithsonian Institution,
have been freely open to the examination of competent investigators.
It is preferred, of course, that this work be prosecuted in Washington;
but where it is impossible to do this there is no hesitation in sending arti-
cles or collections, under suitable conditions, to any part of the world.

Most of this work of investigation is done by the resident naturalists
connected with the Smithsonian Institution, directly or indirectly—the
mammals by Professor Gill and Dr. Coues; the birds by Mr. Robert
Ridgway; the reptiles by Dr. H. C. Yarrow and Dr. Bean; the fishes by
Professor Gill, Mr. Goode, and Dr. Bean; the mollusks and marine inver-
tebrates by Mr. William H. Dall; the insects by Professor Riley; the
fossils by Prof. Charles A. White; the minerals by Dr. F. M. Endlich; the
plants by Dr. Geo. Vasey.

Outside of Washington the principal collaborators have been, for the
mammals, Mr. KE. D. Alston, London, and Mr. J. A. Allen, of the Museum
of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass.; for the birds, Mr. George N.
Lawrence, of New York, Dr. P. L. Sclater, of London, and Mr. Osbert Sal-
vin, of Cambridge, England; for reptiles and vertebrate fossils, Prof.
BE. D. Cope, of Philadelphia. These gentlemen have all rendered more
or less service in this connection by investigating the specimens, identify-
ing those that were previously known, and describing the new species.

Distribution of collections.—The extent of the distribution of specimens
during 1878 will be seen by reference to the table at the end of this re-
port. It has been quite large, and has furnished much educational
and scientific material. It is expected, however, that a very much larger
amount will be supphed during the year 1879. There is a great number
of duplicates of minerals, rocks, fossils, &c., which cannot be reached
until the liberality of Congress shall appropriate the necessary means to
erect the new building for the National Museum. Such building is
required even for the unpacking of the specimens and the separation of
the series to be reserved for permanent display. This will leave a large
quantity of surplus material, of considerable variety, which will enable
the Institution to supply to a good degree the wants and applications
of many colleges, academies, and scientific societies throughout the
country.

GALLERY OF ART.

The principle of co-operation and not of competition which has for so
many years been the basis of action of the Smithsonian Institution, finds

56 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

a portion of its expression in the arrangement with the Corcoran Art
Gallery. Its pictures, statuary, and engravings have for the most part
been removed to the Gallery, and the remainder is being prepared for
the same destination. They are not presented to the Gallery, but simply
deposited, and are subject to reclamation at any time.

For many years Professor Henry was one of the trustees of the Cor-
coran Gallery, and was thus able to look after the interest of the Insti-
tution in its collections. I have been honored by receiving a similar
appointment at the hands of the board of trustees.

The propriety of the action of the Board of Regents in directing that
a first-class portrait of Professor Henry be painted, the work being ex-
ecuted in April, 1877, by Mr. Le Clear, of New York, has been fully justi-
ified. His picture is now exhibited in the Regent’s room in the Institu-
tion, after having been displayed for a time at the Corcoran Gallery.
Several excellent crayon heads, of life size, of Professor Henry have been
executed by Mr. Ulke and copies have been ordered for Princeton College
and other institutions where Professor Henry’s was an honored name.

UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Attention has been called in the reports of my lamented predecessor
to the extent to which the time of the officers of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution has been occupied in the prosecution of labors undertaken by
direction and in behalf of the general government; his own record of
twenty-six years’ service in connection with the Light-House Board, for
a large portion of the time its chairman: his service on various special
boards, such as those for the selection of building-stones for the Capitol,
for the consideration of the question of ventilation of the Hall of the
House of Representatives, &c., and im many other cases, furnishing
ample illustration.

My own more immediate relations to the general government com-
menced in 1871, when Congress passed an act authorizing the appoint-
ment of a Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries, to investigate questions
connected with the condition of the fisheries of the sea-coast and the
lakes, and providing that the appointment should be by the President
and confirmed by the Senate, and that his services should be rendered
without compensation.

Having received the appointment from the President, I commenced
the work by an investigation, of several months’ duration, of the condi-
tion of the fisheries on the New England coast, especially as to the
supposed conditions affecting their extent and development.

In 1872 the subject of the propagation of food-fishes in the waters of
the United States was added by Congress to the other duties of the Com-
missioner, and since then his time has been largely occupied with the
prosecution of researches into the American fisheries and in the propa-
gation and distribution of various desirable species into every State in
the Union. Previous reports will be found to contain general statements

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 57

of what has been done each year; and I shall therefore give a brief ae-
count of what was done in 1878, premising that the appropriations,
beginning with $5,000 in 1871, have increased with each year, until those
for 1878 amounted to $78,200.

The work of the Fish Commissioner is now prosecuted under the two
distinet heads of inquiry, and propagation, each with a corps of assist-
ants, for the most part occupied in different regions of the country. The
propagation department has special reference to the shad, the salmon of
California, the salmon of Maine, the land-locked salmon, the white-fish,
and the carp.

The invention of apparatus by Mr. T. B. Ferguson, one of the fish
commissioners of Maryland, by which the hatching of shad could be
prosecuted on a much larger scale than before, and under more conven-
ient circumstances, marks a new era in the art of fish culture, experi-
ments made by him in 1877 having been extensively prosecuted by the
United States Fish Commission in 1878.

For the purpose in question four scows were fitted up in Baltimore,
two with suitable machinery and apparatus, and two as quarters for the
men. These were taken to Albemarle Sound and established at a point
on the fishery of Dr. Capehart, of Avoca, by whom every assistance was
rendered in the supply of ripe fish, from which 10,000,000 of young fish
were hatched out and deposited in adjacent waters or transferred to
distant points.

After the season for work in that vicinity had passed, the vessels were
taken to Havre de Grace and anchored about five miles below the rail-
road bridge, in a sheltered cove. Here a much larger number of fish
was hatched out, and the young were distributed by special messengers
throughout the Union. The work of distribution of the young shad was
under the special supervision of Mr. James W. Milner, first assistant of
the commission; Mr. T. B. Ferguson, fish commissioner of Maryland, the
inventor and constructor of the hatching apparatus, however, having
charge of the propagation of the shad here, as also during the greater
part of the sojourn at Avoca.

The result of the new experiment was perfectly satisfactory, and so far
as relates to the shad in the future, there is no limit to the amount of
work that can be done other than that of the number of ripe eggs pro-
curable.

Lhe labor of obtaining the eggs of the California salmon at the Uni-
ted States hatching-station on the McCloud River, in the Upper Sacra-
mento Valley, was also carried on on a mueh larger scale than ever
before, it being possible, as the direct result of the propagation in the
earlier part of the operations of the commission, under the charge of
Mr. Livingston Stone, to procure as many eggs as were called for; and
no less than 15,000,600 eggs were obtained, and partly developed, and
then distributed to various State commissioners and other parties, by
whom they were hatched out and planted in the waters, A large num-

58 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

ber was hatched on account of the United States Fish Commission by
Mr. Frank N. Clark, of Northville, Mich., and by Mr. Ferguson, at Bal-
timore. These were distributed to such of the Southern and Western
States as were without arrangements of their own for prosecuting the
work.

Nothing was done with the eastern salmon; but the favorable re-
sults of the work initiated five or six years ago, in restoring this fish in
large numbers to the Merrimack and the Connecticut, and in planting
them in the Delaware and the Susquehanna, will probably induce the
renewal of the station at Bucksport, Maine, during the coming year.

The operations connected with securing eggs of the land-locked sal-
mon at Grand Lake Stream were entirely successful, although not so
many were obtained as last year. These are now in process of incuba-
tion, and will shortly be distributed.

Congress appropriated a sum of money for the purpose of fitting up
the two lakes in the vicinity of the Monument in the city of Washing-
ton for the eulture of European carp, a considerable number of the
best varieties having been obtained in 1877, and deposited with the kind
permission of the Park Commissioners in the ponds of Druid Hill Park,
in Baltimore. When the Monument lot ponds were in proper condition
a portion of the fish were transferred from Baltimore to their new
quarters, where it is hoped they will find a congenial home. A distri-
bution of the young will probably be made in the course of 1879, enough,
it is hoped, to meet a part, at least, of the demand which has already
sprung up for supplying fish-ponds throughout the country.

The most important progress in practical fish culture has been made
by the United States Fish Commission during the year, in the applica-
tion of its methods to the production of the sea-fishes. Ixperiments
were instituted at Gloucester, in Massachusetts, in reference to cod, the
spawning season of which takes place in the winter. The establishment
was properly fitted up and, after varying results, the proper method of
developing them was ascertained. Many millions of the young fish were
hatched out and deposited in the waters, and about 20,000 sent on to
Washington for exhibition to members of Congress, and others interested
in the experiment. Nothing has yet been done with mackerel, but it is
believed that the arrangements prepared for the cod will be equally
efficient for that fish, as also, probably, for the halibut, while many other
species, such as the tautog, sea-bass, and seup, can be treated in the same
way.

The importance of this new departure of the United States Fish Com-
mission cannot be overestimated, as it gives us the means of improving,
at small expense, the sea fisheries of our coast, and also furnishes the
opportunity of establishing them at points where they do not at present
exist. Thus, by carrying the young cod from Massachusetts and plant-
ing them on the coast of New Jersey or Maryland, of Virginia or North
Carolina, there is every assurance that, in accordance with the univer-

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 59

sal rule, these fish, when ready to spawn, will return to their starting
place and become the means of establishing profitable fisheries to the
inhabitants of the region. It is well known that in the Southern States
the fisheries, contrary to the fact in the Northern States, are of little
moment in the winter season, the most prominent species coming up in
the spring and returning as the waters become chilly. The establishment
of cod fisheries, and possibly of those of halibut, as winter fisheries along
the southern coast, will therefore be of great importance.

. The second branch of the Fish Commission’s work, namely, that of the
investigation of the sea fisheries, was carried on at Gloucester for three
months, with the co-operation as heretofore of the Secretary of the Navy
in furnishing a suitable vessel, and the general work was done with more
efficiency and completeness. The same vessel, the United States steamer
Speedwell, used in 1877, was detailed by the Secretary for the service,
and was in command of Capt. L. A. Beardslee, who had previously sus-
tained similar relations to the Commission when in charge of the steamer
Blue Light.

The longer period of service of the vessel and the more favorable
station enabled the Commission to perform a very large amount of work,
the results greatly exceeding those of any previous year. Important
determinations were made of the character of the sea-bottom, of the tem-
perature and chemical constituents of the sea-water at different depths,
the currents, &e., while the exhaustive collections of marine animals and
plants showed clearly the character of the food of the fishes, and at the
same time furnished a vast amount of natural history material of the
greatest scientific interest. As heretofore, special efforts were made to
obtain a large number of duplicates, so that by their distribution in
named sets the colleges and other educational establishments of the
country might participate in the results of the labors of the Commission.

As heretofore, the labors of the Commission at Gloucester, connected
with the invertebrate department, were in charge of Prof. A. E. Verrill,
of Yale College, New Haven, assisted by Mr. Sanderson Smith in the
department of the mollusea, and by Mr. Richard Rathbun and Mr.
Warren J. Upham. The collections made, as in previous years, were
placed in the hands of Professor Verrill, who is now engaged in their
classification and arrangement in sets. Dr. William G. Farlow, of Cam-
bridge, as usual, spent considerable time with the Commission, and
devoted himself especially to the investigation of the marine algae.

The investigation into and classification of the various kinds of fish
brought in were in charge of Mr. G. Brown Goode, a collaborator of
the National Museum, assisted by Dr. T. H. Bean, of the same estab-
lishment, and by Mr. R. E. Earl.

Capt. H. C. Chester had general charge of tle laboratory and the di-
rection of the actual dredging and trawling on the steamer.

The special superintendence of the hatching of the codfish was con-

60 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

dueted by Mr. J. W. Milner, with the assistance of Mr. R. E. Earll.
The propagation department was in charge of Mr. Frank N. Clark, of
Michigan. The machinery was superintended by Capt. H. C. Chester,
and it is to his ingenuity that we owe the construction of the apparatus
by which the actual work of hatching the codfish was rendered practi-
cable. The difficulty of using the apparatus employed for hatching
shad arose from the fact that while the eggs of the shad are heavier
than the fresh water, those of the cod are lighter than the salt water,
and new conditions had to be devised'to keep. the eggs down instead of
lifting them up. This problem, as already stated, was satisfactorily
solved, after many experiments, by Captain Chester, who is therefore
entitled to much credit for the success of the work.

HALIFAX COMMISSION.

In 1871 a convention was held by the United States and Great Britain,
at Washington, for the purpose of settling certain questions at issue be-
tween the two governments, notably that of the depredations upon
American commerce by Confederate cruisers, fitted out or supplied in
British ports; and also certain disputed points in reference to the fish-
eries of British North America.

The treaty agreed upon was not ratified by the several contracting
parties, consisting of the United States and the five British maritime
provinces, until 1873, when commissioners were duly appointed by the
respective governments, Mr. Alexander T. Galt being named by Great
Britain; Governor Clifford, of New Bedford, by the United States, and
Mr. Maurice. Delfosse, the Belgian minister to the United States, as the
third. For various reasons, and partly owing to the death of Governor
Clifford, no definite action was taken until 1876, when Mr. E. H. Kellogg,
of Pittsfield, Mass., was appointed to succeed Governor Clifford; and
the place of meeting was fixed at Halifax, Nova Scotia, on the 15th of
June, 1877, and after receiving the British claim the commission ad-
journed until the 28th day of July, 1877, when it reassembled and
continued in session until nearly the stipulated limit, in the month of
November.

The United States commissioner was assisted by Mr. Richard Henry
Dana and Mr. William H. Trescott. The British commissioner had, as
his counsel, one distinguished gentleman from each province, namely,
Mr. Joseph Doutre, for Canada; Mr. 8S. R. Thomson, for New Bruns-
wick; Hon. W. V. Whiteway, for Newfoundland ; Hon. Louis H. Davies,
for Prince Edward Island; and Mr. R. L. Weatherbe, for Nova Scotia.

At the request of the Secretary of State, I attended the meeting at
as early a date as my other duties would permit, arriving on the 17th of
August, and remaining until the 21st of October.

The British commission had on its side the minister of marine, Mr,
A. Smith, assisted by Mr. W. F’. Whitcher, the commissioner of fisheries.

The deliberations of the court involved a careful consideration of all

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 61

the facts and statistics of the two countries, and a vast amount of in-
formation relating to the subject was brought together in the form of
testimony of witnesses and experts and by the presentation of tables, re-
ports, and digests. The volumes of the reports of the proceedings of
the commission constitute a rich field for the naturalist as well as the
statistician.

Material service was rendered by the United States Fish Commission,
in the collection of important statistics gathered expressly for the pur-
pose, especially in the presentation of tables, showing the catch of fresh
fish along the coast of the United States within the treaty limits. This
work was more particularly under the charge of Mr. G. Brown Goode,
who executed it to the entire satisfaction of the American counsel.

. The oceasion was made use of by me to collect information and to
prepare a systematic account of what is known of the habits of the cod
and mackerel, and the various methods of capturing them, the bait to
be used, &e., which will form the subject of special reports hereafter.

The award of five and a half millions of dollars, as representing the
value to Great Britain of the privileges conceded to the United States,
has given very great dissatisfaction in this country, to the New England
fishermen especially, who denounce it as unjust in the highest degree,
and express the hope that at the earliest possible moment the treaty will
be abandoned, even if the original condition of things be restored.

The very great lack of published information on the subject of the
American fisheries, as compared with the extremely methodical and
precise summaries of the Canadian authorities, has induced me to give
especial attention to this subject for information in the future, and with
the co-operation of the State Department, which has placed a small
fund at my disposal for the purpose, I am engaged in collecting, col-
lating, and digesting the facts and statistics in reference to the Ameri-
can fisheries, an information doubtless of much value on the occasion of
another arbitration similar to that at Halifax. This work is more par-
ticularly in charge of Mr. Goode.

To ascertain the accuracy of the figures presented at the Halifax
convention as to the catch by citizens of the United States of mackerel
off the American and Canadian coast, [ employed Mr. Alexander Star-
buck, of Waltham, Mass., to make a new digest of the records, as
shown by the State inspections of Maine, New Hampshire, and Massa-
chusetts. His work has been completed and shows a material difference
from the old figures, but without affecting the strength of the American
case.

Statistics of sea fisheries.—Reference has already been made to the data
relative to this subject at Halifax, and the intention on the part of the
commission to secure reliable records of the catch, export, and consump-
tion in the United States of the more important fish. For this purpose
circulars were issued, requesting answers to certain questions relating to
the habits, mode of capture, statistics, and disposition of the cod, the

62 | REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

mackerel, the mullet, the alewife, and the smelt. Also another blank
inviting information as to the extent of the fishery marine, the nature of
the crews, the tonnage of the vessels, the apparatus used for capture, and
other incidentals. For the purpose of collecting this information, Mr.
Vinal Edwards, of Wood’s Holl, an assistant of the commission, was
detailed to visit the fishermen along Buzzard’s Bay and Vineyard Sound
and obtain the data which were needed for the various purposes refer-
red to. This was found to supplement very satisfactorily the valuable
body of statistics now being collected under the direction of the com-
missioners of inland fisheries of Massachusetts. These gentlemen have
been authorized by the legislature to require a report of the statisties in
regard to the character and catch of all the pounds, weirs, and gill-nets
in the commonwealth.

The results of these several circulars will be published in full in future
volumes of the report, and I take great pleasure in referring to the
first of the series—namely, that upon menhaden, as prepared by Mr.
Goode. This is a most exhaustive and complete history of the subject
in all its relationships, scientific, biological, and economical. It occupies
520 pages, and is illustrated by 30 plates. It forms one of the same series
with the exhaustive paper by Mr. Starbuck upon the whale fisheries,
published in the fourth volume of the reports of the Commission.

It is also proposed to direct special attention to the history of the
Southern mullet. This fish in many respects represents and may be
said to replace in the South the mackerel in the North. It oceurs in
enormous numbers, indeed such as to permit its capture in even larger
quantities than the mackerel, coming in shore to spawn in immense
numbers in the autumn months. It is not at all improbable that a
catch of half a million barrels could easily be made, and under cireum-
stances involving very much less expense and exposure than would be
needed for taking one-quarter that number of mackerel. It is caught .
abundantly all the way from North Carolina southward into the Gulf ot
Mexico, and is destined at no distant day to represent a very important
element in the resources and business of the South. At present the
methods of taking and curing the fish are very inferior to those prac-
ticed in regard to the mackerel, and the fish is consequently less esteemed ;
but it is not improbable that in time it will be found to occupy an almost
equal rank as a food-fish, and a much more important one as an article
of commerce.

Another subject to which the attention of the Commission is being
directed is a similar inquiry in regard to the lake herring, the white-
fish, and the salmon trout, all of them species eaptured and cured in
great quantities, and dividing with the mackerel and the cod the demand
of the market.

MISCELLANEOUS.

Mr. William TH. Dall, for many years an associate of the Institution,
in charge of its department of conchology and marine invertebrates gen-

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 63

erally, spent several months in 1878 in a visit to Europe, especially to
the zoological museums and to the co-workers in his special department
of research in Northern Europe. Acting as an accredited agent of the
Smithsonian Institution, he was authorized to ofier its services to special-
ists in prosecuting their researches, and to invite exchanges of books
and specimens. Many valuable alliances have been formed in conse-
quence of this visit, and the Institution has had already the pleasure of
supplying considerable material in response to calls for the same.

Availing ourselves of a visit to France in 1878, by Mr. Thomas Don-
aldson, whose services to the Institution during the Centennial Exhibi-
tion had been of great value, that gentleman was requested to call on
Mons. de la Batut, who had presented the Institution with relics of James
Smithson, and procure from him all the information he could furnish rel-
ative to the founder of this Institution. Mr. de la Batut is the half-
brother of the nephew of Smithson, to whom the latter bequeathed his
property, and in case of whose death it was to be devoted to founding
the Smithsonian Institution. Mr. Donaldson visited Mr. de la Batut,
and gathered from him a few facts of interest relative to Smithson, none
of which, however, were entirely new. He also procured the following
articles :

1. An engraved portrait of Hugh Perey, Duke of Northumberland,
father of James Smithson and of Col. Henry Louis Dickinson.

2. A portrait of Henry James Dickinson, son of Col. Henry Louis
Dickinson, the nephew and heir of Smithson. (Silhoutte profile.)

3. A paper in the handwriting of James Smithson, a copy of an article
by an admiral on the cause of a shipwreck in the English channel.

4, An inventory of the personal effects of James Smithson at the period
of his death, made by the British consul at Genoa.

5. An engraved visiting card bearing the inscription: ‘ Henri de la
Batut, Hotel Britannique, rue Louis le Grand, 20.”

6. Copy in wax of the seal of the de la Batut family.

In addition to its irreparable loss in the death of its late Secretary,
the Institution has also to lament that of a number of valued corre-
spondents. Among those to be first mentioned is Mr. Donald Gunn, of
Winnipeg, Manitoba, a veteran correspondent of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution, one of the earliest of its meteorological observers, and one who
for more than twenty years has been a constant contributor of informa-
tion and collections relating to the natural history of the Northwest.

Mr. Gunn was a Scotchman by birth, and entered the service of the
Hudson’s Bay Company in 1813; but in 1823 resigned and established
himself in the Selkirk settlement in the Red River country, where he
was for a long time a successful instructor of youth, and ultimately
was appointed one of the judges of the court of petty sessions, holding
that position for more than twenty years. He was also a member of the
first legislative council of Manitoba, in 1871.

As stated, the first connection of Mr. Gunn with the Smithsonian

64 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Institution was that of a meteorological observer. His long-continwed
observations of the weather are among the most reliable of those within
its archives. His contributions of objects of natural history were still
more important, embracing, as they did, nearly every branch in the
various classes of the animal and vegetable kingdoms, and numerous
collections in archeology and ethnology. Few reports of the Institu-
tion since 1850 are without some reference to his services.

In 1866 he made a special exploration, in behalf of the Institutien, o7
the region west of Lake Winnipeg, spending considerable time in the
vicinity of Shoal Lake and Lake Manitoba, in the course of which he
collected large numbers of skins and eggs of birds; among the latter,
several previously entirely unknown in museums. Within a year cor-
respondence was in progress with him in regard to the renewal of this
exploration.

The death of Mr. Gunn took place in the month of December, at the
age of Sl. It is understood that he has left behind him a minutely de-
tailed journal of his experiences, and his relations to the colony in
which he lived for over fifty years, which will doubtless be published
on account of its great historical value.

Hon. William McKinley, a valued correspondent of the Institution,
who died on the 2d of May, 1878, was born in Abbeville District, South
Carolina, in the year 1809; became a resident of Georgia in early life;
was educated at Franklin College, now the University of Georgia, where
he was graduated; entered the profession of law, served as a member of
the Georgia legislature ; removed to Milledgeville, Ga., where he spent
the remainder of his long and useful life in the active and extensive
practice of his profession. He sought relaxation in other pursuits at
times, none of which were more pleasing to him than the ethnological
researches connected with that region, so rich in antiquarian remains, in
which his life was spent. He made, within the last few years, repeated
contributions of aboriginal remains to the Smithsonian Institution, re-
markable for their beauty and value. Mr. McKinley also contributed a
valuable paper entitled “Mounds in Georgia” descriptive of aboriginal
earthworks on the sea-coast, and of the celebrated Pyramid of Kolee
Mokee in Early County, to the Smithsonian Report for 1872. Further
additions of antiquities by Mr. McKinley are mentioned on page 82 of
the Smithsonian Report of 1875; and at the time of his death, a still later
collection was in his possession, destined for the Smithsonian Institution.

Respectfully submitted.

SPENCER F. BAIRD,
Secretary Smithsonian Institution.
WASHINGTON, January, 1879.

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY,

JOVERNMENT EXPLORATIONS AND SURVEYS IN 1878.

The following are brief accounts of the principal explorations of the
government in 1878, from which specimens will be derived for increasing
the collections of the National Museum. They are furnished by the sev-
eral directors of the explorations:

THE WORK OF THE UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL
SURVEY OF THE TERRITORIES UNDER THE DIRECTION OF PROF.
F. ‘VY. HAYDEN DURING THE SEASON OF 1878.

The work of the survey was intrusted to four parties, viz: One for
carrying on the primary triangulation; two parties for geologic and
topographie work; and a party for special geologic studies and photog-
raphy. These were so organized that in case of necessity they could
be divided for special duty. The field headquarters of the survey was
at Cheyenne, Wyo., and the outfits and animals were transported via
the Union Pacific Railroad to their points of departure.

Geology.—Dr. Hayden, the geologist in charge, accompanied the pho-
tographie division, and the route pursued gave him an opportunity to
secure a very accurate general knowledge of the geological structure of
a large area. The Wind River Range proved one of remarkable interest.
It has a trend about northwest and southeast, with a length of about 100:
miles. On the west side all the sedimentary belts have been swept away,
down to the Archean, olderthan the Wahsatch, and the latter formation
rests on the Archwan rocks all along the base of the range, seldom in-
clining more than 5° to 10°. On the east side of the range the seams
of sedimentary formations usually known to occur in the northwest are
exposed from the Potsdam sandstone, which rests. upon the Archean
rocks, to the Cretaceous inclusive.

Along the northwestern portion of the range the Wahsatch Group only
is seem for some distance, but as we proceed down the Wind River
Valley the formations appear one after the other, until at the lower end
the entire series is exposed. The Wind River Range may be regarded
as originally a vast anticlinal, of which one side has been entirely
denuded of the sedimentary, except the Middle Tertiary. On the same
side of the range the morainal deposits and glaciated rocks are shown
on a scale such as we have not known in any other portion of the West.
Three genuine glaciers were discovered on the east base of Wind River
and Frémont Peaks, the first known to exist east of the Pacific coast.

S. Mis. 59-———5 65

66 APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

The morainal deposits are also found on a grand scale in the Snake
River Valley, on the east side of the Teton Range. The numerous lakes
have been the beds of glaciers, and the shores of the lakes are walled
with morainal ridges. North of the Teton Mountains the prevailing
rocks are of modern volcanic origin, and in the Yellowstone Park the
hot springs and geysers are the later manifestations of the intense vol-
canie activity that once existed. All these interesting features were
studied with care, and the results will be elaborated for the twelfth an-
nual report of the survey.

Mr. W. H. Holmes acted as geologist to the second division. The
first month of the season he was with the fourth division, which pro-
ceeded from Pointof Rocks Station northward, along the west side of the
Wind River Mountains, and up the Snake River Valley to the Yellow-
stone Park, where he joined the second division. In the mean time he
was engaged in making sketches, panoramic views, and geological sec-
tions of the intermediate country, all of which will prove of the highest
importance in illustrating the geological structure of this most interest-
ing and complicated region.

The latter part of the summer was spent in making detailed geological
examinations in the district that includes the National Park. The greater
portion of the park was found to be covered with somewhat uniform
flows of the ordinary volcanic rocks. Features of more than ordinary
geologic interest occur, however, along the northern border of the park
district. Here a small belt, not more than 15 by 30 miles in extent, con-
tains a fair epitome of the geology of the Rocky Mountain region. The
whole series of formations from the earliest to the most recent are almost
typically developed. The only marked irregularity in the succession of
geologic events occurred during the great mountain-building period of
the early Tertiary. After that followed a number of inferior oscillations
of the surface, during which an extensive series of recent Tertiary and
volcanic rocks were deposited. Connecting this period with the present
are the deposits of a number of great lakes, which at the present time
have their chief representative in Yellowstone Lake.

The formations of the Tertiary period present features of more than
ordinary interest. They consist of upward of 5,000 feet of strata which
arealmost totally made up of fragmentary voleanic products. The whole
period seems to have been one of unparalleled voleanie activity, the lat-
ter part especially having yielded such immense quantities of ejecta that
the strata are almost wholly breecias and conglomerates. These forma-
tions are therefore so unlike those of corresponding periods in neighboring
provinees that it is almost impossible, considering the absence of both
vertebrate and invertebrate remains, to make satisfactory correlations.
This difficulty is increased by the fact that these formations have a much
greater elevation than those of any of the neighboring basins of the
interior or eastern plains districts. They lie in a horizontal position,
upon the eroded surfaces of the strata of preceding ages, at an eleva-
tion of from 6,000 to 11,500 feet above the sea.

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF*® THE SECRETARY. 67

A very extraordinary feature of these rocks is the occurrence of silici-
fied forests which are found in situ not only at one horizon but at a great
number of horizons throughout a great part of the whole series. I*os-
sil leaves found associated with the silicified forests near the middle of
the series indicate the prevalence of a flora very closely related to that
of the present time. They belong, according to Professor Lesquereux,
to late Miocene or early Pliocene times.

Among the many points of interest in the way of flowed volcanic
rocks was the discovery and examination of extensive deposits of obsid-
jan. In one locality upwards of 600 feet of obsidian strata ocerr, much
of which is solid glass; banded, spherulitic, and brecciated varieties are
interbedded with the more solid layers. A very extensive collection of
these and other voleanic rocks was made.

No workable beds of coal have been found within the park area, nor
have any deposits of the precious metals been discovered.

To Dr. A. C, Peale and Mr. J. E. Mushbach was assigned the special
investigation of the hot springs and geysers. Owing to the lateness of
the season when the park was reached, and the early storms in Septem-
ber, there was comparatively little time for work. About two months
were spent by them in mapping and investigating the springs in the
Shoshone Basin, Upper and Lower Fire-Hole Basins, Red Mountain
Basin, Gibbon’s Fork Basin, the Mammoth Hot Springs, and the Mud
Springs localities of the Yellowstone River.

Over 1,500 temperatures were recorded, and about 2,500 springs were
mapped and notes taken for their description. Special attention was
paid to the geysers and notes of their times of eruption and the heights
reached by them were taken.

Two of the geyser basins were almost unknown before and had never
been described. The Gibbon’s Fork Basin presented many features of
interest, among which were the numerous varieties of the siliceous de-
posits, many of them probably new to science. Water from important
springs of the principal lecalities was brought in for future analysis.
Notes were taken for mapping the different greups of springs on a large
seale, so that hereafter they may enable the tourist to identify the in-
dividual springs. Many new geysers were discovered and new points of
interest in relation to the old ones obtained.

Large collections of specimens were made and brought east.

The notes of this division of the survey being largely statistical, the
complete results of the work cannot be detailed until they are thor-
oughly worked up.

The following is a summary, by Mr. O. St. John, of the geological
work prosecuted in the field assigned to the Wind River division :

The region explored comprises a triangular area extending along the
forty-third parallel from Salt River to the Wind River Valley, a distance
of about 100 miles. The boundaries on either side converge, uniting
near the parallel 45° 45’. It thus includes about half of the Wind River

68 APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Range and the continental water-shed north to Togwotee Pass, the Gros
Ventre Mountains southeast of Jackson’s Basin, and in the southwest
the considerable area south of the Grand Canon of the Snake filled by
the southern prolongation of the Snake River Mountains, or what is
here known as the Wyoming Range, in which latter quarter the work
commenced.

The approach was from the south up the valley of Green River, which
forms a considerable basin area in the southern central portion of the
district, and which is entirely filled with deposits of the age of the Ter-
tiary. These decline basinwards on the three sides hemmed by the Wy-
oming, Gros Ventre, and Wind River Mountains, attaining a thickness
of several thousand feet.

The northern end of the Wyoming Range was here found to-consist
of several quite well defined low ridges which reach the maximum of
ruggedness in the Carboniferous barrier ridge on the western border
along Salt River. To the east of this belt Hoback’s River rises in a basin
area south of the Gros Ventre Range, which, geologically, is part of the
Green River Basin, the water-divide being merely a low ridge composed
of the soft arenaceous Tertiary beds. The latter are here unconformably
uplifted on the border of the Hoback Caton ridge, the easternmost of
the Wyoming Range, and which is made up of Carboniferous and Meso-
zoic formations occupying a syncelinal, either border of which appcars
in the monoclinal crests on the east and west sides of this ridge.

A tributary of the Hoback on the west of the canon ridge flows
through a valley which penetrates southwards nearly to the southern
border of the district. In this vicinity the western crest of the Hoback

Jafion ridge shows en anticlinal structure, the Carboniferous on the west
flank being sueceeded by the Trias, Jura, and Cretaceous, and finally a
heavy series of sandstones and variegated arenaceous shales which prob-
ably pertain to the Laramie. The latter stretch across the valley, dip-
ping westwardly, and impinge on the next west-lying mountain ridge,
which is also composed of Carboniferous strata, abruptly tilted and
faulted, with downthrow on the east. Inclining off the west slope of
this ridge the same series of geological formations are met with as men-
tioned above, the later-formed showing subordinate folds and making up
the bulk of the highland to the west which has been carved into a very
broken belt by the erosion of the eastern tributaries of John Gray’s
River and the gorges descending to the Snake. Beyond this nearly the
same stratigraphical and structural features recur in the more bulky
ridge which occupies the interval extending over to Salt River, viz,
westerly dipping Mesozoic and Post-Cretaceous deposits, impinging
against the faulted Carboniferous in the ridge on the west.

In the latter region much information was gained relative to the
identity in stratigraphical and structural elements that subsist here and
in the cluster of mountains culminating in Mount Baird north of the
Grand Caton. The whole region here referred to proved to be exceed-

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 69

ingly rough, but with redeeming valley spaces abounding in good graz-
ing, while the hills are quite well wooded with coniferous forests.

The southern flank of the Gros Ventre Mountains was traversed from
a point near where the Hoback’s Canon ridge first approaches this range,
thence east to the broad depression separating it from the northern
portion of the Wind River Range. In the west the culminating peak
rises into a bared Archean cone, the primal rocks occurring at one or
two points farther east, where they have been laid bare in the deeper
cahons which all the streams penetrating the mountains from this side
have excavated. But for the most part this mountain front is heavily
plated with Paleozoic formations, including the Potsdam quartzite,
Quebec limestones, the magnesian limestone, and the still heavier series
of Carboniferous limestones and sandstones, which latter forms the mass
of the eastern portion of the range over to the divide at the head of
water flowing into Green River. The Paleozoic rocks have been up-
lifted into great folds, with abrupt inclination on the southerly flanks,
contrasting with long declivities in the opposite direction, on which side
the range loses much of its rugged, imposing character. Here and there
patches of Mesozoic appear low in the south-side mountain flank, sue-
ceeded by the unconformable Tertiary beds descending into the Hoback
and Green River Basins. In some of the larger cation mouths interest-
ing exhibitions of morainal and other glacial phenomena were first met
with.

The work in the Wind River Mountains was commenced towards the
northern end on the west side, and thence carried southwards, cireum-
stances compelling a rapid march round via South Pass to Camp Brown,
from which point the work was prosecuted northwards along the east
ern flank of the range.

In the vicinity of Green River Cafion, on the west side of the Wind
River Range for a few miles, the outer barrier of the mountains preserves
a remnant of the Paleozoic formations. These deposits are very similar
to the corresponding formations in the Gros Ventre Mountains, and
identical with the much more extensive occurrence of strata of that era
on the east side of the range. They have been lifted high up on the
mountain with minor undulations, and, as seen from the open basin to
the southwest, they have the appearance of curving round the extremity
of the range. But the latter appearance was found to be deceptive, the
Archean soon reappearing in the outer slope to the north of Green
River Cafion, and thence continuing until all the more ancient rock
series is hidden by the Cenozoic and Post-Tertiary accumulations at the
northern end of the range.

The brief visit paid to the summit of this portion of the Wind River
Mountains afforded what is to the student of American geology a field
of greatest interest in the existence here of living glaciers. The snow-
fields were found to be much more extensive than was surmised from
the distant views of the summit, and the ice-filled gorges, especially on

70 APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

the east side at the sources of Torrey’s Creek, presented most interesting
examples of many of the associated phenomena connected with the gla-
cier. But compared with their former extent these are but the merest
vestiges of the ice masses which flowed down and polished the canon-
walls of all the drainage courses which penetrate the range, and in the
amount of glaciation and the piled-up débris strewn along the sides of
the debouching valleys something like an adequate conception of their
former extent and comparatively recent dissipation may be formed.

A few miles south of the cafion of Green River the older sedimenta-
ries have been entirely removed trom the mountain border, the Tertiary
coming in contact with the bared Archean rocks. Such are the
geologic features to the southern border of the district, and probably,
indeed, throughout the west flank to the extreme southern terminus at
South Pass.

The eastern flank of this range was found to possess a much more ex-
tensive area occupied by the Paleozoic formations, which, for the most
part, are simply upraised, forming so many more or less well-marked in-
clined benches. The most recent of these is composed of the Carbon-
iferous, preceded by the magnesian limestone, Quebec limestone, and
primordial quartzites, which lithologically, and in the topographic fea-
tures molded out of them, bear close resemblance to the west flank of
the Téton Mountains. At no point were the Trias and later Mesozoic
formations found rising to any considerable elevation on the mountain
border; on the contrary their presence marks the boundary between
the orographic and basin areas. The latter formations present in a gen-
eral way typical lithologic features characterizing their occurrence in
the region to the west, with however many and in some respects some-
what strongly contrasted local stratigraphic peculiarities. The “red
beds” of the Trias exhibit enormous local accumulations of massive and
laminated gypsum, and the Cretaceous here contains seams of coal
which will become of economic value.

In the Wind River Basin the unconformable Tertiary occupies the
interval reaching over to the Owl Creek Mountains to the northeast.
The border of this basin along the foot of the Wind River Mountains
presents some extraordinary spring deposits of very modern date m
places incorporated with the gravel deposits occurring in terraces at
the foot of the mountains. Many, perhaps the majority, of the spring
sources have become extinet; but a few remain, evidently but feeble as
compared with their former volume, but which have built up quite ex-
tensive deposits of caleareous tufa. Some of the older deposits present
much the appearance of porous limestones forming extensive benches in.
the mountain’s foot. The presence of these deposits in some of the
canons on this side of the mountains is associated with the most pictur-
esque scenery. All the streams that rise high up in the mountains
were formerly the beds ‘of extensive glaciers which built up the great
morainal ridges, like those which border the debouchures of the Little

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 71

Wind River, Bull Lake, Dinwiddie, and Torrey’s Forks, only less ex-
tensive accumulations of glacial materials than those found along the
west border of the range.

Jn the water-shed extending northward from the northern end of the
Wind River Range extensive arenaceous deposits of modern-looking
Tertiary age but slightly disturbed, are met with, and which evidently
form uninterrupted connection with the Wind River Tertiaries on the
one hand and the deposits which occupy so large area east of Jackson’s
Basin on the other. In the latter quarter, in the Mount Leidy high-
lands, and along the upper courses of the main tributaries of the Gros
Ventre, in lower strata of the same series, extensive developments of
lignite were met with, the special investigation of which was undertaken
by Mr. Perry. In still more ancient horizons other lignitic seams were
found which, together with those just mentioned, render this one of the
most important coal-producing areas as yet discovered in this region.

In the latter region the lignitic and older mesozoic formations within
a narrow belt at the northern foot of the Gros Ventre Mountains have
beer thrown into a series of sharp parallel folds. To the northeast the
Tertiaries dip, with gradually slackening inclination, until they pass be-
neath the voleanic mantle in the vicinity of Togwotee Pass; on the op-
posite side the older Mesozoics as uniformly rise up on the flank of the
Gros Ventre Mountains, whose northern crest reveals the regular
courses of the Carboniferous limestone which in places preserves a cop-
ing of the Triassic ‘“ red beds.”

During the last two months the expedition encountered much in-
clement weather, embarrassing the prosecution of the field-work; and
on its arrival in the region of Mount Leidy and Buffalo Fork, about the
middle of October, it was overtaken by the early snows of winter, which
virtually closed the field-work for the season.

Paleontology—sSo large an amount of paleontological material had
accumulated during the previous years that its critical study became
necessary for the purpose of aiding in the elucidation of certain problems
in structural geology which had arisen in the prosecution of the field-
work. Dr. C. A. White, paleontologist to the survey, therefore devoted
the whole season of 1878 to this work at the office, instead of taking the
field as he did the previous season. The work which thus engaged his
attention embraces the preparation of a detailed report of his fieldwork
for 1877, including the discussion of important questions connected with
it, the preparation of a large number of new fossil invertebrates for
publication and illustration, and the illustration of all the types of
species in the collections of the survey which the late Mr. F. B. Meek
had described, but not illustrated.

Besides the collections made by the various parties of the survey,
others have from time to time been received from several persons not
officially connected with it, from different parts of the western portion of
the national domain. The investigation of these collections brings out

(2 APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

some interesting facts concerning the geographical distribution of types,
especially those of marine Cretaceous invertebrates. Among the more
interesting results of Dr. White’s investigations is the recognition of a
Triassic fauna in the rocks of Southeastern Idaho. This is of especial
interest as being the first discovery of distinctively Triassic invertebrate
types in the West, east of those now well known to exist in the Pacific
coast region; and also on account of the close relationship of these
types with those of the Middle Trias of Europe, while those of the
Pacific coast represent the Upper Trias.

Primary triangulation.—The primary triangulation of 1878 was ex-
tended northward from that of 1877 which was begun at Rawlins, Wyo.,
where it connected with the system of triangulation of the survey of the
fortieth parallel.

The triangulation party, in charge of Mr. A. D. Wilson, left the Union
Pacific Railroad at Point of Rocks, Wyo., on July 28. They traveled
northward to the western base of Wind River Range, where their work
began. In this range two stations were made, on Wind River and Fre-
mont’s Peaks.

Traveling westward from the base of this range, they crossed the head
of Green River Basin, and, threading the canon of Hoback’s River, they
reached the Snake at the head of its canon.

They followed this stream up to the eastern base of the Grand Téton,
where, finding it impracticable to ascend this mountain from the east,
they crossed to Pierre’s Hole by way of the Téton Pass. From this, the
west side, the peak was found to be more accessible, and Mr. Wilson
succeeded in reaching, with his instruments, a secondary summit 100 to
200 feet lower than the main crest, and distant from it about 400 feet.
He reported the true summit to be practically inaccessible.

From Pierre’s Hole the party next went northwest to Sawtelle’s Peak,
near Henry’s Lake, in Eastern Idaho. On the night following the as-
cent of this mountain, all the animals belonging to the party were stolen
by Bannock Indians, leaving the party afoot, at least 100 miles from
the nearest settlement.

After carefully caching their instruments, the party made their way on
foot across arid plateaus to the Geyser Basins, where they met the par-
ties of Messrs. Gannett and Jackson. With their aid, and the kind as-
sistance of Mr. James Eccles, an English gentleman who, with a party
of his own, was visiting the country, Mr. Wilson was again fitted out,
his instruments having in the mean time been recovered, and his work
went on with but little delay.

His next station was Mount Sheridan, the highest peak of the Red
Mountains, in the southern part of the Yellowstone National Park.
Thence he visited Hiectric Peak, near the northern boundary of the
park, and the highest summit within its limits. The well-known Mount
- Washburn was his next station, and from that mountain he went south-
ward, passing around Yellowstone Lake and up the Upper Yellowstone,

¥
\

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. YE:

intending to make a station on a high peak of the Yellowstone Range,
near the head of the latter stream. The snow, however, which had
been accumulating for a month in that high mountain region, had be-
come at that time (about the end of September) so deep that it was im-
possible to do any more work. Indeed, it had accumulated so in the
passes about the heads of the Upper Yellowstone, Snake, and Wind
Rivers, that the party found difficulty in getting their animals over
them. Finally, however, the party reached the head of Wind River,
and thence traveled to Rawlins, Wyo., on the Union Pacific Railroad,
where they were disbanded.

Topography.—To the party in charge of Mr. Henry Gannett was in-
trusted the work of making a detailed survey of the Yellowstone Park,
with extended study of the phenomena of the hot springs and geysers.
Mr. W. H. Holmes was detailed as geologist of this division, while to
Dr. A. C. Peale was intrus¢ed the study of the hot springs and geysers,
Mr. Gannett undertaking the secondary triangulation and topography
of the park, and his assistant, Mr. J. E. Mushbach, the detailed survey
of the geyser basins and other groups of springs.

The party left Granger Station, Wyo., on July 28; drove up Green
River to the head of the basin; thence down the rugged defile of Ho-
back’s River to the Snake, and up the Snake to its forks at the south
boundary of the Yellowstone Park.

Turning westward at this point, they spent a few days in surveying
Fall River and its affluents, then returned to the Shoshone Geyser Ba-
sin at the west end of Shoshone Lake. Here the party was joined by
Mr. Holmes, who up to that time had accompanied Dr. Hayden in the
Wind River and Téton Mountains.

Leaving the body of the party in permanent camp at the Shoshone
Geyser Basin, Messrs. Holmes and Gannett visited the Red Mountains
and the country south of Yellowstone Lake. On their return from this
trip, which occupied a week, the party, re-enforced by that of Mr. Jack-
son, moved across the divide to the Upper Geyser Basin, near the head
of the Madison (Fire Hole) River. Here Dr. Peale and Mr. Mushbach
were left to carry on their work, while the party continued on down the
Fire Hole River to the Lower Geyser Basin. Thence they crossed to the
Yellowstone River via Howard’s road, and continued down that river
to the Mammoth Hot Springs on Gardiner’s River, where the supplies
for the season were stored.

Refitted with provisions, the party returned up the Yellowstone as
far as the mouth of its east fork, which they ascended nearly to its head
in the rugged Yellowstone Range; then crossed a high, rolling divide
to Pelican Creek, a tributary to Yellowstone Lake. Following this
stream down they reached Yellowstone Lake at its northeastern corner,
skirted its eastern shore to its head, and traveled several miles up the
Upper Yellowstone River; thence they returned to the foot of the lake
and followed the river down to the Mammoth Hot Springs, arriving
there about October first.

74 APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Starting a second time from the springs, the party traveled south-
ward to the headwaters of Gardiner’s River and Gibbon’s Fork of the
Fire Hole, following the road recently cut by Colonel Norris, superin-
tendent of the Yellowstone National Park, from the Mammoth Springs
to the Geyser Basins. Having completed their work in this direction,
they spent a few days in studying the south end of the Gallatin Range,
which separates the waters of the Yellowstone from those of the Gal-
latin, and then returned to the Mammoth Spreigs; whence, having been
joined by Messrs. Peale and Mushbach, they went to Bozeman, Mont.,
where the party disbanded.

The above is a sketch of the route of travel of the party. From it
the geologist and topographer branched off widely, thus covering the
country between the routes of travel.

The area embraced in this survey is about 3,500 square miles, of which
material for a map ona scale of one mile to an inch was secured. In
prosecution of the work of secondary triangulation and topography 47
stations were made, from which 2,100 horizontal and 500 vertical angles
were measured. Altogether 370 points were located, an average of 1 in
94 square miles; 230 observations for height were made with the mer-
curial barometer, and 100 with the aneroid.

Material for maps in detail of all localities of special interest was col-
lected. Among these may be mentioned the well-known Geyser Basins,
on the Fire Hole, the Shoshone Geyser Basin, the fine group of springs
at Heart Lake, and those on Gibbon’s Fork discovered by Colonel Nor-
ris, the Mammoth Springs on Gardiner’s River, the Mud Geysers on the
Yellowstone, and others. The heights of all important waterfalls were
determined by measurement with the tape-line, and thus the vexed ques-
tion of the height of the Yellowstone Lower Falls was definitely settled.

The area occupied by the Yellowstone Park has a great elevation,
ranging in the flat country from 6,500 feet to 9,000, while its mountain
peaks reach heights of 11,000 feet. Its mean elevation is about 5,000
feet. Within this elevated region head three large rivers, the Madison
and Yellowstone, which flow off northward to join the Missouri, and the
Snake, or Lewis Fork of the Columbia, which at first has a southerly
course. The greater part of the Park is a rolling plateau, broken here
and there by small groups of mountains, as the Red Mountains and the
Washburn Group. East of the Yellowstone River, separating its drain-
age from that of the Big Horn, is a high, rugged, voleanic range, whose
peaks reach 11,000 to 12,000 feet. This range was, in 1871, named
‘Yellowstone Range” by Dr. Hayden.

Excepting a narrow belt in the northern part, this park is everywhere
heavily timbered. Indeed, with the exception of Washington Territory
and the western portion of Oregon, it is the most densely timbered area
in the West. There is practically no arable land within its limits owing
to its great altitude, and, except along its northern border, little open
country suitable for pasturage.

i.

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 75

The heavy growth of timber indicates and fosters a comparatively
moist climate. The park is a region of lakes and swampy tracts, of
springs, and abundant perennial streams. The summer season is short.
While frosts may be expected any night in the year, the winter holds
until June and commences again in September. July and August
usually afford fine but cool weather, with cold nights; but September
brings frost and snow.

The third division, under Mr. F. A. Clark, surveyed the Wind River
Mountains, a portion of the Wyoming Range, the Gros Ventre Range,
with a large area in the Snake River Valley. Mr. Clark made 31 gradi-
enter stations and 15 compass stations. The area les between latitude
43° and 44° and longitude 109° 15’ and 111°. This includes the upper
portion of the Wind River Mountains, with portions of the Wyoming
Range, the Gros Ventre Range, and portions of the Shoshone Mount-
ains and the Owl Creek Range; also the sources of Green River, Hoback
Basin, and upper waters of Wind River. Mr. St. John acted as geolo-
gist and Mr. N. W. Perry as mineralogist to this party. Their reports
will prove of general interest. Mines of gold, silver, iron, and vast beds
of gypsum, as well as many other minerals, were found.

Photography.—In the prosecution of the field-work of the survey dur-
ing the past season a photographic division was again put in operation,
after an interval of two years, under the leadership of Mr. W. H. Jack-
son, who has been connected with the survey as its photographer during
the past nine years.

Leaving Point of Rocks, on the Union Pacific Railroad, on July 24,
the first points of interest were reached on the western flank of the
Wind River Mountains. Two side trips, undertaken in connection with
Mr. Wilson, in charge of the primary triangulatioa, were made to the
crest of the range, and some grand views of that remarkable region
were obtained. Irom the summit of Frémont’s Peak views were made
of an immense glacier now occupying its eastern slope. Fine views
were also obtained of the great glaciated plateau lying between the
plains and the crest of the range.

Proceeding next to the vicinity of the Grand Tétons, lying to the east
of the headwaters of the Snake River, several magnificent views of the
remarkable range in which they occur were made from the neighborhood
of Jackson’s Lake.

Tteaching Shoshone Lake the 18th of August, the entire month follow-
ing was devoted exclusively to photographing the remarkable phenomena
connected with the hot springs and geysers of the various basins within
the Park. Especial attention was paid to the almost unknown but ex-
ceedingly interesting features of the new Shoshone and Red Mountain
Basins. The “Tire Hole” and “Mammoth Hot Spring” Basins were
again gone over, and the experience derived from the work done here in
former years shows its benefits in the remarkably effective views obtained
this season. At this latter basin many detailed as well as general views

76 APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

were made with especial reference to the future production of an exact
model in plaster of the whole group.

On the homeward route, which was by the way of the Upper Yellow-
stone, across the headwaters of the Snake to the Wind River and thence
via Camp Brown to the railroad, a number of very effective views were
made, particularly about the Grand Falls and the canon of the Yellow-
stone. At the Yellowstone Lake some very fine views were made, but
that region was not completed, in consequence of a prolonged snow-storm.

At the Togwotee Pass some characteristic views were obtained of the
remarkable breccia mountains, whose castellated forms adorn that por-
tion of the continental divide, and also some of the curious “ bad lands”
farther down on Wind River. The season’s work closed at Camp Brown,
where portraits and groups were made of the Bannock prisoners in con-
finement at that post.

_ A brief summing up of the season’s operations of three months, much
of which time was characterized by extremely inclement weather, shows
an increase to the already very extensive collection of the survey, of 45
negatives 11 by 14 inches in size, and 110 of smaller ones, 5 by 8.

PUBLICATIONS.— During the year 1878 the publications of the United

tates Geological Survey have been numerous and important, yielding
in no respect to those of any previous year, and fully sustaining the
reputation this organization has acquired for the prompt and full exhibit
ofits operations. Elevenseparate publications have appeared and others
have been brought to a forward state of preparation.

Perhaps the most important of these as a contribution to pure science
is the seventh volume of the quarto reports. This is Prof. Leo Lesque-
reux’s beautiful monograph, ‘The Tertiary Flora,” forming a compan-
ion volume to the same author’s “ Cretaceous Flora,” which latter con-
stitutes the sixth volume of the series. It consists of nearly 400 pages,
and is illustrated with 65 plates.

A further contribution to the fossil flora of the West has been made
in the publication of 26 plates, entitled “ Illustrations of the Cretaceous
and Tertiary Plants of the Western Territories of the United States”
This volume consists only of the plates and explanatory text, the full
report upon the subject being deferred.

The regular annual report of progress for the year 1876, being the
tenth of this series, appeared during the past year. This makes a vol-
ume of about 550 pages, illustrated with 79 plates and various wood-
cuts. There has also been issued in pamphlet form the preliminary re-
port of operations for 1878, in advance of the regular report for that
year.

The Miscellaneous Publications’ Series has been continued during the
year by the issue of Nos. 10 and 11. Miscellaneous Publication No. 10
consists of a Bibliography of North American Invertebrate Paleontology,
prepared by Dr, C. A. White and Prof. H. Alleyne Nicholson. Miscel-
laneous Publication No. 11 is entitled “The Birds of the Colorado Val-

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. ri

ley,” and consists of Part First of an extensive work upon North Ameri-
can Ornithology, by Dr. Elliott Coues, U. 8S. A. Both these treatises
have become indispensable to the students of the special branches of
which they respectively treat.

The Bulletins of the survey have appeared during the year with the
usual regularity, the four numbers issued in 1878 forming volume LY. This
publication is now established as a regular annual serial, and the pres-
ent volume, like its predecessors, contains articles on a wide range of
scientific topics embraced within the general scope of the operations of
the survey.

The United States Entomological Commission, conducted under the
auspices of this survey, has during the year issued its first annual re-
port, as an octavo volume of nearly 800 pages, with plates and weod-
cuts. It is devoted to the subject of the Rocky Mountain Locust, and
contains a full exhibit of the results secured by the commission ap-
pointed to investigate that important problem.

UNITED STATES GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS WEST OF THE ONE HUN-
DREDTH MERIDIAN, IN CHARGE OF FIRST LIEUT. GEORGE M.
WHEELER, CORPS OF ENGINEERS, UNITED STATES AR3TY.

The work during 1878 was performed by nine main parties and three
astronomical parties, which operated in the States of California, Cclo-
rado, Nevada, Oregon, and Texas, and Arizona, New Mexico, and Wash-
ington Territories. Forty-six observers took the field, leaving a small
force at the Washington office engaged in the preparation of maps and
reports. The astronomical parties, in charge of Professor T. F. Safford,
at the Ogden Observatory, Mr. J. H. Clarke in the California sections,
and Mr. Miles Rock in the Colorado section, made observations at
Walla-Walla, Washington Territory ; the Dalles, Oregon; Fresno, Cali-
fornia; Fort Bliss, Texas; and Fort Bayard, New Mexico, connecting
with Ogden as the initial meridian.

In California, topographical parties oceupied points in the Cascade
Mountains and ranges to the eastward within the Great Interior Basin
extending towards the Blue Ridge, reconnoitring a large area. Opera-
tions were carried southward from Lake Tahoe along the Sierra Nevada,
one party occupying the White Mountain Range and connecting with
the triangulation which joins the astronomical station at Austin, Nevada.
A contour survey of the Washoe mining region was completed, and
numerous details gathered relating to the operations of the vertical and
meridional sections of the lodes.

Work for completing the topography of the seetion between Sierra
Nevada and Cascade Ranges was also carried on. From the southern
end of the Sierra Nevada a party transferred from the Utah section
connected with the work of 1875 from Los Angeles east and north, and
operated along the Coast Range to latitude 30° 30/ N. .«

In Colorado, one party, following the Rio Grande northward, filled in

78 APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

details of new routes of communication and of incomplete meanders,
and was further employed upon detailed work. A detachment mean-
dered north and westward from the Rio Grande at Los Lanos, opposite
Fort McRae, through the basin of the Little Colorado to Camp Apache,
Arizona, and thence eastward again to the Rio Grande, making mean-
ders of considerable precision along three natural routes of communica-
tion from the drainage basins of the Gila Salt River and Colorado Chi-
quito to the Rio Grande.

Another party extended the triangulation southward to connect with
astronomical station at Fort Bliss, Texas; also connecting with the
astronomical monument of the Mexican Boundary Survey at El Paso,
Texas, and the monument on that part of the boundary-line on the west-
ern bank of the Rio Grande.

The following list shows the number of the principal observations
made:

Sexiiatn leimaileeienOnky Se oceuSeens soa cos cod bee abd os doodeb codo secloda Gasees 90
Basessmeasured coco. Sat aes cece emcees ce en aoe ee aise mete rete es 5
Tiina, by oaih op ises nee yo0kel es A Re hs Seine sooseasoscoder ee 64
Main trian culation stations! Occupied se = ss =o eacsas ceeleceser eames else emelee 62
Secondary triangulation stations occupied 22-22-42 5 se sec sec on eee en == 2L
Milespmeasured:on Meanders: oc css sa gessase ese cee cree eb el ceases soe 10, 298
@isterm barometer stations! ocettpied! \- SBee ies Tet See eet actneee ae cee oe 1,141
Aneroid barometer stations /Oceupicdh 22-4 a2 eaayieso ee ae oe eel tee cbae eee 7, 057
MeomehlewvarlablOns ODSCLy Cie =. emia a= =e ee eames ee arena nee eit eee 165
Wi lrrantrayes eeliody os) ake ROE aoe PARAS ASO Se see oe see cepau dec gps baaSbemeneosc 12
Mineralcand) phermalis primes 10 beds ce ono eee mctepe ae ete tate ele ee eaters 20

The estimated area occupied by the survey during the season, includ-
ing main triangulation and preliminary reconnaissance work, was 35,000
square miles. The area from which detailed topographical data were
gathered sufficient for a map, on a scale of one inch to four miles, was
approximately 27,500 miles.

Besides the topographical work, one party in the Colorado section was
devoted entirely to geological examination, under the charge of Pro-
fessor J. J. Stevenson, assisted by Mr. J. C. Russell. Its area of opera-
tions was along the Spanish ranges between the Rio Grande and Cana-
dian Rivers, in the northern part of New Mexico, where its labors were
greatly facilitated by the use of the completed topographical maps. The
section of the lignitic group was worked out, and twenty-six beds of lig-
nitic coal were recognized as present at most localities within the area
where the horizon was reached. Much labor was bestowed upon a study
of the axes, the structure of which was found to be exceedingly compli-
cated, requiring further detailed examination. Quite large collections
were made of igneous rocks and fossils, about three hundred specimens
of the former being obtained from seventy localities, forming a complete
series illustrating the lithology of the injected dikes, volcanic overflows,
and extinct craters of the region.

The fossils, numbering over thirteen hundred specimens, are from

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 719

rocks of the Carboniferous age, from Cretaceous strata, Nos. 2, 3, and
4, and from overlying beds of the Lignitic group.

From the Carboniferous formation, about seven hundred specimens
were obtained; from the Cretaceo%s, five hundred, illustrating its in-
vertebrate fauna; and from the coal-bearing Lignitic group, resting on
the black shales of Cretaceous stratum No. 4, about two hundred speci-
mens of fossil leaves.

Zoological collections were mainly made by the party operating from
Northern California northward, and illustrate the zoology of the area
extending from Camp Bidwell, California, to the Columbia River, Ore-
gon. To this party Mr. H. W. Henshaw was attached as naturalist.
The collection made comprises upwards of three hundred specimens of
birds, specimens of fishes from most of the lakes and streams encoun-
tered, with Lepidoptera, Orthoptera, and numerous reptiles and Batra-
ehians.

The field season ended early in December. The work of this survey
has now covered, since its commencement in 1859, connected areas
reaching from the Columbia River on the north to the Mexican border,
and from the 100th meridian, near Fort Dodge, to the Pacific Coast, near
Los Angeles, an area now exceeding 350,000 square miles.

The publications during the year are as follows: Vol. II, quarto series,
Astronomy and Barometric Hypsometry ; ‘A Catalogue of 2,018 Stars,
for Latitude Work West of the Mississippi,” and ten of the regular atlas-
sheets. Vol. VI, quarto series, was in stereotype at the close of 1878;
a “List of Distances, Positions, Altitudes,” &e., was well advanced in
printing ; and Vols. I and VII, of the quarto series, awaited the appear-
ance of Vol. VI. Seventeen atlas-sheets, also from work prior to 1878,
are in various stages of progress.

GEOGRAPHICAL AND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE ROCKY MOUNT-
AIN REGION, BY PROF. J. W. POWELL.

The labors of this survey have been continued during 1878. From
the return of the field-parties in the autumn of 1877 till July, 1878, the
entire corps remained in Washington, preparing the results of the field-
work for publication. In July, 1878, a division was sent to the field,
but a force was also retained at Washington to continue the ethno-
graphic work, and to complete and edit certain unfinished reports.

The office-work thus acquired an exceptional importance as compared
with the field-work, which, for the season of 1878, was placed in charge
of Mr. C. K. Gilbert, his principal assistants being Messrs. J. H. Ren-
shaw, O. D. Wheeler, and 8. H. Bodfish.

Taking the field at Gunnison, Utah, in the early part of August, the
work was carried on by four independent parties till the middle of De-
cember, when the adyance of winter made it necessary to disband them.

The Kanab base-line, four and one-third miles long, has been care-

80 APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

fully remeasured, with a probable error of 1.5 inches, as well as the
southern portion of the chain of triangles connecting it with the Gun-
nison base-line. The main change of triangulation, consisting of eight
quadrilaterals, one triangle, and one pentagon, is now ready for diseus-
sion. At each end of the chain a base-line has been measured, and an
astronomical determination has been made of latitude, longitude, and
azimuth. The most southerly points visited were Mount San Francisco
and Mount Floyd, voleanic peaks on the Colorado plateau south of
Grand Caton. Southern Utah is not well adapted for triangulation.
Its principal eminences are table-lands or plateaus covered with timber,
there being very few sharp peaks readily distinguishable from all diree-
tions.

The work of Mr. Renshaw’s party, with plane-table and orograph, em-
braces all of the region lying south of the Grand Cain in sections 105
and 106, covering about 7,500 square miles. This field comprised a
portion of what is known as the Colorado Plateau, a high table-land
lying immediately south of the Colorado River, which there runs west-
wardly at the bottom of a deep chasm. On the southern edge of the
plateau there are innumerable extinct volcanoes, the. ground being
covered by a forest of pine, the most valuable tract of timber in Arizona.
The northern edge is lower, and is bare of timber. Near the Colorado
Canon it is broken by gorges, and is difficult of access, but in other
directions there is little impediment to travel. Water is scarce, and is
found only in pockets and small springs, there being none available for
irrigation. The only wealth of the country lies in timber and grass.
West of the plateau, Mr. Renshaw’s map includes a portion of Hualapai
Valley and the adjacent mountains. This region is almost an absolute
desert, water being so scarce that in some places it is sold by the gallon.
Agriculture is out of the question, and there is no timber. Grazing is
practicable to a limited extent. The only important industry, present or
prospective, is mining, and only the richest of the numerous gold and
silver deposits can now be worked with profit, owing to the remoteness
of all sources of supplies.

Mr. Wheeler worked with plane-table and orograph in the western
half of the region comprised by atlas-sheet No. 106, and estimates his
total area at 5,000 square miles. Through the centre of his district there
runs from north to south a natural barrier called the Echo Cliff. The
escarpment faces westward, and the plateau at the west of it is 1,600
feet lower than that to the eastward. The eastern plateau is a broad
desert of sand, scantily watered, and useful only for grazing purposes.
The western plateau is equally barren and worthless, but presents more
variety of surface. A portion consists of naked “bad lands,” soft strata
carved by the elements into hills of picturesque beauty, and tinted with
a variety of brilliant colors which warrant the title of Painted Desert,
bestowed by Lieutenant Ives. Another portion is extremely rocky, and
divided by a net-work of impassable caiions. Through this region runs

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF*THE SECRETARY. 81

the Little Colorado River, a stream of considerable magnitude, but, on
account of the character of its banks, of no service to agriculture. Hcho
Cliff is interrupted at one point by a cross-line of drainage, and there
are a few springs available for farming. No other spot invites settle-
ment. Maps, on a scale of four miles to one inch, show the geography
of the entire region embraced in the survey of Major Powell; a map
is also under construction intended to represent the distribution of the
various tribes of Indians when first discovered by Europeans.
S. Mis. 59 6

82

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY,

Table showing the number of entries in the record-books of the United States
National Museum at the close of the years 1877 and 1878, respectively.

Class.

ee

TREO EMAS ANG! Eom OMIA SS 6 eo oscoao bocoasddeodd abbas -48e
Fishes

ISIGSS co Se56 Joos sodeos oon obSbon s52060 sedcou soobes Shou soasoces
Crustaceans
Annelids
IVIOMMSIKS\ ahs She cesie cnc see ceeae AS = eae Sooo eos Seaolesas
Radiates

See ee ny

wee ee we wee tee ewe eee ewe = ce ee ee eee wee ee wee eee mee te eee

Total <0 isd Sous Sane ae sew sees sib lees ecto seceee mien

ee ee ee en

1877 1878
12, 838 13, 069
17, 523 76, 666
9, 500 10, 015
20, 864 22, 000
15, 877 16, 165
17, 500 17,791
2, 324 2, 324
100 100
30, 721 31, 268
3, 229 3, 230
7, 906 8, 020
20, 135 20, 135
30, S83 34, 600
245, 400 255, 373
bie eeretici| 9,978

Approximate table of the distribution of duplicate specimens to the end of

1878.
Total to the end of | Distribution during | Total to the end of
1877. 1878. 187.
Class. |
| | |
Species.| Specimens. | Species.) Specimens. Species. Specimens.
|
| | | -
Skeletons and skulls. 536 1, 818 4 60 540 1,878
Mammals.--..--,---| 2, 159 4,810 8 12 | 2,167 4, 822
Bind set sass ctecsiciee collec Os: 41, 866 123 148 | 27,717 | 42,014
Reptilesaaclseeece 2, 135 3, 488 221 | 352 | 2,356 3 840
ishesie set csecceee 6, 140 9, 645 5 6 | 6,145 9, 651
Nests and eggs of |
[DITO Sy = errata a=. cece W689 18, 746 267 604 | 7,906 19, 350
inseCtSi- 25 a= Seceoe 4,209 9, 500 99 241) 4,308 9,741
Crustaceans --....-.. 1,089 2 664 0 0} 1,087 2, 664
SU HST 8 Sp ag EG) 7 196, 443 377 904 | 90,548 | 197, 347
adrabeste oes. etek 593 793" 0 0 593 793
Other marine inver-
GOWEATES) Annes cen.) 1,602 5, 225 0 0] 1,892 | 5, 225
Plants and packages |
ofjseedsihsc 5s s/5: 29, 437 50, 969 506 1,015 | 29, 943 | 51, 934
IR OSsil gies emerree eta 4,361 10, 468 | 30 50 | 4,391 | 10, 518
Minerals and rocks.-| 9,104 16, 868 1 | T\}) 9) 1055 | 16, 839
Ethnological speci-
MENS hoses eset 2, 234 2,681 | 1,389 2,587 | 3, 623 | 5, 268
Diatomaceous earths
(packages) ..----. 428 1, 182 446 446 74 1, 628
Totals eee eon Lo 377, 166 | 3,476 6, 426 |193, 195 383, 592
e |

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 83

ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS, OF THE NATIONAL MU-
SEUM IN 1878.

Akron (Ohio) City Museum. Eighteen species of fresh-water Unios ;
from Ohio.

Albro, Samuel (through Hon. Samuel Powel). Fish (Pseudopriacanthus
altus); from Newport, Rh. I.

Aldrich, Charles. Collections of living snakes, turtles, and frogs; and
specimens of Indian relics; from Iowa.

Alexander, James H. Box of ethnological and mineralogical specimens;
from New York. ‘

Allen, Charles A. Collection of birds’ eggs and nests, and six living
turtles; from California.

Allen, Charles S. Collection of birds’ skins and eggs; from Long Island,
NY.

Allen, George K. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Commis-
sion.)

Anderson, Capt. Chris. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish
Commission.)

Anderson, E. J. Salmon (Salmo salar); from the Delaware River.

Anderson, William. Six stone implements; from Ilinois.

Andrews, Frank D. Hight rade arrow-heads; from New Jersey.

Andrews, F. 8S. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Commission.)

Artes, Charles F. Photographs and drawings of Indian relies, and rel-
ics from mounds in Illinois.

Armistead, E. P. Ball of hair taken from stomach of cow.

Atkins, Charles G. Three boxes of fishes; from Bucksport and Grand
Lake Stream, Maine.

Atkinson, John. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Commis-
sion.)

Babcock, A. L. Six birds’ skins; from Massachusetts.

Babson, Fitz J. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Commis-
sion.)

Babson, Fitz J., jr. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

Babson, Wiliam H. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

Baird, Prof. S. F. Five gudgeons (Hybognathus regius), from Babeock
Lake; three terrapins, from the Susquehanna River.

Baker, Captain. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Commis-
sion.)

Banta, W. V. and J. Garrison. Bones of human skeleton; taken from
Indian mound at Salem, Lowa.

Barber, E. A. Articles of Indian ornament, from Arizona and Utah;
marine animals and Indian stone relics, from New Jersey, Pennsyl-
vania, and Maryland.

84 APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Barker, Dr. S. W. Mud-eel (Siren lacertina); from Charleston, 8. C.

Barth, Henry. Mineral; from Maryland.

Bartlett, A. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Commission.)

Bassett, L. Stone axe; from lowa.

Bates, James. (See Washington, D.C., United States Fish Commission.)

Bausett, William A. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

Bean, Dr. 7. H. Collection of stone implements, from Eastern Penn-
sylvania; collection of frogs, snakes, lizards, and fishes, from Prince
George’s County, Maryland; four specimens of fish, from Norfolk, Va.

Beardsley, Grant. Stag-beetle (Cerphus elephas); from North Carolina.

Beauchamp, Rev. W. M. Five stone implements; from New York.

Beekwith, Harney. (See King’s Mountain Mine.)

Belding, L. Seven boxes of birds’ skins and twelve Indian relics; from
California.

Bell, William. Specimen of iron pyrites; from Virginia.

Bellamy, Frank H. Box of fragmentary erennite stems, from Alabama;
Indian relies, from Alabama and North Carolina.

Bendire, Capt. Charles, U. S. A. Nest and eggs of Passerella townsendii
var. schistacea, and Clark’s crow, also box of birds’ skins; from Oregon.

Benner, D. B. Squeezed copy of rock inscription and Indian relies;
from Virginia.

Berlin, A. F. Collections of stone implements; from Reading, Pa.

Bernays, Lewis A. Photographs of mummies found in forks of trees,
Queensland, Australia.

Berry, Henry. Steel dagger used by Wisconsin Indians.

Biddle, Henry J. Box of relics exhumed from mound in Florida.

Bigelow, O. Stone implement; from New York.

Blackburn, Capt.,Wiliam. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish
Commission.)

Biackford, BH. G. Many specimens of fish (salmon, cod, trout, shad, &c.),
brought to Fulton Market, New York, from various parts of the United
States.

Blackly, C. P. Mounted specimen of American eared grebe (Podiceps
auritus var. californicus) ; from Kansas.

Blake, Capt. J. G., U.S. R. M. Specimen of Remora; from Rhode Island.

Bland, Thomas. Specimens of shells (Bulimus, Pagurus, and Lignus) ;
from Tobago and Gonaive Islands.

Blatchford, Capt. B. F. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish
Commission.)

Boardman, George A. Specimens of spotted ury-mouth (Cryptacanthodes
maculatus) and stickleback (Gasterosteus biaculeatus); from Calais,
Maine.

Boehmer, George H. Collection of “ fossil-casts,” from Maryland ; speci-
men of itacolumite, from North Carolina.

Bomar, Thomas H. Snakes (Ophibolus getulus, Crotalus miliaris) and
arrow-heads; from South Carolina.

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 85

Boston, Mrs. C. B. Box of shells; from Ilinois.

Brace, Lewis J. K. Box of birds from the Bahama Islands. (Received
in 1877.)

Brackett, Col. A. G., U. S. A. Head of eel-pout, from Little Big Horn
tiver, Montana; specimen of field-mouse (Arvicola), from Montana.

Brady, Samuel. Copper spear and barrel of stone mining-hammers;
from Michigan.

Braner, William. Collection of copper and flint arrow-heads; from Wis-
cousin.

Brazier, Benjamin S. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

Breed, H. H. Nest of “‘carpenter-bee.”

Braion, Fred. Specimens of arrow-heads, &c.; from West Virginia and
Indiana.

Brewer, Dr. T. M. Egg of Clarke’s crow.

Brewster, William. Five skins of Sitta pusilla.

Briggs, Captain. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission. )

Brisbane. (See Queensland.)

Britt, Thomas A. Collection of Florida shells.

Brock, R. A. Cocoons of Cecropia silk-work ; from Virginia.

Brodnax, Benjamin H., M. D. <A fine collection of stone axes, spear
and arrow heads, hematite plummets, &e.; from Louisiana.

Brown, Dr. J. J. Specimen of coral (Diploaria cerebriformis) ; from
Nassau, N. P.

Brown, Stephen S. Sample of “ Nicaragua” wheat; from Waco, Texas.

Brown, William. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

Bryan, Oliver N. Box of rude stone implements ; from Maryland.

Burbank, Martin. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

Burger, Peter. Carolina rail (Porzana carolinensis); from Virginia.

Burke, Henry E. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Commis-
sion.)

Burnes, B. J. Specimen of samarskite ; from Alabama.

Burns, Thomas. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Commis-
sion.)

Bullock, Theron. Copper nodule; from Wisconsin.

Butler, Isaac. (See Washington, D.C., United States Fish Commission.)

Cadle, C. Indian pipe of micaceous sandstone; from the east shore of
Mobile Bay, Alabama.

Calderwood, Capt. M. W. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish
Commission.)

Cambridge, Mass., Botanic Garden of Harvard University, C. S. Sargent,
Director. Seeds and plants of aquatic plants (Vymphea tuberosa,
Rumer hydrolapatum, &e.).

86 APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Cambridge, Mass., Museum of Comparative Zoology. Box of birds’ skins,
box of alcoholic specimens of general natural history, and specime
of menhaden (Brevoortia aurea).

Campbell, J. B. Specimens of reptiles, turtles, and batrachians; from
Towa.

Campbell, Kent. Nest and eggs of wood pewee (Contopus virens) ; from
Ohio.

Capehart, Dr. W.R. Specimens of shad and herring; from Avoca,N. C.

Capron, John. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Commis-
sion.)

Capron, General Horace. Two dressed figures representing the noble
class of Japan. (Purchased.)

Chappell & Storer (through B. G. Blackford). Warge number of Trachu-
rops crumenophthalnus.

Carlsen, Arnold. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

Carritt, William. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

Carroll, Capt. Daniel. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish
Commission. )

Case, Thomas 8S. Specimen of Lota maculosa; from Missouri.

Cavener, Nicholas. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

Chester, H. C. Jar of fishes, from the Potomac River; model of cod-
fish hatching apparatus.

Chicago Academy of Science. Collection of shells; from Florida.

Childs, Edward R. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

Churchill, R. O. Malformed robin (Turdus migratorius); from New
Work,

Clark, Benjamin. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

Clark, Frank N. Water-snake ; from Spesutia Island, Maryland.

Clark, Samuel C. “ Mule-killer” (Thelyphonus gigantens), from Florida ;
arrow-heads and fragmentary pottery, from Georgia,

Clarke, Prof. F. L. Box of ethnological and natural-history specimens;
from Hawaii.

Jlarke, J. H. Box of fossils (fishes, &c.); from Connecticut.

Clarke, Dr. W. M. Mica arrow-head and shell; from mound in Ten-
nessee.

linton, Capt. George T. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish
Commission.) .

Coast Wrecking Company, New York (through W. R. T. Jones). Speci-
men of marble bored by sponge (Cliona); taken from the wreck of
the steamer Grecian off Long Island.

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 87

Colby, Charles. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Commis-
mission.)

Cole, J. R. Iron pyrites; from Texas.

Collins, Capt. Joseph W. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish
Comunission.)

Collins, William. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Commis-
sion.)

Compton, J. W. WLarvee of Helophilas anax; from North Carolina.

Conley, John. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Commis-
sion.)

Conrad, LZ. Specimen of mineral; from Ohio.

Cook, Caleb. Two bottles of fish-oil.

Cook, D. S. Stone sinker and axe; from Pennsylvania.

Cooper, William A. Skin of Ptychorhamphus aleuticus ; from Santa
Cruz, Cal.

Cope, Prof. E. D. Two living lizards (Crotaphytus collaris) ; from Texas.

Coster, John. Small stone axe; from Wisconsin.

Crawford, General S. W. Box of geological specimens and birds; from
Iceland.

Cressy, Charles O. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission. )

Crittenden, A. R. Three boxes of Indian relics; from the New England
States.

Crooke, John J., New York, N. Y. Twenty-five pounds of pure tin.

Cunningham & Thompson. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish
Commission.)

Ourle, Dr. T. J. Hair-worm (Gordius); from Kentucky.

Curtis, Captain. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Commis-
sion.)

Cushing, Frank H. Collections of rude potstone vessels, from Virginia
and District of Columbia; living reptiles, from Virginia.

Cuvier Club, Cincinnati, Ohio. Collection of bird-skins, from Indiana,
Ohio, and Florida.

Dall, W. H. Four specimens illustrative of the economic application of
shells; two marine shells from Japan; two land shells from Germany.

Dalrymple, Dr. Specimens of Indian pottery; from Maryland.

Danforth, John. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Commis-
sion.)

Davis, Mrs. Abby L. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

Davis, Capt. Alfred B., U. S. R. M. Specimen of coral; from the Dry
Tortugas, Florida.

Davis, Henry. Samples of soil and wood; from McGregor, Indiana.

Davis, Joshua. Indian chunky-stone; from District of Columbia.

Davis, I. Specimen of iron ore; from Missouri.

Davis, M. C. Specimen of iron ore; from Harper’s Ferry.

88 APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Davis, Mrs. Mary BE. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

Dau, Thomas, Keeper of Sequin Light, Maine. Three fish-hooks.

De Hart, J. N. Box of Indian bones and relics; from mound in Tli-
nois.

Dempsey, Capt. William. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish
Commission.)

Dennis, George k. Box of sea-weed and Trichiurus lepturus ; from Mary-
land.

Denton, Shelley W. Eggs of burrowing owl; from Fort Collins, Colo-
rado.

Devan, James. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Commis-
sion.)

Devoe, Capt. Luke. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

Dexter, Newton. Eggs of Pheton flavicauda ; from Bermuda.

Dixon, Bugene F. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

Dixon, Capt. Geo. W. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

Doran, Thomas S. Specimens of turtles and fish; from Montgomery,
Ala.

Douglas, W. T. Insect; from Catlett’s, Va.

Douglass, John. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Commis-
sion.)

Douglass, Robert, 2d. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

Driggs, John W. Collection of birds’ skins; from Florida.

Driscoll, Daniel. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Commis-
sion.)

Duffield, U. S. G. Malformed eggs of common hen.

Duges, Dr. Don Alfredo. Box of natural history specimens ; from Guana-
juato, Mexico.

Dulaney, John. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Commis-
sion.)

Duncan, Capt. J. F. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

Harle, T. L. Small box of minerals; from North Carolina.

Edwards, Vinal N. Eleven boxes of fishes collected in Vineyard Sound,
Massachusetts.

Eggert, H. Your living turtles; from Missouri.

Ellis, Albert N. Specimens of snakes; from Florida.

Ellis, J. B. Collection of North American fungi.

Hspersen, Henry, Surveyor-General of Dakota. Two packages of minerals ;
from Dakota.

Iitzel, C. Stone axe; from Wisconsin.

oe

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 89

Hvans, Samuel B. Four stone implements, from Iowa; casts of stone
axe and pipe from Kansas.

Evans, W. W. A large collection of pottery, silver and copper idols,
bronze implement, and egg of emu; from Peru. Also, 27 sheets of
photographs of Peruvian antiquities.

Ferguson, Mr. (through O. C. Treadway). Specimens of minerals; from
Big Sioux River, Iowa.

Finsch, Dr. Otto. Twelve species of Siberian fishes.

Firth, Wiliam A. Three samples of diatomaceous earths; from Treland.

Flanagan, A. H, Collection of stone implements and pottery, and human
and animal bones; from a mound in Virginia.

Flint, Dr. Earl. Two boxes of fossils and alcoholic specimens; two
boxes ethnological specimens ; from Nicaragua.

Floyd, Joseph D. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

Fox, F. N. (through Rev. J. J. McCook). Rough stone axe-head, frag-
ment of celt, and fragment of pottery ; from Niantic, Conn.

Foster, Mrs. Abner. Box of stone implements; from Illinois.

France, Museum of Natural History. Collection of fishes from the Medi-
terranean Sea and rivers of France.

Frazer, Charles. Pottery figure; from Botica, Puerto Plata.

French, S. Levin. Four boxes of “American sardines.”

Friend, Sidney. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Commis-
sion.)

Gaffney, William M. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

Gaines, A. S., and K. M. Cunningham. Terra-cotta mask; from vicinity
of Mobile, Ala. |

Galbraith, F.G. Four boxes of stone implements, collection of aleoholie
fishes, insects, &c., and a small living alligator; from Eastern Penn-
sylvania..

Garret, W. M. Pottery fragments, spear-head, and quartz erystal; from
Alabama.

Gates, D. C. (through Rev. J. J. McCook). Stone chisel; from Niantic,

Conn.
Gatschet, A. S. Samples of the food of the Klamath Indians of Oregon.

Gere, J. FE. Collection of copper knives, spear and arrow heads, masses
of native copper and flint arrow-heads, stone axes, &e.; from Wiscon-
sin.

Germany, Berlin Museum, Dr. EL. von Martin. Nine species of shells.

Gerrard, Edward, Jr. Sixteen mounted specimens of English quail,
woodcock, and snipe. (Purehased.)

Gessner, William. Collection of Indian arrow-heads, &c.; from Ala-
bama.

Getchell, Capt. John Q. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish
Commission.)

90 APPENDIX ‘TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Gibbs, George J. Collection of ethnologica; from Grand Turk, West
Indies.

Gibbs, J. D. Three malformed feet of pig.

Gilbert, Rev. C. A. Collection of shells, insects, fossils, &e. ; from Florida.

Ginnevan, Thomas, and Philip Merchant. (See Washington, D.C., United
States Commission.) |

Githens, W. H. Box of shells and casts of Indian relics; from Illinois.

Godding, Dr. W. W. Specimen in flesh of bear (Ursus americanus).

Goff, George P. “Sea-dollar”; from Galveston, Tex.

Goode, Ff. C. Collection of living snakes; from Florida.

Goode, G. Brown. Tank of alcoholic fishes and three boxes living snakes -
and turtles, from Florida; box of fishes, corals, &e., from Charleston,
S. C.; three cans alcoholic fishes, from Bermuda. Also, fresh speci-
mens of shad, from the St. John’s River, Florida.

Goodrich, Wilbur I. Specimens of fungi; from Massachusetts.

Goodwin, Thomas. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

Gore, H. Specimen of ore; from Pennsylvania.

Gorton, Slade & Co. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

Goslin, Capt. Joseph. (See Washington, D. C., United States ish Com-
mission.)

Goss, N.S. Skin of Parus atricapillus ; from Wisconsin.

Gourville, Capt. John. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish
Comission.)

Green, F. C. Box of stone implements and collection of minerals; from
Wisconsin.

Green, Dr. Samuel A. Cast of Indian vot found at Canterbury, N. H.

Greenleaf, Capt. William H. (See Washington, D. C., United States
Fish Commission.)

Grifith, William. Two roe-shad; from the Ohio River.

Griiber, Ferdinand. Two living turtles (Ohelopus marmoratus); from
California.

Gunnan, Miss Bessie C. Seale of tarpum (Megalops thrissoides); from
near Norfolk, Va.

Hallock, Charles. Specimen of Coregonus quadrilateralis ; from Michigan.

Hamlen, Capt. Peter. (See Washington, D. ©., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

Hardenburgh, A. R., United States Surveyor-General, California. Collee-
tion of the ores of various mines in California.

Harker, O. H. Collection of minerals; from Colorado.

Harris, R. S. Specimen of itacolumite ; from North Carolina.

Hartsfield, John M, Skink snake, from North Carolina; and eggs of
white-eyed flycatcher, from Delaware.

Harvey, Edward. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

~~

-

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. ot

Harvey, Rev. M. Alcoholic specimens of capelin; from Newfoundland.

Haskell, Samuel. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Commis-
sion.)

Haskin, S. D. Flint arrow-head ; from Tennessee.

Hawkins, Capt. James. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish
Commission.)

Hawkins, Capt. Z. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

Havneus, ———, Stockholm, Sweden. Series of manufactured fire-bricks.

Hayward, F. W. Box of rice plants, tank of alcoholic fishes, reptiles,
&e., living specimens of mud-puppy (Siren lacertina), and living snap-
ping-turtles ; from South Carolina.

Haywood, W. P. Two red ants; from New Jersey.

Helper, H. R. (through George Hillier). Saw of sawfish (Pristis anti-
quorum).

Hemphill, Henry. Collection of land and fresh-water shells, from Utah;
collection of shells and fossils, from California.

Hempstead, Elias. Box of ethnological specimens; from Santa Rosa
Island, Ficrida.

Henderson, Judge J. G. Box of ethnological specimens; from Illinois.

Henderson, Mr. (through Dr. H, B. Noble). Slate carving; from the
Northwest coast of America.

Hendricks, Lindsley. Mineral; from Texas.

Henshaw, H. W. Living turtle (Cistudo clausa clausa) and nest and
eges of Seiurus aurocapillus and Turdus mustelinus ; from Washington,
12-Cz

Hering, Dr. C. J. Collection of alcoholic mammals, reptiles, insects,
&¢c.; from Surinam. “

Herring, Richard. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

Hessel, Rudolph. Two specimens of snake (Tropidonotus sipedon) ; from
Baltimore, Md.; and one of Hyla arborea, from Germany.

Hewitt, Isaac L. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Commis-
sion.)

Highie, A. B., @ Co. Specimen of Tetrodon levigatus; from off Cape
Henlopen.

Higgins & Gifford. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

Hiilier, Fred. (See Washington, D.C., United States Fish Commission.)
Hirst, F. Specimens of amblystoma and larve and fishes (Potamocottus),
from Utah; and fishes (Potamocottus, Catostomus), from Wyoming.

Hitchcock, Prof. E. Casts of Indian vessels.

Hitchcock, George N. Specimens of living turtles; from California.

Hitt, Dr. D. F. Box of fossil plants; from Illinois.

Hodgdon, Capt. T. F. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

92 APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Hodgkins, Edward W. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish
Commission.)

Holbrook, W. C. Flint arrow-head, stalagmite, fossil shell and bone of
human foot; from Ilinois.

Hollenbush, H. W. Box of minerals; from Pennsylvania.

Homans, Capt. Charles A. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish
Commission.)

Horan, Henry. Turtle (Chelopus guttatus); from Washington D. C.

Horod, C. H. Two fossil teeth of horse.

Hough, Dr. F. B. Cast of tusk of fossil elephant, found near Copen-
hagen, N. Y.

Hoy, Geo. W. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Commission.)

Hoy, R. Rk. Snake (Coluber) and turtles (Chrysemys); from Michigan.

Hubregtse, A. Three arrow-heads.

Hudson, J. M. Pharyngeal teeth of sheeps-head.

Hughes, W. N. Specimen of fossil coral; from Tennessee.

Hunt, Henry C. Four articles of native dress; from Peru and Bolivia.

Hunt, Capt. H. W. Samples of cordage and duck manufactured by the
Russian Government.

Hurlbert, Capt. k. H. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish
Commission.)

Huss, Oscar E. Specimens of woods, teas, and ethnologica; from Uru-
guay, Paraguay, Chile, and Argentine Republic.

Hutchinson, Dr. Edwin. Four small terra-cotta masks; from near San
Juan de Teotihuacan, Mexico.

Illinois State Laboratory. Living turtle.

India, Kurrachee Municipal Library and Museum, James A. Murray,
Curator. Collection of skins, heads and skulls of East Indian mam-
mals.

Ingersoll, T. Dwight. Specimens of shells; from Lake Erie.

Trion, Dr. I. L. Spear-head and skull of alligator; from Texas.

Irwin, Alexander H. Sample of polished fossiliferous stone.

_ Jackson, Dr. E. EB. Specimens of turtles, salamanders, and fishes; from
South Carolina.

James, Dr. Frank L. Collection of pottery and stone implements; from
Arkansas.

Jameson, John S. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Commis-
sion.)

Jefferson, Lieut. J. P., U. S. A. Specimen of Aulostoma colorata; from
the Dry Tortugas, Florida.

Jellow, John H. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Commis-
sion.)

Jenison, O. A. Collection of stone axes, knives, fleshers, &c.; from
Michigan.

Jenks, J. W. P. Lot of stone hammers found in old steatite quarry near
Providence, R. I.

\

a

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 93

Jenner, David. Copper spear-head ; from Wisconsin.

Jewett, Thomas. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Commis-

sion.)

Johnson, Capt. George A. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish
Commission.)

Johnson, Capt. Peter. (See Washington, D.C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

Jchnson, Mr. (through J. E. Gere). Copper nodule; from Wisconsin.

Kaucher, William. Samples of fire-clay ; from Wisconsin.

Kearney, William. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

Keep, Josiah. Package of diatomaceous earth, from Massachusetts ;
alcoholic specimens of Cerithidea sacrata, from Lake Merritt, Cali-
fornia.

Keithley, Mrs. B. (through Rev. F. B. Scheetz). Large stone celt; from
Missouri.

Keller, John. Stone axe; from Missouri.

Kervey, H. F. Specimens of skins, nests, and eggs of birds, mammals,
minerals, and Indian relics; from Maryland and Pennsylvania.

Kilpatrick, Capt. Briggs. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish
Commission.)

King, James. Three malformed eggs of domestic hen.

King, Larkin. Mineral; from Texas.

King, W. A. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Commission.)

King’s Mountain Mine, North Carolina, Harney Beckwith, President. Ma-
chinery used in extracting gold at, and a series of the ores of, the
King’s Mountain Mine.

Kippen, John. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Commis-
sion.)

Klotz, H. H. Wiving iguana; from Navassa, W. I.

Knowles, Mr. Dried sound of hake.

Kocher, J. F. Three foetal flying squirrels (Pteromys volucella); from
Pennsylvania.

Kollmann, Dr. Collection of crania of the natives of Hungary, Austria,
and Bavaria.

Kumlien, Ludwig. Skin, nest, and eggs of Zonotrichia coronata; from
Shasta, California. Also 24 boxes of general natural history and eth-
nological collections; from Cumberland Island and Greenland.

Lake, C. W. Block of black-ash; from Michigan.

Lakeman, J. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Commission.)

Lamson, J. S., & Brother. Arrow-head and earth; from ancient grave
in Chiriqui, Central America.

Langdon, Frank W. Collection of birds’ skins and ethnological speci-
mens; from Ohio.

Larkin, John. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Commis-
sion.)

94 APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Lauermann, Peter. Collection of flint arrow-heads, copper knife, two
darts, and nodule; from Wisconsin.

Lawrence, J. J. Insect; from Beresford, Florida.

Lawson, James. Specimen of asbestos; from Alabama.

I? Acee, M. S. Specimen of cale-spar; from Texas.

Le Blane, Simon. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Commis-
sion.)

Leonard, William. Specimen of ore; from Pennsylvania.

Leslie, C. C. Many fresh specimens of fish from Charleston, S. C., mar-
kets.

Lettermann, George W. Shell of periwinkle.

Lewis, James. Two boxes of living snails (Vivipara contectoides); from
Mohawk, N. Y.

Lewis, W. H. Cast of canoe-shaped object, from Seneca Lake, New
York; and box of minerals, from Westchester County, New York.

Lieber, H. Quartz pebble with adherent mica.

Lloyd, J. D. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Commission.)

Locke, W. M. ‘Two boxes of stone implements; from Ohio and Western
New York.

Lovett, Dr. A. A. Specimen of petrified coral; from Indiana.

Low, Maj. D. W., Postmaster, Gloucester, Mass. Collection of fossilifer-
our rocks; from George’s Banks.

Lowe, Francis A. Specimens of copper and silver ores and amethyst;
from the north shore of Lake Superior.

Lundberg, John A. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

LTytte, A. E. Thirty-two specimens of cisco (Argyrosomus) ; from Geneva
Lake, Wisconsin.

McBride, Sara J. Twelve samples of artificial trout-flies.

McClelland, Dr. M. A. Collection of stone implements; from Illinois.

McCollum, George. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

McCook, Rev. J. J. Two human ecrania and box of Indian relies; from
Niantic, Conn.

McCormick, HE. G. Stone image (head); from Missouri.

McCown, General J. P. Box of ethnological and natural history speci-
mens; from Arkansas.

McDonald, Duncan. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.) i

MeDonald, James and John D. (See Washington, D. C., United States
Fisk Commission.)

McDonald, Capt. Jerome. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish
Commission.)

McDonald, Marshall. Specimen of Dufrénite ; from Virginia.

McDonald, Capt. Matthew. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish
Commission.)

/

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 95

McDonald, Miies. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Commis-
sion.)

McDonald, Capt. William. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish
Commission.)

McEachern, Daniel. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
MISSi0N.)

McHlderry, Dr. Henry, U. S.A. Package of marine diatoms; from Fort
Monroe, Va.

McEntire, Daniel. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

McGinnis, Captain. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

McGuire, J. C. Wot of fragmentary steatite vessels; from Grimes Place,
Md.

MeGuire, J. D.- Three polished-stone arrow-heads; from Howard County,
Maryland.

McInnis, L. L. Chrysalis of moth; from Texas.

Mekinley, William. Stone tube; from Georgia.

Mekinnon, Capt. D. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

McKinnon, Capt. John. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish
Commission.)

McNeill, J. A. (through J. 8. Lamson & Co.). Nest and eggs of tinamoo;
from Chiriqui, U. S. of Colombia.

McPhee, Capt. N. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Commis-
sion.)

McQuinn, Michael. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

McQuinn, Edward. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

Madden, Henry F. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

Maggs, P. F. Moth; from Indiana.

Mansfield, James, & Sons. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish
Commission.)

Martin, Capt. George H. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish
Commission. )

Martin, S.J. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Commission.)

Marshall, Henry. Living snake (Heterodon) ; from Maryland.

Mason, Prof. O. T. Nest of meadow-lark (Sturnella magna).

Mason, Peter. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Commis-
sion.)

Mason, Hon. Roswell H., U. 8S. Surveyor-General, Montana. A large col-
lection of minerals from various mines in Montana.

Masterson, Thomas. Glass and shell beads and fragments of Indian pipes;
from Western Pennsylvania.

96 APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Mather, Pred. 'Twocrustaceans.

Matteson, F. S. Bat (Vespertilio pruinosus) ; from Oregon.

Matthews, Dr. Edward, U. S. N. Jar of fishes, reptiles, and inverte-
brates ; from Santo Domingo.

Mauler, Hugene. Samples of diatomaceous earths ; from Italy, Jutland,
and Bohemia.

Maw, Richard (through Anderson Merchant & Co., New York). Collee-
tion of tiles, pottery, and majolica, exhibited at the Permanent Exhibi-
tion, Philadelphia, Pa.

Meek, James. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Commis-
sion.)

Meigs, General M. C., U. S. A. Indian pipe of catlinite.

Menezer, Joseph. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Commis-
sion.)

Mercer, RK. W. Collection of stone axes, arrow-heads, &c.; from
Ohio.

Merchant, George J. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission. )

Merchant, Philip. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Commis-
sion.)

Merrill, Dr. J. C., U. S. A. Box of mammal and bird skins; from
Texas.

Mexico, National Museum of, G. Mendoza, Director. A valuable collection
of ancient Mexican pottery and stone relics.

Middleton, Carman & Co., New York. 'Two shad (Alosa sapidissima).

Middletown, Conn., Museum of Wesleyan College. A collection of fishes
from Bermuda and one of reptiles from the New England States.

Miller, J. D. Rattlesnake (Crotalus) ; from New York.

Miller, Thomas I, Specimen of iron ore; from West Virginia.

Milner, J. W. Shells ( Viripara georgiana), from Lake Monroe, Florida ;
salmon (Salmo salar), from Chesapeake Bay, Maryland; box of living
salamanders (Plethodon glutinosus), from Albemarle Sound, North Car-
olina.

Mitchell, B. Specimens of ethnologica ; from Mlinois.

Mitchell, G. M. Specimen of “ Quillback” (Carpiodes sp.); from Tli-
nois.

Mitchell, Mr. (through Hon. George Williamson, United States Minister to
Central America). Foetal shovel-nosed shark from Acajutla, Sal-
vador.

Mobius, Prof. Karl. Collection of mollusea ; from Germany.

Mohr, C. Box of ethnological specimens ; from Alabama.

Moody, H. A. Specimen of kaolin ; from Mississippi.

Moore, Mr. H. C. (See Washington, D. © , United States Fish Commis-
sion.)

Moore. (See, Porter, Dr: J. ¥.. U./S) As)

Morris, A. P., Jr. Skull of possum (Didelphys virginianus.)

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. a

Morris, Edward S., & Co. Package of seeds of Liberian coffee plant.

Morrisey, Capt. Daniel C. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish
Commission.)

Morrisey, James D. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

Morrison, Capt. Rk. N. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish
Commission. )

Morse, Prof. E. S. Collection of ethnologica, fishes and two rodents ;
from Japan.

Morsfelder, George. Copper spear-head ; from Wisconsin.

Mortimer, Capt. J. H. Collection of dried marine animals; from the
equatorial Pacific.

Motaia Iron and Steel Manufacturing Company, Sweden. Collection of
manufactured steel and iron, being their exhibit at the International
Exhibition, 1876, at Philadelphia, Pa.

Munroe, Prof. Charles, E., U. S. N. Box of eocene tertiary fossils ; from
South River, Md.

Murphy, J. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Commission.)

Murphy, Michael J. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

Murphy, Capt. Nicholas. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish
Commission.)

Murray, David. Living turtle; from Ellaville, Fla.

Mynster, Wiliam A. Two salmon; from Lowa.

Nelson, E. W., Signal Service, U. S. A. Nineteen boxes of general nat-
ural history and ethnological specimens; from Saint Michaels, Alaska.

Nevins, Rev. k. D. Upper jaw of Hypsifario Kennerlyi; from Oregon.

New Jersey, College of Princeton, N. J. Plaster casts of stone imple-
ments.

New Zealand, Auckland Museum, T. F. Cheeseman, Curator. Twenty-one
erania of the Maori.

Newberry, Dr. J. S. Specimens of silicified wood; from California and
Antigua, W. I.

Newlon, W. S. Specimens of Productus punctatus; from Kansas.

Newman, William P. Bone of turtle; from mound in Alabama.

Nesbit, John. Specimen of phosphatic rock; from Georgia.

Noble, Dr. H. B. Carved duck-shaped stone; from Northwest coast.

Nolan, Joseph. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

Norris, J. E. Specimen of ore from the Gila mine, Nevada.

Norris, P. W., Superintendent of Yellowstone National Park Collection
of minerals, pottery, and stone implements.

Norton, Dr. (through Rev. F. B. Scheetz). Specimens of aboriginal stone
implements ; from Missouri.

Norway, W. H. Specimens of invertebrate fossils; from California.

S. Mis. 59 7

98 APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

_ Nott, W. R. (through Rev. F. B. Scheetz). Perforated tablet; from Mis-
souri.

Nye, Willard, jr. Specimens of Gasterosteus biaculeatus ; from New Bed-
ford, Mass.

Ober, F. A. Seven boxes of general natural history and ethnological
specimens; from various islands of the West Indies.

Olmsted, E. B. Box of stone implements; from Hlinois.

Olsen, Captain. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Commis-
sion.)

Orme, William & Sons. Large living spider.

Osborne, L. C. Two oval hornstone disks; from Tllinois.

Osgood, F. Storey. Two specimens of mineral; from Massachusetts.

Otis, Dr. George A. Two living iguanas; from Navassa, West Indies.

Palmer, Joseph. Mounted head of Virginia deer and specimen of snake
(Ophibolus doliatus) ; from Virginia.

Palmer, William. Wiving snake (Tropidonotus sipedon); from Virginia.

Parsons, John. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Commis-
sion.)

Parsons, William. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

Peacock, J. 8. Jaw of shark (Hulemia Milberti.)

Pearce, F. A. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Commis-
sion.)

Pease, A. P. L. Stone mortar; from Ohio.

Pease, W. B. Insect; from New Mexico.

Peel, J. R. Specimen of mineral; from Texas.

Pendleton, A. G., Deputy Surveyor, Arizona. Specimens of gold, silver,
and copper ores; from Arizona.

Pensacola Ice Company, Florida. Many fresh specimens of fish taken in
the vicinity of Pensacola, Fla.

Pergande, Theodore. Stone axe; from Missouri.

Peterson, Martin, and Dennis Theleueng. (See Washington, D. C., United
States Fish Commission.)

Peterson, M. R. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Commis-
sion.)

Pettibone, William. Taylor-shad (Dorysoma cepedianum) ; from the Poto-
mae River.

Pettingill & Cunningham. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish
Commission.)

Pfeil, John. Two fossils and two copper spear-heads; from Wisconsin.

Philadelphia, Zoological Society of, A. E. Brown, Superintendent. Speci-
men in flesh of Barbary Wild Sheep (Ovis tragelaphus.)

Phillips, D. A. Box of remains from Indian tumuli in Pennsylvania.

Phillips, J. P. Speeimens of smelt; from Hancock County, Maine.

Pengry, John T. Tarpum (Megalops thrissoides); from Long Branch,
N. J.

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OFTHE SECRETARY. 99

Poey, Prof. Felipe. Collection of turtles and fishes stuffed and dried;
from Cuba.

Polsen, Alfred. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Commis-
sion.)

Porter, H. H. Specimens of artificially raised lake-, brook-, and salmon-
trout.

Porter, Dr. J. ¥.. U. 8S. A., and Mr. Moore, Keeper of Loggerhead Light,
Florida. Collection of fishes; from the Dry Tortugas, Florida.

Potter, Thomas. Specimens of clay from 60 fathoms deep in Long Island
Sound.

Powel, Hon. Samuel. Collection of marine fishes; from Newport, R. I.

Preston, D. A. Box of lead and zine ores; from Joplin, Mo.

Princeton, N. J., College of New Jersey. Casts of stone implements.

Pringle, 0. M. Specimens of mineral; from Oregon.

Purman, D. Gray. Specimens of lead and zine ores.

Putnam, Thomas J. Two “fool-fish” (Pleuronectes glaber); from Salem,
Mass.

Queensland Acclimatization Society, Australia, Lewis A. Bernays, Vice-
President. Sponge gemmules from river in Western Australia.

Quinlion, J. W. Teeth of fossil elephant, horse, and shark; from Bull
River, South Carolina.

Radcliffe, Wiliam H. (See Washington, D.C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

Randle, Prof. E. H. Box of stone relics and minerals; from Kentucky.

Rau, Charles. Cast of ceremonial spear-head, from Saint Clair County,
Illinois ; and bat ( Vespertilio), from Washington, D. C.

teed, M. C. Specimen of shell conglomerate; from Ohio. |

Reed, Thomas. Living iguana; from Navassa, West Indies.

Reid, A.J. Specimens of fish (Notemigonus chrysoleucus); from the Fox
River, Wisconsin.

Reynolds, A. M. Specimens of minerals.

Reynolds, Elmer Rk. Two boxes of fossils, fragmentary pottery, and
arrow-heads; from Virginia.

Reynolds, J. H. Collection of stone relics and pottery ; from West Vir-
ginia.

Rhodes, B. V. Large bug; from Indiana.

Rich, Capt. A. F., Boston, Mass. (See Washington, D.C., United States
Fish Commission.)

Richmond, A. G. Cast of Indian stone ornament.

Ridgway, Robert. Four boxes of general natural-history specimens ;
principally from Illinois.

Riley, William. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

Roach, David. (See Washington, D.C., United States Fish Commission.)

Robbins, Elisha. String of cells of periwinkle.

100 APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Roberts, N. H. Four living turtles (Cistudo); from Fairfax County,
Illinois.

Roessler, A. R. Specimens of jasper; from North Carolina.

Rogers, Samples of various kinds of fish-glue.

Romig, Rev. B. Two boxes of shells, fossils, and woods; from Antigua,
West Indies.

Ronex, W.J. Tail of milk-snake (Coluber eximius).

Roop, C. Five small arrow-heads; from Oregon.

Ross, A. C. Three boxes of Indian stone relics; from Ohio.

Rosser, B. R. (through Rev. F. B. Scheetz). Part of flint ceremonial im-
plement; from Missouri.

Rowe, George T. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

Rowe, Capt. John. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

Rowe, Timothy S. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

Rust, Miss Carrie A. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

Rust, H. N. Cast of Franklin on Ring cent of the United States, 1787.

Rust, John R. Double-headed lamb.

Russia. Herbarium of Botanic Gardens, St. Petersburg, C. J. Maximowiez,
Director. Over two hundred species of Japanese plants.

Ruth, Dr. M. L., U. S. N. Collection of alcoholic reptiles and fishes;
from the Madeira River, Brazil.

Sale, C.J. Beetle; from Virginia.

Sammis, Col. J. S. Specimen of living snake (Abastor erythrogrammus) ;
from Florida.

Sandvik Iron and Steel Works, Sweden. Collection of manufactured iron
and steel, being their exhibit at the International Exhibition, 1876, at
Philadelphia.

Sanford, H. G. Fossiliferous boulder; from George’s Banks.

Sargent, Senator A. A. Box of fossils; from California.

Saunders, Howard. Yive skins of gulls and terns; from Europe.

Savage, Joseph. Box of invertebrate fossils ; from Kansas.

Sayler, Marcus. Collection of Indian stone implements; from Ohio and
Illinois.

Sayward, E. P., jr. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

Schanno, Joseph. Sample of fir-sugar; from Washington Territory.

Schneck, Dr. J... A large collection of living turtles and terrapins, and
a box of water-plants; from [linois.

Scott, George W. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

Scupham, J. R. Small reptile; from Kern County, California.

Sells, P. R. Box of stone implements and pottery; from Georgia.

664 ee rr

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 101

Sennett, George B. A collection of bird-skins ; from Fort Brown, Texas.

Serviss, i. F. Box of ethnological specimens; from Kansas.

Shelby, D. Parasphenoid bone of alligator-gar.

Shemelin, Joseph P. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

Shemelin, James C. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-

' mission.)

Shindler, A. Z., and George H. Boehmer. Large stone axe; from Vir-
ginia.

Sibley, H. F. Specimens of stone implements; from Hlinois.

Silva-Terra, Anton. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

Simons, Capt. A. (See Washington, D.C., United States Fish Commis-
sion.)

Singleton, John. Copper chisel; from Illinois.

Small, George. Specimens of alewives; from Bucksport, Me.

Small, 2. £. Specimen of “spinous shark” (Hchinorhinus spinosus) ;
from Provincetown, Mass.

Smith & Cakes. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Commis-
sion.)

Smith, Douglas B. Specimens of shells and beads; from Evanston, M1.

Smith, Jacob. Skin of Wilson’s phalarope (Phalaropus wilsonii); from
Manitoba.

Smith, James A. Series of manufactured clay tobacco-pipes.

Smith, Prof. H. L. Four alewives (Pomolobus vernalis); from Geneva,
er Ys

Smith, John L. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Commis-
sion.)

Smith and Oakes. Specimen of yellow cod (Gadus morrhua); from
Gloucester, Mass.

Snyder, T. W. Five invertebrate fossils; from Illinois.

Sorensen, John P. Specimen of ore; from Utah.

Southwick, J. M. K. Two samples of codfish-hooks.

Soutter, August. Case of mounted birds and photographs.

Spalding, R. M. (through Rev. F. B. Scheetz). Two stone axes; from
Missouri.

Sperry, Mrs. James L. Eight skins of California birds.

Spurr, Captain. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Commis-
sion.)

Stabler, J. P. Specimens of living snakes; from Maryland.

Stanske, Charles. Copper nodule and stone axe; from Wisconsin.

Staples, Hdwin B. Two boxes Indian relics, one box turtles (Pseudemys

- mobiliensis), and shell mouth-peg; from Florida.

Stearns, Silas. Ten boxes of specimens of fish and shell, including type

of new fish, Cawlolatilus microps Goode & Bean; from Florida.

102 APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Sieele, W. N. Living snake (Ophibolus doliatus doliatus); from Mary-
land.

Stevens, James A. Collection of shells; from Summit County, Ohio.

Stewart, W. H. Five shad (Alosa sapidissima); specimen of Elops sau-
rus; from the Potomac River.

Stone, Livingston. Large collection of alcoholic fishes, from the McCloud
River, California; also, one box fossils, from California.

Story, LI. D. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Commission.)

Stout, W. OC. Branchial apparatus of Lepidosteus.

Studley, Edwin. Grooved stone axe; from Wisconsin.

Sumner, M. T., jr. Sections of oak showing old surveyor’s marks.

Sutherland, John. Specimen of land-locked salmon (Salmo salar, var.
sebago) ; from the Merrimac River.

Swan, James G. Collection of fishes, in alcohol; and specimens of bone
implements used by the Haidah Indians; from Washington Territory.

Sweden. Academy of Sciences, Stockholm. Ten species of shells; from
Nova Zembla.

Sweeney, Frank. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Commis-
sion.)

Sweet, Capt. William E. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish
Commission.)

Symmes, Rev. Francis M. Box of ethnological specimens; from Orange
County, Indiana.

Tarr, Capt. James. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

Tarr, James G. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Commis-
sion.)

Tatham & Co., New York. Bag of “ dust” shot.

Taylor, Rev. Horace J. Collection of shells, beetles, and ethnological
specimens; from the Gilbert and Marshall Islands.

Thompson, Capt. William. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish
Commission.)

Thompson, W. H. Mass of quartz crystals; from Tye River, Virginia.

Thomson, J. H. Crab taken from hold of the bark Osprey, New Bed-
ford, Mass.

Thorpe, Rev. Thomas M. Wing and bill of woodpecker and four hickory-
nuts; from Arkansas.

Tobey, Gerard C. Squilla; from Buzzard’s Bay, Rhode Island.

Toellner, A. Fragments of human skull and pottery ; from mound in
Illinois.

Towers, David. Living slug; from Washington, D. C.

Towner, Wayne. Gypsum; from Pennsylvania.

Tresilian, Thomas. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

Triece, W. G. Specimens of snake and turtle ; from Pennsylvania.

4

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY: 103

Turner, C. W. S. Four arrow-heads ; from Virginia.

Turner, L. M. Turtle (Malacoclemmys peudo-geographicus); from South-
ern Hlinois.

Turner, Mrs. M. E. Three boxes of living turtles; from Southern Illi-
nois.

Turkey. Robert College, Constantinople. Collection of bird-skins.

Van Dyck, W. T. Three boxes of general natural-history collections ;
from Syria.

Van Hook, J. C. Snake (Coluber obsoletus obsoletus); from Virginia.

Vance, James A. Mineral; from Arkansas.

Velie, Dr. J. W. Collection birds’ eggs and shells, from Florida; cast
of stone axe, two living turtles and living snake, from Ilinois.

Voss, A. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Commission.)

Wade, Joseph M. Pectoral of flying-fish, taken in the South Pacific Ocean.

Walker, Dr. Rk. LZ. Four living hell- ‘remtlere (Menopoma alleg ghamensts)
from Western Pennsylvania.

Wallace, James B. Insect; from Texas.

Miahlace: John. Two ae a parrakeets.

Wallis, Dr. G. B. Specimens of fossils and copper ore.

Walton, W. B. Oyster with double shell.

Washington, D. C.:
Department of State, U.S. A. (See under name of Hon. G. A. Will-

tamson, United States minister to Guatemala.)

Treasury Department, U. S. A.:

United States Revenue-Marine. (See under name of Capt. Alfred B,
Davis.)

United States Coast Survey. (See under name of W. H. Dall.)

War Department, U. S. A.:

United States Army. (See under names of General M. C. Meigs, Col.
A. G. Brackett, Lieut. George M. Wheeler, and Lieut. J. P. Jef-
Jerson.)

Surgeon-General’s Office, United States Army Medical Museum (Dr.
G. A. Otis, in charge.) A collection of bird and mammal skins,
fossils, ethnologica, &c., collected in Texas by Dr. R. H. White,
U. 8. A. (See also under the names of Drs. J. Y. Porter, W.
Whitney, T. FE. Wilcox, and H. C. Yarrow, medical officers United
States Army.)

Surveys west of the one hundredth meridian, Lieut G. M. Wheeler in
charge. Collection of mortars and pestles, pottery, arrows, quiv-
ers, &c., also a large collection of plants; from Arizona and
California.

Bureau of Ordnance, General 8. V. Benét. Specimens of copper-ore
from Rock Island, Il.

Signal Service, United States Army. (See under name Private EL. W.
Nelson.)

104 APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Washington, D. C_—Continued.

Navy Department, U. 8. A.:

Bureau of Navigation, Commodore Whiting in charge; 63 bottles
of soundings made by the United States steamer Tuscarora.

Surgeon-Generals Office. (See under names of Drs. M. L. Ruth and
Robert Whiting, medical officers United States Navy.)

Agricultural Department, U. S. A., Hon. W. G. Le Duc, Commissioner :

Two pairs of antlers of Virginia deer; sucker-fish (Catostomus) from
Alabama.

Interior Department, U.S. A.:

General Land Office. (See under the names of Surveyors-General
Roswell, H. Mason and John Wasson; also under name of P. W.
Norris, superintendent Yellowstone National Park.)

United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries. (Prof. Spencer F.
Baird, Commissioner.) About 100 boxes zoological collections
from Gloucester, Mass., and vicinity, made by Prof. A. EH. Verrill,
G. Brown Goode, and Tarleton H. Bean. (See also under names
of Charles G. Atkins, Tarleton H. Bean, H. C. Chester, F. N. Clark,
Vinal N. Edwards, G. Brown Goode, James W. Milner, and Living-
ston Stone.) Specimens have also been obtained by the commis-
sion from the following parties :

Anderson, Capt. Charles, and crew of schooner Alice G. Wonson. A collection
of fishes, corals, shells, sponges, &c.; from George’s Bank.

’ Atkinson, John. Skull of codfish (Gadus morrhua); malformed claw of lob-
ster (Homarus americanus).

Allen, George K., schooner Marion. Specimen of gold-banded rush-coral
( Keratoisis ornata).

Allen, George K., schooner M. H. Perkins. Collection of corals, sponges, sea-
feathers, and fishes; 40 miles southwest of Sable Island.

Anderson, Capt. Chris, schooner Solomon Poole. A large and interesting col-
lection of living hydroids, bryozoans, sponges, &c.; from 15 miles off
Pollock Rip Light-Ship.

Andrews, F. 8. Specimen of spider-crab brought in by schooner Clara B.
Sweet from Middle Bank.

Babson, Fitz J. Specimen of ‘‘old wife” (Harelda glacialis) shot in Squam
River, and axis of coral.

Babson, Fitz J., jr. Lobster (Homarus americanus), with deformed claw.

Babson, William H., schooner Marion. Axis of coral (Primnoa reseda), from
Banquereau.

Baker, Captain, schooner Peter D. Smith. Specimen of young dog-fish
(Squalus americanus), lamp-fish (Cyclopterus lumpus), &e.

Bansett, William A., New Bedford, Mass. Pilot-fish (Nauerates ductor.)

Bartlett, A., New Bedford, Mass. Rabbit-tish (Tetrodon levigatus); from
Buzzard’s Bay.

Bates, James. Rough swell-fish (Chilichthys turgidus).

Blackburn, Capt. William, schooner Charles Carroll. Part of skull of whale
covered with bryozoans and sponges; from western part of George’s
Bank.

Blatchford, Capt. B. F. Specimen of bush-coral (Primnoa reseda); from
Banquereau.

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 105

Washington, D. C.—Continued.
U. S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries—Continued.
- Brazier, Benjamin 8. String of eggs of Sycotyphus canaliculatus, from Mon-
omy Beach; and pebbles from Steelwagen’s Bank, covered with bryozoa.

Briggs, Captain, schooner City of Gloucester. Samples of fish-oil made on the
Grand Bank.

Brown, William, schooner Marion. Three specimens of black dog-fish new to
the coast.

Burbank, Martin. Young lobster (Homarus americanus); from Monhegan
Island.

Burke, Henry E., schooner Hattie S. Clark. Bryozoans and sea-corn; from
the Grand Bank.

Burns, Thomas. Specimens of gull (Larus delawarensis) and star-fish (Hip-
pasteria), from off Gloucester; specimens of chimera and lancet-mouth
(Alepidosaurus ferox); from George’s Bank.

Butler, Isaac, schooner Esther Ward. Specimens of star-fish, sponges, &c. ;
from Brown’s Bank.

Calderwood, Capt. M. W., schooner Jennie M. Calderwood. Perforated rocks
with sponges and shells attached; from Western Bank, 68 fathoms.

Capron, John, schooner Solomon Poole. A large and beautiful collection of
branching bryozoan corals; from the Grand Banks.

Carlsen, Arnold, schooner Alice G. Wonson. Specimen of rush-coral (Acan-
ella); from between Brown’s and George’s Bank.

Carritt, William, schooner Mary E. Shell new to America; from Flemish
Cap.

Carroll, Capt. Daniel. Skua gull (Stercorarius skua); from George’s Bank.

Cavener, Nicholas, schooner Marathon. Chalina sponge and dog-fish skins;
from George’s Bank.

Childs, Edward R., schooner Mary F. Chisholm. Young green turtle (Chelonia
mydas); from SE. Le Have.

Clark, Benjamin, schooner Water Sprite. Vase-shaped sponge (Phakellia);
from Brown’s Bank.

Clinton, Capt. George T., schooner Henry Wilson. Barnacles, bryozoans, sea-
corn, &c.; from Grand Bank.

Colby, Capt. Charles. Pipe-fish (Syngnathus sp.) and star-fish (Hippasteria
phrygina); taken eight miles off Gloucester.

Collins, Capt. Joseph W., schooner Marion. A large and very valuable col-
lection of fishes, sponges, shells, and other marine animals, many of
which are new both to the American fauna and to science.

Collins, William. Jaws of shark caught off Monhegan Island.

Conley, John. Specimens of finger-sponge (Chalina) and mackerel-shark
(Zamna cornubica); from off Gloucester.

Cressy, Charles C. Specimens of oceanic dolphin (Coryphena punctulata) ;
‘from the Grand Bank.

Cunningham § Thompson. Very large sponge; from Le Have Bank.

Curtis, Capt. Andrew, ship Ida Lily of Richmond. Pens of squid (Sepia), from
Cadiz Bay; larval lobster (?); fossiliferous rock; from George’s Bank.

Danforth, John. A large sea-worm.

Davis, Mrs. Abby LE. Fossiliferous rock; from George’s Bank.

Davis, Mrs. Mary EF. Fossiliferous bowlder; from Banquerean.

Demsey, Capt. William, schooner Everett Steele. Parasites of codfish (ga
psora); from George’s Bank.

Devan, James, schooner Flying Scud. Base of coral; from Eastern George’s.

Devoe, Capt. Luke, schooner Epes Tarr. Branching bryozoans and sea-corn,
from Grand Bank.

106

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Washington, D. C.—Continued.
U. S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries—Continued.

Dixon, Eugene F., schooner William T. Smith. Hydroids and ! ryozoa; from
15 miles off Virgin Rock.

Dixon, Capt. George W., schooner William T. Smith. Bryozoans and sea-corn ;
from George’s Bank.

Douglass, Capt. George, schooner Constitution. Specimens of lump-fish, dollar-
fish, rock-eel, moon-fish, &c., and a crustacean (Idotea robusta) ; from Casco
Bay.

Douglass, John, specimen of ribbon-snake (Lutenia saurita).

Douglass, Robert,2d. Specimen of phantom-eel (Leptocephalus); from off
Gloucester.

Driscoll, Daniel, schooner Solar Wave. Bush coral; from Banquereau.

Dulaney, John. Rare holothurian; from off Gloucester.

Duncan, Capt. J. F., schooner Mary Low. A very large sponge; from Sable
Island Bank.

Floyd, Joseph D. Fossiliferous boulder and rock perforated by Saxicava
arctica; from George’s Bank.

Friend, Sidney. Same as above.

Gaffney, William M. Rock covered with barnacles and bryozoans and fossil-
iferous boulder; from George’s Bank.

-Getchell, Capt. John @., schooner Olis P. Lord. Specimens of fish, sponges,

corals, &c., two living hagdons, shells ; from George’s and Brown’s Banks,
and Cape Cod.

Ginnevan, Thomas, and Philip Merchant. Two very large spider-crabs (Lithodes
maid).

Goodwin, Capt. Thomas, schooner Llisha Crowell. Coral (Acanthagorgia),
from Western Bank; eyes of fishes, coral, and sponge, from Sable Island
Bank; lancet-mouth (Alepidosaurus ferox), from Le Have Bank.

Goodwin, Thomas, schooner Bellerophon. Limestone rock containing fossil
shells (Cyprina); from Grand Bank.

Gorton, Slade, § Co. Specimens of ‘‘red” salted swordfish and codfish.

Goslin, Capt. Joseph, schooner Shooting Star. Chalinasponge ; 25 miles south-
east of Sankaty Head.

Gourville, Capt. John, schooner Rebecca Bartlett. Specimens of fish (Anarrhichas
lupus, Triglops, Sebastes), shells, star-fish (Crossaster papposus), sponges
(Chalina, Isodictya), crabs, bryozoa, &c., &c.; from George’s Bank.

Greenleaf, Capt. William H., schooner Chester R. Lawrence. Specimens of fish
(Haloporphyrus viola, Synaphobranchus pinnatus, Petromyzon, &c.), great
northern sea-feather (Pennatula borealis), corals (Flabellum, Acanthomastus;
Acanthagorgia); from George’s Bank.

Hamlen, Capt. Peter, schooner Andrew Leighton. Wolf-fish (Alepidosaurus
ferox) and pug-nosed eel; from George’s Banks.

Harvey, Edward, schooner Rebecca Bartlett. Small crustacean (Idotea robusta) ;
from George’s Bank.

Haskell, Samuel. Fossiliferous boulder brought by schooner Conductor,
Captain Curtis; also, bryozoans and fossiliferous boulder from Grand
Bank, brought in by schooner Etta E. Turner, Captain Olsen.

Hawkins, Capt. James, schooner Gwendolen. Basket star-fish, black rudder-
fish (Palinurichthys), slime-eel (Myxine), crabs, shells, &c.; from Saint
Peter’s and Le Have Banks.

Hawkins, Capt. Z., schooner Gwendolen. Fishes (Zoarces, Petromyzon, Syna-
phobranchus, &c.), embryo sharks, star-fishes, crabs; from George’s Bank.

Herring, Richard, schooner William H. Raymond. Large gray gannet (?) and
fossiliferous rocks; froin NE. George’s Bank.

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 107

Washington, D. C.—Continued.
U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries—Continued.

Hewitt, Isaac S., schooner J. J. Clark. Large bunch of barnacles (Balanus
porcatus); from Middle Bank.

Higgins § Gifford. Model of a Gloucester fish-wharf and houses.

Hillier, Fred., schooner Alice M. Williams. ‘Two rare species of eel-like fishes
and bush-coral (Acanella normani) with basket-fish attached.

Hodgdon, Capt. T. F., schooner Bessie W. Somes, Collection of corals (Acanella
normani), sponges, sea-feathers (Pennatula borealis, P. aculeata, Balticina,
Finmarchicha), shells, &c.; from Sable Island Bank.

Hodgkins, Edward W. Crabs (Leithodes maia and Cancer irroratus); from
Gloucester.

Homans, Capt. Charles A. Specimens of Sipo wood used by the Carib In-
dians, of South America, for intoxicating and catching fish. Specimens
of codfish from the West Indian market.

Hoy, George W., schooner Mary F. Chisholm. File-fish (Balistes capriscus) and
axis of sea-pen; from Le Have Bank.

Hurlbert, Capt, R. H. Eggs of periwinkle, from Cape Henlopen; Gunther’s
midge (Hypsiptera argentea), from off Cape May; shells of scallop and her-
ring-spawn from George’s Bank.

Jameson, John S., schoone Henry Wilson. Bryozoans, scallops, and sea-corn ;
from Grand Bank.

Jellow, John, schooner Laura Nelson. Fragments of gold-banded rush-coral
(Keratoisis ornata); from Le Have Bank.

Jellow, John H., schooner George P. Whitman. Specimens of coral (Acanella
normani, Primnoa reseda), snails (Zunatia), and scallops (Pecten); from Le
Have and George’s Banks.

Jewetl, Capt. Thomas, schooner City of Gloucester. Specimens of sponge, fan-
shaped and gold-banded corals, sea-pens (Pennatula), &c.; from Le Have
Bank.

Johnson, Capt. George A., schooner Augusta Johnson. A large and interesting
lot of rare fishes, including the grenadier (Macrurus Fabricii), chimera
(Chimera plumbea), black dog-fish (Centroscyllium and Centroscymnus),
wolf-fish (Anarrhichas lupus), (Synaphobranchus), shells, sponges &c. ; from
Sable Island and George’s Banks.

Johnson, Capt. Peter. Collection of shells, star-fishes, sea-cucumbers, &c. ;
from George’s Bank.

Kearney, William, schooner Marathon. Chalina sponge; from George’s Bank.

Kilpatrick, Capt. Briggs, schooner City of Gloucester. A rare sucker-tish
(Remoropsis brachyptera) taken from the gills of a swordfish.

King, W. A., schooner Otis D. Dana. Bush-coral (Primnoa reseda); from
George’s Bank.

Kippin, John, schooner Solomon Poole. Chalina sponge, and stones bored by
Saxicava arctica; from Grand Bank.

Lakeman, J. Spider-crab (Leithodes maia).

Larkin, John, schooner George W. Stetson. Young hagdon, living.

Le Blane, Simon, schooner Rebecca Bartlett. Star-fish (Crossaster papposus) ;
from George’s Bank.

Lloyd, J. D. Stones bored by Saxicava arctica, fossils, &c.; from George’s
Bank.

Lundberg, John A. Sponge (Chalina aculeata); from George’s Bank.

aVeCallum, George, schooner Fitz J. Babson. Specimen of the King-of-the-
herring (Chimera plumbea); from Le Haye Bank.

McDonald, Duncan, schooner. Polar Wave. Specimens of coral and ‘‘turbot”
(Platysomatichthys hippoglossoides); from Eastern Banquereau.

108

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. —

Washington, D. C.—Continued.
U. S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries—Continued.

McDonald, James and John D., schooner Addison Center. Old-fashioned iron
kettle; hauled up on trawl near Halifax, N.S.

MeDonald, Capt. Jerome, schooner G. P. Whitman. Rare barnacles and King-
of-the-herring (Chimera plumbea); from Le Have Bank; two specimens
of lancet-mouth (Alepidosaurus ferox) ; from George’s Bank.

McDonald, Capt. Matthew, schooner Lizzie K. Clark. Specimens of rare fish
(Chimera plumbea, Synaphobranchus pinnatus), corals (Keratoisis, Acantha-
gorgia, Acanella), shells, sponges, sea-feathers, &c.; from Western and
Sable Island Banks.

McDonald, Miles. Sea-mouse (Aphrodite aculeata); from Middle Bank.

McDonald, Capt. William, schooner N. H. Phillips. Five specimens of coral
(Acanella normani) ; from SE. Le Have Bank, and one (Paragorgia) from
Seal Island Bank.

MeLachern, Daniel, schooner Guy Cunningham. Bases of fan-shaped coral
taken on Grand Bank; and specimens of eels (Myxine and Petromyzon);
sponges and sea-anemones; from George’s Bank.

McEntire, Daniel. Gypsum; from mouth of Saint Lawrence River.

McGinnis, Captain, schooner M. H. Perkins. Black dog-fish (Centroscymnus
celolepis); from Sable Island Bank.

McKinnon, Capt. Daniel., schooner Mary F. Chisholm. Specimens of fish
(Myxine, Sebastes Petromyzon), crabs, corals, &c.; from Sable Island and
Le Have Banks.

McKinnon, Capt. John, schooner R. B. Hayes. Spider-crab (Leithodes maia) ;
from 25 miles off Gloucester, SE.

McPhee, Capt. N., and crew, of schooner Carl Schurz. Specimens of corals
(Aleyonium, Flabellum, Acanella), sea-feathers, star-fish, parasites of hali-
but (ga psora), &c.; from near Sable Island Bank.

McQuinn, Edw. Specimens of Remoropsis brachypiera ; broughtin by schooner
W. H. Perkins from Grand Bank.

McQuinn, Michael, schooner N. H. Phillips. Rare shells (Aporrhais), and eggs
of shark; from George’s Bank.

Madden, Henry F. Axis of tree-coral (Primnoa reseda) ; from off Sable Isl-
and.

Mansfield, James, § Sons. Fossiliferous boulder; from George’s Bank.

Marble, Frank. Uarge finger-sponge (Chalina), King-fish (Menticirrus nebu-
losus), and fish-spawn ; from Norman’s Woe.

Martin, Capt. George H., schooner Northern Eagle. Specimens of fish, crus-
tacea, barnacles, hydroids, &c., from between Boone Island and Matin-
icus Rock, swordfish (Xiphias gladius); taken off Portland, Me. (pur-
chased); 5 swords of swordfish from South Channel; pipe-fish (Syngnathus
Jfuscus); from Provincetown, Mass.

Martin, Capt. 8. J. Living specimen of hagdon (Puffinus anglorum) ; from
George’s Bank.

Mason, Peter. Shells and hydroids taken by crew of schooner Hattie S.
Clark on Grand Bank.

Meek, James, schooner Alice G. Wonson. Specimen of tree-coral (Paragorgia
arbuscula); from between Brown’s and George’s Banks.

Menezer, Joseph. Herring-gull; from Gloucester, Mass.

Merchant, George, jr., schooner Hattie B. West. A small goose-fish (Lophius
piscatorius) taken off Cape Elizaveth.

Merchant, Philip, schooner Marion. Specimens of coral (Mopsia, Keratoisis, and
Acanella); from 30 miles off Sable Island.

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF .THE SECRETARY. 109

Washington, D. C._—Continued.
U. S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries—Continued.

Moore, H. €., schooner Chester R. Lawrence. Tusk of walrus; found on the east
coast of Newfoundland.

Morrissey, Capt. Daniel C., schooner Alice M. Williams.. Two specimens of
bush-coral (Acanella normani) ; from the Western Bank.

Morrissey, Capt. James D., schooner Alice M. Williams. Specimens of fish
(Chimera plumbea, Centroscymnus cololepis, Petromyzon) and coral; from
George’s Bank.

Morrison, Capt. R. N., schooner Laura Nelson. Lamper-eel (Petromyzon) and
fragments of tree-coral (Paragorgia arborea); from Le Have Bank.

Murphy, J., schooner Gertie Foster. A beautiful sponge; from George’s Bank.

Murphy, Michael J., schooner Magic. Specimen of tree-coral (Paragorgia ar-
borea); from Grand Bank, and bush-coral (Acanella normani); from Ban-
quereau.

Murphy, Capt. Nicholas, schooner Franklin S. Schenck. Pebbles covered with
bryozoans; from Whaleman’s Shoal off Nantucket.

Nolan, Joseph, schooner Bessie W. Somes. Specimen of bush-coral (Primnoa
reseda); from Banquereau.

Olsen, Capt. Chris., and crew; schooner William Thompson. Specimens of sea-
mouse (Aphrodite) star-fish, hydroids, bryozoans, &c.; from Grand and Le
Have Banks.

Parsons, John. Young pipe-fish (Syngnathus fuscus).

Parsons, William. Specimen of snipe-eel (Nemichthys scolopaceus); taken by
schooner Howard Steele, on George’s Bank in 1875.

Pearce, F. A. Specimens of fish, star-fish, shells, &c.; from Western Bank.

Peterson, Martin, and Dennis Theleueng, schooner William Thompson. Speci-
mens of rare fish (Alepidosaurus ferox, Macrurus Fabricii, Centroscymnus
celolepis) and coral; 39 miles off Sable Island.

Peterson, M. L., schooner Guy Cunningham. Specimen of gold-banded rush-
coral (Ieratoisis ornata) with barnacles attached, &c.

Pettingell § Cunningham. Fossiliferous boulders bored by Saxicava; from
George’s Bank.

Polsen, Alfred, schooner Mary E. WHat-sponge from Flemish Cap.

Radcliffe, William H., yacht Uncle Sam. Sea-lemon (Boltenia); from off Glou-
cester, Mass.

Rich, Capt. A. F., Boston, Mass. Specimen of sucker-fish (Remoropsis brachyp-
tera); from South Channel.

Riley, William, schooner Grace C. Hadley. Living falmar-petrel; from
George’s Bank.

Roach, David, schooner Lizzie K. Clark. Tobacco-pipe made from axis of tree-
coral, ;

Schooner Alice G. Wonson. Lancet-mouth (Alepidosaurus ferox), corals (Pa-
ragorgia arborea, Flabellum articum, Prinmoa reseda), star-fishes, shells, &e. ;
from between George’s and Le Have Banks.

Schooner Carl Schurz. WKing-of-the-herring (Chimera plumbea) and bush-
coral (Acanella normani); taken 30 miles south of Sabie Island; also
sword of swordfish.

Schooner Charger. Specimen of spider-crab (Leithodes maia); from Marble-
head Bank. ;

Schooner G. P. Whitman. Rock covered with bryozoans; from Banque-
reau.

Schooner Grace C. Hadley. Stone covered with barnacles and bryozoa;
from George’s Bank.

Schooner Howard Holbrook. Scallop-shells; from Grand Bank.

110 APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Washington, D. C.—Continued.
U. S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries—Continued.

Schooner Josie M. Calderwood. Perforated rocks with sponges and shells ad-
hering ; from George’s Bank.

Schooner Lizzie K. Clark. Shells of Buccinum cyaneum ; from 30 miles south
of Sable Island.

Schooner Northern Star. ‘Three living hagdons (Pufinus anglorum) ; from
Grand Bank.

Schooner Otis P. Lord. Collection of star-fishes (Crossaster papposus), barna-
cles, sea anemones, &c.

Schooner Phenix. Skin of spear-fish (Tetrapturus albidus); taken in the
South Channel.

Schooner Rebecca Bartlett. Tail of swordfish (YXiphias gladius. )

Schooner Wachusett. Collection of scallops, hydroids and barnacles; from
Grand Bank.

Rowe, George T. Specimen of Zoarces; from off Gloucester.

Rowe, Capt. John. Specimen of bush-coral (Primnoa reseda); from Banque-
reau.

Rowe, Timothy S. Specimen of “ gulf-weed ;” from the Gulf Stream.

Rust, Miss Carrie A. Barnacles (Lepas fascicularis); from Harpswell, Me.

Sayward, E. P., jr. Fossiliferous rocks ; from George’s Bank.

Scott, George W., schooner Lizzie. Collection of rare fishes (Centroscyllum Fab-
ricii, Centroscymnus celolepis, Chimera plumbea), shells, sponges, corals,
&c.; from Banquereau.

Scott, George W., schooner Hdwin C. Dolliver. Specimens of fish (Halopor-
phyrus, Anarrhichas, Phycis, Synaphobranchus, Chimera), devil fish (Octopus
Bairdii), corals (Alcyonium, Keratoisis), sea-feathers (Pennatula, Balticina),
shells, &c.; from lat. 43° 23’, lone. 60° 16’.

Scott, George W., schooner City of Gloucester. Sample of black-dog-fish oil.

Shemelia, Joseph P., schooner William H. Raymond. <A large collection of liv-
ing water-birds, five species; from NE. George’s Bank.

Shemelia, James C., schooner William H. Raymond. Chalina sponge, barnacles,
hydroids, and bryozoans; from George’s Bank.

Silva-Terra, Anton, schooner Rebecca Bartlett. Specimens of dog-fish skin.

Simons, Capt. A., schooner Defiance. Living specimen of sea-robin (Priono-
tus); from the Brewsters.

Smith, John L. Specimens of sea-corn taken by schooner Conductor on
Grand Bank; also tree-coral from George’s Bank.

Snuth § Oakes. Fossiliferous boulder bored by Saxicava; from George’s
Bank.

Spurr, Captain, schooner John I’. Wonson. Muscles, hydroids, bryozoans, &c.;
from George’s Bank.

Story, L. D., Magnolia. Small fish (Argyreiosus vomer); from Magnolia.

Sweeney, Frank. Parasites from gills of codfish taken off Gloucester.

Sweet, Capt. William £F., schooner Grace C. Hadley. Sea-cucumber (Thyoni-
dium Dubenii), star-fish, and parasites of cod (4iga psora); from George’s
Bank.

Tarr, Capt. James. French hooks taken from the stomach of codfish on
shoal ground off Salvages in 1856 and Jeffries Ledge, 1876.

Tarr, James G. Samples of fish-oil.

Thompson, Capt. William, schooner Magic. Collection of corals, sponges, sea-
feathers, shells, &c.; from Sable Island Bank and Banquereau.

Tresilian, Thomas. 'Tree-coral (Primnoa reseda); from George’s Bank.

Voss, A. ‘‘Devil’s claw,” or box-hook used in boxing halibut.

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Tia

Washington, D. C.—Continued.
U. S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries—Continued.
Webb, Capt. Henry, Rockport. Specimens of pollock, whiting, and Greenland
sculpin; from Milk Island, Rockport. Also, lobster-pot bait-hook.
Wells, Capt. William N., schooner E. B. Phillips. Shells from Grand Bank.
Welsh, Capt. James, schooner Martha and Susan. Specimen of chalina sponge;
from George’s Bank.
Welsh, Morris. Specimen of chalina sponge; from George’s Bank.
Whiting, Henry, schooner Webster Sanborn. A large collection of shells (Pee-
ten islandica, Rhynchonella, sp.); from Grand Bank.
Whitman, George P., Rockport. Mounted specimens of Richardson’s jeger-
gull (Stercorarius parasiticus).
Williams, Capt. B. A., schooner Centennial. Scallop shell and pebbles with
barnacles, bryozoans, and sea-corn adhering.
Wilson, John I., schooner Otis D. Dana. Specimens of pomarine jeeger (Ster-
corarius pomatorhinus) ; from George’s Bank.
Wonson, Lverett P. _A collection of shells, barnacles, corals, &e.; from New-
foundland and George’s Bank.
Wasson, John, United States Surveyor-General, Arizona. Collection of
ores and minerals from various mines in Arizona.
Watkins, Joseph C. Small collection of fragmentary bones, pottery,
arrow-heads, and fine stone pipe; from mound in Missouri.
Webb, Capt. Henry. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
Mission.)
Wells, Capt. William N. (See Washington, D. C., United States Tish
Commission.)
Welsh, Capt. James. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)
Welsh, Morris. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Commis-
sion.)
Welsher, H. W. Four specimens of whitefish (Coregonus albus); from
Madison Lake, Wisconsin.
Werner, Johann, children of. Arrow-head and copper nodule; from Wis-
consin.
Wheeler, OC. Le R. Specimens of stone implements; from New York.
Wheeler, Lieut. George M., U. S.A. (See Washington, D. C., War Depart-
ment.)
Whitall, Tatum & Co., Philadelphia. Samples of glass jars.
White, Artemas. Copper celt, slate arrow-heads, and minerals; from
New York.
Whiting, Henry. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Commis-
sion.)
Whiting, Dr. Robert, U. S. N. Copper idol; from the valley of the
Rimae, Peru.
Whitman, George P. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)
Whitmore, Hon. A. H. Young sturgeon; from Verona, Me.
Whitmore, Joshua. Lamprey; from Bucksport, Me.
Whitney, L. Flint knives, arrow-heads, and stone ax; from Illinois.

” ’

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Whitney, Dr. W., U. S. A. Stone axe; from New Mexico.

Whittaker, E. E. Three samples of ore; from Oregon.

Wiggins, Fred. B. Living snake (Heterodon); from Virginia.

Wiggins, John B. Three boxes of aboriginal soapstone vessels; from
Virginia.

Wilcox, Dr. T. H., U. S. A. Bottle of alcoholic reptiles; from Indian
Territory. .

Wilder, General J. F. Stone figure-head, pipes, and other valuabie
relics.

Willard, C. C. Fresh specimen of Rocky Mountain sheep; from Wyo-
ming. |

Willetts, Joseph C. Twospecimens of lake-trout; from Skaneateles Lake,
New York.

Williams, Benjamin. Box of stone implements; from Michigan.

Williams, Capt. B. A. (See Washington, D.C., United States Fish
Commission.)

Williamson, Hon. G. A., United States Minister, Guatemala. Box of eth-
nological and geological specimens ; from Guatemala.

Wilson, John I. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

Wilson, W.M. Collection of living reptiles; from Prince George’s County,
Maryland.

Wiltheis, C. T. Box of stone relics; from Ohio.

Wittman, EZ. Box of Cincinnati Group fossils.

Wonson, Everett P. (See Washington, D. C., United States Fish Com-
mission.)

Vood, A. 8. Civet cat (Bassaris astuta); from Oregon.

Wood, Dr. Preston. Specimens of stone implements; from Llinois.

Wood, Dr. William. Specimen of Lota maculosa; from Connecticut.

Woodward, A. J. Shell of turtle; from Otter Creek, Florida.

Woolley, C. W. Specimens of the tobacco-worm moth; from Illinois.

Wooster, A. F. Specimens of arrow-heads and eggs of robin and chicken-
Sparrow.

Wooster, L. 0. Package of Upper Cretaceous fossils; from the Cach«
la Poudre River, Colorado.

Yarrow, Dr. H. C. Mummy of Arapahoe child and surroundings; fron.
Sidney, Nebr.

Zeledon, José C. Six boxes of general natural history and ethnological
collections; from Costa Rica.

Unknown. Corals; scales of tarpum, Indian stone tube, amethystins
erystal; specimens of mule-killer (Thelyphonus); specimen of coal:
snake; stone relics from West Virginia; insect; box of fossils from
Lawrence, Kans.; fossil plant; living black-snakes (Bascaniwm con
strictor); living helgramite ; from Virginia.

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION.*
, S76.

Certificate of Award
To the Smithsonian Institution, for Hon. Thomas Donaldson, Collector.

Collection of Ores.

No. 1.—Group 1.

UNITED STATES CENTENNIAL COMMISSION,
(In accordance with the Act of Congress)
Philadelphia, September 27, 1876.

A. T. Goshorn,

Director General.

John L. Campbell, Jos. R. Hawley,
Secretary. President.

STATISTICS OF EXCHANGES.

BOXES SENT ABROAD IN 1878.

———

113

Smithson-|G ov ern-
Country. ian ex-| ment ex-
changes. | changes.

No. of No. of

AMERICA. boxes. boxes.
AM ceMuNe ContedenatlOneeeasece serene temas eeeeeedataicene tee sacesicerle seen ee nas 4
BTR a Ogee RB eee R OC See GO CROC ADU TEACH Hac SEO D OCONEE REECE HerernnoEees 2 2
British: Guiana a= 422 fescc oe. Sede ha ete eeee ee awa ceececccenccs i La | pers
WAT ATG Setsacietcsew-oscs tamince se csss stesee ee eres nec cucseeeceacedabosce |ovesscecee 4
Pie ee rats eee ea atne ae sce noe ee eos ete HEL Se coos eases Socene if 2
ISNT. Cosee, doscad sag re aGao bon che sae HESS oROOORCAOG CER b EB OHSERUBEE = Becese KEaSSTGaese 2
IMGxI CO seas haere nese cece sue Leen I RUS L cscsccscence eit ses 2 2
BE GY ats cia sian aw ee eee atorarnaaele bee cles eeu ee eeb eda ccccececceccececcnccs De sasssehs.cs
VIED OZ Ola sec cewek niemmwretniec eee teen oe wats cE ued sce ba coclmemcieuis 1 2
ASIA
SAP AMryatetse se el-Piaeitaaans ae ci ceitaee eee eee et eenie wcidelcwancicwiscasieeiccics 2 2
REE) od do estes aci5G 3 sO OG OSCE OQCC CHS COdE HAO HoR OE BE AES SEO ReBES Serene De apace act
AUSTRALIA.
BNE We SOG Ul WidlOS cro circu ce wee ee no eos cece etc ccctccer neces ace eames 1 2
NG Wee B AN Gl easels ea acc eee eee ee eee te wa on ccctesccmacececus 2 2
OUIGEHSIANC s sou ce ee deco eee -ncoobosasshaosds ScSeodancosSsaasse il 2
POMUNPATIS tPA Aas cote s aac ae etnee enn aae eee al cooce Senlecsene sone il 2
PAS TO ATA classic scloc Sake & cine e eee ee res See ee culo cas coon coe ee 1 2
IG UOLI Ae neon ise calccis cela pares AOS ESOC OC OU C SCO SOUOCCE RET Gene O ASC Ses 2 2
EUROPE.

LIGETI Che be sp Sto CHOCO REC RCASCSbnR See BocHee BE CBe SEER Ee SABE Sets 6 2
Leia Td Fe 5, Seep i OE ee Se a IO, a Gel eeeaeacaee
40 2

60 17

54 4

Beiter iain se sinha = a Stee ee ie erclarc cia/a sith a eel aaieke com eet ten | enters 2

6 2

nn a es a

4 2

3 2

7 2

3 2

6 2

12 2

Total.

i ont
POUNOTUIASCMONMANWIO OH He C2 C2 CO He CO Leland WH RL WR eH ee

i"

* Omitted from the Report for 1876, page 83.
S. Mis. 59——8

114 APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
RECAPITULATION.
Smithson-|G ov ern-
Country. ian ex-| ment ex-| Total.
changes.| changes.
No. of No. of
boxes. boxes.
JMB RR Gase Sse Ono obc Od SHR U ROSE ODE EOOUC CORaS ba adonemacicce sassEgelene 8 18 26
JENS Oa» Breas ACCOR HCHO HEC SHIRE SBA SEAS so REISS 6 ao asiciooebaroer coo coee 3 2 5
AMMEN boc; scenhoooS bed seneEenOEOUe aoboe = 42 stodecetadsucnecsodoesde 8 12 20
IDI oso nccsnoc os dosonosans soSde ses sodasscsotesesdgosacnsese Sentoose 217 41 258
Wy lee ass Na cE U4 2 fog Ona POS 236 | 73 309

NorTre.—No. of boxes, 309; bulk, in cubic feet, 2,160;

veight, in pounds, 69,220, containing fourteen

thousand six hundred and forty -eight miscellaneous packages, of which 60 contained specimens of nat-

ural history.

PACKAGES RECEIVED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION FROM EUROPE,
&C., FOR DISTRIBUTION IN AMERICA.

ALABAMA.
Tuscaloosa: _
Alabama University

ARIZONA.

Prescott:
Territorial Library
ARKANSAS.

Little Rock:
SUID IG Fem Sess moos brocesRocUSSes

CALIFORNIA.
Berkeley :
University of California
Sacramento:
Agricultural and HorticulturalSociety
California Institution -.--..-----
California Institution for the Deaf.
Andeb nmibamdeb lin dose aeeees ae ee
Geological Survey of California......
State Agricultural Society
San Francisco:
California Academy of Sciences
California Historical Society..-.....-..
Mayor of the city of San Francisco .
Mechanics’ Institute...-...-.--------
Stockton :
Society of Natural History
State Insane Asylum

COLORADO.

Colorado Springs:
El Paso County Library Association.
Denver:
State Library
CONNECTICUT.
Hartford:
American Philological Association -.
Connecticut Society of Natural His-
UIA? sssoacsaa dupanbacacs Losnolo esse
Connecticut State Agricultural So-
ciety
Retr a for the Insane
Society of Natural Sciences.-.........
State Board of Agriculture
State Library
Young Men’s Institute
Watkinson Library of Reference ....
Middletown :
Hospital for the Insane
ew Haven:
American Journal of Science and
BASIS ane Be eee eetetvems ate alse mice
American Oriental Society
Connecticut Academy of Arts and
Sciences

DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA.
Georgetown:
Georgetown College

Hillsdale:
Pioneer School....--....... Aooeeddeae

1877. | 1878. 1877. | 1878.
District or CoLtumB1a—Continued.
4 Washington:
ches Se || Agriculture, Department of....-.---.| 107! 113
American Medical Association......- 9 22
Board of Public Schools a
I |[oso5ds Botanie Garden -.-.. 2... Ne eee
LOGPISTA SBE Eh" SoconoossqpocoosSeeEesee 6 61
Census Burcanl a ES tase ee scse. 6 4
Columbia Institution for the Deaf and
aesocs 10 Dumbie ssa. esses wae cee shes csiccckis ss 1 2
Columbian University .....-..--..--- 3 6
Corcoran Gallery of Art ..--....-----|...--- 1
leases Wducation, Bureau of .-..-------.-.-. 10 6
Engineer Biren ecco ce keene 9 10
2 |------|| Hish'Commission.-— 3. 2--.c.-c-- eee -e 2 5
if Hesbiece || Geological Survey of the Territories 83 96
Government Hospital for the Insane. 1 eseae
I eosgoc Hydrographic: Omceiss-ss--essceeee: 3 14
PES ES? 1 || Indian ‘ “Commissioners, Office of the. . 3 |saeess
il 1 || Interior Department ------.-.-..-.--- 9 10
and iOmice; sean oe se ceineiss cette 9 7
60 61 || Library of Congress ..............--. 32 33
iE eee || Light-House Board ....-..---.--.--- 2)\) saeeee
2 1 || Medical Society of the District of
ile eres Columbia (2322 sees oe seeccise siecle 1 1
National Academy of Sciences. ...-.- 43 70
1 Nautical Almanac Office. -2.--2.----- 4 14
1 Navall Observabtoty~ sc --cn <6 icesiaae- 50 54
Navigation, Bureau of .--....--....-- 3 iL
Navy Department.-....-----..--....-- 2 4
OrdnancelOnice fas. cease - === a eaae = 2 3
1 |.----- Patent OMmce sess voeessne tears ose 99} 120
Paymaster-General, U. S. A.-.-....-:|-.---- 1
1 |.----- Philosophical Society .......----..-.. 3 | S2baae
President of the United States. -...-.- TS asses
Sionall Offices see -2 ees enc eon eases. 26 28
teaeee 1 Statistics, Boreawofecscscsceeeeeeel Bs 16
Surgeon- General's Office ....-....--- 88 108
1 |.----- Swedish and Norwegian Legation - - - . Pa lee se
Treasury Department io deeoeesceee ul 2
5 io davies e partic hase sen eee eee 6 15
st wma 1 GEORGIA,
1 8 thens:
1 e224) University of Athens: =. .- oceans ib scone «
3 2 Augusta :
edbss 1 || Horticultural Society ........-..---.- 1 eooeae
Savannah:
1s | pees Historical Society of Georgia ..-..... 2 5
ILLINOIS.
39 35 Aurora:
19 1g | Literary and Historical Society ..---- Ts | Peeters
Bloomington:
92| 119 || Llinois Museum of Natural History. By | aesrist
1 Carbondale : i ’
"39 | 34 Southern Illinois Normal University.|..-.-. 6
Chicago:
Chicago Academy of Science .-....-- 55 78
Chicago Boardiotirad oieeeceeree ce I | cascas
i 4 Chicago Historical Society. ..-....... | Seca
Chicago Public Library .............. 14 9
TE emoeon Dearborn Observatory ........... soe 5 5

ie 3

it ©

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF

Packages received by the Smithsonian Institution, §c.—Continued.

1877.

1878. |

Tuuinoris—Continued.

Mayor of the city of Chicago

National Live Stock J ournal

Publie School Library

University of Chicago
Elgin:

Northern Hospital for the Insane ....
Evanston:

Northwestern University
Galesburg:

Lombard University
Jacksonville:

State Hospital for the Insane
Moro:

American Pomological Society. ------
Normal:

Tlinois Natural History Society and

Museum

Ottawa:

Academy of Natural Sciences
Rantoul:

Rantoul Literary Society
Springfield :

State peaard of Agriculture

INDIANA.

Bloomington :
Indiana University
Greencastle:
Indiana Asbury University

Indianapolis :
Geological Survey of Indiana
Historical Society
Indiana Horticultural Society. ....-
Institution for the Education of the
Blind

Buzlington :
Iowa Historical and Genealogical
Institute
Davenport:
Davenport Academy of Sciences
Decorah:
Norwegian Lutheran College
Des Moines:
Department of Public Instruction -
State Library
Grinnell:
Grinnell University
Iowa City
Director tee ‘Weather Service
Towa State University
Laboratory of Physical Science
Mount Pleasant:
Asylum tor the Insane

KANSAS.

Baldwin City:
Baker University
Ossawatomie:
Kansas Insane Asylum
Topeka:
Kansas Natural History Society

KENTUCKY.

Frankfort :
State Library
Hopkinsville :
Western Lunatic Asylum
Lexington:
Eastern Lunatic Asylum
Kentucky University
Louisville:
Mayor of the city of Louisville
Public Library .-..
University of Louisville
Russellville :
Logan Female College

LOUISIANA,

Baton Rouge:
State University

\

THE SECRETARY. RES
1877. | 1878.
Lovuistana—Continued.

Clinton : Us | bocce

|| Louisiana Insane Asylum..........-..

New Orleans: coee-- 2
Athenée Louisianais ......-.......... Mujlgnaoee
TnsanerAsyvlaMl i fo-26e es oes ee esas oe il 2
Mayor of the city of New Orleans -..-

New Orleans Academy of Natural 20) 32

Sciences! ae sisseseer ss caesaane cee 8 8
Lene d UNO, wee e ee Aap bose GoeeCena looreee 2
University of TLouisianal):s22. 02s...

MAINE.
Augusta:

Commissioner of Fisheries of the

Statecof Maines -csrae aise 2 1
Maine Hospital for the Insane -.-.---- Lasso
Natural History and Geological So-

(Oh) iy aes Wee U ene SHEE PREP Bee Rene) Korine 2
State Board of Agriculture .....--.-- Qi eee

Brunswick:
iBowdom)Collecesecs a. -asa==e eee ae 11 4
Historical Society of Maine.........- U 2

Calais:

Calais High School and Academy -.-. alae

Lewiston:

Androscoggin Natural History Se-
ClO bY 2 ons eee Saas Je Seen 1G) eee

Norway:

High School and Academy -.--.--..---- S| ataeree

Portland:

Maine Agricultural Society -.---...- pares =
Portland Society of Natural History.| 28 40

Waterville:

Colby sWmiviersityses oie tr eee = 4 3
MARYLAND.

Annapolis:

Stdohnis(Collegesec eee s=/-'eee) eee 3
United States Naval Academy ..----- 7 4

Baltimore:

Baltimore City College. .......-...--- Teese
Johns Hopkins University. ....--.--- 6 8
Maryland Academy of Science. -.---- 1} 3
Maryland Asylum for the Insane .---. 1 eer
Maryland Historical Society .--...--. 12 3
Meimy land alins bib Wbes--iielale ei ete ottoi-i i laterite 1
Mayor of the city of Baltimore ...-.-. 2 1
Peabody Institute)-2- 2-44-25 ceeece 2 7 10
St. Paul’s Lyceum and Library As-

SOC bOI Ss Rae bee cpa see esas eee
University of Maryland ............. i | Baaece

MASSACHUSETTS.

Amherst:

Amherst College. %--- <3 .<-.-<----.--- 7 6

Andover:

Theological Seminary..........-----.|..-.-- 1

Boston:

American Academy of Arts and

Sciences’)-2S225 55: eee ere & ree 137} 182
American Gynecological Society.--...|...--- 4
American Social Science Association. Oy cetect
American Statistical Association .-..| 14 | 11
American Unitarian Association. .--. LS) Sco
Board of State Charities -..........-.- B steae
‘BostonvArt Claipene ses see ee eae il 1
Boston Atheneum . 3 3
Boston, Hospitals saaseesesecneneese a 1 1
Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 12 | 11
Boston Microscopical Soe Lebyieceen cine Lalrosae2
Boston Society of Natural History...) 168 | 166
Bowditcbelbrany eee e see eee 1 4
Department of Public Instruction ...)....-. it
Institute of Mechnolory e+ ceeesene 5]. cle ke 3
Massachusetts Asylum for the Blind.|....-- 1
Massachusetts Board of Education ..| J 1
Massachusetts Historical Society - 10 2
Mayor of the city of Boston ......... 2 | 1
Medical and Surgical Jonrnal......-. Saleeeaee
New England Historic Genealogical |

Socie ty Meetcln snk ch eaiuieic sissies Semloc oie 6) 4
North American Review. -.....-----. Ieee
Public libraryeesca.accdes-ssmocsee see 31 | 30

116

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Packages received by the Smithsonian Institution, §-c.—Continued.

MAssACHUSETTS—Continued.

Science Observer

State Board of Agriculture ---.

State Board of Charities

State Board of Health

State Library
Cambridge:

Cambridge Philosophical Society...-.
Entomologic al Club
Harvard College
Harvard College Herbarium
Harvard C ollege Observatory
Museum of Comp arative Zoology ...-
Nuttall Ornithological Club
Peabody Museum ‘of American Arch-

ology

Jamaica Plains:
Bussey Institute
Leicester:
Leicester Public Library
Newton Centre:
Theological Institution
Pennikese Island :
Anderson School of Natural History.
Salem :
American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science
American Naturalist..-.-.....-------
Essex Institute
Peabody Academy of Sciences
North Church and Society
Taunton :

State Lunatic Asylum
Wellesley:
Wellesley College

Williamstown:
Williams College

Worcester:
American Antiquarian Society. -..----

eee eee eee wee ewes

MICHIGAN.
Ann Arbor:
Herbarium of the University of
WINK OEE Ns Noe Sdoonsadcomsaogsecess+
QObDSCrVaAtOLY 22222 gsp-s seem ae onsces
University of Michigan..-............
Coldwater:
Michigan Library Association .--....
Detroit:
Michigan State Agricultural Society .
Kalamazoo:
PASylomifor INSaNe. = -csss cee n ese =
Lansing:
Michigan State Board of Health...-.-
MINNESOTA.
Duluth:
Scandinavian City Library..--..-.-.-
Minneapolis:

Minnesota Academy of Natural
Sciences
University of Minnesota
Saint Peter:
Hospital for the Insane .----
Saint Paul:
Minnesota Historical Society

MISSISSIPPI.
Oxford: :
University of Mississippi

MISSOURI.

Columbia:

University of Missouri
Fulton :

State Lunatic Asylum ..-......- Aone
Glasgow:

Morrison Observatory .......---.----
Saint Lonis:

Geological Survey of Missouri

1877.

|| New Jersey Historical Society

Missouri—Continued.

Mayor of the city of Saint Louis
Publie Library
Saint Louis Academy of Science
Saint Louis Univer sity
State Board of Aericulture
Washington University

weet ween eee

NEBRASKA.
Lincoln:
University of Nebraska

NEW HAMPSHIRE,

Concord :
Department of Agriculture
New Hampshire Historical Society --
State Agricultural Society
State Lunatic Asylum

Hanover :
Dartmouth College

NEW JERSEY.

Hoboken:
Stevens Institute of Technology
Newark:

New Brunswick;
Geological Survey of New Jersey....
Natural History Society

Princeton:
College of New Jerse:
Observatory of College of New Jersey

Trenton:

State Lunatic Asylum

NEW YORK.
Albany:
Adirondack Survey Office.....- pees
Albany Institutest<: 422sececeemceees
Dudley Observatory
New York State Agricultural Society.
New York State Library-.-.----.
New York Medical Society
New York State Museum of Natural
History
New York State University
Blackwell’s Island:
New York City Lunatic Asylum
Brooklyn:
Long Island Historical Society
Mayor of the city of Brooklyn
Buftalo :
Buftalo Historical Society
Buffalo Medical Association
Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences. -
Observatory
Clinton :
Hamilton College .--.........-. BAAS
Litchfield Observator y
Cornwall:
Cornwall Library
Geneva:
Hobart College
Hamilton:
Madison University
Ithaca:
Cornell College
New York:
American Chemical Society
American Chemist

tee ee ee eee wwe eee ee

‘American Ethnological ee
American Geographical Society. -----
American Institute
American Institute of Architects. -..
American Library Journal .
American Microscopical Society
American Museum of Natural History
American Numismatic and Archxo-
logical Society

1877. | 1878.
Pa
rT

100 | 117
oa
Tihiazg
apace
rd ete
oa
4 3
Fy ee Pee
Tyee
7 6
7 9
Be eke a
5 6
1) ee

2 | es

ate 1
A ieeeee
4 3
15 15
16| 26
15: ow 28
50| 60
2 1
4 7
5 6
Lane
1 2
titaae
1 1
i [eos

55| 73
1. | see
| See
a al

SENSE 1

cae 2
1 leader

Seo ‘L.

63| 60

1. geal

13 7
1) ceed
1 1

12) ole

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Packages received by the Smithsonian Institution, §-e.—Continued.

d bd by

Nrw York—Continued.

American Public Health Association.
American Society of Civil Engineers.
Anthropological Institute of New

York
Astor Library. ---.-....--..----------

_ Bloomingdale Asylum for the Insane.

it

oo

Board of Health ‘of the city of New
York
Columbia College
Commissioners of Central Park
Engineering and Mining Journal ----
Insurance Department
Manufacturer and Builder -
Mayor of the city of New York
Medical Journal
Mredical Recorder s.-o-i-<--- ste eaeise
Mercantile Library Association
Metropolitan Board of Health
Metropolitan Museum of Art
New York Academy of Medicine -.-.
New York Academy of Sciences
New York Historical Society
New York Meteorological Gir vatory
Observatory
Bambara cscs acess coce cae ckeeiee
School of Mines.
Scientific American
Scottish American J. ee
Swedenborg Society
Swedish-Norwegian Consulate
United States Sanitary Commission .
University of the City of New York.
Van Nostrand’s Kelectic Engineer-
Tn MO AZIN Oo -\aiaacisiaisi> slo mtisieatemiat
Poughkeepsie:
Vassar College
Rochester:
Theological Seminary
Schenectady :
Union College
Utica:
State Lunatic Asylum
West Point:
MDSOLVALOLY: sc .nisisarscesieuesanece seiat.
United States Military Academy

OHIO

wee ee ne ee eee eee ee

Ashtabula:
Anthropological Society .-.---..-----
State Ar cheological Society
Athens:
Oro WMiVersitiyessescisecscecce seeee a
Cincinnati:
American Medical College ...--...---
Cincinnati Observatory
Cincinnati Quarterly Journal of
GION CONS ne see ec emcee coece sane s
Historical and Philosophical Serer
Longview Asylum for the Insane .-
Mayor of the city of Cincinnati
‘Mercantile Library ..-..--..---------
Natural History Society..-......-..-.
PRD PAD LaT yl. a <i s- cne aoe steerer
University of Cincinnati.............
Young Men’s Mercantile Library .
Cleveland :
Academy of Natural Sciences
Columbus :
Geological Survey of Ohio ...--....-.
Ohio State Board of Agriculture -
Ohio State Library
Delaware :
Museum of Wesleyan University - -
Ohio Wesleyan University
Gambier :
Kenyon Colle: ge
North Bend:
Ohio Horticultural Society......-...-
Urbana:
‘Urbana WMIVERSI by socom cai yess Seiemiats

1878.

weweee

|| Central High School
|| Commissioners of Fairmount Park...

Onro—Continued.
Yellow Springs:

Am tioch\ Colles Greterarec.ciaciente seca =

PENNSYLVANIA.
Allegheny :
Allegheny Observatory
Society of Natural Sciences
Carlisle :
Belles-Lettres Society
Dickinson College
Chester:
Crozer Theological Seminary
Easton :
American Institute of Mining En-
PINCOLS. sete eee e eee eset
Lafayette College
Germantown:
Germantown Library Association. .-.
Harrisburg:
Medical Society of the State of Penn-
Sylvanian testsocccsesesseecee eee.
Statewbibranyiesceceeseee ees eaceeaete
Philadelphia :
Academy of Natural Sciences
American Entomological Society. . ---
American Journal of Conchology ---.
American Pharmaceutical Association
American Philosophical Society - -----
Board of Health

DentaliCosmosmenceeeeee coe eee eee
Director of phe yet copppaca eect

Ge eee Saal See of Pennsylvania -
Girard Colleg Geet Cee eee ena
Historical Society of Pennsylvania...
Tnstitution for the Deaf and Dumb -
Jetferson Medical College
Library Company
Mayor of the city of Philade Iphia..
Medical Times
Mexican Commission ....-..--..----.
Observatory of Girard College ....-.-.
Officetot GrayspAtlasmes se eeeeeceeaas
Pennsylvania Hospital ...............
Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane.
Philadelphia Society for the Promo-
tion of Agriculture
Social Science Association ......
Stacey Stone Dressing Machine Com-
PANY eS Sas RSs eee eee eee
University of Pennsylvania. ........-
Wagner Free Institute of Science. ---.
Zoological Society
Pittsburg:
National Iron and Steel Publishing
Company: 3222 osn see eecee eens ee cces
South Bethlehem:
Lehigh University

RHODE ISLAND.

Providence:
Brown University -.--.----.--..-.---
City Reristrar's Offices... -. <-.<2- <5.

Rhode Island Historical Society...---
Rhode Island Society for the Encour-
agement of Domestic Industry

SOUTH CAROLINA.

Charleston:
Charleston Library Society. -.-.-.....-.
Charleston Medical Journal and Re-
VIO W226 ere ee Lae ode
Charleston Museum of Natural His-
tory

oo
are

bo bo bo

118

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Packages received by the Smithsonian Institution, §:c.—Coutinued.

1877.

1878.
SouTH CAROLINA—Continued.
Charleston Observatory. -- peter 1 ese
Elliott Society of Natural History. eh we 20
South Carolina Historical Society.--. Dil ecestas,
South Carolina Medical Association. 3 |izcSece
Columbia:
University of South Carolina......--- 3 1
Lexington:
Theological Seminary of the Evan-
gelical Lutheran Club....-.-..----s)|--=--- 1
TENNESSEE.
Knoxville:
East Tennessee University.........-. 2) |isacacs
Philomathean Society...--.---.------ He eeerera
Lebanon:
Cumberland University.........-...- HC Sota
Nashville:
Hospital for the Insane..........-.-.- Beales =
Tennessee Historical Society - - z Wiseesce
[OMIVECSIby emacs eee ee eeeeeeor Hn eases
TEXAS.
Austin:
State Pinlbrarye secneaeaeseeeec es soocic eee
Wniversiby Ot Mexass-j. sseca-- esse = o|seeene 1
Chapel Hill:
Soule University. -2-.ss5-ceescnseee- 4 2
VERMONT.
Barnet:
Vermont Historical and Antiquarian
SION D ite AEA SB ooo oabHobesbencunes Milsons s
Brattleboreugh:
Vermont Asylum for Insane...-..... i eSeee5
Burlington:
University of Vermont.-.-.--.--.---. 6 2
Castleton:
Orleans County Society of Natural
SCICNCES MEME so ee ce aaaninay te eels 26 33
Montpelier:
State Cabinet of Natural History-~--.. L lccwereit
Diate dibraryiescs-eenaceese ene ee ees 5 3
VIRGINIA.
Charlottesville:
University of Virginia.....--..-..--- 14 3
Hampden Sidney:
Hampden Sidney College. .-....------- i eee
Norfolk
Agricultural Society..--...-...-.<..- Wee scee
Richmond:
Historical Society of Virginia........ 1 eee
Medical Society of Virginia ........-- 3 1
habe wNbLaLys sce ce sce eee esses 6 1
WISCONSIN.
Appleton:
Lawrence University ......--.------<: AV eS ci< 3
Galesville:
Galesville University ..-........----- Te ee apoe
Inmansville:
Wisconsin Scandinavian Society ...-. Ai Eemoce
Janesville:
Wisconsin Institute for the Educa-
tion of the Bling sasea- oe.) oe cee lessee 1
Madison:
State Historical Society of Wisconsin.| 10 9
State Library eee ae eee ees 2 2
Superintendent of Public Instruction. oO | epeeretere
University of Wisconsin ........-..-- hs, 2
Washburn Observatory.------.-.-2.|/s2-22. il
Wisconsin Academy of Arts and Sci-
CHGES ie jae tele ee Serre eta oe 31 32
Wisconsin State Agricultural Society.| 19 19
: Milwaukee:
Milwaukee University.........-.---- Bilenaine
x

1877.
Wisconsin—Continued.
Natural History Society.....-.--..--- 3
| Skandinaviske Presseforning .....-.. 1
| Neenah:
| Scandinavian Library.-.---.....-.--. 3
| Oshkosh:

Northern Hospital for the Insane .--. 1 |

BRITISH AMERICA.

Fredericton, New Brunswick:
University of New Brunswick. ------
Halifax, Nova Scotia:
Nova Scotian Institute of Natural

SCIENCES pce dee oe cee Sees 9
Hamilton, Ontario:
Scientific Association ........0..-.5.2)sc0.--
Kingston, Ontario:
Botanical Society of Canada ...-...-.. 1
Observatory. =. <22 222: 2h a5 sb athe lesen
Queens Colleges saaener ee eee eeeanee 2
Milltown, St. Stephen’s, New
Brunswick:
‘Publicsbibranyneseeece ee ace see se 5
Montreal, Quebec:
Entomological Society .-----....----- 2 |
Geological Survey of Canada ......-.. 10
Mayor of the city of Montreal --..---|....--
McGill Colleseces a aeeee ee eens 4
Mechanics’ Institute:....--..--...--- alt
Montreal Observatory .-------.------|------
Natural History Society .-...--.----. 19
Société a’ Agriculture du Bas-Canada. at
Ottawa, Ontario:
Library of Parliament tecsi2a.oea00 3
Literary and Scientific Society -.-.--.|.---.-
Quebec, Quebec:
Geographical Society -.-.------------|---2--
Laval University:o2522<=255.2se%2se0 4
Le Naturaliste Canadien .-..--....-. 2
Literary and Historical Society -.---- 13
Opservatoryi.sss ce sees ee eee iL
Superintendent de l'Instruction Pu-
DEQUG S.t2 neat coe ee eenee aera 2
St. John, New Brunswick:
Natural History SEUNG ooendoagdesor||ss5os5
Toronto, Ontario:
Board of Agriculture Senseo tase Beobeos 2
Canadian Institute. ......-....-..-.-. 19
Literary and Historical Society ------ 1
Meteorological Office..-------.------- 2
Museum of Education .......-...---- 3
Obsenyalonyjen- ase aceee eerencaeects 4
School of Practical Science, of Agri-
Cultuneiand! Arts” <= 2° 225 eons toe 3
University of Toronto ............-.- 6
INDIVIDUALS.
Abbe; Prof. Ossse sere seats scsoas 4
Adams. "Prot. Tai s2c sete ieee ee enol eee eee
At cagsiz: (Prof Aussies eee 11
Aaikens 2M, Tl. pat lsescne see atte ein eee
Alexander, Profs Silks ace sees eects 1
Allon, Ji} Als 153 3s-cecaaceeuse neste 2
Allen: TED. Ssd basnee oe Ohm eee omelet era ce
Aly ord, Generaliisee eee see te 1
Ames, ‘Mire: Mi, Biss, fe Peer es Me) 2
Anderson, IR, UBS ee eS Se Ela io one il
VAM AT eNS! (Whe Vise atest nee a aameracas elon aera
PAMIOGL BE era: settee ete e eeeteter | oe aera
Ami bony ye. Geers eeerteme tee sceaeeter il
‘Appleton, IN cccncecemceten we eee eloeemes
“Arch? Col she seser coerce. i
Armstrong, DOCTOR eae reece wees all terete
Ashe, Commander’ Ef zilcvsec2cci..:..| ode
Ashley, NS is PRES es rece cee a
HA stor: Wie eda cies beeeietids ite tine Sen|eeees
eAtikin Sony © = ee eee cree sata emar eee
JAtkingon; Hiss s5ecccbe oo gee seen wee | ih |
Atwood & Culver, Messrs ..........- il

1878.

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Packages received by the Smithsonian Institution, §:c.—Continued.

119

1877.
InpivipuALs—Continued.

PANTS GINS IVET Seebva ML) 215075 5/5/50 ocemnoe 1
‘Austin, (Opa) Ee Se eee ea pits <
Baird rota sa Meess scones ceseereees 53
1 chy) ed Be ee eee a2 22 1
Baker, "Prof. W. S oe cee eeeee i
Ballard, ie Doe te ee Sn eee
Bancroft, Hon. Ge eRe rere es BE hal A 4
RAMGROLU ss use ee, Seine acerca oe 1
Bannister, iS [ea Eee a Saieies see tee il
(Barlior cA oss} so temeer eae se sek
Barker, Prof. G. F
Barlois, Hon. F. C
Barnard, Prof. F. A. P
Barnard, dig dN Eee aap seeseseeeensead ascdes
Barnes, ELGTiee Wit et ee ean. 4
Barnes, Surgeon-General.........---- fee ae
IBArnehien Gable Nie te, cee tec e se cee! na
Bartlett eeror Wi. He C..ks.-c sees 1
TBPRCRIG Redo Ll Digan ea ae See A SS rd ne 1
BASCOM LO Uke os oa cis Sen cole Ueicioe 1
PBaxtone Url ce VWs, co ase ciseeaciebies Sasa il
GaN WT seks a2 3 abe Seimeisosideee cciseser
IBeDDe Maser co teceeceeee tose oee 5
Bellu sees ancl init crisis cece cceevioete 1
etareuatc lier [on C pap aeigemne oe mSaeaercere acl|Cenoee
Berckanan Srl: dl a= sass mac ene ee ene 1
PBOTLON Gf ——" oe nein ce cac ce cease =e aeee!=
IS GSSetS, Mr Occ eee ete re anes 10
Bessey, Prot, ©: Wie. ose oes cess 1
BOURNE Nat Cridic Saccresctsio sine saisee 2
IBS ON iG Ay 1s DBS Se oo cece tac anonads SS5tqs
Billings, Es eee ee oan eee alpoees
Binney, RVVee SP cece Cees 5
Blake, Prof. W.P - 4
Bland, Sees fe ne oe aetecat sioner anineecee
Blazius, Professor =555¢
BlOd Ot ps oss ee ne weoens tae ee eae 1
Boardman’ GacAe === Senne secre ae cere 1
Boehmer. Gerba. see oss. ee one ee ee al
Olander WOCLOM a ee asec ace ee eenoosae
IBOrsme OnSU Gin oe oe 2 Pace eecesn eae a
Bowie Oreste sn ar sao daseeae ae er 3
Bony line la 8 bed Ws oN ae pea eseecorae 4) bocce
BO WHOS S Gut esec cnc eae anttcmecc gene a5cee
Bra LOOK ss Gy weraseccste see boseeee 2
Bradley, i naar ea ata tole tats (0 ae
itsen leh. DCO aco cee os asobsanmeecee al
Bradley, 0b J 8 ea eeaatee aetEpeseraraed tocaoe
IBSEN Se ee eee Boon CEE EEE Se aune nel aceees
Bigndel TONERS ONE ees ee ne ent il
Brovoorteh GC cceistcn. ae ticket 2
Bre mer We Mie cone ees eee ee ee 5
Broadhead, Gaon Hae Pe eee 1
Brocklesby, LESS PS Cs oe On a an Ree
Brooks, Maj. T. B by
LEG R LSS SES ee ee PO 5 Bee i
Brown). GS-2. = uso:
Brunet, L’Abbé O 1
Brush, Prof. J. G 5
(Buchanan: MoOctOrsc.csccs) Lea see eeleoeees
iBnetanean” Drsvny eee son co cote ase ee 2
Salary gee ae so ku oa eee 1
IDG d See cc ee eA eee ae eRe Bee eames
Burnham, S30) eee Sees see 8 2
LENT @Isu BR Seen ee ee ey 4
Butler, Cee es a ee eee 2
GanDyeaWig Wl ste seensacemenceceaeeee 1
Capron, General H 2
Carpenter, Prof. S P 1
(Cinitene 18 Ge or Sao seneesatnoassoce 1
(CHVSYSS 1 Gye Neg GE Ae to an BIR P96 ae SES
( CANS ST CTA ReMi Seep Les | ae
Chamberlain, Gd Oe Nee Hite eS
Ginn Glereril 9. Os cn. ses ne eee bee
handler Prof. ©.cH 20 cee ee otes 5
Chandler, Prof Webs eee 1
CE: dns S12) gD a am ee Soe 1
hase wero. b) Woe eae ee ae 1
Chanyeau) Hon.J). P) Ol... j.ceee sees 3

Claghorn, J. L
|| Clarke, Prof. F. W

INDIVIDUALS—Continued.

Chernyn Cleese eee ase e a eee

Clark, SERRE MWA Wet cs gah lhe ve. |
Claypole, EK. W
@levelan dha ease ea ee Saas Nee:
Clinton, W.G

(Coffin: Syme eer anae-cceessecsaciecaae.
Colin) Brofessorecesnae teeta sass
Comstocks Generaletes ca sccce cee ee
Congdon, T. W
@onielim AVE eens eerste aoe =

Cook, ies God
Cope, E.D
Woes; Drv Bs ssessias ces secoate tess
Cox, E. T

Craftes, Prof. J. M

Dabney,
Bale, Prof. T. N

Dana, E. S lavevauaiaae see ®

Dana, jr., Rev. R. H
Davidson; rot. Gis--ssccecesseseesce=
Davis, Rear-Admiral C. H
Davis, H. E

HeDavaSOm Who dHs antics aoccce qeeeceeescie

Dawson, Dr. J. W
Deane, Dr. C
Dejardin, 12
Dike, C
DODSOM dames! a. sseaeeaaesee se seer
Dobson, John
ibs, Calitin diy Mu cece asccecnssasseses
Downes, J
Draper, ‘Dr. D
Draper, Dr. H-
Draper, Prof. JW.
Draper, L. C
Dneatel, Madam
Eads, J. B
Eastman, Prof. J. R
Hatton. Hons dia-s2.-soscseeo eee
Maton ew iiam G2 sssceseeesesas es
IDG hyo el Soke oo cocascesunesc
Edwards, W
Egleston, Prof. T

Elder, Dr. W

Eliot, Prof. C. W
Eliot, S
Bilinwoods Drow sie asset es:
Thiot, (Doctor sssssscacscecaseacceesise
Ellis, J. B
Ellis, F. B
Ellis, Rev. G. E
HIMErsoms -eroiib see eee hteceels-saeteece
Emmons, Judze

Fal Seer “Dr. G
Ericson, Capt. J
Bixee Hie oe ese inte do temas
Farlow, Dr. W. G
Farquarson, R. J
Farskey, Colonel
a OP Atseese DAS aan OSe Oso o nae Boar Da aeeee
Ferrell, Prof. W
Fields, D. D
Firth, A

1877. | 1878.

[a aae a
Toes
sate 3
EP he orate

Hil ss-25

bia erp.

1 af
Dear

1 1

Lig estate

Wop an

Ds Weeeaiets

1 lemweee

FI cee

1 1
Toe ee
Seenee 1
7 12

8 11

12 7

fi ese

2

1

1

fosSc6 1
nae 2
31 28

Gy ee ks 4

2 |e

32 40
seeeee a
3 3

1 1

1 1
toe if
3 3
Socoss af
ik

1

a1

i

5

bE all SH ell SD ol

120

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE

SECRETARY.

Packages received by the Smithsonian Institution, §ce.—Continued.

nn ee SSeS SS
1877.

InDIvipuaLts—Continued.

IPOH Gadiecree neeineee ee msiccccaae

Foreman, Dr. E -
Fowler, W.C
Fremont, General J
Fuller, H. W

Ginbs: Ww. SOROS CHOOSE ee eSeGne > aoe
Gilbert, Geese ck acccceusseucecescee
GuileProim dW 520. sc easusceesmeneecccces
Gilman, Prof. D. G
Gilpin, Governor W ...--ss20s---0c0--
Good allVAR G2 oecmesceoreerese ets eee
Goode, Ge. B

Gashorn, AT
Grant, Maj. C.C.
Gray, Prof. A
Greene, Rey. E. L

(Giga Disa lo s45n5 5 seSuEd Seo Ossee lose sue

Grote, A. R
Gurman, DP Presi cccecmecisivseacc eee
Guttenber 2g, G
Guyot, Prof. A
Habel, Doctor
Hagen, Dr. EA
Haldeman, 8.S
Hall, Prof. A
Hall. Prof. J

Harding, C. Tihs
Harding, E
Harding, G. W -.
Hare, Prof. H. Bike Hoe e een eee

Heper & Bother Ebene ieee eatriaisie sists
Harrington, Prof. M. W
Hartrantt, Hon. J. F
Hawley, Goneralld we eee cence ee aes
Hayden Dr NeaViccornesbecesameeneene
Hayes, Dr Jd
Heinzer, Cesta Re ceton becnteoecneee
Henry, Prof. J
Heizer, I eal Dyess epee ge ae ee ee ee see
Everhort iGreen cee cnceeen cust cerceees
Higgins, E.S
Hilear HW sx woe beentetesiecenSeccme
Hilsard, Prof. J. E :
GIN GaaWie oe eon 3
Hinrichs, ProtnGu Geers eae uceee cere
Hilton, W..-

Hitchcock, Prof, iourne
Hitchcock, Prof. R. D
Hitz, J
Holden, Prof. E.S
Holden, W
Holley, A
IFLOIMES AW Let Come cee cence
Holmes, D.S
Holmes, N
oe Dr. G. et

wee wee twee eee eae:

eee ee ee ee

Howells, W. D --
Hoyt, Ja Wi... steeeeeeseensts
Humphreys, General A, A
Hun, T

1878.

mo

HEHE

Ret eno ee

INDIVIDUALS—Continued.

Hyatt, Prof. A
Isaacs, 8. E. U

Jarvis, Dr. E
Jewett, Col. E.--
Johnson, J. A .--
Johnson, O. C
JOHNSON; |S: Wit een cota eeee hee oer
Jones, C. C
Jones, IME s4ocesceee Stee ee em eee
JOly, HG sae 52 cece oe ee tee eeeeere

Fopliin hae tease Pe ecm ON
JOY, roti CNet iesseeeseae ees eoneee
Joyce, Dr. R

Kennedy, J.C.@
Kerr, W.C

Kinelee W. 18
Kingston serot Gotten eases eee eeeee
Kir es Dr. J.P

Konings, Rev. A
Kolkin, AVI: een dena bee tay cece

TsampherevAc rE oe eek eee nye
Mandrephi& SONnSe= sees essence eee cee
ane: / Gre. Sheen eee ee eka ee ee
Langley, Prof.J.P. are

Lanman, C. R

Lapham, Dr. §
Lawrence, G. N
Lawrence, Hon. W. B
Lea, Dr. Ti
LeClair, TRS a eco ees
LeConte, Dr. J
LeConte, Prof. wiosepheeasccsee- sees:
Lee, Admiral 8S. P

Leidy, Prof. J
Lemmon, J. G
Leonard, Prof. T. M
Lesley, Prof. J. P
Lesquereux, Prof. L
ieyman 2 ket Sees eos ee:
Lindermann, H. R

Me nestrette, FW...
Loomis, Prof. E
Lovering, Prof. J
Wyipiaee hs Daeg Sd Uh a bh heeerl es
lymanvProf) OlS.Ac5 22a, see seeeeeee
Lyman, (Msc occ stce
MeCago WH: Batt iccentietsesenecccice
Macoun, Prof. J
Magelsen, Rev. C
Mal GGA. W -Leccecent eee ee cee eee ees
Manigault, G. E
Marey, Dr. O
Marsh, Prof. F. A
Marsh, Prof. O. C
Mason, Prof. O. T
Master, A

Matthews. G. shi <teeeeeseeeteeeecesice
Mayes, Prof. A. M.
Mechan, J. H. M

1877. |

1878.

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Packages received by the Smithsonian Institution, §:¢.—Continued.

InpivipuALs—Continued.

WHOWGR, Uo Wise ec coccecccoucesesceece
MiicholatwNere co: e-nars cece aeeen
LCI Giey (Si 90 a ee Pa ee ees ae
Milner, Mr
Minot, Professor
Mitchel, J. E
Mitchell, H
Mitchell, Dr. S. Weir
Morgan, Dr. L
MTorman s-Ay Wass ce cence eer
iiGovaens} Deas OE rs SE Seach epecseonscdoce
Morris, Dr. J. G
NPOTSe MO Te Misi S saieciesiniecvamictten socio ete

Motley, J. L
Mnmroes Be HH. oicioniaSccmicicre
Iihiiee) tee Jed Nemes aeseaS
Myer, Brig. Gen. A. J
PNG UImOP Gl bier reese rineein= oa ieewee
Newberry, Dr. J.S
Newcomb, Prof. S
NGMmLOnIN Erol, He tA ease enc enae
Newton, General! Ji.....-..5------.2- 5-2
IN CHOISORS Wi wlacsseacmecesce eae coe
NeChosProts Re aanssesc scicimew eee
Nipher, Prof. F. E
Nivens, J. F'.--
Nolan, E. J
Northrop; Hon. Boies seseee ee
INOLtOR. WE TOfWia Ace accmcmsiectsioscdoete
NOLLOnSErOly One as eceeosceceesaee
INOUTSOMP TOD) Je Hos sreisiocce tein eerene
COUGISS Cy ee aes Boe ae eee Sa a
Oliver, Prof. J. E
Ciastead, Rev. L
psa

Wate tdce axe a
Paaren, Dr. 1: | gee at lcs Re
Packard, Dr PAC SE pescumoaweceeeek
Packard, TET PAGS Ses cee ctcsores ©
Paine, [jaca Neeinees he Aer a aaa
Palpey, J Green ceseres cece eceietbece
arcane) ree eae eet ee
Parkman, ENE ant a eatin Sais matisiciee sees
Parsons Prof. LE = steeseocc scl seca n
Patterson, Capt. C. P
Peale, Dr. A. C
Peale, TR:

Peckham Prof. S. F
Peirce, Prof. B
Perkins, Chl ee rk arabe ta alle
PELE LawAe Wiese ee cae cem tea.
Peters, Dr. C. H. F
Pettersen, Dr. F. V
TEST TETT 0 8 0 Aner el eet a ah en Be
Philbrick, J. D
ickard agen. -aseeee
Pickering, Dr. C
Pickering, Prof. E. C
HAOULENOIMN Ey Wie Oreo oe sae eeee
Pinkham, Prof. G. L
Pitkin, Doctor
Poesche, av

ea aatke ‘Dr. C Weenie Satoasacion eeeee
Powell, Maj. J. W
Powers, H. A
Prime, Dr. F
Ee ak

we eee eee eee

1878.

121

| Simon, Prof. W

INDIVIDUALS—Continued.

Pn tnaims Wem Waaes ese aaa
Putnam ochorssasaseee ee ae
Quinby Drier saaessa ae soe
Quincy, Hon. J

sand ol phyB eeeseemses cere os aecese ae
Rassmussen, Rev. P. A

Redfield, Professor
Reed, E. W
Reis, N. T
Reverbon, Jipa- ages sscses toe tas Jesse:
Rey DOS: Muss eis seo eee
Inhees PW illiami Jigme eee alee eee
Richardson Draws sees ee
Ridgway, sce See WON Sens eae OG
Riley, C. N
Roberts, @
Robinson, RY Wis ees
Rodgers, Rear-Admiral J........-----
Rodgers, PTO Rib aen aces eee
Roessler, A.R

IRoods rote Ds Neen eeeeee ee eee
Rood, Prof. O. N
Rosengarten, J. G
Ross, A. M

Rutherford, L. M
Safford, Prof, J

Saliba ‘Prof. ai as 1 ta Be

Sanborn He Bian pecs ces ceee couse |

Sandford, Jig:hit eee eae sales
Sands, Rear-Admiral B. F
Sargent, CxS eee
Saussure, Wiadeze.<

Sayre, Prof. L. A
Schaff, | BE iacns MCSE ECC A OSHE
Schott, CS AE ee See
Schroeder, Mrs. E
Schumacher, De peee aa aitsiticinee eine
Schurz bonis ooscessecece ec eaeece
Schustery Mics cece sse cian semen
ScoutnColonels-o-e asc ae cceceermasciace
SCUCGOrs Oo bee eseceee ee meee eee
Sellers. W<occssc'ensewasteeewceanesee
S@liwAmth Hho dial Crscsanc nocnoticesonceces
Sequard, Dr. C. Brown
Seyfianths DriGic sae. csonseeeee scene
Shaler, Prot. .N: Soo eee
Sheidy, i
Shugley, J
Sibley, J.
Silliman, Prof, (Bh gaseenaaeee con cnnaee

Slater, jr., Hic Nijsdeensececsieessaeee-
Smith; Al. s2 3s. asteceeaesaeictencereces
Smithy Avex sees eecemeeee
Smith, B.S

Smith ProfaSs teaser eeeeeteseeee
Smiths ProfyStesssesecswacsacae sneees
Smiths IW bh Se ce eee ccecees snes ones
Snows) Dribe aes ceeeecenc cee peuseenee
Soldan, F. P
Squier; Ha Guessceemcocc cs cackicaccuaes
Stallow dud cern eee ee ae wc oemes
Stanley, A. “& 10 SoS Shee eran eee
Steams) hae Cees

Steel, rT ha ETS

Steere, Prof. J. B
Sterling, CO ee ee Gy Satan surat bee
Stevenson, J.Jd
Stewardson, Heme eee coe Gece caanee
Stewart, E. (Cis a fre NE AE

Stirling, Crees onccsisoaedssieatescuacces

122 APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Packages received by the Smithsonian Institution, §c.—Continued.

1877. | 1878. 1877. | 1878.

INDIVIDUALS—Continued. InpIvipuALS—Continued.
locke dl, Wits sects ela ace eee ae 19 Wells: (Ji ara rcse ree ee nee eo 0 eee
LORETO) eo Sa ei ens old | Sa 27 Well si Wis EL eos eon beeen ay aoe ann. sh2he 1
Stover, Prof. F : MW eaasce Wiels@hy Jie -emse cma see e eee eee 2 ee =
SHeCkKOn He cacscuecnee See 1 onl Werner Rrot. Ase eee pee nen ene ne Eames 1
SackOwpibs IN. sees see meric tees it ee Weston, NG ccc deeb eekeeee Coen 1 1
Rwalllowa prot. Gane ae en os ean eee i Wheatley, ProfiG.p Mus: eeeaie aly wae 1
DONE Obs Gisic tes ee ete eens we 0 ene 1 || Wheeler, ‘Tieut Gi Niece ee: 6 11
ato wRNO sce eee ee epee te eacie cate 1 1 Whetherby, Brot. vAciG4=eaceese nee eee
ARavlor,sETOl.. Weds sassce ase aen cu eee 1 1 || White, Dr. ORY WIPER eee Fie ra ete tye if
ehhromass Profs Ome. sete ope onan eee 2 White, Drs O22 5ccnkenacera naan pS
PRHOMASH OM ge anemone esse eo eet 1 Whiting, Commodore We Beene enesee sees 1
pHhomison seo rca eee ae eee ens 14 || Whitney, Prof. J. a. Be ers eee ee 3 6
Thompson, Dr. J. H ------|| Whitney, Prof. W. D 5
PRO a BIR ee eee ee cel eee eta UG BWihiitiier yon Grsk une oe ante LoL rene Oe
Monen: WOT oe oees eee aaa eco SH Wabbes Pxaieble.<2ctecc sce theese
Trowbrid: Pe Proteins ee eeese neon | el eee Wickham, W. H
Trowbridge, PETROL Wiech een se ee beled eee Wigglesworth, UH Soere ees ne ee
Trumbull, Dre He eee Ge oe Salata Wilder, Prof. B. G
PIE VOTS Cais sain caer eee 2 Willey, do ee a onean eee aes ae
Tuckerman, Prof. E 3 DOE Walley SOUSHSsoeae ccecouce su: Sethe
vine SRGvs Ur! cen ssee me yee Bl eg il sear Williamson S- eee ssesccs nes ee Cee
Twining, Prof. A. C eS 3 || Wilson, J. 1 eM ao
PRVT Or Slice 0 ts eee ee ale ae noel a(n Winchell, IPTOR AA (once ect eone eee beck 3
Uhler, Prof. P. RB - Sere eke ll ls Sales 1 || Winchell, Prof. N. H 1
Van der Weyde, Prof. P. re Ga i Lol stesso Wines, Rev. ID Rea Sieac sates ses e le Lees 1
Wan tNamey Prot Anessa. saeee eee eee AGNES D) Ore a ee oe ae ye a eR. IME ir 1
Vasey, DUS Meme Ce Sa IML ula || Saris Lowes eae ae eee aaa eben ak 1
WVierrill Prot. Miyano oe Sao een Sone ee Disease WiG0d a Wareoee see cena tne som aae tea Came 1
Wineksmrathy© sete cece eee coe wan 1 1 || Wordrow, Rev. Professor ..--.--..... 1 i
Waite, Judge wince oak ote Pann soe eae Mae ssse Woodward, HD Dr (Jeers aes ee ee 2 a a 2

Walcott, Coe eee wee eee 1 || Woolsey, Pelvis 63s. 1 di ee ees
PValkersir MD). Uo ece vee. = enone Aa eerie Worthen, Prof. A. H ................ 8 7
Walker, PLO Awan ie 8 Seema eee 6 al PVC AP TOl. PAC Mina eape ne Sembee 1
AWislKOry ean ee soe. eee nh pS eee Wricht, Prof. A. W il
AVialttonwdiacd Sete st eaten aay Dilewect: Wright, Prot. phnnaees 3
Wierd: Erot: JACI so. ae aa oe aie |e 1 Wurtz, METS SP hee eee ea a came
Ware Nir. Mie Go. Soe ee: ane a eo Wyman, ME, 5232.5% oe Saees aoe ae ae ee 1
iWiarin& | ColliGa He ae oles ic eee diag eS WarnallsiProfss Miao 2 sata ye eet 1 1
Wiatsom Perot Oe. seeceee ee ware es Ali 2 Yarrow, 1 Db pale Sy Oana Tee cE OY 6 8
WVAUSONVELOtS.- se. eee ee tee) ee 5 eee Young, Ly aT Cay Wines tent Bate tc 2 5
DViced en MWe Bcc veces ecco Eaten 1 1 Young, CB ss es Gncatins oe aoe ee eee 15 9
WWiellineeProfy iC senso eee ered nero Zeledon, (PLOLyM seen ener een a 1
RECAPITULATION.
1877 1878

Hotaliaddresses ofsinshitutions#es-ee see eae eee eee er ae Ree ete ee ee 392 292
otaliaddressesiofiindividuals/--see> eae eee eee ene te a ene el 374 | 370

Motalks a: sssysetaesese este es ce ae tens ee eee nee eae ne eee Steele See 766 | 662
Rotal number of parcels torinstitutions)-. 2. 2s-ceecececce cee ceeeccesnee sheaweeecncees 3, 868 4, 059
Hotalsnumberot parcels to individuals -eoee ene eee eet a nae s in ce nen 1, 094 1, 233

PLO Lay sees aS: Sense tse See See eee ee net ce 1 set Sn eee ee eee Sa 4, 962 5, 292

ee ee a e

AGENTS FOR TRANSMISSION

Countries.

PAN Geran se cen nate ese sess

Argentine Republic. .-.-.--

Australia. (See New South
Wales, New Zealand,
Queensland, South Aus-
tralia, Tasmania, Vic-
toria.)

Austro-Hungary ..--.-----

Ie enh Ghee cadaombonoce

@anndartwsesen=eceacaeseas
Cape Colonies.........----

Central America. (See
Costa Rica, Guatemala.)
OIG A Ese ee ate te case]

Ciba ssesn s-oass ete eee

Egypt sieurcioe (esale weis,=\staiais,ale

Ganmanyeereeesaesseece =
Great Britainiecessssecs se:
Greecewcereises oes ss stecse

Guatemalasess ce S028 5-5

Guiana, British'......-.5--
Guiana Doth. ss.s-ssss--

Holland. (See Netherlands)
celandi- ote teneeccseaces

CAMNAICH ccces= ccc sce acle
PAN ss ee elses Se cee

IMIBXIC Ol sami weleweisicaecic case

New South Wales ........

Newewealand).--.c-6 access

.| Pacific

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

EXCHANGES.

123

AND DISTRIBUTION OF SMITHSONIAN

Shipping agents.

Compagnie Générale Transatlantique
(L. de Bébian), New York.
Kd. EF. Davison, New York.... .------

North German Lloyd, New York and
Baltimore.

White Cross Line of Antwerp (Funch,
Edye & Co.), New York.

Joseph 8. Spinney, New York -.-....---

Charles Mackall, vice-consul, Balti-
more, Merchants’ Line of Steamers
(B. R. Borland), New York.

New York, Alexandria, Washington,
and Geor. getown steamers.

Baltimore and Ohio Railroad foreign
freight department.

H. R. Grace & Co., New York ..-...-.

Baltimore and Ohio Railroad foreign
freight department.

Mail Steamship Company,
New York.

Pacific Mail Steamship Company -.-.-.--

Havana and West Indian Express
(Carrington & Co.), New York.

Hamburg - American Steam Packet
Company (Kunhardt & Co. ), New
York.

AS Mloress New? Work 5-22 4s. sees ce.

S. L. Merchant & Co., New York .....

Abs, Wyburg, Wasa and Finland
Steam ‘Navigation Company, Hull.

Compagnie Générale Transatlantique
(L. de Bébian), New York. Boyd
& Hincken, New York.

North German Lloyd (Oelrichs & Co.,

New York; Schumacher & Co., Bal-
timore).

Cunard Line (C. G. Francklyn), New
York. Baltimore and Ohio Railroad
foreign freight department.

Consul D. W. Botassi. New York.....

Pacific Mail Steamship Company,
New York.

Atlas Steamship Company (Pim, For-
wood & Uo.), New York.

Hamburg-American Steam Packet
Company (Kunhardt & Co.), New
York.

“Anchor Steamship Line (Henderson
& Bro.), New York.

Pacific Mail Steamship Company, New
York. Japanese consuls in New
York and San Francisco.

American Colonization Society, Wash-
ington.

Juan N Navarro, consul, New York..

Netherland-American Steamship
Navigation Company (H. Cazaux),
New York.

R. W. Cameron & Co., New York ....

R. W. Cameron &Co., New York...--

Distributing agents.

Commission Frane¢aise des Echanges
Internationaux, Paris.
Museo publico, Buenos Aires.

Dr. Felix Fligel, Leipzig.

Commission Belge d’Echanges In-
ternationaux, Brussels.

University, Chuquisaca.

Instituto “Historico, Geografico y
Ethnogratico, Rio Janeiro.

Geological Survey of Canada, Mon-
treal.
William Wesley, London.

Universidad, Santiago.
William Wesley, London.

Sociedad de Naturalistas, Bogota.

University, San José.
Prof. F'. Poey, Havana.

Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes
Selskab, Copenhagen.

Observatorio del Colegio Nacional,
Quito. ;
Institut Egyptien, Alexandria.

Commission Francaise des Echanges
Internationaux, Paris.

Dr. Felix Fliigel, Leipzig.

William Wesley, London.

Sociedad Economica de Amigos del
Pais, Guatemala.

Queen's College, Georgetown.

Surinaamsche Koloniaale Biblio-
theek, Paramaribo.

Sécrétaire de ’'Etat des Relations
Extérieures, Port-an-Prince.

Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes
Selskab, Copenhagen.

William Wesley, London.
Ulzico Hoepli, Milano.

Royal Society of Arts, KGngston.
Imperial University, Tokio.

Genootschap van Kunsten en We-
tenschappen, Batavia.

William Wesley, London.
Museo Nacional, Mexico.

Bureau Scientifique (Prof. von
Baumhauer), Harlem. Fred.
Muller, Amsterdam.

Roy al Society of New South Wales,

Sydney. :
Parliamentary Library, Welling-

ton.

124

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

AGENTS FOR TRANSMISSION, &C.—Continued.

Countries.

Et ets See eras ae

Portugal
Queensland

Shr) oessoties
PRARM ANIA Glass eerecieciee cece

Primidad 255s s-cscaesue sess
ALGhARE\y oonscocadoseccoccas
Wenezuela..-<s0<ccs-scscc0
BVACLOTIA) ibs sceccs ase occ
IWiOStUNGICS' csc cecccecosa.

-| J. Chrysoveloni & Co., Liverpool

Shipping agents.

Hamburg-American Steam Packet
Company (Kunhardt & Co.), New
York.

Joseph 8. Spinner, New York

Spanish consul, San Francisco (of-
fered).

Consul Gustav Amsink, New York - --

Hon. A. McAllister, Queensland de-
partment, London.

Wm. Ropes & Co., New York

Consul Severance, San Francisco

R. W. Cameron & Co., New York .---

Spanish consul, New York...--...-.--

Hamburg-American Steam Packet
Company (Kunhardt & Co.), New
York.

North German Lloyd (Schumacher &
Co.), Baltimore. Consul von Hey-
man, Bremen.

Crown agents for the colonies, Lon-
don.

Turkish Minister, Washington
C G. de Garmendia, New York.....--

R. W. Cameron & Co., New York

Thomas Dennison, New York (for
Antigua). H.B. Bailey, New York.
Wilson & Asmus(for Turks Islands).
Thomas Bland, New York.

See also Cuba, Jamaica, Hayti.

Distributing agents.

Kongelige Norske Frederiks Uni-
versitet, Christiania.

Biblioteca Nacional, Lima.
Royal Economical Society, Manila.

Ecola Polytechnica, Lisbon.

Government Meteorological Ob-
servatory, Brisbane.

L. Watkins & Co., St. Petersburg.

Royal Hawaiian Agricultural So-
ciety, Honolulu.

Astronomical Observatory, Ade-
laide.

Real Academia de Ciencias, Ma-
drid. '

Kongliga Svenska Vetenskaps Ak-
ademien, Stockholm.

Bundes Canzlei, Bern.

Royal Society of Tasmania, Ho-
barton.
Scientific
Spain.

Association, Port of

Soc.de Ciencias Fisicas y Natu-
rales, Caracas.
Public Library, Melbourne.

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. P25

ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS RELATIVE TO THE
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

FORTY-FIFTH CONGRESS, SEssion II.
PUBLIC RESOLUTION—NO. 6.

JOINT RESOLUTION filling an existing vacancy in the Board of Regents of the
Smithsonian Institution.

Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States
of America ta Congress assembled, That the existing vacancy in the Board
of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, of the class other than mem-
bers of Congress, shall be filled by the appointment of NoAH PoRTER,
of Connecticut, in place of JAMES D. DANA, resigned.

Approved, January 26, 1878.

PuBLIC RESOLUTION—NO. 15.
JOINT RESOLUTION filling an existing vacancy in the Board of Regents of the
Smithsonian Institution.

Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States
of America in Congress assembled, That the existing vacancy in the Board
of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, of the class other than mem-
bers of Congress, shall be filled by the appointment of WILLIAM T.
SHERMAN, of the city of Washington, in place of GEORGE BANCROFT,
of said city, resigned.

Approved, March 25, 1878.

ForTY-FIFTH CONGRESS, SESSION III.
CHAPTER 21.

AN ACT authorizing the Chancellor of the Smithsonian Institution to appoint an Act-
ing Secretary in certain cases.

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United
States of America in Congress assembled, That in the case of the death,
resignation, sickness, or absence of the Secretary of the Smithsonian
Institution, the Chancellor thereof shall be, and he is hereby, author-
ized to appoint some person as Acting Secretary, who for the time being
shall be clothed with all the powers and duties which by law are de-
volved upon the Secretary, and he shall hold said position until an elec- .
tion of Secretary shall be duly made, or until the Secretary shall be
restored to his health, or, if absent, shall return and enter upon the
duties of his office.

Approved, January 24, 1879.

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OF THE BOARD OF
REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION FOR THE
YEAR 1878.

The Executive Committee of the Board of Regents of the Smithson-
ian Institution respectfully submit the following report in relation to the
funds of the Institution, the appropriations by Congress for the support
of the National Museum, the receipts and expenditures for both the
Institution and the Museum for the year 1878, and the estimates for the
year 1879:

Statement of the condition of the funds at the beginning of the year 1879.

The amount originally received as the bequest of James

Smithson, of England, deposited in the Treasury of the

United States, in accordance with the act of Congress of

SOUS ETO 1 SAG 22.225. alates ON eee eee eat Senet. $515,169 00
Residuary 1s gacy of Smithson, received in 1865, deposited

in the Treasury of the Bed States, in accordance with

the act of Congress of February 8, 1867..............- 26, 210 63

Lotal PequestiolSMitMsonds ssc hasieenrse ee aetae wiecke $541,379 63
Amount deposited in the Treasury of the United States as
authorized by act of Congress, February 8, 1867, derived
from savings of income and increase in value of invest-

MINOTNDS (02872 hs Sein oie Sid! Syen ie idioms «fui = Ae Paces ee ets eee or 108, 620 37
Amount of the bequest of James Hamilton, of Carlisle, Pa.,
Hebriany 241874: 62 toes ae eee BOS g 58 ASA BAe as 1,000 00

Total permanent Smithson fund in the United States

Treasury, bearing interest at 6 per cent., payable
semi-annually. im. POld ae S28! Se eet oe Slee i al $651, 000 00

In addition to the above, there remains of the extra fund,

from savings, &c., in Virginia bonds and certificates, viz:

Consolidated bonds. 2. 3--2 .eas-e. nee ot $58, 700 00
Weferred, certificates . 2. cise ee 2-2 - 29, 375 O7
Fractional certificate ..2.22.282 sens... 50 13
Mota ee sins op hee en 88,125 20
Valued Jantiary, 1 S19) at ic cise Oat: 22 Cy ae ee 34, 000 00
Also, the cash balance in the United States Treasury
at the beginning of the year 1879 ......-.\-. 4..---- 19, 632 57
Total Smithson funds, January 8, 1879............ $704, 632 57

126

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Bi?)

RECEIPTS IN 1878.

Interest on $650,000, for the year 1878, at 6 per cent., gold. $39, 000 00
Premium on gold interest, July 1, 1878, at 4 per cent..... 97 50
Interest on Virginia bonds:

Sale of coupons by Riggs & Co., for January 1 and July

1, 1878, for $3,522 (December 9, 1878) at 78-79.......- 2, 776 34
Interest on Hamilton fund of $1,000 for the year
AUS) = S.8 ee (im labo emis ales ikea ieee ta. ates ane $60 00
Premium on gold, July 1, 1878, at 4 per cent-. 15
60 15
Repayment by Library of Congress:
For advances made for international exchanges in 1877. 1, 781 60
Balance on hand at the beginning of 1878................ 25, 083 90
Total-receipts for the year 1878-2. 1.36566. 5 522 ewe $68, 798 89

EXPENDITURES IN 1878.

Building, furniture, and fixtures.............- $4, 712 72
eneralyexpCNseses... so2ccce 825.0506 ai asec 18, 136 42
Publications, researches, and explorations.... - 15, 732 92
International literary and scientific exchanges. 10, 250 41
CAMO DY BO mr h ars Serene arena Ser ctca ea aie Sets oa 333 85
$49, 166 32
Cashybalance, January 1, 1819 5-2 22 25. 2 os 2 ee $19, 632 57

HAMILTON BEQUEST.

Received from James Hamilton, February 24, 1874, and de-
posited with the Smithson fund in the Treasury of the

HME C Sbalesae i sceir <a. aes seu ti Sad bate Ewes ewes - $1,000 00
Interest received from February 24, 1874, to December 31,
TESS (SS Be cai ae i, te PR 306 32
Appropriated in 1876 for exploration of cave near Carlisle,
eyes SOF Ae NE PEIMET OSS toc S 2) ale ators eas $150 00
Appropriated in 1878 for exploration of steatite
COAL MV An OTA as germs he ate =o a fajn2sn 6 Sas eae 156 32
306 32

Statement of expenditures in 1878, in detail.
BUILDING.

Repairs and. improvements... .).. ...-2.ese-eee $4, 346 43
PGES AN MXGUTES «oc. -- 13. 315 Liais sie bv seen ee «Ui 366 29

fh

12

1
bo

4,

=~]

128 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

GENERAL EXPENSES.

Meetingsiof thesBoard... <2. 0.1. bee eeu eee $399 25
Lighting the building......... SAMs A okch ROEM cy aan 260 80
ream the ullding’ ..'. 2... se. cee eeihe hee 593 37
Postage and telegraphing...........-.-.-...2:- 395 54
EAU OLY. ovo foie oc Ee ached EE ci eae 797 96
Incidentals (ice, hauling, insurance, &e.) .......- 642 03
Salaries (including allowance to family of Profes-
SOrsHenry,.@2:812.50) |...) eer ce eae «| Sesice . 14,371 96
exinavclerke hire and Jabor 2 seswe540. ee oe 200. 00
Books!and periodicals: 2c: 22 soe sso ee doe ee 475 51

$18, 136 42

PUBLICATIONS, RESEARCHES, ETC.

Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge ....... $5, 523 14
Miscellaneous Wollections: 25-0 ate eee 7,432 48
Annual Report........: Heh sed cbcoiier ite LSI Nea Taek bgt A 942 20
Bvese arches oe ctaten ave ee i see ee 1, 032 13
PRO PAALUSs sce eyeeice hs Gare reve ria de wena antral eiae 121 56
ABM ORATOTY She etioetete dts Cans See an Mee, Abe 86 21
HES pap MONA TIO DIS 3 2iz Sere yee Si A re a eo SE a 595 20

15, 732 92
Literary and scientific exchanges ....- See toe seater ee 10, 250 41
GalenyxOl ah. oe on est wees Cie Gees aU A 333 85

$49, 166 32

A larger expenditure for repairs of the building than was anticipated
was made necessary by a violent and destructive storm which visited
Washington last summer by which the finials or caps on some of the tow-
ers, and several hundred slates from the roof, were blown off, the light-
ning-rods detached, and much other damage done to the exterior of the
building. Some alterations in the interior of the east wing have been
made also.

The expenses attending “international exchanges” have steadily in-
creased, until they now absorb about one-fourth of the entire income of
the Institution. It has, therefore, in accordance with authority given
by the Board of Regents, been decided to make a charge of five cents
a pound on all packages received or sent by the government depart-
ments, @ measure rendered necessary on account of the great increase
in bulk of the public documents sent by them.

REPAYMENTS.

The Institution has made temporary advances during the year for
freight, &¢., the repayment of which, with the amount received from

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 129

sales of the publications of the Institution, have been deducted from
the expenditures for the year. These credits have been as follows:

eatin HEC AUIOUIS, SAIC -.. 15 valerate a1) sae Sralra are Sata ae wre steree te ets so $261 83
Bixchanges, repayments tor merehts.2 5-4 05-286see ese 22 oe 263 28
PO Gk EP AyINOMi ss Sweet At eth soscl weet ice a eet SS 30. 00
BS aleryecor art TepAayimemtrass i929: saa eae ee oe Ae 14 65
Postage, repayment ........ Sierehic lsc Sachse ee eee Ree cart ise 3 00
Imerdentals;repaymenhe ace se - ots Ss). US eee 2 00

Mo Gaeme SES est ee ae ht PEER Ss Ae aed eae SOL 10

ESTIMATES.

The following are the estimates of receipts by the Institution for the
year 1879, and the appropriations required for carrying on its opera-
tions during the same period:

Estimated receipts.

Interest on the permanent fund, receivable July 1, 1879,

AMC TTIATNG Ue SSO LY aro6 cinta ae SEs acid Ge ors Swe a eee $39, 000 00
interestion the Hamilton fund! for 18795. -:.. ....2. 2-2. . 60 00
Sale of Virginia coupons due January 1, 1879, and July 1,

SG Oe t Bay sthai'a lav Dujelstels false ienicis spon eae > Ha Sem te areca 2,500 00

41,560 00

ORONO WING . -s Srat ro citircyo idee staieieis ceniaim cisishe cas in oaue) 2 ae $2, 000 00
PE MOMeL Al CXPOUSES: . ccd 4. kes feajereeee 6 Ses = ies ssi es 14, 000 00
Hor publicationsand researches <-/.: 2... <.0--~ sgce cscs <2 14, 000 00
JCI Ghat e (2 Ae ee grec tehareigi 2st) eae ne 10, 000 00
Hor WOOkG and ap PATAbUGE << /io%s om eiec o's, o sislels Sowine teemealeee 1, 000 00
BOG CONUMOCNCIES 25 6645522. = eee os d stdya <biale: age oe eee 560 00

41, 560 00

The death of Professor Henry, the Secretary of the Institution, on
the 13th of May, 1878, rendered necessary a special examination of the
accounts up to that date by the Executive Committee, who found that,
of the amount on hand at the beginning of the year 1878 ($25,083.90),
there had been expended under his supervision and direction the sum
of $16,560.92, every cent of which was accounted for by vouchers and
entries in the usual books of account, with his characteristic precision
and care. The balance ($8,522.98) was transferred, on the 28th of May,
1878, by the Treasurer of-the United States, to the credit of the new
Secretary of the Institution, Prof. Spencer F. Baird, in whose name the
account of the Institution is now kept.

S. Mis. 59 9

130 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

NATIONAL MUSEUM.

The following appropriations were made by Congress in 1878 for the

“¢ National Museum.” *

“For preservation and care of the collections of the Na-
tional Museum, including those from the International
Exhibition of 1876,” for the fiscal year ending June 30,
NS TOs NER ahs D2 aia Se See ee ae 2 ene ee emnten

“For expenses of making up into sets, for distribution to
institutions of learning and museums, the duplicate
ores, minerals, and objects of natural history belonging
to the United States,” for the fiscal year ending June
SOM DGD cack. 2 wi elsictetcyayeresetese tet ene ee eee neeenisieaes stars

$18, 000 00

5,000 00

23, 000 00

Armory Building.—‘ For expense of watching and storage
of articles belonging to the United States, including
those transferred from the International Exhibition of
1876,” for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1879........

2, 500 00

25, 500 00
The following statement gives the receipts and expenditures of the

National Museum during the year 1878:
RECEIPTS.

Balance of appropriation for “ preservation
pproy i

of collections,” January 1, 1878 .......... $11, 323 21
Balance of appropriation for “Armory,” Jan-

MEATY COG ee ee ON eee ee ee eee 1,488 25
Balance of appropriation “ National Museum”

deficiency bill, January 1, 1873-22... 2 =. 2,040 90

One half of the appropriation for ‘ preserva-
tion of collections” and ‘distribution of du-

plicates,” for year ending June 30, 1879... 11, 500 00
Gne half of the appropriation for ‘‘ Armory

building,” for year ending June 30, 1879 ... 1, 250 00

Total receipts... .- Bsa g eee y Sot Te ree eer sets oe

EXPENDITURES.

First quarter of 1878, Jan- ee Bie se ca

a eee a ae Deficiency ..-. 1,914 18

Second quarter of 1878, A So * MG “
VA Tl Je pueticiee ie. ae ane a

: Deficiency --.- 126 72

* Statutes of the United States, 1877-78, page 233. —

$27, 602 36

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 13h

Third quarter of 1878, July— Preservation.. $5,423 61

September -...-- Suet HEnS Armory ...... 643 78

Fourth quarter of 1878, Octo- ( Preservation. . 6,187 09

ber-—December...... Wy ers \ PEMNOLYE sts as 684 98
Potal expendituresiss sec ec css. 3 Satine re: Re 20M Chel bate

The balance on hand for the purposes of the Museum for the remaii-
ing six months of the fiscal year ending 30th June, 1879, is $12,560.54.
of which $11,389.30 belong to the “preservation” account, and $1,171.24
to the ‘‘ Armory.”

On the 27th of September, 1877, a commission was appointed by the
President to examine the public buildings and report what additional
means should be provided to secure them from destruction or injury by
fire. This commission consisted of Col. Thomas L. Casey, United States
Engineers, Commissioner of Public Buildings; Mr. Clark, Architect of
the Capitol, and Mr. Hill, Architect of the Treasury. This Commission
visited and inspected the Smithsonian Institution, and made the follow-
ing report in regard to it, which was submitted to Congress on the 10th
of December, 1877: *

““SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.—AI1 the combustible materials used in the construe-
tion of the museum portion of the building should be removed and the parts renewed
of fire-proof construction, and the openings connected with other parts of the building
should be supplied with fire-proof doors.”

An estimate has been submitted to Congress by the Hon. Secretary of
the Interior for an appropriation of $3,000 to provide additional security
against fire in the Smithsonian building for the government collections,
in accordance with the foregoing report.

All payments on account of the “‘ National Museum” are made by the
disbursing-officer of the Department of the Interior on the presentation
of the usual vouchers, approved by the Secretary of the Smithsonian
Institution.

SUMMARY.

The Executive Committee have examined 755 vouchers for payments
made from the Smithson income during the year 1878, and 578 vouchers
for payments made from appropriations by Congress for the National
Museum, making a total of 1,333 vouchers. All these vouchers bear the
approval of the Secretary of the Institution, and a certificate that the
materials and services charged were applied to the purposes of the
Institution.

The committee have also examined the account books of the National
Museum, and find the balance as before stated, viz, $12.560.54, to cor-
respond with the certificates of the disbursing-officer of the Department
of the Interior.

*Ex. Doc. No. 10, Forty-fifth Congress, Second session, House of Representatives.

132 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

The quarterly accounts-current, bank-book, check-book, and journal
of the Institution. have been examined and found to be correct, and show
a balance to the credit of the Institution on the 8th of January, 1879, in
the hands of the Treasurer of the United States, of $19,632.57, available
for the current operations of the Institution.

Respectfully submitted.

PETER PARKER,
W. T. SHERMAN,
Executive Committee, Smithsonian Institution.
WASHINGTON, January 13, 1879.

JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS.

WASHINGTON, D. C., May 18, 1878.
A meeting of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution was
held this day at the Institution, at 8 o’clock p.m., under the. following
eall:

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
May 13, 1878.
The Regents of the Smithsonian Institution are requested to meet at
the Smithsonian building at 8 o’clock this Monday evening, to make suit-
able arrangements for the obsequies of Prof. Joseph Henry, whose
decease occurred at 12.10 o’clock this afternoon.
By order of—
M. R. WAITE, Chancellor.

Present, the Chancellor—Chief Justice Waite, Hon. H. Hamlin, Hon.
A. A. Sargent, Hon. R. E. Withers, Hon. H. Clymer, Hon. J. A. Gar-
field, Hon. Peter Parker, General W. 'T’. Sherman.

The Chancellor made the following remarks:

My BRETHREN OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS: I have asked you
to come together this evening not to take action upon the great loss our
Institution has sustained, but to consult as to what may best be done to
pay honor to all that is mortal of the great and good man who, conceiv-
ing what Smithson willed, has devoted his life to making the bequest of
our benefactor what he wished it to be, an instrument “ for the increase
and diffusion of knowledge among men.”

The Chancellor stated that he understood that the family of Professor
Henry had expressed the wish that the Board of Regents should make
all the arrangements for the funeral.

Several of the Regents expressed their opinion that this was not the
appropriate time to eulogize the deceased, as another and full meeting
of the Board should be called for that purpose.

The following resolutions were adopted:

Resolved, That the Chancellor be directed to notify the President of
the United States and his Cabinet, the Supreme Court of the United
States, the Supreme Court of the District of Columbia, the two houses of
Congress, the General of the Army, the Admiral of the Navy, the Diplo-
matic Corps, the Light-House Board, the National Academy of Sciences,
the Washington Philosophical Society, and other organizations with

133

134 JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS.

which he was connected, of the death of Prof. Joseph Henry, and to in-
vite them to attend his funeral.

Resolved, That the funeral take place on Thursday, 16th May, at the
New York Avenue Presbyterian Church, at 4.30 o’clock p. m.

fesolved, That the Regents meet at the Institution on Thursday next
at 4 o’clock p. m. to attend the funeral in a body.

Resolved, That a committee, consisting of General Sherman, Hon.
Peter Parker, and Prof. 8. F. Baird, Assistant Secretary of the Institu-
tion, be appointed to make arrangements for the funeral ceremonies.

Resolved, That a meeting of the Board of Regents be held on Friday
next, 17th May, at 10 o’clock, a. m. for the purpose of transacting such
business as may come before it.

The Board then adjourned.

WASHINGTON, D. C., May 17, 1878.

A meeting of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution
was held this day at 10 o’clock a. m.

Present, the Chancellor—Chief Justice Waite, Hon. H. Hamlin, Hon.
A. A. Sargent, Hon. R. E. Withers, Hon. H. Clymer, Hon. J. A. Gar-
field, Rev. Dr. John Maclean, Hon. Peter Parker, Dr. Asa Gray, Gen-
eral W. T. Sherman, President Noah Porter.

General Garfield was requested to act as secretary.

At the request of the Chancellor, Rey. Dr. Maclean led in prayer
for Divine guidance of the Regents in their present deliberations.

The following resolutions were then adopted:

1. Resolved, That the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution hereby
express their profound sorrow at the death of Prof. Joseph Henry,
late Secretary of this Institution, and tender to the family of the de-
ceased their sympathy for their great and irreparable loss.

2. Resolved, That in consideration of the long-continued, faithful, and
unselfish services of Joseph Henry, our late Secretary, there be paid to
his widow the same sum to which he would have been entitled, as sal-
ary, for the remainder of this year, and that the Secretary be directed
to make payment to her for the amount thereof monthly.

3. Resolved, That Mrs. Henry be informed of this action of the Board,
and the desire of the Regents that she will continue the occupancy of
the apartments now in her use for such period, during the remainder of
this year, as may suit her convenience.

4, Resolved, That a committee be appointed who shall prepare and
submit to this Board at its next annual meeting a sketch of the life,
character, and public services of the late lamented Secretary, which
shall be entered upon the records.

5. Resolved, That the Executive Committee of the Board be requested
to make arrangements for a public commemoration in honor of the late
Secretary of the Institution, of such a character and at such a time as
they may determine.

JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. 135

The Chancellor appointed as the special committee under the fourth
resolution, President Porter, Dr. Gray, and Dr. Maclean.

On motion, it was resolved to consider the subject of election to fill
the vacancy in the office of Secretary of the Institution.

Dr. Parker urged the propriety of deferring the election of Secretary
to a later meeting, as it might appear precipitate to elect now.

Senator Hamlin thought the Board ought to proceed at once to elect
a Secretary. To delay would be to invite great contention for the
office.

Senator Withers thought the discussion should be confined to the
question of postponement.

Dr. Parker then moved that the appointment of a permanent Secre-
tary be postponed until the next annual meeting in January, and sug-
gested that the Assistant Secretary might be invested with power to
perform all the functions of Secretary during the interim.

Dr. Maclean said that when President Burr, of Princeton, died, his
successor, President Edwards, was elected the fourth day after. He
thought prompt action the wisest, and advocated the election of Pro-
fessor Baird.

Mr. Clymer read the statute, and insisted that the Board was legally
bound to elect a Secretary. No funds could be drawn nor payments
made by any other officer, and an ad interim appointment was not pro-
vided for by the law of organization.

General Garfield suggested to Dr. Parker that he withdraw his mo-
tion, and that the Board proceed to elect, so that action might be taken
of an affirmative rather than of a negative character.

President Porter expressed the opinion that the Board could elect a
Secretary pro tempore.

Dr. Parker then withdrew his motion; and the construction of the
statute by Mr. Clymer was agreed to by the majority of the Board.

Mr. Clymer moved to proceed to the election of a Secretary; which
was agreed to.

The Chancellor appointed Mr. Sargent and Mr. Clymer as tellers.

The vote was then taken by ballot, and the tellers reported that eleven
ballots were cast, all of which were for Spencer Fullerton Baird.

Messrs. Sargent and Clymer were appointed a committee to wait upon
Professor Baird and inform him of his election, and invite him to attend
the meeting of the Board.

The committee discharged this duty; and at half past eleven o’clock
a. m. introduced the Secretary-elect to the Regents.

The Chancellor then formally announced to Professor Baird his unani-
mous election as Secretary.

Professor Baird made a brief acknowledgment of the honor con-
ferred upon him, and stated that he would endeavor to discharge his
duties faithfully and in accordance with the views of his lamented pre-
decessor.

136 JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS.

On motion, it was

Resolved, That the Chancellor prepare a suitable notice of the death
of Professor Henry, to be sent to foreign establishments in correspond-
ence with the Institution, and also notifying them of the election of Pro-
fessor Baird as Secretary.

The Chancellor stated that the resignation of Mr. Bancroft had
occasioned a vacancy in the Executive Committee, and, on motion, it
was

Resolved, That the vacancy in the Executive Committee be filled by
the election of General Sherman.

The Board then adjourned sine die.

Agreeably to the resolution of the Board, the Chancellor of the Insti-
tution, on behalf of the Regents, prepared the following circulars, which
were promptly distributed to the correspondents of the Institution in all
parts of the world:

“SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
“ Washington, D. C., May 14, 1878.

“On behalf of the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, it becomes
my mournful duty to announce the death of the Secretary and Director
of the Institution, Joseph Henry, LL. D., which occurred in this city on
Monday, May 13, at 12.10 o’clock p. m.

‘‘ Professor Henry was born in Albany, in the State of New York, De-
cember 17, 1799. He became professor of mathematics in the Albany
Academy in 1826; professor of natural philosophy in the College of
New Jersey, at Princeton, in 1832, and was elected the first Secretary
and Director of the Smithsonian Institution in 1546,

‘‘ He received the honorary degree of Doctor of Laws from Union Col-
lege in 1829, and from Harvard University in 1851.

‘* He was president of the American Association for the Advancement
of Science in 1849; was chosen president of the United States National
Academy of Sciences in 1868; president of the Philosophical Society
of Washington in 1871, and Chairman of the Light-House Board of the
United States in the same year; the last three positions he continued
to fill until his death.

‘¢ Professor Henry made contributions toscience in electricity, electro-
magnetism, meteorology, capillarity, acoustics, and in other branches of
physies; he published valuable memoirs in the transactions of various
learned societies of which he was a member, and devoted thirty-two
years of his life to making the Smithsonian Institution what its founder
intended it to be, an efficient instrument for the “increase and diffusion
of knowledge among men.”

VE a WATER,
“Chancellor of the Smithsonian Institution.

JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. 137

“SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,

“ Washington, D. C., May 17, 1878.
“At a special meeting of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian
Institution, held this day, Prof. Spencer Fullerton Baird, for many
years the assistant secretary of the Institution, was duly elected as the
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, to succeed the late Prof. Joseph

Henry.
CM. Rs WALDE,
“ Chancellor of the Smithsonian Institution.”

WASHINGTON, D. C., January 15, 1879.

A meeting of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution
was held this day in the Regents’ room, at 10 o’clock a. m.

Present, the Chancellor—Chief Justice Waite; Hon. W. A. Wheeler,
Vice-President of the United States, Hon. A. A. Sargent, Hon. R. E.
Withers, Hon. J. A. Garfield, Hon. H. Clymer, Dr. J. Maclean, Dr. A.
Gray, Dr. H. Coppée, Hon. Peter Parker, President Porter, General Sher-
man, and the Secretary, Professor Baird.

An excuse was received from Hon. H. Hamlin for non-attendance, his
absence being occasioned by his appointment by the Senate on a special
committee to accompany the remains to Texas of Hon. G. Schleicher, a
deceased member of Congress.

The minutes of the last meeting were read and approved.

The following communication from Mrs. Henry was laid before the
Board by the Chancellor :

Hon. M. R. WAITE,
Chief Justice of the United States,
Chancellor of the Smithsonian Institution :

My Dear Str: In my great affliction it is consoling to receive from
friends tributes of sympathy and testimonials of respect for my late
husband. I feel very deeply the kind consideration of the Board of
Regents in their official capacity. Permit me, through you, to express
to them the heartfelt thanks of my children and myself for the liberality
extended to us and the full appreciation of Mr. Henry’s character and
labors while connected with the Institution, and for the public testi-
monials of respect and honor to his memory.

With my best wishes for the continued prosperity of the Institution,
believe me yours, respectfully,

H. A. HENRY.

WASHINGTON, January 15, 1879.

On motion of General Garfield, it was—

Resolved, That the letter of Mrs. Henry be placed in the files of the
Institution, and entered in the journal of the Board.

The Secretary, Professor Baird, presented a statement of the financial
condition of the Institution for the year 1878, which for convenience ot
reference he had printed.

138 JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS.

Dr. Parker, in behalf of the Executive Committee, presented the an-
nual report of receipts, expenditures, estimates, &c., which at his request
was read by General Sherman.

On motion of Mr. Withers, the report was adopted.

Dr. Parker, in behalf of the Executive Committee, presented a report
in relation to the duty imposed on them by the fifth resolution of the
Board of Regents, adopted at the meeting of May 17, 1878, “‘to make
arrangements for a public commemoration in honor of the late Secre-
tary of the Institution.” The committee had held numerous meetings,
the minutes of which were teael and the arrangements had finally been
made as follows:

The exercises will be held in the Hall of the House of Representatives
on Thursday evening, 16th of January, 1879.

The Vice-President of the United States, supported by the Speaker
of the House, will preside on this occasion, and the Senate and House
will take part in the exercises.

1. Opening prayer by Rev. Dr. McCosh, President of Princeten Col-

lege.

2. Address by Hon. H. Hamlin, of the United States Senate.

3. Address by Hon. R. E. Withers, of the United States Senate.

4, Address by Prof. Asa Gray, of Harvard University.

5. Address by Prof. W. B. Rogers, of Boston.

6. Address by Hon. Jas. A. Garfield, of the House of Representa-
tives.

7. Address by Hon. 8. 8. Cox, of the House of Representatives.

8. Address by General W. T. Sherman.

9. Concluding prayer by Rev. Dr. Sunderland, Chaplain of the Senate.

By authority of the Speaker of the House, reserved seats will be pro-
vided on the floor of the House for the following bodies with which Pro-
fessor Henry was associated :

1. The Regents of the Smithsonian Institution and the orators of the
evening, who will meet in the room of the Speaker of the House.

2. The National Academy of Sciences.

3. The Washington Philosophical Society.

4, The Light-House Board, who will meet in the room of the Commit-
tee of Ways and Means.

5. The Alumni Association of Princeton College.

6. The Trustees of the Corcoran Gallery of Art.

7. The Washington Monument Association, who will meet in the room
of the Committee on Appropriations.

On motion of Mr. Sargent, the action of the committee was approved.

On motion of General Garfield, it was—

Resolved, That the Board of Regents assemble on Thursday evening
next at half past seven o’clock, in the Speaker’s room at the Capitol, to
proceed in a body to attend the exercises in the Hall of the House of
Representatives in honor of the memory of Professor Henry.

JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. 139

On motion of General Garfield, it was—

Resolved, That the Chancellor be empowered to act for the Board of
Regents in making the final arrangements for the memorial exercises.

President Porter, from the special committee appointed at the last
meeting, under the fourth resolution adopted by the Board, “to prepare
a sketch of the life, character, and public services of Professor Henry,”
made a report that Dr. Gray had been selected by the committee to pre-
pare the eulogy on behalf of the Board of Regents, and that it would
form part of the exercises at the public commemoration at the CapitoL

Dr. Gray remarked that he had only recently been informed of his
appointment to perform the service required, but that he had prepared
a paper, which he would now present to the Board.* He had been limited
by the committee to thirty minutes, but had arranged with Professor
Rogers so that both should only occupy an hour. He would, however,
insert details and documents in notes which could be printed with the
eulogy.

On motion of General Garfield, Dr. Gray was requested, as the repre-
sentative of the Board of Regents, to make his address as full and com-
plete as possible.

General Garfield called attention to the fact that the increased busi-
ness of the Institution had made it necessary to take the rooms in the
east wing, formerly occupied by Professor Henry as a residence, for
offices, and that it was therefore proper that a suitable allowance be
made to Professor Baird for house-rent. After some conversation on
the subject, it was—

Resolved, That the Executive Committee consider the propriety of
making an allowance to the Secretary for house-rent and report on the
subject at the next meeting of the Board.

On motion of Dr. Gray, it was—

Resolved, That the Board adjourn to meet on Friday morning, 17 th
January, at half-past 9 o’clock, to hear the annual report of the Secre-
tary and to transact any other business which may be necessary.

The Board then adjourned.

WASHINGTON, D. C., January 16, 1879.
A meeting of the Board of Regents was held this day at 7.30 o’clock,
p- m., in the room of the Speaker of the House of Representatives, and
at 8 o’clock the Regents proceeded in a body to the Hall of the House of
Representatives, to attend the public exercises in honor of Prof. Joseph
Henry, late Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

WASHINGTON, D. C., January 17, 1879.
A meeting of the Board of Regents was held this day in the Regent’s
room at 9.30 o’clock a. m.
Present, the Chancellor—Chief-Justice Waite, Hon. A. A. Sargent,
Hon. R. E. Withers, Hon. James A. Garfield, Hon. Hiester Clymer,

* See Appendix to Journal of the Board.

140 JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS.

Hon. Peter Parker, Rev. Dr. John Maclean, Prof. Asa Gray, Prof. Henry
Coppée, President Noah Porter, General Sherman, and the Secretary,
Professor Baird.

The minutes of the meeting of January 15 were read and approved.

The Chancellor laid before the Board several hundred letters received
in reply to the circulars issued by the Institution, announcing the death
of Professor Henry, and the election of his successor.

The subject of the publication of the eulogies on Professor Henry,
together with an account of his scientific writings, &c., was discussed,
and on motion of Dr. Maclean, it was—

Resolved, That a special committee of three be appointed, of which
the Secretary of the Institution shall be one, to prepare a memorial of
Professor Henry, to include in a separate volume of the Smithsonian
series such biographies and notices of the late Secretary of the Institu-
tion as may be considered by them worthy of preservation and publi-
cation. p

The Chancellor appointed Messrs. Gray, Parker, and Baird, as the
committee.

The Chancellor then stated that any remarks the Regents desired to
make in relation to Professor Henry were in order.

Dr. Parker addressed the Board as follows:

Mr. CHANCELLOR AND FELLOW REGENTS: We are making history,
and I wish to say a few words that shall remain upon its page, in mem-
ory of Joseph Henry, our beloved and lamented friend and Secretary,
when we, like him, shall have passed from earth.

Many have already pronounced his eulogy and set forth his rare tal-
ents and influence upon the world, and I need not, and could not, were
I to attempt it, add to your appreciation of Professor Henry, his life
and character, as a friend, scientist, and Christian, the highest type of
man.

For twenty years I have been intimately acquainted with Professor
Henry, and happily associated with him in many ways; for ten years as
a Regent of the Smithsonian Institution, and as a member of the Exec-
utive Committee all that period our intercourse has been frequent and
intimate. J have never known a more excellent man.

His memory has been much on my mind since he left us, and I often
find myself inquiring how he and others like him are occupied now.
His connection with time is severed, but his existence continues. When
I recall the names of Professors Franklin Bache, Charles G. Page, Louis
Agassiz, Joseph Henry, and others of similar intellect and virtue, I
find myself asking the question, Are to them all consciousness and
thought suspended by separation from the body? I am reluctant to
come to such conclusion. But this I know, the Infinite Fathers ways are
right.

It seems most providential that Professor Henry had the opportunity

JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. 141

and the strength to give in person his last words, a priceless legacy, to
the National Academy at its annual meeting in Washington, in April,
and through that association to the civilized and scientific world; I
refer to his sentiment ‘that moral excellence is the highest dignity of man.”

The loftiest talents and highest attainments without this are deficient
in that, which, in the judgment of wise men and of Infinite Wisdom, is
of greatest worth. Was there ever a man from whom the sentiment
could come with better grace?

The opinion has been expressed, and I do not regard it extravagant,
that the letter addressed by Professor Henry to his friend Joseph Pat-
terson, emanating from such a mind, such a man, at the close of a pro-
tracted life of singular distinction, was worth a lifetime to produce. It
has probably been read by millions, in various languages, and will be by
future generations.

Professor Henry was not only a man of science, a discoverer of nature’s
laws and forces, but a sincere believer in God their Author and in his
atoning Son. To quote his language: “ We are conscious of having evil
thoughts and tendencies that we cannot associate ourselves with a Di-
vine Being, who is the Director and Governor of all, or even call upon
him for mercy, without the intercession of one who may affiliate himself
with us.”

Let me quote from the prayer offered at his obsequies and to which
we repeat our sincere Amen; the lips that uttered it, in less than one
short month were silent in death, and the two remarkable men, Pro-
fessors Joseph Henry and Charles Hodge, closely united in life were not
long divided by death :

‘We thank Thee, O God, that Joseph Henry was born; that Thou
didst endow him with such rare gifts, intellectual, moral, and spiritual;
that Thou didst spare him to a good old age, and enable him to accom-
plish so much for the increase of human knowledge and for the good of
his fellow-men; and above all that Thou didst hold him up before this
whole nation as such a conspicuous illustration of the truth that moral
excellence is the highest dignity of man.”

On motion of Dr. Maclean, it was—

Resolved, That the thanks of the Board of Regents be presented to
the gentlemen who took part in the memorial services held in the Uni-
ted States Capitol on the 16th of January in honor of the late Professor
Henry, and that they be requested to furnish copies of their remarks on
that occasion.

Dr. Maclean stated that he intended in the above resolution to include
General Sherman, who was prevented by the lateness of the hour from
delivering the whole address he had prepared, Rev. Drs. MeCosh and
Sunderland, who offered prayers, and Mr. Clymer, who made a few
introductory remarks of an exceedingly interesting character in pre-
senting telegrams which had been sent to the meeting from London.

142 JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS.

General Sherman, from the Executive Committee, presented a report
on the subject of an allowance for house-rent to the Secretary, with the
following preamble and resolution :

Whereas the east wing of the Smithsonian building, heretofore used
as a residence by Professor Henry, is required for the purposes of the
Institution; and whereas the present Secretary owns and occupies a
separate residence in the city of Washington, for which it is but just
aud proper that he should be allowed compensation: Therefore,

Resolved, That the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Prof. S.
F. Baird, be allowed the sum of one hundred dollars per month for rent,
fuel, gas, &c., from the date of his election as Secretary, May 17, 1878,
to the 31st of December, 1879.

The Secretary presented his annual report, which was read, and it was

Resolved, That the annual report of the Secretary be Hay ed and
pomernited to Congress.

Dr..Parker suggested that there was a matter of some importance
which ought to receive attention at this meeting. The Senate had
passed on the 9th of January the following bill

For the erection of a fire-proof building for the National Museum.

“ Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United
States of America in Congress assembled, That for a fire-proof building
for the use of a National Museum, three hundred feet square, to be
erected under the direction and supervision of the Regents of the Smith-
sonian Institution, in accordance with the plans now on file with the
Joint Committee of Public Buildings and Grounds, on the southeast
corner of the grounds of the Smithsonian Institution, the sum of two
hundred and fifty thousand dollars is hereby appropriated out of any
money in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated; said building to be
placed east of the Smithsonian Institution, leaving a roadway between
it and the latter of not less than fifty feet, with its north front on a line
with the south face of the buildings of the Agricultural Department
and of the Smithsonian Institution; and all expenditures for the pur-
poses herein mentioned, not including anything for architectural plans,
shall be audited by the proper officers of the Treasury Department.”

If this should pass the House and become a law it would be necessary
for the Board of Regents to take action in regard to the new building.

On motion of Mr. Clymer, it was

Kesolved, That the Executive Committee of this Board, and the Sec-
retary, or a majority thereof, be, and they are hereby, authorized and
empowered to act for and in the name of the Board of Regents in ear-
rying into effect the provisions of any act of Congress which may. be
passed providing for the erection of a building for the National Museum.

The Board then adjourned sine die.

BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR OF JOSEPH HENRY,

PREPARED IN BEHALF OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS,

BY

Pror. ASA GRAY.

The Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, on the day following the
obsequies of their late Secretary, resolved to place upon record, by the
hands of their committee, a memorial of their lamented associate. The
time has arrived when this should be done, now that the Institution
enters upon another official year, and its bereavement is brought freshly
to mind.

Although time may have assuaged our sorrow, as time will do, and
although the recollection that a well-spent life was well appreciated and
not prematurely closed should temper regret, yet they have not dulled
our sense of loss, nor lessened our estimate of the signal services to
science, to this Institution, and to the general good which remarkable
gifts and a devoted spirit enabled this man to render.

If we would fit this memorial to the subject of it, we must keep in
mind Professor HENRY’s complete and transparent, but dignified sim-
plicity and modesty of character, in which a delicate sense of justice
went along with extreme dislike of exaggeration, and aversion to all that
savored of laudation.

Yet it is not for ourselves, his associates—some of few, some of many
years—that this record is made; nor need we speak for that larger circle
of his associates, the men of science in our land, who will, in their sevy-
eral organizations, recount the scientific achievements of their late leader
and Nestor. And nothing that we can say will enhance the sentiments
of respect, veneration, and trust with which he was regarded here, in
Washington, by all who knew him, whether of high or humble station.
Even those, here or elsewhere, who came only into occasional intercourse
with him, will remember that thoughtful and benignant face ;—certainly
it will be remembered by those who, in that recourse to him which it
was always easy to gain, have seen the mild seriousness of a somewhat

abstracted and grave mien change into a winning smile, sure precursor
143

144 BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR OF JOSEPH HENRY.

of pleasant words, cheerful attention, and, if need were, wise counsel
and cordial help. But we are all passing,.as he has passed, and the
tribute to his memory which it is our privilege to pay, is a duty to those
who are to come after us.

JOSEPH HENRY was of Scotch descent. His grandparents, paternal
and maternal, landed at New York from the same vessel on the day
before the battle of Bunker Hill. The Henrys settled in Delaware
County, the Alexanders in Saratoga County, New York. Of his father,
William Henry, little is known. He died when his oldest son, Joseph,
was eight or nine years old. His mother lived to a good age.* Hewas
born at Albany very near the close of the last century.t His boyhood
was mostly passed with his maternal grandmother in the country at
Galway. His early education was such as a country common school
would furnish to a lad of inquisitive mind but no aptness for study.
The fondness for reading came early, but in a surreptitious way.

One day, in the pursuit of a pet rabbit, he penetrated through an
opening in the foundation-wall of the village mecting-house. A glim-
mer of light enticed him through the broken floor into a room above, in
which an open bookcase contained the village library. He took down
a book—Brooks’s Fool of Quality—was soon absorbed in the perusal,
returned again and again to this, which he said was the first book le
ever opened voluntarily, and to all the works of fiction which the library
contained. Access in the regular way was soon granted to him.

The lad at this time was a clerk, or office-boy, in the store of a Mr.
Broderick. He returned to Albany at the age of fourteen or fifteen.
We may count it as a part of his education that he there served a brief
apprenticeship to a silversmith, in which he acquired the manual dex-
terity afterward so useful to him. Opportunely perhaps, the silversmith
soon failed in business, and young HENRY was thrown out of employ-
ment. His powers were now developing, but not in the line they were
soon to take. To romance reading was now joined a fondness for the
theater. Not content with seeing all the plays he could, he found his
way behind the scenes, and learned the methods of producing stage

* She is remembered as a lady of winning refinement of mien and character, of small
size, with delicate Grecian features, fair complexion, and when young she is said to
have been very beautiful.

tThe date, December 17, 1797, given in the American Cyclopedias, appears to be
wrong; was’ perhaps misprinted. There is little doubt that he was born on the 17th

oO?

of December, 1799.

;

BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR OF JOSEPH HENRY. 145

effects. He joined a juvenile forensic and theatrical society, called the
Rostrum, and soon distinguished himself in it by his ingenuity in stage
arrangements. He was made president, and having nothing else to do
at the time, he gave his whole attention to the Rostrum. He drama-
tized a tale, wrote a comedy, and took a part in its representation. Un-
usually comely in form and features, and of prepossessing address, our
future philosopher was in a fair way to become an actor, perhaps a dis-
tinguished one.

But now a slight illness confined him for a few days to his mother’s
house. To while away the hours he took up a small book which a
Scotchman, who then occupied a room in the house, had left upon his
mother’s table. It was ‘‘ Lectures on Experimental Philosophy, Astron-
omy, and Chemistry, intended chiefly for the use cf young persons, by
G. Gregory,” an English clergyman. It is an unpretending volume, but
a sensible one. It begins by asking three or four questions, such as
these:

‘You throw a stone, or shoot an arrow into the air; why does it not.
go forward in the line or direction that you give it? Why does it stop
at a certain distance, and then return to you? * * * Qn the con-
trary, why does flame or smoke always mount upward, though no force
is used to send them in that direction? And why should not the flame
of a candle drop toward the floor when you reverse it, or hold it down-

rard, instead of turning up and ascending into the air? * * *
Again, you look into a clear well of water and see your own face and
figure, as if painted there. Why is this? You are told that it is done
by reflection of light. But what is reflection of ight?”

Young HENRY’s mind was aroused by these apt questions, and allured
by the explanations; he now took in a sense of what knowledge was.
The door to knowledge opened to him, that door which it thence became
the passion of his life to open wider. Thenceforth truth charmed him
more than fiction. At the next meeting of his dramatic association he
resigned the office of president and took his leave in a valedictory ad-
dress, in which he assured his comrades that he should now prepare to
play his part on another stage, with nobler and more impressive scenes.
The volume itself is preserved in Professor HENRY’s library. Ona fly-
leaf is the following entry:

*« This book, although by no means a profound work, has, under Prov-
idence, exerted a remarkable influence upon my life. It accidentally
fell into my hands when I was about sixteen years old, and was the first
work I ever read with attention. It opened to me a new world of

_ thought and enjoyment; invested things before almost unnoticed with

4

S. Mis. 59-——10.

146 BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR OF JOSEPH HENRY.

the highest interest; fixed my mind on the study of nature, and caused
me to resolve at the time of reading it that I would immediately com-
mence to devote my life to the acquisition of knowledge.”

The pursuit of elementary knowledge under difficulties and priva-
tions now commenced. At first he attended a night-school, where he
soon learned all the master could teach. At length he entered Albany
Academy, earning the means at one time by teaching a country district
school, later by serving as tutor to the sons of Gen. Stephen Van Rens-
selaer the patroon. Then he took the direction of a road-survey across
the southern portion of the State, from West Point to Lake Erie, earn-
ing a little money and much credit. He returned to Albany Academy
as an assistant teacher, but was very soon, in 1828, appointed professor
of mathematics. He had already chosen his field, and began to make
physical investigations.

It is worth noticing that just when HENRY’s youthful resolution to
devote his life to the acquisition of knowledge was ready to bear fruit,
another resolve was made, in England, by another scientific investiga-
tor, James Smithson, in his will, executed in October, 1828, wherein he
devoted his patrimony ‘‘TO FOUND AT W ASHINGTON AN ESTABLISHMENT
FOR THE INCREASE AND DIFFUSION OF KNOWLEDGE AMONG MEN.”
Who could have thought that the poor lad, who resolved to seek for
knowledge as for hid treasure, and the rich man of noble lineage, who
resolved that his treasure should increase and diffuse knowledge, would
ever stand in this interesting relation; that the one would direct and
shape the establishment which the other willed to be founded!

The young professor’s position was an honorable but most laborious
one. Although Albany Academy was said by the distinguished presi-
dent of Union College in those days to be “a college in disguise,” it
began its work low down. Its new professor of mathematics had to
teach seven hours of every day, and for half of this time to drudge with
a large class of boys in the elements of arithmetic. But he somehow
found time to carry on systematically the electro-magnetic researches
which he had already begun. In the very year of his appointment,
1828, he described in the Transactions of the Albany Institute a new
application of the galvanie multiplier, and throughout that year and the
next he carried on those investigations which, when published at the
beginning of the ensuing year, January, 1851, in that notable first
paper in the American Journal of Science and the Arts, at once brought
HENRY’s name to the front line among the discoverers in electro-mag-
netism.

oe

BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR OF JOSEPH HENRY. [44

Sturgeon may be said to have first made an electro-magnet ; HENRY
undoubtedly made the electro-magnet what it is. Just after Barlow in
England had declared that there could be no electric telegraph to a long
distance, HENRY discovered that there could be, how and why it could
be; he declared publicly its practicability, and illustrated it experi-
mentally by setting up a telegraph with such length of wire as he could
conveniently command, delivering signals at a distance by the sounding
of a bell.

Previously to his investigations the means of developing magnet-
ism in soft iron were imperfectly understood (even though the law from
which they are now seen to flow had been mathematically worked out
by Ohm), and the electro-magnet which then existed was inapplicable
to the transmission of power to a distance. HENRY first rendered it ap-
plicable to the transmission of mechanical power to a distance; was the
first actually to magnetize a piece of iron at a distance, and by it to
deliver telegraphic signals. He showed what kind of battery must be
employed to project the current through a great length of wire, and
what kind of coil should surround the magnet used to receive this cur-
rent and to do the work.*

For the telegraph, and for electro-magnetic machines, what was now
wanted was not discovery, but invention, not the ascertainment of
principles, but the devising of methods. These, the proper subjects of
patent, have been supplied in various ways and, as to the telegraph,
with wonderful efficiency ;—in Europe, by the transmission of signs
through the motion of amagnetic needle; in America, by the production
of sounds or records by the electro-magnet. Morse was among the first
to undertake the enterprise, and—when directed to the right way
through Professor Gale’s acquaintance with HENRyY’s published re-
searches—he carried the latter mode into practical and most successful
execution. If HENRY had patented his discovery, which he was urged,
but declined to do, Morse could have patented only his alphabetical mode
of signaling, and perhaps the use of relay-batteries, the latter indis-
pensable for long lines upen that system.

The scientific as well as popular effect of Professor HENRY’s first
paper in Silliman’s Journal was immediate and great. With the same
battery that Sturgeon used he developed at least a hundred times more
magnetism. The instantaneous production of magnets lifting four hun-

*Scee Supplementary Note I, Leading Points in the History of the Telegraph.

148 BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR OF JOSEPH HENRY.

dred and twenty times their own weight, of those which with less than
a pint of dilute acid acting on two hands’ breadth of zine would lift
seven hundred and fifty pounds, and this afterward carried up to a
magnet lifting thirty-three hundred pounds, was simply astonishing.
Yet it was not these extraordinary results, nor their mechanical appli-
cations, which engaged Professor HENRY’s attention so much as the
prospect they opened of a way by which to ascend to higher discovery
of the laws of nature. In other hands, his discoveries furnished the
means by which diamagnetism, magnetic effects on polarized light, and
magneto-electricity—now playing so conspicuous a part—soon came to
be known. In his own hands, the immediate discovery of the induction
of a current in a long wire on itself* led the way to his next fertile field
of inquiry, the following up of which caused unwise tardimess in the
announcement of what he had already done. For it is within our
knowledge that the publication of the paper which initiated his fame
had been urged for months by scientific friends, and at length was has-
tened by the announcement of some partly similar results reached in a
different way by Moll, of Utrecht. In a letter not long afterward writ-
ten to one of us, Professor HENRY had occasion to declare: ‘ My whole
ambition is to establish for myself and to deserve the reputation of a man
of science.” Yet throughout his life ardor for discovery and pure love
of knowledge were unattended by corresponding eagerness for publica-
tion. At the close of that very year, 1832, however, he did announce
the drawing of a spark from a magnet, that first fact in magneto-elec-
tricity, and, as he supposed, a new one. But he had been anticipated.

In May, 1830, Professor HENRY married his cousin, Harriet L. Alex-
ander, ‘of Schenectady, who, with three daughters, survives. Two
earlier children died in infancy, and a son in early manhood.

Pleasant in most respects as his situation at Albany was, it was not
an unwelcome invitation which, in the summer of 1832, it became the
duty and the privilege of the most venerable of our number, then vice-
president of the College of New Jersey, to give to Professor HENRY
offering him the chair of Natural Philosophy at Princeton. By this eats
call that college secured him for her own during the years most prolific
for science. It was on a later occasion that Sir David Brewster wrote:
“The mantle of Franklin has fallen upon the shoulders of HENRY.”

3ut the aureole was already visible to his fellow-workers in science;

* Announced in American Journal of Science and the Arts in 1832.

aera

BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOiR OF JOSEPH HENRY. 149

and Silliman, Renwick, and Torrey urged his acceptance of the new
position, and congratulated Princeton upon the acquisition.

The professorship came to him unsought. In his last address to one
of the learned societies over which he presided, Professor HENRY men-
tions that the various offices of honor and responsibility which he then
held, nine in number, had all been pressed upon him; that he never
occupied a position for which he had of his own will and action been
made a candidate. It did not occur to him at that moment to make one
exception. When a pupil in Albany Academy he once offered himself
as a teacher of a country district school. The school trustees thought
him too young, but took him on trial at eight dollars a month. At the
beginning of the second month they raised his pay to fifteen.

At Princeton Professor Henry found congenial companions and
duties well suited to his powers. Here he taught and investigated for
fourteen fruitful and happy years; here he professed the faith that was
in him, entering into the communion of the Presbyterian Church, in
which he and his aneestors were nurtured; and here he developed what
might not have been expected—a genius for education. One could
count on his being aclear expositor, and his gifts for experimental illus-
tration and for devising apparatus had been already shown. But now,
as a college professor, the question how to educate came before him in
in a broader way. He appreciated, and he made his associates and
pupils appreciate, the excellence of natural philosophy for mental disci-
pline, for training at once both the observing and the reasoning faculties.
A science which rises from the observation of the most familiar facts,
and the questioning of these by experiment, to the consideration of
causes, the ascertaining of laws, and to the most recondite conceptions
respecting the constitution of matter and the interplay of forces, offers
discipline to all the intellectual powers, and tasks the highest of them.
Professor HENRY taught not only the elementary facts and general
principles from a fresh survey of both, but also the methods of philo-
sophical investigation, and the steps by which the widest generaliza-
tions and the seemingly intangible conceptions of the higher physics
have been securely reached. He exercised his pupils in deducing par-
‘ ticular results from admitted laws, and in then ascertaining whether
what was thus deduced actually occurred in nature; and if not, why
not. Though very few of a college class might ever afterward under-
take a physical or chemical investigation, all would or should be con-
cerned in the acquisition of truth and its relations; and by knowing

150 BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR OF JOSEPH HENRY.

how truth was won and knowledge advanced in one field of inquiry,
they would gain the aptitude which any real investigation may give, and
the confidence that springs from a clear view and a sure grasp of any
one subject.

He understood, as few do, the importance of analogy and hypothesis
in science. Premising that hypothesis should always be founded on
real analogies and used interrogatively, he commended it as the pre-
requisite to experiment, and the instrument by which, in the hands of
sound philosophers, most discoveries have been made. This free use of
hypothesis as the servant and avant-courier of research—as means rather
than end—is a characteristic of HENRY. His ideas on the subject are
somewhat fully and characteristically expounded by himself in his last
presidential address to the Philosophical Society of Washington—one
which he evidently felt would be the last.

How HENRY was valued, honored, revered at Princeton, the memo-
rial published by his former associates there feelingly declares. What
he did there for science in those fourteen years would be long to tell
and difficult to make clear without entering into details, here out of
place. Happily the work has been done to our hand by the Professor
himself, several years ago, in a communication which is printed in the
index volume of the Princeton Review, and reprinted in the Princeton
Memorial. This careful and conscientious, though cursory, analysis of
the principal researches of that period we propose to append to this
record.* There is also in preparation, by a competent scientific hand, a
detailed list of all Professor HENRY’S contributions to science, which we
desire likewise to append.t .

One of these, of the Princeton period, ought to be mentioned. It is
upon the origin of mechanical power and its relations to vital force. It
is a characteristic example of Professor HENRY’s, happy mode of treat-
ing a scientific topic in an untechnical way. It also illustrates his habit
of simply announcing original ideas without putting them prominently
forward in publication, as any one who was thinking of himself and of
his own fame would be sure todo. The doctrine he announced was com-
municated to the American Philosophical Society in 1844 in brief out-
lines. He developed it further in an article published in the Patent
Office Report for 1856, twelve years later; a medium of publication which
was naturally overlooked. Only at a friend’s desire was the paper re-

*See Supplementary Note II. A Letter from Professor Henry.
+See Supplementary Note III. A List of Professor Henry’s Scientific Papers

BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR OF JOSEPH HENRY. 151

produced, in 1860, in the American Journal of Science, where it would
be noticed. The attention of Professor HENRY was turned to the tepic
(as we happen to know) by an abstract which was given to him of
Dumas’ celebrated lecture, in 1841, on the Chemical Staties of Organized
Beings. If he had published in 1844, with some fullness, as he then
wrought them out, his conception and his attractive illustrations of the
sources, transformation, and equivalence of mechanical power, and given
them fitting publicity, HENRY’s name would have been prominent among
the pioneers and founders of the modern doctrine of the conservation of
energy.

In the year 1837 Professor HENRY first visited Europe, and came into
personal communication with the principal men of scieuce of England,
Scotland, and France. One of us had the pleasure, a few years after-
ward, of hearing Faraday speak of HENRY in terms of hearty regard
and admiration. The two men were in some respects alike, wholly alike
in genuine simplicity of character and in disinterested devotion to sei-
entific discovery. They were then rival investigators in the same line;
and the race for a time was not unequal, considering how HENRY was
weighted with onerous professional work. For Faraday, while that most

acute mind retained its powers, there was the congenial life of pure re-
search, undistracted by cares of administration or of instruction, beyond
a few popular lectures; supplied with every means of investigation ;
' stimulated by the presence or proximity of many fellow-workers ; re-
warded by discovery after discovery, and not unconscious of the world’s
__applause—such was the enviable life of the natural philosopher favor-
ably placed. But in this country, where fit laborers are few, duty rather
than inclination must determine their work. Midway in his course Pro-
fessor HENRY was called to exchange a position which allowed the giv-
ing of considerable time to original researches, for one of greater prom-
i inence, in which these had practically to be abandoned. Not, indeed,
| that this was assuredly expected, but it was contemplated as probable.
: And the event justified the apprehension, while it opened other fields
of not inferior usefulness.

In August, 1846, the act of Congress establishing the Smithsonian
Institution was passed and approved. On the 7th of September ensu-
ing the Regents held their first meeting. On the 3d of December fol-
lowing they resolved:

“That it is essential for the advancement of the proper interests of
the trust that the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution be a man

152 BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR OF JOSEPH HENRY.

possessing weight of character and a high grade of talent; and that it
is further desirable that he possess eminent scientific and general acquire-
ments; that he be a man capable of advancing science and promoting
letters by original research and effort, well qualified to act as a respected
channel of communication between the Institution and scientific and
literary individuals and societies in this and foreign countries; and, in
a word, a man worthy to represent before the world of science and let-
ters the Institution over which this Board presides.”

Immediately following the adoption. of this resolution, Professor Jo-
SEPH HENRY, of Princeton, was elected Secretary. On the 14th of De-
cember a letter was read from him accepting the appointment. At the
meeting a week later, he appeared and entered upon the duties of his
office. From this time the biography of Professor HENRY is the history
of the Institution. That history is set forth in the Secretary’s annual
reports, presented by the Board of Regents to Congress, and it need not
be recapitulated. A few words may give some idea of the deep impres-
sion he made upon the Institution while it was yet plastic.

Some time before his appointment he had been requested by members
of the Board of Regents to examine the will of Smithson, and to suggest
a plan of organization by which the object of the bequest might, in his
opinion, best be realized. He did so, and the plan he drew was in their
hands when he was chosen Secretary. As he himself summed it up,
the plan was based on the conviction “that the intention of the donor
was to advance science by original research and publication; that the
establishment was for the benefit of mankind generally, and that all
unnecessary expenditures on local objects would be violations of the
trust.” The plan proposed was, in the leading feature, “to assist men
of science in making original researches, to publish theta in a series of
volumes, and to give a copy of these to every first-class library on the
face of the earth.”

His “ Plan of Organization,” filled out in its details and adjusted to
the conditions prescribed by the law and by the action of the Regents,
was submitted to the Board in the following year, was adopted as its
‘‘ governing policy,” and it has been reprinted, in full or in part, in
almost every annual report. All would understand, therefore, that Pro-
fessor HENRY’S views were approved, and that they would be carried
into effect as far and as fast as they commended themselves to the judg-
ment of the Regents, and as opportunity made them practicable.

If the Institution is now known and praised throughout the world of
science and letters, if it is fulfilling the will of its founder and the reason-

BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR OF JOSEPH HENRY 153

able expectations of the nation which accepted and established the
trust, the credit is mainly due to the practical wisdom, the catholic
spirit, and the indomitable perseverance of its first Secretary, to whom
the establishing act gave much power of shaping ends which, as rough-

hewn by Congress, were susceptible of various diversion. For Con-
egress, in launching, did not shape the course of the Institution, except
in a general way. And in intrusting its guidance to the Regents, the
law created only one salaried and permanent officer, the Secretary, on
whom, by its terms and by the conditions of the case, it devolved great
responsibility and commensurate influence. Some of us are old enough
to remember the extreme diversity of opinion in Congress over the use
to be made of Smithson’s legacy. One party, headed by an eminent
statesman and Ex-President, endeavored to found with it an astronomical
observatory, for which surely the country need not be indebted to a
foreigner. A larger party strove to secure it fora library ; not, prob-
ably because they deemed that use most relevant to the founder’s in-
tention, but because rival schemes might fritter away the noble bequest
in popular lecturing, itinerant or stationary, of which the supply and
the quality are in this country equal to the demand; or in the dissemi-
nation of elementary knowledge by the printing-press, as if that were

Se ee ee ee ee ee ee ee eee

beyond the reach of private enterprise; or in setting up one more col-

lege, university, or other educational establishment on half an endow-
ment; or in duplicating museums and cabinets, which, when supported

by a fixed capital, necessarily soon reach the statical condition in which
all the income is absorbed in simply taking care of what has been ae-
cumulated.

Congress rejected, one after the other, the schemes for making of the
Institution an observatory, a library, a normal school, and a lecturing
establishment, with professors at Washington. It created a Board of

Regents, charged it with the care of the collections and museums be-
longing to the United States; authorized the expenditure, if the Regents

% saw fit, of a sum not exceeding twenty-five thousand dollars annually

for the formation of a library; and in all else it directed them to make
such disposal of the income “as they shall deem best suited for the pro-
motion of the purpose of the testator.”

Under this charter, and with the course of the Institution still to be

marked out, it is not surprising that the official adviser and executive
of the Board should look to the will of Smithson for the controlling in-
terpretation of the law. He knew, moreover, that in an earlier will

154 BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR OF JOSEPH HENRY.

Smithson had bequeathed his fortune to the Royal Society of London,
an institution expressly for the furtherance of scientific research; and
that he changed, as we may say, the trusteeship for a purely personal
reason. HENRY took his stand on the broad and simple terms of the
bequest, “for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men.”
And he never—
Narrowed his mind,
And to locality gave what was meant for mankind.

He proposed only one restriction, of obvious wisdom and necessity,
that, in view of the limited means of the Institution, it ought not to un-
dertake anything which could be done, and well done, by other exist-
ing instrumentalities. So, as occasion arose, he lightened its load and
saved its energies by giving over to other agencies some of its cherished
work—meteorology, for instance, in which a most popular bureau now
usefully expends many times more than the whole Smithsonian income.

He has in these last years signified his desire to go still further in
this direction, and to have the Institution relieved from the charge
of the National Museum, now of imperial dimensions and importance.
His reasons were summed up in few words in his last report, along with
his synopsis of the appropriate functions of the Institution, which he
prays may not be merged in or overshadowed by any establishment of
the Government, but may stand ‘ free to the unobstructed observation
of the whole world, keeping in perpetual remembrance the will of its
founder.” Its true functions he declares are:

“Virst. To enlarge the bounds of human thought by assisting men of.
science to make original investigations in all branches of knowledge; to
publish these, and to present copies to all the principal libraries of the
world. Second. To institute investigations in various branches of
science, and explorations for the collection of specimens in natural his-
tory and ethnology, to be distributed to museums and other establish-
ments. Third. To diffuse knowledge by carrying on an extended inter-
national series of exchanges by which the accounts of all the original
researches in science, the educational progress, and the general advance
of civilization in the New World are exchanged for similar works of the
Old World.”

The plan which our late Secretary originated has commended itself to
the judgment of successive Boards of Regents, and, we may be permit-
ted to add, is now approved wherever it is known and understood.

Professor HENRY took his full share of the various honorable duties
to which such men are called. He was in his turn President of tle
American Association for the Advancement of Science, in the year 1849;

BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR OF: JOSEPH HENRY. Pas

of the Society for the Advancement of Education, in 1855; a Trustee of
Princeton College, and of Columbian University, also of the Corcoran
Gallery of Art, in which the Smithsonian Institution deposits its art
collections; Visitor of the Government Hospital for the Insane; Presi-
dent of the Philosophical Society of Washington; President of the
National Academy of Sciences at Washington. For many years a mem-
ber of the Light-House Board, to which he gave gratuitous and invalu-
able services as Chairman of its committee on experiments, he added for
the last seven years the chairmanship of the board itself, in his adminis-
tration no sinecure. Advice and investigation were sought from hin,
from time to time, by every department of Government. All were sure
that his advice was never biased by personal interest; and his sound
judgment, supported by spotless character, was greatly deferred to.

We have said that in coming to Washington a career of investigation
was exchanged for a life of administration. It should rather be said that
his investigations thereafter took a directly practical turn, as his mind
was brought to bear upon difficult questions of immediate importance
which were referred to him by Government or came in the course of
ofiicial duty. In the light-house service alone his timely experiments
upon lard-oil lighting, and the firmness with which he pressed his con-
clusions into practice when sperm-oil became dear, has, already saved
more than a million of dollars; the adaptation of mineral oil to the lesser
lights made another great saving; and the results reached by his recent
investigations of the conditions which influence the transmission of
sound and their application to acoustical signaling are not to be valued
by the saving of money only.

It was in the prosecution of these last investigations, over a year ago,
and probably in consequence of exposure in them, at the light-house
station on Staten Island, that an intimation of the approaching end of
these labors was received. Yet afew months more of useful life were
vouchsafed to him, not free from suffering, but blessed with an unclouded
mind and borne with a serene spirit; and then, at midday on the 15th
of May last, the scene was closed.

At the sepulture of his remains (on the 16th) and afterward, it was
generally remarked at Washington that never before had the funeral of
a private citizen called forth such sense of loss, such profound demon-
strations of respect and affection.

It is not for us to assign Professor HENRy’s place among the men of
science of our time. Those who do this will probably note that his

156 BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR OF JOSEPH HENRY.

menean predecessors were Franklin and Rumford; that all three were
what we call self-made men; that all three, after having proved their
talents for original investigation in physics, were called in their mature
years to duties of administration and the conduct of affairs. There are
interesting parallels to be drawn from their scientific work, if one had
time to trace them.

Not often is a great man of science a good man of business. HENRY’S
friends at Princeton, who besought him not to abandon the peaceful
academic life which he was enjoying and the quiet pursuits which had
given him fame, were surprised when in another sphere he developed
equal talents for organization and administration. We have seen how
he always developed the talent to do wisely and well whatever he un-
dertook. His well-poised spirit, at once patient and masterful, asserted
itself in the trials he encountered in the early years of the Institution,
and gave assurance that he could deal with men as well as with the
forces of nature.

Again, not often is a man of science free from the overmastering in-
fluence of his special pursuit. More or less his “nature is subdued to
what it works in, like the dyer’s hand.” Now, HENRY’sS mind was un-
colored by the studies of his predilection. His catholic spirit comes out
in his definition of science: “Science is the knowledge of the laws of
phenomena, whether they relate to mind or matter.” It appears in his
choice of the investigations to be furthered and memoirs to be published
by the Institution. These nowhere show the bias of a specialist.

Then, he was a careful, painstaking man, very solicitous—perhaps
unduly anxious—about the particulars of everything for which he felt
responsible. Therefore he was sometimes slow in making up his mind
on a practical question. May we here condescend to a trivial anecdote
of his early boyhood, which he amusingly related to one of us many
years ago and pleasantly recalled at one of our latest interviews. It
goes back to the time when he was first allowed to have a pair of boots,
and to choose for himself the style of them. He was living with his
grandmother in the country, and the village Crispin could offer no
ereat choice of patterns; indeed, it was narrowed down to the alterna-
tive of round toes or square. Daily the boy visited the shop and pon-
dered the alternatives, even while the manufacture was going on, until
at length the shoemaker, who could brook no more delay, took the
dilemma by both horns and produced the most remarkable pair of
boots the wearer ever had; one boot round-toed, the other square-toed.

BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR OF JOSEPH HENRY. 15%

Deliberate as HENRY was in after years, taught by this early lesson,
he probably never again postponed decision till it was too late to choose.
One result of due deliberation was that he rarely had to change his
mind. When he had taken his course, he held to it. His patience and
kindness under demands upon his time were something wonderful.
Some men are thus patient from easy good-nature; HENRY was so from
principle. A noticeable part of the Sceretary’s correspondence was with
a class of men—more numerous than would be supposed—who thought
they had discovered new laws of nature or new applications of them,
and who appealed to him to make their discoveries known. The Secre-
tary never returned a curt answer to such appeals or inquiries, whether

nade personally or by letter. Many are the hours which he would con-
oe devote to such paradoxical schemes—sometimes of wonderful
ingenuity—and to the dictation of elaborate replies to them. Detecting
far down in the man’s mind the germs of the fallacy which had misled
him, he would spare no pains to present it and its consequences so
plainly to his bewildered correspondent that he could find his own way
out of it; while at the same time he awarded credit and encouragement
for whatever was true, probable, or ingenious.

Although of sensitive spirit and with a just sense of what was due to
himself, Professor HENRY kept free from controversy. Once he took up
the pen, not because his discoveries were set at naught, but beeause his
veracity was impliedly assailed. His dignified recital of undeniable
facts (in his Annual Report for 1857) was all that was necessary, and
not even a word of indignant comment was added.

He left his scientific work to form its part of the history of science
and to be judged by scientific men. The empiric he once sententiously
defined to be “one who appeals his cause to an incompetent tribunal.”
He never courted publicity ; not from fastidious dislike, still less from
disdain of well-earned popular applause, but simply because he never
thought of it.

His disinterested devotion to this Institution was shown in many
ways; among others in successive refusals to accept increase of salary
lest it should be thought that the office he held was lucrative. Twice
or thrice, moreover, while cumbered with anxieties, he promptly declined

ealls to positions of greater emolument, less care, and abundant leisure
for the pursuits he loved.

We cannot here continue these delineations, and it may be that the
character of the man has portrayed itself in general outlines as the

158 BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR OF JOSEPH HENRY

narrative proceeded. But one trait may not be wholly omitted from the
biography of one who has well been called *“‘the model of a Christian
gentleman,” and who is also our best example of a physical philosopher.
His life was the practical harmony of the two characters. His entire
freedom from the doubts which disturb some minds is shown in that
last letter which he dictated, in which he touches the grounds of
faith both in natural and revealed religion; also in his sententious
declaration upon some earlier occasion, that the person who thought
there could be any real conflict between science and religion must be
either very young in science or ignorant of religion.

The man for whom this memorial is placed was a veteran in both; was
one of that noble line of natural philosophers for whom we may in all
sincerity render to Almighty God hearty thanks, not only for the good
example and fruit of their lives, but also that, having finished their
course in faith, they do now rest from their labors.

SOP Pit Eve EIN GE VAV EO er NEO SE are
WHOA) 1

SEQUENCE OF DISCOVERY AND INVENTION RESULTING IN THE ELEC-
TRO-MAGNETIC TELEGRAPH.

The following appear to be the main points in the order of discovery
which led to the electro-magnetic telegraph. They are here condensed
from Professor Henry’s “Statement”, in the ‘‘ Proceedings of the Re-
gents”, published in the Smithsonian R eport for the year 1857, and from
a note appended by Mr. William B. Taylor to his “Memoir of Joseph
Henry and his Scientific Work,” read before the Philosophical Society of
W ashing ton.

1819-1820. Oersted showed that a magnetic needle is deflected by the
action of a current of galvanie electricity passing hear it. It
appears that this discovery had already been made as early as
the year 1502, by Romagnesi, and published in 1505.

1820. Arago discover ed that while a galvanic current is passing through
a copper wire it is capable of developing magnetism in soft
iron.

1820. Ampere discovered that two wires through which currents are
passing in the same direction attract, and in opposite directions
repel, each other; and thence he interred that magnetism con-
sists in the attraction of electrical currents revolving at right
angles to the line joining the two poles of the magnet, and
is produced in a bar of steel or iron by induction from a series
of electrical currents revolving in the same direction at right :
angles to the axis of the bar.

1820. Schweigger in the same year produced the galvanometer.

1825. Sturgeon made the electro-magnet by bending the bar, or rather
a piece of iron wire, into the form of a horse-shoe, covering it

BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR OF JOSEPH HENRY. 159

with varnish to insulate it, and surrounding it with a helix of

wire the turns of which were at a distance.

1829-1850. Henry, in accordance with the theory of Ampére, produced
the intensity or spool-wound magnet, insulating the wire in-
stead of the rod or bar, and covering ‘the whole surface of the
iron with a series of coils in close contact. He extended the
principle to the full by winding successive strata of insulated
wire over each other, thus produeing a compound helix formed
of a long wire of many coils. At the same time he developed
the relation of the intensity magnet to the intensity battery,
and their relations to the magnet of quantity. He thus made
the electromagnet capable of transmitting power to a long
distance, demonstrated the principle and perfected the magnet
applicable to the purpose, was the first actually to magnetize a
piece of iron at a distance, and to demonstrate and declare the
applicability of the electro-magnet to telegraphy at a distance.
Using the terminal short-circuit magnet of quantity and the
armature as the signaling device, he was the tirst to make by
it acoustic signals, “sounding a bell at a distance by means of
the electro- magnet.

1833. Weber discovered that the conducting-wires of an electric tele-
graph could be left without insulation except at the points of
support.

1833. Gauss ingeniously arranged the application of a dual sign in such

manner as to pros Tue, a true alphabet for telegraphy.

1836. Daniel invented and brought into use a constant galvanic battery.
1837. Steinheil discovered that the earth may form the returning half

of the cireuit, so that a single conducting wire suffices for
telegraphy.

1837. Morse adopted, through the agency of Dr. Gale, the principle of
the Henry electro- magnet, and the armature made of a record-
ing instrument.

1858. Morse devised his ‘dot and dash” alphabet, a great improvement
upon the Gauss and Steinheil alphabets.

1844. Morse suggested and brought into use the system of relay-mag-
nets, and relay-circuits, to re-einforce the current.

INCOM NIB, ED be

LETTER FROM PROFESSOR HENRY TO THE REV. 8S. B. DOD, GIVING A
SKETCH OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCHES AT PRINCETON.

[Irom the Prineeton Memorial of Professor Henry. ]

My Drar Sir: In compliance with your request that I would give
un account of my scientific researches during my connection with the
College of New Jersey, I furnish the following brief statement of my
labors within the period mentioned:

J. Previous to my call from the Albany Academy to a professorship
in the College cf New Jersey, I had made a series of researches on elec-
tro- magnetism, in which I developed the principles of the clectro-mag-
net and the means of accumulating the magnetic power to a great ex-
tent, and had also applied this power in the invention cf the first elec-
tro-magnetic machine; that is, a mechanical contrivance by which elec-
tro-magnetism was applied as a motive power.

160 BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR OF JOSEPH HENRY.

I soon saw, however, that the application of this power was but an in-
direct method of ei :ployi ing the energy derived from the combustion of
coal, and, therefore, could never compete, on the score of expense, with
that agent a 18 a means of propelling machinery, but that it mig rt be
used in some cases in which expense of power was not a consideration
to be weighed against the value of certain objects to be attained.

A great amount of labor has since been devoted to this invention, es-
pecially at the expense of the Government of the United States, by the
late Dr. Page, but it still remains in nearly the same condition it was
left in by myself in 1831.

I also applied, while in Albany, the results of my experiments to the in-
vention of the first electro-magne etictelegraph, in which signals were trans-
mitted by exciting an elec tro- magnet at a distance, by w hich means bells
were struck in succession, capable of indicating letters of the alphabet.

In the midst of these investigations I was called to Princeton, through
the nomination of Dr. Jacob Green, then of Philadelphia, and Dr. John
Torrey, of New York.

I arrived in Princeton in November, 1832, and as soon as I became
fully settled in the chair which I oceupied, I recommenced my investi-

gations, constructed 2 still more powerful “electro- magnet than I had
made before—one which would sustain over 3,000 pounds and with it
illustrated to my class the manner in which a large a ee of power
might, by means of a relay-magnet, be called into operation at the dis-
tance of many miles.

I aJso made several modifications in the electro-magnetic machine be-
fore mentioned, and just previous to my leaving for England, in 1837,
again | turned my attention to the telegraph. I think the first actual
line of telegraph using the earth as a conductor, was made in the be-
ginning of 1836. A wire was extended across the front campus of the
eollege grounds, from the upper story of the library building to the
philosophical hall on the opposite side, the ends terminating in two wells.
Through this wire, signals were sent trom time to time from my house to
my laboratory. The electro-magnetic telegraph was first invented by

ne, in Albany, in 1830. Professor Morse, according to his statements,

-onceived the idea of an electro-magnetie telegraph in his voyage across

he ocean in 1832, but did not untilsever alyearsa afterward—1837—aitempt
to carry his ideas into practice; and when he did so, be found himself so
little acquainted with the subject of electricity that he could not make his
simple machine operate through the distance of afew yards. In this di-
lemma he called in the aid of Dr. Gale, who was well acquainted with
what I had done in Albany and Princeton, having visited me at the lat-
ter place. He informed Professor Morse that he had not the right kind
of a battery nor the right kind of magnets, whereupon the professor
turned the matter over to him, and, with the knowledge he had obtained
from my researches, he was enabled to make the instrument work
through a ha stanee of several miles. Tor this service Professor Morse
gave hima share of his patent, which he afterwards purchased from
him for B15, 600. At the time of making my original experiments on
clectro- magnetism in Albany, I was urged by a friend to take out a pat-
cae both for its application to machinery and to the telegraph, but this
I declined, on the ground that I did not then consider it compatible
with the dignity of science to confine the benefits which might be de-
rived from it to the exclusive use of any individual. In this, perhaps,
I was too fastidious. In briefly stating my claims to the invention of
the electro-magnetic telegraph, I may say I was the first to bring the

BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR OF JOSEPH HENRY. 161

electro-magnet into the condition necessary to its use in telegraphy, and
also to point out its application to the telegraph, and to illustrate this
by constructing a working telegraph, and, had I taken out a patent for
my labors at that time, Mr. Morse could have had no ground on which
to found his claim for a patent for Lis invention. ‘To Mr. Morse, -how-
ever, great credit is due for his alphabet, and for his perseverance in
bringing the telegraph into practical use.

ine My next investigation, after being settled at Princeton, was in re-
lation to electro-dynamic induction. Mr. F araday had discovered that
when a current of galvanic electricity was passed through a wire from
a battery, a current in an opposite direction was induced in a wire ar-
ranged parallel to this conductor. I discovered that an induction of a
similar kind took place in the primary conducting wire itself, so that a
current which, in its passage through a short wire conductor, would
neither produce sparks nor shocks, would, if the wire were sufficiently
long, produce both these phenomena. The effect was most strikingly
exhibited when the conductor was a flat ribbon, covered with silk, rolled
into the form of a helix. With this, brilliant, deflagrations and other
electrical effects of high intensity were produced by means of a current
from a battery of low 1 intensity, such as that of a single element.

Ill. A series of investigations was afterward made, which resulted in
producing inductive currents of different orders, having different direc-
tions, made up of waves alternately in opposite directions. It was also
discovered that a plate of metal of any kind, introduced between two
conductors, neutralized this induction, and this effect was afterward
found to result from a current in the plate itself. It was afterward
shown that a current of quantity was capable of producing a current
of intensity, and, vice versa, a current of intensity would produce one
of quantity.

IV. Another series of investigations, of a parallel character, was made

in regard to ordinary or {rictional electricity. In the course of these it
was shown that electro-dynamic inductive action of ordinary electricity
was of a peculiar character, and that effects could be produced by it at
aremarkable distance. For example, if a shock were sent through a
wire on the outside of a building, electrical effects could be exhibited in
a parallel wire within the building. As another illustration of this, it

may be mentioned that when a discharge of a battery of several Ley-
den jars was sent through the wire before mentioned, stretched across
the campus in front of N assau Hall, an inductive effect was produced
in a parallel wire, the ends of which terminated in the plates of metak
in the ground in the back campus, at a distance of several hundred feet
from the primary current, the building of Nassau Hall intervening. The
effect produced consisted in the magnetization of steel needles.

In this series of investigations, the fact was discovered that the in-
duced current, as indicated by the needles, appeared to change its di-
rection with the distance of the two wires, and other conditions of the
experiment, the cause of which for a long time bafiled inquiry, but was
finally satisfactorily explained by the discovery that the discharge of
electricity from a Leyden jar is of an oscillatory character, a principal
discharge taking place in one direction, and immediately afterward a re-
bound in the opposite, and so on forward and backward, until the equi-
librium is obtained.

V. The next series of investigations related to atmospheric induction.
The first of these consisted of experiments with two large kites, the
lower end of the string of one being attached to the upper surface of a
second kite, the ue of each consisting of a fine wire, the terminal end

S. Mis. 59

162 BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR OF JOSEPH HENRY.

of the whole being coiled around an insulated drum. I was assisted in
these experiments by Mr. Brown, of Philadelphia, who furnished the
kites. When they were elevated, at a time when the sky was perfectly
clear, sparks were drawn of surprising intensity and pungency, the elec-
tricity being supplied from the air, and the intensity being attributed to
the induction of the long wire on itself.

VI. The next series of experiments pertaining to the same class was
on the induction from thunder clouds. For this purpose the tin cover-
ing of the roof of the house in which I resided was used as an inductive
plate. A wire was soldered to the edge of the roof near the gueer, was
passed into my study and out again through holes in the window-sash,
and terminated in connection with a plate of metal in a deep well im-
mediately in front of the house. By breaking the continuity of that
part of the wire which was in the study, and introducing into the open-
ing a magnetizing spiral, needles placed in this could be magnetized by
a flash of lightning so distant that the thunder could scarcely be heard.
The electrical disturbance produced in this case was also found to be of
an oscillatory character, a discharge first passing through the wire from
the roof to the well, then another in the opposite direction, and so on
until equilibrium was restored. This result was arrived at in this case,
as well as in that of the Leyden jar, before mentioned, by placing the
same, or a similar needle, in succession, in spirals of greater and greater
numbers of turns; for example, in a spiral of a single turn the needle
would be magnetized plus, or in the direction due to the first and more
powerful wave. By increasing the number of coils, the action of the
second wave became dominant, so that it would more than neutralize
the magnetism produced by the first wave, and leave the needle minus.
By farther increasing the number of turns, the third wave would be so
exalted as to neutralize the effects of the preceding two, and so on. In
the case of induction by lightning, the same result was obtained by plac-
ing a number of magnetizing Spirals, of different magnetizing intensities,
in the opening of the primary conductor, the result of which was to pro-
duce the magnetization of an equal number of needles, plus and minus,
indicating alternate currents in opposite directions.

VII. In connection with this class of investigations a series of experi-
ments was made in regard to lightning-rods. It was found that when a
quantity of electricity was thrown upon a rod, the lower end of which
was connected with a plate of metal sunk in the water of a deep well,
that the electricity did not descend silently into water, but that sparks
could be drawn from every part of the rod sufficiently intense to explode
an electrical pistol, and to set fire to delicate inflammable substances.
The spark thus given off was found to be of a peculiar character, for
while it produced combustion and gave a slight shock, and fired the
electrical pistol, it scarcely at all affected a gold-leaf electroscope. In-
deed, it consisted of two sparks, one from the conductor and the other
to it, in such quick succession, that the rupture of the air by the first
served for the path of the second. The conclusion arrived at was, that
during the passage of the electricity down the rod, each point in succes-
sion received a charge analogous to the statical charge of a prime con-
ductor, and that this charge, in its passage down the rod, was immedi-
ately preceded by a negative charge; the two in their passage past the
point at which the spark was drawn, giving rise to its duplex character.
It was also shown by a series of experiments in transmitting a powerful
discharge through a portion of air, that the latter, along the path of
discharge, was endowed for a moment with an intense repulsive energy.
So great is this that in one instance, when an electrical discharge from

aaa

BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR OF JOSEPH HENRY. 163

the clouds passed between two chimneys through the cockloft of a house,
the whole roof was lifted from the walls. It is to this repulsive energy,
or tendency in air to expand at right angles to the path of a stroke of
lightning, that the mechanical effects which accompany the latter are
generally to be attributed.

In connection with this series of investigations an experiment was
devised for exhibiting the screening effect, within a space inclosed with a
metallic envelope, of an exterior discharge of electricity. It consisted
in coating the outside of a hollow glass globe with tinfoil and after-
ward inserting, through a small hole in the side, a delicate gold-leaf
electrometer. The latter, being observed through a small opening in
the tinfoil, was found to be unaffected by a discharge of electricity passed
over the outside coating.

VIII. Another series of investigations was on the phosphorogenic
emanation from the sun. It had long been known that, when the dia-
mond is exposed to the direct rays of the sun, and then removed to a
dark place, it emits a pale blue light, which has received the name of
phosphorescence. This effect is not peculiar to the diamond, but is
possessed by a number of substances, of which the sulphuret of lime is
the most prominent. It is also well known that phosphorescence is
produced by exposing the substance to the electric discharge. Another
fact was discovered by Becquerel, of the French Institute, that the
agent exciting phosphorescence traverses with difficulty a plate of glass
or mica, while it is transmitted apparently without impediment through
plates of black quartz impervious to light.

My experiments consisted, in the first place, in the reproduction of
these results, and afterward in the extension of the list of substances
which possess the capability of exhibiting phosphorescence, as well as
the effects of different interposed media. It was found that, among a
large number of transparent solids, some were permeable to the phos-
phorescing agent, and others impermeable, or imperfectly permeable.
Among the former were ice, quartz, common salt, alum. Among the
latter class, mica, tourmaline, camphor, &c. Among liquid permeable
substances were water, solutions of alum, ammonia; while among the
impermeable liquids were most of the acids, sulphate of zinc, sulphate
of leas, alcohol, &e.

It was found that the emanation took place from every point of the
line of the electric discharge, but with more intensity from the two ex-
tremities; and also, that the emanation producing phosphorescence, what-
ever be its nature, when reflected from a mirror, obeys the laws of the
reflection of light, but no reflection was obtained from a surface of
polished glass. Itis likewise refracted by a prism of rock salt, in ac-
cordance with the laws of the refraction of light. By transmitting the
rays from an electrical spark through a series of very thin plates of
Inica, it was shown that the emanation was capable of polarization, and,
consequently, of double refraction.

IX. The next series of investigations was on a method of determining
the velocity of projectiles. The plan proposed,-for this purpose con-
sisted in the application of the instantaneous transmission of elec-
trical action to determine the time of the passage of the ball between
two screens, placed at a short distance from each other in the path of
the projectile. For this purpose the observer is provided with a re-
volving cylinder moving by clock-work at a uniform rate, and of which
the convex surface is divided into equal parts indicating a fractional
part of a second. The passage of the ball through the screen breaks a
galvanic circuit, the time of which is indicated on the revolving cylinder

164 BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR OF JOSEPH HENRY.

by the terminal spark produced in a wire surrounding a-bundle of iron
wires. Since the publication of this invention various other plans
founded on the same principle have been introduced into practice.

X. Another series of experiments was in regard to the relative heat
of different parts of the sun’s disk, and especially to that of the spots
on the surface. These were made in connection with Prof. S. Alex-
ander, and consisted in throwing an image of the sun on a sereen in a
dark room by drawing out the eye-piece of a telescope. Through a hole
in the sereen the end of a sensitive thermo-pile was projected, the wires
of which were connected with a galvanometer. By slightly moving the
smaller end of the telescope different parts of the image of the sun could
be thrown on the end of the thermo-pile, and by the deviation of the
needle of the galvanometer the variation of the heat was indicated. In
this way it was proved that the spots radiated less heat than the adja-
cent parts, and that all parts of the sun’s surface did not give off an
equal amount of heat.

XI. Another series of experiments was made with what was called a
thermal telescope. This tastrument consisted of a long hollow cone of
pasteboard, lined with silver leaf and painted outside with lampblack.
The angle at the apex of this cone was such as to cause all the parallel
rays from a distant object entering the larger end of the cone to be re-
flected on to the end of a thermo-pile, the poles of which were connected
with a delicate galvanometer. When*the axis of this conical reflector
was directed toward a distant object of greater or less temperature than
the surrounding bodies, the difference was immediately indicated by the
deviation of the needle of the galvanometer. Kor example, when the
object was a horse in a distant field the radiant heat from the animal
was distinetly perceptible at a distance of at least several hundred yards.
When this instrument was turned toward the celestial vault the radiant
heat was observed to increase from the zenith downward; when directed,
however, to different clouds, it was found to indicate in some cases a
greater and in others a less degree of radiation than the surrounding
space. When the same instrument was directed to the moon a slight
increase of temperature was observed over that of the adjacent sky, but
this increase of heat was attributed to the reflection of the heat of the
sun from the surface of the moon, and not to the heat of the moon itself.
To show that this hypothesis is not inconsistent with the theory that the
moon has cooled down to the temperature of celestial space, a concave
mirror was made of ice, and a thermo-pile placed in the more distant
focus. When a flame of hydrogen, rendered luminous by a spiral plati-
num wire, was placed in the other focus, the needle of the galvanometer
attached to the pile indicated a reflection of heat, care being taken to
shade the pile by a screen with a small opening introduced between it
and the flame.

XII. Another series of experiments connected with the preceding may
be mentioned here. It is well known that the light from a flame of
hydrogen is of very feeble intensity. The same is the case with that of
the compound blowpipe, while the temperature of the latter is exceed-
ingly high, sufficiently so to melt fine platinum wire. Itis also well known
that by introdueing lime or other solid substance into this flame its radi-
ant light is very much increased. I found that the radiant heat was
increased in a similar ratio, or, in other words, that in such cases the
radiant heat was commensurate with the radiant light, and that the
flame of the compound blowpipe, though of exceedingly high tempera-
ture, is a comparatively cool substance in regard to radiant heat. To
study the relation of the temperature of a flame to the amount of heat

iis

BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR OF JOSEPH HENRY. 165

given off, four ounces of water were placed in a platinum crucible and
supported on a ring-stand over a flame of hydrogen; the minutes and
seconds of time were then accurately noted which were required for the
raising of the water from the temperature of 60° to the boiling point.
The same experiment was repeated with an equal quantity of water,
with the same flame, into which a piece of mica was inserted by a handle
made of a narrow slip of the same substance. With this arrangement
the light of the flame was much increased, while the time of bringing
the water to the boiling point was also commensurately increased, thus
conclusively showing that the increase of light was at the expense of the
diminution of the temperature. These experiments were instituted in
order to examine the nature of the fact mentioned by Count Rumford,
that balls of clay introduced into a fire under some conditions increase
the heat given off into an apartment. From the results just mentioned
it follows that the increase in the radiant heat, which would facilitate
the roasting of an article before the fire, would be at the expense of the
boiling of a liquid in a vessel suspended directly over the point of com-
bustion.

XIU. Another investigation had its origin in the accidental observa-
tion of the following fact: A quantity of mercury had been left undis-
turbed in a shallow saucer, with one end of a piece of lead wire, about
the diameter of a goose-quill, and six inches long, plunged into it, the
other end resting on the shelf. In this condition it was found, after a
few days, that the mercury had passed through the solid lead, as if it
were a siphon, and was lying on the shelf still in a liquid condition.
The saucer contained a series of minute erystals of an amalgam of lead
and mercury. A similar result was produced when a piece of the same
lead wire was coated with varnish, the mercury being transmitted with-
out disturbing the outer surface.

When a length of wire of five feet was supported vertically, with its
lower end immersed in a vessel of mercury, the liquid metal was found
to ascend, in the course of a few days, to a height of three feet.
These results led me to think that the same property might be possessed
by other metals in relation to each other. The first attempt to verity
this conjecture was made by placing a small globule of gold on a plate of
sheet-iron and submitting it to the heat of an assaying furnace, but the
experiment was unsuccessful, for, although the gold was heated much
beyond its melting point, it showed no signs of sinking into the pores
of the iron. The idea afterward suggested itself that a different result
would have been obtained had the two metals been made to adhere to
each other, so that no oxide could form between the two surfaces. To
verify this a piece of copper, thickly plated with silver, was heated to
near the melting point of the metals, when the silver disappeared, and,
after the surface was cleaned with diluted sulphuric acid, it presented a
uniform surface of copper. This plate was next immersed for a few
minutes in a solution of muriate of zinc, by which the surface of copper
was removed and the surface of silver again exposed. The fact had
long been observed by workmen in silver-plating that, in soldering the
parts of plated metal, if care be not taken not to heat them unduly, the
silver will disappear. This effect was supposed to be produced by evap-
oration, or the burning off, as it was called, of the plating. It is not
improbable that a slow diffusion of one metal into the other takes place
in the case of an alloy. Silver coins slightly alloyed with copper, after
having lain long in the earth, are found covered with a salt of copper.
This may be explained by supposing that the alloy of copper at the sur-
face of the, coin enters into combination with the carbonic acid of the

166 BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR OF JOSEPH HENRY.

soil, and, being thus removed, its place is supplied by a diffusion from
within, and so on; it is not improbable that a large portion of the alloy
may be removed in progress of time, and the purity of the coin be con-
siderably increased. It is known to the jeweler that articles of copper
plated with gold lose their brilliancy after a while, and that this can be
restored by boiling them in ammonia. This effect is probably produced
by the ammonia acting on the copper and dissolving off its surface so
as to expose the gold, which by diffusion had penetrated into the body
of the metal.

The slow diffusion of one metal into another at ordinary temperatures,
would naturally require a long time to produce a perceptible effect, since
it is probably only produced “by the minute vibrations of the particles
due to variations of temperature.

The same principle is applied to the explanation of the phenomenon
called segregation—such as the formation of nodules of flint in masses
of carbonate of lime; or, in other words, to the explanation of the man-
ner in which the molecular action, which is insensible at perceptible dis-
tances, may produce results which would appear, at first sight, to be the
effect of attraction acting at a distance.

XIV. Another series of experiments had reference to the constitution
of matter in regard to its state of liquidity and solidity, and they had
their origin in the examination of the condition of the metal of the large
gun constructed under the direction of Captain Stockton, by the explo-
sion of which several prominent members of the United States Govern-
ment were killed at Washington. It was observed in testing the bars
of iron made from this gun, that they varied much in tensile strength in
different parts, and that, in breaking these bars, the solution of the con-
tinuity took place first in the interior. This phenomenon was attributed -
to the more ready mobility of the outer molecules of the bars, the inner
ones being surrounded by matter incapable of slipping, and hence the
rupture. <A similar effect is produced in a piece of thick copper wire,
each end, when broken, exhibiting, at the point of rupture, a cup-shaped
surface, showing that the exterior of the metal sustained its ean
longer than the - interior. From these observations the conclusion wa
drawn,, that rigidity differs from liquidity more in a polarity which pret
vents slipping of the molecules, than ina difference of the attractive
force with which the molecules are held together; or that it is more in
accordance with the phenomena of cohesion to suppose that, in the case
of a liquid, instead of the attraction of the molecules being neutralized
by heat, the effect of this agent is merely to neutralize the polarity of
the molecules, so as to give them perfect freedom of motion around any
imaginable axis. In illustration of this subject, the comparative tenacity
of pure water and water in which soap had been dissolved was measured
by the usual method of ascertaining the weight required to detach from
the surface of each the same plate of wood, suspended from the beam of
a balance, under the same condition of temperature and pressure. It
was found, by this experiment, that the tenacity of pure water was
greater than that of soap and water. This novel result is in accordance
with the supposition that the mingling of the soap and the water inter-
feres with the perfect mobility of the molecules, while at the same time
it diminishes the attraction.

XV. A series of experiments was also made on the tenacity of soap in
films. For this purpose sheets of soap-water films were stretched upon
rings, and the attempt made to obtain the tenacity of these by placing
on them pellets of cotton until they were ruptured. The thickness of
these films was roughly estimated by Newton’s scale of the colors of thin

BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR OF JOSEPH HENRY. 167

plates, and from the results the conclusion was arrived at that the at-
tractive force of the molecules of water, for those of water, is approxi-
mately equal to that of the molecules of ice for those of ice, and that the
difference in this case, of the solidity and liquidity, is due to the want of
mobility in the latter, which prevented the slipping of the molecules on
each other. It is this extreme mobility of the molecules of water that
prevents the formation of permanent bubbles of it, and not a want of
attraction.

The roundness of drops of water is not due to the attraction of the
whole mass, but merely to the action of the surface, which in all cases
of curvature is endowed with an intense contractile power.

This class of investigation also included the study of soap bubbles,
and the establishment of the fact of the contractile power of these films.
The curvature of the surface of a bubble tends to urge each particle
toward the center, with a force inversely as the diameter. Two bubbles
being connected, the smaller will collapse by expelling its contents into
the larger. By employing frames of wire, soap bubbles were also made
to assume various forms, by which capillarity and other phenomena
were illustrated. This subject was afterward taken up by Plateau, of
Ghent. Another part of the same investigation was the study of the
spreading of oil on water, the phenomenon being referred to the fact that
the attraction of water for water is greater than that of oil for oil, while
the attraction of the molecules of oil for each other is less than the
attraction of the same molecules for water; hence the oil spreads over
the water. This is shown from the fact that when a rupture is made in
a liquid compound, consisting of a stratum of oil resting on water, the
rupture takes place in the oii, and not between the oil and water. The
very small distance at which the attraction takes place, is exhibited by
placing a single drop of oil on a surface of water of a considerable ex-
tent, when it will diffuse itself over the whole surface. If, however, a
second drop be placed upon the same surface, it will retain its globular
form.

XVI. Another contribution to science had reference to the origin of
mechanical power and the nature of vital force. Mechanical power is
defined to be that which is capable of overcoming resistance; or, in the
language of the engineer, that which is employed to do work.

If we examine attentively the condition of the crust of the earth, we
find it, as a general rule, ina state of permanent equilibrium. All the
substances which constitute the material of the crust, such as acids and
bases, with the exception of the indefinitely thin pellicle of vegetable
and animal matter which exists at its surface, have all gone into a state
of permanent combination, the whole being in the condition of a burnt
slag of a furnace, entirely inert, and capable in itself of no change. AIL
the changes which we observe on the surface of the globe may be referred
to action from without, from celestial space.

The following is a list which will be found to include all the prime
movers used at the present day, either directly or indirectly, in produc-
ing molecular changes in matter:

Water power. Immediately referable
Crass I. Tide power. to celestial disturb-
Wind power. ance.

Steam and other powers devel- ) Immediately referable to
Cass II. oped by combustion. what is called vital
Aninal power. action.

168 BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR OF JOSEPH HENRY.

The forces of gravity, cohesion, electricity, and chemical attraction
tend to produce a state of permanent equilibrium on our planet; hence
these principles in themselves are not primary, but secondary, agents in
producing mechanical effects. As an example, we may take the case of
water-power, which is approximately due to the return of the water to
a state of stable equilibrium on the surface of the ocean; but the pri-
mary cause of the motion is the force which produced the elevation of
the liquid in the form of vapor—namely, the radiant heat of the sun.
Also,in the phenomena of combustion, the immediate source of the
power evolved in the form of heat is the passage from an unstable state
into one of stable combination of the carbon and hydrogen of the fuel
with oxygen of the atmosphere. But this power may ultimately be re-
solved into the force which caused the separation of these elements from
their previous combination in the state of carbonic acid—namely, the
radiant light of the sun. But the mechanical power exerted by animals
is due to the passage of organized matter in the stomach from an un-
stable to a stable equilibrium, or as it were from the combustion of the
food. It therefore follows that animal power is referable to the same
source as that from the combustion of fuel—namely, developed power
of the sun’s beams. But according to this view, what is vitality? It
is that mysterious principle—not mechanical power—which determines
the form and arranges the atoms of organized matter, employing for this
purpose the power which is derived from the food.

These propositions were illustrated by different examples. Suppose a
vegetable organism impregnated with a germ—a potato, for instance—
is planted below the surface of the ground in a damp soil, under a tem-
perature sufficient for vegetation. If we examine it from time to time, we
find it sending down rootlets into the earth and stems and leaves upward
into the air. After the leaves have been fully expanded we shall find the
tuber entirely exhausted, nothing but a skinremaining. The same effect
will take place if the potato be placed in a warm cellar. It will con-
tinue to grow until all the starch and gluten are exhausted, when it will
cease to increase. If, however, we now place it in the light, it will com-

nence to grow again, and increase in size and weight. Ifwe weigh the
potato previous to the experiment and the plant after it has ceased to
grow in the dark, we shall find that the weight of the latter is a little
more than half that of the original tuber. The question then is, what
has become of the material which filled the sac of the potato? The an-
swer is, one part has run down into carbonic acid and water, and in this
running down has evolved the power to build up the other part into the
new plant. After the leaves have been formed and the plant exposed to
the light of the sun, the developed power of its rays decomposes the car-
bonic acid of the atmosphere, and thus furnishes the pabulum and the
power necessary to the further development of the organization. The
same is the case with wheat and all other grains that are germinated in
the earth. Besides the germ of the future plant, there is stored away
around the germ the starch and gluten to furnish the power necessary
to its development and also the food to build it up until it reaches
the surface of the earth and can draw the source of its future growth
from the power of the sunbeam. In the case of fungi and other plants
that grow in the dark, they derive the power and the pabulum from sur-
rounding vegetable matter in process of decay or in that of evolving
power. A similar arrangement is found in regard to animal organiza-
tion. It is well known that the egg continually diminishes in weight dur-
ing the process of incubation, and the chick when fully formed weighs
scarcely more than one-half the original weight of the egg. What is the

BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR OF JOSEPH HENRY. 169

interpretation of this phenomenon? Simply that one part of the con-
tents of the shell has run down into carbonic acid and water, and thus
evolved the power necessary to do the work of building up the future
animal. In like manner when the tadpole is converted into a frog the
animal for a while loses weight. .A portion of the organism of its tail
has been expended developing the power necessary to the transforma-
tion, while another portion has served for the material of the legs.

What, then, is the office of vitality? We say that it is analogous to
that of the engineer who directs the power of the steam-engine in the ex-
ecution of its work. Without this, in the case of the egg, the materials,
left to the undirected force of affinity, would end in simply producing
chemical compounds—sulphuretted hydrogen, carbonic acid, &e. There
is no special analogy between the process of crystallization and that
of vital action. In the one case definite mathematical forms are the
necessary results, while in the other the results are precisely like those
which are produced under the direction of will and intelligence, evincing
a design and a purpose, making provision at one stage of the process for
results to be attained at a later, and producing organs intended evidently
for locomotion and perception. Not only is the result the same as that
which is produced by human design, but in all cases the power with
which this principle operates is the same as that with which the intelli-
gent engineer produces his result.

This doctrine was first given in a communication to the American
Philosophical Society in December, 1844, and more fully developed in a
paper published in the Patent Office Report in 1857.

The publication in full of three of the series of investigations herein
described was made in the Transactions of the American Philosophical
Society. Others were published in Silliman’s Journal, and both these
are noticed in the Royal Society’s Catalogue of Scientific Papers; but
the remainder of them were published in the Proceedings of the Ameri-
can Philosophical Society, and are not mentioned in the work just
referred to.

In 1846, while still at Princeton, I was requested by members of the
Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, which was then just
founded, to study the will of Smithson, and to give a plan of organiza-
tion by which the object of the bequest might be realized. My conclu-
sion was that the intention of the donor was to advance Science by origi-
nal research and publication; that the establishment was for the benefit
of mankind generally, and that all unnecessary expenditures on local
objects would be violations of the trust. The plan I proposed for the
organization of the Institution was to assist men of science in making
original researches, to publish these in a series of volumes, and to give
a copy of these to every first-class library on the face of the earth.

I was afterward called to take charge of the Institution and to carry
out this plan, which has been the governing policy of the establishment
from the beginning to the present time.

Gne of the first enterprises of the Smithsonian Institution was the
estavlishment of a system of simultaneous meteorological observations
over the whole United States, especially for the study of the phenomena
of American storms.

For this purpose the assistance of Professor Guyot was obtained; who
drew up a series of instructions for the observers, which was printed
and distributed in all parts of the country. He also recommended the
form of instruments best suited to be used by the observers, and finally
calculated, with immense labor, a volume of meteorological and physical
tables for reducing and discussing observations. These tables were

170 BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR OF JOSEPH HENRY.

published by the Institution, and are now in use in almost every part of
the world in which the English language is spoken. The prosecution of
the system finally led to the application of the principles established to
the predictions of the weather by means of the telegraph.

JOSEPH HENRY.

WASHINGTON, D. C., December 4, 1876.

NE OOM ie Tks,
LIST OF PROFESSOR HENRY’S SCIENTIFIC PAPERS.

[Prepared by Wm. B. Taylor: Publishedin the Builetin of the Philosophical Society
of Washington, Vol. II. ]

1825. On the Production of Cold bythe Rarefaction of Air: accompanied
with Experiments. (Presented Mar. 2.) Abstract, Trans. Al-
bany Institute, vol. i. part ii. p. 36.

1827. On some Modifications of the Electro-magnetic Apparatus. (Read
Oct. 10.) Trans. Albany Inst. vol. i. pp. 22-24.

1829. Topographical Sketch of the State of New York; designed chiefly
to show the General Elevations and Depressions of its Surface.
(Read Oct. 28.) Trans. Albany Inst. vol. i. pp. 87-112.

1829. First Abstract of Meteorological Records of the State of New
York, for 1828. ‘(In conjunction with Dr. T. Romeyn Beck.)
Annual Report of Regents of University, to the Legislature of
New York.—Albany, 1529.

1829. On the Mean Temperature of Twenty-seven different Places in the
State of New York, for 1828. (In conjunction with Dr. 'T. Ro-
meyn Beck.) Brewster’s Edinburgh Jour. Science, Oct. 1828,
vol. i. pp. 249-259.

1830. Second Abstract of Meteorological Records of the State of New
York for 1829. (In conjunction with Dr. T. Romeyn Beck.)
Annual Report of Regents of University, to the Legislature of
New York.—Albany, 1830.

1831. On the Application of the Principle of the Galvanic Multiplier to
Electromagnetic Apparatus, and also to the development of
great Magnetic power in soft iron, with small Galvanic Ele-
ments. Silliman’s American Jour. Science, Jan. 1831, vol. xix.
pp. 400-408.

1831. Tabular Statement of the Latitudes, Longitudes, and Elevations,
of 42 Meteorological Stations in New York. Annual heport
Regents of University to Legislature N. Y. 1831.

1831. Third Abstract of Meteorological Records of State of New York
for 1830. (In conjunction with Dr. T. Romeyn Beck.) Annual
Report of Regents of University, to. the Legislature of New
York.—Albany, 1831.

1831. An account of a large Electro-magnet, made for the Laboratory
of Yale College. (In conjunction with Dr. Ten Eyck.) Silli-
man’s Am. Jour. Sci. April, 1831, vol. xx. pp. 201-208.

1831. On a Reciprocating Motion produced by Magnetic attraction and
repulsion. Silliman’s Am. Jour. Sci. July, 1831, vol. xx. pp.
340-343. Sturgeon’s Annals of Electricity, etc. vol. iil. pp.
430-452.

1832.

1832.

1832.

1833.

1835.

183

CL

1835.

1837.

1838.

1838.

1839,

BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR OF JOSEPH HENRY. VG

On a Disturbance of the Earth’s Magnetism in connection with
the appearance of an Aurora as observed at Albany on the 19th
of April, 1831. (Communicated to the Albany Institute, Jan.
26, 1832.) Report of Regents of University, to the Legislature
of New York.—Albany, 1832. Silliman’s Am. Jour. Sci. July,
1832, vol. xxil. pp. 145-155.

Fourth Abstract of Meteorological Records of the State of New
York for 1831. (In conjunction with Dr. T. Romeyn Beck.)
Annual Report of Regents of University, to the Legislature of
New York.—Albany, 1831.

On the Production of Currents and Sparks of Electricity from
Magnetism. Silliman’s Am. Jour. Sci. July, 1832, vol. xxii.
pp. 403-408.

Fifth Abstract of Meteorological Records of the State of New
York, for 1832. (In conjunction with Dr. T. Romeyn Beck.)
Annual Report of Regents of University, to the Legislature of
New York.—Albany, 1833.

Contributions to Electricity and Magnetism. No. I. Description
of a Galvanic Battery for producing Electricity of different in-
tensities. (Read Jan.14.) Transactions Am. Philosoph. Society,
vol. v. pp. 217-222. Sturgeon’s Annals of Electricity, etc. vol.
1. pp. 277-281.

Contributions to Electricity and Magnetism. No. IJ. On the in-
fluence of a Spiral Conductor in increasing the intensity of
Electricity from a Galvanic arrangement of a single Pair, ete.
(Read Feb. 6.) Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc. vol. v. pp. 223-232.
Sturgeon’s Annals of Hlectricity, etc. vol. i. pp. 282-290. Tay-
lor’s Scientific Memoirs, vol. i. pp. 540-547.

Facts in reference to the Spark, etc. from a long Conductor unit-
ing the poles of a Galvanic Battery. Journal of Franklin In-
stitute, Mar. 1835, vol. xv. pp. 169, 170. Silliman’s Am. Jour.
Sci. July, 1835, vol. xxviii. pp. 327-331.

A Notice of Electrical Researches, particularly in regard to the
“lateral discharge.” (Read before the British Association at
Liverpool, Sept. 1837.) Report Brit. Assoc. 1837. Part II. pp.
22-24. Silliman’s Am. Jour. Sci. April, 1838, vol. xxxiv. pp.
16-19.

A Letter on the production directly from ordinary Electricity of
Currents by Induction, analogous to those obtained from Gal-
vanism. (Read to Philosoph. Society, May 4.) Proceedings
Am. Phil. Soe. vol. i. p. 14.

Contributions to Electricity and Magnetism. No. TI. On Elec-
tro-dynamie Induction. (Read Noy. 2.) Trans. Am. Phil. Soe.
vol. vi. pp. 303-338. Silliman’s Am. Jour. Sci. Jan. 1840, vol.
XXXVill. pp. 209-243. Sturgeon’s Annals of Electricity, ete. vol.
Iv. pp. 281-310. LZ. #. D Phil. Mag. Mar. 1840, vol. xvi. pp.
200-210: pp. 254-265: pp. 551-562. Beequerel’s Traité expéri-
mental de V Electricité, etc. vol. v. pp. 87-107. Annales de Chimie
et de Physique, Dec. 1841, 3d series: vol. iii. pp. 394-407. Pog-
gendorft’s Annalen der Physik und Chemie. Supplemental vol.
i. (Nach Band li.) 1842, pp. 282-312.

A novel phenomenon of Capillary action: the transmission of Mer-
cury through Lead. (Read Mar.15.) Proceedings Am. Phil. Soe.
vol. i. pp. 82, 83. Silliman’s Am. Jour. Sci. Jan. 1839, vol.
XXXVili. pp. 180, 181. Biblioth. Universelle, vol. xxix. pp. 175,
176. Liebig’s Annalen der Chemie, ete. vol. xl. pp. 182, 183.

172

1839.

1839.

1840.

1840.

1840.

1843.

1845.

1843.
1844.

1844.

BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR OF JOSEPH HENRY,

A Letter on two distinct kinds of dynamic Induction by a Gal-
vanic current. (Read to Phil. Soc. Oct. 18.) Proceedings Am.
Phil. Soe. vol. i. pp. 184-136.

Observations of Meteors made Nov. 25, 1835, simultaneously at
Princeton and at Philadelphia, for determining their difference
of Longitude. (In conjunction with Professors A. D. Bache, 8.
Alexander, and J. P. spy.) Proceedings Am. Phil. Soc. Dee.
21, vol. i. pp. 162, 163. Silliman’s Am. Jour. Sci. Oct. 1840,
vol, Xxxix. pp. 372, 373.

Contributions to Electricity and Magnetism. No.IV. On Electro-
dynamic Induction. (Read June 19.) Trans. Am. Phil. Soe.
vol. viii. pp. 1-18. Silliman’s Am. Jour. Sci. April, 1841, vol.
xli. pp. 117-152. Sturgeon’s Annals Hlectricity, ete. vol. vii.
pp. 21-56. L. H. D. Phil. Mag. June, 1841, vol. xviii. pp. 482-
514, Annales de Chim. et Phys. Dee: 1841, 3d ser. vol. iii. pp.
407-436. Poggendorfi’s Annal. der Phys. und Chem. 1841, vol.
liv. pp. 84-97.

Contributions to Electricity and Magnetism. No. [V,—continued.
Theoretical Considerations relating to Electro-dynamic Induc-
tion. (Read Nov. 20.) Trans. Am. Phil. Soe. vol. viii. pp.
18-35.

On the production of a reciprocating motion by the repulsion in
the consecutive parts of a conductor through which a galvanic
current is passing. (Read Nov. 20.) Proceedings Am. Phil.
Soc. vol. i. p. 301.

Electricity from heated Water. (Read Dee. 18.) Proceedings
Am. Phil. Soe. vol. i. pp. 322-324.

. Description of a simple and inexpensive form of Heliostat. (Read

Sept. 17.) Proceedings Am. Phil. Soe. vol. ii. p. 97.

. Observations on the effects of a Thunderstorm which visited

Princeton on the evening of the 14th of July, 1541. (Read
Nov. 5.) Proceedings Am. Phil. Soc. vol. ii. pp. 111-116.

. Résumé des Recherehes faits sur les Courants d’Induection. Ar-

chives de UV Electricité, 1842, vol. ii. pp. 348-392.

2. Contributions to Electricity and Magnetism. No. V. On Electro-

dynamic Induction: and on the oscillatory discharge. (Read
June 17.) Proceedings Am. Phil. Soe. vol. ii. pp. 193-196.

. On Phosphorogenic Emanation. (Read May 26.) Proceedings

Am. Phil. Soc. vol. iii. pp. 38-44. Walker’s Electrical Magazine,
1845, vol. i. pp. 444-450.

. On a new Method of determining the Velocity of Projectiles.

(Read May 30.) Proceedings Am. Phil. Soe. vol. iti. pp. 165-167.
Walker’s Electrical Magazine, 1845, vol. 1. pp. 250-352.

Nouvelles Expériences sur ’? Induction développée par lElectricité
ordinaire. (Translated.) Archives de V Electricité, 1843, vol. iii.
pp. 484-488,

On the application of Melloni’s thermo-electrie apparatus to Me-
teorological purposes. (Presented orally Nov. 3.) Proceedings

Am. Phil. Soc. vol. iv. p. 22.

Theory of the discharge of the Leyden jar. (Presented Nov. 3.)
Proceedings Am. Phil. Soc. vol. iv. pp. 22, 23.

On the Cohesion of Liquids. (Read April 5.) Proceedings Am.
Phil. Soc. vol. iv. pp. 56, 57, Silliman’s Am. Jour. Sci. Oct. 1844,
vol. xlviil. pp. 215, 216.

On the Cohesion of Liquids,—continued. (Read May 17.) Pro-
ceedings Am. Phil. Soc. vol. iv. pp. 84, 85. Silliman’s Am.

BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR OF JOSEPH HENRY. 1G

Jour. Sci. Oct. 1844, vol. xlviii. pp. 216, 217. DL. HE. D. Phil. Mag.
June, 1845, vol. xxxvi. pp. 541-543.

1844, Syllabus of Lectures on Physics. Princeton, 8vo. 1844. Repub-
lished in part in Smithsonian Report, 1856, pp. 187-220.

1844. Classification and Sources of Mechanical Power. (Read Dee. 20.)
Proceedings Am. Phil. Soe. vol. iv. pp. 127-129.

1845. On the Coast Survey. Princeton Ieeview, April, 1845, vol. xvil.
pp. 021-344.

1845. On the Relative Radiation of Heat by the Solar Spots. (Read
June 20.) Proceedings Am. Phil. Soe. vol. iv. pp. 173-176.
Brief Abstract in Report Brit. Assoc. 1845, Part Il. p. 6.
Walker’s Hlectrical Magazine, 1846, vol. ii. pp. 321-324.
Froriep’s Neue Notizen, etc., No. 826, 1846, vol. xxxvili. col.
179-182. Poggendorff’s Annalen der Physik und Chemie, 1846,
vol. Ixvill. pp. 102-104.

1845. On the Capillarity of Metals. (Read June 20.) Proceedings Am.

. Phil. Soc. vol. iv. pp. 176-178. Froriep’s Neue Notizen, ete., No.
825, 1846, vol. xxxviil. col. 168-169. Poggendorft’s Annalen der
Physik und Chemie. 2d supplemental vol. (Nach Band 1xxii.)
1848, pp. 358-361.

1845. On the Protection of Buildings from Lightning. (Read June 20.)
Proceedings Am. Phil. Soc. vol.iv. p. 179. Silliman’s Am. Jour.
Sct. 1846, vol. i. pp. 405, 406. Walker’s Hlectrical Magazine,
1846, vol. ii. pp. 824-326. Froriep’s Neue Notizen, etc., No. $23,

1846, vol. xxxviil. col. 133, 154.

1845. An account of peculiar efiects on a house struck by Lightning.
(Read June 20.) Proceedings Am. Phil. Soc. vol. iv. p. 180.

1845. On Color Blindness. Princeton Review, July, 1845, vol. xvil. pp.
A83—489.

1845. On the discharge of Electricity through a long wire, etc. (Read
Nov. 7.) Proceedings Am. Phil. Soc. vol. iv. pp. 208, 209.

1846. Repetition of Faraday’s Experiment on the Polarization of Liquids
under the influence of a galvanic current. (Read Jan. 16.)
Proceedings. Am. Phil. Soe. vol. iv. pp. 229, 230.

1846. Extrait @une Lettre a M. de la Rive, sur les Télégraphes Elee-
triques dans les Etats-Unis de PAmérique. Biblioth. Univer-
selle. Archives, 1846, vol. ii. p. 178.

1846. Report on the action of Electricity on the Telegraph Wires: and
Telegraph-poles struck by Lightning. (Read June 19.) Pro
ceedings Am. Phil. Soc. vol. iv. pp. 260-268. Silliman’s Ane.
Jour. Sct. 1847, vol. Hi. pp. 25-32. DL. HL. D. Phil. Mag. 1847,
vol. xxx. pp. 186-194. Agricultural Report, Commr. Pats. 1859,
pp. 909-511.

1846. On the ball supported by a water jet: also experiments in regard
to the “interference” of heat. (Read Oct. 16.) Proceedings
Am. Phil. Soc. vol. iv. p. 285.

1846. On the corpuscular hypothesis of the constitution of Matter. (Read
Nov. 6.) Proceedings Am. Phil. Soc. vol. iv. pp. 287-290.

1846. On the Height of Aurore. (Read Dee. 3.) Proceedings Am. Phil.
Soe. vol. iv. p. 370.

1847, Programme of Organization of the Smithsonian Institution. (Pre-
sented to the Board of Regents, Dec. 8, 1847.) Smithsonian
Report, 1847, pp. 120-132.

1847. Article on “Magnetism” for the Eneyclopedia Americana. Zn-
cycl. Amer.-1847, vol. xiv. pp. 412-426.

BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR OF JOSEPH HENRY.

. On Heat.—A Thermal Telescope. Silliman’s Am. Jour. Sci. Jan.

1848, vol. v. pp. 113, 114.

. Explanations and Illustrations of the Plan of the Smithsonian

Institution. Silliman’s Am. Jour. Sci. Nov. 1848, vol. vi. pp.
305-317.

. On the Radiation of Heat. (Read Oct.19.) Proceedings Am. Phil.

Soc. vol. v. p. 108.

. Analysis of the dynamic phenomena of the Leyden jar. Proceed-

ings Amer. Association, Aug. 1850, pp. 377, 378.

. On the Limit of Perceptibility of a direct and reflected Sound.

Proceedings Amer. Association, May, 1851, pp. 42, 43.

. On the Theory of the so-called Imponderables. Proceedings Amer.

Association, Aug. 1851, pp. 84-91.

. Address before the Metropolitan Mechanics’ Institute, Washing-

ington. (Delivered March 19.) 8vo. Washington, 1853, 19 pp.

. Meteorological Tables of mean diurnal variations, etc. prepared as

an Appendix to Mr. Russell’s Lectures on Meteorology. Smith-
sonian Report for 1854, pp. 215-223.

. Thoughts on Education; an Introductory Discourse before the

Association for Advancement of Education. (Delivered Dee.
28.) Proceedings Assoc. Adv. Education, 4th Session, 1854, pp.
17-31.

. On the mode of Testing Building Materials, ete. Proceedings Am.

Assoc. Aug. 1855, pp. 102-112. Silliman’s Am. Jour. Sei. July,
13856, vol. xxii. pp. 30-38; Smithsonian Report, 1856, pp.
303-310.

). On the effect of mingling Radiating Substances with Combustible

Materials: (or incombustible bodies with fuel). Proceedings
Am, Assoc. Aug. 1855, pp. 112-116.

. Account of Experiments on the alleged spontaneous separation of

Alcohol and Water. Proceed. Am. Assoc. Aug. 1855, pp. 140-144.

. On the Induction of Electrical Currents. (Read Sept. 11.) Pro-

ceedings Am. Academy of Arts, ete. vol. iil. p. 198.

. Note on the Gyroscope. Appendix to Lecture by Prof. E. S.

Snell. Smithsonian Report, 1855, p. 190.

. Remarks on Rain-fall at varying elevations. Smithsonian Report,

1855, pp. 213, 214.

). Directions for Meteorological Observations. (In conjunction with

Prof. A. Guyot.) Smithsonian Report, 1855, pp. 215-244.

. Circular of Inquiries relative to Earthquakes. Smithsonian Report,

1855, p. 245.

. Instructions for Observations of the Aurora. Smithsonian Report,

1855, pp. 247-250.

>. On Green’s Standard Barometer for the Smithsonian Institution.

Smithsonian Report, 1855, pp. 251-258.

9). Circular of Instructions on Registering the periodical phenomena

of animal and vegetable life. Smithsonian Report, 1855, pp.
259-263.

. Meteorology in its connection with Agriculture, Part I. <Agri-

cultural Report of Commr. Pats. 1855, pp. 357-394.

. On Acoustics applied to Publie Buildings. Proceedings Am. Assoc.

Aug. 1856, pp. 119-135. Smithsonian Report, 1856, pp. 221-234.
Canadian Journal, 1857, vol. ii. pp. 130-140.

. Account of a large Sulphurie-acid Barometer in the Hall of the

Smithsonian Institution Building. Proceedings Am. Assoc.
Aug. 1856, pp. 135-188.

1856.

1863.

1864,

1865.

1865.

1865,
1866.

BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR OF JOSEPH HENRY. 175

Meteorology in its connection with Agriculture, Part IT. Gene-
ral Atmospheric Conditions. Agricultwral Report of Commr.
Pats. 1856, pp. 455-492.

. Communication to the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Tn-

stitution, relative to a publication by Prof. Morse. Smithsonian
Report, 1857, pp. 85-88,

. Statement in relation to the history of the Electro-magnetie Tel-

egraph. Smithsonian Report, 1857, pp. 99-106.

. Meteorology in its connection with Agriculture, Part III. Ter-

restrial Physics, and Temperature. Agricultural Report of
Commr. Pats. 1857, pp. 419-506.

. Meteorology in its connection with Agriculture, Part IV. Atmos-

pheric Vapor, and Currents. Agricultural Report of Commr.
Pats. 1858, pp. 429-493.

. On Meteorology. Canadian Naturalist and Geologist, Aug. 1859,

vol. iv. pp. 289-291.

. Application of the Telegraph to the Prediction of Changes of the

Weather. (Read Aug. 9.) Proceedings Am. Academy of Arts,
ete. vol. iv. pp. 271-275.

. Meteorology in its connection with Agriculture, Part V. Atmos-

pherie Electricity. Agricultural Report of Commr. Pats. 1859,
pp. 461-509.

59. On the Protection of Buildings from the effects of Lightning.

Agricult. Report, Com. Pat. 1859, pp. 511-524.

. On the Conservation of Force. Silliman’s Am. Jour. Sci. July,

1860, vol. xxx. pp. 32-41.

. Circular to Officers of Hudson’s Bay Company (April 20). Smath-

sonian Miscell. Collections, No. 137, vol. viii. pp. 1-6.

. Description of Smithsonian Anemometer. Smithsonian Report,

1860, pp. 414-416.

. Letter on Aeronautics to Mr. T. 8. C. Lowe. (March 11.) Smith-

sonian Report, 1860, pp. 118, 119.

. Article on “ Magnetism” for the American Encyclopedia. Edited

by Ripley and Dana. Am. Encycl. 1861, vol. xi. pp. 61-63.

. Article on ‘ Meteorology” for the American Encyclopedia.

Edited by Ripley and Dana. Am. Encycel. 1861, vol. xi. pp.
414-420,

. Report of the Light House Board on the proposed Transfer of the

Lights to the Navy Department. Exec. Docts. 37th Cong. 2d
Sess. Senate, Mis. Doc. No. 61, pp. 2-18.

Introduction to Memoir by Prof. J. Plateau. On the Figures of
Equilibrium of a Liquid Mass, ete. Smithsonian Report, 1863,
pp. 207, 208.

On Materials for Combustion in Lamps of Light-Houses. (Read
Jan. 12, before the National Academy of Sciences.) [Not pub-
lished in Proceedings. |

Report relative to the Fire at the Smithsonian Institution, occur-
ring Jan. 24th, 1865. (In conjunction with Mayor Richard
Wallach.) Presented to the Regents February, 1865. Smith-
sonian Report, 1864, pp. 117-120.

Queries relative to Tornadoes: directions to observers. Smith-
sonian Miscell. Collections, No. 190, vol. x. pp. 1-4.

Remarks on the Meteorology of the United States. Smithsonian
Report, 1865, pp. 50-59.

Report on the Warming and Ventilating of the U. S. Capitol.
(May *) Hazec. Doe. No. 100. H. of Rep. 39th Cong. 1st Sess.
pp. +-0.

176
1866

1866

1866

1873.

.

1866.

BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR OF JOSEPH HENRY.

Report of Building Committee on Repairs to Sm. Institution from
Fire. (In conjunction with Genl. Richard Delafield, and Mayor
Richard Wallach.) Presented to Regents April 28. Smith-
sonian Report, 1865, pp. 111-114.

On the aboriginal Migration of the American races. Appendix
to paper by F. Von Hellwald. Smithsonian Report, 1866, pp.
344, 345.

Remarks on Vitality. Smithsonian Report, 1866, pp. 386-388.

Meteorological Notes. To Correspondents. Smithsonian Report,
1866, pp. 403-412.

. Circular relating to Collections in Archeology and Ethnology.

(Jan. 15.) Smithsonian Miscell. Collections, No. 205, vol. viii.
pp. 1, 2.

. Circular relative to Exchanges. (May 16.) Smithsonian Report,

1867, p. 71.

. Suggestions relative to Objects of Scientific Investigation in Rus-

sian America. (May 27.) Smithsonian Miscell. Collections, No.
207, vol. vili. pp. 1-7.

. Notes on Atmospheric Electricity. To Correspondents. Smith-

sonian Report, 1867, pp. 320-325.

. Appendix to a Notice of Scheenbein. Smithsonian Report, 1868,

pp. 189-192.

. Memoir of Alexander Dallas Bache. (Read April 16.) Biograph-

ical Memoirs of Nat. Acad. Sci. vol. 1. pp. 181-212. Smithsonian
Report, 1870, pp. 91-116.

. Letter. On a Physical Observatory. (Dee. 29.) Smithsonian

Report, 1870, pp. 141-144.

. Observations on the Rain-fall of the United States. Proceedings

California Academy of Sciences, vol. iv, p. 185.

. Instructions for Observations of Thunder-Storms. Smithsonian

Miseell. Collections, No. 235, vol. x. p. 1.

. Circular relative to Heights. For a topographic chart of N.

America. Smithsonian Miscell. Collections, No. 236, vol. x. p. 1.

. Directions for constructing Lightning-Rods. Smithsonian Miscell.

Collections, No. 237, vol. x. pp. 1-3. Silliman’s Am. Jour. Sct.
Nov. 1871, vol. ii. pp. 344-346.

. Letter to Capt. C. F. Hall, in regard to the Scientific Operations

of the Expedition toward the North Pole. (June 9.) Smth-
sonian Report, 1871, pp. 364-366.

. Suggestions as to Meteorological Observations; during the Expe-

dition toward the North Pole. Smithsonian Report, 1871, pp.
372-379.

71. Meteorological Notesand Remarks. Smithsonian Report, 1871, pp.

452, 455, 456, 459, 461.

. Effect of the Moon on the Weather. Smithsonian Report, 1871,

pp. 460, 461.

. Anniversary Address as President of the Philosophical Society of

Washington. (Delivered Nov. 18.) Bulletin Phil. Soc. Wash-
ington, vol. i. pp. 5-14.

. Remarks on Cosmical Theories of Electricity and Magnetism: an
Appendix to a Memoir by Prof. G. B. Donati. Smithsonian

Report, 1872, pp. 807-309.

. On certain Abnormal Phenomena of Sound, in connection with

Fog-signals. (Read Dee. 11.) Bulletin Phil. Soc. Washington,
vol. i. p. 65, and Appendix ix. 8 pp.
Letter to John C. Green, Esq., of New York, on his establishment

BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR OF JOSEPH HENRY. 1G

of the “Henry Chair of Physics” in the College of New Jersey.
Washington Daily Chronicle, Mar. 21, 1873.

. On Telegraphic Announcements of Astronomical Discoveries.

(May.) Smithsonian Miscell. Collections, No. 263, vol. xii. pp.

. Remarks on the Light-House Service. Report of Light-House

Board, 1873, pp. 3-7.

. Report of Investigations relative to Fog-Signals, and certain ab-

normal phenomena of Sound. Report of Light-House Board,
1874. Appendix, pp. 83-117.

. Memoir of Joseph Saxton. (Read Oct.4.) Biographical Memoirs

of Nat. Acad. Sci. vol. i. pp. 287-316.

. Remarks on Recent Earthquakes in North Carolina. Smithsonian

Report, 1874, pp. 259, 260.

. Remarks on the Light-House Service. Report of Light-House

Board, 1875, pp. 5-8.

. An account of investigations relative to Illuminating Materials.

Report of Light-House Board, 1875. Appendix, pp. 86-103.

. Investigations relative to Sound. Report of Light-House Board,

1875. Appendix, pp. 104-126.

. On the Organization of Local Scientific Societies. Smithsonian

Report, 1875, pp. 217-219.

. Article on “Fog,” for Johnson’s Universal Cyclopedia. Edited

by Dr. Barnard. J. Univ. Cycl. vol. ii. pp. 187, 188.

. Article on “‘Fog-Signals,” for Johnson’s Universal Cyclopedia.

Edited by Dr. Barnard. J. Univ. Cyel. vol ii. pp. 188-190.

. Article on “Aygrometry,” for Johnson’s Universal Cyclopedia.

Edited by Dr. Barnard. J. Univ. Cyel. vol. ii. pp. 1072-1074.

. Letter to Rev. 8S. B. Dod; On researches at Princeton. (Dated

Dec. 4.) Princeton Memorial, May 19,1878, 8vo., N. Y., pp. 51-70.

. Article on “Lightning,” for Johnson’s Universal Cyclopedia.

Edited by Dr. Barnard. J. Univ. Cycl. vol. iii. pp. 32-36.

. Article on “ Lightning-Rods,” for Johnson’s Universal Cyclopedia.

Edited by Dr. Barnard. J. Univ. Cyel. vol. iii. pp. 36, 37.

. Remarks on the Light-House Service. eport of Light-House

Board, 1877, pp. 3-7.

. Report of Operations relative to Fog-Signals. Report of Light-

House Board, 1877. Appendix, pp. 61-72.

. Address before the Philosophical Society of Washington. Bul-

letin Phil. Soc. Washington, vol. i. pp. 162-174.

. On Thunder Storms. (Letter Oct. 13.) Journal Am. Electrical

Society, 1878, vol. ii. pp. 37-43.

. Letter to Joseph Patterson, Esq., of Philadelphia, on the “Joseph

Henry Fund.” (Dated Jan. 10.) Public Ledger and Transcript,
May 14, 1878. The Press, of Philadelphia, May 14, 1878.

. Report on the Ventilation of the Hall of the House of Repre-

sentatives. (Jan. 26.) 45th Cong. 2d Sess. H. R. Report, Ne.
119, pp. 1-6.

. Report on the Use of the Polariscope in Saccharimetry. (Feb. 5.)

Mis. Doe. 45th Cong. 2d Sess. H. FR.

. Opening Address before National Academy of Sciences. (Read

April 16.) Proceedings Nat. Acad. Sev. vol. i. part 2, pp. 127, 128.

. Closing Address before National Academy of Sciences. (Read

April 19.) Proceedings Nat. Acad. Sci. vol. i. part 2, pp. 129,
1350.

S. Mis. 59: 12

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~ Steal od see Sa

GENERAL APPENDIX

TO THE

SMITHSONIAN REPORT FOR 1878.

The object of this appendix is to illustrate the operations of the Institution by
reports of lectures and extracts from correspondence, as well as to furnish information
of a character suited especially to the observers and other persons interested in the
promotion of knowledge.

CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPHY.

By M. ARaGo.

[Translated for the Smithsonian Institution by M. A. Henry.]
INTRODUCTION.

During the latter years of his life, George Cuvier consented to spare
a few moments from his immortal researches to make some notes for
the benefit of his future biographers. One of these notes commences
thus: ‘Ihave written so many eulogies, that it is not presumptious to
suppose that some one will write mine.” This remark of the illustrious
naturalist has reminded me that the last secretary of the old Academy
of Sciences, himself the author of fifty-four biographies of academicians
equally remarkable for their conception and their expression, has not
yet received in this assembly the tribute which on many accounts is
justly his due. The fact that we have owed this debt to his memory
half a century is only a more powerful reason that it should be discharged
without further delay. Our eulogies, as our memoirs, should have truth
for their foundation and their object. But truth in regard to public men
is difficult to attain, particularly when their lives have been passed in
the midst of political storms. I therefore earnestly appeal to the few
contemporaries of Condorcet whom death has spared, for correction of
any error I may have made in spite of my careful efforts.

It has perhaps been observed that I have called my article a biog-
raphy and not as usual an historical eulogy. Itis in fact a detailed biog-
raphy I have the honor to present to the Academy. Without desiring
to establish a precedent for future secretaries, I will explain how in this
instance the old form did not fulfil the end I desired.

Condoreet was no ordinary academician devoted alone to the labors
of the closet: a speculative pbilosopher, and a citizen of unbiased judg-
ment,—his life, his public and private conduct, and his works, were in-
fluential in literary, economical, and political associations. No one suf-
fered more from the instability of public favor, jealousy, and fanat-
icism,—those three terrible scourges of reputation. In sketching a
portrait, which it is my duty to render as faithful as possible, I cannot
pretend to claim belief on mere assertion. It is not enough that for
every characteristic feature I have endeavored with the greatest care
to assure my own mind that my impressions are correct ; I must enable
the public to intelligently decide between the prevailing judgment and

my own; it is necessary, therefore, to carefully examine and combat
180

——

4

the false views of those who, in my estimation, have never truly com-
prehended the majestic aspect presented to his generation by the great
Condorcet.

If I venture to hope that I have found truth where others have
fallen into error, it is because I have had access to private sources of
information. The distinguished daughter of our former secretary, and
her illustrious husband, General O’Connor, have placed their rich
archives at my disposal, with a kindness, unreserve, and liberality for
which I cannot sufficiently thank them. Many manuscripts of Condorcet
finished or incomplete, his letters to Turgot, answers from the lord lien-
tenant of Limoges, the comptroller-general of finance, fifty-two wupub-
lished letters of Voltaire, the correspondence of Lagrange with the sec-
retary of the Academy of Sciences and with d’Alembert, letters of Fred-
erick the Great, of Franklin, of Mademoiselle de ’Espinasse, of Borda, of
Monge, &c.—such are the treasures I received from the honorable family

_ of Condorcet. This is the material which has led me to clear and precise
ideas of the part taken by our confrére in the political, social, and intel-
lectual movement of the second half of the eighteenth century.

I have a fear that I have not sufficiently avoided a temptation result-
ing from the kindness of General and Mrs. O’Connor. In going over
the manuscript confided to me, my mind was involuntarily impressed
with the apprehension of the thousand accidents which might happen to
those precious pages, and the result has been an uncommon number of
quotations, and therefore an expansion of points which perhaps might
better have been only alluded to. I am aware of the inconvenience
of such elaboration, but consider as sufficient compensation that I have
perhaps rescued from oblivion facts, opinions, and literary judgments
of great value; that I have made to speak in my place many eminent
personages of the last century.

One word as to the unusual length of this article. I am well aware of
the demands it must make upon the patient attention of my hearers,
and the great desirability of retrenchment even after the numerous

omissions which had become necessary by the exigencies of a public
reading, but I consider my mission unusual, and more than ordinarily
solemn; in fact I am about to undertake the rehabilitation of a col-
league, and that in every point of view, scientific, literary, philosophical,
and political. Any feeling of self-love that might interfere with this end
would manifestly be unworthy of the assembly I address as well as of
myself.

CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPHY. 181

INFANCY AND YOUTH OF CoNDORCET—HIS STUDIES, HIS CHARACTER,
HIS MATHEMATICAL LABORS.

Jean Antoine Nicolas Caritat de Condorcet, formerly perpetual sec-
retary of the Academy of Sciences, was born on the 17th of September,
1743, in Picardy, inthe small village of Ribemont, which had already given
to the Academy the engineer Blondel, celebrated by the construction of

i

182 CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPHY.

the gate of Saint Denis. The father of Condorcet, M. Caritat, a captain
of cavalry, originally the Dauphin’s, was the younger brother of the
prelate whom we see successively from 1741 bishop of Gap, of Auxerre,
and of Lisieux. He was also related to the cardinal of Bernis and the
famous archbishop of Vienna, M. d’Yse of Saléon, who while bishop of
Rodez made himself so. prominent in the council of Embrun by his
warm support of the Jesuits.

Condorcet had hardly attained his fourth year when he lost his
father. The widow of Captain Caritat was very devotional in her
tendencies. As, in her opinion, an infallible means of protecting her
only son from the dangers of youth, she dedicated him to the Virgin
and to the wearing of white garments. Condorcet accordingly wore
for eight years the costume of a girl. This singular circumstance, as
an effectual interdiction of all gymnastic exercises, retarded greatly the
development of his physical powers. It also prevented him from enter-
ing the public schools, since a boy in petticoats could not fail to be an
object of derision.

When he had attained his eleventh year, his uncle placed him under
the care of one of the members of that celebrated Society of Jesus,
around which began already to gather the political storm.

Not to trespass upon your time, permit me here a reflection. Madame
Caritat de Condorcet, in the excess of her maternal love, subjected the
childhood of the future secretary of the Academy to practices tending in
more than one respect to superstition. The young Condorcet, as soon
as he opened his eyes, was surrounded by a family composed of the
highest dignitaries of the church and military officers, whose ideas were
without exception aristocratic ; his first guides, his first instructors, were
Jesuits. Behold the result of so unusual a concourse of circumstances.
In politics, a complete rejection of all idea of hereditary prerogative ;
in religion, scepticism carried to its utmost limits. This reflection con-
firmed by many observations of a similar character history can furnish,
should it not calm somewhat the ardor with which political and relig-
ious parties, setting aside the rights of families, dispute by turns the
monopoly of public instruction. Such a monopoly is dangerous only in
a country where thought is chained; with the liberty of the press,
reason, whatever may be done, will Bh oalls assert itself.

In the month of August, Condorcet, then thirteen years of age, car-
ried off the second prize in the institution the Jesuits had established
at Reims. In 1758 he commenced at Paris his mathematical studies, at
the College of Navarre. His success was brilliant and rapid, for at the
end of ten months he maintained a very difficult analytical thesis with
so much distinction, that Clairaut, d’Alembert, and Fontaine, who ex-
amined him, saluted him as a future member of the Academy.

Such a horoscope from persons so eminent decided the future of the
young mathematician. In spite of the resistance he foresaw on the
part of his family, he resolved to devote himself to the pursuit of science,

CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPHY. 183

and established himself at Paris for the purpose with his old master, M.
Giraud de Kéroudon.

When Condorcet left college he was already a profound thinker. I
find in a letter of 1775, addressed to Turgot, and entitled My confession
of faith, that at the age of seventeen years the young scholar had seri-
ously reflected upon the moral ideas of justice and virtue, and upon the
question whether (leaving aside other considerations) it was to man’s
interest to be just and virtuous. I give his solution of the question,
although not sure of its originality with him. I am quite convinced,
however, of the novelty of the extreme resolution to which it led him.

‘A sentient being suffers from the evil which another sentient being
experiences. In society, an unjust or criminal action cannot fail to injure
some one. The author of such an action has, then, the consciousness of
having caused suffering to one of his own kind. If the sensibility with
which nature has endowed him remains intact, he must therefore suffer
himself. In order, then, not to destroy his natural sensibility he must,
in self-interest, strengthen his ideas of virtue and justice.”

This conclusion followed naturally from the premises. It led the
young Condorcet to renounce entirely the chase, and prevented him from
killing even insects, provided that they did not harm him.

There were very few subjects in regard to which Condorcet had, even
in early youth, vague and unformed opinions, and there is a beautiful
harmony between the various periods of his laborious and agitated
career. We see him, while still a youth, place kindness towards ani-
mals among the most efficacious means for preserving natural sen-
sibility,—according to him, the principal source of all virtue. This idea
controlled him throughout life. Even just before his death, in the
admirable tract called Advice of an outlaw to his daughter, he writes these
touching exhortations:

‘‘My dear daughter, preserve in all its purity, all its force, the feeling
which leads us to share the sorrow of every sentient being. Do not
confine your sensibilities to the sufferings of the human race, but let
your humanity extend even to animals; render those happy which be-
long to you; do not disdain to consider their well-being ; be not insen-
sible to their naive and sincere gratitude; cause them no ftseless pain.
* * * The want of foresight in animals is the only excuse for that
barbarous law which impels them to uselessly destroy each other.”

I must seize the first opportunity which offers to show you Condoreet
resolutely following these principles. Such as he was in morals we find
him later in polities.

The first fruit of the meditations to which Condorcet devoted himself
with M. Geraud de Kéroudon was a work entitled Essay upon the inte-
gral calculus. The author was only twenty-two when he presented it to
the Academy. Allow me to preface with a few general reflections what
I have to say of this treatise and of other mathematical works of Con-
dorcet.

184 CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPHY.

We can hardly mention in the vast domain of science more than eight
or ten important discoveries which have not required the successive ef-
forts of several generations of savans. Unhappily, inventors, from a wis-
taken feeling of self-love, are not ready to acknowledge to the historians
of science the sources from which they have borrowed; they desire more
to astonish than to instruct. They do not see it is far better to confess
loyally their indebtedness than to incur the suspicion of bad faith.

In the sciences of observation every course of stones composing 2
complete edifice is more or less apparent. Books, academic collections,
tell when and by whom these courses have been laid. The public may
count the stages which must be surmounted by him to whom is reserved
tbe happiness of laying the cap-stone. Each has his appropriate share
of glory in the work of centuries.

Such is not the case with pure mathematics. The filiation of methods
often escapes the most practised eye; at each step we find processes,
theories without apparent connection with any which precede. Certain
geometers move majestically in the upper regions of space, while it is
not easy to say who prepared the road for their ascent. We may add
that this road is usually established upon a scaffolding taken care of
by no one when the road is completed. To collect scattered débris is a
task unpleasant, ungrateful, and without glory, and, for this triple rea-
son, is seldom undertaken.

The savans who devote themselves to pure mathematics without at-
taining the first rank must resign themselves to all these disadvantages.
I have not yet mentioned the most important; it results from the neces-
sity the historian of mathematics experiences of divesting his mind en-
tirely of the light of his own century in judging of the works of former
times. To this may be principally attributed the fact that Condorcet
has never taken his true rank among geometers, and it is also on
account of this difficulty that I have shrunk from the obligation of de-
scribing in a few lines the numerous mathematical works of our former
secretary. Happily, as I have already said, I have in my hands unpub-
lished articles of Lagrange, of d’Alembert, in which the memoirs of Con-
dorcet are noticed at the time of their publication. Condorcet was thus
judged by men of the utmost competence; an advantage by no means
always secured to mathematical workers in the appreciation they receive
from their contemporaries.

The first work of Condorcet, his Integral calculus, was examined by
an acadenical committee, in May, 1765. The report of it, presented by
d’Alembert, ends thus: ‘‘This work indicates great talent and deserves
the approbation of the Academy.”

Certain superficial critics, who scarcely looked at the work of Condor-
cet, spoke of it with ridicule and contempt, undoubtedly considering that
the reporter of the academical committee treated it with culpable indul-
gence; and they seemed to have referred the matter to Lagrange, for
this great geometer wrote to d’Alembert the 6th day of July, 1765: “The

CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPTTY, 185

Tntegral calculus of Condoreet appears to me well worthy of the praises
with which you have honored it.”

But setting these authorities aside, it is none the less established that
this work contains the first serious well considered discussions of the
conditions of integration of the ordinary differential equations of all orders,
as well relatively to the integral of an immediately inferior order, as to
the definitive integral. In it we also find the germs of several import-
ant works, since completed, on equations with finite differences.

The volume of the Academy of Sciences for 1772 contains the memoir
in which the inventive spirit of Condorcet is most brilliantly manifested.
The blind or systematic detractors of the mathematical ability of our
former secretary are again controverted by the following verdict of La-
grange upon this production:

“The memoir is filled with great and fruitful ideas sufficient to have
supplied the material for several works. The last article has especially
impressed me by its elegance and utility. Recurrent series have so
frequently been treated before, that the subjectemight have been con-
sidered exhausted. In this article, however, is a new application of
these series, more important, in my opinion, than any which had been
made before. It opens to us, so to say, a new field for the perfection
of the Integral calculus.”

Without leaving the field of pure mathematics, I might find in the
academic collections of Paris, Berlin, Bologna, St. Petersburg, works bear-
ing upon the most difficult questions of the science which would equally
attest the ability of our former secretary, but I must hasten to notice
some applications of cnalysis which did him no less honor. To do jus-
tice to the subject in any reasonable time I cannot proceed by order of
date.

When we reflect upon the difficulties of all kinds astronomers have
to overcome in order to determine with precision the orbits of the
planets; when we consider, further, that it has been possible to har-
monize the positions taken by the planets at the apogee, at the perigee,
and all the intermediate points, only because they are constantly observ-
able, we can hardly dare to conceive the hope of ever tracing in space the
course of most of the comets, those vagrant stars which show themselves
for a few days, only to be lost for centuries.

A very sinple analytical calculus dissipates this impression. It shows
that, speaking theoretically, three observations are more than sufficient
to determine a comet’s orbit, supposed to be parabolic, but the elements
‘of this orbit are found to be so entangled in the equations that it appears
difficult to free them without caleulations of inconvenient length.

The problem thus regarded was not really solved, even after Newton,
Fontaine, Euler, &c., had made it the subject of assiduous study. When
the Academy of Berlin proposed it as a prize subject, the astronomers,
instead of employing the methods of computation of these great geome-
ters, still pursued the graphic systems, in which parabolas of card-board

186 CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPHY.

of various parameters are used. The aim of the Academy was clearly
expressed—to have the processes employed, at once direct and simple.
The award of the prize was to have been made in 1774, but it was de-
ferred. In 1778 Condorcet shared it with M. Tempelhoff. ‘Your beau-
tiful essay,” wrote Lagrange to our confrére (June 8, 1778), ‘* would have
received the entire prize if the application of your theory had been made
to any particular comet. Tbis condition was in the programme.” The
condition was certainly there, but Condorcet had, as he himself acknowl-
edges, an extreme repugnance “ for calculations which tax without pleas-
ing the attention.” Of course it will be understood that numerical
calculations are meant.

Among the great mathematical discoveries the world owes to France
is a branch of calculus still very little appreciated, notwithstanding the
services it has already rendered and those it still promises. ‘This is the
calculus of probabilities.

Ido not hesitate to claim this discovery of the calculus of probabili-
ties for our country, notwithstanding the efforts which have beeu made
to deprive her of the credit. To dignify as inventors of this calculus the
authors of some numerical remarks, without precision upon the various
ways of computing a certain sum of points, in the simultaneous throw
of three dice, would be a baseless pretension, which even national
prejudice could hardly excuse.

Among the eminent services this calculus has rendered to mankind
we should mention in the first line the abolition of the lottery and sev-
eral other games of chance, which were as traps set for eupidity, cre-
dulity, and ignorance. Thanks to the evident and simple principles
upon which the new analysis is founded, it is no longer possible to dis-
guise the frauds in which these financial combinations were formerly
entrenched: discounts, annuities, tontines, insurances of all kinds, have
lost their character of mystery and obscurity.

On this ground the application of probabilities has been admitted
without much resistance. But when Condorcet, after some essays of
Nicolas Bernoulli, made incursion, by means of the new calculus, into
the domain of jurisprudence and of moral and political science, an oppo-
sition almost general warned him that he could not take possession of
this field without a severe contest. To tell the truth, the contest still
continues. In order to end it, the geometers, on the one hand, must
consent to put the principles of probabilities in clear, precise terms, as
free as possible from technical expressions; while, on the other hand
(and this is much more difficult), the public must be led to recognize,
that appreciation of certain very complex matters cannot be attained
at a glance; that it is impossible to speak pertinently of figures without
mastering first at least the principles of enumeration; finally that there
exist truths, legitimate connections, outside of those, the rudiments of
which may have been acquired in youth, or by the reading of classical
works. To comprehend that civil and criminal tribunals should be con-

stituted so that the innocent may run very little risk of condemnation ;
in order also to comprehend that the chances of an unjust condemna-
tion will be as much lessened as the judgment is rendered by the greater
majority, the simple natural light of the most ordinary sentiments of
humanity is all that is necessary. The problem becomes much more
complicated when the question is to reconcile the proper guaranty of
justice to the innocent with the need of society that the guilty shall
not escape; simple reason here gives only vague results, to these cal-
culation alone can give precision.

Let me repeat, that in judicial decisions there are certain phases, cer-
tain points of view, where resort may be had to calculation. By carrying
into this labyrinth the torch of mathematical analysis, Condorcet not
only proved his own courage, but opened an entirely new path. This,
if pursued by geometers with a firm but cautious step, should lead
to the discovery, in the social, judicial, and political organization of
modern societies, of anomalies hitherto unsuspected.

It is quite evident that in its incursions into the domain of jurispru-
dence, the calculus of probabilities has for its object solely the numeri-
cal comparison of the decisions obtained with such or such a majority;
to find the relative value of such or such number of witnesses. I may
then in terms of severe reproof direct the attention of the public to the
passages La Harpe, in his Philosophie du XVIII Siécle, has devoted to
these applications of mathematics. It will be seen there, I dare say,
with astonishment that the writer accuses our colleague of wishing to do
away with testimony, and even written proof; of pretending to replace
these advantageously by analytical formule. Instead of desiring to
refute expressions so far from academical as “this is asupremely ridicu-
lous use of science,” it is *‘an extravagant conquess of the revolutionary
philosophy,” “this shows what insanity mathematics may produce,” one
regrets to see a man of real talent fallen into such incredible errors. As
to the rest, it is a new proof that no one, not even an academician, can
safely speak of that which he has not studied.

I must confess that the mathematical writings of Condorcet lack the
elegant clearness which distinguish in so high a degree the memoirs
of Euler and of Lagrange. D’Alembert, who was himself not irre-
proachable in this respect, endeavored, but with no great success, to
induce our former secretary to take more pains. In March, 1772, he
wrote to Lagrange: “1 wish much that our friend Condorcet, who has
so much sagacity, and such genius, had a better manner of expression,
but it seems to be the nature of his mind to workin this way.” This ex-
cuse for him has more foundation than might readily be accepted.
Ruler, d’Alembert, Lagrange, with an equal talent for mathematics, had
each entirely different modes of working. Euler calculated without
apparent effort, as men breathe, as the birds fly, In a letter I have
under my eyes, dated 1769, d’Alembert thus speaks of himself to
Lagrange: “It is not in my nature to occupy myself with one thing

CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPHY. 187

188 CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPHY.

long at a time. I leave a subject and resume it again as often as
the humor takes me, without discouragement, and ordinarily this inter-
mittent perseverance is successful.” A third way in which genius
works seems to be indicated by this passage, which I copy from a man-
uscript note from the author of the Ilécanique analytique: ‘‘ My occu-
pations are reduced to studying geometry tranquilly and in silence.
As I am not pressed and work more for my own pleasure than from
duty, like the lord of a chateau who builds, tears down, and rebuilds
again. I make, unmake, and remake until I am tolerably content with
the results, which, however, rarely happens.” It is well, perhaps, that
variety and individuality exist in mathematical researches, as in every-
thing else ; that ways the most diverse may equally lead men of ability
to such disceveries as the mutual attraction of celestial bodies, the cause
of the change in the obliquity of the ecliptic, the cause of the precession
of the equinoxes, and that of the libration of the moon.

It may be asked with very natural surprise how Condorcet could
renounce so easily the success a scientific career promised him in order
to throw himself into the discussions of a subject often very problemati-
cal—social economy, and into the heated arena of polities. If this wasa
fault, many others also were equally culpable. Moreover, here is the pal-
hiation: Early convinced that the human race is indefinitely perfectible,
Condorcet (I copy) regarded its improvement “as one of the pleasantest
occupations, one of the first duties of the man who has strengthened
his reason by study and meditation.” He expressed the same thought
in other words when, in a letter to Voltaire, he speaks with regret of
returning to geometry: ‘Itseems cold to work only for vainglory, when
one desires to be working for the public good.” Ido notadmit the distine-
tion; the vainglory Condorcet speaks of was more directly conducive to
the benefit of humanity than the researches, economical and philosophical,
which our confrére undertook with so much zest in the secial com-
munity. The good done by science has roots deeper and more extended
than those from any other source. It is not subject to the fluctuations,
the sudden caprices, the retrograde movements which so often produce
perturbations in society. The torch of science dissipates a hundred old
and debasing prejudices, inveterate maladies of the moral and intel-
lectual world. If Condorcet was inclined to insinuate that scientific dis-
coveries bave no direct or immediate influence upon the body politic,
I will not revert to such well-kuown bevefactions as the marine1’s com-
pass, gunpowder, and the steam-engine to refute the suggestion ; I will
take one fact from a thousand that show what important events may
result through the agency of the simplest inventions.

In the year 1746 the Pretender had appeared in Scotland, and France
was sending him powerful succor. The French fleet and the English squad-
ron passed each other during a very dark night. The most vigilant of the
watch saw nothing. gave no signal; but, unhappily for France and its
ally, Admiral Kowles, on leaving London, was provided with a glass

CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPHY. 189

of recent and very simple construction, known under the name of the
night-glass—a glass in which the artist had sacrificed magnifying power
to illumination. With this instrument he descried, outlined on the hori-
zon, numerous vessels ; he pursued them, reached them, captured them:
the humble night-glass decided the destiny of the Stuarts.

We may explain the sadness felt by Condorcet on returning to mathe.
matics by the fact that even the most illustrious of geometers were at
that time discouraged. They believed that they had reached the final
limits of the science. We may judge this from the following passage I
copy from a letter of Lagrange to @’Alembert: ‘I believe that the mine
is already too deep, and, as we discover no new branches, sooner or later
it must be abandoned. Chemistry and physies proffer a richer reward,
with easier research. The taste, too, of the century does not lie in our
direction. Itis not impossible that the-pursuit of geometry in the acad-
emies will some time become as rare as the study of Arabic is to-day in
the universities.”

NOMINATION OF CONDORCET TO THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCES—HIS
JOURNEY TO FERNEY—HIS RELATIONS WITH VOLTAIRE.

I learn by a letter from d’Alembert to Lagrange that Condorcet might
have entered the Academy in 1768, at the age of twenty-five years. His
parents objected; to make science his official occupation was in their eyes
derogatory to his station. He was received in 1769. His family yielded
rather because tired of objecting than from conviction; fcr, six years
later, Condorcet, already perpetual secretary of the Academy, wrote to
Turgot, ‘‘Look with favor upon M. Thouvenel; he is the only one of my
relatives who forgave me for not being a cavalry captain.”

I must class among the first of Condorcet’s academic works, an unpub-
lished memoir upon the best organization of Jearned societies. This
was intended for the Spanish Government. Influenced by the desire to
calm the susceptibilities of the court of Madrid, the author has underrated
certain phases of the question, but in it we find general views the fruit
of an enlightened jadgment and some curious anecdotes, which give the
key, hitherto lost, to various provisions of our ancient academic rules.

It would show an entire want of understanding of the Spain of the
XVIIIth century to dream of establishing an academy in which the
Medina Celi, the d’Ossuna, &e., as representatives of the nobility, would
have no place. Condorcet made this concession; be created honorary
members, but stipulated for an equality of rights which would, he hoped,
‘raise the academicians in the eyes of the public, and perhaps in their
own estimation, for savans unfortunately are not always philosophers.”
‘To render,” said Condorcet, “this union of the men of rank, who love
science, and the savans devoted to her progress agreeable to both par-
ties, this saying of Louis XIV should be kept in mind: ‘ Do you know
why Racine and M. de Cavoye agree so well? Racine with Cavoye is
a man of the court; Cavoye with Racine is a man of letters.”

190 CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPHY.

Perhaps I may be excused if, in this connection, I divulge from the
manuscript of Condorcet the origin of an article of the first charter of
our society relating to the nomination of men of rank:

“When we introduced,” said our confrére, ‘*‘ honorary members in the
Academy, for fear that true savans might be troubled by the hauteur or
abuse of power of the monks, Fontenelle proposed that the class of
honorary members should be the only one to which they could be ad-
initted.”

In the hope of inducing the Spanish authorities not to be influenced in
their choice of members by the religious principles of candidates, Con-
dorcet proposed to them this question: ‘In an academy composed of the
heathen Aristotle, the Brahmin Pythagoras, the Mussulman Alhasen,
the Catholic Descartes, the Jansenist Pascal, the Ultramontane Cassini,
the Calvinist Huygens, the Anglican Bacon, the Arian Newton, the De-
ist Leibnitz, would there be any question of preference in regard to sect ?
Think you there would be consideration in such an assembly for any-
thing but pure geometry and physics ?”

Condorcet aspired at Madrid not only to secure for the director of the
academy extended authority and large prerogatives; he desired, to
use his own words, ‘‘to free the savans from the indignity, especially
distasteful to them, of being under the protection of subalterns—an evil,
in fact, of all times and all countries.”

If the memoir of Condorcet ever sees the day, i: may be considered that
he pronounced too absolutely against the admission of foreigners among
the resident members of the academies. If so, history may say in his
defense that when he wrote it, the French Government was prodi-
gal of its favors to foreigners of moderate ability, while it neglected
men of superior talent born in the country. Witness, for example, an
Italian,—Boscovich, provided with a large pension by the same ministers
who refused to d’Alembert, notwithstanding his genius, and contrary
to all rule, the reversibility of 1,200 livres of revenue, proceeding from
the succession of Clairaut. See also this same individual, who is men-
tioned very slightingly by Lagrange and d’Alembert in the letters I have
in hand, attempting to enter the Academy without waiting for a vacancy
and on the point of success, thanks to the foolish admiration entertained
for any one with a foreign termination to hisname.*

Until 1770 Condorcet seemed desirous of confining his attention ex-
clusively to mathematical and economical studies. After this period he
threw himself into the world of literature. There will be no hesitation
in discerning the cause of this revolution, when we remark that it
coincides in date with the journey made by @’Alembert and Condorcet to
Ferney, the home of Voltaire. Upon his return the young academician
of twenty-seven years wrote to Turgot, intendant of Limousin, ‘“ I found
Voltaire so full of activity and enthusiasm that one would be tempted
to believe him immortal, if a slight injustice towards Rousseau and too

*This paragraph scarcely does justice to the distinguished Italian physicist.

CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPHY. Tou

great sensibility in regard to the follies of Fréron did not prove him to be
human.” With reference to some articles in the Dictionnaire philoso-
phique(then unpublished), articles the importance and originality of which
may be a matter of doubt, Condorcet says: ‘ Voltaire works less for
reputation than for the good of his cause. Te should not be judged as
a philosopher but as an apostle.” Could there be an appreciation of
certain works of Voltaire of greater delicacy and taste ?

Voltaire became a sort of Dalai-Lama of the intellectual world. His
friends were undignified courtiers, blindly devoted to the caprices of
their master, and endeavoring to obtain, by outrageous flattery and un-
limited complaisance, one of those letters from Ferney, which then
seemed in the eyes of the world a certain token of immortality. As for
Condorcet, a few words will show his opinion of this foolish adulation.

Madame Necker received in 1776 some very flattering verses from Vol-
taire. Herhusband, successor of Turgot as comptroller-general of finances,
received a large meed of praise also in these verses. All this was un-
doubtedly a matter of little consequence, but Condorcet’s rigid sense of
propriety was disturbed; he considered it an act of weakness, and feared
that the reputation of the philosopher would suffer by it; his uneasiness
and displeasure were vented in expressions of considerable severity. ‘I
am sorry for these verses. You do not consider the weight of your name.
* * * You are like that class of people who would leave a Jupiter to
applaud a harlequin. * * * I know your piece only by hearsay, but
those who have read it tell me that apropos of Mme. Enveloppe (M.
and Mme. Necker) you speak of Cato. This reminds me of a young for-
eigner who once said to me, ‘I have seen three great men in France, Vol-
taire, d’Alembert, and the Abbé de Voisenon.’”

One more example of his independence and loyal frankness: Voltaire
was desirous of committing to the stage, at Paris, the tragedy he had
composed in his old age, Irene. Condorcet, dreading a failure, resisted
the pressing request of Voltaire to assist him in this step, with judicious
and firm criticisms, couched in respectful language, however, in which
is never lost the disciple addressing the master. Thus, for example, in
a letter at the end of 1777: ‘See, sir! See! you have accustomed us
to perfection in action and in character, as Racine has accustomed us to
perfection in style. * * * If we are severe it is your own fault.”

Condorcet was a profound geometer. He belonged to that class of
intellectual men who, even when witnessing the most beautiful tragedies
of Corneille and Racine, would mentally ask at each scene, what does
that prove? Voltaire surely ought to have cared little for the criticism
of a judge so incompetent. Listen and decide:

‘““FERNEY, January 12, 1778.
“My UNIVERSAL PHILOSOPHER: Your discretion is astonishing and
your friendship day by day more dearto me. Iam grieved and ashamed
to have differed from you in regard to the last effort of an old man of
eighty-four years. I believed, upon the faith of a few tears shed in my

192 CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPITY.

presence by those who knew how to read and to assume without feeling
passion, that if my little effort was well depicted and well acted it might
produce at Paris a happy effect. I was, unfortunately, mistaken. I
was aware of most of the faults you have tbe kindness to point out,
and I add to them many others. I was endeavoring to make a picture
out of a rough sketch, when your criticisms, dictated by friendship and
by reason, came to increase my doubts of its worth. We ean do noth-
ing well in the arts of imagination and taste without the aid of an en-
lightened friend.”

I feel that I am dwelling too long upon a point of the life of Condorcet
which would seem to be already sufficiently illustrated, but I am irre-
sistibly impelled to give a third and last incident of the frankness of
Condorcet, which, in this case, truly amounted to a beautiful and noble
action.

Voltaire and Montesquieu, did not like each other. Montesquieu even
allowed this to be too evident. Voltaire, irritated by some pamphlets
published by Montesquieu, wrote at Ferney, against the UV Lsprit des Lois,
several articles, which he sent to his friends in Paris, asking to have ~
them published. Condorcet did not yield to the demand, imperious
as it was, of the illustrious old man. “Do you not see,” he remon-
strated, “that to what you say to-day will be opposed your former
praises of Montesquieu? His admirers, displeased by tbe way in which
you take up some of his erroneous statements, will seek for similar inad-
vertencies in your own works, and they cannot possibly fail to find such,
for even Cesar describing his campaigns in his Commentaries, commits
someinaccuracies. * * * You will, hope, pardon me for not comply-
ing with your request in this matter, which you seem to have so much
at heart. My attachment compels me to tell you what is for your advan-
tage and not what will please you. If I loved you less, I would not dare
to oppose you. I know the faults of Montesquieu, but he is worthy
enough for you to overlook them.” Atter this noble and loyal lan-
guage, which was wellcaleulated to rectify wrong ideas, it cannot be said
that all the philosophers of the XVIIIth century were the vassals of
Voltaire. The short response of the illustrious old man to the remon-
strances of Condorcet is a document so valuable to the history of our lit-
erature that I cannot allow it to iemain hidden in my portfolio; here it
18:

“There is but one way to respond to what a true philosopher wrote
me on the 20th of June. I thank him very sincerely. One ought not
to blush to go to school, even if of the age of Methuselah * * * I
repeat my thanks.”

CONDORCET SUCCESSOR OF GRANDJEAN DE FoucHy, AS SECRETARY
OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCES—APPRECIATION OF HIS EULOGIES
OF THE ACADEMICIANS.

Fontenelle had given so much éclat to the functions of the secretary
of the Academy of Sciences that at his death no one wished to succeed

CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPHY. 193

him. After much solicitation, Mairan consented to occupy provisionally
the place in order to allow the learned body time enough to make a
choice they would not afterwards regret. It was finally concluded that
the only way to avoid all disagreeable comparison, was to give to the
nephew of Corneille a successor who would not aspire to imitate him,
and who would disarm all eriticism by his extreme modesty. It was
under these circumstances that in 1743 Grandjean de Fouchy became
the official organ of the old Academy.

Fouchy had occupied this position for more than thirty years when
Condorcet entered the learned company. The infirmities of the perpet-
ual secretary and his age made him desirous of a collaborator, and for
this purpose he cast his eyes upon his youngest confrere. This was to
create survivorship, to establish a precedent, and produced violent oppo-
sition in the Academy.

After an excitement rarely caused by the discussion of an abstract
principle, the question finally stood as follows: Thesuccessor of Fontenelle,

_ shall it be Bailly or Condorecet? The struggle could not fail to be noble

and loyal in all that concerned these two gentlemen. Condorcet, through-
out his life modest in the extreme, thought it necessary to give some
evidence of his fitness for the place, of his facility in the art of writing,
and undertook to compose some academic eulogies. The regulation of
1699 imposed upon the perpetual secretary the obligation of paying a
tribute of respect tothe memory of the academicians removed by death.
This is the origin of the numerous biographies, often eloquent, always
ingenious, left by Fontenelle, and confined all of them to the interval
comprised between the last year of the XVIith century and 1740. Fon-
tenelie in his annals of the society does not take up the past, but com-
mences only with the time of his entrance into office. The admirable
collection he has left us, therefore, leaves a gap of thirty-three years.
The academicians, deceased between 1666 and 1699, had no biographer,
avd it is in this third of a century that Condorcet found the subjects for
the exercise of his pen, and among them such savans as Huygens,
Roberval, Picard, Mariotte, Perrault, Roemer, &c. These, his first eulo-
gies, are written with a profound knowledge of the subjects treated by
the academicians, and in a simple, clear, and concise style. Condorcet
said, in sending them to Turgot, ‘If I were able to give them more
brilliancy of expression they would be more pleasing, but nature has
not endowed me with the gilt of such union of words. If I attempt any-
thing of the kind, one word, astonished at another, starts back in affright
to see itself so associated. I am humiliated before those whom in this
respect nature has treated so much better than myself.” Condorcet was
mistaken in his low estimate of work which procured for him a large
Majority in the Academy, and of which Voltaire, d’Alembert, and La-
grange always spoke with great esteem. On the 9th of April, 1773,
d’Alembert wrote to Lagrange, “‘Condorcet merited well the place of

Secretary on account of the excellent eulogies he has published of the
S. Mis. 59 15

194 CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPHY.

academicians deceased since 1666. * * * They have had with us a
complete success.” ‘+ Your work,” said Voltaire on the 1st of March, 1774,
‘is amonument to you. You always appear the master of those of
whom you speak, but a master kind and modest; a king describing his
subjects.” Such commendation gave to these first essays of Condorcet
a rank from which malevolence has in vain endeavored to reduce them.

Condorcet had hardly entered into his relation with M. de Fouchy,

when he was commissioned to write several eulogies, among others that
of the geometer Fontaine, deceased August 21,1771. Difficulties un-
foreseen immediately assailed him. When he wrote the biographies of
the earlier members of the Academy of Scierces a century had placed
all things in their proper ligbt—persons, labors, and discoveries,—and
there was nothing for the writer to do but to express, in terms more or
less happy, the irrevocable and already known decrees of posterity.
Now he found himself in contact with the requirements, almost always
blind, of families; with contemporary susceptibility sometimes of friends,
always of rivals; finally with opinions based upon prejudice or personal
animosity, than which nothing in the intellectual world is more diffi-
cult to eradicate. I suspect that Condorcet exaggerated somewhat
these difficulties, although they were undoubtedly real, for he certainly
spent an enormous amount of labor on his first eulogy of a contem-
poraneous academician. In his correspondence with Turgot we find
him aboat the middle of 1772 already very busy with Fontaine. In
the beginning of September he sent to the illustrious intendant a
first copy of his work. The same eulogy, retouched and altered, in
September, 1773, was on its way to Limoges. This, it must be ad-
mitted, was a long time to devote to an article of only twenty-five
octavo pages. However, the maxim of Boileau was not in this instance
without fruit. D’Alembert, writing to Lagrange, calls the eulogy of
Fontaine a chef-Veuvre. Voltaire says, in a letter of the 24th of De-
cember, 1773, ** You have made me pass a half hour very agreeably. *
* * You have relieved the dryness of the subject by a moral treat-
ment noble and profound * * * which will delight all honest men.
* * * Tf you need your copy I will return it to you, asking permis-
sion to make one for myself.” Voltaire asking permission to copy for
his own use a eulogy of Fontaine! Could there be a greater compliment
than this? .

To the eulogy of Fontaine succeeded that, not less piquant, not less
ingenious, not less philosophic, of Condamine. The Academy and the
public at large received it with unanimous applause. With the exception
of the years 1775 and 1776, during which the Academy experienced no
loss, the secretary had to provide annually until 1788, three, four, and
even eight similar compositions. The style of these latter eulogies of
Condorcet is grave and noble. There is in them no trace of affectation
of manner or of effort; no desire to produce effect by expression, to
cover, by striking or eccentric language, feebleness of thought.

CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPHY. 195

Our confrére resisted with the more assurance the invasion of bad
taste, the confusion of style, and the dithyrambic tendencies attempted
by a certain school, because encouraged by Voltaire, who thus writes to
him from Ferney, on the 18th of July, 1774: “It is without doubt a
misfortune to be born in a century of bad taste, but what will you have?
The public for eighty years have been content to drink bad brandy at
their repasts.”

It is now generally considered as a matter of hearsay that Condorcet
lacked in his eulogies force, warmth, elegance, and sensibility. I differ
from this opinion without fear of finding myself alone. In fact what
have those who complain of his want of force to say to the following
portrait of the academicians, happily few in number, whose names are
connected with factious intrigue ?

% Such intrigues have always been the work of those men tormented
with the feeling of their own insignificance, who seek to obtain by noise
what they fail to merit by worth, who having no right to reputation of
their own, would destroy that merited by others, and overcome by petty
malice the men of genius who oppress them with the weight of their
renown.”

To the critics who have accused Condorcet of a want of sensibility,
I oppose the following passage from the unpublished eulogy of fathers
Jacquier and: Le Seur: * * * “Their friendship was not of that
vulgar sort produced only by conformity of tastes and interests. It
had its origin in a natural and irresistible attraction. In these deep
and delicious friendships each endures the sufferings of his friend and
enjoys all his pleasures. He has not a thought, he has not a senti-
ment, which his friend does not share; and if he is not always one with
him, it is solely on account of the preference he gives him over himself.
This friend is not only a man that one prefers to all other men, he isa
being apart, whom none resembles; it is not his qualities, his virtues
that one loves in him, for others may have these and yet not be loved
the same ; it is himself that one loves, and because it is himself. Those
who have never experienced the sentiment can alone deny that it exists.
* * * From the instant they encountered each other at Rome, every-
thing was in common between them; troubles, pleasures, labors—glory
even, the good, of all others, that two men very rarely share in good faith.
Still each of them published separately a few articles, but these were of
little importance, and in the judgment of him to whom they belonged
not worthy to appear with the name of hisfriend. They desired perfect
equality in the situations they occupied; if one obtained a distinction,
he was not content until he had procured a similar honor for his friend.
* * * Father Jacquier had tbe misfortune to survive his friend.
Father le Seur succumbed to his infirmities in 1770. Two days before
his decease he appeared to have lost all consciousness. ‘Do you know
me?’ said Father le Jecquier to him a few moments before his death.
‘Yes,’ answered the dying man; ‘I have just resolved a difficult equa-

196 CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPHY.

tion with you” Thus, in the midst of the destruction of his organs he
had not forgotton the objects of his studies, and remembered the friend
with whom he had all in common. Tather Jacquier was forcibly taken
from the arms of the dying man by the friends who, to use Jacquier’s
own expression, did not wish to lose them both. He resumed the chair
his health had obliged him to vacate; caring little to prolong the days
no longer brightened by friendship, he still wished to fill them with
useful labor and thus divert the feelings of sorrow which nothing could
cure. He knew better than to add the weight of time to that of grief.
Tor minds that suffer, leisure is the most cruel torture.”

The valuation Condorcet has given of the divers virtues of Conda-
mine could, if we are not mistaken, be placed, without disadvantage,
beside the eloquent speech Buffon addressed to the illustrious traveler.
on the day of his reception by the French Academy. It would bear as
well comparison in elegance with the eulogy of the same academician,
pronounced by the Abbé Delille, his successor.

The biographical compositions of Condorcet please because they con-
tain what should naturaliy be their essence. The history of the human
mind is in them viewed from a high standard. In the choice of details
the author has constantly in view instruction and utility rather than
entertainment. Without trespassing in the least upon truth, whose
_demands he places before every other interest or consideration, Con-
dorcet is constantly ruled by the thought that the dignity of the savant
is to a certain degree that of science; and that any applause which
might be accorded to a witty portrayal of a ridiculous incident, would
be a poor return for even a slight wrong done to the most modest
branch of human knowledge.

We expect too much of Monsieur plus que Fontenelle, as Voltaire calls
our confrére in several unpublished letters 1 have in hand, if we hope to
find in his eulogies any chapters devoted entirely to the subsequent
history of the sciences. Condorcet did not commit the error of giving
to his auditors food stronger than they could digest.

Our former secretary was especially distinguished in his eulogies by
the utmost impartiality, by philosophic thought, and by the interest he
gave to the most simple biographical circumstances, by his constant
abnegation of all personal feeling, of all party spirit, of all self-love.
Condoreet described his own works, as well as those of Franklin, when
he said of the latter: ‘‘We seek in them in vain for a line which could
be suspected of having been written for his own glory.”

The long career of Franklin certainly does not offer a better instance
of frank, true modesty than is contained in this passage from the eulogy
of Fontaine: ‘‘I thought, at one time, said this geometer, that a young
man with whom I had been brought into connection had more talent
and might attain greater eminence than myself. I was jealous of him,
but I have not feared him since.”—* The young man in question,” added
Condorcet, *‘is the author of this eulogy.”

a

{

CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPHY. 197

The class of the envious, always numerous and active, and ready to
create disturbance, received through the mouth of Fontenelle a lesson
of good sense and of wisdom, from which, unfortunately, they profited
little. The first edition of Voltaire’s Age of Louis XIV was about to
appear. This was too good an occasion to irritate two great men against
each other to be neglected. ‘How am J treated in this work ?” asked
Fontenelle. He was answered: ‘ Voltaire commences by declaring that
you are the only living person for whom he would make exception of the
rule he had made for himself to speak only of the dead.” ‘ Stop,” said
the secretary of the Academy, “I do not wish to hear more. With any-
thing Voltaire may add to that I must be content.” Notwithstanding
some criticism, Buffon, the immortal author of the Histoire Naturelle,
would surely have been equally satisfied could he have heard the follow-
ing tribute Condorcet renders to his eloquence: ‘‘The passages which
escape from the pen of Buffon show the sensibility as well as the pride
of his nature; but always controlled by a superior judgment, they make
us feel, so to say, as if we were conversing with a pure intelligence, with
only enough humanity to understand us and to be interested in our weak-
ness. * * * Posterity will place the works of this great naturalist
besi.e the dialogues of the disciple of Socrates and the teachings of the

-philosopher of Tusculum. * * * M. de Buffon, more varied, more

brilliant, more prodigal of images than the two great representatives of
Greece and Rome, joined facility to energy, grace to majesty. His phi-
losophy, with a character less pronounced, is more varied and less mel-
ancholy. Aristotle seems to have written only for savants, Pliny for
philosophers, M. de Buffon for all enlightened men.”

After this quotation shall I injure Condorcet if I admit that Buffon
never testified any kindness for him; that he was the most active friend
of his rivals for the place of perpetual secretary of the Academy of
Sciences and for that of member of the French Academy ; that the idea
of an academic censure, strongly reconmended to the ministers of Louis
XVI, and which constantly threatened the historian of our labors, orig-
inated with Buffon. It is worthy of note that the bickerings which at
this time disturbed the Academy, as d’Alembert writes to Lagrange, on
the 15th of April, 1775, to so great a degree ‘‘as to dishearten us for
all serious study” and in which the illustrious naturalist took a prom-
inent part, are revealed to us by the correspondence of La Harpe and
numerous unpublished articles from other sources, but we seek in vain
for any trace of them in the eulogies of the loyal secretary.

Fontenelle left a gap in his eulogies of deceased academicians, from
1699 to 1740; was this by design? One is tempted to think so, on
observing among the omitted the Duke d’Escalonne, the famous Law
and Pére Gouye. I will leave no doubt of the kind in regard to Condor-
cet. If he did not make a eulogy of the Duke de La Vrilliére, it was
because in his eyes the title of honorary bestowed by the Academy

198 CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPHY.

did not render honorable the minister who all his life made a cruel
and scandalous use of the lettres de cachet. His timid friends calcu-
lated with uneasiness the danger of irritating M. de Maurepas, prime
minister and brother-in-law of M. de la Vrilliere. Condorcet answered :
‘¢Would you prefer that I should be persecuted for a foolish act rather
than for a just and moral one? Do you not think I will in the future
be more easily pardoned for silence, than for speech, since I am resolved,
if compelled to speak, to tell exactly the truth?”

EuLoGy OF MICHEL DE L’HOPITAL—LETTER OF A THEOLOGIAN TO
TUE AUTHOR OF THE DICTIONARY oF THREE CENTURIEZS—LET-
TER OF A LABORER OF PICARDY TO A. M. NECKER, PROHIBITION-
IST—REFLECTIONS UPON THE COMMERCE IN GRAIN—NEW EDITION
oF PASCAL’S THOUGHTS—ENTRANCE OF CONDORCET INTO THE
TRENCH ACADEMY.

Hitherto we have followed step by step the geometer, the perpetual
secretary of the Academy. Now we see our confrére throw himself with
polemic ardor into literary and philosophical controversy, appearing
before the public, often anonymously, in order, he said, pot to add his
personal enemies to the enemies of his cause. Condorcet was already
by fair title secretary of our society when the French Academy issued
as the subject for a competitive essay the eulogy of Michel de Hopital.
Captivated by the scope, the interest, and aiso the beauty of the theme,
our confrére entered the lists with all the ardor natural toa young man
of unknown antecedents and with a reputation to make. He did not
obtain the prize, however; the preference was given to a paper, to-day
completely forgotten, by the Abbé Remi. Some of the causes for his
disappointment have become known to me, andit may perhaps be worth
while to notice them.

What did the French Academy desire in proposing the eulogy of de
YHopital for a prize essay? <A superficial review of the literary work
of the illustrious chancellor, a general sketch of his political and admin-
istrative acts, a homage to his memory, written in a more or less florid or
exalted style. To-day this kind of composition is little to the taste of
the public; indeed what the celebrated assembly demanded could hardly
be dignified with the name of a discourse.

Tt was not thus Ceondoreet regarded the subject presented to him. In
his mind utility was preferred to every other merit. The life of ’H0-
pital seemed to him to offer a salutary example to those finding them-
selves in difficult circumstances obliged to choose between repose and
the public welfare. He did not hesitate as to the character of his essay.
It was a history of the life, not merely a eulogistic notice of Hopital, he
felt impelled to write.

The life of ’Hépital: but this is a history of a century of terrible
events, of a long succession of shameful disorders, of barbarous and

CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPHY. 199

cruel actions, a century of intolerance and fanaticism. The field was
large, but was not too much for the power, the knowledge, and the zeal
of the writer. In his beautiful work Condorcet first shows us l’Hopital
in Italy, with the constable of Bourbon, in the parliament and council
of Bologna. We then see him at the head of the finances. Later it is
the chancellor, the minister, the statesman whose acts are revealed to
the reader. The history of a life so full of incident could not properly
be reduced to the limits of an article which could be read in sixty min-
utes—the time prescribed by theacademy. Condorcet could not comply
with this limitation, and his eulogy was three times longer than the
programme allowed. This was sufficient in itself to make the rejection
of the essay a foregone conclusion, to say nothing of the criticism the
work excited in the literary Areopagus, of which the author of the
Lyceum has preserved some specimens.

According to La Harpe, the style of the eulogy of ’PHopital lacked
harmony. The charge would have been a graver one had he said (if it
could be said) that it lacked character, nerve, accuracy ; that the ideas
were neither new nor profound, and in that case it would be only nec-
essary as a refutation to refer to such passages as the following:

‘Tf Bertrandi (keeper of the seal of Henry II) has escaped the exe-
cration of succeeding centuries, it is because always petty even in the
midst of his greatest power, always subaltern, even while occupying the
highest places, he was too insignificant to attract attention.”

“ All the citizens wept over the ruin of their country. L’H6pital alone
did not despair. Hope never abandons noble souls. The love of the public
good had with the chancellor all the characteristics, all the illusions of a
veritable passion; Hopital did not ignore obstacles, but felt his power
to cope with them.”

But “the obscurity of the style.” In this criticism, I do not know what
La Harpe means by “ phrases which double upon each other.” He is cer-
tainly clear enough, however, when he complains of Condorcet’s want of
dignity in speaking of vine-poles, billets of wood, and little pies, in the
eulogy of a chancellor. We ought to hope in the spirit of loyalty that ;
this remark of La Harpe’s did not influence the decision of the Academy.
Would you know where the expressions occur which made the critic so
indignant? They are ina note, in which with reason the author denounces
the strange, we might better say the deplorable regulations, which
the prohibitive system suggested to even such minds as that of Michel
de VHopital. Yes, gentlemen; the fact cannot be denied; the virtu-
ous chancellor prohibited the crying of little patties in the streets, in
order—his words are unequivocal—to insure the pastry-sbops from idle-
ness and the people from indigestion. We may laugh in these days, we
may be astonished, but none the less the sale of fagots, and vine-polesalso,
was forbidden. Thelaws of the time even determined the form of breeches
and of farthingales. The fact that ’H6pital could approve such re-
strictions, shows clearly to what point even men of genius may yield to

\

200 - CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPHY.

the influence of their century. But I do not know in truth what influ-
ence Condorcet would have obeyed if he had substituted elaborate
phrases for the technical expressions that ’H6pital, even with his poet
hand, employed, if he had used ornamental style apropos of farthingales,
of billets of wood, and little patties.

Voltaire certainly did not agree with La Harpe and his friends in their
opinion of Condorcet, for, on the 3d of October, 1777, he writes to M.
de Vaines, “I have just read, with great satisfaction, ?H6pital, by
Condorcet; all that he does bears the mark of a superior mind.” I find
expressions no less significant in an unpublished letter of Franklin: “TI
have read with extreme pleasure your excellent eulogy of Hopital.
I knew before that you were a great mathematician ; now I consider you
one of the first statesmen of Europe.” Such praise is surely equal in
value to an academic reward.

“The Lettre Vun Théologien to the author of the Dictionnaire des trois
Siécles is one of the most piquant articles published for several years.
This pamphlet, unaccompanied by the name of the author, has been
generally attributed to the illustrious patriarch of Ferney. Never has he
been more happy in his criticisms, never more good-natured in his rail-
lery.” It is in such terms that a correspondence since published and be-
come celebrated announced, in 1774, the anonymous pamphlet of Con-
dorcet. :

Voltaire, to whom the authorship was then unknown, thus writes to
our confrére on the 20th of August, 1774: ‘ There are, in the Letter of
a Theologian, passages of humor, as well as of eloquence, worthy of
Pascal.” He then proceeds to prove that, notwithstanding a prevalent
opinion, the Abbé de Voisenon could not be the author of apiece so
remarkable. As to himself (Voltaire), he ought not to be suspected of it,
for the letter indicates a profound knowledge of mathematics; and, he
adds, “In consequence of the trouble 1 experienced with the elements
of Newton, I renounced, forty years ago, that class of studies.”

The audacity of the Letter of a Theologian, since he was suspected of
writing it, caused Voltaire great uneasiness, and he took every occasion
to disown its authorship. ‘I do not wish,” he said, “at the age of
eighty-three to die elsewhere than in my bed.” He thus speaks of it to
M. @Argental (August 17,1774): ‘One could not be more eloquent
nor yet more foolhardy. This work, as dangerous as it is admirable,
will undoubtedly furnish means of attack to the enemies of philosophy.
* * * JT desire neither the glory of having written the Letter of a
Theologian nor the punishment which will follow it. I am sorry that so
gocd a cause has been injured by being defended with too much spirit.”
Again Voltaire writes: ‘How could any one dare, unless in command
of two hundred thousand soldiers, to publish so audacious a work ?”

If he took every occasion, as we have said, and every way to declare
that he was not the author of the Letter of a Theologian, mark well, this
was because he needed repose and feared persecution; not because his

q al
‘

-

Ly

CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPHY. 201

self-love was alarmed. He is evidently far from considering this sup-
position of the public injurious to him as a man of letters.
To such evidence as this would I call the attention of those who have

- considered Condorcet’s style wanting in eloquence and depth.

In the society of d’Alembert our former confrére became a geometer.
Turgot in his turn inspired him with a taste for social economy. Their
ideas, their hopes, their sentiments became identical. It would really
be impossible to mention a single point in science upon which Turgot
and Condorcet differed, even in an almost imperceptible shade. They
were both persuaded that in matters of commerce “entire and absolute
liberty is the only law of utility and even justice.” They believed that the
protection accorded “to one special branch of industry was detrimen-
tal to all; * * * that the minute precautions with which legislators
deemed it necessary to load their regulations were the fruits of timidity
and ignorance, and without any compensation, the source of inconven-
ience, intolerable vexations, and real losses.

Turgot and Condorcet were, if possible, still more closely united upon
the special question of commerce in grain. They maintained that
entire liberty in this commerce was of equal importance to owners, to
cultivators, to consumers, to employés; that there was no other rem-
edy for the effects of local scarcity, no other means of reducing the mean
price and diminishing the rate of variations, a matter of still more import-
ance, for mean prices regulate the wages of the workmen. If, on
the one hand, these rigorous principles were a formal discouragement to
any yielding to disorderly clamors, or popular prejudices, on the other
hand the two economists proclaimed distinctly that in times of scarcity
the government ought to make provision for the poor. This relief
should not, however, be dispensed blindly, but should be the price of
work.

Turgot and his friend professed the maxim that there exist for every
man certain natural privileges of which no lot in life can legitimately
deprive him. They considered among the most important of these the
right to dispose of his own intelligence, his own hands, and his own labor.
Our philosophers also advocated the abolition of a number of tedious
formalities, often absurd and always costly, which made the condition
of the workmen an odious slavery. If the mastership and the warden-
ship were the despair of artisans and city workmen, the statutes of
labor as severely affected the workmen of the rural districts, The
labor statutes condemned to work without wages men who were depend-
ent upon those very wages for their living. They allowed prodigality
in labor because this cost the royal treasury nothing. The form of the
requisitions, the hardness of the laws, the rigor of the penalties, added
humiliation to misery. Turgot and Condorcet were the most ardent
adversaries of this cruel servitude.

The two philosophers were not men who become tolerant of crime
through seeing it constantly committed. The slave-trade excited their

202 ° CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPHY.

utmost abhorrence. If lhad timeand space Icould here transcribe a quite
recent letter from M. Clarkson, in which this venerable gentleman renders
touching homage to the active efforts of Condorcet in behalf of the holy
crusade against this cruel practice, which had absorbed his long life. It
is therefore very appropriate that our David has placed among the bas-
reliefs of his beautiful statue of Guttenberg the noble figure of the former
secretary of the Academy, as one of the most ardent epvemies of the
shameful brigandage, which for two centuries depopulated and corrupted
the African continent.

At the death of Louis XV the public voice called Turgot to the minis-
try. First the marine was confided to him; a month after (August 24,
1774), the finances. In his new and brilliant position Turgot did not
forget the intimate confidant of his economical and philosophical thoughts;
he appointed Condorcet comptroller of currency. Condercet accepted
this favor in terms worthy to be recorded.

“Tt is said in a certain quarter that you are very generous with the
public funds when you desire to oblige your friends. « I should be sorry
to give these foolish words any appearance of foundation. I pray you
therefore do nothing for me in the way of remuneration just now.
Although not rich, I am not pressed. Let me fill the place; trust me
with some important work; wait until my efforts have truly deserved a
reward.”

Turgot during his ministry conceived, in 1775, a general plan for the
interior navigation of the kingdom. This plan embraced a vast system
of works for the improvement of the small as well as the large rivers,
and for the excavation of canals to unite the natural ways of communi-
cation. The celebrated minister, in this important matter, had to defend
himself equally from the lovers of display, from those who seeing certain
rivers separated on the map by only a little white paper, draw lines
from one to the other and call these meaningless scratches their plans;
from those, finally, who do not know how to gauge the power of running
water, nor how to calculate its effects. Therefore he hastened to attach
to the administration three geometers of the Academy of Sciences,
@’Alembert, Condorcet, and Bossut. Their mission was to examine
plans and to supply any hydrographic information that might be required.

These operations, undertaken on so grand a scale, were stopped by
Turgot’s pecuniary inability to pursue them. Notwithstanding their
short continuance they have left enduring results, although perhaps in
more than one instance the counsel, contained in a memoir of Condorcet,
was not sufficiently regarded: ‘* Trust only such men who, could they
join the Loire to the Yellow River of China, would feel no vanity on that
account, but consider that a little zeal and some knowledge was all that
had been necessary to accomplish the work.”

The following extract from a letter of d’Alembert to Lagrange will
appropriately end the brief notice just given of the works executed by
the three geometers, the friends of Turgot:

Bot
ye
-
a
:-
i

CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPHY. 203

“Tt will be told you that Iam director of the canals of navigation with
a salary of 6,000 francs. This is not true. We, Condorcet, Bossut, and
myself have undertaken, through friendship for M. Turgot, to give him
our advice in regard to these canals, but we have refused the salary
offered to us by the comptroller of the finances.”

When Turgot, as minister, wished to carry out the reforms he had
conceived as simple citizen ; when the comptroller-general found himself
assailed by the cupidity of courtiers, the powers of parliament, and the
generally conservative spirit of routine, which when great changes were
to be made threw doubt upon the wisdom of his plans, Condorcet did
not remain a mere spectator of the struggle; he on the contrary, en-
tered into it with the utmost ardor; to a refutation of the work of Necker
against the free traffic in grain, he especially devoted his pen, and for
the first time he resorts to irony in the assumed Letter of a laborer
of Picardy to M. Necker, prohibitionist. Voltaire writes thus to our con-
frére August 7, 1775:

“‘ Ah, what a good thing, what a reasonable thing, and even what a beau-
tiful thing is that Letter to the prohibitionist ; it must attract all enlight-
ened minds, although there are few such left in Paris, by its good sense
and taste.” I would not dare to say that good sense and good taste had
deserted the capital, but I know that the witty Letter to the prohibitionist
received little notice, and that Condoreet was obliged to publish a new
refutation, more detailed, more methodical, and more complete, of the
work of the celebrated and rich banker of Geneva. This second article
was modestly entitled, Reflexions upon the commerce in grain. The author
in it considers successively how these cereals are produced, how the
difference sometimes occurring between the harvests of one place and
another can be alleviated, and the regulation effected in proportion to
wages. He treats also of the mean price and of its influence, and of the
equalization of prices; of the effects of unbounded liberty in commerce,
and the political advantages of such liberty. Condorcet then examines
the prohibitions, both in a general way and in their relations to the
rights of property and legislation. Descending, finally, from these
abstractions to questions more personal, without mentioning names, he
inquires how the authors of the prohibitory measures acquired popu-
larity ; he seeks for the origin of the prejudices of the people, and com-
pletes his work by some critical reflections, touching certain prohibitory
laws, and the obstacles opposed to the good that liberty could produce.

All the aspects of a very difficult problem are frankly considered in a
severe and simple style. The work is not a mere pamphlet ; it extends to
more than two hundred printed pages. Its publication excited general
opposition among the numerous partisans of Necker. Writers of the
highest rank became from the time of its appearance the implacable
enemies of Condorcet. The Academy of Sciences and the French Acad-
emy were unpleasantly affected for many years by the consequences of
the discords it produced.

204 CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPHY.

With the mind free from prejudice I have asked myself if, under the
circumstances, our confrére overstepped the bounds of proper criticism.
I suppose no one will contest his right, which he used, conscientiously,
to call the work of Necker a mere translation of the celebrated dia-
logues of the Abbé Galiani into prosy ‘and pompous language, or to
refer in this connection to the Greek statue, graceful and beautiful,
which an emperor caused to be gilded and so ruined its beauty ; but this
aside, in going over the work of the former secretary of the Academy I
find only one note that could have excited the anger of the warmest
partisansof Necker. This note mentions a certain nobleman, designated,
however, only by his initials, who had made a bad translation of Tibuilus.
The friends of Condorcet, uneasy lest the criticism they foresaw would
trouble him, endeavored to console him. ‘ Do not fear for my reputa-
tion as an author,” he said to them; ‘*‘I have just taken a better cook.”

Such in substance was the terrible epigram which disturbed the court
and the city, which brought discord even into the bosom of the two
Academies, and which endangered the liberty of our confrére. I was
disposed to blame Condorcet. It seemed to me that his hostile atti-
tude was assumed on insufficient grounds; that Necker and his adher-
ents had not used in regard to him or Turgot injurious language, but I
was mistaken.

Buffon wrote to the celebrated banker “I do not understand this
hospital jargon—these beggars whom we call economists.” Necker ac-
cused the same writers “ of seeking to deceive others, and of imposing
even upon themselves.” He described them as imbeciles, and even for-
got his dignity so far as to call them ferocious beasts.

It is for the reader to decide whether any one has a right to complain
who, after using a dagger upon his adversary, received in return only
the prick of a pin.

I have told how Condorcet entered into the administration of the cur-
rency ; his manner of leaving this important post was not less noble.
As soon as Necker became comptroller- general of the finances, our confrére
wrote to M. de Maurepas, ‘‘I have pronounced my opinion too posi-
tively of the works of Necker and of his character to retain any place
which depends upon his disposal. I should dislike to be dismissed, but
still more to be retained in office, by a man of whom I have spoken as
my conscience has forced me to speak of M. Necker. Permit me to place
in your hands my resignation.”

Condorcet did not so exhaust his ire against contemporary heresies,
as to have none left to combat the errors of ancient writers, even the
most illustrious.

No one is ignorant that Pascal was occupied a few years before his
death with a work intended as a defense of the truth of the Christian
religion. This work was not finished. D’Arnaud and Nicole published
extracts from it under the title of Pascal’s Thoughts upon Religion and upon
other Subjects. Condorcet, suspecting that this work had been brought

=

CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPHY. 205

to light in the interests of a party and of certain mystical systems
rather than for the reputation of the author, procured, in the beginning of
1776, a complete copy of the manuscripts of Pascal, obtained from them
various passages that the saints of Port-Royal, with their Jansenistic
consciences, felt obliged to suppress, arranged them methodically, and
composed of the whole an octavo volume of 507 pages, copies of which
were sent to all the friends of the author, but which was not offered for
sale. Frankness compels me to say that the compiler of this new edi-
tion of Thoughts indulges, as did Arnaud, although in an entirely differ-
ent spirit, in systematic suppressions. We hasten to add, however, that
we have found a eulogy of Pascal by Condorcet, in which the great geome-
ter, the ingenious physicist, the profound thinker, the eloquent writer
is fully appreciated, and, with the most noble justice and impartiality,
Condorcet adds critical commentaries to several of the Thoughts of Pas-
eal. This audacity, in which Voltaire himself had already set him an
example, excited great indignation; it was considered a sacrilege. To-
day the public would have been moreindulgent. The admiration, amount-
ing to veneration, of that time is out of fashion now, and, if I do not
deceive myself, the tendency is in the opposite extreme. We no longer
think of asking, is such a criticism of a celebrated author irreverent,
but is it just. Considered, then, from our present point of view, the
remarks of Condorcet may be approved almost without exception. |

When the author of the Thoughts, pushing misanthropy to its utmost
limits, stated that if men were cognizant of all that was said by one of
another there would be not four friends in the world; I like to find
the commentator protesting against this antisocial decision and blaming
Pascal for giving such a strange idea of his friends.

When, in his ardent war against man’s love of his own greatness, Pas-
cal insinuates that our actions, even those apparently most disinterested,
are always tinged with feelings of self-love, by the hope of publicity
and applause which follows in its train; I read with delight, in a note
of the commentator, this touching anecdote borrowed from our Annales
Maritimes, and which contradicts the melancholy declaration of Pascal:

‘The vessel which contained the Chevalier de Lordat was wrecked
and about to sink in view of the shores of France. The chevalier did
not know how to swim; a soldier, an excellent swimmer, offered, if he
would spring with him into the sea and would cling to his arm, to save
him if possible. After swimming for a long time the strength of the
soldier became exhausted. M.de Lordat perceiving this endeavored to
encourage him, but the soldier at last declared that they must both
perish. ‘Andif you were alone?’ ‘Perhaps I might still be able to save
myself” The chevalier let go his arm, and sank to the bottom of the
sea.”

Voltaire caused the book to be reprinted at his own expense in 1778.
Hitherto it had received only a partial publicity. Voltaire, let it be
said in his praise, thus became the editor and the commentator of the

206 CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPHY.

young secretary of the Academy of Sciences. This was for Condorcet
a very great honor, and, moreover, deserved, on account of the merit
of the work. Am I mistaken, however, in supposing that in this action
of Voltaire with the sincere homage of the author of the Dictionnaire
philosophique was mingled some animosity against the Jansenistic writer;
that the author of the Henriade, of Mérope, and of so many admirable
smaller poems, saw with a secret joy the infallibility of that man attacked
who, placed in the first rank among prose writers, had dared to say, even
after the publication of the Cid and of Cinna, that “all poetry was in fact
only ajargon” ? A certain amount of anger must have influenced the pen
of the illustrious poet when, in his appreciation of a work in which the
praise is always so frank and the criticism so moderate, he says to Con-
dorcet, ‘‘ You have shown us the inside of the head of Serapis, and we
find in it rats and spider-webs.”

In Condorcet’s edition of Pascal we find this thought oft repeated:
‘Speaking according to the natural light of reason, if there is a God, He
is infinitely incomprehensible, since having no beginning and no end, he
can have no connection with us. Weare then capable of knowing neither
what he is nor tf he is.” The portion of the phrase nor 7 he is is not found
in the old editions of the works of the illustrious thinker. Condorcet
seemed, therefore, to have been guilty of an inexcusable interpolation
of the text. The suspicion that he had committed this grave offense
gained weight when, in 1803, M. Renouard, the celebrated bibliographer,
declared (these are his own words) that ‘‘an obstinate search through the
manuscripts of Pascal, preserved in the Royal Library, had failed to
discover the three contested words.”

The fact stated by M. Renouard must at the time have caused some
uncertainty even in the minds cf those who bad never doubted the per-
fect rectitude of Condorcet. In this day the testimony of this celebrated
librarian is worth nothing, since we know that in 1812 M. Renouard
frankly acknowledged that the fourth page of the almost illegible manu-
script of the library did in fact contain the thought of Pascal as Condor-
cet had published it. To cut short all gratuitous supposition in regard
to this supposed alteration of the precious manuscript, I will add that
the contested words are found in an edition of the Thoughts anterior
to that of Condorcet, and published by Father Desmolets.

I cannot allow this opportunity to escape of justifying Condor-
cet from an imputation of the same nature, shocking alike from its
violence and its levity. Read, gentlemen, the article upon Vawvenar-
gues, in the work of La Harpe, entitled Philosophy of the X VIIIth century.
The irascible critic first recalls to memory the eloquent prayer which
terminates the book of this moralist, and, immediately after accuses
Condorcet of having affirmed, with anti-religious views, that the prayer
was not by Vauvenargues. It is in the Commentary upon the works of
Voltaire, says La Harpe, that this philosophical falsehood is to be found.

Never, assuredly, was reproach of such gravity expressed in plainer

\

CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPHY. 207

terms. What must be my reply? The most positive denial of the charge:
Condorcet never pretended that the prayer was not by Vauvenargues ;
he said very clearly, on the contrary, that it was. Can there be possibly
such a thing as an anti-philosophical falselood ?

At the end of one of his best eulogies, that of Franklin, our confrére
blames very severely those persons who regulate their conduct upon
the maxim, old but of low morality, the end justifics the means, and
denounces indignantly all success obtained by falsehood or perfidy.
The actions of Condorcet were in accordance with these noble senti-
ments; his life was one long contest, but he never had recourse to arms
obtained through disloyalty and untruth.

Formerly every nomination to the I'rench Academy was an event,
especially when men of the court were to be admitted. Condorcet took
part more than once in the debates these occasions produced, but never
allowed any consideration for rank to outweigh claims founded on true
literary merit. When Saint-Lambert requested him to inform Turgot
that the French Academy desired to give him a mark of its esteem and
to nominate him in the place of the Duke of Saint Aignan, Condorcet,
although he desired greatly that his friend should become a member
of the Academy, very plainly advised him to decline the nomination
if his acceptance should cause any one making literature a profession to
be rejected by the court, which was at that time always consulted before
the election of amember. Our confrére thus manifested his true esteem
and profound respect for the love of letters.

Tis counsel was addressed to one worthy to appreciate it. Turgot did
even more than his friend had advised. Here is his answer: ‘ Thank
for me M. de Saint-Lambert. At this time it would not be suitable
for me to draw upon me the eyes of the public for any other purposes
than the affairs cf my ministry. I think there should be an effort made
to elect La Harpe. If this does not succeed, why should not the Acad-
emy take the Abbé Barthélemy? And there is M. Chabanon; not to con-
sider his claims to the nomination seems to me to be treating him very
severely. Heis not, whatever may be said, without talent. They were
not always so particular.” )

Perhaps in our time affairs are conducted as nobly; but even if this is
so, I do not regret these citations, for they prove that our fathers were
at least as worthy as ourselves.

Condorcet entered into competition in 1782 for the place of Saurin in
the French Academy, and carried the nomination by only one vote over
Bailly, the other candidate. The contest over the election was very
warm, d’Alembert representing one side and Buffon the other. La
Harpe gives some idea of the zeal manifested since he tells us that when
the issue of the votes was declared d’Alembert cried out before the
whole Academy: ‘“‘I am more pleased to have gained this victory than
I would be if I had found the quadrature of the circle.”

208 CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPHY.

The disfavor that this nomination drew upon Condorcet (the expres-
sion of this feeling is found in most of the writings of the time) is to me
inexplicable. Were the literary claims of Bailly to the nomination so
indisputably superior to those of Condorcet that the latter could not hon-
estly have received the preference? ‘Should speculation,” d’Alembert
maliciously remarks, ‘in regard to an ancient people, about whom every
thing is known except their name and place of abode, overbalance the
ingenious, learned, and often elegant descriptions of men of our time?”

In any case, supposing Condorcet was mistaken in bis claims to an
Academic chair, the illusion was avery natural one. Thusin the unpub-
lished Correspondence of Voltaire, I have so often quoted, I read, under
the date of 1771: ‘* You should do us the honor of belonging to the
Academy. We have need of men who think as you do.” Is this said in
mere politeness, aud not seriously ?

I pass over an interval of five years, and on the 26th of February,
1776, find in another letter of the great poet: “‘ Belong to our Academy ;
* your name and your eloquence will have some effect upon the set of
hired assassins established in Paris.” The same desire is repeated with
variations in several letters of the month of March. That of the 16th
contains this passage: “I repeat to you that if you do not this time
do me the honor of joining us, I shall go and pass the rest of my zouth
at the Academy of Berlin or that of St. Petersburg.” The old man
becomes afterward still more pressing: “I wish you would promise
me,” he writes on the 9th of April, 1776, “for my comfort, that you will
take my place in the Academy and aid our assembly with your words,
as you have supported it with deeds. Be received by M.d’Alembert, and
I will feel greater confidence that all will be well.”

Voltaire the sceptic doubts everything except the merit, the attach-
ment, and the gratitude, of our confreére.

We are now at the commencement of 1776. At the close of the year
following, the 24th of November, 1777, the author of Mérope wrote again
to our former secretary: ‘ I shall always be tenderly attached as long as
I live to him who forms the glory of the Academy of Sciences, and I
hope he will some day do the same for the French Academy. Since the
history of literature makes regretful mention of many candidates who
entered the Academy only after soliciting long for the honor, I may be
permitted to show one man of letters who became an academician only
after he had been long solicited.”

CONDORCET TESTAMENTARY EXECUTOR OF D’ALEMBERT.—HIS MAR-
RIAGE WITH MADEMOISELLE DE GROUCHY.

The ordinary, the regular course of things in this world brings some
days of mourning, of tears, and of deep sorrow even into the least
troubled lives. Condorcet experienced this in 1783. That year, on the
29th of October, death robbed him of his friend, the illustrious geometer,

;

}

CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPHY. 209

who under all circumstances had been his guide, his support, his foster
father.

The great man, who had succumbed in the plenitude of his mathemati-
eal genius, had assumed as a rule of conduct this maxim, which will no
doubt by many be considered very puritanical: ‘The use of the super-
fluous is wrong, when others are deprived of the necessary.” D’Alembert
acted through life upon this principle and died, therefore, without for-
tune. In his latter days he was not only a prey to cruel physical pain, -
the consequences of a dreadful malady (the stone) ; he suffered perhaps
even more deeply from the impossibility to which he had been reduced
by his constant generosity, of suitably rewarding his two faithful serv-
ants. A classical incident occurred suddenly to the memory and brought
peace to the mind of the celebrated academician.

Eutamidas bequeathed to one of his friends the mission of taking care
of his mother, to another cf marrying his daughter; a similar testamen-
tary request confided to Condorcet the duty of providing annually for
the needs of the two servants. The mission lasted long: Condorcet
placed it among thenumber of his first duties and fulfilledit with religious
fidelity. General and Madame O’Connor have continued his example.

The arduons duties devolving upon the secretary of the Academy of
Sciences, the obligation of maintaining an active correspondence with
the cultivated men of all countries of the civilized world, an irresistible
inclination to take part in the debates of which the social and _ political
condition of the country was every day the object, very early decided
Condorcet to give up general society. The sacrifice could not have
cost him much, for in the eulogy of Courtauvaux he denounces its
amusements as dissipation without pleasure, vanity without motive,
idleness without repose. Outside of his scientific relations our confrére

- frequented only a few choice social gatherings where, in contact with the

4a

eminent men of the time, the young men learned to discass the most
exciting questions with moderation, delicacy, and modesty. It was
in one of these family reunions that Condvrcet met, for the first time in
1786, Mademoiselle Sophie de Grouchy, niece on her mother’s side of M.
M. Fréteau and Dupaty, members of parliament. Like all the rest of the
world our confrére admired, first, the rare beauty, the distinguished man-
ners, the brilliantand cultivated mind of this young person. Soon he dis-
covered that these attractions were united to a noble character, a heart
most true, an affectionate and benevolent nature. Condorcet then be-
came strongly attached to the young lady, and demanded her in mar-
riage. Our confrére was at this time forty three years of age, and had
only a moderate income; but such was the violence of his passion that
he made no written agreement, but only a verbal contract with his
future parents for the dowry of his wife. This, gentlemen, is very far
from the calculating, cold disposition which has been attributed to Con-
dorcet, a character drawn from that of certain of his friends for whom
he professed an unlimited admiration, and with whom he was wrong:
fully supposed to be in sympathy in every way and upon all subjects.
S. Mis. 59 14

210 CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPHY.

At that time, with very few exceptions, savans, mathematicians
especially, were regarded by the world as beings of a separate order of
nature. They should, it was thought, like ecclesiastics, be interdicted —
the concert, the ball, the play. A geometer who married was considered
as infringing upon a principle of right. Celibacy seemed the obliga-
-tory condition of whoever devoted himself to the sublime theories of
analysis. Was this mistake altogether on the side of the public? Were
. not the geometers themselves instrumental in promoting such views ?
Listen, gentlemen, and judge for yourselves.

D’Alembert receives indirectly from Berlin the information that
Lagrange is about to give his name to one of his young relatives. He
is somewhat astonished that a friend with whom he is in correspondence
has told him nothing of such intentions. This does not, however, pre-
vent him from mentioning the matter in a bantering way. ‘I learn,”
he writes on the 21st of September, 1767, “that you have made what
we philosophers call the perilous leap. * * * <A great mathematician
ought above all things to know bow to calculate his own happiness. I
do not doubt, then, that, having made this calculation, you find mar-
riage to be the solution.” Lagrange responds in this singular manner:
* T do not know whether I have calculated well or ill, or rather whether
I have calculated at all, * * * orImay be like Leibnitz, who, by
force of reflection, never could come toa determination. I must confess
to you that I have never had a taste for marriage, * * * but cir-
cumstances have decided me * * * to engage one of my relatives
* * * to come and take care of me and all that concerns me. If I
have not informed you of this it was because it seemed to me a matter
of so little importance in itself that it was not worth while to trouble
you with it.”

The marriage of Condorcet would also have appeared to me a matter
of no importance, and not worth mentioning in this biography, if it had
been, as d’Alembert suggests, the result of a calculation. On the con-
trary, without calculation of ‘any kind, but solely in obedience to the
inspirations of a feeling heart, Condorcet had the happiness to finda
companion worthy of him. The beauty, grace, and wit of Madame de
Condorcet formed a sort of miracle. The most decided adversaries of
marriage among the savans, especially the mother of the Duke de La

tochefoucauld, the respected Duchess d’Anville, yielded so far as to say
to our former secretary, ‘* We pardon you.”

CONDORCET AS A POLITICIAN—A MEMBER OF THE MUNICIPALITY
oF PaRrIsS—COMMISSIONER OF THE NATIONAL TREASURY—MEMBER
OF THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY—MEMBER OF THE CONVENTION—
HIS VOLE IN THE TRIAL OF LoUIS XVI.

We now enter into a series of considerations and events of a totally
different nature from those which have hitherto occupied our attention.

;

CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPHY. pea i

Condorcet is about to take part in the most important events of our rev-
olution.

If it is true, as a celebrated diplomatist has said, that speech often
serves to disguise thought, we may add that under certain circumstances,
silence is avery unequivocal means of expression. Suppose, for example,
that I say nothing of the political life of Condorcet, who would believe
that it was not made up of blamable deeds? Heaven forbid that I
should voluntarily give reason for a conjecture so contrary to the truth,
that I should become the tacit auxiliary of the many scurrilous writers
who attacked with a sort of fury the former secretary of this Academy.
Every one, in his own cause, has assuredly the right to meet with silent
contempt the abuse of adversaries he may consider beneath notice ; but
this alone is not sufficient for him whose mission it is to defend an hon-
orable citizen, an illustrious brother, the victim of the basest calumnies.

In the society of Turgot our brother became a man of progress not
only in social but political economy. Placed near the seat of power for
eighteen months, he sawin their most secret details the play of the werm-
eaten wheels of the ancient monarchy. Condorcet comprehended their
insufficiency, and, although changes were to him personally prejudicial,
he never allowed an opportunity to escape of urging their necessity. I
do not know whether such noble disinterestedness is common at pres-
ent; it was not at least in the times of which I speak. Witness, for
instance, the naive question addressed to Condorcet by a Fermier général,
enjoying an income of two or three thousand livres: “ Why innovate?
Are we not well off ?”

No, assuredly ; honest men were not common in the days when Tuar-
got, the minister, said to our confrére: ‘ You do very wrong to write to
me by the post; you may injure yourself and your friends. Write to
me, I pray you, only by special opportunity, or by my couriers.”

The “black cabinet” opening letters addressed to a minister! Is any-
thing further necessary to show the character of the times? In order to
understand the ameliorations France desired, Condorcet did not need to
consult the instructions that in 1789 the members of the constituent
assembly brought from all parts of the kingdom. His programme of
action, perfectly in accord with the best conceived resolutions of the
provincial assemblies, was written out in advance. He had found its
elements in an earnest and philosophical study of the natural rights, of
which a society well organized will not, and cannot, deprive the most
humble citizen. The ideas, the wishes, the hopes of our confrére form
the chief interest of the Life of Turgot, published in 1786. To-day,
even, when most of the privileges claimed by Condorcet in the name of
reason and humanity have been definitely acquired, publicists may still
learn much from reading the work of our conirére. They will see in it,
with astonishment perhaps, but also with full conviction, that the
vague principle of the greatest good of society has often been a fruitful
source of injurious laws, while they will always secure regulations and

212 CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPHY.

prescriptions the necessity and the justice of which must be acknowl-
edged by all, when intent only upon securing to the public, the enjoy-
ment of their natural rights.

I do not know whether, in the present state of opinion, my apprecia-
tion of the work of the illustrious philosopher will be generally approved.
I may at least assert that every loyal man must experience one senti-
ment, that of respect, in witnessing with what vigor, since the year
1786, the Marquis Caritat de Condorcet attacked the privileges of the
nobility.

Condorcet after much study had written, at the dictation of his con-
science, the imperative mandate he was prepared to issue, if circumstances
ever gave him the political power. I perceive in this programme many
points which have never been decided according to his views, either in
fact by our assemblies, or in theory by publicists in general.

Condorcet did not wish two chambers; but that which he demanded,
particularly that which seemed to him the base of a well considered social
organization, was a legal and periodical means of revising the constitu-
tion, so as to adjust peacefully the disaffection of parties.

The combination of two chambers seemed to him a useless com-
plication, in some cases leading to results evidently contrary to the
wish of the majority. He believed “that in the deliberations of a single
assembly are found all the elements necessary to secure to legislative
enactments all the consideration and the maturity ot judgment required
for their justice and wisdom.” Franklin, a decided partisan of a single
chamber, confirmed Condorcet in his views. ‘The culogy of this great
man furnished later to our brother a natural occasion for the devel-
opment of his opinion, which he seized with avidity. Also, in this same
eulogy the learned secretary proclaimed as an inevitable source of evils
and disorder any constitution considered unchangable, any constitution
which did: not provide means for modifying such of its regulations as
might cease to be in harmony with the state of society.

With Condorcet as simple citizen or as member of our assemblies, the
. political man is concentrated into these two ideas,—natural rights, rights
imprescriptible which no law can infringe without injustice, and po-
litical constitutions containing in themselves a legal means for the
reform of abuses. This was his evangel. Whenever his favorite prin-
ciples are combatted or even only questicned he hastens to their defense.
His language then becomes animated, passionate. Read, for example,
this passage from a letter he wrote on the 30th of August, 1789, at the
time when the constituent assembly had just rejected the proposition
made by Mathieu de Montmorency to secure by means of an express
proviso the possibility of future improvements in the fundamental
compact :

‘If our legislators aspire to work for eternity, they ought to bring
down a constitution from the skies. To Heaven has alone been accorded

CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPHY. 913

the right to give immutable laws. We have lost the art of working
miracles and of making oracles speak. The Pythoness of Delphos and
the thunders of Sinai have for ages been reduced to silence. The legis-
lators of to-day are but men, who can give to men—their equals, only
laws as fleeting as themselves.”

The first functions of a political order exercised by Condorcet were
those of member of the municipality of Paris. In this capacity he
was the author of the celebrated address presented by the city to the
constituent assembly, to demand the reform of a very important law,
the law which had just been passed, and which made the right of citi-
zenship and the other political rights to depend upon the quota of its
contributions. The remonstrances of Condorcet and his colleagues
were not without effect.

Condorcet was still exercising his municipal functions when he de-
manded, this time in his own name, that the King should always select
his ministers from a list of those qualified, the formation of which
should be one of the principal prerogatives of the representative as-
sembly. Would such a process prevent a bad selection? I certainly
hesitate to affirm it. I am certain that the list of candidates would
be very difficult to make, and would compel laborious investigation.

Condoreet was much more in sympathy with the actual world when he
pointed out the dangers attached to the creation of assignats, when he
indicated almost infallible means for obviating all the inconveniences of
this paper money.

The flight of the King and the cireumstances of his return threw dis-
couragement over the minds of the most decided partisans of the mon-
archial system. La Rochefoucauld, Dupont de Nemours, and others,
even held meetings where the means of establishing a republic without too
great violence were very seriously discussed. This project was after-
wards completely abandoned. Condorcet, an active member of these
extra-parliamentary debates, did not consider himself bound by the
decisions of the majority to keep secret the opinions he had given;
he allowed his speeches to be read at the Cercle Social, and this assem-
bly caused them to be printed. From this time dates the unhappy
rupture which suddenly, and without hope of restoration, separated
him from his best, his oldest friends, and in particular from La Roche-
foucauld.

When the questions which the arrest of Varennes inevitably raised
reached the national tribune, Condorcet, although he was not a
member of the assembly, became in it an object of attacks and of
violent personal abuse. The illustrious publicist admitted without
hesitation that his opinions might be in part erroneous; but con-
sidering the character of those who made such fierce war against
him, their disdain excited his surprise. ‘Was it excessively ridicu-
lous,” he asked himself (1 copy here a passage from a manuscript),
‘that a geometer of forty-eight years, who for nearly a third of a cen-

I14 CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPHY.

tury had studied political science, who was the first perhaps to apply
mathematical calculation to this science, should be permitted to have a
personal opinion upon questions debated in the constituent assembly?”
Parliamentary customs were not yet fully developed. Condorcet could
not divine that a day would come when, in order to be allowed to speak
upon all subjects, it should be imperatively necessary to have made no
special study of any.

In 1791, after quitting the municipality of Paris, Condoreet became one
of the six commissioners of the national treasury. The memoirs which
he published at this period would occupy a prominent place in the eulogy
of an author less fruitful and less celebrated. Embarrassed by want of
time and abundance of material, [ caunot even mention their titles.

Condorcet, having renounced towards the latter months of 1791 the
place of commissioner of the treasury, went to Paris as candidate for the
legislative assembly. Never was there a candidate more violently op-
posed, never did the venal press indulge in more libels. It was my duty
to investigate and weigh these emanations of party spirit; but I should
weary my audience if I attempted to give an analysis of them. I must
confess that, amidst the torrent of calumnies and absurd accusations,
there was one assertion made in such a clear and categorical manner
that in the absence of an equally formal denial, which I could nowhere
find, the wrong attributed to our confrére made me really uneasy.
Thanks to the respectable M. Cardot, for a long time Condorcet’s secre-
tary, all clouds of doubt have disappeared. Condorcet, said his accuser,
visited the court nightly, and especially Monsieur, brother to the King,
even at the time when he was attacking them in his writings, and then
follow the names of persons who could testify to these clandestine com-
munications. ‘Yes! yes!” cried the chief clerk of our secretary, when
I consulted him, “ I remember that grave imputation, but I remember
also that it was proved that the mysterious nocturnal visitor was not
Condorcet, but Count d’Ursay, master of the household of Monsieur.”
You see, gentlemen, in times of political animosity, how easily the repu-
tation of the most honest man may be compromised.

Hardly had he been nominated to the legislative assembly when he
became one of its secretaries. Later he was raised to its presidency.
Timidity, great feebleness of the lungs, the impossibility of preserving
his sang-froid and presence of mind amidst the noise, agitation, and
tumultuous movements of a large concourse kept him away from the
tribune, which he mounted only on rare occasions, but whenever the
assembly wished to make a serious and impressive address to the French
people, the army, to interior factions, or foreign nations, it was always
Condorecet who became its official organ.

During his legislative career Condorcet gave especial attention to the
organization of public instruction. The fruit of his reflections upon
this important subject are recorded in five memoirs, published in the

© ht OE LELLLN LP GLIA AL LALA BOB ES AG oe

CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPHY. 215

Bibliotheque de Vhomme public, and in the exposition of his ideas on the
law which he presented later to the legislative assembly.

Condorcet entirely abandoned the beaten tracks. He has submitted
to very careful examination even those institutions and methods
which by their universality seemed beyond question. He threw
new light upon the subject by considering it from points of view well
worthy the attention of the legislator, as an enlightened friend of
his country, on account of their novelty and importance. Whatever
may be the opinion of the matter, the impartial reader cannot fail to
render homage to the clearness of view, the largeness of conception
manifested by Condorcet in the various parts of his work.

Here, according to date, should be mentioned a motion of Condorcet I
cannot fail to notice. The compass of this motion I am sure has been seri-
ously exaggerated. This assertion has not been made without mature
reflection, for it places me in direct opposition to one of the most illustri-
ous men of our time. It requires considerable confidence in the power
of truth to dare oppose alone an error, without doubt involuntary, but
supported by the prestige of the highest eloquence.

Parliamentary history offers nothing more touching, more curious,
than the analysis of the session of the constituent assembly of the 19th
of June, 1790. The day when Alexandre Lameth solicited the removal
of four chained figures, then to be seen in the Place des Victoires at
the feet of the statue of Louis XIV, an obscure deputy of Rouergue,

._M. Lambel, cried from his seat: “To-day is the tomb of vanity. I

demand that henceforth it shall be forbidden any one to take the titles
of duke, marquis, count, baron,” &c. Charles Lameth supported the
proposition of his colleague; he desired that in the future no one should
be called noble. Lafayette considered the two demands.so evidently
necessary, that he thought it superfluous to support them by many
remarks. Alex. de Noailles agreed with the latter, but considered the
suppression of liveried servants equally urgent. M. de Saint-Fargeau
proposed that no one should bear any other name than that of his
family, and set the example by immediately signing his own motion,—
‘Michel Louis le Pelletier.” Lastly, Matheu de Montmorency insisted
that armorial bearings, heraldry, which were among the most apparent
remains of the feudal system, must not be spared, and demanded
their immediate abolition. These propositions were presented, dis-
cussed, adopted, almost in as short a time as I have taken to give an
account of them. In all this our contrére did not take an active
part, for the very simple reason that he was not a member of the
constituent assembly. If it was a fault to rupture so suddenly all con-
nection between the past and the present, Condorcet, at least, cannot
be blamed for it. We have, in fact, since learned, through the memoirs
of Lafayette, that upon the question of the abolition of heraldry, our

learned philosopher did not agree with Montmorency. It seemed to

him, on the contrary, more in accordance with the true principles of

216 CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPHY.

liberty, rather than to suppress armorial bearings, to permit every one,
the plebeian, the artisan, the beggar, as well as the noble, to assume
them if so inclined.

The law for the abolition of titles of nobility contained nothing spe-
cific concerning the penalties attached toits infringement. Such a law,
a law without proper sanction, is never observed in any country, and
soon falls into disuse. It was, no doubt, to recall to miad its existence,
that on the anniversary of the day on which it was passed by the con-
stituent assembly, the 19th of June, 1792, the legislative assembly at
Paris caused to be burned a large quantity of brevets or diplomas of
dukes, marquises, vidames, &c. The flame was still burning at the foot
of the statue of Louis XIV; the last contribution to it was, perhaps,
the original title of the Marquis Caritat de Condorcet, when the heirs
of this family demanded of the national tribune that the same measure
should be extended to all France. The proposition was unanimously
adopted.

This proposition has been textually inserted in the Moniteur.* It
evidently relates only to titles of nobility. A decided partisan for unity
in the legislative power, Condorcet hoped to defeat his adversaries
(who still meditated the creation of two chambers,) by the destruc-
tion of certain parchments which they seemed inclined to consult when
composing the personnel of their senate. The artifice was perhaps
shabby, puerile. Still it does not authorize an illustrious writer, the
honor of our literature, to present it as the immediate cause of the
abandonment of certain historical works, because these works had
ceased entirely a year before, in 1791. It still less authorizes a serious
journal, and of recent date, to tell us that the new Omar, Condorcet,
caused to be burned the extensive records of the learned associations,
for these records were not burned; the proposition can be read as
Condorcet made it, and it refers absolutely only to titles of nobility;
for (and this moral argument is in my eyes even stronger than pos-
itive facts and dates) there never could have existed a French cham-
ber, whether created by a monarch or by the populace, with elections of
any order, which would have sanctioned by a unanimous vote the bar-
barous, anti-literary, anti-historic, anti-national act, so lightly attrib-
uted to the former secretary of the Academy.

It is at about this epoch, and not after the condemnation of Louis
XVI, as has erroneously been supposed, that, by the formal order of
Catherine aud Frederick William, the name of Condorcet was effaced
from the list of members composing the academies of St. Petersburg and
of Berlin. Notwithstanding all my efforts, I have not been able to dis-
cover whether these two acts of disapproval distressed to any great de-
gree our secretary. Not a line, not a single word of his numerous man-
uscripts and printed works refers to this event. Condorcet imagined
perhaps, that as the imperial aud royal confirmations added little to the.

* See the discourse of Condorcet, of the 19th of June, 1792.

CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPHY. pair’

actual value of the literary titles he could regard the withdrawal of
these confirmations as a fact little worth his attention.

Condorcet had seen arise in the legislative assembly the personal dis-
sensions which, growing in bitterness, threatened to imbrue the conven-
tion in blood, and bring the country to the verge of ruin. Je was never
willing to take part in these combats when they seemed to center upon
individual names. All his tendencies were to moderate rather than
to excite these broils. Several times he addressed to the ears of the
factions these words, full of wisdom: ‘Think a little less of yourselves
and a little more of the public good.”

In times of revolutionary agitations, he who is governed by principle
alone is soon considered weak by all parties. Of this Condorcet was an
example. Witness en the one hand this passage from Madame Loland:
“We may say of the intelligence of Condorcet in relation to Lis person,
it is a fine essence pervading cotton.” On the other hand, the electoral
corps of Paris, then completely Jacobin, when called upon to nowinate
its representatives to the convention, withdrew from Condorcet the
mandate which had made him a member of the legislative assembly.

A little later in this same convention, for which five departments, in
default of that of the Seine, had nominated Condorcet, we will see that
it is possible to be both cotton for personal questions and bronze for
questions of principle.

Condorcet acted as one of the judges of Louis XVII know that, by
a sort of tacit consent, it is customary to consider this period of our
history as ground too hot to dwell upon with prudence. I think such
reserve objectionable. The mystery in which the events of the time
are enveloped tends to promote the belief that, to the eternal shame of
our national character, not a patriotic feeling, not an act of courage,
not an elevated idea, not a sentiment of justice, was brought. to light
during the long period of the painful drama.

The large portion of the public to whom the Moniteur and other offi-
cial sources of information are interdicted, on account of their high price
or their rarity, are acquainted with this part of cur annals only through
a few barbarous phrases, several of which have been repeated from
generation to generation, but are none the less contrary to the truth.
The overcaution, which under such circumstances would prevent the
historian from attributing to each person his real part of the responsi-
bility, is, in my opinion, inexcusable. I will, therefore, tell you faith-
fully and without reticence what was Condorcet’s conduct during the
celebrated trial.

Could the King be tried? His inviolability: was it not absolute ae-
cording to the terms of the constitution? Liberty: was it possible in
a country where positive law ceased to be the rule of judgment?
Would it not be violating an eternal axiom, founded upon humanity
and upon reason, to prosecute actions which no anterior law bad
stamped as derelict or criminal? In strict justice, should not the mode

;
sf
;
:
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218 CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPHY.

of judgment have been regulated before the time of the offense or
crime? Was it to be hoped that a fallen sovereign might find impar-
tial judges among those he once called his subjects? If Louis XVI had
not counted upon absolute inviolability, are we sure that he would have
accepted the crown ?

Behold the series of questions, assuredly very natural, which Condor;
cet presented to the tribune of the convention, and which he submitted
to a severe discussion before the commencement of the trial of Louis
XVI. I ought to enumerate them if only to show to what extent they
may deceive themselves to whom the history of our revolution is known
only by a sort of oral tradition, which represents all the members of
the convention as tigers, thirsty for blocd, taking no care to cover
their fury with even the appearance of right and legality. Condorcet
admitted that the King was inviolable, that the constitutional compact
justified all the acts of power which were delegated to him. He did
not believe that the same rule should be extended to personal derelic-
tions, if they were without necessary connection with the functions of
royalty. The most perfect codes, said Condorcet, contain defects. That
of Solon, for example, makes no mention of the parricide. The monster
guilty of such a crime, should he therefore remain unpunished? No,
certainly; to him was applied the penalty of the murderer.

In admitting condemnations by analogy, Condorcet desired at least
that the tribunal, constituted with unusual prerogatives, should be based
upon dispositions favorable to the accused; he desired the right of re-
cusation more extended; the necessity of a larger majority for the con-
demnation, &e. According to his views, the judgment of the King
should have been confided to a special jury, chosen from the whole
country by means of electoral colleges.

The right to punish the King did not seem to our confrére so incontest-
able as the right to judge him. The idea of a sentence in some sort
moral might seem, perhaps, strange; Condorcet saw in it the occasion
of showing to Europe, by a legal discussion, that the change of the
French constitution had not been the effect of the simple caprice of
some individuals.

After having developed the opinions, true, false, or questionable, that
have just been presented to you, Condorcet declared, with no Jess sincer-
ity, that, without violating the first principles of jurisprudence, the con-
vention could not judge the King. A legislative judiciary was in his
eyes a veritable chimera. Such an assembly, at once legislator, im-
peacher, and judge, seemed to him a monstrosity, an example the most
dangerous. In all times, he said, and in all countries, the judge has
been considered lawfully reprehensible who in advance manifests any
opinion of the culpability or the innocence of the accused. In fact,
justice cannot be expected from men who, forced to renounce an opin-
ion publicly expressed, must consequently incur at the least the
reproach of fickleness. Now, said Condorcet, in a solemn declaration

F
: )

CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPHY. 219

addressed to the Swiss nation, the convention bas already pronounced
upon the culpability of the King. Condorcet as to the rest demanded
that in the case of condemnation, the right should be reserved of mitigat-
ing the punishment. “To pardon the King,” said he, “may become
an act of prudence ; to conserve the power to do so is an act of wisdom.”

It is in the same discourse that I read the words, whose beauty are
enhanced by the solemn circumstances of the speaker:

‘‘] believe the punishment by death unjust. * * * The abolition
of the death penalty would be one of the most efficacious means of ele-
vating the human species by assisting to destroy the inclination to-
wards ferocity, which has long dishonored it. * * * Punishments
which allow correction and repentance, are alone suitable for the regen-
eration of the race.”

The convention, scorning all the scruples Condorcet had raised, con-
stituted itself a sovereign tribunal for the trial of Louis XVI. Our
brother did not decline to take part. Was this one of those cases in
the body politic, when the minority must blindly submit to the yoke

‘of the majority? The most criminal of usurpations is, without con-

tradiction, that of the judicial power; it wounds both the intelligence
and the heart. On such a subject, could the testimony of the con-
science be placed in the balance against the material result of the
ballot? Let us not always carry severity to the extreme; let us remem-
ber that in the open sea, in the midst of the storm, even the most in-
trepid sailor is sometimes seized with dizziness the timid landsman safe
on shore has never experienced. It would certainly have been more
Roman to have refused the function of judge; it was more human, accord-
ing to the ideas of Condorcet, to accept it. Condorcet refused to vote
for the punishment of death. Any other penalty he considered could be
awarded, and he demanded an appeal to the people.

DISCUSSION OF THE CONSTITUTION OF THE SECOND YEAR.—CONDOR-
CET AN OUTLAW—HIS RETREAT WITH MADAME VERNET—HIS SKETCH
OF A HISTORY OF THE PROGRESS OF THE HUMAN MIND.—ILIGHT OF
CoNDORCET—HIS DEATH.

Of all the writings of Condorcet none exercised so fatal an influence
upon his destiny as the plan for the constitution for the second year.

In the midst of the incomparable efforts made by the convention to
repulse the armed enemy, to suppress the civil war, to create financial
resources, to resupply the arsenals, the political organization of the
country was not forgotten ; a commission composed of nine of its mem-
bers was intrusted with the preparation of a new constitution. Con-
dorcet was one of the nine. Aiter several months of assiduous labor
and of profound discussion, this commission presented, on the 15th aud
16th of February, 1793, the result of its deliberation. The new plan
of the constitution consisted of not less than thirteen heads, sub-

220 CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPHY.

divided into a great number of articles. An introduction of a hundred
and fifteen pages, written by Condorcet, gave in detail the motives
which had decided the commission. The ‘convention accorded to the
draught of our colleague the preference over all the others presented for
its consideration from other quarters, and concluded that it would with-
out delay be publicly discussed. Violent debates excited each day by
personal enmity, the bitterness of party spirit; the wearisome difficulties
of the circumstances, and the incessant usurpations of the commune of
Paris absorbed all the time of the sessions. Condorcet, caring only for
what he considered as directly promoting the triumph, the glory, and the
happiness of France, grieved to see the covsideration of the constitu-
tion day by day deferred. In his impatience he demanded a limit
fixed for the delay, at the expiration of which a new convention should
be called. At Paris the proposed constitution received very little
attention; the departments, on the contrary, received it with favor.
It carried and promoted ideas which had become so powerful that it
was impolitic not to take them into account. Accordingly after the
events of the 3lst of May and the 2d of June, the part of the conven-:
tion in the ascendency considered it opportune to gratify without
delay the wish of the people for the constitution so long promised the
country; but it refused to take up again the plan of Condorcet. Five
commissioners, appointed by the committee of the public safety, at
the head of which was Hérault de Séchelles, made a new plan which
tbe committee amended and accepted in a single session. The conven-
tion was not less expeditious. The constitution presented on the 10th
of June, 1793, was decreed on the 24th of the same month. The happy
shouts of the populace and the thunder of cannon announced in Paris
the great event. '

The constitution, according to the terms of the decree, was to be sane-
tioned or rejected by the primary assemblies in the short space of three
days from the time of notification, and here occurred an act of Condorcet
in order to appreciate the bravery of which it-is necessary to go back
in thought to that terrible period in our annals which followed the 31st
of May.

Sieyés, in private confidence, called the work of Hérault de Séchelles
a bad index of subjeets. What Sieyeés said in secret Condorcet dared to
write to his constituents. He did more: in a letter made public, the
celebrated savant openly proposed to the people not to sanction the new
constitution. His reasons were many and clearly expressed :

‘The integrity of the national representation,” said Condorcet, ‘has
just been destroyed by the arrest of twenty-seven Girondin members.
The discussion could no longer be free. Inquisitorial censure, the pillage _
of printing offices, the violation of the secrets of letters, must be consid-
ered as having presented insurmountable obstacles to the manifestation
of the popular sentiment. The new constitution,” added Condorcet, “as
it speaks of no compensation for the deputies, leads to the supposition

Eras: -

CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPHY. 221

that it is considered desirable to compose the national convention always
of rich men or of those with good prospects for the future. The elections,
too indirect, are a premium for intrigues and mediocrity. It is an insult
to the people to suppose them incapable of making good immediate elec-
tions. To compose the executive power of twenty-four persons is to
throw affairs into hopeless stagnation. A constitution which does not
guarantee civil liberty is radically defective. There is in some minds a
tendency toward federalism, toward the rupture of French unity, but the
greatest mistake is to have rendered the means of reform illusory.”

A critic so quick, so accurate, so just, moreover, could not have been
welcome to the authors of the project, but what followed irritated them
still more, for self-love is always the weak side of our species, even with
those who call themselves statesmen.

“All that is good in the second project of a constitution is copied
from the first,—which has only been perverted and corrupted by the
attempt to correct and improve.” Chabot denounced the letter of Con-
dorcet to the convention in the session of the Sth of July, 1793. The

~ ex-Capuchin called the new constitution of Hérault de Séchelles a sub-

lime work. He spoke of the criticism as an infamous article which only
villains could tolerate, and after the use of these abusive ternis, adds:
“Condorcet pretends that his constitution is better; that the primary
assemblies ought to accept it. I propose, therefore, that he be placed
under arrest, and compelled to plead his cause at the bar.”

The assembly accordingly decreed without further accusation that
the illustrious deputy from Aisne should be arrested and the state seal
placed upon his papers.

Condorcet, although generally, but erroneously, considered a Girondist,
was not among the number of the twenty-four deputies arrested on the
3lst of May. On the 3d of October, 1793, however, his name is found
with those of Brissot, Vergniaud, Gensonné, Valazé, in the list of the
conventionals brought before the revolutionary tribunal, accused of
conspiracy against the unity of the republic and condemned to death.

Condorcet, condemned as, contumacious, was outlawed; was placed
upon the list of exiles and all his possessions were confiscated. z

‘ Honor took refuge in the camp.” In this short sentence historians
pretend to give an idea of the terrible years 1793 and 1794 of our |
revolution. But the great epochs of history can be described in so few
words, cnly at the expense of truth. It is true the armies of the repub-
lic manifested a devotion, a patience, and a courage really admirable;
it is true the soldiers, badly armed, badly clothed, barefooted, strangers
to the most simple military evolutions, hardly knowing how to use their
guns, overcame by force of patriotism the best troops of Europe, and
drove them disorganized beyond the frontiers; yes, from the bosom of
the people, whose intelligence had been dwarfed by the aristocratic
pride and prejudices of our ancestors, sprang as if by enchantment im-
mortal leaders; yes, when the welfare or honor of the country required

222 CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPHY.

it, the son of an humble goat-herd became the illustrious head of one of
our armies, the conqueror of Marshal Wurmser and the peace-maker of
the Vendée; yes, the son of a simple tavern-keeper precipitated himself,
like an avalanche from the heights of the Albis, and dispersed from
under the walls of Zurich the Russian forces of Korsakoff, even at the
moment when they considered themselves marching surely to the con-
quest of France; yes, the son of a plasterer with a few thousand men.
gave at Heliopolis such proofs of skill and of bravery that the phalanx
of Macedonia and the legions of Cesar can no longer be called the most
valiant troops which have trodden the land of Egypt.

I deplore, I denounce, as vehemently as any one, the sanguinary acts
which stained the years 1793 and 1794, but I cannot regard our glorious
revolution only under this sad aspect. I find, on the contrary, much to
admire, even amid the cruel scenes which marked the various stages of
its progress. Can we cite, for instance, any country, ancient or modern,
in which the victims of both sexes and all parties have given greater
proof at the foot of the scaffold of resignation, of force of character, of
ready sacrifice of life, than was manifested by our unfortunate compa-
triots? Nor should be forgotten the intrepid assiduity manifested by
many honorable citizens in assisting and sheltering the proscribed.

This last reflection brings us back to Condorcet and the admirable
woman who concealed him for more than nine months. It may be sup-
posed that Condorcet did not fully measure all the gravity, all the import-
ance, of the article which he published after the adoption of the constitu-
tion of the second year. This mistake, however, must be corrected. That
which presented itself to the mind of the deputy of Aisne as a duty,
he accomplisked with full knowledge of the imminent danger incurred.
As indisputable proof of this, I find that the publication of the Address
to the citizens of France upon the new coustitution coincides exactly with
the steps taken to secure a place of refuge for the author.

Tn the political as in the terrestrial atmosphere, there are signs that
herald storms, recognized at a glance by the experienced, however indefi-
nite they may appear to others. Condorcet, his brother-in-law Cabanis,
their common friend Vie-d’Azir, could not be deceived. After his pub-
lic manifestation upon the subject of the constitution of the year II
(of the Republic), the impeachment of Condorcet was inevitable; the
thander-bolt was launched at his head, and it was necessary for him to
seek shelter without delay.

Two pupils of Cabanis and of Vie-d’Azir, who have since become dis-
tinguished members of this Academy, MM. Pinel and Boyer, suggested
that he should resort for this purpose to No. 21 Servandoni street,
where they had resided. This house, ordinarily occupied by students,
belonged to the widow of Louis Frangois Vernet, a sculptor and near rela-
tive of the great painters of that name. Madam Vernet, as well as her
husband, was born in Proyence. She had a warm heart, a lively
imagination, a character open and frank; her benevolence amounted

CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPHY. 223

to self-sacrifice. These qualities obviated the necessity of circumlo-
cution and long negotiation. “Madam,” said MM. Boyer and Pinel,
“we wish tosavea proscript.” “Is he an honest man; is be virtuous?”
‘Yes, madam.” ‘In that case, let him come!” ‘We will tell you his
name.” ‘You can tell me that later; lose not a moment; while we
speak together, your friend may be arrested.”

That same evening Condorcet intrusted his life to a woman whose
existence even a few hours before was unknown to him.

Condorcet was not the first fugitive received at No. 21; one other had
preceded him there. Madam Vernet never consented, in regard to this un-
known, to satisfy the natural curiosity of the family of our confrére. Even
in 1830, after nearly thirty-seven years had elapsed, her answers to the
pressing questions of Madam O’Connor never passed beyond vague
generalities. The refugee, she said, was a great enemy of the revolution;
he lacked firmness, was frightened by the least noise in the street, and
did not quit his retreat until after the 9th Thermidor. The excellent
woman added, with a smile and some sadness, “ Since that time I have
not seen him; how do you suppose I ean recollect his name.”

Our confrére had hardly entered his retreat in Servandoni street,
when he became a prey to the most cruel mental torture. His income
was seized; he could not dispose of a straw belonging to him. For
himself, personally, he did not suffer on this account, for Madam Ver-
net provided for his necessities; with this incomparable woman to as-
sist an unfortunate was so much a matter of duty, that afterward, when
the family of the illustrious secretary became opulent, they endeavored
in vain, with repeated and constantly-renewed efiorts, to induce her to
+ receive some remuneration.

But, safe himself, “ Where,” thought the illustrious academician, “ will
sbe live who is so unfortunate as to bear my name to-day, when every
; noble woman, and much more every wife of a proscript, is excluded from

the capitai?” ‘Trust to the resources of a devoted wife.” Madam Con-
doreet managed to come into Paris every morning with the purveyors
. of the markets. ‘ But how will she support herself?” still demanded our
contrére in his uneasy solicitude. It seemed, in fact, impossible that a
lady delicately reared, accustomed to be served and not to serve others,
could gain by her own exertions sufficient maintenance for herself, her
young daughter, her sick sister, and an old housekeeper. But the ap-
parently impossible was soon in fact accomplished. The need of some
representation of the lineaments of relations and friends is never greater
than during a revolution. Madam de Condorcet passed her days in
making portraits now in the prisons, and these were the most in demand;
now in the silent retreats the charitable secured for the proscribed; in
the brilliant drawing-rooms, or in the modest habitations of citizens of all
classes who considered themselves threatened by approaching danger.
The skill of Madam Condorcet also rendered much less vexatious, much
less perilous, the frequent raids of detachments of the revolutionary

,
’
'

Pe Pee eS ee ee eee

224 CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPHY.

army upon her dwelling-place of Auteuil. Upon the demand of the sol-
diers she reproduced their features with the pencil or the brush. She
exercised over them the fascination of her talents, and almost converted
them into protectors. As soon as painting ceased to be remunerative,
Madam Condorcet, exempt from prejudices, did not hesitate to open a
store for lingerie. Later she became the skilful translator of the work
of Adam Smith upon the moral sentiments, and published, herself, some
letters upon sympathy equally worthy of esteem on account of their
delicacy of perception and their elegance of style.

The first steps, the first successes, of Madam Condorcet in the career
of persona] abnegation and courageous devotion we have just described
were a balm to the almost fainting heart of the unhappy proscript. He
felt himself inspired for persevering and laborious work. The force,
the clearness of his mind were not less perfect in the retreat guarded by
the heroic humanity of Madame Vernet than they were twenty years
before, when he was secretary of the Academy. of Sciences.

The first work written by Condorcet in his seclusion has never been
printed. I will quote the opening lines:

“As I cannot know whether I shall survive the present crisis,” writes
the illustrious philosopher, “I consider it a duty to my wife, my child,
and my friends, who may suffer from the calumnies attached to my
memory, to give a simple exposition of my principles and my conduct
during the revolution.”

Cabanis and Garat were mistaken when they affirmed in the introduc-
tion to the Sketch of the progress of the human mind that their friend wrote
only a few lines of this exposition. The manuscript consists of forty-
one closely-written pages, and embraces nearly the whole of the public
career of Condoreet. As secretary of the Academy of Moral and Polit-
ical Sciences, I should perhaps transcribe the whole of this writing, in
which the candor, the good faith, and the sincerity of our confreére are so
brilliantly manifested ; but the specialties of the Academy of Sciences
exclude such details. Nevertheless, as itis the manifest duty not only for
all academicians but all citizens to free our national history, our common
patrimony, from the miserable stains the action of a limited party have
impressed upon her, I will give the opinion of Condorcet in regard to
the massacres of September :

‘©The massacres of the 2d of September,” he writes, “ a stain upon our
revolution, were the work of the folly, the ferocity, of a few men, and
not of the people, who endeavored not to see what they were unable to
prevent. The factious party, few in number, to whom these deplorable
events ought to be attributed, were artful enough to paralyze the public
power, to deceive the citizens and the national assembly. They were
resisted feebly and without system, because the true condition of affairs
was not understood.”

Is it not a pleasure, gentlemen, to find the people, the true people of
Paris, exonerated from all responsibility in the odious butchery, by a

&

CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPHY. 225

man whose enlightened understandin g, patriotism, and high position are
a triple guarantee of truthfulness? In future the following apostrophe of
a workman to the commune will not stand alone as an isolated expression
of individual opinion:

‘You pretend to be destroying the enemies of the country. I do not
call unarmed men such. Lead to the Champ de Mars these unfortun-
ates who, as you say, would rejoice in the failure of the republic. Let
us meet them equal in numbers, equal in arms, and there will then be
nothing in their death to cause us to blush.”

Condorcet bore his seclusion with great resignation until he heard of
the tragical death of the Girondist conventionalists, who had been con-
demned on the same day as himself. This terrible circumstance concen-
trated all his thoughts upon the danger incurred by Madame Vernet.
He had an iuterview with bis brave protectress, which, although it
seems like sacrilege, I give without changing a single word:

“Your kindnesses, madam, are engraved upon my heart with inefface-
able lines. The more I admire your courage, the more I feel it my duty
as an honest man not to impose further upon it. The law is positive:
if I am discovered in your‘dwelling, you will have the same sad end as
myself. Iam an outlaw; I cannot remain longer.” ‘The convention,
monsieur, has the right to put you beyond the amenities of the law, but
has not the power to place you beyond those of humanity ; you will re-
main.”

This admirable answer was immediately followed by the organization
in No. 21 Servandoni street of a system of surveillance to prevent the
departure of the illustrious refugee, in which most of the members of
the household, and particularly the humble porter, had a part. Mad-
am Vernet inspired with her own virtue all those who surrounded her.
From this day Condorcet did not make a movement which was not ob-
served.

At this time occurred an incident which shows the superior intelli-
gence of Madam Vernet, and her profound knowledge of the human
heart.

One day as he was mounting the staircase leading to the chamber he
occupied, Condorcet encountered the citizen Marcos, deputy solicitor to
the convention for the department of Mont Blane. Marcos belonged to
the section of the mountaineers; he had been lodging for several days
with Madam Vernet. Under his disguise, Condorcet had not been rec-
ognized; but was it possible to count upon this good fortune for any
length of time? The illustrious proscript confided his uneasiness to his
devoted hostess. ‘ Wait,” said she, “I will arrange this matter immedi-
ately.” She ascended to the chamber of Marcos, and, without any pre-
amble, addressed these words to him: ‘Citizen, Condorcet dwe'ls under
the same roof with yourself; if he is arrested it will be you who has
denounced him; if he perishes it will be you who has caused his head
to fall. You are a benevolent man; I have no need to say more.” This

S. Mis. 59-——15

226 CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPHY.

noble confidence was not betrayed. Marcos entered, even at the peril of
his life, into direct relations with Condorcet. It was he who provided
him with the romances which our confiere devoured in large numbers.
Madam Vernet felt that through the restlessness of the prisoner, an
accident might at any time betray him; that her efforts would in the
end prove to be in vain if his mind were not more seriously occupied.
At her instigation, Madam de Condorcet, and the friends of her hus-
band, entreated him to devote his time to some important composition.
Condorcet yielded to their counsel, and commenced his Sketch of a his-
toric picture of the progress of the human mind.

While thus, through the judicious influence of Madam Vernet, Con-
dorcet turned his scrutinizing gaze on the social condition of the past and
future human race, he succeeded in diverting his thoughts completely
from the terrible convulsions in which France was then struggling. In
the Sketch of the progress of the human mind there is not a line in which
the acrimony of the proscript has taken the place of the cool reason of
the philosopher and the noble desire to promote the advance of civiliza-
tion. ‘‘Everything tells us that we are on the eve of one of the great
revolutions of the human race. * * * ‘The present indications are
that it will be a happy one.” Thus Condorcet wrote when be was hope-
less of escape from the active pursuit of his implacable persecutors ;
when the sword of death waited to fall only until the identity of the
victim could be assured.

It was in the middle of March, 1794, that Condorcet wrote the last
lines of his essay; to carry the work further without the aid of books
was notin the power of any human mind. The work did not see the day
until 1795, after the death of the author. The public received it with
universal approbation. Two translations—one English, one German—
made the Sketch very popular abroad. The convention obtained three
thousand copies, which were distributed through the efforts of the com-
mittee of public instruction over the entire republic. In the autograph
manuscript the work is called not a sketch but a Programme of a historical
picture of the progress of the human mind. Condorcet indicates its object
in the following terms :

‘¢T intend to confine myself to the general traits which characterize
the various phases through which the human 1ace must pass, which
sometimes manifest its progress, sometimes its decadence, which betray
causes and show their effects. * * * Jt is not the science of
man in general that I undertake to treat; I wish to show solely how,
through time and his own efforts, he has been able to enrich his mind
with new traths, to perfect his intelligence, to extend the use of his
faculties, and to employ them to better advantage for his own happiness
and the common good.”

The work of Condorcet is too well known to require analysis here.
How, moreover, can a programme be analyzed? I will merely draw the

CONDORCET: A BIOGRAFHY. 997

attention of unprejudiced minds to the curious chapter where, dwelling
upon the future progress of the human mind, the author shows the
necessity, the justice (these are his expressions) of establishing an
entire equality of civil and political rights between the individuals of
the two sexes, and proclaims, besides, the indefinite perfectibility of the
human race.

The latter philosophical idea was opposed with extreme violence in the
beginning of this century by all the popular writers. According to
them the doctrine of indefinite perfectibility is not only untrue, but
productive of disastrous consequences. The Journal des Débats pre-
sented it ‘‘as favoring too much the projects of the seditious.” In the
severe criticism made of it in the Mercure, in reference to a work of
Madam de Staél, Fontanes flattering the passions of Napoleon, even
maintained this dream of perfectibility to be a terrible menace to gov-
ernments. Finally, to weaken (according to the ideas of the day) the
rights of this philosophical doctrine to any serious consideration, it
was pretended that Voltaire was its first, its true originator. This as-
sertion, however, could not well be sustained. The idea of perfectibility
is in fact found in Bacon, in Pascal, in Descartes. Nowhere, however,
is if more clearly expressed than in this passage from Bossuet: “After
six thousand years of observation the human mind is not yet exhausted ;
it investigates, it discovers still, and may do so to infinity ; idleness
alone can limit its knowledge and its inventions.”

The merit of Condorcet in regard to this particular subject is confined
to having studied by means of data furnished through modern science,
and by ingenious association of the facts obtained, the hypothesis of an
indefinite perfectibility relative to the duration of the-life of man, and
his intellectual faculties. But he was, I believe, the first to extend the
system so as to induce the hope of the indefinite perfection of the moral
faculties. Thus I read in his work “that a day will come when our
interests and our passions will have no more influence upon the judg-
ments which control the will than they have pow upon scientific opin-
ions.” Here, without entirely differing from the author, I would say he
makes a prediction it will require a long time to fulfil.

The programme was originally intended to have been followed by a
Tableau complet (a complete picture) of the progress of the human mind.
This picture, composed principally of facts, of historical documents, and
of dates, was not finished. The editors of 1804 published some frag-
ments of it; otber portions are found in the papers of M. and Mme.
O'Connor. Let us hope that filial piety will favor the public with the
rest. I dare to hope that it will establish the judgment given by Dau-
non of the sketch: ‘I do not know any one, however erudite, either
of this or any other nation, who deprived as Condorcet was of books,
and with no other guide than his memory, could have composed such a
work.”

As soon as the fever of authorship of our confiére was abated, his fears

228 CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPHY.

of the danger incurred by Madam Vernet by his presence in Servan-
doni street were renewed. He then, to use his own words, resolved to
quit a retreat which the unlimited devotion of his tutelary saint had
transformed into a paradise.

Condorcet was so well assured of the probable consequence of the
step he was about to take, the chances of safety appeared to him so
slight, that before leaving the protection of Madam Vernet he recorded
his last wishes. This document, which I have in my hands, manifests
throughout an elevated mind, a feeling heart, and a beautiful soul. I
dare even to say that in no language can there be found anything more
thoughtful, more touching, more graceful in form than some passages
in this testament, the last effort of our confrére, which he called The ad-
vice of a proscript to his daughter. I regret that time does not permit
me to make some quotations from it. These lines, so clear, so full of
delicate and natural feeling, were written by Condorcet on the very day
when he was about to expose himself to great danger. The feeling that
a violent death was almost inevitable did not disturb him; his hand
traced these terrible expressions, my death, my approaching death, with
a firmness the stoies of antiquity might have envied. Sensibility, on
the contrary, overcame his strength of mind when the illustrious pro-
script considered that Madam de Condorcet might be included in the
violent death which threatened him. When obliged to mention this
terrible contingency, he no longer speaks directly to the point, but en-
deavors, if we may so say, to veil from his own eyes the horrors of the
situation by ambiguous expressions—*‘ If my daughter is destined to
lose both parents.” This is the most.explicit reference he makes to the
subject in all the writing; and then, as if even this was too much for
him, he immediately reverts to the support of his child, then only five
years old. He hopes that his dear Eliza will remain with his benefac-
tress. He foresees and provides for everything. Eliza will call Madame
Vernet her second mother; she will learn, under the direction of this
excellent friend, besides the usual occupations of woman, how to design,
paint, and engrave sufficiently well to gain a living. In case of neces-
sity, she might apply for assistance in England to Lord Stanhope, and
‘Lord Dean; in America, to Bache, grandson of Franklin, and to Jefferson.
She should therefore be taught the English language; this, moreover,
was the wish of her mother, which was, in itself,enough. At the proper
time, Madam Vernet will cause to be read to Mademoiselle Condorcet
the instructions of her parents from the original manuscript (this cir-
cumstance is especially indicated). Eliza must be kept free from any
desire for revenge, must be taught to overcome what would naturally
be, under the circumstances, her filial tendencies in this respect. This
was a sacrifice demanded of her in the name of her father. The will
terminates with these lines: “I say nothing of my feelings toward the
generous friend (Madam Vernet) for whom this document is intended ;

a
7

CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPHY. 229

let her put herself in my place, then question her own heart, and she
will know them all.”

Thus Condorcet wrote, on the morning of the 5th of April, 1794. At
ten o’clock he left his room in his usual disguise, a vest and large cap, of
wool, and descended to a small apartment on the ground floor, hoping to
elude the surveillance of which he was the object, and make his escape ;
but finding Madam Vernet there, he entered into conversation with
another inmate of the house* who was present, interlarding his discourse
with Latin phrases and making it in every way as tedious and uninterest-
ing as possible, in order to drive her from the room, but in vain. The
proscript was in despair, when, by chance or by calculation, he manifested
annoyance at having forgotten his snuff-box. Madam Vernet, always
kind, hastened to mount the stairs in order to look for it. Condorcet
seized this moment to rush into the street. The distressed cries of the
portress immediately informed Madame Vernet what had happened, and
that she had lost the fruit of nine months’ unexampled devotion ; the
poor woman fell back fainting. To avoid a pursuit, which would have
ruined his benefactress, Condorcet passed rapidly through Servandoni
street. Stopping to take breath, as he turned into the street Vaugirard,
he saw at his side M. Sarret, the cousin of Madame Vernet. The pro-
script had hardly time to utter some words of farewell, in which admira-
tion was mingled with affectionate gratitude, when M. Sarret said to
him, with a firmness that admitted of no resistance, “* The costume you
wear does not disguise you sufiiciently ; you do not know your road ;
alone you will never succeed in escaping the active surveillance of the
argus-eyed sentinels the commune has placed at all the gates of Paris.
I have therefore determined not to leave you.”

Jt was at ten o’clock in the morning, in broad sunlight, in a frequented
street, at the door even of the terrible prisons of Luxembourg and of
Carmes, out of which none ever came, except to go to the scaffold ; it was
in full view of lugubrious notices, declaring in large characters that the

' punishment of death would be inflicted upon any one who rendered assist-

ance to the proscripts that M. Sarret attached himself to our proscript.
Was not this intrepidity equal at least to that of a body of soldiers who
throw themselves upon the thundering artillery of a redoubt? The two
fugitives escaped bya sort of miracle the dangers which attended them at
the barrier of Maine, and then directed their steps toward Fontenay-aux-
Roses. The journey was long, after nine months of absolute inactivity
had unfitted our confrére for walking. At last, about three o’clock in
the afternoon, Condorcet and his companion arrived without mishap,
but extremely fatigued, at the door of a country house, occupied by a
happy family, who for nearly twenty years had received from Condorcet
distinguished services and marks of favor without number. There ended

*This man was named Sarret; was an author of several works. He had married
Madame Vernet, but the marriage was kept secret, as the lady did not wish to give
up her maiden name.

230 CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPHY.

the dangerous mission Sarret had undertaken; he left Coudorcet and
returned to Paris.

What happened then, accounts do not agree. As far as I can learn,
Condorcet solicited hospitality only fora single night. Certain difficul-
ties, of which I will not makem)jself the judge, prevented his friends from
granting his request; nevertheless they arranged that a small garden
door opening outward toward the country should not be closed at night,
and that Condorcet might present himself there at ten o’clock. When
taking leave of the unfortunate proscript, they presented him with the
Epistles of Horace, a poor resource in truth for one obliged to seek a
refuge in the dreary darkness of the quarries of Clamast. These old
friends of Condorecet undoubtedly committed the irreparable fault of
delegating to others, and not seeing themselves that the arrangement
made was carried out. For one or two days afterward Madam Vernet
who passed over the country of Fontenay-aux-Roses in every direction,
in the hope that her presence there might be useful to the fugitive,
remarked a mound of earth and tuft of grass in front of the little gate,
proving, alas, only too well, that for a long time it had not turned on
its hinges; during two dreary nights no door had been-open for him,
except in Servandoni street. There at No. 21 during a whole week front
door, shop door, or alley-door would have yielded to the slightest pres-
sure of the fugitive’s finger. In the possibility, 1 can hardly say the
hope of a nocturnal return, Madam Vernet did not think of the thieves
and assassins who at that time especially haunted Paris. Great, alas,
was the difference in conduct of the two families, with whom ties
formed in prosperity by favors conferred and ties of misfortune had
connected Condorcet.

On the 5th of April, at two o’clock, we see Condorcet leaving with
resignation, but not without sadness, the country house where he had
hoped to pass twenty-four hours in security. No one will ever know the
anguish, the sufferings he endured throughout the 6th. On the 7th
we see him, wounded in limb and impelled by hunger, enter an eating-
house of Clamart, and ask for an omelette. Unfortunately this man,
of almost universal information, did not know even approximately how
many eggs a workman eats at a repast. When asked by the shopman
how many he desired, heanswered a dozen. This unusual number excited
surprise, soon suspicion, which spread quickly. The stranger was re-
quested to exhibit his passport; he had none. Pressed by questions, he
called himself a carpenter, but the state of his hands contradicted the
assertion. The municipal authorities were informed, had him arrested,
and sent him to Bourg-la-Reine. On the route-a kind vine-dresser mcét-
ing the prisoner, seeing his wounded limb and his limping walk, gen-
erously lent him his horse. I ought not to pass over this last mark of
sympathy received by our unfortunate confrére.

On the 8th of April (1794), in the morning, when the jailer of Bourg la
Reine opened the door of the dungeon in which the unknown prisoner

CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPHY. 231

had been confined, in order that the gendarmes might conduct him to
Paris, he found only a corpse. Our confrére had escaped the scaffold
by a dose of concentrated poison he had for sometime carried in a ring.*

Bochard de Saron, Lavoisier, La Rochefoucauld, Malesherbes, Bailly.
Condorcet—such were the losses sustained by the Academy during
our sanguinary struggles. The memories of these illustrious men
have fared very differently ; some have rested in peace in the universal
and well-deserved regret; others have periodically been subjected to
the storm of political abuse.

If my powers obey my will, I hope soon in this place to speak to you
of Bailly. To-day I shall not feel that I have accomplished my sacred
task, even after all that has been said, if I do not free the memory of
Condorcet from a calumnious imputation. The form of this accusation
against our brother does not lessen my inquietude; it imputes to him
only weakness, but weakness under some circumstances is a crime.

In giving an account of the deplorable condemnation of Lavoisier, a
pen very wise, very respectable, and very respected, wrote some years
ago: ‘Much hope was felt for Lavoisier on account of certain circum-
stances some of his confreres could adduce in his favor; but terror
froze their hearts.” With this as foundation, a certain public, cruelly
trifling, numbered upon their fingers the academicians who had seats
in the convention, and so, without further examination; the name of our
former secretary is found fatally implicated in the stupidly ferocious
act which deprived France of an excellent citizen, the world of a man
of genius. ‘Two dates, two simple dates, will show that when no names
are mentioned in connection with so grave an event, when only general
terms are used and no one is especially accused, it is not wise, to say the
least, to implicate everybody.

Condorcet, it has been said, might have interfered in favor of Lay-
oisier. When?—at the time of the arrest? Then this is my answer:
Lavoisier was arrested in the month of April, 1794. Condorcet was
proscribed and hidden with Madam Vernet from the commencement
of July, 1793. After the sentence of the revolutionary tribunal? The
response is still more decisive : Lavoisier died on the 8th of May, 1794.
Condorecet poisoned himself at Bourg la Reine a month before, on the 8th
of April. I need not add a word to these figures; they will remain im-
printed by ineffaceable lines upon the foreheads of the calumniators of
our noble confrére.

PORTRAIT OF CONDORCET.
I have successively presented to your eyes, and in what has appeared

to me the true light, the savant, the literateur, the political economist, and
the member of two of our national assemblies. It remains for me to

* This poison (we do not know its nature), was prepared by Cabanis, That with
which Napoleon attempted to poison himself at Fcntainebleau was of the same origin
and the same date.

evs CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPHY.

give the portrait of the man of society, to speak of his exterior appear-
ance and of his manners. At one time I was in despair of fulfiliing
this part of my task, for I had not known personally the secretary of
the Academy. I had never even scen him. I knew too well, besides,
that books are very unfaithful guides to a knowledge of their writers;
that authors can assume sometimes in their works a character totally at
variance with their habitual actions. Themaxim of Buffon had often been
contradicted by fact: “A man’s style is the man himself.” Happily,
unpublished correspondence has in a manner transferred me into the
family of Condorcet; has shown him to me surrounded by his relations,
his friends, his confréres, his subordinates, and his clients; has made
me the witness, the confidant, [ had almost said, of all his actions. So
I feel reassured. Need I fear to speak with boldness of the most secret
thoughts of the illustrious academician, of his private life, of his most
sacred feelings, when I have for guides and references Turgot, Voltaire,
d’Alembert, Lagrange, and a woman (Mademoiselle de L’Espinasse)
celebrated by the extent, the penetration, and the delicacy of her mind?

Condorcet was of large stature; the immense size of his head, his large
shoulders, his robust body, contrasted with limbs which had always
remained slight on account, our brother thought, of the inactivity which
his costume of a girl, and the too great solicitude of his mother, im-
posed upon him during the first eight years of his life.

Condorcet always retained, with great simplicity, something approach.
ing toawkwardness. Tosee him only in passing, it would have been said,
That is a good man, rather than, That isa wise man. Lis principal trait,
his truly characteristic quality, was an extreme kindness, which was in
accordance with the gentle expression of a beautiful face.

Condorcet was considered by his mere acquaintances as cold and in-
sensible. This was a great mistake. He never, perhaps, addressed afiee-
tionate expressions to his relatives and friends; but he never iost an
opportunity of giving active proof of Lis attachment. He was afiicted
with their afflictions; he suffered from their misfortunes to such a degree
that his sleep was often disturbed and his health affected.

How does it happen, then, that our confrére has been so frequently
accused of insensibility ? Because the emotions of his noble soul were
not manifested readily in his countenance. He would listen with an
air of the utmost indifference to the story of an unfortunate; but while
others were content to manifest their sympathy in vain words, he, with-
out saying anything, would bring succor and consolation of all kinds
to relieve the sufferings which had been revealed to him. You know now
the true meaning of the words of d’Alembert, ‘‘Condorcet is a voleano
covered with snow.” It is a great mistake to suppose the immortal
geometer, by his picturesque simile, meant to indicate violence of char-
acter, disguised by coldness.

D’Alembert had seen the volcano in full action in the year 1771. The
geometer, the metaphysician, the political economist, the philosopher,

CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPHY. Zod

Condorcet, entirely overwhelmed by an affair of the heart, had then be-
come for all his acquaintances an object of pity. He even thought of
committing suicide. The manner in which he rejected the palliative for
his grief, reeommended by his friend and confidant, Turgot, is interest-
ing: * Makesome verses; itis a kind of composition you are unaccustomed
to, and will distract your mind.” ‘I do not like bad verses; I could not
endure my own.” ‘Attack some deep problem of geometry.” ‘ When a
depraved taste has supplied us with aliment of strong flavor, all other
food is displeasing tous. The passions are a degradation of the intel-
lect; outside of the feeling which absorbs me, nothing in the world
interests me.” As a physician tries all remedies in desperate cases, Tur-
got then endeavored to excite the fortitude of his friend by examples
taken from ancient and modern history and even mythology, but all in
vain; time alone could cure, time alone did cure, in fact, the wound
which rendered our confrére so unhappy.

If the public were wrong in accusing Condorcet of insensibility, they
were equally mistaken in considering him indifferent in matters of art.

When at the French Academy was read for the first time one of those
literary productions which formed the glory and the honor of the eighteenth
century, Condorcet would remain completely impassive in the midst of
the most enthusiastic manifestations of admiration for the author, would
hardly seem to have listened, but as soon as opportunity offered he
would analyze minutely the work, appreciating its beauties and indi-
cating the weak portions with tuct and delicacy as well as admirable
judgment, while in support of his remarks he would recite without hesi-
tation long quotations in prose or verse which had become engraved
upon his most remarkable memory.

The reserve Condorcet imposed upon himself before strangers gave
place in social intercourse to a gayety, simple, refined, and slightly
epigrammatic in expression. It was then the immense variety of his
knowledge was revealed. He spoke with equal clearness, equal assur-
ance of the rules of geometry, and the regulations of the palace; of
philosophy and the genealogy of the court people; of the customs of
the republics of antiquity, and the trifles of society.

The secretary of the ancient Academy of Sciences descended into the
polemic arena only to defend bis friends against the attacks of mediocrity,
of hate, and of envy. But his courageous devotion did not lead him to
share the unjust prejudices even of those to whom he was most tenderly
attached. This kind of independence is so rare I must give some exam-
ples of it,

D’Alembert, unconsciously influenced by a feeling of jealousy, did not
render full justice to Clairaut. Yet we find Condorcet, in his eulogies
of M. de Trudaine and of M. d’Arci, referring almost unnecessarily to the
relations of these savans with the author of the beautiful work upon the
figure of the earth, while he does not hesitate to eall Clairaut a man of

* genius and to speak of the wonders he accomplished in his youth.

D234 CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPHY.

Lagrange and d’Alembert had a very low opinion of the Lettres d’Eu-
ler @ une Princesse d’Allemagne. They had even gone so far as to call
them, in allusion to a feeble work written by Newton in his old age,
‘the commentary upon the apocalypse of Euler”; Condorcet regarding
them from another point of view found the letters useful, and not con-
tent with praising them, became the editor of them, without the slight-
est suspicion that this independence of opinion might cause umbrage to
his best friends.

The book of Helvétius had irritated Turgot, who expressed himself
very emphatically about it, in his correspondence. Upon this point the
celebrated intendant of Limoges was impatient of contradiction. Con-
doreet nevertheless maintained his own opinion of the work with great
firmness; he was far from considering it irreproachable, but thought
that its dangerous tendencies were exaggerated.

Vanity reigns supreme in all classes of society, particularly, itis said,
among men of letters. We can nevertheless affirm that this active and
universal stimulant of our actions never affected the beautiful soul of
our former confrére. A number of circumstances give evidence of this
rare phenomenon. Jealousy is the just punishment of vanity ; yet Con-
dorcet never experienced this cruel infirmity. When absorbed by his
arduous duties as secretary of the Academy, and by his literary and po-
litical engagements, our confrére was obliged to renounce the great and
pure pleasure of scientific discoveries ; he nevertheless wrote to Euler,
to Lagrange, to Lambert (d’Alembert was sick at that time), ‘‘ Give me
news of your work; I am like one of those old gourmands, who, unable
longer to digest, still take pleasure in seeing others eat.”

Condorecet earried so far his desire to be useful that bis door was never
closed against any one; he was always accessible; he received every
day without impatience, without even appearing to be fatigued, the
interminable visits of the legions of troublesome and idle fellows who
abound in all great cities, especially Paris. Considering the value of
his time, this was kindness carried to heroism. As to Condorcet’s dis-
interestedness, I need not speak of it, as it is well known. ‘In ethics,” he
wrote in a letter to Turgot, ‘‘ I am an enemy to indifference and a friend
of indulgence.” The phrase would not represent the truth if taken in
an absolute sense. Condorcet was very indulgent toward others but
very severe with himself. He was very independent in action, so much
so as to injure himself seriously by considering certain forms of polite-
ness, current in society, as species of small change too trifling to be
taken into account. As anexample of his disregard of popular opinion,
especially where a principle was concerned, I give the following incident:
M. de Maurepas was very much irritated by a letter directed against
Necker, and in which occurred some passages which could be injurious
to the public credit. It was wrongfully attributed te Condorcet. The
Duke de Nivernais endeavored to persuade his friend and confrere to
write tothe minister, but ke resisted with a firmness whicl, at the time,

CONDORCET: A BIOGRAPHY. 235

seemed inexplicable. To-day I find the explanation in an unpublished
letter addressed to Turgot. The secretary of the Academy would not
pay even the semblance of respect to a man whom he was far from
respecting.

Condorcet acknowledged his faults and the errors he committed with
a frankness of which the following brief fheident is an example: “ Do
you know,” said some one to him, ‘‘ the circumstances which caused the
rupture between Jean Jacques and Diderot?” “No,” he answered, “I
only know that Diderot is an excellent man, and whoever involved him
in dissension was wrong!” “But it was yourself?” “Then i was
wrong !”

In the edition of Pascal’s thoughts, by the author of Mérope, I find
this note of Condorcet: “The expression, ‘honest men,’ signified originally
men of probity; in the time of Pascal, it indicated men of good society ;
now it is applied to men of title or of money.” ‘ No,” said Voltaire,
addressing himself to the annotator, “the honest men are those at
whose head you stand.”

To justify this exclamation, since it seemed to me the expression of
truth, has been my object in writing these pages. I shall be happy if
the portrait I have traced of the illustrious perpetual secretary of the
ancient Academy of Sciences has dissipated the very cruel prejudices,
neutralized the effects of the more detestable calumnies which have in-
jured his memory ; if, with those who enjoyed the intimacy of Condorcet,
I have made you see in him a man who has honored science by his
labors, France by his high qualities, humanity by his virtues.

LOUIS AGASSIZ:

A BIOGRAPHICAL NOTICE.

By ERNEST FAVRE.

[Translated for the Smithsonian Institution* by M. A. Henry. ]

The name of Agassiz, for twenty years intimately connected with the
history of science in America, has nevertheless retained its popularity in
Switzerland, where his works have a great celebrity. It is in our country
that he was born, in our country he acquired renown, and Switzerland
can never forget that he is among the number of her children. Without
other resource than his intelligence and his energy, he rose to the first
rank among the eminent men of science of our country. We desire in
these few pages, as a souvenir of this great scientist, to notice briefly
the various phases of his life and the principal subjects of investigation
he pursued.t

if

Louis Jean Rodolphe Agassiz was born on the 28th of May, 1807, in
the rectory of the village of Motier, situated in the canton of Friburg, on
the shore of Lake Morat. Nothing in his family nor in his surroundings
gave promise of the brilliant destiny which awaited him. His ancestors
had filled the office of pastor for six generations; his father, deprived of
fortune, had embraced the hereditary occupation. It was then entirely
to his own energy, his talents, and his genius that he owed the high
position he afterward attained.

There is little to be said of his early years. From his infancy the ob-
servation of animals was one of his greatest pleasures. He passed many
hours fishing in the lake and in studying the habits of fishes; he watched
with interest the metamorphoses of the caterpillar. The same taste was
manifested both at Bienne, where he pursued his studies in the college,
and at Orbe, where he resided later, by his passion for collecting insects
and plants, and he was often heard explaining with enthusiasm to his
younger brother phenomena of nature he as yet but imperfectly under-

*From the ‘‘ Archives des Sciences de la Bibliothéque Universelle, Geneve, Mai 1877,
tome LXIx.” .

tIn the “ Catalogue of Scientific Papers,” published by the Royal Society of Lon-
don, is found a list of 130 publications made by Agassiz. This list includes only
articles which have appeared in scientific periodicals. To it must therefore be added
all his various works published separately, as well as his numerous contributions since

the year 1863, at which date the above catalogue terminated. 5
36

LOUIS AGASSIZ. 237

stood. The course of the Academy of Lausanne afterward turned his
attention toward classical studies.

When he arrived at the age to choose a profession his parents desired
to procure for him a commercial apprenticeship, but he obtained instead
permission from them to pursue the study of medicine, which could give
him both the means of providing for his support and the opportunity of
continuing the study of natural history, for which he felt a decided voca-
tion. He passed two years at Zurich, then a winter at Heidelberg,
where Bischoff, Leuckardt, and Tiedemann were professors. While at
this university fishes were still one of his favorite studies. He already
began to classify them and to make drawings of them, and thus accumu-
lated material which later was of great service to him.

In the autumn of 1826 he went to Munich, where the chairs of natural
history were occupied by men of the first rank. Oken Martius received
him with kindness; Deellinger, the illustrious professor of embryology,
took him under his protection, made him a member of his household,
and developed in him a taste for this science, to which Agassiz always
attached great importance. At this time the young student had already
excited great anticipations for his future; soon his masters and comrades,
among whom we find the botanists Schimper, and Braun, and Burck-
hardt, his draftsman, were his friends, and he became the center of an
eager group of scientists. ‘When we assembled,” he wrote, ‘for con-
versation, or to give each other lectures, as was frequently our custom,
our professors were often among our auditors, and encouraged us in our
efforts for individual research. My room was the place of meeting—
bedroom, work-room, museum, library, lecture-room, and fencing school,
allin one. Students and professors called it the Little Academy.”

The four years he passed thus at Munich in the study of medicine, of
the natural sciences, and even of philosophy, with all the hope, the en-
thusiasm of youth, were among the happiest of his life, and he always
cherished a pleasant recollection of them; moreover, it was during this
period that his future career was definitely decided. Martius and Spix
had only a short time before returned from an expedition to the river
Amazon, and Spix had since died, having only commenced the descrip-
tion of the fishes collected. Martius requested Agassiz, somewhat pre-
pared for the subject by his own studies, to take charge of the work.
The young student acquitted himself of his difficult task with honor,
and this was the commencement of his reputation. The work appeared
in 1829,.* The same year Agassiz received the doctorate of philosophy.
The following year he was admitted to practice as doctor of medicine,
and went to Vienna in order to study, in the collections of that city, the
fishes of the Danube.

He was recalled to Switzerland by his father, who demanded that he
should return there and practice medicine; but he succeeded in obtain-

*Selecta genera et species piscium quos collegit et pingendos curavit, Dr. I.-B.de
Spix; digessit, descripsit et observationibus illustravit, Dr. L. Agassiz.

238 LOUIS AGASSIZ.

ing a delay, and after a brief sojourn in Vienna went to Paris, where he
conceived a strong desire to bring himself into relation with the pleiades
of celebrities of the Museum of Natural History. Cuvier, Blainville,
Valenciennes received very kindly the young doctor. Hesaw frequently
Humboldt, who was then in the height of his renown, and who gave him
substantial proof of his friendship by furnishing him the means of pro-
longing his stay in Paris. *

The interest felt by Agassiz in the investigation of fishes increased
with his knowledge of the subject. He found in Paris one of the most
complete collections, and a beautiful series of fossil fishes from Monte
Bolea belonging to Count Gazzola. He undertook the description of
the latter. This was his first step in paleontological research. Cuvier,
who soon observed in the young naturalist signs of rare ability, placed
generously at his disposal material collected for a history of fossil fishes,
and this influential encouragement decided his career.

Zodlogy alone did not satisfy his powers of generalization, and he
soon recognized that paleontology was its indispensable complement.
The division of the animal kingdom into branches, classes, orders, fami-
lies, genera, and species, was not in his opinion merely a system, in-
vented to simplify research, but a divine institution; according to his
view, this great plan of creation existed from the beginning, and the
organisms now found upon the surface of the globe form a part of it as
well as those whose remains are found in the most ancient deposits.
The nature of fossils, the entire system of their organization, prove in the
most conclusive manner the existence of this primitive plan, which has
developed regularly up to the present period. Paleontology furnishes
thousands of species, of genera, and even of numerous families, which
to-day have entirely disappeared, and which constitute an important part
of this great plan. To base a zodlogical classification upon living organ-
isms is to make a whole of a small part, is to eliminate arbitrarily from
the divine system the majority of the elements of which it is composed.
The great work of Cuvier had suddenly revealed the importance of pa-
leontology. In his investigation of fossil bones he laid the foundation
of this science, by showing that the species found below the surface of
the globe are different from those living at the present time. He had
established the laws of the wnity of plan which allowed the conception
of ancient from existing forms; and the law of concordance of characters,
which, establishing the necessity that all parts of an organism are dis-
posed for the same end, authorized the deduction from each of them of
the character of the other parts, as well as of the kind of life of the ani-
mal. +

To understand an extinct type we do not need to have it entire under
our eyes. The solid parts (which are alone preserved) not only give us
sufficient characteristics to class it in the genus and the species to which

*Letters of Agassiz to Louis Coulon, Mem. Soe. Phys., Genéve, 1874, XXIII, 472.
t Pictet, Traité de Paléontologie. Introduction.

2

LOUIS AGASSIZ. 239

it belongs, but a mere fragment of this frame-work, a single bone, a jaw,
a tooth is in most cases enough for this purpose.

These principles are based, above all, upon the comparative anatomy
of living animals, the study of which is indispensable to a knowledge of
extinct types. Agassiz applied them to that of fossil fishes, the collec-
tions of which contained at that time many specimens which had not
yet been examined. The public and private museums of England fur-
nished most of the material for his investigations, but those of the conti-
nent were also made to contribute.

TT

Hitherto we have seen Agassiz utilizing for the profit of science the
great resources placed at his disposal. His return to Switzerland, in
1832, makes us acquainted with a new attribute of his great mind, the
talent for creation and organization. The liberal encouragement of
Louis Coulon, and among others that of Humboldt, who exercised a
ereat influence over the King of Prussia, then suzerain of Neuchatel,
facilitated the establishment of Agassiz in that city. An annual com-
pensation of 80 louis as professor at the gymnasium, and the sale of his
collections for 500 louis, provided the first resources necessary for the
continuation of his publications. He had not here, as at Munich and
Paris, immense stores of material at his command and illustrious men
of science to come to his aid. Everything was in an unformed condi-
tion; but he was the pioneer, the chief, and he soon rallied about him a
group of naturalists, who recalled upon another theater the “ Little Acad-
emy” of Munich. The well-known names, Desor, C. Vogt, Gressly,
Guyot, Nicolet, of Montmollin, are connected with this period of his
life; the first two were his most active collaborators. Several of his
fellow-students of Munich—Weber, Dinkel, and Bureckhardt—followed
him to this new residence, where they labored in the execution of his
designs; one of them, a citizen of Neuchatel, H. Nicolet, opened at his
instigation a vast lithographic establishment, where all the plates of his
memoirs were executed. The modest chair he occupied became soon the
most distinguished of the gymnasium; the collections increased rapidly ;
the public became interested ; a few young men entered into these re-
searches ; and thus was founded, in 1833, under the presidency of L.
Coulon, the Society of Natural History, of which Agassiz was the secre-
tary and the soul for many years. Neuchatel became an important sci-
entific centre; thence proceeded successively and at short intervals
voluminous scientific publications of the first order.

In 1839 he published the commencement of his Histoire naturelle des
Poissons Peau douce de V Europe centrale, which contains the embryology
of the Salmonides by C. Vogt. This work, undertaken on a very exten-
sive plan, was never compieted.

The history of fossil fishes, begun at Paris, was terminated at this
period. The first part appeared in 1833, at his own expense, but his

*

24077 LOUIS AGASSIZ,

modest resources were not sufficient to continue the work, as it was ac-
companied by expensive plates.* The Geological Society of London,
aided by Lord Enniskillen and Sir Francis Egerton, furnished the means
he lacked. A draftsman, Denkel, worked for him constantly for sey-
eral years. This publication, which may be regarded as a continuation
of Cuvier’s Researches upon fossil bones, was not finished until 1843.
Tt is the most original work of Agassiz, and one of the principal monu-
ments of his greatness.

There is no class of animals that can furnish elements more important
for the history of the development of the organic kingdom, the law of
the succession of beings, and the relations of the fossil fauna than the
fishes. They alone of the vertebrates appeared in the first ages of the
world, and passed through all the phases of creation up to the present
time.

An osteology of fishes, a rational classification, the description of a
multitude of new species, and theoretic consequences of great import- °*
ance were the results of the wise researches of Agassiz.

One of the distinctive characteristics of this class of animals is a skin
covered with seales of peculiar form and structure; now the nature of
this envelope is in direct accordance with the interior organization.
The scales, therefore, from this point of view, are of great importance,
and may serve as a basis of classification. The author subdivides them
into four orders, as follows:

Cycloids—Scales imbricated, corneous, and without enamel, the pos-
terior edge simple. Skeleton bony.

Ctenoids.—Scales imbricated, corneous, without enamel, the posterior
edge indented. Skeleton bony.

Ganoids.—Scales angular, and covered with a layer of enamel, their
edges uniting regularly. Skeleton less bony than the preceding, some-
times cartilaginous.

Placoids—Osseous plates, disposed irregularly, terminated on the
upper side by points or hooks. Skeleton cartilaginous.

The last two orders have. existed from the first appearance of life upon
the surface of the globe. The others commenced with the Cretaceous
period, and include most of the fishes of the present time. This classifi-
cation has since undergone important modifications; it however assisted
very considerably progress in the knowledge of this class. The hand
of genius, said Pictet, is everywhere manifest throughout this beautiful
work.

The monograph of the fishes of the old red sandstone, undertaken at
the request of the British Association for the Advancement of Science,
and completed in 1844, supplemented the preceding work.t The author

* Recherches sur les Poissons fossiles ; 5 volumes quarto, with an atlas of 384 plates, in
folio, most of the figures being colored.

t Supplément aux recherches sur les Poissons fossiles. Monographie des poissons fossiles
du vieux grés rouge ow systéme dévonien des tles Britanniques et de Russie. 4to. 41 pl.
1844-1845. x

LOUIS AGASSIZ. 2AL

was obliged to describe a very numerous and entirely new fauna. When
he commenced his investigation of fishes, he was not acquainted with
any species older than those of the coal strata; the number of these
fossils has immeasurably increased since then, and is now counted by
thousands. Agassiz recognized that among the living species a small
number only have a heterocercal tail; that is to say, one in which the
upper lobe is formed by the prolongation of the vertebral column. These
animals are the last representatives of a type largely diffused in the
Devonian and Carboniferous seas. All the other fishes, on the contrary,
have a homocercal or symmetrical tail, at the base of which the vertebral
column stops, and does not penetrate either of the lobes. He observed
that in the embryo of certain fishes the tail is at first heterocercal, as
that of the paleozic fishes, and afterward becomes homocercal. This
important discovery, in connection with others of a like nature, per-
mitted him to establish the law that the ‘embryo of the fish during its
development, the present class of fishes with its numerous families,
and the type of fish in its geological history, undergo strictly analogous
phases,” and in a more general way he applies this law to vertebrates ;
“The successive creations have undergone phases of development anal-
ogous to those the embryo passes through during its growth, and simi-
lar to the gradations the present creation shows us in its ascending
series, considered as a whole.” Then rising from the consideration of the
fishes to more general views of the phases of creation, he writes: ‘“‘ The
most incontestable result of modern paleontological research, in the ex-
ainination of the question which at present occupies us, is the fact, now
beyond controversy, of the simultaneous appearance of particular types
of all classes of invertebrate animals from the earliest development of life
upon the surface of the globe.” The history of this successive develop-
ment ‘*‘ shows conclusively the impossibility of referring the first inhabi-
tants of the earth to a small number of branches, differentiated from
one parent stock by the influence of the modifications of exterior con-
ditions of existence.’””*

It was in 1844 that Agassiz wrote these lifes, and he all his life re-
mained faithful to this opinion. The future will decide whether he was
right or wrong; it is true that for the moment the balance does not seem
to lie in his favor. It is difficult, indeed, to comprehend why the results
of these admirable researches, and of those he made later, did not lead
him to sustain the theory of transformation of which they seem to be the
natural consequence. Still it is impossible to consider his opposition to
this theory as resulting from prejudice, or as resting upon other grounds
than pure scientific reason.

Agassiz had a mind too comprehensive, he was too enterprising, to con-
fine his attention to a single class of the animal kingdom, and we find
him soon producing a series of works upon a variety of subjects. Thus
he undertook, with M. Desor, the study of the Echinoderms; and their

“Introduction to a monograph of the fossil fishes of the old red sandstone, pp. 4, 13.

S. Mis. 59 16

242 LOUIS AGASSIZ.

researches formed the basis of the ulterior investigations of this class.
Mr. Desor soon made a specialty of the subject, and to him we owe the
publication of several works in the preparation of which Agassiz was
only his collaborator. Agassiz also pursued some investigations, as new
as they were original, on living and fossil mollusea.*

A large number of articles upon special points of natural history and
memoirs containing more general conclusions, succeeded each other rap-
idly during these years. While these original memoirs exhibited the
scientific genius of their author, his numerous lectures, the fruits of his
vast erudition, formed the substance of various other works.

One of the principal of these is a catalogue of the genera of all known
animals, a work to which several of the most distinguished geologists
of that-period contributed. At the same time he collected the elements
of a zodlogical and geological dictionary published later in London. t+

“We have a good working force,” he writes to a friend in Geneva;
‘“‘Gressly is here. Desor is studying the Galerites. I am busy, alter-
nately, with Myas and the fresh-water fishes. Vogt with anatomy.
Thus the time passes agreeably and usefully.”

The energy he displayed during these years was something astonish-
ing; the history of science presents no other example likeit. One of
his collaborators gives us a vivid picture of the activity which reigned in
the laboratories of Neuchatel. ‘ It might be supposed,” said Mr. Vogt,
‘that in such complicated machinery the wheels would sometimes have
interfered with each other. The printing-office constantly demanded
copy, the lithographic establishment designs, and yet the work of his
original researches never ceased; hardly had we the time necessary to
complete one set of labors before Agassiz had new plans and assumed
new tasks. Every thought that passed through his head was converted
into a great work, with hundreds of folio plates, hundreds of pages
of text; in all this he was the acknowledged master, as well as in the
collection of new material for his work. He knew how to draw all Eu-
rope into contribution. Often boxes which had been sent for and awaited
with feverish impatience* remained weeks and even months unopened,
because in the meanwhile another subject occupied attention, and the
objects they contained had lost their interest.”

Order did not prevail either in the abode or in the laboratory of Agas-
siz. ‘In my house everything is astray but nothing is lost,” he would
say to those who came to consult specimens or books he could not
find.

The reputation of the young savant extended rapidly. In 1839, at the

* Mémoire sur les moules des Mollusques vivants et fossiles. Mém. Soc. Neuchatel; I1.—
Etudes critiques sur les Mollusques fossiles. Mémoire sur les Trigonies ; 1840.—Monographie
des Myes ; 1842-1845.—Iconographie des Coquilles tertiaires réputées identiques avec les
vivantes ; 1845,

t Bibliographia Ziologiae et Geologiae. A general catalogue of all books, tracts, and
memoirs on zodlogy, by Prof. L. Agassiz, corrected, enlarged, and edited by Strickland.
London, 1848.

LOUIS AGASSIZ. 243

age of 32, the Academy of Sciences made him a corresponding member.
Large in stature, well formed, endowed with excellent health, with an
amiable face, and an eye which beamed with unusual intelligence, A gas-
siz gained the sympathy of all who approached him. His countenance
was frank and open, his manner winning; he animated the reunions of
. the naturalist and the work of the laboratories by his vivacity and good
J
.
;
7

humor.

“‘ He was,” said one of his scientific adversaries (formerly among his
devoted friends), ‘a man full of kindness, of enthusiasm for science,
and easily moved by all that is beautiful and good.” A warmth which
nothing could repress was with him united with facility and charm of
expression. Always ready to frame theories, to discuss them, and to

advance new ideas, he captivated his auditors by the vigor and clear-
| ness of his exposition. His public and class lectures, too, were always

extraordinarily successful. Even when he discussed the most abstruse
| subject his auditors hung upon his lips. The talent for speaking, which
he possessed to a high degree, was one of his most valuable means of
| influence, and contributed greatly to his celebrity.

He was preminently a zodlogist ; he distinguished himself particularly
by the justness and promptitude of his perceptions. He knew by the
first Inspection all a collection contained, the new specimens, the types
already described, and he remembered admirably what he had seen.
He has been accused of being too ready to form new species. The
learned geologist of Berlin, Léopold von Buch, whose peculiar face and
j eccentric costume often excited curiosity, said one day, “ When I am at
Neuchatel, and I knock at the door of Agassiz, I am always afraid.”
‘¢ Why?” asked some one. “I dread lest he will take me for a new
| species.” Science has, however, ratified most of the distinctions he es-
| tablished. His just regard for the value of characteristics led him to

circumscribe species within narrower limits, and in this respect he had
a happy influence upon paleontology.

His zoédlogical works, which were numerous enough to have absorbed
several ordinary lives, still did not occupy all his time, and a new field
of research was opened to him. Let us then, for a moment, leave the
museums and laboratories, and transport ourselves to the foot of the
glaciers of the Alps, where we will soon see him arrive with his com-
panions.

For some time the attention of naturalists had been drawn to the
presence throughout a large part of Switzerland of blocks of various
dimensions, composed of rock different in nature from the soil upon
which they rest. How did these rocks, to which has been given the
name of erratic blocks, and which are of Alpine origin, come to be dis-
persed over the Swiss plain and upon the Jura? Two theories are given;
Leopold von Buch, Elie von Beaumont, and others, maintain that they
were transported by water. But their size, sometimes enormous, and
the height at which they are found upon the sides of the Jura, render

i ae

244 LOUIS AGASSIZ.

this hypothesis inadmissible. To a Valoisian mountaineer, Perraudin,
belongs the honor of solving the problem. Observing that the glaciers,
at the present time, carry blocks, which they throw off at their extremity,
he explained the dissemination of the bowlders in question by the
hypothesis that the glaciers must have extended in times past much
beyond their present limits, and brought with them, on their surface,
material which they left when they retreated. He communicated this
idea to Charpentier, who discussed it with him, and ended by adopting
it. The dispersion of the blocks is connected with other phenomena
which confirm this origin; the polished and rounded surfaces, the
accumulation of angular blocks, the hillocks, which have exactly the
form of moraines, the unstratified deposits, in which are found pebbles
covered with scratches—all these facts, which are repeated to-day in the
immediate vicinity of the glaciers which produce them, also show that
these same glaciers once covered the larger part of Switzerland, leaving
the traces we have indicated. If Perraudin was the inventor of the
theory (1815), if Venetz contributed to its development (1833), it was
Charpentier who examined it, studied it, perfected it, made it known
(1835), and later disseminated it in the world of science with the authority
his standing gave him /1841). “To this ingenious and persevering
naturalist,” said Alphonse Favre, ‘‘should be given the greater part of
the glory attached to the discovery of this great scientific truth.”

Agassiz having heard of this discovery made a visit to Charpentier
for the purpose of combating it. He remained several months with
him and left well convinced of the truth of the theory, and full of eager-
ness to verify the proofs already advanced in its favor, to find new ones,
and, in short, to study the subject with the activity he carried into every-
thing. The question had been under discussion for some time when the
Helvetic Society of Natural Science met at Neuchatel, under his presi-
dency, on the 24th of July, 1837. The opening discourse turned upon
this question, and fell like a bomb in the midst of the most positive
adversaries of the glacial theory who happened to be present at the
meeting.

Leopold von Buch, who was not famous for sweetness of temper, was
very angry, and would examine nothing, hear nothing in regard to the
matter. Agassiz, who had foreseen his opposition, had prepared the
following paragraph for the close of his speech to mollify him: ‘“* When
Mr. de Buch affirmed for the first time, in the face of the formidable
school of Werner, that granite is of plutonic origin, and that the moun-
tains were raised, what said the Neptunists? He was at first alone in
his support of the theory, and it was only by defending it with the con-
viction of genius that he made it prevail. Happily, in scientific matters,
numerical majorities have never at first decided any question.”

Notwithstanding the opposition of these great men, who had them-
selves contributed so much to the progress of science, the theory gained
ground, and is to-day generally admitted.

|
|

LOUIS AGASSIZ. 245

The basis of these researches was necessarily the study of existing
glaciers. Their constitution, their increase, thei motion, the intinence
of temperature, the transportation of blocks, the formation of moraines,
were all so many questions to be elucidated. Agassiz threw himself
with ardor into this new pursuit, and established himself with Desor,
Vogt, and others, upon the glacier of the Aar. They constructed
a lodging-place under the shelter of a large block of ice upon the
centre morain, and went to work. The following year, the block hay-
ing melted, they formed a cabin of wood and tent-cloth. It was di-
vided into three chambers; the first was both laboratory and parlor,
where they received the savans who flocked from all parts of the country
to the Hotel des Neuchdtelois, a name the modest abode has retained in
the history of science; the second and third, furnished only with straw,
served as bedchambers, one for the naturalists, the other for the guides.
It may be imagined that the establishment was not comfortable, and
it required an unusual amount of energy to lead such a life during sev-
eral weeks every year. A letter of Mr. Desor gives some idea of the
difficulties encountered: ‘You are much mistaken,” he writes to one
of his friends, “if you suppose that all is pleasure, satisfaction, and in
tellectual enjoyment at the Hétel Neuchdtelois. We have been shut up
for three days in our tent unable to venture out, the gua* is so furious.
Do you know what a guv is? I think not, and you are happy in your
ignorance. I can only say in regard to it that if the founders of the va-
rious religions had known of the gux they would not have imagined a hell
for lost souls, but would simply have sent them tothe Finsteraarhorn,
and secured for them a perpetual guz. .... It takes hold of thelimbs,
dries the skin, renders the imagination heavy and obtuse, prevents the
exercise of the culinary art. In the night of the 21st to 22d it over-
turned our cabin, and we were:-obliged to work until morning to restore
it again. Imagine how delightful it must have been to work in the
open air at a temperature two degrees below zero, while a tempest was
constantly blowing clouds of pulverized ice in our faces.”"— But every
day and night was not like this. Gayety and intellectual enjoyment
often reigned under the tent on the glacier of the Aar. These expedi-
tions were continued until 1845.

The greatest success crowned these persevering efforts. The ascents
made by the Neuchatel naturalists and their establishment upon the
glacier were widely known. Nothing similar had been undertaken since
the explorations of de Saussure on Mont Blane. The Genevese savant
was too early in his efforts to have many imitators. But an excursion
to Zermat, the ascent of the Jungfrau and of the Schreckhorn gave
an impetus to mountain excursions, which began from that time to be
popular. In the mean time our naturalists were studying seriously the
constitution of the glaciers and the phenomena connected with them,

*A whirlwind of snow, called so in the Oberland.
tLetter to M. A. Favre, August 1, 1842.

246 LOUIS AGASSIZ.

and notwithstanding their want of familiarity with the laws of physics,
the subject was so new that they rapidly acquired valuable information.

On his return from each expedition Agassiz published the results of
his researches. His object was not only to give an account of his ob-
servations, but to disseminate the theory of which he had become the
defender and promoter. Numerous memoirs upon present and ancient
glaciers of Switzerland, upon the glacial theory, upon the erratic blocks
of the Jura, bear the date of these years. Large works which appeared
later at NeuchAtel and at Paris contained the results of his studies.*

These works revealed numerous phenomena then completely unknown,
made the knowledge of the glaciers popular throughout the world, and
gave a decisive impulse to this kind of study.

Many years later Agassiz, while navigating the river Amazon, gave
the following illustration of the aspect presented by the glacial period :
“There is a phenomenon not uncommon in the autumn in Switzerland
which may help us to reconstruct this wonderful picture. Sometimes in
a September morning the whole plain of Switzerland is filled with vapor,
which, when its pure white undulating surface is seen from the higher
summits of the Jura, looks like a snow-covered sea of ice, appearing to
descend from the peaks of the Alps, and extending toward the Jura,
while from all the tributary valleys similar masses pour down to meet it.” f

In 1840 Agassiz went to Great Britain to seek there for traces of
ancient glaciers. He had no trouble in finding them both in England
and in Scotland. His journey through the country was a veritable tri-
umph, a series of ovations.

This period of incessant activity, during which the scientific corps of
Neuchatel became so honorably distinguished, was not, however, for
Agassiz a period of undisturbed happiness.

To meet the expenses of his extensive publications, his travels, his
expeditions to the glaciers, a large fortune was necessary, and this
Agassiz did not possess. The sums he owed to the generosity of the
King of Prussia, and which at that time had taken the form of a regular
pension, were not at all sufficient for his needs, and rapidly disappeared
in the gulf of his expenses. Still the fire of his activity his labors,
his expeditions, continued; but the situation at last became so critical
that he was forced to bring order into his affairs. Some letters of this
time show the serious embarrassment these difficulties occasioned him.
“T ain frightened at the approach of a new year, the time for the settle-
ment of accounts in Neuchatel, and I work like a madman to be able to
meet my indebtedness. If God preserves my health I hope, after one
or two years of continued labor, if I moderate my expenses, and particu-
larly if I abstain from publishing anything more on my own account, to

*Agassiz. tudes sur les glaciers, avec un atlas de 32 pl. Neuchatel, 1840. Nouvelles
études et expericnces sur les glaciers actuels. Paris, 1847.

+A Journey in Brazil, by Professor and Mrs. Louis Agassiz, Boston, 1868, chapter
iii, p. 116.

LOUIS AGASSIZ. 245

settle my affairs completely, but for the time I am horribly cramped, I
must say almost paralyzed; but it is my own fault, and I must bear pa-
tiently the consequences until I can succeed in getting myself afloat
again.” ‘My great regret in the present condition of my affairs is that
Tam obliged to employ a portion of my time with matters I ought not
to have neglected, and which occupy me now much more than if I had
always attended to them, and then I am obliged to retard some of the
publications I greatly desired to make next, but which it would be im-
prudent for me to undertake at present, for I should reproduce the em-
barrassment from which I only just commence to be relieved if I did not
conduct all my enterprises with the utmost circumspection.” ‘ My life,”
he writes again, ‘is now a vortex, in which the best part of my nature
is hardly conscious of its existence, So numerous and pressing are the
exterior exigencies from which I suffer.”

But how many grand ideas, how many admirable works, would have
been lost to science if the young savant had not been willing in his pub-
lications to dispense with the economy he would have been obliged to
exercise to keep within his moderate pay as a professor.

Agassiz was devoted above all things to science ; devoted without re-
serve; and he had always great talent in making others share his enthusi-
asm. Bringing into contribution the talents of some, the purses of others,
adding all his own resources, modest it is true, but also all his time and
his genius, he attained a result evident now to every one. A letter he
wrote to Professor Silliman, when about to embark for America, shows
how entirely he gave himself to science. ‘In order to provide for the
extra expense, I shall be obliged to live very economically and in a man-
ner little in accordance with the royal munificence which has furnished
the means of making this journey.” And, again, ‘“ My sphere is entirely
circumscribed by the scientific world, and all my ambition is limited to
being useful to the branch of science I particularly cultivate. With all
this Iam no misanthrope; but I learned early that where one has no
fortune, one cannot serve science and at the same time live in the world.
If I have been able to produce numerous expensive publications, it has
been only by following this system of economy and voluntary seclusion ;
and the results which I have obtained thus far have rewarded me so
well for the privations which I have suffered, that I have no temptation
to adopt another style of life, even should I hereafter, and especially in
your country, suffer more trouble than [ have had to sustain in my own.” *

Discord, however, had penetrated the scientific coterie of Neuchatel.
Enthusiastic over new ideas, Agassiz entered into them with ardor ;
when he found them just he developed them and diffused them. Older
than his colleagues, more enterprising, already well known in the sci-
entific world, he published under his own name the work done in his

*Letter to Professor Silliman, October 20, 1845. American Journal of Science:
1874. Vol. vii, pp. 78, 79.

248 LOUIS AGASSIZ.

laboratories, giving to the names of his collaborators a secondary place.
It was he who inspired the work, who collected the material, who bore
the expense of the publication. But the aids soon demanded the credit
they considered their due; hence arose dissatisfaction and disagreements,
which continued to increase until the union was dissolved. Mr. Vogt
was the first to leave the association in order to go to Paris; Mr. Desor
continued to labor on Agassiz’s works, even after the departure of the
latter for America. He later joined the savant there, but he afterward
returned to Kurope. One cannot but regret that these personal ques-
tions should have interfered so soon with the happy scientific labor of
that time.

Agassiz passed the winter of 1845~46 at Paris. The vast collections,
public and private, of that city were generously placed at his disposal,
and enabled him to complete, with the valuable assistance of M. Desor,
his researches upon the Echinoderms. Those of Alcide d@’Jrbigny,
of Deshayes, of Mechelin, of Graves, of Alexander Brongniart, of de
Verneuil were in turn examined. The gallery of the museum con-
taining the Echinoidea was reserved for him and closed to the public,
and hither were brought in succession all the cases and barrels contain-
ing Kechinoids. Considerable material, derived from the scientific ex-
plorations of Baudin, of Freycinet, of Captain Duperré, passed also
through his hands. All these documents were used in the publica-
tion of the Catalogue raisonné. According to the classification adopted,
the Echinoderms are subdivided into three orders: The Stelleroids
which inelude the Asteroids, the Ophiuroids and the Crinoids, ra-
diated animals, either free or fixed, and of which the body is furnished
with rays. The Echinoids, or sea-urchins, with a body globular and
covered with regular plates, and the Holothurioids, of which the body
is coreaceous, or leathery, and elongated. He divided the Echinoids
into four families: Cidarida, Clypeastroidea, Cassidulidea, and Spatan-
goida. In his preceding works he deduced from the structure of these
animals and their successive appearance important consequences for the
general history of creation.

He sought at the same time to propagate the glacial theory, which
still encountered in the ranks cf French science a lively opposition ;
but he discussed it only in private conversation. This subject did not
excite much interest in the scientific public, who knew little of the
mountains, and the heads of science entertained contrary ideas.

This same year Agassiz, whose reputation was already far extended,
was called to Boston, in America, by Mr. Lowell, director of the Lowell
Institute, to give some lectures. He was also, thanks to Humboldt,
charged by the King of Prussia with a scientific commission in that
country. He went to England in the summer of 1846, and sailed for
Boston in the month of September.

LOUIS AGASSIZ. 249

III.

Arrived in America, where his reputation had preceded him, he did
not lack encouragement and support in that country, where great ideas
so easily find an enthusiastic public and generous protectors. The first
of the lectures he gave in Boston was repeated eight times to an audi-
ence always new and always eager to hear. The success of the sub-
sequent lectures was equal to that of the first. From the very outset
the learned naturalist acquired great popularity. He was surrounded,
féted, made much of, and was charmed by the zeal manifested on all
sides for natural history. The first part of his sojourn was passed in
giving single and courses of lectures. Embryology and the glaciers
were his most frequent subjects.

After his debut at Boston he lectured successively at New York,
Albany, New Haven, and Charleston, where he passed the winter of
1847-48. Heat the same time determined to profit by the resources
which surrounded hin, and immediately commenced to make collections.
Everything about him was new, and he had only to stretch out his hands
in order to fill them. A generous American, Mr. Abbott Lawrence,
convinced of the importance of retaining a man of such value in the
country, offered in 1847 to create a chair for him of zoology and geology
in Harvard College, Cambridge, if he would remain. Agassiz, who had
come to the United States with very favorable anticipations, far sur-
passed by the welcome he had received, did not hesitate to accept the
proposition. He comprehended that his reputation would give him
promptly a power and means of action which he could never acquire in
Europe. Establishment in this country would also put an end to the
rivalries, the cares of all sorts, to which he was a prey in Neuchatel.
He would be able to consecrate to science his time and his strength
without being obliged for want of money to restrict or retard his publi-
cations. Heabandoned, then, without regret the modest theater where
he had first distinguished himself, and commenced an entirely new
career, in which he was to find resources even beyond his brightest
dreams.

He took possession, upon his return from Charleston, of the chair of
natural history, which had been offered to him. His dwelling was at Cam-
bridge, in Oxford street. Count Frank de Pourtales, Professors Desor,
Marcou, Guyot, Lesquereux, and his draughtsman, Burekardt, who
since his sojourn at Munich had always worked for him, now joined him.
Several of these naturalists lived for some time with him. He received
them bounteously, and aided them with his influence and his purse, at
that time better filled than when he was in Neuchatel. Soon he sent
for his son Alexander, whose taste for natural history was a great joy
to him. He passed the first four months of the year 1849 at Philadel-
phia, where he gave courses of lectures, and in the winter of 1849~50

\

950 LOUIS AGASSIZ.

he married Miss Elizabeth Cary, of Boston, a lady of great intelligence,
who became the inseparable companion of his travels and of his work.

The exploration of America was a vast field opened to him, and he
devoted to this work a very important part of his time. In 1848 he un-
dertook the charge of a scientific expedition to Lake Superior. Seven-
teen persons started on this exploration in a country the geography
and natural history of which were still very little known. The zoology,
the botany, the general character of the country and the indigenous in-
habitants, the influence even of the progress of civilization upon the
aspect of the country, upon the character of the fauna and of the flora,
all were observed, recorded, discussed; nothing of importance escaped
the eager and masteily eye of the chief of the expedition.*

The history of the journey was made by Mr. Cabot; the shells, insects,
and birds collected were studied by various collaborators. Agassiz de-
voted especial attention to the general characteristics of the vegetation,
in order that he might compare it with that of the Jura and the Alps;
to the fishes, the study of which wherever he went always captivated
him; to some new reptiles, and finally to the phenomena of erratic
bowlders in this region, which his knowledge of the glacial district of
Europe permitted him to prove belonged to a remarkable extension of
the same system.

The Americans have devoted for a long time especial attention to the
study of the shores of their continent. The department of the govern-
ment occupied with what is called the United States Coast Survey is
now known all over the world on account of the great importance of
the work it has accomplished. It united to a geographical knowl-
edge of the coast a scientific study of the neighboring region, often
pursued under great difficulties. Agassiz from the first was interested
in this species of investigation. In 1850 he was commissioned by Dr.
Bache, director of the survey, to study the coral reefs of Ilorida. He
examined upon the spot the development of the Polyp, which had cre-
ated around this peninsula four concentric banks, the formation of
which he found had been successive. According to the mode of increase
of these animals, he could calculate safely within the limits of truth
that these reefs had been at least thirty thousand years in forming.
The outer reef, still in process of development, is constituted of the liv-
ing coral. The animals belong to various types, each of which is limited
to a certain depth beyond which it cannot exist. The deepest are the
Astreeans, next the Meandrines; at the surface are the Madrepores, not
more than two or three yards below the surface of the water and cover-
ing vast spaces with their beautiful growth. Other animals become
attracted tothe coral branches. The sea breaks off the coral and throws
the fragments upon the reef, which is little by little covered with soil,

*Louis Agassiz. ‘‘Lake Superior, its physical character, vegetation, and animals,
compared with those of other and similar regions. 1850.”

——

LOUIS AGASSIZ. 251

and rises at last above the water. The winds then bring to it seeds,
and plants aredeveloped. Thusappears an island separated by a small
lagoon from the mainland, to which it will soon be united. florida has
been entirely formed in this way by successive creations. The time
required to produce this peninsula, according to Agassiz, must have
been more than two hundred thousand years.

At the same time that Agassiz undertook to direct these expeditions
he desired to make known the results of his researches and the labors
undertaken in his laboratories. The great collections he amassed at-
tracted his attention to all branches of the animal kingdom. The Ver-
tebrates, the Mollusks, the Articulates, the Radiates, the relations of
these branches to each other, their mode of appearance and develop-
ment, were for him an incessant source of new observations, published
in numerous articles and memoirs.

In 1857, he gave to the public the plan of a work to be called Con-
tributions to the Natural History of the United States. The popularity of
the professor was at that time so great that he immediately obtained
more than 2,500 subscribers. Four volumes of this work appeared in
succession.*

The first monograph comprehended a complete study of the Chelo-
nians, their anatomy, their distribution in the actual world and in geo-
logical history, the description of American genera and species, and the
embryology of the turtle. The second, in the preparation of which Mr.
Clark rendered active assistance, is upon the Acalephs, which form with
the Polyps and the Echinoderms the class Radiata; they are divided
into Ctenophores, Discophores, and Siphonophores. Mr. Sonrel was the
artist of the magnificent plates which accompanied these two volumes.
A complete résumé of the ideas and the principles of Agassiz relative to
the classification of the animal kingdom, serves as an introduction to
these monographs.

‘In the beginning of this chapter,” he writes, “‘I have already stated
that classitication seems to me to rest upon too narrow a foundation
when it is chiefly based upon structure. Animals are linked together
as closely by their mode of development, by their relative standing in
their respective classes, by the order in which they have made their
appearance upon earth, by their geographical distribution, and gener-
ally by their connection with the world in which they live, as by their
anatomy. All these relations should, therefore, be fully expressed in a
natural classification; and though structure furnishes the most direct
indication of some of these relations, always appreciable under every

*Contributions to the Natural History of the United States; in quarto volumes,
with numerous plates. Volume I, Essay on Classification ; North American Testudi-
nata. 1857. Volume IJ, Embryology of the Turtle. 1857. Volumes III and IV,
Acalephs in general, Ctenopborx, Discophore, Hydroidx, Homologies of the Radiata.
1860-1852. The introduction to the first volume, ‘‘An Essay on Classification,” was
republished under the author’s direction, at London, in 1859, in 1 vol. 8vo., pp. 381.

252 LOUIS AGASSIZ.

circumstance, other considerations should not be neglected which may
complete our insight into the general plan of creation.” *

In this point of view Agassiz had already perceived through his study
of fossil fishes the importance of embryology. He had for the first time
propounded the theory that the animals of our period in their embry-
onic condition resemble the ancient representatives of the same type
who lived in anterior geological ages.

Classification, based upon these considerations, will no longer be a
system invented by such or such a naturalist, but will result strictly from
facts observed in nature. It will be proved, for example, that an insect
in various degrees of its development resembles successively types of
various classes of the branches of the Articulata, and that it assumes the
character of a perfect insect only after it has achieved its metamorpho-
sis. ‘When we study the gradual development of the insect * * *
we have a simple, natural scale by which to estimate the comparative
rank of these animals. Since we cannot suppose that there is a retro-
erade movement in the development of any animal, we must believe
that the insect stands highest (compared with crustacea and other ar-
ticulates), and our classification in this instance is dictated by nature
herself.” t

“It may therefore be considered as a general fact, very likely to be
more fully illustrated as investigations cover a wider ground, that the
phases of embryonic development of all living animals correspond to the
order of succession of their extinct representatives in past geological
times. As far as this goes the oldest representatives of every class may
then be considered as embryonic types of their respective orders or fami-
lies among the living.” t

The class of Echinoderms furnishes aremarkable example. It is thus
that the embryonic phases of the European Comatula correspond with
the principal forms of the Crinoids which characterize the successive
geological periods; Cistoids of paleozoic rocks; Platycrinoids of the car-
boniferous period; Pentacrinoids of the freestone and the oolite. Anal-
ogous facts are found in the families of the Asteroids and the Echinoids.
The 'Trilobites are the embryonic type of the Entomostracans ; the Deca-
pods of the oolite that of our crabs; the heterocercal Ganoids that of
the Lepidistes.

By the side of these embryonic types Agassiz recognized prophetic
types. ‘Embryonic types exemplify only the peculiarities of develop-
ment of the higher representatives of their own types; while prophetic
types exemplify structural combinations observed at a later period in
two or several distinct types.” One of the most striking examples he
cites is that of the sauroid fishes. ‘‘These fishes, which have preceded
the appearance of reptiles, present a combination of ichthyie and reptilian

* An Essay on Classification. 8vo., London., 1859. Chap. i, sec. 32, pp. 200, 206.
tA journey in Brazil. Boston, 1868, chap. i, p. 21.
} Essay on Classification, chap. i, sec. 25, p. 174.

LOUIS AGASSIZ. yASYs)

characters not to be found in the true members of this class, which form
its bull at present.” .

The succession of organized beings in the course of time should also
serve as a principle of classification. Thus in arranging, as many bota-
nists do, the Gymnosperms among the Dicotyledons, we find no relation
between the hierarchical series of the living plants and their mode of
appearance. If we make of the Gymnosperms an isolated group, inter-
mediate between the Cryptogams and the Angiosperms, a classification
which corresponds with their principal characteristics, we find immedi-
ately an intimate correlation between the hierarchal series of these
plants, which commence with the Cryptogams and continue with the
Gymnosperms, the Monocotyledous, and Dicotyledons, and their suc-
cessive appearance.

“ f confess,” said Agassiz, “that this question as to the nature and
foundation of our scientific classifications appears to me to have the
deepest importance ; an importance far greater, indeed, than is usually
attached to it. Ifit can be proved that man has not invented but only
traced this systematic arrangement in nature; that these relations end
proportions which exist throughout the animal and vegetable world have
an intellectual, an ideal, connection in the mind of the Creator; that this
plan of creation, which so commends itself to our highest wisdom, has
not grown out of the necessary action of physical laws, but was the free
conception of the Almighty Intellect, matured in His thought before it
was manifested in tangible external forms; if, in short, we can prove

premeditation prior to the act of creation, we have done once and forever

with the desolate theory which refers us to the laws of matter as account-
ing for all the wonders of the universe, and leaves us with no God but
the monotonous unvarying action of physical forces, binding all things
to their inevitable destiny. * * *

“To me it appears indisputable that this order and arrangement of
our studies are based upon the natural primitive relations of animal
life ; those systems to which we have given the names of the great lead-
ers of our science who first proposed them, being in truth but transla-
tions into human language of the thoughts of the Creator. And if this
is indeed so, do we not find in this adaptability of the human intellect to
the facts of creation, by which we become instinctively and—as I have
said—uneonsciously the translators of the thoughts of God, the most
conclusive proof of our affinity with the Divine mind? And is not this
intellectual and spiritual connection with the Almighty worthy of our
deepest consideration? If there is any truth in the belief that man is
made in the image of God, it is surely not amiss for the philosopher to
endeavor by the study of his own mental operations to comprehend the
workings of the Divine Reason, learning from the nature of his own mind
better to understand the Infinite Intellect from which it is derived.”t

*Essay on classification, Chap. i, sec. 26, p. 177.
t Essay on Classification, chap. i, sec. 1, pp. 10 and 9.

254 LOUIS AGASSIZ.

I have given this long quotation, because it shows clearly the elevated
philosophical and religious point of view from which Agassiz regarded
the history of creation.

It is seen by the examples given what importance he attached to pa-
leontology. He endeavored to show that from the ancient geological
periods the number and diversity of animated beings was as great as it
is to-day. Certain rocks are formed entirely of the débris of organized
beings. The coral reefs of the tertiary, secondary, and even primary
periods are in no wise inferior to the present reefs.* The coal-beds of
the ecarboniferous period exhibit a vegetation richer than our tropical
flora. These myriads of beings which have ceased to exist he regarded
as the manifestation of the divine thought, which regulated their mode
of appearance and succession. ‘There were at various intervals during
the successive geological ages periods of creation, all the species of ani-
mals and of plants created at each period having lasted fora given time
in order to be replaced successively by others.” The present creation is,
according to his view, one of these phases, and he believed that all the
animals in it appeared simultaneously.

Agassiz always remained faithful to this theory, which had many ad-
herents at the time he advocated it. Science has made great advances
since that period. The progress of paleontology, to which he contrib-
uted so largely, as well as that of zoological and botanical geography,
demonstrates by the fullest evidence that ghe animated world which
peoples the surface of the globe could not have issued complete and
simultaneously from the hands of the Creator, for in the midst of new
types there exist offshoots from numerous groups, whose great develop-
ment took place in the anterior geological periods, while other types
have acquired in the present epoch a force and extension they never had
before, although their successive increase was indicated in the later
geological periods. The present ferns are only the representatives,
ereatly diminished in size, of that large group of Cryptogams which at
the carboniferous period clothed the entire world with their colossal veg-
etation, 2nd which since then have been constantly diminishing.

The traveler who, encounters isolated in the mountains of China the
singular conifer called the Ginho biloba will not hesitate to consider this
type, unique in the present creation, as the last descendant of the Ginho
which, at the secondary period, covered with a great number of species
all the ancient continent. The zoologist who finds in the rivers of
Australia the Lepidosteus osseus, the last representative not only of a
genus but of an entire order of fishes, that of the Ganoids, cannot fail to
recognize in this type the remains of an extinct race. The Marsupials
of the same country, the Edentates of South America, and a hundred
other examples furnish us to day-with the proof that the actual world
is only the regular normal continuation of anterior periods. In spite of
the embryological theories of which Agassiz was the author, and which it

*American Journal of Science, 1854, vol. xvii, pp. 309-324.

LOUIS AGASSIZ. 255

would seem must necessarily have led him to the idea of evolution, he
always remained an absolute partisan of the hypothesis of successive
creations, and he may be regarded as the chief of the opposition to the
theory of development.

The fact that the most distinct types exist simultaneously in identical
circumstances, and that we find identical types in the most different cir-
cumstances, the entire development of the animal kingdom, the harmony
in its most diverse parts, its present and past distribution upon the con-
tinents and in the sea, furnished him unceasingly with new arguments to
combat this theory and to defend that of the individuality and the con-
stancy of species.

If it is evident that the flora and fauna are renewed a great number of
times on the surface of the globe, it has never been proved, according
to him, that the species were changed during one of those periods.
The observations made of the times in which we live, indicate that they
remained invariable during each period. This is demonstrated by the
plants and animals found in the tombs of Egypt and the fauna of the
coral reefs of Florida. Daily discoveries contradict strongly the opinion
that inferior beings first appeared upon the earth, and that types more
and more elevated were manifested until the advent of man. On the
contrary, representatives of numerous families of the four great branches
of the animal kingdom, Radiates, Mollusks, Articulates, and Vertebrates,
lived simultaneously from the most ancient periods. The Vertebrates
alone have not yet been found in the first deposits, but they appeared
in immense numbers before the end of the first period. These branches,
which manifest in their structure a complete independence, have tra-
versed side by side all the series of geological ages up to the present
time. The first three are even represented from the beginning by nu-
merous types of their different classes, and the character of the branches
of the classes of the families have always been as distinct as to-day.
‘‘ Until the facts of nature are shown to have been mistaken by those
who have collected them,” said Agassiz, ‘‘and that they have a different
meaning from that now generally assigned to them, I shall consider the
transmutation theory as a scientific mistake, untrue in its facts, unsci-
entific in its method, and mischievous in its tendency.”*

Agassiz preferred greatly direct observation of nature to theoretic
research, and he found more than any other naturalist opportunities for
this study in his numerous voyages and in the immense material he
collected. In acountry so rich, so varied in climate and conditions, and
also so new, his collections rapidly accumulated; he sold them in 1852
to Harvard College. A building which had been put up to receive them
proved to be too small. The University of Cambridge, aided by a pub-
lic subscription and by the State of Massachusetts, caused to be erected
the first wing of a large edifice, which was to bear the name of the Mu-
seum of Comparative Zoology. Mr. Fr. C. Gray bequeathed $50,000 to

* On the Origin of Species. Am. Journal of Science. 1860. Vol. xxx, p. 154.

256 LOUIS AGASSIZ.

found this establishment. The first stone was laid on the 14th of June,
1859, and in December of the same year the building was sufficiently
advanced to commence the installation of the collections.

From that time Agassiz had but one aim, the increase and organiza-
tion of this museum. ‘His activity, researches, diplomacy, resources,”
wrote to us one of his friends who saw him at work, “are something
prodigious. He spared nothing where his museum was concerned, gave
public lectures, resorted to all kinds of devices to promote its interests:
he put under contribution all his friends and acquaintances; he spoke of
nothing, saw nothing, but his museum; it became his one idea.” The
gifts of natural objects and of money poured in from all sides. The State
and private individuals rivaled each other in generous assistance of this
great work which Agassiz had succeeded in making a national affair,
and in a few years the pecuniary subsidies amounted to the sum of
$470,000. During the years 1872 and 1873 alone the museum received
besides its annual supplies gifts equal to about $170,000.

The vast learning of Agassiz, his amiability, his benevolence, his affa-
ble gaiety, his enthusiasm for everything relating to science, and his
personal disinterestedness, everywhere created for him friends who con-
tributed to the increase of his museum. Never had any one so many.
His language, winning and often rising even in English to true eloquence,
captivated his audiences and attracted the crowds he loved to teach.
He was in communication with all the sea-captains, who made collections
for him in their distant expeditions. When he was on a voyage every-
body was at his disposal, and more than once the inhabitants of the dis-
tant countries he visited made journeys of considerable extent in order to
procure some rare animals for him only for the pleasure of seeing his
joy, his astonishment, and his gratitude, which were always very warmly
and openly expressed.

All parts of America were explored. The Emperor of Brazil, whose
interest in science has never flagged, sent him rich collections. The
soundings made along the coast of America by the United States Coast
Survey, under the direction of Mr. de Pourtalés, and especially the voy-
age to the valley of the Amazon and the expedition of the Hassler, added
greatly to these zoological treasures. In 1863, that is to say, before the
expedition to Brazil, the museum already contained 6,000 species of fish,
represented by 100,000 specimens. It is not, like most collections of
natural history, a mass of material disposed in a purely zoological order.
Its organization is based upon the principles of classification we have
described; and we find in it several distinct series. In the first the
animals are classed in such a manner that one can study their natural
associations, their zoological relations, the general characteristics of the
genera and of the classes, their skeletons, and other anatomical pecul-
iarities. A second series represents the fauna of each region, the geo-
graphical distribution of living beings upon the surface of the globe and
their various associations, upon each continent. The fossil animals are

LOUIS AGASSIZ. 257

arranged so as to show at the same time their order of succession in the
different epochs and their relation with the existing animals. This
plan is completed by a third series devoted to the study of the various
phases of development of animals from the embryonic to the adult con-
dition. This museum, then, is destined to be an exposition of the history
of creation, as complete as itis possible for it tobe under the present state
of our knowledge. Its organization absorbed more and more the time
and energy of Agassiz. No other scientific establishment has aspired
to a similar undertaking.

When it came to the recent creation, it increased so rapidly that in
1872, in his last report of the progress of the establishment, Agassiz
could say that he was “in possession of the most beautiful collections
in the world, not excepting the oldest and largest museums of Europe.”
What increased still more their value, was the zoological and paleon-
tological labors to which these collections gave rise. Naturalists of great
distinction, Mr. Alexander Agassiz, our compatriots Messrs. Alexander
de Pourtalés, Lesquereux, and some American scientists, Messrs. Lyman,
Hyatt, &c., described these treasures in works illustrated with magnifi-
cent plates.

A voyage which Agassiz made to Europe in 1859 interrupted for
some time his incessant occupations. He was not forgotten in the Old
_ World, the scene of his first successes. The most brilliant offers were in
several instances made to him to induce him to remain, but he had in
America too many resources of all kinds to make him able or willing to
_ abandon his adopted coantry; his only ambition was for science, and
he always continued faithful to the direction of his museum. He was
| naturalized as an American citizen in 1862.

The numerous labors he directed at last affected his robust health.
_ During the winter of 186465 the physicians ordered absolute repose
and a change of climate. But this rest proved to be as profitable to
science as the continuations of the works he had undertaken. After
some hesitation Brazil was selected as the destination of his voyage.
He had been for a long time attracted toward this country, to which
his first zoological researches had turned his attention. ‘Toward Brazil
Iwas drawn by a life-long desire. After the death of Spix, when a
student of twenty years of age, I had been employed by Martius to
describe the fishes they had brought back with them from their celebrated.
: Brazilian journey. From that time, the wish to study this fauna in the
regions where it belongs had been an ever-recurring thought with me; a
scheme deferred for want of opportunity, but never quite forgotten.” *
In order to render this voyage of real use, in order that he might not
; return to the United States “rich in pleasant memories but without any
; scientific results,” resources were necessary far beyond those required
_ for his personal expenses. Here, as on so many other occasions of his
life, bountiful means were voluntarily provided. Mr. Nathaniel Thayer

* A journey in Brazil. (Preface, p. v.)

17

S. Mis. 59

258 LOUIS AGASSIZ.

offered to defray the expenses of the expedition, and authorized him to
take with him, as assistants, six naturalists. The Emperor of Brazil,
the Secretary of the Navy of the United States, the president of the
Pacific Mail Steamship Company, each contributed in large measure to
the success of this expedition, which had been joined by some distin-
guished naturalists as voluntary recruits. On the Ist of April, 1865,
Agassiz embarked, taking with him Mrs. Agassiz, who kept the journal;
her husband communicated to her the scientific results as they were ob-
tained, and thus was composed the book known under the name of ‘A
Journey to Brazil.” We refer to this volume any of our readers who
desire to follow the American savans along the borders of the Amazon
and explore with them the vast basin they undertook to study.

Agassiz, during this voyage, made immense collections. These have
already been, in part, studied and described, and will give rise to works
which will make better known to us the fauna of the extraordinary re-
gion. He observed, also, many general facts of natural history. The
account of the expedition manifests the great talent he possessed of
noting every peculiarity offered to his observation in the zoological
character of the animals he discovered, in the ichthyological fauna of the
Amazon, in the geographical distribution of the terrestrial and aquatic
animals, and in the physical and geological characteristics of the great
valley he traversed.

One of the points which fixed his attention and to which he constantly
refers in the history of the voyage, is the nature and the distribution of
the drift of this region. This deposit, which is of great thickness and
immense extent, for it is estimated to be some thousand miles in length
and six or seven hundred in width, could not have been formed by the
sea, since there were no traces found of marine shells. It is, then, a fresh-
water deposit. If a lake had occupied this vast space the basin must
have been closed; otherwise, this material would have been carried into
the sea. Agassiz attributed this phenomenon to the ancient extension
of the glaciers. An immense glacier, according to him, descended from
the Cordilleras, augmented by tributaries from Guiana and from Brazil,
and covered the valley of the Amazon. It accumulated at its lower
edge a moraine of colossal dimensions, forming thus a gigantic embank-
ment, which bars the mouth of the basin.

It is true that polished and scratched surfaces are not found; the
rocks are too soft to have retained such traces, but the rounded rocks
Agassiz observed in some localities, the blocks of the Ereré, the nature
of the deposit in the valley, the character of which is analogous to that
of the material accumulated under the glaciers; the resemblance of the
upper formation of this country to the drift of Rio, the glacial origin
of which seemed to him beyond a doubt; the fact that the basin of
fresh water must have been closed on the side of the ocean by a power-
ful barrier, appeared to him sufficient arguments to establish the exist-
ence of this glacial period. Later there was a rupture in the exterior

LOUIS AGASSIZ. 259

embankment; the lake was emptied, while the moraine, beaten by the
sea and carried away by the flowing waters, disappeared, as was also
the case in great part with the ground upon which it rested; for the
violence and the rapidity with which the sea eats into the shores of this
region is extreme, and a strip of hundreds of miles in width has already
been carried away. *

Such is, in a few words, the theory of Agassiz of the ancient glaciers
of Brazil. This is not the place to discuss its claims ; it was attacked
on all sides, and has now few defenders.

In his latter years Agassiz, overburdened with his occupations, aban-
doned special research; the organization of his museum, his public
courses of lectures, his immense correspondence, were too much for his
strength, and his health gradually failed. In 1869 he became seriously
ill. He had hardly recovered before he was at work again. He accom-
panied Count Pourtalés on one of the expeditions this zoologist made
in the year 1867, to study the submarine relief, the currents, and the
marine fauna of the coasts of America. These explorations, in which
each sounding gave rise, so to speak, to a discovery, captivated him ex-
tremely, and he soon conceived the idea of extending this kind of re-
search. In 1871 he joined an expedition organized by the Government
of the United States for the exploration of the shores of America, the
study of the Guif Stream, the temperature of the water, and the marine
animals. He sailed in the Hassler, and visited in this vessel the sea of
the Antilles and the shores of America as far as San Francisco, doubling
Cape Horn. A letter he wrote to Professor Pierce before starting, in
which he set forth the results he hoped to obtain, drew upon this expe-
dition the attention of all the scientific world. He hoped to find living
at the bottom of the seaa large number of the types known only by fossil
representatives, and thus connect the actual with anterior creations.

Soundings were made at first at great depths, but the apparatus was
in a bad condition, and on the coast of Chili this kind of research had
to be abandoned. Agassiz contented himself with the coast animals and
the fishes, which he collected by thousands. In every port the deck of
the vessel was covered with animals brought by the natives. The sin-
gular fauna of the Gallapagos Islands were collected with the greatest
care, and Agassiz was able, among others, to procure numerous shells
of two species of reptiles of the genus Amblyrynchus, the structure of
which recalled that of these animals in the secondary period. Some idea
may be formed of the collections made in this voyage, by the fact that
the quantity of alcohol used to preserve the animals was about 3,500 gal-
lons. He came back to Cambridge by the Pacific Railroad.

Immediately on his return he formed the project of establishing on the
sea-shore a school for zoological research. As soon as the idea was con-
ceived, an American, Mr. Anderson, gave him in 1871 a small island in
ez vands Bay, the ind of PEE CHESS, and a considerable sum to assist

- jeehoes in Brazil Gaon xiii, pp. 419- 436 ; Atlantic Monthly, 1866, pp- 49, 150.

260 LOUIS AGASSIZ.

in carrying out his design. The illustrious naturalist immediately prof-
ited by these resources. He constructed large laboratories provided
with aquaria and other arrangements necessary for this kind of research.
The upper story of the building contained fifty-eight rooms for the lodg-
ing of the naturalists. Every effort was made to hasten the execution
of the plan. The consequent increase of fatigue exhausted him. On
the 2d of December, 1873, he gave a public address to the Agricultural
Association of Massachusetts. He was in his laboratory for several
days after, but was attacked on the 6th of December by weakness, which
forced him to return home. He went to his bed, which he never left
again, and expired on the 14th of December of a paralysis of the organs
of respiration.

The Academy of Sciences, of Paris, had a few months before nomi-
nated him foreign associate member.

“For a long time,” wrote Professor Silliman, who had been one of his
best friends since his arrival in the country, “‘have we dreaded the sad
event which we now record. For many years the splendid physique of
Agassiz manifested signs that his prodigious labors were overcoming
his elasticity. His hereulean strength, which made fatigue of body
or mind unknown to him, yielded to the severer tax of the American
climate and the incessant growing demands upon him from every source.
His life and strength were renewed by his long voyage to San Francisco
in the Hassler; but both he and his friends recognized the fact that to
labor with his former activity was impossible and forbidden. Yet to live,
was for him unavoidably to labor ; and to die in the harness rather than
to live after the power to serve his fellow-men was passed—his aspira-
tion.”*

The death of the great naturalist, to whom this noble sentiment could
be justly attributed, was a national calamity. An immense cortege
formed by deputations from several cities, the Vice-President of the
United States, the authorities of the State of Massachusetts, delegates
from universities, academies, and learned societies, his numerous pupils
and assistants, and a large concourse of citizens accompanied Agassiz
to his last home.

A bowlder from the: glacier of the Aar, upon which is engraved his
name, serves as a monument to him and recalls to those who visit it
his native country and one of the great interests of his life.

The prodigious capacity of Agassiz, his exceptional talent for observa-
tion, the facility with which he made himself familiar with all questions
and with which he attacked the most diverse subjects, the great intel-
lectual movement he developed wherever he lived, the value of his own
researches, have made his name one of the greatest in contemporary
science. He has been the object, both while living and even after his
death, of violent and sometimes coarse attacks; calumny has not spared
him. But in every case it is not he who has been most injured. Un-

*Amer. Jour. Science, 1874, vol. vii, :p. 80.

LOUIS AGASSIZ. : 261

doubtedly, several of the ideas he put in circulation have been dropped,
several of his theories have been abandoned, but the discussions they
produced have been a fruitful source of progress. The temple of knowl-
edge is not raised by a single effort, and it is the clashing of ideas which
produceslight. The work he executed in the field ofzoology and of paleon-
tology is of very high importance. He possessed the double merit of
accomplishing great things himself, and of knowing how to make science
popular without diminishing its prestige. Everywhere he found friends
and supporters. In Switzerland, in Germany, in England, in America,
in every country where he took up his abode he made himself the center
of the scientific movement and succeeded in interesting the public. His
sojourn in Neuchatel excited in that city an impulse the happy influ-
ence of which is felt even to this day. Although when he first went
to the United States there existed scientific culture in that country, and
many distinguished observers, to Agassiz must be attributed the diffu-
sion of a new enthusiasm for the sciences and much of the success with
which they are now cultivated. This result is not due to chance, but to
the noble and legitimate influence exercised by the superior intelligence
of the savant, and the amiable qualities of the man.

HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH.

By WrtuiaM B. Tayror.

“Yet though thy purer spirit did not need
The vulgar guerdon of a brief renown,
Some little meed at least—some little meed
Our age may yield to thy more lasting crown.”

In the impulsive tide of popular applause which follows the consum-
mation of great enterprises, or the material advancement from new con-
quests of natural law, the labors and merits of those who patiently laid
the deep and broad foundations of these successes, or who with rarest
diligence, sagacity, and skill, made such successes practicable, are usu-
ally whelmed; and—save by the scientific student, are mostly forgotten
and ignored. And this result is the more assured by reason of the en-
tire self-unconsciousness and devotion with which the higher work of
original research is conducted, with no disturbing thought on the part
of the investigator, of reaping immediate advantage or reward from the
bestowal of the new discovery. .

‘‘For praise is his who builds for his own age;
But he who builds for time, must look to time for wage.’””*

That the award of time respecting Henry’s true relation to the tele-
graph will be discriminating and just, may be confidently anticipated,
since the materials and data for an accurate judgment are already matter
of enduring record.+ In attempting here to briefly review this record,
justice will best be done to Henry’s fame by rendering full justice to
Henry’s predecessors.

The Growth of the Electric Telegraph. The electric telegraph had
properly speaking, no inventor. It grew up little by little, each inventor
adding his little to advance it toward perfection.”{ These words of
soberness and truth are little apprehended by the multitude; who blind
alike to the beginnings and to the growths of great ideas, contemn the

* Prof. Grant Allen. :

+In the spirit of Kepler (though with less of self-assertion), Henry, with a modest esti-
mate of his own contributions to science, while evincing a remarkable indifference to
popularity, yet with the quiet confidence of a clear and impartial judgment, declared
‘7 was content that my published researches should remain as material for the his-
tory of science, and be pronounced upon according to their true value by the scientific
world.”—(Smithsonian Report for 1857, p. 87.)

t The Electric Telegraph. By Robert Sabine. 8vo. London, 1867, part i, chap. iv,
sect. 39, p. 40.

262

-

HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH. 263

discoverer while they deify the artisan. When Galvani about a cen-
tury ago (1786) first opened slightly the door to one of nature’s mar-
vels, that large community ever distinguished by the vigor of its com-
mon sense and the practical solidity of its judgment, asked with ready
instinct the wise and ancient question, ‘“¢ What is the use of it?” Anda
majority of those who recognized the experimenter’s appearance on the
streets of Bologna, pointed him out as the “frog philosopher.” Their
descendants and representatives at the preseut day have neither lost—
nor gained in wit.*

It is propesed to notice the development of the electric telegraph
somewhat at length, in order to exhibit more clearly the precise nature
and value of Henry’s contribution to its practical establishment and
success. This survey naturally divides itself into a chronological re-
view of the successive though overlapping applications—of frictional or
mechanical electricity (first suggested by Franklin? or by Lesage? about
the middle of the last century);+ of galvanism or chemical electricity
(first suggested by Scemmering in 1808); and of galvano-magnetism
(first suggested by Ampére in 1820). .

Among the numerous flights of imagination by which genius has fre-
quently anticipated the achievements of her more deliberate and cautious
sister—earth-walking reason, none is perhaps more striking than the ro-
mantic conception by Famianus Strada, of Rome, in the early part of the
seventeenth century, of an intercourse maintained between separated
friends by means of two sympathetic magnetic compasses, whereby the
indications on the dial given by one, were instantly made visible to the
other. §

*On the value of abstract science, see ‘‘ Supplement,” NoTE A.

+ Mr. Stephen Gray, in a letter to Dr. Cromwell Mortimer, secretary of the Royal Soci-
ety of London, dated February 8, 1731, recited among numerous electrical experiments,
the passage of sparks and the excitation of an electroscope, effected through 293 feet of
Wire suspended by silk, in 1729; through 666 feet on July 3 of that year; a week or
two later, through 765 feet; and in August, 1730, through 886 feet of wire. (Phil.
Trans. I. 8. 1731, vol. xxxvii, No. 417, pp. 29, 31, and 44.) These experiments were
made however for the purpose of determining conductive capacity, without any view
of employing the indications for signals.

A letter was published in the Scots’ Magazine, dated Renfrew, February 1, 1753, and
signed “C. M.,” which, under the title ‘‘ An expeditious method of conveying intelli-
gence,” proposed the suspension between two distant points of a number of insulated
wires (equal to the number of letters in the alphabet), through which electrical dis-
charges should separately exhibit themselves by the diverging balls of an electroscope,
or the striking of a bell by the attraction of a charged ball. The author of the com-
munication was supposed by Sir David Brewster to be a Charles Marshall, of Paisley.
(The Engineer, London, Dec. 24, 1858, vol. vi., p. 484.) It is probable that G. L. Le-
sage, of Geneva, entertained the project of an electric telegraph as early as the middle
of the last century. It was therefore rather the impulse of an age, than the inspira-
qion of an individual.

} The application of magneto-electricity, presenting no essentiai differences from the
use of galvano-electricity, (for which it is sometimes substituted, ) requires no special
notice. Still less noteworthy is the project of thermo-electricity as the motor.

§ Prolusiones Academica: by F. Strada, quarto, Rome, 1617, lib. ii, prolusio 6. A
century later, (but stilla third of a century before man dreamed of electric telegraphs, )
Joseph Addison presented the following version of this fairy tale: ‘*Strada, in one
of his Prolusions, gives an account of a chimerical correspondence between two
friends by the help of a certain loadstone which had such a virtue in it that if it

264 HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH.

“Two faithful needles—from the informing touch
Of the same parent stone, together drew
Its mystic virtue ;
And though disjoined by kingdoms,—though the main
Rolled its broad surge betwixt,—and different stars
Beheld their wakeful motions,—yet preserved
Yheir former friendship and remembered still
The alliance of their birth.” *

It needed but the later discovery of the galvanic wire for connecting
the two needles, to realize completely this vision of an “oriental” fancy,
and to render it the sober experience of our present every-day life.

I.—TELEGRAPUHS BY ELECTRICITY.

If the earlier attempts commencing in the last century to apply so-called
“static” electricity to the purpose of telegraphy may to some appear
to possess only an antiquarian interest, it will be seen that they form
the necessary, and by no means insignificant, childhood of our modern
systems. Neglecting generally mere speculations, as well as initial con-
ceptions of executed schemes, the following comprise the more import-
ant experimental devices, in the order of their approximate realization.

1774. The first electric telegraph of which there is record, is that es-
tablished at Geneva by Georges-Louis Lesage. The line consisted of
24 insulated wires for the alphabet, each terminating in a pith-ball elec-
troscope duly lettered, for indicating by its excitement the succession
forming the words and sentences given by the operator, who employed
at the transmitting station a manual conductor from an electrical ma-
chine. t

1787. M. Lomond, at Paris, had a single brass wire extended from one
closed apartment to another at some distance from it, in connection with
a pith-ball electroscope at each end, by which arrangement he was able
to communicate sentences in either direction. Arthur Young, the dili-
gent writer on natural and industrial resources, has thus described the
apparatus in his journal: October 16, 1787,—‘“ In the evening, to Mons.

touched two several needles, when one of the needles so touched began to move, the
other though at never so great a distance, moved at the saine time and in the same
manner. He tells us that the two friends being each of them possessed of one of these
needles, made a kind of dial-plate, inscribing it with the four-and-twenty letters, in
the same manner as the hours of the day are marked upon the ordinary dial-plate.
They then fixed one of the needles on each of these plates in such a manner that it
could move round without impediment, so as to touch any of the four-and-twenty
letters. . . . By this means they talked together across a whole continent, and
conveyed their thonghts to one another in am instant over cities or mountains, seas
or deserts.” (The Spectator, No. 241, Dec. 6, 1711.) A similar idea (probably borrowed
from Strada) is found in Daniel Schwenter’s Mathematisch-philosophische Erquickungs-
stunden ; published at Nuremberg in 1636, pp. 346, 347.

*Akenside, Pleasures of Imagination (1744), book iii.

t Lesage, in a letter addressed to Prof. Pierre Prévost, of Geneva, dated Berlin, June
22, 1782, describing to his friend the details of his telegraph, states that the method of
corresponding by means of electricity had been contemplated by him for thirty or
thirty-five years. (Traité de Téléyraphie Electrique: par VAbbé Moigno, 2d edit. 8vo.
Paris, 1852, part ii, chap. 1, p. 59.)

HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH. 265

Lomond, a very ingenious and inventive mechanic, who has made an
improvement of the jenny for spinning cotton. In electricity he has
made aremarkable discovery. You write two or three words on a paper;
he takes it with him into aroom, and turns a machine inclosed in a cylin-
drical case, at the top of which is an electrometer,—a small fine pith ball;
a wire connects with a similar cylinder and electrometer in a distant
apartment; and his wife by remarking the corresponding motions of
the ball, writes down the words they indicate. From which it appears
that he has formed an alphabet of motions. As the length of the wire
makes no difference in the effect, a correspondence might be carried on
at any distance.” *

1794. M. Reiser, at Geneva, arranged a line of 36 insulated wires,
each separately connected at the receiving-station with a small grat-
ing of narrow tin-foil strips pasted on glass, from which a letter or
figure had been cut, so as to represent the character by the passage of
the electric spark over the series of narrow spaces. On a square plate
were fastened 36 of these independent gratings, representing the 26 let-
ters and 10 numerals. “The instant the discharge is made through the
wire, the spark is seen simultaneously at each of the interruptions or
breaks of the tin-foil constituting the letter, and the whole letter is
rendered visible at once.” The sparks were transmitted through the
selected wire and its corresponding symbol from a small electrical ma-
chine kept in operation at the sending station. t

1795. Tiberius Cavallo, in England, experimented with electric signals
of various kinds (explosive and otherwise) through a long and tolerably
fine copper wire (about the fortieth of an inch in diameter) insulated by
successive coatings of pitch, linen strips, woolen cloth, and oil-painting.
He,found a Leyden jar of about one square foot, sufficient for the re-
quired electric spark, if the length of the wire did not exceed 200 feet.
He remarks: “By sending a number of sparks at different inter-
vals of time according to a settled plan, any sort of intelligence might
be conveyed instantaneous;y from the place in which the phial is sit-
nated. With respect to the greatest distance to which such communi-
cation might be extended, I can only say that I never tried the experi-
ment with a wire of communication longer than about 250 feet ; but from
the results of those experiments, and from the analogy of other facts, I
am led to believe that the above-mentioned sort of communication might
be extended to two or three miles, and probably to a much greater dis-
tance.” t

* Travels during the years 1787, 1788, and 1789, in the Kingdom of France. By Arthur
Young. 2 vols. 8vo. Dublin, 1793, vol. i, p. 185. Of the work as republished in Pink-
erton’s Collection of Voyages and Travels, 4to. London, 1809, vol. iv, p. 139.

t+ Voigt’s Magazin, etc. 1794, vol. ix, part 1, p. 183; also Moigno’s Teélégraphie
Electrique, part ii, chap. 1, p. 61.

tA Complete Treatise on Electricity, in 3 vols. 8vo. London, 1795; vol. iii, note No.
Vill, pp. 295, 296. The first two volumes of this work had passed through three earlier
editions.

266 HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH.

1798. D.F. Salva, in Spain, appears to have successfully worked an
electric telegraph through the unprecedented distance of twenty-six
miles. “The Madrid Gazette of November 25, 1796, states that the
Prince de la Paix, having heard that M. D. F. Salva had read to the
Academy of Sciences a memoir upon the application of electricity to tele-
graphing, and presented at the same time an electric telegraph of his
own invention, desired to examine it; when being delighted with the
promptness and facility with which it worked, he presented it before the
king and court, operating it himself. Some useful trials were made and
published in Voigt’s Magazine. Two years after, the Infanta Don Anto-
nio constructed a telegraph of great extent on a large scale, by which
the young prince was informed at night of news in which he was much
interested. He also invited and entertained Salva at court. According
to Humboldt, a telegraph of this description was established in 1798,
from Madrid to Aranjuez, a distance of 26 miles.” *

1816. Francis Ronalds constructed at Hammersmith, England, an
experimental telegraph line of a single wire, operated by an electrical
machine, or small Leyden jar. ‘He proved the practicability of such a
scheme by insulating eight miles of wire on his lawn at Hammersmith.
In this case the wire was insulated in the air by silk strings. . . .
Mr. Ronalds fixed a circular brass plate upon the seconds arbor of a
clock which beat dead seconds. This plate was divided into twenty
equal parts, each division being worked by a figure, a letter, and a pre-
paratory sign. The figures were divided into two series of the units,
and the letters were arranged alphabetically, omitting J, Q, V, W, X,
and z. In front of this was fixed another brass plate (which could be
oceasionally turned round by hand), and which had an aperture that
would just exhibit one of the figures, letters, and preparatory signs. In
front of this plate was suspended a pith-ball electrometer from a wire
which was insulated and which communicated on one side with a glass
eylinder machine. At the farther end of the wire was an apparatus
exactly the same as the one now described, and the clocks were ad-
justed to as perfect synchronism as possible. Hence it is manifest that
when the wire was charged by the machine at either end, the electro-
ineters at both ends diverged, and when it was discharged they collapsed
at the same instant; consequently if it was discharged at the moment
when a given letter, figure, and sign on the plate appeared through
the aperture, the same letter, figure, and sign would appear also at the

* The Blectro-Magnetic Telegraph, by Laurence Turnbull, 8vo. 2d ed. Philada. 1853,
pp. 21, 22. Voigt’s Magazin, ete. vol. xi, part 4. The same telegraphic feat is attrib-
uted to Bétancourt. ‘Gauss makes mention of a conumunication from Humboldt,
according to which Bétancourt, in 1798, established a communication between Madrid
and Aranjuez, a distance of 26 miles, by means of a wire through which a Leyden jar
used to be discharged, which was intended to be used as a telegraphic signal.” (Stur-
geon’s Annals of Electricity, ete. March, 1839, vol. ili, p. 446.) ‘This is probably a mis-
apprehension ; as Augustine Bétancourt (more correctly Bethencourt), a Spanish engi-
neer, in 1798, devised and exhibited to the National Institute an improvement in the
mechanical semaphore. (Brewster’s Edinburgh Encyclopedia, 1830, art. ‘Telegraph,’
vol. XViii, p. 535.)

HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH. Z6W

other clock; so that by means of such discharges at one station, and
by marking down the letters, figures, and signs seen at the other, any
required words could be spelt.”*

‘“¢ He also made the trial with 525 feet of buried wire. With this view he
dug a trench four feet deep, in which he laid a trough of wood two inches
square, well lined both within and without with pitch; and within this
trough were placed thick glass tubes through which the wire ran. The
junttion of the glass tubes was surrounded with short and wider tubes of
glass, the ends of which were sealed up with soft wax.” This form of
conductor was not found to operate very satisfactorily, and the inventor
on theoretical grounds did not think such an arrangement adapted to
the instantaneous electrical transmission required by his system.

Mr. Ronalds, in 1823, published a full account of his telegraph.t In
1871, very nearly half a century later, as Sir Francis Ronalds, he pub-
lished a new edition of this interesting work; and a review of it in
‘“ Nature” gives this presentation of the scheme: “Sir Francis, before
1823, sent intelligible messages through more than eight miles of wire
insulated and suspended in the air. His elementary signal was the di-
vergence of the pith-balls of a Canton’s electrometer, produced by the
communication of a statical charge to the wire. He used synchronous
rotation of lettered dials at each end of the line, and charged the wire
at the sending end whenever the letter to be indicated passed an open-
ing provided in a cover; the electrometer at the far end then diverged,
and thus informed the receiver of the message which letter was desig-
nated by the sender. The dials never stopped, and any slight want of
synchronism was corrected by moving the cover.” t

This very ingenious device of synchronous rotation at the opposite
stations presents the earliest example of a dial telegraph, or of a letter
indicator employing but a single wire. About forty years later, or in
1855, this system was successfully applied by Mr. David E. Hughes, of
Kentucky, to a letter-printing telegraph of remarkable rapidity and ac-
curacy. §

1828. “ Harrison Gray Dyar, an American, constructed a telegraph
in 1827~28, at the race-course on Long Island, and supported his wires
by glass insulators fixed on trees and poles. By means of common elec-
tricity acting upon litmus paper he produced a red mark. The difference
of time between the sparks indicated different letters arranged in an ar-

* Pncyclopedia Britannica, 7th ed. 1842, vol. viii, p. 662.—8th ed. 1854, vol. viii, p. 627.

t Descriptions of an Electrical Telegraph; and some other Electrical Apparatus. By
Francis Ronalds. 8vo. London, 1823.

t Nature. London, Nov. 23, 1871, vol. v, p. 59.

§A second type of dial telegraph was invented by Prof. Charles Wheatstone in
1839, in which the dial (or index) was rotated step by step by means of successive
impulses of the current on an electro-magnet, which operated a toothed escapement
on the axis of the dial or index ;—the indicated letter or figure being stopped as long
as desired. In this case, the character was determined solely by the number of
electric impulses transmitted. This system was in 1846, made the basis of a highly
original letter-printing telegraph, by Mr. Royal E. House, of Vermont ; preceding that
of Mr. Hughes, as will be observed, nearly ten years.

268 HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH.

bitrary alphabet, and the paper was moved by the hand.”* Mr. Dyar
is described by Dr. Luther V. Bell as “a man of the highest inventive
skill and scientific attainments.” His experimental line (of a single wire)
was several miles long; and the chemical record of the signals transmitted
through it, was by the testimony of those who witnessed its operations,
eminently distinct and satisfactory. The following is the account of his
enterprise, given by the inventor himself in 1849, some twenty years after-
ward: ‘
‘““T invented a plan of a telegraph which should be independent of day
.or night or weather, which should extend from town to town or city to
city, without any intermediary agency, by means of an insulated wire
in the air, suspended on poles, and through which wire I intended to
send strokes of electricity in such a manner as that the diverse distances
of time separating the divers sparks should represent the different letters
of the alphabet and stops between the words, ete. This absolute or this
relative difference of time between the several sparks I intended to take
off from an electric machine by a little mechanical contrivance regulated
by a pendulum, and the sparks were intended to be recorded upon a
moving ora revolving sheet of moistened litmus paper, which by the forma-
tion of nitric acid by the spark in the air in its passsage through the
paper, would leave a red spot for each spark on this blue test-paper.
. . . To carry out my invention I associated myself with a Mr.
Brown, of Providence, who gave me certain sums of money to become
associated with me in the invention. We employed a Mr Connel, of New
York. to aid in getting the capital wanted to carry the wires to Phila-
delphia. This we considered as accomplished: but before beginning upon
the long wire, it was decided that we should try some miles of it on Long
Island. Accordingly I obtained some fine card wire, intending to run
it several times around the race-course on the Island. We put up this
wire (that is, Mr. Brown and myself) at different lengths, in curves and
straight lines, by suspending it from stake to stake and tree to tree un-
til we concluded that our experiments justified our undertaking to carry
it from New York to Philadelphia. At this moment our agent brought
a suit or summons against me for 20,000 dollars for agencies and services,
which I found was done to extort a concession of a share of the whole
project.” Failing in this prosecution, the unprincipled agent obtained
a writ against the two partners on a charge of conspiracy to carry on
secret communication between the cities! and he thus effectually put an
end to the enterprise, without the formality of a judicial trial on this
novel accusation. t

These practical illustrations of early electric telegraphy, including
successful workings of both the dial and the chemical forms of the tele-
graph without the use of galvanism, serve to show that the agency is by

*Turnbull’s Llectro-Magnetic Telegraph, 8vo. Philadelphia, 1st ed. 1852, p. 6; 2d ed.
1853, p. 22.

t Prescott’s Hist. Electr. Telegraph, 1860, chap. xxi, pp. 427, 428.

6
HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH. ° 269

no means the trivial and inefficient one so often represented by modern
writers. On the contrary, but for the practical difficulty of perfect and
constant insulation, owing to the intense self repulsion of mechanical
electricity and the reaction and retardation from induction currents in
Jong lines of coated wire, this method would really constitute an eco-
nomical and satisfactory medium of distant communication.

Steinheil in reference to this subject remarks: ‘All these experiments
put it beyond a doubt that frictional electricity may be employed for
giving signals at any distances, and that when these signals are properly
contrived they offer convenient means of telegraphic intercourse. Fric-
tional electricity has besides as Gauss has already observed, the great
advantage of not losing any of its force by increasing the length of the
conducting wire, inasmuch as the whole of the electricity of one coating
of the jar must traverse the entire length of the wire (be it what it may)
to neutralize that of the other coating.” *

II.—TELEGRAPHS BY GALVANISM.

The introduction of the galvanic battery by Volta at the commence-
ment of the present century? led many to experiment with its peculiar
current aS a means of telegraphing. The only practicable forms of
simple galvanic telegraphs, are those whose indications are given by
chemical decompositions, and which thus form the class commonly known
as the “ electro-chemical”; and as these chemical indications usually leave
permanent markings, the class is also one of recording telegraphs.

1808. Dr. Samuel Thomas von Scemmering, of Munich, appears to
have been the first to apply Volta’s invention to this purpose. ‘“Aslong
ago as in 1807, Seemmering erected in the apartments of the Academy
of Sciences at Munich a galvanic telegraph, of which he has pub-
lished a detailed description in the Philosophical Transactions of Ba-
varia. [Jiinchner Denkschriften der Koniglichen Akademie der Wis-
senschaften fiir 1809, 1810. Math. phys. Classe, p. 401.] He em-
ployed the energy of a powerful voltaic pile to bring about the
decomposition of water by means of thirty-five gold pins immersed in
an oblong glass trough.Ӣ+ Each of these gilt electrodes was in con-
nection with one of the thirty-five wires forming the line, and was cov-
ered with an inverted test-tube filled with water, resting on a submerged
shelf in the oblong trough, as a gas-receiver. These small receivers
with their inclosed gilt pins or electrodes arranged in a row, repre-
sented 25 letters and 10 numerals. Such being the disposition at the
receiving end, the thirty-five line wires at the transmitting end were
each secured to a separate perforated brass plate. On connecting the

* Sturgeon’s Annals of Electricity, ete. March 1839, vol. iii, p. 446.

t Volta’s description of his battery is given in a ‘‘Letter to Sir Joseph Banks,”
president of the Royal Society of London. (Phil. Trans. 2. S. read June 26, 18V0, vol.
xe, pp. 403-431.)

¢Sturgeon’s Annals of Electricity, etc. Mar. 1839, vol. fii, p. 447.

270 HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH.

respective poles of the battery with any two of the line wires by means
of two attached metallic pins held in the hands and inserted in the
holes of their terminal plates, the current was established, and bubbles
of hydrogen and oxygen were at once evolved in the corresponding let-
tered tubes. A system of syllabic communication and reading was pro-
vided, in which the hydrogen element should be first noted.*

Very shortly after his first successful working of this telegraph, Scem-
mering interposed in the galvanic circuit two thousand feet of insulated
wire, wound around a glass cylinder, without impairing his decomposi-
tions. He found noappreciable retardation in the action of the electrodes.
“'The evolution of the gas through this considerable length of wire ap-
peared to begin as quickly as if the effect had only to traverse two feet.” t

In an “ Historical account of the introduction of the galvanie and
electro-magnetic telegraph” presented to the Imperial Academy of
Sciences at St. Petersburg, by Dr. Hamel, of that city, a very full and
interesting narrative is given of Scemmering’s experiments, compiled
from original documents;¢ from which the following extracts are made:

“On the 22d of July, 1809, his apparatus was already so far advanced
that it was fit to work. He however went on making still further im-
provements, and it was only on the 6th of August that he considered
the telegraph quite completed. He was much pleased with its perform-
ance, being able to work through 724 feet of wire. . . . Two days
later, he could already telegraph through 1,000 feet, and on the 18th of
August through as much as 2,000 feet of wire. On the 29th of August
he exhibited the telegraph in action before a meeting of the Academy
of Sciences in Munich.” A year later he first effected a satisfactory
arrangement of premonitory alarm or attention call. ‘On the 25d of
August, 1810, Scemmering succeeded in inventing a contrivance for
sounding an alarm, which answered perfectly well.” (p. 596.)

“In September, 1811, Scemmering simplitied his telegraph considera-
bly; he reduced the number of wires in his conducting cord from 35 to
2%. . . » On the Ist of February, 1812, Prince Karl Theodor, the
second son of King Maximilian [, honored Scemmering with a visit to
see the telegraph. On the 4th of February, 1512, Seemmering announced
that he was able to telegraph through 4,000 feet of wire, and on the 15th
of March he telegraphed even through 10,000 feet.” (p. 597.) This was
nearly two miles of wire, but wound on reels.

This complex and inconvenient arrangement of signaling by the de-
composition of water, would hardly seem to offer a practical method of
telegraphy. Yet the system was earnestly prosecuted by its inventor for

*Schweigeer’s Journal fiir Chemie und Physik, 1811, vol. ii, part 2, pp. 217-218: (from
the Memoirs of the ‘ Konigliche Akademie der Wissenschaften,” at Munich, 1810.) Also,
Polytechnisches Central-blatt, June, 1338, Jahrgang iv, b. i, pp. 482-484.

t Miinehner Denkschriften der Koéniglichen Akademie der Wissenschaften fiir 1812. In this
experiment, the self-induction of the conducting coil probably increased somewhat
the effect.

{Journal of the Society of Arts, London, July 22, and 29, 1859, vol. vii, No. 348, pp.
595-599, and No. 349, pp. 605-610.

‘
7

HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH. OTe

many years, and attracted considerable attention; and had no simpler
device been discovered it might possibly have won its way into use. It
is remarkable that some seven or eight years later a Philadelphian inde-
pendently proposed the same scheme.

1816. Dr.John Redman Coxe, of Philadelphia, professor of chemistry
in the University of Pennsylvania, suggested the employment of wires
for communicating intelligence by a galvanic current, arranged either to
decompose water in tubes, (Scemmering’s plan, of which he seems to have
been unaware,) or to decompose metallic salts.* As an untried sugges-
tion, this has been noticed only because the latter project was afterward
successfully developed and executed by others.

1828. Victor Triboaillet de Saint Amand proposed to establish a gal-
vanic telegraph line of a single wire from Paris to Brussels, the con-
ducting wire to be varnished with shellac, wound with silk, coated with
resin, inclosed in sections of glass tube carefully luted with a resin, the
whole substantially wrapped and water-proofed, and finally to be buried
some feet deep in theearth. The signaling device is somewhat obscure,
as while a strong battery is the source of the current, the receiving in-
strument is an electrometer.t This project, also belonging to the purely
speculative class, scarcely deserves a notice.

1843. Mr. Robert Smith, of Blackford, Scotland, devised an experi-
mental galvano-chemical telegraph carrying out practically the sug-
gestion offered by Dr. Coxe in 1816. A set of iron type at the receiving
station, each connected by separate wires with a corresponding circuit-
key at the transmitting station, was so arranged with reference to a
clock-moved band of paper wet with a solution of ferro-cyanide of potas-
sium, that when the current was passed through any special circuit, it
impressed a blue letter on the band. ‘A paper containing an account
of this t+legraph was read before the Royal Scottish Society of Arts on
the 27th of March, 1843; reported on by a committee, and approved
the 12th of June following. Since that time many trials have been
made, and various improvements in its construction have also been
introduced by the inventor.” t

Two or three years later Mr. Smith reduced his line to a single cireuit
of two wires; and the registering device at the receiving station con-
sisted of a fillet or ribbon of plain calico wound on a roller placed in a
trough filled with a solution of ferro-cyanide of potassium containing a
few drops of nitric acid, and unrolled by the motion of clock-work over
a leaden cylinder with which one of the iron wires of the line was in
connection, while the end of the other iron wire rested on the wetted

*Thomson’s Annals of Philosophy, Fel. 1816, vol. vii, p. 162.

t Report of Academy of Industry, Paris. Quoted froin A. Vail’s Electro-Magnetic Tele-
graph, 1845, p. 135. Also Turnbull’s Llectro-Magnetic Telegraph, 2d ed. 1853, p. 56.

t Practical Mechanic and Engineer’s Magazine, Glasgow, Noy. 1845, vol. i, 2d series,
p. 36.

DIZ HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH.

calico immediately over the cylinder. On every completion of the cir-
cuit at the transmitting station, a blue mark was thus imprinted on the
moving cloth by the electrical decomposition, and the succession of
marks of differing lengths and intervals formed the system of signals.
This telegraph was found to work satisfactorily through eighteen hun-
dred yards of wire fence.*

1846. Mr. Alexander Bain, of Edinburgh, obtained an English patent
for a galvano-chemical telegraph, which while exhibiting considerable
ingenuity in its mechanical devices, imitated very closely in its chemical
record the previous system of Smith. ‘The chemical solution preferred
for the preparation of the paper consists of sulphuric acid and a solution

of prussiate of potassa.” t

1849. Prof. Samuel F.B. Morse, of New York, obtained an American
patent for a galvano-chemical telegraph, also very similar to that of
Smith, employing like him a single circuit, and specifying, among sev-
eral metallic saits which might be used, solutions of iodide of potassium,
of iodide of tin, and of acetate of lead, with nitrate of potassa. The in-
ventor added: “I wish it to be understood that I do not confine myself
to the use of the substances I have mentioned, but mean to comprehend
the use of any known substance already proved to be easily decomposed
by the electric current.” ¢

III.—TELEGRAPHS BY GALVANO-MAGNETISM.

Meanwhile the rapid awakening of attention among physicists to the
magnetic relation of the galvanic current, and the production of the gal-
vanometer, at once indicated a new and promising method of signaling
to a distance by galvanic agency.

The Galvanometer.—In 1820, Hans Christian Oersted, professor of nat-
ural philosophy at Copenhagen, announced through various European
journals his discovery that if a straight conjunctive wire through which
a galvanic current is passing “be placed horizontally above the mag-
netic needle and parallel toit . . . the needle will be moved, and
the end next the negative side of the battery will go westward. . . .
If the uniting wire be placed in a horizontal plane wnder the magnetic
needle all the effects are the same as when it is above the needle, only
they are in an opposite direction.” §

Although the directive influence of a galvanic conductor on a mag-

* Practical Mechanic and Engineers’ Magazine, June, 1846, vol. i, 2d series, pp. 239, 240.

t English patent of A. Bain, Dec. 12, 1846, No. 11480.

t American patent of S. F. B. Morse, May 1, 1849, No. 6420.

§ Thomson’s Annals of Philosophy, Oct. 1820, vol. xvi, pp. 274,275. (Also, Journal
de Physique, ete. 1820, vol. xci, pp. 72-76; Annales de Chimie et de Physique, 1820, vol.
xiv, pp. 417-425; Bibliotheque Universelle des Sciences, ete. 1820, vol. xiv, pp. 274-284 ;
Annales Générales des Sciences Physiques, 1820, vol. v, pp. 259-264; Gilbert’s Annalen
der Physik, 1820, vol. Ixvi, pp. 295-304; Schweigger’s Journal fiir Chemie und Physik,
1820, vol. xxix, pp. 275-281; Giornale Arcadico di Scienze, etc. 1820, vol. viii, pp.
174-178; Brugnatelli’s Giornale di Fisica, ete. 1820, pp. 3385-342. )

HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH. . 2S

netic needle, was observed and announced by «* Italian savant, Gian
Domenico Romagnosi, of Trent, at the beginning of the present cen-
tury, (shortly after the production of the galvanic battery by Volta,)
this important phenomenon attracted no attention, and produced no re-
sults, until it was republished two decades later by the Danish physicist.*

In the same year—almost immediately after Oersted’s announcement,
Prof. Johann 8S. C. Schweigger, of Halle, made a great improvement on
his galvano-magnetie indicator (of a single wire circuit), by giving the
insulated wire a number of turns around an elongated frame longitudi-
nally inclosing the compass-needle, and by thus multiplying the effect of
the galvanic circuits upon the sensibility of the needle converted it into
a real measuring instrument,—a * galvanometer.”t

This delicate indicator at once suggested a new mode of galvanic tele-
graphing. Ina memoir read to the “ Royal Academy of Sciences,” at
Paris, October 2, 1820, André Marie Ampére, affirming “the possibility
of deflecting a magnetic needle at a great distance from the pile, through
a very long conducting wire,” remarked: “This experiment, suggested
to me by the illustrious Laplace, was completely successful. . . .
From the success of the experiment” he added, “it is feasible by means
of as many conducting wires and magnetic needles as there are letters,
(each letter being assigned to a separate needle,) and by help of a bat-
tery at a distance, with its poles alternately connected with the extrem-
ities of each conductor, to establish a kind of telegraph adapted to
transmit over intervening obstacles whatever information may be de-
sired to the person observing the letters of the needles. <A set of keys
near the battery, bearing corresponding letters and making connection
by their depression, would offer a facile means of correspondence; re-

*As early as 1802, eighteen years before Oersted’s discovery, M. Romagnosi, a publi-
cist and physicist of Trent, observed the detlection of the magnetic needle when
placed near a parallel conductor of the galvanic current. An account of this dis-
covery was published in the Gazzétta di Trento, August 3, 1802. See “‘ Supplement,”
Note B.

t ** Additions to Oersted’s Electro-magnetic Experiments,” a memoir read at the Natur-

forschenden Gesellschaft at Halle, September 16 and November 4, 1820. An abstract of

this paper was published in the Allgemeine Literatur-Zeitung of Halle, (4to,) November,
1820, No. 296, vol. iii, col. 621-624. The full memoir appeared in the Journal fiir
Chemie und Physik, 1821, vol. xxxi, pp. 1-17; and ‘Additional Remarks,” ete. by Dr.
Schweigger, in the same volume, pp. 35-41.

A galvanometer of somewhat ditterent form, having a vertical helix and employing
an unmagnetized needle, was very shortly afterward independently devised by Johann
Christian Poggendorff, of Berlin; and as he preceded Schweigger in publishing an ac-
count of it, he is sometimes regarded asthe original inventor. (Zdinburgh Philosophi-
cal Journal, July, 1321, vol. v, p. 113.) Schweigger designated his device an ‘“ Electro-
magnetic Multiplicator” ; Poggendorff designated his arrangement a ‘ Galvano-mag-
netic Condensator.” Professor Oersted remarks, ‘‘ hnmediately after the discovery of
electro-magnetism, M. Schweigger, professor at Halle, invented an apparatus admirably
adapted for exhibiting by means of the magnetic needle, the feeblest electric currents.
: M. Poggendorff, a distinguished young savant of Berlin, constructed an
electro-magnetic multiplier very shortly after M. Schweigger, with which he made
some striking experiments. M. Poggendorfi’s work having been cited in a book on
electro-magnetism by the celebrated M. Ernan, (published immediately after the dis-
covery of these phenomena, ) became known to several philosophers before that of M.
Schweigger.” (Annales de Chimie et de Physique, 1823, vol. xxii, pp. 358-360.)

S. Mis. 59 18

Di Age HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH.

quiring only the time to touch each key at the one station, and to read
each letter at the other.”*

ingenious as this early proposal of an electro-magnetic telegraph ap-
pears, it really presents essentially butthe substitution of the new-found
galvanometer for the old electrometer at the receiving station, as first
employed by Lesage, nearly half a century previously.

1823. The first to develop practically, Ampére’s suggestion of a gal-
vanometer telegraph, was the Russian Baron Paul Ludovitseh Schilling,
of Cronstadt. The personal friend of Scemmering, he became from an
early date warmly interested in the galvanic telegraph; and not long
after Schweigger’s invention of the galvanometer, he appears to have
commenced his experiments in the direction pointed out by Ampere.
His countryman, the venerable Dr. Hamel, of St. Petersburg, who en-
joyed his acquaintance, gave in 1859, in his “‘ Historical account of the
introduction of the galvanic and electro-magnetic Telegraph,” the follow-
ing interesting particulars of Schilling’s early associations and pursuits :t

“At the time when Scemmering became a member of the Academy of
Sciences at Munich, in 1805, there was attached to the Russian embassy
in that capital, the Baron Pavel Ludovitseh Schilling, of Cronstadt.
About a year after the invention of the telegraph [by the former] Schil-
ling saw experiments performed with it. He was so forcibly struck with
the probability of a very great usefulness of the invention that from that
day galvanism and its applications became one of his favorite studies.”

‘In the spring of 1512, Baron Schilling was endeavoring to contrive
a conducting cord sufficiently insulated that it might convey the gal-
vanic current not only through wet earth, but also through long dis-
tances of water. The war then impending between France and Russia
made Baron Schilling desirous of finding a means by which such a con-
ducting cord should serve for telegraphic correspondence between for-
tified places and the field, and likewise for exploding powder mines
across rivers. . . . In the autumn of 1812, he actually exploded
powder mines across the river Neva, near St. Petersburg. . . .
Baron Schilling has told me that during his stay at Paris, he with his
subaqueous conductor, several times (to the astonishment of the lookers-
on) ignited gunpowder across the river Seine.”

“On the 29th of December, 1815, there came to pay his respects to
Seemmering (while Baron Schilling was just with him) the well-known
natural philosopher Johann Salomon Chistian Schweigger, then pro-
fessor of natural philosophy and chemistry at the Physico-technical In-
stitute at Nuremberg, who was on his way to Paris and London: (in which

* Annales de Chimie et de Physique, 1820, vol. xv, pp. 72, 73.

{The writer states: ‘Letters show that the cordial friendship between Semmering
and Baron Schilling continued unchanged to the time of his decease in 1830.” Schil-
ling died August 7, 1837. Dr. Hamel himself had the fortune to be personally ac-
quainted with Oersted, Schweigger, Ampere, Arago, Semmering, Schilling, and other
electro-magnetic and telegraphic celebrities.

ee

HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH, 275

latter place I had afterward the pleasure of making his acquaintance.)
. . . Baron Schilling having made at Scmmering’s the acquaint-
ance of Schweigger, of course could not foresee that one day an invention
of this gentleman, the ‘multiplier, would enable him to make at St.
Petersburg, the first electro-magnetic telegraph.” *

It is impossible, in the scarcity of documentary evidence, to ascer-
tain at what date Schilling’s long contemplated project of a galvan-
ometer telegraph (designed as an improvement on the galvanic telegraph
of his friend Scemmering) was first reduced to a practical or working
form: but it was at least as early as the year 1823, when Schilling con-
structed at St. Petersburg an electro-magnetic telegraph apparatus whose
signals were produced by five galvanometer needles, each provided with
its own independent galvanic circuit. Schilling was enabled to effect
his great simplification of an original alphabet of circuits, by the inge-
nious expedient of giving to each needle a positive and negative motion by
means of reversed currents, and then of combining two or more of these
signals. Whether this was really Schilling’s first form of apparatus is
very doubtful; but it is at least certain that he exhibited an operative
instrument before the Emperor Alexander in 1824, or in 1825.t

Dr. Hamel remarks: ‘ It was reserved for Baron Schilling at St. Peters-
burg to make the first electro-magnetic telegraph. Having become (as
we know) through Scemmering, at Munich, passionately fond of the art
of telegraphing by means of galvanism, he now used for it the deflection
of the needle, which he placed within the ‘multiplier’ of Schweigger
horizontally on a light vertical axle hanging on a silken thread, and bear-
ing a circular disk of paper colored differently on each side. . . . By
degrees he simplified the apparatus. For atime he used five needles, and
at last he was able to signalize even with one single needle and multiplier,
producing by a combination of movements in the two directions, all the
signs for letters and numbers. Having known Scemmering’s alarum,
Schilling invented one for his telegraph also. His success in bringing
his instruments to a high state of perfection would have been much
more rapid had his time not been so much occupied with various duties,
and particularly with the founding and directing of a large lithographic
establishment for the Russian Government. Baron Schilling’s telegraph
was an object of great curiosity at St. Petersburg; it was frequently
exhibited by him to individuals and to parties. Already the Emperor
Alexander I, had been pleased to notice it in its earlier stage, and when
it was reduced to great simplicity, his Majesty the Emperor Nicholas
honored Baron Schilling on the 13th of March, 1830, with a visit at his
lodgings in Opotchinin’s house, in the Konooshennaja, to see experiments
performed with it through a great Jength of conducting wires. ;

“In May of the last-mentioned year (1830) Baron Schilling undertook
a journey to China. . . . After his return from the borders of China to

*Journal of the Society of Arts, July 22, 1859, vol. vii, pp. 597, 598.

+The Emperor Alexander died in 1825.

276 HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH.

St. Petersburg, in March, 1832, Baron Schilling occupied himself again
with the telegraph, and in May, 1835, he undertook a journey to the west
of Europe, taking his simplified instrument with him. In the month of
September he attended the meeting of the German physicists at Bonn
on the Rhine, where on the 23d he exhibited his telegraph before the
section of Hate al philosophy and chemistry, over which Professor
Georg Wilhelm Muncke, of the University of Heildelberg, presided.
Muncke was much pleased with Schilling’s instrument, and he determined
at once to get one for exhibition at his lectures. I have lately found at
Heidelberg . . . in a store-room, the apparatus which Professor
Muncke got made in imitation of the one exhibited by Baron Schilling
at Bonn.” *

The conflicting accounts of Schilling’s system given at a later date
appear to refer to instruments constructed at different periods. Thus it
is said that in the latter part of 1832 [!] he used a “certain number of
platinum wiresinsulated and united in a cord of silk, which put in action,
by the aid of a species of key, 36 magnetic needles, each of which was
placed vertically in the center of a multiplier. M. de Schilling was the
first who adapted to this kind of apparatus an ingenious mechanism
suitable for sounding an alarm, which when the needle was turned at
the beginning of the correspondence, was set in play by the fall of a
little ball of lead which the magnetic needle caused to fall. This tele-
graph of M. de Schilling was received with approbation by the Empe-
ror, who desired it established on a larger scale: but the death of the
inventor postponed the enterprise indefinitely.” t

It is also stated in another account, that Schilling exhibited his tele-
graphic instruments before the Emperor Alexander. “In order to ap-
prise the attendant before the commencement of a telegraphic dispatch,
Schilling set off an alarm. How much of his apparatus belongs prop-
erly to the Baron Schilling, or whether a part of it was not an imitation
of that of Gauss and Weber, is not for the editor to decide; but that
Schilling had already experimented (probably with a more imperfect ap-
paratus) before the Emperor Alexander, and subsequently before the
Emperor Nicholas, is affirmed by the authorities adduced.” The account
describes the communications as consisting of signs devised from the
various combinations of the right and left deflections of the single nee-

* Journal of the Society of Arts, July 29, 1859, vol. vii, pp. 606, 607. The apparatus
above referred to, is noteworthy as being "that seen by Mr. William Fothergill Cooke
on attending one of the lectures by Professor Muncke, at Heidelberg, March 6, 1836,
on the electro- magnetic telegraph; and which apparatus he proceeded immediately to
haye reproduced. Returning to London April 22, of the same year, Mr. Cooke, (in con-
junction with Professor Wheatstone, ) succceded by his energy in introducing the needle
telegraph into Eneland: aud thus Schilling’ sereat invention became transplanted from
St. Petersburg to ‘London, without either of its Ei i@lish introducers having any idea of
its true origin. As Dr. Hamel remarks: “Mr. C ooke, who had never oceupie d himself
with the study either of natural philosophy in ge neral, or of electricity in particular,
did not at all get farther acquainted with Professor Muncke. He did not even acquire
his name properly ; ; he calls him Moéneke. He had no idea that the apparatus he had
seen had been contrived by Baron Schilling in Russia.”

t Report of the “Academy of Industry,” Paris, February, 1839.

HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH. 210

dle.* It must evidently have been at a later date than 1825 when
Schilling reduced his telegraph line to a single circuit of two wires and
employed but a single galvanometer. Whether Schilling or Gauss was
the original inventor of that most important improvement in galvanic
telegraphy, the simplification and reduction of the line of communication
to a single circuit cannot now perhaps be definitely determined ;+ but
that the credit belongs to Schilling seems highly probable. That Schill-
ing first invented and constructed a practical and operative electro-mag-
netic telegraph apparatus is placed beyond dispute; although the his-
torical evidences of actual date are somewhat obscure. It is remarkable
that although Schilling’s early experimental telegraph was widely ex-
hibited, and to numbers of distinguished visitors, no contemporary pub-
lication of its character or construction was made; and the invention was
unknown to Western Europe for a dozen years later.t

Thus, in 1829, Gustav Theodor Fechner, of Leipsic, evidently quite un-
aware of Schilling’s labors—years before, wrote in a text-book on Gal-
vanism: “There is no doubt that if the insulated wires of twenty-four
multipliers, representing the letters of the alphabet (situated in Leipsie,
for example), were conducted underground to Dresden, where should
be placed a battery, we would have thereby a medium of communica-
tion probably not very expensive, through which intelligence could be
instantaneously transmitted from one city to another.” §

And in the year following, 1530, Dr. William Ritchie, at London, in a
lecture before the Royal Institution on the evening of February 12,
exhibited a working model of a telegraph provided with 26 circuits of
wire for the several letters of the alphabet, ‘Mr. Ritchie concluded by ex-
hibiting the electro-magnetic telegraph proposed by Ampére, by means
of which, rapid communication might be carried on between towns in
every state of the weather. The lecturer concluded by observing that
in the present state of the inquiry, we cannot pronounce with absolute
certainty with regard to the success of this ingenious project.” ||

The Hlectro-Magnet.—But almost simultaneously with the birth of the
galvanometer, this fertile agent—electricity—developed anew and no less

* Polytechnisches Central-Blatt, June, 1338, Jahrgang iy. b.i, p. 486.

t One of the foremost of telegraphic inventors, and the personal friend of Gauss,
Steinheil himself, speaks thus uncertainly on this subjeet: ‘‘The experiments in-
stituted by Schilling by the detlection of a single magnetic needle, seem much better
contrived [than Ampére’s plan of an alphabet of wires, adopted by Mr. Davy and
others]; he did not, however, succeed in surmounting the mechanieal difficulties that

attend the question in this shape . . . Ganss, and probably in imitation of him,
Schilling . % . made use of but a single wire running to the distant station and

back.” (Sturgeon’s Annals of Electricity, ete. March, 1839, vol. iii, pp. 448 and 450.)

#In 1835, Schilling, assisted by Baron Jacquin and Professor Ettingshausen, experi-
mented with telegraph wires extended over the houses and across the streets of Vienna,
preferring air lines to conductors Jaid in the earth. In 1837, Schilling ordered at a
rope manufactory in St. Petersburg the necessary length of an insulated submarine
cable, for the purpose of connecting telegraphically that capital with Cronstadt,
through a portion of the Gulf of Finland; the distance between the two cities being
twenty miles. His death which occurred August 7, 1837, arrested the enterprise.

§ Lehrbuch des Galvanismus, ete. by G. F. Fechner, 8yo. Leipzig, 1829, p. 269.

| The Quarterly Journal of the Roy. Inst. of Gr. Brit. Mar. 1830, vol. xxix, p. 185.

278 HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH.

marvelous progeny. In the same year, 1820, Dominique Francois Arago,
of Paris, announced, “On repeating the experiments of the Danish
physicist, I have observed that the same current will develop strongly
in strips of iron or steel, the magnetic power. . . . The conjunctive
wire communicates to soft iron but a momentary magnetization; but to
small pieces of steel it gives frequently a permanent magnetism. I have
been able thus to completely magnetize sewing-needles.”*

This germ of a new power required, as usual, the successive labors of
more than one philosophic investigator to develop fully its capacities.
To William Sturgeon, of Woolwich, England, belongs the distinguished
honor (too little appreciated by his countrymen) of giving to the scien-
tific toy of Arago a suitable form, and thus of first producing in 1824, the
true electro-magnet with its intermittent control of an armature. Die.
pensing with the glass tube of Arago, Sturgeon constructed a horse-shoe
bar of soft iron (after the form of the usual permanent magnet), which he
coated with a non-conducting resinous varnish. Then winding a copper
wire in a loose coil directly about the limbs of the horse-shoe, on bring-
ing the ends of the wire in connection with the poles of a single galvanic
pair of moderate size, he found his temporary magnet capable of sus-
taining several pounds by its armature; and on breaking the circuit,
becoming instantly powerless.

It resulted from the correlative function of the galvanic current in
directing transversely a permanently magnetized needle (first discovered
by Romagnosi and Oersted), or in inducing temporary magnetism in iron
thus transversely placed (first discovered by Arago and Sturgeon), that
two distinct methods of signaling were offered by this new agency,
accordingly as a permanent or a temporary magnet were employed. In
the former case, the determined oscillations of the magnetic bar, by
means of intermittent currents in a surrounding coil, would form the
indicating device; and in the latter case, the determined oscillations of
the armature, by means of intermittent currents in the coil surrounding
its associated magnet, would give the indication. Hence the two types
of electro-magnetic telegraph; the magnetic-needle system, and the
magnetic-armature system. t

On experimenting with the galvanometer needle, it was very soon dis-
covered that it responded only to variations of surface action in a single
pair of galvanic elements, and that a large number of galvanie cells (as
in the Cruickshanks battery), having even a greater total surface of oxi-

* Annales de Chimie et de Physique, 1820, vol. xv, pp. 93, 95, Arago’s method of experi-
mentation consisted in winding the wire connecting the poles of the battery, around a
glass tube in a loose helix, within which tube small pieces of iron or steel were placed.
Sir Humphrey Davy, of England, not long afterward, also magnetized steel-needles
by galvanism; and even effected the result with ordinary electricity from a Leyden-jar
battery. (Annals of Philosophy, August, 1821, vol. ii, n. s. pp. 81-88.) This was the
germ—though searcely more than the ger m—of the electro- magnet. For a notice of
early anticipations of electro- -magnetism, see ‘* Supplement,” Nore C.

+A modification of the latter system, by which the oscillations of an armature are
superseded by the variable attraction between the magnetized core and its hollow
galvanic coil, might perhaps be considered as forming a third type—ibat of the
“axial” magnet. “This has been employed in House’s printing telegraph.

HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH. Pia

dation, produced but a comparatively small declination of Schweigger’s
needle. In fact, no multiplication of galvanic elements was successful
in increasing the deflection of a given galvanometer. On the other hand,
the same galvanometer was found to have its deflections greatly reduced
with every increase in the length of the interposed circuit. And here
again an increase of surface in the galvanic pair failed to overcome the
increased resistance of a lengthened conductor. There was also-an
early limit found to the number of turns in the galvanometer coil, which
could be efficiently employed with any given surface of oxidizable metal
in the single galvanic element.

In 1824, Peter Barlow, the eminent English mathematician and mag-
netician, taking up Ampére’s suggestion, endeavored more fully to test
its practicability. He has thus stated the result: “In a very early
stage of electro-magnetic experiments, it had been suggested that an
instantaneous telegraph might be established by means of conducting
wires and compasses. The details of this contrivance are so obvious,
and the prineiple on which it is founded so well understood, that there
was only one question which could render the result doubtful; and this
was, is there any dimunition of effect by lengthening the conducting
wire? It has been said that the electric fluid from a common [tin-foil]
electrical battery had been transmitted through a wire four miles in
length without any sensible diminution of effect, and to every appear-
ance instantaneously ; and if this should be found to be the case with
the galvanic circuit, then no question could be entertained of the prac-
ticability and utility of the suggestion above adverted to. I was there-
fore induced to make the trial; but I found such a sensible diminution
with only 200 feet of wire, as at once to convince me of the impractica-
bility of the scheme. It led me however to an inquiry as to the cause
of this diminution and the laws by which it is governed.” *

From the rapid reduction of effect observed with increasing lengths of
conjunctive wire under the conditions tried, Barlow (from a considerable
series of experimental results) was led to believe that the resistance of
the conducting wire is approximately proportional to the square root of
its length. t

Notwithstanding therefore Ampére’s ‘“‘completely successful” experi-
ment “ through a very long conducting wire” and Sehilling’s later work-
ing of his telegraph “through a great length of wires,” (the precise
length of the circuit not being stated in either case,) the problem of the
electro-magnetic telegraph could hardly be considered as satisfactorily
solved for any practical purposes of communicating to great distances.
In the deliberate judgment of one of the most eminent of English phys-

**£On the laws of electro-magnetic action.” Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, Jan.
1825, vol. xii, p. 105.

tPp. 110, 111 of the Journal just cited. Later experiments under varied conditions
have shown that Ohm’s law (announced three years after Barlow’s) of a simple ratio
of resistance to length is approximately correct.

280 HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH.

icists in this special department, careful experiment only tended to show
“the impracticability of the scheme.”

It is at this point that there appears a new explorer in the electro-
magnetic field; a field from which apparently all the laurels had been
already gathered. Joseph Henry, elected to the professorship of mathe-
matics and natural philosophy in the Albany Academy, of New York, in
1826, commenced very shortly afterward his scientific investigations.
Sturgeon, in 1824, had pointed out the proper manner of making an
‘“‘electro-magnet,” and had also greatly improved lecture-room apparatus
for illustrating the torsional reaction between a permanent magnet and
a galvanic circuit when either is made movable. By introducing in
such cases a larger and more powerful magnet he had succeeded in ex-
hibiting the usual phenomena on a larger scale with a considerable re-
duction of the battery power.*

Henry was enabled by his skillful experimental investigations to ex-
hibit all the class illustrations attempted by Sturgeon, not only on a
still larger and more conspicuous scale, with the use of feeble magnets
(where required), but with a still further reduction of the battery power.
And he moreover carried out the same results to other cases where an
artificial magnet is inapplicable, as for example, in the illustration of
Ampére’s fine discovery of the mutual action of two electric currents on
each other, or of the influence of the terrestrial magnetism on a current,
as in Ampere’s swinging galvanic ring, or the floating ring of De La
Rive. These very striking and unexpected results were obtained by the
simple expedient of adopting in every case where single circuits had
previously been used, the manifold coil of fine wire which Schweigger
had employed to increase the sensibility of the galvanometer.

The coils employed by Henry in the various articles of apparatus thus
improved, comprised usually about twenty turns of fine copper wire
wound with silk to prevent metallic contact, the whole being closely
bound together. To exhibit for instance Ampére’s ingenious and deli-
cate experiment showing the directive action of the earth as a magnet
on a galvanic current when its conductor is free to move, (usually a small
wire frame or ring, of a few inches in diameter, with its extremities dip-
ping either into mercury cups or into mercury channels,) the effect was
strikingly enhanced by Henry’s method of suspending by a silk thread
a large circular coil, 20 inches in diameter, of many wire circuits bound
together with ribbon,—the extremities of the wire protruding at the
lower part of the hoop, and soldered to a pair of small galvanic plates ;—
when by simply placing a tumbler of acidulated water beneath, the hoop

* Transactions of the Society for the encouragement of Arts, etc. 1825, vol. xliii, pp. 38-52.
Sturgeon’s battery (of a single element) consisted ‘‘ of two fixed hollow concentric cyi-
inders of thin copper, having a movable cylinder of zine placed between them. Its
superficial area is only 130 square inches, and it weighs no more than L1lb. 5 0z.” Myr.
Sturgeon was deservedly awarded the silver medal of the Society for the Encourage-
ment of Arts, &c. ‘‘for his improved electro-magnetic apparatus.” The same is de-
scribed also in the Annals of Philosophy, Nov. 1826, vol. xii, n. s. pp. 397-361.

} HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH. Pajey |

at once assumed (after a few oscillations) its equatorial position transverse
to the magnetic meridian. Such was the character of demonstration by
which the new Professor was accustomed to make visible to his classes
the principles of electro-magnetism. And it is safe to say that in sim-
plicity, efficiency, and conspicuous distinctness, such apparatus for the
lecture-room was far superior to any of the kind then existing.

The details of this early contribution to electrical science were set
forth in a communication read by Henry before the Albany Institute
October 10, 1827, “‘On some modifications of the electro-magnetic appa-
ratus.” In this paper he remarks:

‘¢ Mr. Sturgeon, of Woolwich, who has been perhaps the most success-
ful in these improvements, has shown that a strong galvanic power is
not essentially necessary even to exhibit the experiments on the largest
scale. . . . Mr. Sturgeon’s suite of apparatus, though superior to any
other as far as it goes, does not however form a complete set; as indeed
it is plain that his principle of strong magnets cannot be introduced
into every article required, and particularly into those intended to ex-
hibit the action of the earth’s magnetism on a galvanic current, or the
operation of two conjunctive wires on each other. To form therefore a
set of instruments on a large scale that will illustrate all the facts be-
longing to this science, with the least expense of galvanism, evidently
requires some additional modification of the apparatus, and particularly
in those cases in which powerful magnets cannot be applied. And such
a modification appears to me to be obviously pointed out in the con-
struction of Professor Schweigger’s galvanic ‘multiplier’; the principles
of this instrument being directly applicable to all the experiments in
which Mr. Sturgeon’s improvement fails to be useful.”*

Should any one be disposed to conelude that this simple extension of
Schweigger’s multiple coil was unimportant and unmeritorious, the ready
answer occurs, that talented and skillful electricians, laboring to attain
the result, had for six years failed to make such an extension. Nor was
the result by any means made antecedently assured by Schweigger’s
success with the galvanometer. If Sturgeon’s improvement of econo-
mizing the battery size and consumption, by increasing the magnet
factor (in those few cases where available), was well deserving of reward,
surely Henry’s improvement of a far greater economy, by increasing
the circuit factor (entirely neglected by Sturgeon), deserved a still higher
applause.

In a subsequent communication to Silliman’s Journal, Henry remarks
on the results announced in October, 1527: “Shortly after the publica-
tion mentioned, several other applications of the coil, besides those de-
scribed in that paper, were made in order to increase the size of electro-
magnetic apparatus, and to diminish the necessary galvanic power. The
most interesting of these was its application to a development of mag-
netism in soft iron, much more extensive than to my knowledge had been

* Transactions of the Albany Institute, vol. i, pp. 22, 23.

282 HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPIL

previously effected by a small galvanic element.” And in another later
paper, he repeated to the same effect: “After reading an account of
the galvanometer of Schweigger, the idea occurred to me that a much
nearer approximation to the theory of Ampére could be attained by in-
sulating the conducting-wire itself, instead of the rod to be magnetized ;
and by covering the whole surface of the iron with a series of coils in
close contact.”

The electro-magnet figured and described by Sturgeon (in his commu-
nication of November, 1825,) consisted of a small bar or stout iron wire
bent into a q or horse-shoe form, having a copper wire wound loosely
around it in eighteen turns, with the ends of the wire dipping into mer-
cury-cups connected with the respective poles of a battery having 130
square inches of active surface. This was undoubtedly the most effi-
cient electro-magnet then in existence.

In June of 1828, Henry exhibited to the Albany Institute a small-sized
electro-magnet closely wound with silk-covered copper wire about one-
thirtieth of an inch in diameter. By thus insulating the conducting
wire, instead of the magnetic bar or core, he was enabled to employ a
compact coil in close juxtaposition from one end of the horse-shoe to the
other, obtaining thereby a much larger number of circuits, and with
each circuit more nearly at right angles with the magnetic axis. The
lifting power of this magnet is not stated, though it must obviously have
been much more powerful than the one described by Sturgeon. |

In March of 1829, Henry exhibited to the Institute a somewhat larger
magnet of the same character. ‘A round piece of iron about one-quar-
ter of an inch in diameter was bent into the usual form of a horse-shoe,
and instead of losely coiling around it a few feet of wire, as is usually
described, it was tightly wound with 35 feet of wire covered with silk,
so as to form about 400 turns; a pair of small galvanic plates which
could be dipped into a tumbler of diluted acid, was soldered to the ends
of the wire, and the whole mounted ona stand. With these small plates
the horse-shoe became much more powerfully magnetic than another of
the same size and wound in the usual manner, by the application of a
battery composed of 28 plates of copper and zinc each 8 inches square.”
In this case the coil was wound upon itself in successive layers.

To Henry, therefore, belongs the exclusive credit of having first con-
structed the magnetic “spool” or “bobbin,” that form of coil since
universally employed for every application of electro-magnetism, of in-
duction, or of magneto-electrics.

In the latter part of 1829, Henry still further increased the magnetic
power derived from a single galvanic pair of small size, by a new arrange-
ment of the coil. ‘It consisted in using several strands of wire eacn
covered with silk, instead of one.” Employing a horse-shoe formed
from a cylindrical bar of iron half an inch in diameter and about ten
inches long, wound with 30 feet of tolerably fine copper wire, he found

HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH. . 283

that with a current from only two and a half square inches of zine, the
magnet held 14 pounds.* Winding upon its arms a second wire of the
same length (30 feet) whose ends were similarly joined to the same gal-
vanie pair, the magnet lifted 28 pounds. On these results he remarks :

‘“These experiments conclusively proved that a great development of
magnetism could be effected by a very small galvanic element, and also
that the power of the coil was materially increased by multiplying the
number of wires, without increasing the length of each. The multi-
plication of the wires increases the power in two ways: first, by con-
ducting a greater quantity of galvanism, and secondly, by giving it a
more proper direction; for since the action of a galvanic current is di-
rectly at right angles to the axis of a magnetic needle, by using sev-
eral shorter wires we can wind one on each inch of the length of the
bar to be magnetized, so that the magnetism of each inch will be de-
veloped by a separate wire. In this way the action of each particular
coil becomes directed very nearly at right angles to the axis of the bar,
and consequently the effect is the greatest possible. This principle is
of much greater importance when large bars are used. The adyvan-
tage of a greater conducting power from using several wires might in a
less degree be obtained by substituting for them one large wire of equal
sectional area; but in this case the obliquity of the spiral would be much
greater, and consequently the magnetic action less.” t

But in the following year, 1830, Henry pressed forward his researches
to still higher results. Assisted by his friend Dr. Philip Ten-Eyck, he
proceeded to test the power of electro-magnetic attraction on a larger
scale. ‘‘A bar of soft iron 2 inches square and 20 inches long was bent
into the form of a horseshoe 94 inches high; (the sharp edges of the bar
were first a little rounded by the hammer;) it weighed 21 pounds. A
piece of iron from the same bar, weighing 7 pounds, was filed perfectly
flat on one surface for an armature or lifter. The extremities of the
legs of the horse-shoe were also truly ground to the surface of the arm-
ature. Around this horse-shoe 540 feet of copper bell-wire were wound
in nine coils of 60 feet each; these coils were not continued around the
whole length of the bar, but each strand of wire (according to the prin-
ciple before mentioned) occupied about two inches and was coiled sev-
eral times backward and forward over itself. The several ends of the
wires were left projecting, and all numbered, so that the first and the
last end of each strand might be readily distinguished. In this man-
ner we formed an experimental magnet on a large seale, with which
several combinations of wire could be made by merely uniting the dif-
ferent projecting ends. Thus if the second end of the first wire be
soldered to the first end of the second wire, and so on through all the
series, the whole will form a continued coil of one long wire. By solder-

*It must not be forgotten that at the time when this experimental magnet was
made, the strongest electro-magnet in Europe was that of Sturgeon, capable of sup-
porting 9 pounds, with 130 square inches of zine surface in the battery.

tSillimaws Am. Journal of Science, Jan. 1831, vol. xix, p. 402.

284 HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH.

ing different ends, the whole may be formed into a double coil of half
the length, or into a triple-coil of one-third the length, &e. The horse-
shoe was suspended in a strong rectangular wooden-frame 3 feet 9
inches high and 20 inches wide.”

Two of the wires (one from each extremity of the legs) being joined
together by soldering, so as to form a single circuit of 120 feet, with its
extreme ends connected with the battery, produced a lifting-power of
60 pounds. (Experiment19.) The same two wires being separately con-
nected with the same battery (forming a double circuit of 60 feet each),
a lifting-power of 200 pounds was obtained, (Experiment 10,) or more
than three times the power of the former case with the same wire.
Four wires (two from each extremity of the legs) being separately con-
nected with the battery (forming four circuits) gave a lifting-power of
500 pounds. (Experiment 12.) Six wires (three from each leg) united in
three pairs (forming three circuits of 180 feet each) gave a lifting-power
of 290 pounds. (Experiment 18.) The same six wires being separately
connected with the battery in six independent circuits, produced a lift-
ing-power of 570 pounds, (Experiment 13,) or very nearly double that of
the same wires in double-lengths. When all the nine wires were sepa-
rately attached to the battery a lifting-power of 650 pounds was evoked.
(Experiment 14.) In all these experiments “a small single battery was
used, consisting of two concentric copper cylinders, with zine between
them; the whole amount of zinc-surface exposed to the acid from both
sides of the zinc was two-fifths of a square foot; the battery required
only half a pint of dilute acid for its submersion.”

‘Tn order to ascertain the effect of a very small galvanic element on
this large quantity of iron, a pair of plates eractly one inch square was
attached to all the wires; the weight lifted was 85 pounds.” (Experi-
ment 16.) For the purpose of obtaining the maximum attractive power
of this magnet, with its nine independent coils, “a small battery formed
with a plate of zine 12 inches long and 6 wide, and surrounded by cop-
per, was substituted for the galvanic element used in the former experi-
ments: the weight lifted in this case was 750 pounds.” (Experiment
1D.) *

Although not directly connected with the purpose of this exposition,

* Silliman’s Am. Jour. Sci. same vol. pp. 404, 405. The only European physicist who
at this period had obtained any magnetic results even approaching those etiected by
Henry, was Dr. Gerard Moll (professor of natural philosophy in the University of
Utrecht), who having seen in England in 1828 an electro-magnet of Sturgeon’s which
supported nine pounds (the very year in which Henry had exhibited a much more
powerful magnet before the Albany Institute), ‘determined to try the effect of a larger
galvanic apparatus” ; and in 1830 remarked, ‘I obtained results which appear astonish-
ing.” Having formed a horse-shoe about twelve and a half inches in height, of around
bar of iron two and a quarter inches in diameter, he surrounded it with about 26 feet
of insulated cepper wire one-eighth of an inch thick, in a tolerably close coil of 44
turns. The weight of the whole was about 26 pounds; and with the current from a
galvanic pair of about 11 square feet of zine surface, the magnet sustained a weight of
154 pounds. (Brewster’s Edinburgh Journal of Science, Oct., 1830, vol. iii, n. s. p. 214.)
Henry’s magnet less in size and weight, lifted about tive times this load, with only
one-eleventh of Moll’s battery surface.

HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH. 285

it may be added here that in the following year, 1831, Henry constructed
for the laboratory of Yale College a magnet about one foot high from a
three inch octagonal bar of iron thirty inches long, which wrapped with
twenty-six strands of copper wire and excited by a battery surface of
about five square feet, supported 2,300 pounds. Professor Silliman wrote
on this occasion, “ He has the honor of having constructed by far the
most powerful magnets that have ever been known; and his last, weigh-
ing (armature and all) but 824 pounds, sustains over a ton. It is eight
times more powerful than any magnet hitherto known in Europe.”*
And Sturgeon (if not the real father, at least the true foster-father, of
the electro-magnet), with a generous enthusiasm, remarked: ‘ Professor
Henry has been enabled to produce a magnetic force which totally eclipses
every other in the whole annals of magnetism; and no parallel is to be
found since the miraculous suspension of the celebrated oriental impostor:
in his iron coffin.” t

But to return to his investigations of 1830, Henry, after finding that
the highest attractive power of the magnet was developed by his novel
artifice of multiple coils, proceeded to experiment with the simple spool
magnet of long continuous single coil; and his researches were rewarded
by a new discovery, namely that though the former method of winding
the magnet produced the strongest attraction, the latter arrangement
(under special conditions) permitted the weaker attractive power to be
exercised at a far greater distance; that is through a much greater
length of conducting wire.

Employing his earlier and smaller magnet of 1829, formed of a quar-
ter-inch rod, but wound with about 8 feet of copper wire, he tried the ef-
fects of different battery powers, of different length of circuits, and of dif-
ferent lengths of coil upon the magnet. Excited with a single pair, ‘‘ com-
posed of a piece of zine plate 4 inches by 7, surrounded with copper”
(about 56 square inches of zine surface), the magnet sustained four and
ahalf pounds. (Experiment 4.) With about 500 feet of insulated copper
wire (.045 of an inch in diameter) interposed between the battery and
the magnet, its lifting-power was reduced to two ounces; (Experiment 5;)
or about 36 times. With double this length of wire (ora little over 1,000
feet) interposed, the lifting-power of the magnet was only half an ounce ;
(Experiment 4;) thus fully confirming the results obtained by Barlow
with the galvanometer; and showing that the same conditions of en-
feebled action with increasing length of circuit applied equally to the
magnet. With asmall galvanic pair 2 inches square, acting through
the same length of wire, (over 1,000 feet,) “the magnetism was scarcely
observable in the horse-shoe.” (Experiment 3.)

Employing next a trough battery of 25 pairs, having the same zinc
surface as previously, the magnet in direct connection, (which before had
supported four and a half pounds,) now lifted but seven ounces; not

*Silliman’s Am. Jour. Sci. April, 1831, vol. xx, p. 201.
tPhilosophical Magazine; and Annals, March, 1832, vol. xi, p. 199.

286 HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH.

quite half a pound. But with the 1,060 feet of copper wire (a little more
than one fifth of a mile) suspended several times across the large room
of the academy, and placed in the galvanic circuit, the same magnet sus-
tained eight ounces: (Experiment 7:) that is to say, the current from the
galvanic trough produced greater magnetic effect through this length
of wire, than it did without it.

“From this experiment it appears that the current from a galvanie
trough is capable of producing greater magnetic effect on soft iron after
traversing more than one-fifth of a mile of intervening wire than when
it passes only through the wire surrounding the magnet. It is possible
that the different states of the trough with respect to dryness may have
exerted some influence on this remarkable result; but that the effect of
a current from a trough if not increased is but slightly diminished in
passing through a long wire is certain.” And after speculating on this
new and at the time somewhat paradoxical result, Henry concludes :
‘But be this as it may, the fact that the magnetie action of a current
from a trough is at least not sensibly diminished by passing through a
long wire, is directly applicable to Mr. Barlow’s project of forming an
electro-magnetic telegraph ;* and it is also of material consequence in
the construction of the galvanic coil. From these experiments it is
evident that in forming the coil we may either use one very long wire,
or several shorter ones, aS the circumstances may require: in the first
casa, our galvanic combination must consist of a number of plates so as
to give ‘projectile’ force; in the second, it must be formed of a single
pair.” t

The importance of this discovery can hardly be overestimated. The
magnetic “spool” of fine wire, of a length—tens and even hundreds of
times that ever before employed for this purpose,—was in itself a gift to
science, which really forms an epoch in the history of electro-magnetism.
It is not too much to say that almost every advancement which has been
made in this fruitful branch of physies since the time of Sturgeon’s happy
improvement, from the earliest researches of Faraday downward, have
been directly indebted to Henry’s magnets.t By means of the Henry
“spool” the magnet almost at a bound was developed from a feeble
childhood to a vigorous manhood. And so rapidly and generally was
the new form introduced abroad among experimenters, few of whom had
ever seen the papers of Henry, that probably very few indeed have been

* Really Ampere’s project, not Barlow’s. In a subsequent paper Henry corrected
this allusion by saying, ‘‘I called it ‘Barlow’s project,’ when I ought to have stated
that Mr. Barlow’s investigation merely tended to disprove the possibility of a
telegraph.”

tSilliman’s Am. Jour. Sci. Jan. 1831, vol. xix, pp. 403, 404.

t Both forms of the Henry magnet have found valuable applications in science. In
Faraday’s first electrical inv estigations, in the latter part of 1831, he acknowledgeé
the merit of Henry’s magnets, and in constructing his duplex helices for observing
the phenomena of induction, he adopted Henry’s method of winding 12 coils of copper
wire each 27 feet long, one upon the other. (Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society, November 24, 1831, vol. exxii [for 1832], pp. 126 and 138. And Faraday’s Ex-
perimental Researches, ete. vol. i, art. 6, p. 2, and art. 57, p. 15.)

HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH. 287

aware to whom they were really indebted for this familiar and powerful
instrumentality. But the historic fact remains, that prior to Henry’s
experiments in 1829, no one on either hemisphere had ever thought of
winding the limbs of an electro-magnet on the principle of the “ bobbin,”
and not till after the publication of Henry’s method in January of 1831,
was it ever employed by any European physicist.*

But in addition to this large gift to science, Henry (as we have seen)
has the pre-eminent claim to popular gratitude of having first practi-
eally worked out the differing functions of two entirely different kinds
of electro-magnet: the one surrounded with numerous coils of no great
length, designated by him the “quantity” magnet, the other sur-
rounded with a continuous coil of very great length, designated by
him the “intensity” magnet.t The former and more powerful system,
least affected by an “intensity” battery of many pairs, was shown to
be most responsive to a single galvanic element: the latter and feebler
system, least influenced by a single pair, was shown to be most excited
by a battery of numerous elements; but at the same time was shown to
have the singular capability (never before suspected nor imagined) of
subtile excitation from a distant source. Here for the first time is ex-
perimentally established the important principle that there must be a
proportion between the aggregate internal resistance of the battery and
the whole external resistance of the conjunctive wire or conducting
circuit; with the very important practical consequence, that by com-
bining with an “intensity” magnet of a single extended fine coil an
“intensity” battery of many small pairs, its electro-motive force enables
avery long conductor to be employed without sensible diminution of the
effect.t This was a very important though unconscious experimental
confirmation of the mathematical theory of Ohm, embodied in his for-
mula expressing the relation between electric flow and electric resist-
ance, which though propounded two or three years previously, failed
for a long time to attract any attention from the scientific world. §

*Henry’s “spool” magnet appears to have been introduced into France by Pouillet
in 18382. See ‘‘Supplement,” Nore D.

t‘‘In describing the results of my experiments the terms ‘intensity’ and ‘quantity’
magnets were introduced to avoid cireumlocution, and were intended to be used merely
in a technical sense. By the intensity magnet I designated a piece of soft iron so sur-
rounded with wire that its magnetic power could be called into operation by an ‘in-
tensity’ battery; and by a quantity magnet, a piece of iron so surrounded by a number
of separate coils that its magnetism could be fully developed by a ‘quantity’ battery.”
(Smithsonian Report for 1857, p. 103.) These terms though generally discarded by recent
writers, are still very convenient designations of the two classes of action, both in the
baitery and in the magnet.

} Beyond a certain maximum length, there is of course a decrease of power for each
differing coil of the “intensity” magnet, proportioned to the increased resistance of
a long conductor; but the magnetizing effect has not been found to be diminished in
the ratio of its length. Ina very long wire, the magnetizing influence (with a suit-
able ‘“‘intensity” battery) appears to be inversely proportioned to the square of the
length of the conductor.

§Georg Simon Ohm, professor in physics at Munich, published at Berlin, in 1827,
his ‘‘Galvanische Kette, mathematisch bearbeitet:” and in the following year, he
published a supplementary paper entitled ‘“‘Nachtriige zu seiner mathematischen
Bearbeitung der galvanischen Kette;” in Kastner’s Archiv fiir gesammte Naturlehre:

288 HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH.

Never let it be forgotten that he who first exalted the ‘ quantity”
magnet of Sturgeon from a power of twenty pounds to a power of twenty
hundred pounds, was the absolute CREATOR of the “intensity” mag-
net; that magnet which alone is able to act at a great distance from its
exciting battery ;—that magnet which by very reason of its lower
“quantity ” is alone applicable to the uses of telegraphy.

As Professor Daniell has concisely stated the problem: ‘“ Electro-
magnets of the greatest power, even when the most energetic batteries
are employed, utterly cease to act when they are connected by consider-
able lengths of wire with the battery.” *

Seven years after Henry’s first experimental demonstration of this
unlooked-for result, and his complete establishment of the conditions
required for magnetizing iron at great distances through very long con-
ducting wires, Prof. Charles Wheatstone, of King’s College, London,
having found a difficulty in signaling through four miles of wire, was
enabled to work out the problem for his own telegraph, by help derived
from Henry’s labors. And yet he permitted his colleague, Prof. John
F. Daniell, of King’s College, to prefix to the passage above quoted
from the excellent treatise on ‘Chemical Philosophy,” the remarkable
statement: “Ingenious as Professor Wheatstone’s contrivances are, they
would have been of no avail for telegraphic purposes without the in-
vestigation, which he was the first to make, of the laws of electro-magnets,
when acted on through great lengths of wire.” And this erroneous
declaration was published long after Henry’s “ quantity” and “ intensity”
magnets had been employed in the experiments of European elec-
tricians; and years after Professor Wheatstone himself had formed the
acquaintance of Henry, and in April, 1837, had learned from his own
lips an account of his elaborate investigations and successful results.t

Whether Baron Schilling ever experimented on a sufficient length of
circuit to encounter the fundamental practical difficulty announced by
Barlow in 1825 does not appear; but that formidable obstacle to the
actual extension of his enterprise, certainly existed until the year 1831,
when Henry announced that the principles demonstrated by his re-
searches in 1829 and 1830, were ‘directly applicable to the project of
forming an electro-magnetic telegraph.” And while these principles

(8vo. Niirnberg :) 1828, vol. xiv, pp. 475-493. Fourteen years after the publication of
the former memoir, this elaborate discussion was for the first time translated into
English, by Mr. William Francis. (‘‘The Galvanic Circuit investigated mathemat-
ically.” ‘Taylor’s Scientific Memoirs, ete. London, 1841, vol. ii, pp. 401-506. )

“Introduction to the Study of Chemical Philosophy, second edition, 8vo. London,
1843, chap. xvi, sect. 859, p. 576.

t Smithsonian Report for 1857, pp. 111, 112. The following pertinent extract is
made from an excellent and appreciative memoir of the ‘‘ Life and Work of Joseph
Henry,” recently read at the annual session of the American Electrical Society, at
Chicago, Ill., December 12, 1873, by one of its vice-presidents, Mr. Frank L. Pope: ‘ In
1856, referring again to these experiments, Wheatstone writes: ‘With this law and its
applications, no persons in England, who had before occupied themselves with experi-
ments relating to electric telegraphs, had been acquainted.’ . . . It would seem
from the peculiar wording of Wheatstone’s statement last quoted, that he must then
have been aware of Henry’s priority in this respect, and had his experiments in mind,
at the time of writing it.” (Journal of the Am. Electrical Society, vol. ii, pp. 135, 136.)
This subject is more fully considered in the ‘‘ Supplement,” NOTE F.

HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH. 289

underlie all subsequent applications of the intermittent magnet, they
form indeed the indispensable basis of every form of the electro-mag-
netic telegraph since invented. They settled satisfactorily (in Barlow’s
phrase) the “only question which could render the result doubtful”; and
though derived from the magnet, were obviously as applicable to the
galvahometer needle.*

It is idle to say in disparagement of these successes, that in the
competitive race of numerous distinguished investigators in the field,
diligently searching into the conditions of the new-found agency, the
same results would sooner or later have been reached by others. For
of what discovery or invention may not the same be said? Only those
who have sought in the twilight of uncertainty, can appreciate the vast
economy of effort by prompt directions to the path from one who has
gained an advance. Not for what might be, but for the actual bestowal,
does he who first grasps a valuable truth merit the return of at least a
grateful recognition.

1831. Asan experimental demonstration of the telegraph—now made
possible, Joseph Henry, early in the year 1831, suspended around the
walls of one of the upper rooms in the Albany Academy, a mile of cop-
per bell-wire interposed in a circuit between a small Cruickshanks bat-
tery and an “intensity” magnet. A narrow steel rod (a permanent
magnet) pivoted to swing horizontally like the compass needle, was ar-
ranged so that one end remained in contact with a limb of the soft iron
core, while near the opposite end of the compass rod a small stationary
office-bell was placed. At each excitation of the electro-magnet, the
compass rod or needle was repelled from one limb (by its similar mag-
netism) and attracted by the other limb, so that its free end tapped the
bell. On reversing the current, the compass rod moved back to the op-
posite limb of the electro-magnet. This simple device the Professor was
accustomed to exhibit to his classes at the academy, during the years
1831 and 1832, in illustration of the facility of transmitting signals to a
distance by the prompt action of electro-magnetism. f

This memorable experimental telegraphic arrangement involved three
very significant and important novelties. In the first place, it was the
first electro-magnetic telegraph employing an “intensity” magnet ¢a-

“When urged by a zealous friend to secure an early patent on these valuable and
pregnant improvements, Henry resolutely withstood every importunity, seeming to
feel that a discoverer’s position and aptitude are lowered by courting self-aggrandize-
ment from scientific truth; aself-denying generosity which characterized hin through-
out his life. While such disinterestedness cannot fail to excite our admiration, if may
perhaps be questioned whether in this case it did not, from a practical point of view,
amount to an over-fastidiousness; whether such legal establishment of ownership,
shielding the possessor from the occasional depreciations of the envious, and securing
by its more tangible remunerations the leisure and the means for more extended re-
searches, would not have been to science more than a compensation for the supposed
sacrifice of dignity by the philosopher. Since the date of the American patents of
Wheatstone and of Morse (ten years later) several hundred patents have been granted
in this country for ingenious improvements upon or modifications of the electro-mag-
netic telegraph, all of them necessarily dependent on Henry’s original invention.

tor the testimonials of a few surviving eye-witnesses to the practical working of
Henry’s experimental line in 1831, and 1852, see ‘‘ Supplement,” Nore E.

S. Mis. 59 19

290 HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH.

pable of being excited at very great distances from a suitable “intensity”
battery. And there can be no doubt that a similar combination of ‘in-
tensity” battery, with a very long coil galvanometer (such as had _ pre-
viously been found inoperative), was alone wanting to have rendered the
early telegraph of Schilling a popular and commercial success.

In the second place, this experimental arrangement of Henry was the
first electro-magnetic telegraph employing the armature as the signaling
device; or employing the attractive power of the intermittent magnet, as
distinguished from the directive action of the galvanic circuit. That is
to say, it was strictly speaking the first “‘ magnetic telegraph.”

In the third place, it was the first acoustic electro-magnetic telegraph.
One practical inconvenience of the “needle” system has been found to
be the perfect silence of its indications ; and hence in almost every case
a call-alarm has been required to insure attention to its messages. In
this respect the intermittent magnet presents the advantage, not merely
of a greater mechanical power from the same galvanic current, and thus
of a better adaptation for striking a bell at a distance, but of being in
itself an audible sounder by the mere impacts of its armature.*

It is suggestive to consider for a moment how different would have
been the popular estimate of Henry’s labors, (and especially the practi-
cal estimation of subsequent patentees), if the modest discoverer and in-
ventor had been ‘ worldly-wise” enough to secure an early patent on
these three indisputably original and most pregnant features of teleg-
raphy :—to contest which no rival has ever appeared.t

In 1852, Henry was elected to the chair of natural philosophy in the
college of New Jersey, at Princeton. In 1834, he constructed for the
laboratory of this college an original and ingenious form of galvanic bat-
tery, comprising eighty-eight elements, (each having an active zine sur-
face of one and a half square feet,) of which any number, from a single
pair upward, could be brought into action; while by means of adjustable

*Tt may be incidentally mentioned that early i in 1831, after the satisfactory opera-
tion of the first telegraphic magnet, Henry contrived the first Electro-magnetic Engine,
comprising an oscillating horizontal electro-m agnetic bar, just below each end of which
was secured an upright permanent magnet, the two havi ing similar poles. The polar-
ity of the oscillating electro-magnet was reversed at the moment of attractive contact,
by automatically inverting the circuit current, and thus each of its poles was alter-
nately attracted and repelled by its neighboring magnet. (Silliman’s 4m. Journal of
Science, July, 1831, vol. xx, pp. 340-343. ) Henry was therefore the original inventor
of the automatic pole- -changer or commutator,—a device having a very Wide 1 range of
useful appleation. The illustrious English phy sicist, James P. Joule, in his His-
torical Sketch of the rise and progress Sof Electro- -magnetic Engines for propelling
machinery,” remarks: “The improved plan by Professor Henry of raising the magnetic
action of soft iron, developed new and inexhaustible sources of force which appeared
easily and extensiv ely available as a mechanical agent; and it is to the ingenious
American philosopher, that we are indebted for the first form of a working model of
an engine upon the principle of reciprocating polarity of soft iron by electro- dynamic
agency.” (Sturgeon’s Annals of Llectricity, ete. March, 1839, vol. iii, p. 430.)

t A quarter of a century afterward Henry could proudly say, “I have sought no pat-
ent for inventions, and solicited no remuneration for 1 my labors, but have freely @ elven
their results to the world; expecting only in return to enjoy the consciousness of Phavy-
ing added by my iny estigations to the sum of human knowledge, and to receive the
credit to which they might justly entitle me.” (Smithsonian Report for 1857, p. 86.)

HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH. 291

conductors, all the positive elements could be associated together, as
also all the negative ones, so as to form virtually a single pair having 132
square feet of zine surface, or any smaller area desired. In this manner
the apparatus could readily be transformed into a “quantity” battery,
or an “intensity” battery, at pleasure. In the same year he constructed
for the laboratory a powerful “‘ quantity ” magnet, surpassing his Yale
College magnet; its lifting power, with a battery not exceeding one
eubic foot in bulk, being 3,500 pounds. In the following year, 1835, he
extended wires across the front campus of the college grounds, from the
upper story of the library building to the philosophical hall on the op-
posite side, through which magnetic signals were occasionally sent, dis-
tinguished by the number of taps on the bell, as first exhibited by him
four or five years earlier in the hall of the Albany Academy. Although
Henry had established the fact (contrary to all the antecedent expecta-
tion of physicists) that the most powerful form of magnet—the “ quan-
tity” magnet—is not the form best adapted to distant action through an
extended circuit, the ingenious idea occurred to him that he could easily
combine such a system with the _teebler “intensity” system, so as to
produce powerful mechanical action at almost any required distance. It
was simply necessary to apply to the oscillating armature of the distant
“intensit. ” magnet a suitable prolongation so arranged as to open and
close the short circuit of the adjoining “quantity” magnet of any avail-
able power. It was with his Princeton telegraph line, and its compar-
atively feeble magnet, that he undertook the experiment of breaking by
the mere lift of a small wire from a mercury thimble the “quantity” cir-
cuit of his monster magnet, and thus causing its heavy load to fa
force scarcely safe if exerted through any sensible distance. He thus
fully illustrated the practicability of calling into action at a great
distance a power capable of producing the most energetic mechanical
efiects.*

1833. Ten years after the experimental telegraph of Schilling, Pro-
fessors Carl Friedrich Gauss and Wilhelm Edward Weber constructed
at Gottingen a galvanometer telegraph of single circuit from the Cabinet
of Natural Philosophy to the Observatory, a distance of about a mile and
a half. The two naked wires after the method of Weber were carried
over the houses and steeples of Géttingen, being supported by insula-
tors. The battery power being small, the receiving apparatus consisted
of a “multiplier” containing a very great length of fine silvered copper
wire; and the magnetic bar suspended by a silk thread carried on the
axis of suspension a small mirror, whose minute deflections were observed
at the distance of ten or ues feet through a telescope. t The tele-

* Smithsonian Report for 1857, pp. 106, ily,

t This appears to be one of the first employments of a reflecting galvyanometer, an
instrument which in the hands of Sir William Thomson has been brought to an ex-
treme degree of sensibility, and has rendered ocean telegraphy possible. As early as
1826, how ever, Prof. Christian J. Poggendorff applied the reflector to the magnetic
needle for accurately determining minute variations in its horizontal declination.
(Pogg. Annalen der Phys. und Chem. 1826, vol. vii. pp. 121-130.)

292 HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH.

graph was first worked by a galvanic current from a battery, and after-
ward for convenience by the secondary current from a magneto-electric
apparatus; to which Gauss adapted an arrangement of commutator,
whereby the direction of the induced current could be instantly reversed
by a touch of the finger. The alphabet of signs was made up of differ-
ing combinations of right and left deflections of the needle. Weber ap-
plied to the signaling device a delicate apparatus for setting off a clock
alarm.*

1836. Prof. C. A. Steinheil, of Munich, at the request of Gauss, (who
was absorbed in more abstract researches on magnetism,) in 1834, under-
took todevelop and improve his arrangement; and in 1836 had construct-
ed a similar galvanometer telegraph line between Munich and Bogen-
hausen, a distance of about two miles. t+ Employing a greater power he
arranged at the receiving station the magnetic bar or double bars of the
galvanometer with a larger sweep, so that two bells of differing tones
should be struck thereby; and he thus produced an acoustic telegraph
(five years later than Henry’s), capable of audible language, and dis-
pensing with the occasion for any call-alarm. To the adjacent ends of
the two magnetic bars having opposite polarities, but oscillating within
the same coil, he applied fountain pens or marking-points so as to make
permanent alternating dots on a fillet of paper carried under them by
the regular movement of clock-work, in the manner long familiarly em-
ployed in self-registering meteorological and other instruments. <Al-
though Dyar, on Long Island, had devised a chemical register as early
as 1828, and had partly executed it by a successful trial, this double
magnet of Steinheil appears to constitute the earliest operative applica-
tion of an automatic record to the electric, or to the electro-magnetic,
telegraph. Steinheil also improved somewhat on the alphabet of Gauss,
though adopting substantially the same system. t

In the following year, 1837, he nade another most important improve-
ment in practical telegraphy, by the unexpected discovery that even the
single circuit of a to and fro line could be further simplified by the
suppression and economy of one-half of its wire.§

* Gottingische Gelehrte Anzeigen, Aug. 9, 1834, part ii, No. 128, pp. 1272, 1273. And
Polytechnisches Central-Blatt, June, 1838, Jahrgang iv, No. 31, pp. 487-496.

t According to Dr. Hamel of St. Petersburg, in the early part of July, 1837, ‘‘Stein-
heil, at Munich, had completed the connection of his house in the Lerchenstrasse with
the building of the Academy of Sciences, and with the Royal Observatory at Bogen-
hausen, by means of 56,000 feet of wire for conducting the current both ways, the
wires being suspended in the air.” (Journal of Society of Arts, July 29, 1859, vol. vii,
p. 609.)

t Steinheil remarks: ‘‘ As long as the intervals between the separate signs remain
equal, they are to be taken together as a connected group, whether they be pauses be-
tween the tones, or intervals between the dots marked down. A longer pause separ-
ates these groups distinctly from each other. We are thus enable 1, by appropriately
selected groups thus combined,to form systems representing the letters of the alpha-
bet. or stenographie characters, and thereby to repeat and render permanent at all
parts of the chain where an apparatus like that above described 1s inserted, any in-
formation that we transmit. The alphabet that I have chosen represents the letters
that oceur the oftenest in German by the simplest signs.” (Sturgeon’s Annals of Elec-
tricity, ete. April, 1839, vol. iii, p. 520.)

§‘‘In 1837 Professor Steinheil operated a telegraph line between Munich and Bogen-

'
t

HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH. 293

‘Quite recently I made the discovery that the ground may be em-
ployed as one-half of the connecting chain. As in the case of frictional
electricity, water or the ground may with the galvanic current form a
portion of the connecting wire. Owing to the low conducting power of
these bodies compared with metals, it is necessary that at the two places
where the metal conductor is in connection with the semi-conductor, the
former should present very large surfaces of contact. Taking water for
instance to conduct two million times worse than copper, a surface of
water proportional to this must be brought in contact with the copper,
to enable the galvanic current to meet with equal resistance in equal
distances of water and of metal ; for instance, if the section of a copper
wire is one-half of a square line, it will require a copper plate of 61 square
feet of surface in order to conduct the galvanic current through the
ground as the wire in question would conduct it: but as the thickness
of the metal is quite immaterial in this case, it will be always within
our reach to get the requisite surfaces of contact at no great expense.
Not only do we by this means save half the conducting wire, but we can
even reduce the resistance of the ground below what that of the wire
would be, as has been fully established by experiments made here with
the experimental telegraph.” *

In his account of these valuable contributions to both the science and
the art of electric telegraphy, Steinheil modestly assigns to his immedi-
ate predecessors the credit of the most important advancements in the
system. He says: “To Gauss and Weber is due the merit of having, in
1833, actually constructed the first simplified galvano-magnetie telegraph.
It was Gauss who first employed the excitement of induction [magneto-
electricity], and who demonstated that the appropriate combination of a
limited number of signs is all that is required for the transmission of
communication. Weber’s discovery that a copper wire 7,460 feet long,
which he had led across the houses and steeples at Gottingen, from the
Observatory to the Cabinet of Natural Philosophy, required no special
insulation, was one of great importance. The principle was thereby at
once established of bringing the galvanic telegraph to the most conven-
ient form. In accordance with the principles we have laid down, all that
was required in addition to this was to render the signals audible; a task
that apparently presented no very particular difficulty, inasmuch as in
the very scheme itself a mechanical motion—namely the deflection of a

hausen, in Germany, using iron wire conductors, and the earth for a return circuit.
This discovery was published in 1837, in German, and translated into English by
Julian Guggsworth, November 24, 1838.” (Prescott’s Hist. Electr. Telegraph, 1860, chap.
xxi, p. 405.) An account of Steinheil’s telegraph was read before the French Academy
of Sciences, September 10, 1838. (Comptes Rendus, vol. vii, pp. 590-593.)

*Steinheil’s paper ‘‘On Telegraphic Communication :” translated from the German,
November 24, 1838, by Julian Guggsworth. Sturgeon’s Annals of Blectricity, ete.
April, 1839, vol. iii, p. 512. A full description of Steinheil’s telegraph is given in Dr.
Julius Dub’s Anwendung des Elektromagnetismus, Berlin, 1863; 2d edition, 1873, sect. v,
pp. 339-347,

+ These statements do not however do justice to Schilling’s much earlier ‘‘simpli-
fied galvano-magnetic telegraph,” with which Steinheil was very inperfectly ac-
quainted.

294 HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH.

magnetic bar—was given. All that we had to do therefore was to
contrive that this motion should be made available for striking bells or
for marking indelible dots. This falls within the province of mechan-
ics, and there are therefore more ways than one of solving the prob-
lem. Hence the alterations that I have made in the telegraph of
Gauss, and by which if has assumed its present form, may be said to
be founded on my perception and improvement of its imperfections, in
harmony with what I had previously laid down as necessary for perfect
telegraphic communication. I by no means however look on the arrange-
nent I have selected as complete; but as it answers the purpose I had
in view, it may be well to abide by it till some simpler arrangement is
contrived.”* To Steinheil’s lasting honor be it said, that when some
dozen years later “a simpler arrangement” of the receiving instrument
was brought to his attention, he was the first to appreciate it and to
urge upon the Bavarian Government its adoption, to the abandonment
of a portion of his own beautiful system. An example of magnanimity,
or more properly of intellectual and unbiased judgment, much rarer
with inventors of practical improvements in art, than with discoverers
of truth in science.

These later developments of the telegraph, though in public use at
the dates specified, not having been generally described by their authors
immediately for publication, were from the meager notices of them found
in the foreign journals, but little known in this country for several years
afterward; and hence naturally arose the strong patriotic impression
with many that the electro-magnetic telegraph was essentially an Amer-
ican invention.

About the same time that Steinheil in Munich was engaged in im-
proving the needle telegraph, a distinguished chemical philosopher of
London, was developing the galvanic battery; and he succeeded in
giving that important apparatus a uniformity and continuity of action
previously unhoped for. In the adopted forms of the Voltaic battery
as arranged by Cruickshanks and others, the oxygen liberated by the
active zine surface rapidly attacked the plate, forming a coating of oxide
over it which soon greatly impaired its chemical and galvanic efficiency.
On the other hand, the hydrogen liberated at the surface of the copper,
remained largely adherent to it in the form of minute bubbles, thus in-
sulating it to a corresponding extent from contact with the liquid; while
at the same time dissolved zine was deposited on 1ts exposed surface.

To obviate these impediments, Professor John Frederic Daniell pro-
vided a porous partition between the two metals, which while permitting
the necessary conductibility from one side to the other, prevented the
convective intermixture of the separated portions of liquid, and thus
also allowed for the first time two different liquids to be employed for
bathing the different metals. The liquid employed on the copper side

* Sturgeon’s Annals of Hiectricity, etc. Mar. 1839, vol. iii, pp. 448, 449,

j
;

HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH. 295

was asaturated solution of the sulphate of copper;—crystals of the
sulphate being suspended in the liquid, for supplying the exhaustion of
the copper. The liquid on the zine side was a very diluted sulphuric
acid. With this arrangement the oxygen evolved at the zine surface
forms mainly a zine oxide, which dissolved by the liquid into a sulphate
of zine, is prevented from passing to the copper side of the partition,
and the hydrogen evolved at the copper surface combining at once with
the oxygen of the copper salt, forms water, and allows the free copper
to be deposited on its own plates: and Professor Daniell was able to
announce in a paper read before the Royal Society of London, February
11, 1836, “I have been led to the construction of a voltaic arrangement
which furnishes a constant current of electricity for any length of time
which may be required.” *

Although it is true that the electric telegraph may be operated by the
old form of battery—frequently renewed, (just as a good steam-engine
may be efficiently worked by an inferior and wasteful boiler,) and also
that a uniform current well adapted to the telegraph may be obtained
from the magneto-electrice machine, yet the ‘‘constant” battery has
proved a most valuable boon in promoting the practical economy and
success of modern telegraphy.

1837. Mr. William Fothergill Cooke and Prof. Charles Wheatstone
obtained an English patent June 12, 1837, (No. 7390,) for a galvanometer
or needle telegraph, very similar to the earlier one of Schilling, employ-
ing six wires and five indicating needles. At what date Prof. Wheat-
stone’s attention was first directed to electrical signaling cannot now be
ascertained; but in 1834 he had undertaken by means of his ingenious
invention of the revolving mirror (capable of measuring the millionth
of a second), to determine the velocity of ordinary electricity through
half a mile of copper wire;t and a year or two later, through about four
miles of the same. Early in 1836, he had contemplated a telegraph which
with five needles, should give thirty signs. Mr. W. F. Cooke, attending
a lecture on electro-magnetic communication by Professor Muncke, at Hei-
delberg, March 6, 1836, (as previously mentioned, ) at which the telegraphic
apparatus of Schilling was exhibited, at once ‘conceived the idea.” In
his ** Statement of facts to the Arbitrators” in December, 1840, Mr. Cooke
declares: ‘Mr. Méncke’s experiment was at that time the only one upon
the subject that I had seen or heard of. It showed that electric cur-
rents being conveyed by wires to a distance, could be there caused to

* Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 1836, vol. exxvi,p.107. In the ‘‘ gravity battery” of Cal-
land, and of Varley, the porous diaphragm is dispensed with by placing the lighter
liquid (a diluted solution of zine sulphate) above the heavier liquid (a saturated solu-
tion of copper sulphate); the separation being maintained by their difference of
specilic gravity. In this arrangement the copper plate rests at the bottom of the cell,
and the zine plate is supported at its top. :

t Philosoph. Transac. of Roy. Soc. (read June 19, 1834), vol. exxiv, pp. 83-589. In this
paper, Wheatstone says, that his first ineffectual attempt to discover a velocity of
electricity was made in 1830. ‘‘The method by which I then proposed to effect this
purpose, was announced in a lecture delivered by Dr. Faraday, at the Royal Institu-
tion, in June, 1830.” (p. 583.)

296 HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH.

deflect magnetic needles, and thereby to give signals. It was ina word a
hint at the application of electricity to telegraphic purposes ; but nothing
more, for it provided no means of applying that power to practical uses.
[!]} . . . Within three weeks after the day on which I saw the ex-
periment, I had made (partly at Heidelberg and partly at Frankfort)
my first electric telegraph of the galvanometer form.”* This apparatus
comprised three indicating needles in connection with three circuits of
six wires; each terminus of the line being provided with both trans-
mitting keys, and indicating galvanometers. Mr. Cooke also applied
a call-alarm, differing from Schilling’s in having an ordinary clock-
alarm, (similar to that used by Weber several years previously,)
checked by an armature detent which was released on the excitement
of an electro-magnet by the current. Not being skilled in electrical
science however, nor aware of Henry’s researches, he soon found
the difficulty of operating with a “ quantity” battery lis galvanometer
coils through a long circuit; and in February, 1837, he was introduced
to Professor Wheatstone by Dr. P. M. Roget. On comparing their
respective projects of a needle telegraph, the two coneluded to combine
their exertions in a partnership; and in a little more than three months
they secured a joint patent on their perfected system.t An experimental
line between Euston Square and Camden Town Stations (a distance of
a mile and a quarter), was worked with partial success July 25, 1837;
and early in 1838, the patentees established a telegraph line between
Paddington and West Dayton; the distance between these two points
being about thirteen miles. Neither of these “ co-inventors” appears
at this time to have been aware of the early needle telegraph of Baron
Schilling, whose arrangement had been so closely imitated by Mr.
Cooke, and whose later simplification and improvement he had failed
to reach.

As illustrative of the mistaken and inaccurate manner in which im-
portant accounts are often transmitted by even intelligent and honest
men,—without due investigation and information, a quotation may here
be made from the “Award” of arbitration between the subsequent conflict-
ing claims of Cooke and of Wheatstone, rendered 27th April, 1841, by the
referees, Mare Isambord Brunel, the eminent engineer, and John Fred-
erick Daniell, the eminent chemist, meteorologist, and electrician. They
state: “In March, 1836, Mr. Cooke, while engaged in scientific pursuits
[!], witnessed for the first time one of those well-known experiments on
electricity [!] considered as a possible means of communicating intelli-
gence [!], which have been tried and exhibited from time to time [!]
during many years by various philosophers!Ӥ And thus, in strange

* The Electric Telegraph, ete. by William Fothergill Cooke, 2 parts, 8vo. London,
1856, 1857; part ii, ‘Arbitration Papers,” sects. 14, 18, pp. 14, 15.

+ For an account of the circumstances attending and following this conference, see
“Supplement,” NOTE F.

t Messrs. Cooke & Wheatstone’s English patent is dated June 12, 1837, No. 7390; and
their American patent, June 10, 1840, No. 1622.

§ Zhe Electric Telegraph, ete. by William Fothergill Cooke, 2 parts, 8vo., London,
1856, 1857 ; part i, p. 14: and part ii, p. 211; also p. 265.

HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH. 290

exaggeration of Cooke’s contribution to telegraphy, not only is Schilling’s
fine invention (of which the arbitracors had probably never heard)
entirely overlooked, but even Professor Muncke’s intelligent exposition
of it, (by Mr. Cooke’s representation—a ‘well-known experiment,”) is
dismissed as the recurrent exhibition ‘ by various philosophers,”—prob-
ably as familiar in London as in Heidelberg.*

1837. About the date of the Cooke and Wheatstone patent (or a month
or two later in the same year), a different form of electro-magnetic tele-
graph was being slowly developed in the city of New York. In the
autumn of the year 1835, an American artist of acknowledged merit and
of liberal education, a graduate of Yale College, about forty-five years
of age, was appointed professor of the arts of design in the University
of the city of New York, then recently established.t Occupying
rooms in the unfinished building, he commenced experimenting on an
electro-magnetic recording telegraph, the idea of which had for several
years been floating in his mind. An upright square frame secured to
the edge of a table, was provided with a transverse strip or shelf about
midway of its height, on which was arranged a small Sturgeon electro-
magnet lying upon its side, with its poles directed outward from the
side of the frame. Directly in front of this, a wooden pendulum sus-
pended from the top bar of the frame and having at its middle a small
iron bar acting as an armature for the magnet, was allowed a small play
to and from the lower part of the frame. To the lower end of the pen-
dulum was attached a pencil projecting downward, and made adjustable
so as to bear lightly against a strip of paper supported by a roller be-
neath, and slowly moved along near the edge of the table by clock-work,
after the manner usually employed in recording apparatus. <A single
cup formed the galvanic element, and the circuit involving the electro-
magnet was closed and opened by means of a lever armed with a wire
fork which dipped into two mercury thimbles connected respectively

* Two other projects of needle telegraph on Ampére’s and Schilling’s plan, belong-
ing to the latter part of 1837, require here only a passing notice. The first, that of a
Mr. Alexander, exhibited at the Society of Arts in Edinburgh, comprised thirty trans-
mitting keys with pins beneath, which on being depresse d, closed. the cireuit ‘by dip-
ping into a transverse mercury trough, and thirty galvanometer needles at the
receiving station, each carrying a light paper screen, which just covered a painted
letter or mark when at rest, but which by detlection, exposed the desired letter to
view. By ingeniously employi ing but a single wire for the return path of each circuit,
the inventor required but thirty-one wires. (Mechanics? Magazine, London, Nov.
25, 1837, No. 746, vol. xxviii, pp. 122, 123.) The second scheme, very similar to the
preceding, that of a Mr. Davy, exhibited at Exeter Hall, in London, employed but
eight transmitting keys, each commanding three letters by different movements, and
at the receiv ing desk twenty-four letters on ground glass, illuminated by a lamp, each
of which became visible only on the removal of a screen on the needle, placed behind
the glass. An observer remarked that in the desk ‘there is an aperture about 1S
inches long and 3 or 4 inches wide, facing the eyes, perfectly dark. On this the sig-

nals appear as luminous letters, or combina itions of lette srs, With a neatness and rapid-
ity almost magical.” (Mech. Mag. Feb. 3, 1838, No. 756, vol. SMV, Pp. 295, 296.)

+ This is a different institution from the ieee ersity of New York State, which has
mainly a supervisory function.

298 HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH.

with the two poles of the cup battery. A series of types having on their
upper face teeth or cogs varying in number, were set up as desired in
the groove of a rule or composing-stick, which was caused to pass under
the free end of the circuit lever; and in this way the oscillation of the
said lever over the projecting teeth determined the intervals of trans-
mission of the magnetizing current according to the combinations pre-
viously arranged in the composing-stick. The movement of the strip of
paper beneath the pencil of the pendulum produced a continuous
straight line so long as the pendulum remained at rest; but at each
momentary attraction of its armature by the magnet, (induced by the
completion of the galvanic circuit on the passage of a tooth under the
circuit lever,) the play of the pendulum caused a lateral deviation of its
pencil, which thus produced a transverse V-shaped interruption of the
straight line.

With this arrangement of apparatus the projector was enabled to
produce signals through short circuits of wire: but he soon discovered
to his dismay that on interposing more than a few yards of insulated
wire, the oracle was dumb. Although the remedy for this defect (first
discovered and demonstrated by Henry) had been for four or five years
familiar to the students of science, the reading of the artist had not
been in the direction of scientific literature; and he had conducted his
experiments with a surprising indifference and inattention to the exist-
ing state of Knowledge upon the subject. In this emergency he wisely
procured the scientific assistance of a colleague, Dr. Leonard D. Gale,
professor of chemistry in the same university, and the material and
mechanical assistance of Mr. Alfred Vail, of the Speedwell Iron Works
near Morristown, N. J.

The following is the account given by Dr. Gale of the early condition
of this experimental telegraph, and of his own connection therewith :
“Tn the winter of 1836~37, Samuel F. B. Morse, who as well as myself
was a professor in the New York University, city of New York, came
to my lecture-room, and said he had a machine in his lecture-room or
studio which he wished to show me. I accompanied him to his room,
and there saw resting on a table a single-pair galvanic battery, an elec-
tro-magnet, an arrangement of pencil, a paper-covered roller, pinion-
wheels, levers, &c., for making letters and figures to be used for send-
ing and receiving words and sentences through long distances. . . .
At this time as Morse assured me no man had seen the machine except
his brother, Sidney E. Morse. . . . Morse’s machine was com-
plete in all its parts, and operated perfectly through a cireuit of some
forty feet, but there was not sufficient force to send messages to a dis-
tance. At this time I was a lecturer on chemistry, and from necessity
was acquainted with all kinds of galvanic batteries; and knew that a
battery of one or a few cups generates a large quantity of electricity,
capable of producing heat, &e., but not of projecting electricity to a
great distance; and that to accomplish this a battery of many cups is

‘
Lb
3
4
t
.

ee eee

i.e a eT

HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH. 299

necessary. It was therefore evident to me that the one large cup-bat-
tery of Morse should be made into ten or fifteen smaller ones to make
it a battery of intensity, so as to project the electric fluid. . . .
Accordingly I substituted the battery of many cups for the battery of
one cup. The remaining defect in the Morse machine, as first seen by
me, was that the coil of wire around the poles of the electro-magnet
consisted of but a few turns only, while, to give the greatest projectile
power, the number of turns should be increased from tens to hundreds,
as shown by Professor Henry, in his paper published in the American
Journal of Science, 1831. . . . After substituting the battery of
twenty cups for that of a single cup, we added some hundred or more
turns to the coil of wire around the poles of the magnet, and sent a mes-
sage through 200 feet of conduccors ; then through 1,000 feet ; and then
through ten miles of wire arranged on reels in my own lecture-room in
the New York University, in the presence of friends. All these experi-
ments were repeated with the original Morse machine, modified as I
have stated, by increasing the number of battery-cups and the number
of turns of wire around the magnet.”*

The following account by the author himself, of his first experiments,
is taken from his own deposition in the “Bain” case, in February, 1851:
“In the year 1835, I was appointed a professor in the New York City
University, and about the month of November of that year I occupied
rooms in the university buildings. There I immediately commenced
with very limited means to experiment upon my invention. My first
instrument was made up of an old picture or canvas frame fastened to
a table, the wheels of an old wooden clock moved by a weight to carry
the paper forward, three wooden drums, upon one of which the paper
was wound and passed over the other two, a wooden pendulum suspended
to the top piece of the picture or stretching frame and vibrating across
the paper as it passed over the center wooden drum, a pencil at the
lower end of the pendulum in contact with the paper, an electro-magnet
fastened to a shelf across the picture or stretching frame opposite to an
armature made fast to the pendulum, a type-rule and type, for closing
and breaking the cireuit, resting on an endless band (composed of ecar-
pet-binding), which passed over two wooden rollers moved by a wooden
crank and carried forward by points projecting from the bottom of the
rule downward into the carpet-binding, a lever with a small weight on

* Memorial of S. F. B. Morse, 8vo. Washington, 1875, pp. 15-17. The practical im-
provements introduced by Professor Gale into the arrangement devised by Professor
Morse appeared to the latter so obviously mere matters of degree that he felt confi-
dent (after they were shown) that he would himself have effected them by simple
trial or experimentation ; and he does not appear ever to have realized that any scien-
tific principle was involved in the difference. But had he inceased separately either
the number of his galvanic elements or the number of coils upon his magnet, he
would equally have failed toaccomplish the desired result. The chance that he would
have combined these increments may be estimated as very low indeed, when we con-
sider that much wiser and more scientific heads had failed entirely to attain such pur-
pose and arrangement,

300 HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH.

the upper side and a tooth projecting downward at one end operated on
by the type, and a metallic fork, also projecting downward over two mer-
cury cups, and a short circuit of wire embracing the helices of the elee-
tro-magnet, connected with the positive and negative poles of the bat-
tery, and terminating in the mercury cups. . . . Early in 1836, 1
procured forty feet of wire, and, putting it in the circuit, I found that my
battery of one cup was not sufficient to work my instrument.* . . .
A practical mode of communicating the impulse of one circuit to an-
other, such as that described in my patent of 1840, was matured as
early as the spring of 1837, and exhibited then to Professor Gale,
my confidential friend. Up to the autumn of 1837 my telegraphic
apparatus existed in so rude a form that I felt reluctance to have it
seen.” t

In substantial accord with Professor Morse’s deposition is that of his
colleague and assistant, Professor Gale, taken in a previous case, and
dated April 1, 1848, in which it is added that ‘On Saturday, the 2nd
day of September, 1837, Professor Daubeny, of the English Oxford Uni-
versity, being on a visit to this country, was invited with a few friends
to see the operation of the telegraph in its then rude form in the cabinet
of the New York City University, where it then had been put up with a
circuit of 1,700 feet of copper wire stretched back and forth in that long
room. This exhibition of the telegraph, although of very rude and im-
perfectly constructed machinery, demonstrated to all present the prac-
ticability of the invention; and it resulted in enlisting the means, the
skill, and the zeal of Mr. Alfred Vail.Ӣ

The record made on the trial exhibited September 2d, appears not to
have been entirely satisfactory, for on the folowing Monday (September
4th) a still: better performance was effected, as announced by a letter of
that date addressed by Professor Morse to the editor of the New York
“ Journal of Commerce,” in which the writer says: I have the gratifica-
tion of sending you a specimen of the writing of my telegraph, the actual
transmission of a communication made this morning, in a more complete
manner than on Saturday, and through the distance of one-third of a
mile.” This specimen of telegraphic communication, with its accompa-
nying letter, was re-produced in the ‘Journal of Commerce” three days

* [Had Professor Morse tried 50 or 100 cups, he would have found them equally in-
sufficient: a fact here quite ignored. ]

t Deposition of Samuel IF. B. Morse: Feb. 6,7, and 8, 1851. In the case of “B. B.
French and others vs. H. J. Rogers and others.” Cirenit court of U. 8. for E. Dist. ef
Pa. April session 1850. No. 104. ‘*Complainant’s Evidence.” Ninth answer, pp.
167-169.

t Modern Teleqraphy: a2 pamphlet by Professor Morse, Paris, 1867, Appendix, p. 19.
This first experimental exhibition, it must be remembered, was nearly three months
after the date of Cooke and Wheatstone’s patent, more than a month after their sue-
cessful operation through a mile and a quarter, and while the English inventors were
engaged in constructing a working line from Paddington to West Dayton. Mr. A.
Vail, a young man of fine abilities, was a pupil of Dr. Gale’s, and was by him intro-
duced to Professor Morse.

HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH. 301

later, and forms the earliest publication of the actual operation of the
“Morse telegraph.”* The dispatch is as follows:

TW UU

Pp Qe

This cipher is ee en Be he snes seat ne had toa
dictionary suitably prepared with numbered words. “To illustrate by
the diagram, tle word ‘successful’ is first found in the dictionary, and
its telegraphic number, ‘215,’ is set up in a species of type prepared for
the purpose; and so of the other words. The type then operate upon
the machinery and serve to regulate the times and intervals of the pas-
sage of electricity. Each passage of the fluid causes a pencil at the ex-
tremity of the wire to mark the points as in the diagram. To read the
marks, count the points at the bottom of each line. It will be perceived
that two points come first, separated by a short interval from the next
point. Set ‘2’ beneath it. Then comes one point, likewise separated by
a short interval. Set ‘1’ beneath it. Then come five points. Set ‘5’
beneath them. But the next interval in this case is a long interval; con-
sequently the three numbers comprise the whole number ‘215.’ So pro-
ceed with the rest until the numbers are all set down. ‘Then by referring
to the telegraphic dictionary, the words corresponding to the numbers
are found, and the communication read. Thus it will be seen that by
means of the changes upon ten characters, all words can be transmit-
ted.” t

In the above line or diagram representing the telegraphic dispatch,
the symbol “A” (or inverted V), which occurs twice in the lower line,
represents a cipher or zero; and this character, when preceding a figure
or group of figures, indicates that the figure or group is to be read asan
actual number, and notas the index of a word. Counting thus the num-
ber of V points-in the above dispatch forming groups separated by a
line (—), we obtain the following numbers: ‘“ 215—36—2—58—112—04
—01837.” And this message when translated by help of the numbered
dictionary will read “Successful experiment with telegraph September
4 1837.”

An account of this success, published in Silliman’s Journal for Octo-
ber, added the statement: “Since the 4th of September, one thousand
feet more of wire No. 23 have been added, making in all two thousand

* Notwithstanding the very crude condition of this invention in September, 1837, as
compared with that of Schilling in 1830 (or probably in 1823), and that of Gauss in

1833, the fact that intelligible signals were actually exhibited by it at this date, fully
zustifies the acceptance of “this period as the time of its reduction to practical operation.

tNew York Journal of Commerce, Thursday, September 7, 1837: (on the editorial
page.)

302 HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH.

seven hundred feet, more than half a mile of a reduced size of wire. The
register still recorded accurately. Arrangements have been made for
constructing new and accurate machinery. Professor Gale, of the New
York City University, is engaged with Professor Morse in making some
interesting experiments connected with this invention, and to test the
effect of length of wire on the magnetizing influence of voltaic elec-
tricity.” *

Mr. Vail has given the following account of his connection with the
enterprise: “On the 2d of September, 1837, the author with several
others witnessed the first exhibition of this electric telegraph, and soon
after became a partner with the inventor. Immediate steps were taken
for constructing an instrument for the purpose of exhibiting its powers
before the members of Congress. This was done at the Speedwell Iron
Works, Morristown, N. J. and exhibited in operation with a cireuit of
two miles. A few days after, it was again exhibited at the University of
the City of New York, for several days, to a large number of invited
ladies and gentlemen.” t

About amonth after this “successful experiment,” (on the 6th of Octo-
ber, 1837,) Professor Morse filed in the United States Patent Office a
“eaveat,” signed October 3, stating in the petition (dated five days
earlier) “ that the machinery for a full practical display of his new inven-
tion is not yet completed, and he therefore prays protection of his right
till he shall have matured the machinery.” The specification declares:
‘‘T have invented a new method of transmitting and recording intelli-
gence by means of electro-magnetism: . . . for the purpose afore-
said, I have invented the following apparatus, namely: First, a system
of signs by which numbers, and consequently words and sentences,
are signified; second, a set of type adapted to regulate and communi-
cate the signs, with cases for convenient keeping of the type, and rules
in which to set up the type; third, an apparatus called a port-rule, for
regulating the movement of the type-rules, which rules by means of the
type in their turn regulate the times and intervals of the passage of
electricity; fourth, a register which records the signs permanently; fifth,
a dictionary or vocabulary of words numbered and adapted to this sys-
tem of telegraph; sixth, modes of laying the conductors to preserve
them from injury.” These several parts are then more particulary de-
scribed. ‘The signs are the representatives of numerals.” The register
comprises an electro-magnet actuating by its armature a lever or pen-
dulum carrying a pencil or fountain pen, or small printing wheel, for
marking on a strip or sheet of paper as already described. The modes
of laying the conductors are by insulating the wires with silx or cotton
wrapping, and coating with caoutchouc or other non-conductor, and also
by inclosing them in iron, lead, or wooden tubes. The document con-
eludes: ‘“ What I claim as my invention, and desire to secure by letters

*Silliman’s Am. Jour. Sci. October, 1837, vol. xxxiii, p. 187.
tA. Vail’s Electro-Magnetic Telegraph, 8vo. 1845, p. 154.

HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH. 303

patent and to protect for one year by a caveat, is a method of record-
ing permanently electrical signs which by means of metallic wires or
other good conductors of electricity, convey intelligence between two or
more places.”

Of the above described apparatus, the two most important features
were those numbered the first and the fourth,—the system of signs and
the recording device; and though neither of these presented much orig-
inality, the method of the former being that long established for naval
signals, and the clock-moved fillet of the latter being essentially the ar-
rangement long employed for self-registering instruments generally, yet
the combination of these parts with the others undoubtedly possessed
great practical merit ; and none the less that the several elements were
evidently worked out independently by the inventor. It is not a little
remarkable however, that of the specified six parts of this earliest in-
vention of Professor Morse, net one enters into the established ‘Morse
telegraph” of to-day. That feature regarded by the inventor as its vital
and fundamental characteristic (the fourth), the subject of his formal
“claim,” survived the longest; but after undergoing considerable modi-
fication, it has for more than twenty years been neglected and aban-
doned.

In response to a public circular which had been issued by the Secretary
of the Treasury, March 10, 1857, ‘‘with a view of obtaining information in re-
gard to the propriety of establishing a system of telegraphs forthe United
States,” Professor Morse addressed a communication to the honorable See-
retary, dated September 27, 1837, pointing out the disadvantages of the old
mechanical telegraphs as being “ useless the greater part of the time:”
(as in foggy weather and during the night.) He then proceeded: ‘Hay-
ing invented an entirely new mode of telegraphic communication, which
so far as experiments have yet been made with it, promises results of
almost marvelous character, I beg leave to present to the department
a brief account of its chief characteristics.” After stating that at the
time when he first conceived the thought (some five years previously) he
had ‘“ planned a system of signs and an apparatus to carry it into effect,”
he added, “although the rest of the machinery was planned, yet from
the pressure of unavoidable duties I was compelled to postpone my ex-
periments, and was not able to test the whole plan until within a few
weeks. The result has realized my most sanguine expectations.”

The construction of a more complete apparatus was carried on at the
Speedwell Iron Works of the Messrs. Vail, near Morristown, while Pro-
fessor Gale pursued his experiments at the New York City University.*

Having finished his laborious task of numbering a dictionary, Octo-
ber 24, 1837, Professor Morse gave more attention to the Vail Works.t

* Professor Morse, writing to Mr. Alfred Vail, October 7, 1837, says : ‘‘ Professor Gale’s
services will be invaluable to us, and Iam glad that he is disposed to enter into the
matter with zeal.”

t‘*The dictionary is at last done. You eannot conceive how much labor there has
been in it, but it is accomplished; and we can now talk or write anything by num-
bers.” Professor Morse to A. Vail, October 24, 1837. (Prime’s Life of Morse, chap.
vill, p. 326.)

304 HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH.

On his return from a visit to the works, he wrote back to Mr. Vail, on
the 15th of November, 1837, ‘I arrived just in time to see the experi-
ment Professor Gale was making with the entire ten miles, and you will
be gratified and agreeably surprised when I inform you that the result
now is that with a little addition of wire to the coils of the small mag-
net which I had all along used, the power was as great apparently
through ten as through three miles. This result has surprised us all
(yet there is no mistake), and I conceive settles the whole matter.”

In a second communication to the Secretary of the Treasury, dated
November 28, 1837, Professor Morse announced this encouraging suc-
cess: “I informed you that I had sueceeded in marking permanently
and intelligibly at the distance of halfa mile. Professor Gale of our uni-
versity, and Mr. Alfred Vail, of the Speedwell Iron Works, near Mor-
ristown, N. J. are now associated with me in the scientific and mechan-
ical parts of the invention.* We have procured several miles of wire,
and I am happy to announce to you that our success has thus far
been complete. At a distance of five miles, with a common Cruick-
shanks’ battery of eighty-seven plates (four by three and a half inches,
each plate), the marking was as perfect on the register as in the first
instance of half a mile. We have recently added five miles more
(making in all ten miles) with the same result; and we now have no
doubt of its effecting a similar result at any distance.”

On the completion of the new receiving and recording instruments at
the Speedwell Iron Works, an experimental exhibition at the place, with
three miles of coated copper wire, extended around a large factory-room,
was made in the presence of a few friends, on the 6th of January, 1838 ;
and on the 11th of January another exhibition was freely opened to the
public. A report of the trial in a Morristown Journal explains how
“the words were put up into numbers through the dictionary; the
numbers were set up in the telegraph type in about the same time ordi-
narily occupied in setting up the same in a printing office; they were
then all passed complete by the port-rule;” and being automatically
recorded at the extreme end of the wire, ‘the marks or numbers were
easily legible, and by means of the dictionary were resolved again into
words.”

Shortly after this, Professor Morse (or his assistant, Mr. Vail) devised
for the first time a system of alphabetic symbols for his telegraph. It
should not be forgotten that the vertical recording-lever of the original
Morse appararatus was so arranged that it must necessarily mark a con-
tinuous line, either straight or zig-zag. It was never devised for an
“alphabet,” and was incapable of an intermittent dot or dash marking.
The new instrument completed by Mr. Vail, and first operated on the

merce, Ilouse of Representatives, dated February 15, 1838, Professor Morse writes:
“Tt is proper that I should here state that the patent-right is now jointly owned in
unequal shares by myself, Professor Gale, of New York City University, and Messrs.
Alfred and George Vail.” The patent was not actually issued till more than two years
later.

:
|
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——— oe Se

a ee

a

——

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HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH. 305

6th of January, 1838, was differently organized, the recording-lever being
for the first time arranged horizontally, and having an up and down
movement, with an upright magnet under one end, and the moving fillet
of paper above the other.*

On the 24th of January, 1838, an exhibition of the new apparatus and
of its improved operation, was given at the New York City University,
in the long room of the geological cabinet, through ten miles of wire;
one of the five-mile reels being placed in the outgoing portion of the cir-
cuit, and the other five-mile reel on the returning line. On this occasion
for the first time the words transmitted were entered, and recorded, in
the new alphabet without the aid of the numbered dictionary.t The
New York Journal of Commerce in noticing this performance remarked:
“Professor Morse has recently improved on his mode of marking, by
which he can dispense altogether with the telegraphic dictionary, using
letters instead of numbers ; and he can transmit ten words per minute,
which is more than double the number which can be transmitted by
means of the dictionary.” t

The instrument thus brought to a satisfactory working condition, was
designed to be sent to Washington for exhibition to officers of the Na-
tional Government, with a view of obtaining a grant from Congress for
the construction of an actual line of telegraph between two cities. On
the way from New York, the apparatus with its reels of wire was ex-
hibited at Philadelphia, before a committee of the Franklin Institute
(at its hall), on the 8th of February, 1838. The committee (whose chair-
man was Prof. Robert M. Patterson, then Director of the United States
Mint at Philadelphia), after a careful examination, reported :

“The operation of the telegraph as exhibited to us was very satis-
factory. The power given to the magnet at the register through a length
of wire of ten miles, was abundantly sufficient for the movements re-
quired to mark the signals. The communication of this power was in-
stantaneous.” Referring then to the probable difficulties of efficient in-
sulation, the committee proceeded: ‘*Mr. Morse has proposed several
plans; the last being to cover the wires with cotton thread, then varnish
them thickly with gum-elastic, and inclose the whole in leaden tubes.
More practical and economical means will probably be devised; but the
fact is not to be concealed that any effectual plan must be very expen-
Sive.§ Doubts have been raised as to the distance to which the electri-

*On the question of the origin and invention of the ‘‘ Morse-Alphabet,” see ‘‘Sup-
plement,” Nore G.

+The message sent through the wire on this occasion (Wednesday, January 24,
1833,) is spoken of as ‘‘the first sentence that was ever recorded by the telegraph.”
(Prime’s Life of Morse, 8vo. N. Y. 1875, p. 331.) It was the first employment of the
rectilinear dot and dash symbols.

tNew York Journal of Commerce of January 29, 1838.

§[It is to be remembered that Gauss and Weber, as also Steinheil, at this date had
in actual and successful operation telegraph lines several miles in length, whose naked
wires through the air were insulated only at their points of support. Although this
important discovery of Weber had been in practical and public operation for about five
years, no particular account of it seems to have been at that tune published in this
country. |

S. Mis. 59 20

306 ' HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH.

city of an ordinary battery can be made efficient; but your committee
think that no serious difficulty is anticipated as to this point. The ex-
periment with the wire wound in a coil may not indeed be deemed con-
elusive. . . . It may be proper to state that the idea of using elec-
tricity for telegraphic purposes has presented itself to several individu-
als, and that it may be difficult to settle among them the question of orig-
jnality. The celebrated Gauss has a telegraph of this kind in actual
operation, for communicating signals between the University of Gét-
tingen and his magnetic observatory in its vicinity. . . . In con-
clusion, the committee beg leave to state their high gratification with
the exhibition of Protessor Morse’s telegraph, and their hope that means
may be given to him to subject it to the test of an actual experiment
made between stations at a considerable distance from each other.” *
About the middle of February, (1838,) Professor Morse arrived in Wash-
jngton with his instrument and his reels of wire, and exhibited the ope-
ration of the telegraph to many dignitaries of the executive and legisla
tive branches of government. A memorial was presented to Congress
by the inventor, asking an appropriation to defray the expense of an
experimental line between two cities; which being referred to the Com-
mittee on Commerce by the House of Representatives, was favorably
reported by that committee April 6, through its chairman, Hon. Francis
O. J. Smith. “The committee agree unanimously that it is worthy to
engross the attention and means of the Federal Government to the full
extent that may be necessary to put the invention to the most decisive
test that can be desirable ;” and in accordance with this opinion, ‘“ the
committee recommend an appropriation of thirty thousand dollars, to be
expended under the direction of the Secretary of the Treasury; and to
this end submit herewith a Dill.” This bill however failed to receive
the support of the majority, and a favorable action on this measure was
not obtained for several years.

Meanwhile Professor Morse had been engaged witha killful attorney
in preparing papers with a view to obtaining a patent. The specifica-
tion (signed April 7, 1838) includes, in addition to the several parts de-
scribed in the earlier caveat of October 3, 1837, the recently-devised
system of alphabetic signs, a rotary port-rule for continuous action
and a combination of circuits or electro-magnetic “ relays.” The inven-
tion is described as “an application of electro-magnetism in producing
sounds and signs, or either, and also for recording permanently by the
samemeans . . . anysignsthus produced.” “It consists of the fol-
lowing parts: First, a cireuit of electric or galvanic conductors,” ete.
‘Second, a system of signs by which numerals and words represented by
numerals, and thereby sentences of words, as well as of numerals, and let-
ters of any extent and combination of each, are communicated.” “Third,
a set of type adapted to regulate the communication of the above-men-
tioned signs.” ‘ Fourth, an apparatus called the port-rule [straight or

* Journal of Franklin Institute, February, 1838, vol. xxi, n. s. pp. 106-108.

_—_

HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH. a0

circular] which regulates the movement of the type.” “ Fifth, a signal-
lever which breaks and connects the circuit of conductors.”* “Sixth, a
register which records permanently the sigus communicated.” “ Sev-
enth, a dictionary, or vocabulary of words, to which are prefixed nu-
merals.” ‘ Eighth, modes of laying the cireuit of conductors.”

After filing his application in the Patent Office, in order not to be
forestalled in his intended efforts to obtain patents in Europe, by his
own patent being sent and published abroad, Professor Morse filed a
request that its issue might be suspended till his return.

Although the favorable report on the Morse memorial to Congress,
made to the House of Representatives by its committee, failed to secure
the appropriation recommended, Mr. Francis O. J. Smith, the chairman,
was so well satisfied of the merits of the new telegraph, that on leaving
Congress he at once became a partner in the enterprise, and accompanied
Professor Morse in his departure for London, May 16, 1838. t

In consequence of the opposition of Wheatstone and Cooke, who had
obtained an English patent June 12, 1837, Professor Morse’s application
for a patent in Great Britain was refused by the attorney-general, Sir
John Campbell, July 12, 1838, (after the exaction of heavy fees,) on an
unquestionable judicial quibble. The ostensible ground of rejection was
clearly not warranted by the spirit or intent of the English patent law,
as the details of the patent sought, had never been published either in
this country or abroad.¢

The success of the American inventor in France was practically no
greater; for although a nominal patent for that country was obtained
on August 18, 1538, it was rendered nugatory by the ingenious legal

* Although the ‘‘signal-lever” is here specially indicated, it differs widely in con-
struction, arrangement, and operation, from the modern signal-lever or transmitting
key; having only the function in common with it of a circuit-breaker. In his pam-
phiet, published at Paris in 1867, giving an account of his invention, Professor Morse
says: ‘‘At the time of the construction of this first telegraphic instrument, I had not
conceived the idea of the present key manipulator dependent on the skill of the opera-
tor, but I presumed that the accuracy of the imprinting of signs could only be secured
by mechanical mathematical arrangements and by automatic process.” (Modern Tele-
graphy, etc. p. 25.) In his argument presented to Sir John Campbell, the attorney-
general of England, July 12, 1838, he urges as an evidence of characteristic novelty,
“These types form such an essential part of my invention, that without them the prac-
tical utility and value of my invention is for the most part destroyed, and full one-
haif of the mechanism is disconnected from it, and is of no use in it.” The Morse lever
must not therefore be confounded with the existing finger-key. ‘‘The spring-lever
key, as at present used in the Morse office, was suggested by Mr. Thomas C. Avery, of
New York, but has received various modifications.” (Turnbull’s Electro-Magnetic
Telegraph, 1852, pp. 49, 50.)

t‘*With this understanding a partnership was formed between Professor Morse,
Professor Gale, Mr. Alfred Vail, and Hon. F. O. J. Smith, by the terms of which it was
stipulated that Mr. Smith should go to Europe with Professor Morse, and secure
patents for the telegraph in such countries as it should be practicable for him to do
80.” (Prime’s Life of Morse, chap. viii, p. 344.)

{Notwithstanding their illiberal interference with Morse’s application in 1838,
Messrs. William F. Cooke and Charles Wheatstone had the “ self-possession ” eighteen
months later each to write a letter to Professor Morse, (dated January 17, 1840,) beg-
ging him to join them in their efforts to obtain an American patent! As a character-
istic illustration of official contrast, Messrs. Cooke and Wheatstone (contrary to their
expectations), on their own application, secured an American patent without opposi-
tion or obstruction June 10, 1840, ten days before the issue of Morse’s patent, applied
for more than two years earlier.

308 HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH.

conditions, first, that to prevent forfeiture the patented invention must
be carried into successful operation in France within two years; and
secondly, that all private persons, companies, or corporations, were pro-
hibited from putting a telegraph into operation in France. Disappointed
in various promising expectations, and discouraged by repeated failures,
Professor Morse returned to New York, April 15, 1839.

In May, 1839, he visited Princeton, for the purpose of seeing Professor
Henry and queens from him the solution of certain doubts ;
league, Dr. Gale, being then absent on business. During this his first
interview with Henry, occupying an afternoon and evening, he received
from the full and frank expositions of his host every satisfaction he de-
sired; and he had the great encouragement of hearing from the lips of
that cautious investigator, that he foresaw no difficulty in magnetizing
soft iron through a wire “ at the distance of a hundred miles or more.” *

The application filed by Professor Morse in the United States Patent
Office, before he visited Europe, was allowed, and issued as a patent
June 20, 1840. (No. 1647.) This patent comprised nine claims: 1, the
combination of type, rule, lever, &c.; 2, the recording cylinder, &c.; 3,
the types, signs, &c.; 4, the making and breaking of the circuit by
mechanism, &¢.; 5, the combination of successive circuits ; 6, the appli-
cation of electro-magnets to several levers, &c.; 7, the mode and process
of recording by the use of electro-magnetism; 8, the combination and
arrangement of electro-magnets in one or more circuits, with armatures
for transmitting signs; and 9, the combination of the mechanism de-
scribed, with a dictionary of mmbored words.

The appropriation asked for from Congress, though earnestly pressed
at successive sessions, failed to obtain the sanction of the House of
Representatives; until after a wearisome delay of five years, a bill was
finally carried through Congress, March 3, 1843, authorizing an expendi-
ture of “the sum of thirty thousand dollars, . . . for testing the
capacity and usefulness of the system of electro-magnetic telegraphs
invented by Samuel F. B. Morse, of New York.”

The stations selected for connection by the new telegraph were Wash-
ington and Baltimore, about forty miles apart. In order to form two
complete circuits for this distance, one hundred and sixty miles of cop-
per wire, covered with cotton, were ordered and delivered at New York
City. Before inclosing the four lines in pipes, as contemplated, Professor
Morse prudently determined to experiment on the magnetizing effect
through this continuous length of insulated wire. The result of this
experiment, which fully justified the expectation of Henry expressed to
him four years before, is thus stated in a letter addressed to the Sec-
retary of the Treasury, August 10, 1843:

* Prime’s Life of Morse, chap. x, pp. 421,422. Dr. Prime says of this visit, “ A few
days after receiving Professor Henr y’s kind invitation, Professor Morse went to Prince-
ton, and passing the afternoon and evening with the great philosopher, returned the
next morning to New York,”

HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH. 309

“The experiments alluded to were tried on Tuesday, and with per-
fect success. I had prepared a galvanic battery of three hundred pairs,
in order to have ample power at command; but to my great gratifica-
tion, I found that one hundred pairs were sufficient to produce all the
effects I desired through the whole distance of one hundred and sixty
miles. It may be well to observe that the hundred and sixty miles of
wire are to be divided into four lengths of forty miles each, forming a four-
fold cord from Washington to Baltimore. Two wires form a circuit; the
electricity therefore in producing its effects at Washington from Balti-
more, passes from Baltimore to Washington and back again to Baltimore,
of course travelling eighty miles to produce its result. One hundred
and sixty miles therefore gives me an actual distance of eighty miles;
double the distance from Washington to Baltimore. The result then of
my experiments on Tuesday, is that a battery of only a hundred pairs at
Washington, will operate a telegraph on my plan eighty miles distant
with certainty, and without requiring any intermediate station.”

As it was part of the original plan (as set forth in the caveat of 1837)

_to lay the conducting wires underground, Professor Morse, in 1843, de-

vised a method of forming a lead pipe around the group of prepared and
jnsulated wires, that is of introducing the compound cord into the pipe
in the process of its construction. He obtained a patent for this project
October 25, 1843, (No. 3316,) claiming “ the method of introducing wires
into hollow pipes whilst making the same, by introducing the wires
through a hollow mandrel on which the pipe is made.” This process
was practically carried out, though with the extreme risk of constantly
impairing the insulation of the wires by the operation.

Professor Gale has given the following account of the method of lay-
ing the telegraph line and of the result. ‘A plow was used, with a share
running two and a half feet deep, and carrying a coil of insulated wire
inclosed in a coil of lead pipe which the plow deposited in the ground
and covered as the plow progressed. Forty miles of lead pipe were made
in New York in the autumn of 1843, and shipped to Baltimorein the end
of November. Upto this date I had been engaged in New York inspecting
the manufacture of the lead pipe and charging the same with the insulated
wire fed into the pipe by machinery while the pipe was drawn. I reached
Baltimore in the early part of December, and learned that the party had
nearly reached the Relay House. Nine miles had been laid; on inspection
of which, not one mile of wire was found to be sufficiently insulated to
carry the electric current from end to end of the reach.’’*

The plan was finally abandoned early in 1844, after more than half of

* Morse Memorial, Washington, 1875, pp. 18,19. Steinheil, in 1837, remarked: ‘‘ Numer-
ous trials to insulate wires and to conduct them below the surface of the ground have
led me to the conviction that suci attempts can never answer at great distances, in-
asmuch as our most perfect insulators are at best but very bad conductors. And since
in a wire of very great length the surface in contact with the so-called insulator is
uncommonly large when compared with the section of the metallic conductor, there
necessarily arises a gradual diminution of force.” (Sturgeon’s Annals of Electricity,
etc. April, 1839, vol. iii, p. 510.)

310 HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH.

the appropriation had been expended.* In March, 1844, it was decided
to put the wires on poles, after the manner successfully adopted by
Weber at Gittingen eleven years before. The different plans of insulat-
ing support proposed, were submitted by Professor Morse to Henry for
his opinion, and he decided in favor of Mr. Ezra Cornell’s plan of sepa-
rating the wires as far apart as convenient, and attaching each wire to
an independent glass insulator.t The line was accordingly erected on
this plan; and by the middle or latter part of May, 1844, was completed
from Washington to Baltimore. On the 24th of that month, the first
formal message was transmitted through it between the two cities, and
recorded by the electro-magnet in the dot-and-dash alphabet.¢ From
this time the success of the electric telegraph in the United States was
assured, and its extension over our broad domain was comparatively
rapid.

This prolonged review of the history of the ‘‘ Morse telegraph” has
been ventured upon in this connection, partly to bring out into just re-
lation and relief one or two important points, and in part to illustrate
the gradual progress of development of the system, in the career of a
single inventor. With that strong “subjectivity” (perhaps essential to
the success both of the artist and of the artisan) which characterized
him, Professor Morse always believed his invention to have been prac-
tically full-fledged at its birth, or rather at its conception; and quite
unconscious of the slow and small advances derived from gathered ex-
perience or external suggestion, failed seemingly to realize how com-
pletely his earlier methods were discarded and displaced by later improve-
ments. §

* Professor Morse says: ‘It was abandoned, among other reasons, in consequence of
ascertaining that in the process of inserting the wire into the leaden tubes (which was
‘at the moment of forming the tube from the lead at melting heat) the insulated cover-
ing of the wires had become charred at various and numerous points of the line to such
an extent that greater delay and expense would be necessary to repair the damage
than to put the wire on posts.” (Prime’s Life of Morse, chap. xi, p. 478.)

+ Mr. Cornell afterward distinguished himself by devoting, in 1865, half a million of
dollars from the profits of his telegraphic enterprises, to the founding at Ithaca, N. Y.
of the university bearing his name. He subsequently contributed nearly as much
more ; making his total endowment in the neighborhood of a million dollars.

{The completion of the experimental telegraph authorized by act of Congress was
thus formally announced by Professor Morse to the Secretary of the Treasury, under
whose direction the appropriation had been placed: ‘‘ Washington, June 3, 1844. Sir:
I have the honor to report that the experimental essay authorized by the act of Con-
gress on March 3, 1843, appropriating 30,000 dollars for testing my system of electro-
magnetic telegraph, ‘and of such length and between such points as shall test its
practicability and utility,’ has been made between Washington and Baltimore, a dis-
tance of forty miles, connecting the Capitol in the former city with the railroad depot
in Pratt street in the latter city. . . .” This was six years after the English line
of thirteen miles had been in operation. While Lomond, in 1787, and Steinheil, in 1837,
had employed but a single wire for transmitting messages from either end, Morse, in
1844, required two circuits of four wires for the same performance ; one pair of wires for
the outward and one pair for the inward passage.

§In aletter addressed to Donald Mann, esq., December, 1852, Professor Morse rather
quaintly remarks: ‘‘In elaborating the invention in its earlier sages, many moditica-
tions of its various parts were tried, and many of tle supposed improvements then
deemed necessary to its perfection have since been found unnecessary and useless.”
(American Telegraph Magazine, December 15, 1852, vol. i, No. 3, p. 130.)

i

HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH. Dilek

Morse’s “ first conception.” —A fter a three years’ sojourn in Europe, from
1829 to 1832, spent principally in Italy, devoted exclusively to the study
and pursuit of his art as painter, Mr. Morse on his homeward voyage
from France in the ship Sully, formed the acquaintance of Dr. Charles
T. Jackson, of Boston, a fellow-passenger. He first “‘conceived the idea”
of an electric telegraph on the 19th of October, 1832, from a conversa-
tion with Dr. Jackson on the subject; and the suggestion impressed him
with the surprise of a truly new conception. His first thought appears
to have been the application of electricity or galvanism to a chemically
recording telegraph; and this project, laid aside for that of the electro-
magnet, was afterward revived and cherished, till in 1849, he procured a
patent for it, as already stated.

Professor Morse in his letter to Dr. C. T. Jackson, dated September 18,
1837, controverting the claim of the latter to a share in the invention of
the electric telegraph, says: “I lose no time in eideavoring to disabuse
your mind of an error into which it has fallen in regard to the electro-
magnetic telegraph. You speak of it as ‘our electric telegraph,’ and as
a ‘mutual discovery’? . . . Ihave a distinct recollection of the man-
ner, the place, and the moment, when the thought of making an electrie
wire the means of communicating intelligence, first came into my mind.
. . . We were conversing on the recent scientific discoveries in elec-
tro-magnetism; . . . I then remarked, this being so, if the presence
of electricity can be made visible in any desired part of the circuit, I
see no reason why intelligence might not be transmitted instantaneously
by electricity. You gave your assent that it was possible. . . . I
asked you if there was not some mode of decomposition which could be
turned to account. You suggested the following experiment, which we
agreed should be tried together, if we could meet for that purpose. It
was this: to decompose by electricity glauber salts upon the paper
which was first to be colored with turmeric.” The writer then argues
that this plan not having been jointly tried, and an entirely different
device (the electro-magnet) having been adopted by himself, there was no
joint invention.*

In his letter to Dr. C. T. Jackson, dated December 7, 1837, Professor
Morse says: “TI consulted you to ascertain if there were not some sub-
stance easily decomposed by the simple contact of a wire in an electric
state. It was then, and not till then, that you suggested turmeric paper
dipped in a solution of sulphate of soda. . . . Ido not charge you
with intentional neglect; I readily allow your excuses for not trying the
experiments; but these excuses do not alter the fact that your neglect
retarded my invention, and compelled me after five years’ delay, to con-
sider the result of that experiment as a failure, and consequently to de-

* Amos Kendall’s Full Exposure of Dr. Charles T. Jacksows Pretensions, etc. First edi-
tion, N. Y. 1850. Second edition, printed in Paris, 1867: pp. 64,65. Neither Professor
Morse nor Dr. Jackson was awarethat the project had been suggested seventeen years
before, by Dr. J. R. Coxe, of Philadelphia; and that it had been successfully tried
four or five years before, by Mr. H. G. Dyar, of New York.

312 HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH.

vise another mode of applying my apparatus,—a mode entirely original
with me.” *

In a letter to Mr. Alfred Vail, not long after having formed a partner-
ship with that gentleman, he wrote: “I claim to be the original
suggester and inventor of the electric magnetic telegraph, on the 19th
of October, 1852, on board the packet-ship Sully, on my voyage from
France to the United States, and consequently the inventor of the first
really practicable telegraph on the electric principle.” | Someten years
later he wrote to Professor Walker: “It is at the date, 1832, of Baron
Schilling’s invention of his needle-telegraph (since abandoned as imprac-
ticable from various and obvious causes), that I conceived my electro-
magnetic telegraph, and first devised an apparatus applying magnetism
produced by electricity or the power of the electro-magnet to imprint
characters at a distance.”t And such was ever his firm conviction.
Some twenty years later, he wrote at Paris: “If it be asked why I have
assumed the date of the year 1832 as a standpoint, I reply, because at
that date the idea was first conceived, and the process and means first
developed.” §

The invention however as unfolded in his caveat of October 3, 1837,
is sufficiently embryonic for physiological study; and though our patent
law, on grounds of sound policy, excludes all evidence of the inception
of a foreign competitive invention, admitting only perfected and fully
published details suecessfully to interfere (in a question of priority) with
the first suggestions of the American inventor,|| obviously no such patri-
otic rule is admissible in any scientific history of the progress of actual
discovery. Interesting as the earliest gleams of a successful application
and invention undoubtedly are, they are too little accessible to impar-
tial investigation to claim the prerogative of a recognized chronology.

* This letter seems very positively to exclude the claim to having ‘‘ conceived the
idea” of the magnetic telegraph in 1832.

t Vail’s Electro-Mognetic Telegraph, 1845, p. 154.

t Morse’s letter to Professor Sears C. Walker, dated Washington, Jannary 31, 1848.
The writer is excusable for assuming 1832 as the date of Baron Schilling’s invention,
(the date of his return from China, ) as this is the date usually assigned in the popular
text-books. Schilling’s invention however so far from being either ‘‘impracticable”
or “abandoned,” is the essential basis of the telegraph now in use throughout Eng-
land.

§ Modern Telegraphy, a pamphlet by 8. F. B. Morse. Paris, 1867, p.10. In a letter to
Donald Mann, esq. (editor of the Telegraph Magazine), dated ‘‘ Poughkeepsie, De-
cember, 1852,” Professor Morse stoutly maintained his claim to priority of practical
development (if not of first conception) of an electric recording telegraph; and with
paternal exaggeration he declared, of his first ernde experiment at the close of the year
1835, ‘The truth is, the child was born, and breathed, and spoke, in 1835. It had
then all the essential characteristics of the future mau.” (American Telegraph Maga-
zine. December 15, 1852, vol. i, No. 3, p. 130.) Its first transmission of an intelligible
message was made September 2, 1837.

|<‘ Whenever it appears that a patentee at the time of making his applica-
tion for the patent believed himself to be the original and first inventor or dis-
coverer of the thing patented, the same shall not be held to be void on account of the
invention or discovery, or any part thereof, having been known or used in a foreign
country before his invention or discovery thereot, if it had not been patented or
described in a printed publication.” (Act of July 4, 1836, section 15, Revised Statutes,
app) ved March 2, 1877, title Lx, sec. 4923.)

ee

g

HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH. Bs bs

Whether judged by the standard of original conception, of practical
operation, or of actual introduction into use, the Morse telegraph must
be assigned a position tolerably low down in the list.* More than six-
teen years before Professor Morse’s first conception of the idea, Dr. J.
R. Coxe, professor of chemistry in the University of Pennsylvania, at
the beginning of 1816, “‘ conceived the idea” of a practical electro-chemi-
eal telegraph, whose signals should be permanently recorded by the de-
composition of metallic salts;+ the precursor of Dyar’s electro-chemical
telegraph, successfully operated in 1828, (about five years before Morse’s
first conception,)—of Bain’s electro-chemical telegraph, (patented De-
cember 12, 1846,)—and of Morse’s electro-chemical telegraph, (patented
May 1, 1849,) a third of a century afterward. Schilling’s electro-mag-
netic telegraph developed to a “ practical operation” in 1823, certainly
before 1825, preceded that of Morse more than a dozen years. And the
electro-magnetic telegraph of Gauss and Weber (certainly conceived”
before 1832) was in actual use and employment more than ten years
before the similar establishment by Professor Morse; while that of
Steinheil, probably conceived as early, was some eight years earlier
than his in its practical introduction into use.t

That Professor Morse would greatly have expedited his own improve-
ments, and have saved himself a large amount of wasted time and labor,
if he had studied more carefully the state of the art at the commence-
ment of his experiments in 1835, is sufficiently obvious. But his com-
plete unconsciousness—not only of the earlier successes of others in de-
veloping the galvanic telegraph, but of even the elementary facts of sci-
entific history bearing on the problem, as well at the time of his original
“conception” on board the ship Sully from the fecundating suggestion
of Dr. Jackson, as during the years following, in which the invention
was being slowly matured,—would be incredible on any other testimony
than hisown. In his first letter to the Secretary of the Treasury, dated
September 27, 1837, he announced “having invented an entirely new
mode of telegraphic communication.” In a letter to Mr. A. Vail, some
time afterward, he wrote: “I ought perhaps to say that the conception
of the idea of an electric telegraph was original with me at that time,
and I supposed that I was the first that had ever associated the two
words together, nor was it until my invention was completed and had
been successfully operated through ten miles, that I for the first time

*Nearly two years before Professor Morse had met with Dr. C. T. Jackson, Henry had
“conceived” and executed an experimental electro-magnetic telegraph, of a mile circuit.

tThomson’s Annals of Philosophy, February, 1816, vol. vii, p. 163.

tIn a letter to his daughter dated July 26, 1838, (written from Havre, just on his
arrival in France from London,) Professor Morse says somewhat euriously of the tele-
graph of Wheatstone, ‘he has invented his I believe without knowing that I was
engaged in an inyention to produce a similar result; for although he dates back to
1832, yet as no publication of our thonghts was made by either, we are evidently in-
dependent of each other.” (Prime’s Life of Morse, chap. ix, p. 358.) The popular in-
fatuation in England as to the originality and priority of the Cooke and Wheatstone
telegraph is probably quite equal to that prevalent in America as to the superior
claims of the Morse telegraph. Wheatstone’s scientific distinction or his title to en-
during fame, fortunately does not repose on his telegraph.

314 HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH.

learned that the idea of an electric telegraph had been conceived by
another.” *

Some time earlier than this, or five years after their conversations on
ship-board, Professor Morse wrote to Dr. Jackson, (in a letter dated
August 27, 1837, seeking his indorsement of the writer’s originality in
electrical telegraphy,) and avowed: “I claim formyself, and consequently
for America, priority over all other countries in the invention of a mode
of communicating intelligence by electricity!” In a second letter to the
same person, dated New York City University, September 18, 1837,
acknowledging his correspondent’s original introductory remarks on
electricity and electromagnetism during their homeward voyage, but
differing from him as to some of the consequent circumstances, he
affirmed: ‘I then remarked, this being so, if the presence of electricity
can be made visible in any desired part of the circuit, I see no reason
why intelligence might not be transmitted instantaneously by elee-
tricity!” And in the same letter he contended, “The discovery is the
original suggestion of conveying intelligence by electricity.t The inven-
tion is devising the mode of conveying it. The discovery, so far as we
alone are concerned, belongs to me: and if by an experiment which we
proposed to try together we had mutually fixed upon a successful mode
of conveying intelligence, then we might with some propriety be termed
mutual or joint inventors. But as we have never tried any experiment
together, nor has the one proposed to be tried by you, been adopted by
me, I cannot see how we can be called mutual inventors. You are
aware perhaps that the mode I have carried into effect after many and
various experiments with the assistance of my colleague, Professor Gale,

was never mentioned either by you or to yout . . . Ihave always

said in giving any account of my telegraph, that it was on board the
ship duri ing a scientific conversation with you that I first conceived the
thought of an electric telegraph. I have acknowledgments of similar
kinds to make’to Professor Silliman and Professor Gale, . . . and
to the latter [am most of all indebted for substantial and effective
aid in many of my experiments. If any one has a claim to be mutual
inventor on the score of aid by hints, it is Professor Gale; but he pre-
fers no claim of the kind.Ӥ In his third letter, dated New York City

*Vail’s Llectro-Magnetic Telegraph, p. 154.

t Professor Morse’s conception of ‘‘discovery” does not appear to have been very pro-
found.

t [ Another explicit statement that he did not ‘conceive the idea” of the magnetic
telegraph in 1852, or on board the ship Sully. ]

§ Dr. Jackson in his reply, dated Boston, November 7, 1837, said: ‘‘This claim of
yours is to me a matter of surprise and regret. . . . You will not I presume
venture to maintain that you at that time knew anything about electro-magnetism
more than what you learned fromme. . . . Iam certainly desirous of doing you
justice to the fullest extent, and have always spoken of your merits as I hope I “shall
always have occasion to do. . - Honor to whom honor is due shall be my
motto, and I must I believe fail in ‘this duty if Ishould say that the first idea of an
electro-magnetic telegraph was conceived by an American citizen. . . . The ‘dis-
covery’ is ‘not then to be claimed by us. I have invented a new instrument; so per-
haps you have, for I do not yet know what your new one is, Since you say I have not
seen it nor heard about it beyond your announcement,”

oo ee ee ee

HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH. B05,

University, December 7, 1837, Professor Morse reiterated: ‘Your mem-
ory and mine are at variance in regard to the first suggestion of convey-
ing intelligence by electricity. I claim to be the one who made it, and
in the way which I stated in my letter to you. . . . The idea that
Thad made a brilliant discovery, that it was original in my mind, was
the exciting cause and the perpetual stimulus to urge me forward in
maturing it to a result. Had I supposed at that time, that the thought
had ever occurred to any other person, I would never have pursued it;
and it was not till I had completed my present invention, that I was
aware that the thought of conveying intelligence by electricity had
occurred to scientific men some years before. . . . The single scien-
tific fact ascertained by Franklin, that electricity can be made to travel
any distance instantaneously, is all that I needed to know, aside from
mathematical and mechanical science, in order to plan all I invented on
board the ship.” *

These extracts sufficiently show the distinguished inventor’s profound
incomprehension, as well of the nature of the problem to be solved, as
of the scientific principles involved in surmounting his fundamental
difficulties. That his colleague, Professor Gale, should by the mere ap-
plication of existing knowledge and established fact, make his magnetic
signals operative through successively increasing lengths of wire until
ten miles were included in the circuit, appeared—if remarkable, at least
quite natural. That any special credit should be due to any one but
himself and his invention, in the accomplishment of such a result, ap-
peared no less unnatural and irrational: and Dr. Gale has recorded
‘¢ Professor Morse’s great surprise” when his attention was first called to
Henry’s paper in Silliman’s Journal of January, 1831, a year or two after
his magnet and battery had been so modified in accordance therewith
as to correlate them in “intensity.” That even then the inventor under-
stood the real import of the paper is rendered doubtful by subsequent
developments: his surprise being apparently excited mainly by Henry’s
suggestion that his researches were “ directly applicable to the project
of forming an electro-magnetic telegraph.”

. Prof. Sears C. Walker, the eminent astronomer, in a deposition taken
in a telegraph suit of ‘‘ French vs. Rogers,” has thus recorded his recol-
lection of an interesting interview between Professors Henry, Morse, and
Gale, in January, 1848, at which he was present: “The result of the in-
terview was conclusive to my mind that Professor Henry was the sole
discoverer of the law on which the ‘intensity’ magnet depends for its
power of sending the galvanic current through a long circuit. I was
also led to conelude that Mr. Morse in the course of his own researches
and experiments, before he read Professor Henry’s article before alluded
to, had encountered the same difficulty Mr. Barlow and those who preceded
him had encountered; that is the impossibility of forcing the galvanic

* Full Exposure of Dr. Charles T. Jackson's Pretensions, etc. By Amos Kendall. 1sted.
1850; 2d ed. printed in Paris, 1867: pp. 61-74.

316 HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH.

current through a long telegraph line. His own personal researches had
not overcome this obstacle. I also learned at the same time, by the con-
versations above stated, that he only overcame this obstacle by con-
structing a magnet on the principle invented by Professor Henry, and
described in his article in Silliman’s Journal. His attention was directed
to it by Dr. Gale.”*

In consequence of this friendly interview, Professor Morse, with a
frankness creditable to the natural impulses of his character, a short
time afterward addressed a letter to Professor Walker, from which the
following extracts are made:

‘WASHINGTON, January 31, 1848.

“DEAR Str: I have perused with much interest that part of your
manuscript entitled ‘Theory of Morse’s Electro-Magnetic Telegraph,’
which you were so kind as to submit to my examination. The allusion
you make to ‘the helix of a soft-iron magnet prepared after the manner
first pointed out by Professor Henry,’ gives me an opportunity of which
I gladly avail myself, to say that I think justice has not hitherto been
done to Professor Henry, either in Europe or this country, for the dis-
covery of a scientific fact which in its bearing on telegraphs, whether
of the magnetic needle or electro-magnet order, is of the greatest im-
portance. . . . Thus was opened the way for fresh efforts in devising
a practicable electric telegraph ;-and Baron Schilling, in 1832, and Pro-
fessors Gauss and Weber, in 1833, had ample opportunity to learn of
Henry’s discovery, and «vail themselves of it, before they constructed
their needle telegraphs.t . . . To Professor Henry is unquestionably
due the honor of the discovery of a fact in science which proves the
practicability of exciting magnetism through a long coil or at a distance,
either to deflect a needle or magnetize soft iron. . . .

‘With great respect, your obedient servant,
“SAMUEL F. B. MORSE.”

This just and honorable recognition was well calculated to reflect an
added luster, in the minds of the intelligent, upon Professor Morse’s
unquestionable achievements. But the writer a few years later, per-
haps embittered by the sweeping constructions placed by hostile ad-
vocates upon the enforced statements of Henry (exacted in strongly-
contested litigations between rival telegraph inventors or their sustain-
ing companies), was unfortunately led in evil hour by flattering partisans
to undo this gracious work.

In a pamphlet essay dated Locust Grove, New York, December, 1853,
and published in January, 1855, Professor Morse hazarded the intrepid

* The case of French vs. Rogers. Respondent’s evidence, p. 199. Quoted by President
Felton: Smithsonian Report for 1857, pp. 94,95. The attention of Professor Morse was
in reality not called to Henry’s discovery by Dr. Gale, till a considerable time after it
had been successfully applied to the experimental circuits of the infant telegraph.

t[Schilling’s telegraphic experiments (involving no great length of circuit) were
earlier than Henry’s discoveries ; and the expedient of so delicate an indicator as the
reflecting galvanometer employed by Gauss and Weber seems to show that they had
not adapted fully the electric current to the “intensity” coil, as recommended by
Henry. |

HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH. 317

t

statement: ‘“Tirst. I certainly shall show that I have not only mani-
fested every disposition to give due credit to Professor Henry, but
under the hasty impression that he deserved credit for discoveries in
science bearing upon the telegraph, I did actually give him a degree of
eredit not only beyond what he had received at that time from the scien-
tifie world, but a degree of credit to which subsequent research has
proved him not to be entitled. Secondly. I shall show that I am not
indebted to him for any discovery in science bearing on the telegraph;
and that all discoveries of principles having this bearing were made, not
by Professor Henry, but by others, and prior to any experiments of Pro-
fessor Henry in the science of electro-magnetism.” *

In the inevitable dilemma thus assumed by the pamphleteer, under
the clear light of historic record, it is most charitable not to impugn the
writer’s candor. The evidences diligently gathered by him, of electric
impulse transmitted to great distances, before the date of Henry’s inves-
tigations, certainly seem to show a surprising misconception of the phe-
nomena and the principles of electro-magnetism. That with such mis-
conception he should fail to appreciate an indebtedness to Henry’s labors,
is perhaps not surprising; but that he should thus ignore the services
and statements of his faithful friend and colleague—Professor Gale, his
great obligations to whom had been constantly admitted, appears less
amenable to explanation or excuse.

Professor Morse could say with undoubted truth, that not till after the
successful working of his invention, had he ever heard of Henry’s re-
searches. In his letter to Professor Walker, just above quoted, in refer-
ring to the time and the nature of his invention, he wrote: “ I was utterly
ignorant that the idea of an electric telegraph of any kind whatever,
had been conceived by any other person. I took it for granted that the
effects I desired could be produced at a distance; and accordingly in the
confidence of this persuasion, I devised and constructed my apparatus
for the purpose. I had never even heard or read of Professor Henry’s
experiments, nor did I become acquainted with them until after all my
apparatus was constructed and in operation through half a mile of wire,
at the New York City University, in 1837. I then learned for the first
time that an electric telegraph of some kind had been thought of before
Thad thought of it.” In his pamphlet of January, 1855, he mentions that
at the date of Henry’s publication in Silliman’s Journal, he was sojourn-
ing in Italy. “ From the autumn of the year 1829 till the autumn of the
year 1832 I was in Europe, principally in Italy. . . . The fact is, it
did not come to my knowledge until five years after my return, in 1837.”

* A Defence against the injurious deductions drawn from the deposition of Prof. Joseph
Henry {in the several telegraph suits]; by Samuel F. B. Morse, January 1855, p. 8.
(See ‘‘Supplement,” Norr H.)

tMorse’s Defence against the injurious deductions, etc. (p. 15, and foot-note). Thus
while Morse—dreaming only of artistic fame, was assiduously cultivating his art in
Italy, nearly two years before he met with Dr. Jackson on the homeward ship, or be-
fore the conception of electric signaling had dawned upon his mind, Henry had an
electro-magnetic circuit of a mile, with bell signal, in actual operation at the Albany
Academy.

318 HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH.

Professor Gale, when asked in 1856, if he would give a statement for
publication, of the Morse apparatus as originally constructed, and be-
fore being modified by himself, promptly responded in a letter dated
Washington, April 7, 1856: “This apparatus was Morse’s original in-
strument, usually known as the type apparatus, in which the types, set
up in a composing-stick, were run through a circuit-breaker, and in
which the battery was the cylinder battery, with a single pair of plates.
The sparseness of the wires in the magnet coils, and the use of the single
cup battery, were to me on the first look at the instrument, obvious
marks of defect, and I accordingly suggested to the professor, without
giving my reasons for so doing, that a battery of many pairs should be
substituted for that of a single pair, and that the coil on each arm of the
magnet should be increased to many hundred turns each: which experi-
ment (if I remember aright) was made on the same day, with a battery
and wire on hand, furnished I believe by myself: and it was found that
while the original arrangement would only send the electric current
through a few feet of wire, (say from fifteen to forty,) the modified ar-
rangement would send it through as many hundred. Although I gave
no reasons at the time to Professor Morse for the suggestions I had pro-
posed in modifying the arrangement of the machine, I did so afterward;
and referred in my explanations to the paper of Professor Henry, in the
nineteenth volume of the American Journal of Science. . . . At the
time I gave the suggestions above named, Professor Morse was not famil-
iar with the then existing state of the science of electro-magnetism. Had
he been so, or had he read and appreciated the paper of Henry, the sug-
gestions made by me would naturally have occurred to his mind, as
they did tomy own. . . . Professor Morse expressed great surprise
at the contents of the paper when I showed it to him, but especially
at the remarks on Dr. Barlow’s results respecting telegraphing.’””*

In a letter published in the Sunday Chronicle at Washington, in 1872,
Professor Gale (strongly vindicating the propriety of erecting a monu-
ment to Professor Morse—not as a Discoverer but as an Inventor,) con-
ceded that ‘“ Morse knew nothing of Henry’s discovery when he invented
his machine. Henry’s discovery was published in 1831. Five or six years
later Morse invented his telegraphic machine, without having seen an
account of Henry’s experiments till shown to him by myself.”+ And from
this consideration he justly exonerates him from the imputation of
plagiarism which had been inconsiderately brought against the distin-

guished inventor. In a letter addressed to Prof. E. N. Horsford, of.

Cambridge, Mass., dated Washington, May 18, 1872, the same writer
said: ‘¢T adapted to Morse’s machine the modification which was taken
from Henry’s experiments of 1831. [Properly of 1829, and 1830.] But
Morse, not having been accustomed to investigate scientific facts, could
not appreciate the investigations of Henry as applicable to the tele-

*Snmithsonian Report for 1857, pp. 92, 93.
tSunday Chronicle, Washington, March 3, 1872.

HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH. 319

graph; and I presume that Morse never did fully appreciate the benefit
which his machine derived from Henry’s discovery.” *

Professor Morse’s real merit (and his real contribution to telegraphy)
consists, first, in the adaptation of the armature of a Henry electro-mag-
net to the purpose of a recording instrument, and secondly, in connec-
tion therewith, the improvement on the Gauss and Steinheil dual-sign
alphabets, (made either by himself, or his assistant, Mr. Vail,) of employ-
ing, instead of alternating or vibratory markings, the simple ‘ dot-and-
dash” alphabet in a single line. Whatever may have been the indebt-
edness of Professor Morse to Dr. Jackson for the suggestion of the first
idea of an “electric” telegraph, it is quite clear from the incoherent
claims of Dr. Jackson himself, that these two really important improve-
ments were original with Morse, and were in no sense derived from
Jackson. t

Claims so moderate, though so meritorious, (as might be supposed)
would scarcely satisfy the ambition of the patentee and his supporters,
conscious of the equally meritorious exertion and enterprise by which
through tedious ordeals of obstruction and difficulty a great practical
success had been achieved, and before whom—in just reward—prophetie
visions of a grand commercial monopoly loomed in large perspective.
And thus by ignoring and undervaluing the results accomplished by
those earlier in the field, the owners of the patent exerted themselves to
repress competing systems, and to arrogate entire invention and propri-
etorship of the electro-magnetic telegraph.

To the vast majority—suddenly dazzled by so magnificent a culmina-
tion of invention, such claims appeared entirely legitimate ; to the studi-
ous few—prepared to discriminate, they appeared as entirely inadmissible.
The judicial tribunals—disposed to sustain a vested right with largest and
most liberal interpretation, yet pronounced in final appeal such claims
untenable and overstated. t

To so eminent a pioneer in telegraphy as Henry, perhaps more than
to any other, must the overweening pretensions of the “ Morse Tele-
graph” have been obvious and untenable; and yet with that impar-
tiality of judgment—that rare independency of personal bias which so
marvelously distinguished him, he never permitted himself to under-
estimate Morse’s true merits, nor did he abstain from defending them
with a heartiness probably greater than was accorded by any of his sci-
entific compeers. For Professor Morse personally he felt a sympathetic
regard; which continued uninterrupted and unabated till the unfortu-
nate epoch when he was soungratefully assailed and so wantonly tra-
duced. §

* Memorial of Samuel F. B. Morse. (Meeting in Faneuil Hall.) Boston, 1872, p. 37.
> b] ? ]

+t These two features so impressed the candid Steinheil, the foremost of telegraphers,
as to lead him at once to accept them as great improvements on his own ingenious
method of recording, and to urge at once their substitution.

$See “Supplement,” Nore I. § See ‘‘Supplement,” Note J.

320 HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH.

“ Relay” and “ receiving” circuits—The somewhat controverted ques-
tion as to the true origin of the relay system of electrical communica-
tion has been purposely reserved for a concluding discussion. Though
unquestionably a valuable adjunct in distant intercourse, the “relay ”
is not here treated as an essential feature of the electric telegraph, since
land-lines of 600 miles, and by the ocean system cables of 2,000 miles,
are easily made operative in a single stretch or circuit.

Henry’s original contrivance of a special compound circuit in 1835,
(already noticed,) by no means precluded an equally original invention
by Professor Morse some years later of a different arrangement of con-
joined circuits. Nor is it at all surprising that a combination (in itself
sufficiently obvious) should spontaneously occur to several minds if so
circumstanced as to feel a need for it. There is reason to believe that
Morse, like Wheatstone, independently invented his application of the
general idea, and probably about the same time, in the spring of 1837.*

To do justice however to each party, it is all-important to diserimi-
nate carefully between the actual results attained by each. Henry had
simply the philosophic plan of employing a weak magnetic power to act
as a distant trigger for a great magnetic power, (one therefore of short
cireuit,)—and there stop.t Wheatstone, employing a delicate arrange-
ment of silent galvanometer needle at the distant station, felt the neces-
sity of promptly calling attention to the visual signal by an audible
alarm; hence this feeble power was used also as the trigger to bring
into action a much shorter and more powerful electro-magnetic cireuit,
—but merely as a call, and there stop. Morse, requiring a stronger sig-
naling duty (in the use of a recording lever) than the length of the
circuit would probably permit, conceived the idea of a division of the
circuit into several shorter ones; each successive circuit to be of the same
kind as the preceding. He thus jirst produced a true “relay,” and this
too without a knowledge of anything similar having been previously
exhibited by Professor Henry as a lecture-room experiment before his
college classes. It may therefore be affirmed that Henry, feeling no
occasion for extending a telegraphic line, had probably no idea of a
“relay,” properly so called, when he first devised his combination of an
“intensity” circuit with a “quantity” circuit; that Professor Morse, by
his own declaration, had certainly no conception of a local receiving
“quantity” magnet when subsequently he first devised his combination
of a series of equal “intensity” circuits; and that Wheatstone had as
little idea of either a “receiving” or a “relay” magnet when (in con-

*Tt even appears (from the unfortunate controversy between Messrs. Cooke and
Wheatstone as to the priority and value of their respective contributions) that the two
English copartners each independently invented the ‘‘relay” alarum. (Professor
Wheatstone’s Answer to Mr. Cooke’s pamphlet. Republished in Cooke’s ‘‘ Llectric Tele-
graph,” ete. part i, p. 55, foot-note. )

+ ‘“My object in the process described by me was to bring into operation a large
‘quantity’ magnet connected with a ‘quantity’ battery ina local circuit, by means of
a sinall ‘intensity’ magnet, and an ‘intensity’ battery at a distance.” (Smithsonian
Report for 1857, p. 112.)

ae

HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH. 52

junction with Cooke) he devised a “quantity” circuit supplementary to
his “intensity” circuit for the sole purpose of calling “attention.”

Professor Morse in his answer to the teelfih cross-interrogatory (in his
deposition taken February 6,7, and 8, 1851), in the case of * B. B. French
and others vs. H. J. Rogers and others,” has made the following state-
ment: ‘If by the question is sought the date of my invention of break-
ing and closing one circuit by another, I answer in 1836 [?]. I exhibited
the same in operation [?] in the spring of 1837. If by the question is
sought the date of my invention of a short circuit to be used at the ex-
tremities of the line, lL answer in May of 1844. If by the question is
sought the date of a still greater improvement, to wit, that of placing
short circuits on the margin (so to speak) of the main line, all of them to
be operated simultaneously, I answer that the idea of such an improve-
ment first presented itself to my mind in the beginning of the year
1844.* . . . Theshort circuits at the extremity of the main line were
first used on the line between Washington and Baltimore, in May, 1844.” +

These deliberate statements of Professor Morse distinguish very explic-
itly between the “relay” of magnets for “breaking and closing one cir-
cuit by another,” and the ‘‘receiving” magnet of ‘a short circuit at the
extremities of the line.” Andasa fact of public record, Morse patented
the first of these devices June 20, 1840; (No. 1647;) while he did not pat-
ent the latter device (the *‘ receiving” magnet of a local circuit) till about
six years later, April 11, 1846: (No. 4453.)

On the same subject, Professor Gale has stated in his deposition :
“The said Morse always expressed his confidence of success in propa-
gating magnetic power through any distance of electric conductors which
circumstances might render desirable. His plan was thus often ex-
plained to me. Suppose (said Professor Morse) that in experimenting
on twenty miles of wire we should find that the power of magnetism is
so feeble that it will but move a lever with certainty but a hair’s breadth;
that would be insufficient it may be to write or print, yet it would be
sufficient to close and break another or a second circuit twenty miles
farther; and this second circuit could in the same manner be made to
break and close a third cireuit twenty miles farther; and so on around
the globe.”

This is a very clear presentation of the “relay” of circuits. But with
a slight confusion of idea Dr. Gale proceeds: “This general statement
of the means to be resorted to, now embraced in what is called the ‘re-
ceiving magnet, to render practical—writing or printing by telegraph
through long distances, was shown to me more in detail early in the
spring of the year 1837.” To the same effect, nearly a quarter of a

*[Steinheil, in 1837 (seven years earlier), had adapted his registering galvanometer
“to repeat and render permanent at all parts of the chain where an apparatus like that
above described is inserted,” the information transmitted to the terminus. (Sturgeon’s
Annals of Electricity, ete. April, 1839, vol. iii, p. 520.)]

t Deposition of Samuel I’. B. Morse, Circuit Court of the United States for the eastern
sini cf Pennsylvania, April session, 1850, No. 104, ‘‘Complainant’s Evidence,” pp.

2, 183.

S. Mis. 59-—21

322 HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH.

eentury later, Dr. Gale states that ‘ Before lines of telegraph were set
up, it was anticipated that in long lines the ordinary current of
electricity might not be strong enough to work the magnet at such dis-
tance, so as to write, but would be so strong as to open and close a side
or local circuit, as suggested by Professor Henry. This mode of using
one electric circuit and magnet to open and close another electric circuit
(either for extending the main circuit to greater distances or to operate
any local cireuit), although not in the machine when I first saw it, was
discussed in an early part of 1537, before any lines had been constructed.”*

In both these accounts, Professor Gale has intidvertently (though not
unnaturally) confounded together two entirely distinct inventions, in-
volving different arrangements and purposes;—the “relay” cireuit and
magnet (of the “ intensity” order), and the “ receiving” circuit and mag-
net (of the “quantity” order); although Professor Morse himself dis-
tinetly declared he had no conception of the latter arrangement in 1837,
having invented it “in May of 1844.”

While the first invention of the special application called the “relay”
is thus unhesitatingly ascribed to Professor Morse, the practically much
more important arrangement of the terminal or local short cireuit “ quan-
tity ” magnet for reinforcing the power of the “ intensity ” magnet, must
as unhesitatingly be claimed for Henry; and as an invention several
years prior to that of Morse, it would by the well-known principles of
patent-law, have generically subordinated the special application of the
latter. Although Henry did not technically “ perfect the invention,” it
remains none the less true that every ‘“‘receiving magnet” in use through-
out our own and other countries is but the obvious application of Hen-
ry’s experimental junction of the two circuits, exhibited eleven years
before it entered into Professor Morse’s patent of April 11, 1846.

As indicative of the relative importance of these two inventions,—the
Henry “receiving” magnet and the Morse “relay” of circuits, it may
be stated that on the extended lines of the “ Western Union Telegraph
Company,” there are now 13,745 of the former in actual operation, and
only 228 of the latter; peril 60 of the Henry “ receivers” for each of
the Morse ¢“ ropeatanel? And in remarkable confirmation of Henry’s
early anticipations of the capacity of his ‘intensity ” magnet to be
operated under judicious conditions directly through a distance of sev-
eral hundred miles, it is the “accomplished fact” to-day that numerous
single circuits ranging from 500 to 600 miles in length, are in actual use
in the United States, operated by his magnet. The telegraph-line from
New York to New Orleans, (upward of 1,500 miles,) is worked in three
es or circuits eon by two melas or seiner: ; the last ae

- * Memorial of 8. F. | . Morse, Washington, 1875, p. 19. On the question of the date
of Professor Morse’s ‘ Relay” 5 see “Supplement, » Note K.

t These interesting facts are communicated by the accomplished telegraphic expert,
Mr Frank L. Pope (of the Western Union Telegraph Company), a vice-president of the
American Electrical Society: author of ‘‘ Modern Practice of the Electric Telegraph:”
&e.

HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH. 323

Among examples of ‘ magnetic” telegraphs which might properly here
receive a passing notice, are the four following :

1837. The so-called “mechanical” or chronometric telegraph of Mr.
William F. Cooke, of London, comprising two synchronously revolving
cylinders (or escapements) at the two stations, arrested simultaneously
by a magnetic armature detent, somewhat after the general principle of
Ronalds’s synchronous dials of 1816, previously mentioned. This form
of dial telegraph was worked by Mr. Cooke in April, 1837.*

1837. The first letter-printing telegraph, devised by Mr. Alfred Vail,
of New Jersey, in September, 1837, comprising a printing-wheel pro-
vided with spring type for the letters of the alphabet, projecting radi-
ally from its periphery, and corresponding with the teeth of an escape-
ment wheel on the same shaft or axis, driven by ordinary clock-work, and
regulated by a pendulum. The pendulum oscillating as a free armature
between two electro-magnets, was arrested by one of the magnets when
the desired letter was reached, and another electro-magnet, with lever
armature, simultaneously drew down the spring type of the letter-wheel
upon the fillet of paper beneath it.t This ingenious arrangement like
the dial telegraph of Ronalds, and that of Cooke (independently con-
trived but a short time previously), required a synchronous movement
of the clocks and their pendulums at the two stations. Eighteen years
later, a printing telegraph on the same principle was very successfully
worked out and operated by Mr. David E. Hughes, of Kentucky.

1838. The electro-magnetic chemical telegraph of Mr. Edward Davy,
of London, comprising a chemically marking or recording cylinder, op-
erated by aclock-work escapement and the armature of an electro-mag-
net. Relaysof circuits were also included, operated by a galvanometer
needle.t

1839. The dial telegraph of Prof. Charles Wheatstone, of London,
eompleted by him in November, 1839, comprising an escapement and
index operated by the step-motion of an electro-magnetic armature. In
this arrangement, the synchronous motions and indicating positions
on the terminal dials were effected entirely by the specific number of
galvanic impulses given to the transmitting and receiving escapements.§
The principle of this transmission was in 1846, skillfully and sueccess-
fully applied by Mr. Royal E. House, of Vermont, to a ‘printing tele-
graph.”

* “My, Cooke’s Case,” before the arbitrators. The Electrie Telegraph, ete. by W. F.
Cooke} part ii, p. 23. It appears that this arrangement was devised by Mr. Cooke in
1836.

t The American Electro-magnetic Telegraph, by Alfred Vail, 1845, pp. 159-171.

¢The Lnglish patent of Edward Davy, July 4, 1838, No. 7719,

§ ‘‘ Professor Wheatstone’s Case,” before the arbitrators, in 1840, p. 101.

324 HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH.
GENERAL SUMMARY.

From the foregoing partial history of the origin and development of
the electro-magnetic telegraph, it is sufficiently demonstrated that its
successful introduction has been effected by a considerable number of
independent contributions. The leading preparatory investigations and
discoveries which opened the way for the telegraph, (though with no
such utilitarian end in view,) may be held to be:

Ist: The discovery of galvanie electricity by Galvani (1786-1790 ).

2d: The galvanic or voliaic battery by Volta (1800).

3d: The directive influence of the galvanie current on a magnetic
needle by Romagnosi (1802), and by Oersted (1820).

4th: The galvanometer by Schweigger (1820), the parent of the needle
system.

dth: Tae electro-magnet by Arago and Sturgeon (1820-1825), the par-
ent of the magnet system.

Passing these, the next most important series of steps in the evolu-
tion of our present system of telegraphy, and having a more or less con-
scious reference thereto, are:

First, and most vital: Henry’s discovery in 1829, and 1830, of the “in-
tensity” or spool-wound magnet, and its intimate relation to the “inten-
sity” battery; whereby its excitation could be effected to a great distance
through a very long conducting-wire.*

Second: Gauss’s improvement in 1833, (or probably Schilling’s improve-
ment considerably earlier,) of reducing the electric conductors to a single
cireuit, by the ingenious application of a dual sign so combined as to
produce a true alphabet. t

Third: Weber’s discovery in 1833, that the conducting wires of an
electric telegraph could be efficiently carried through the air, without
any insulation except at their points of support.

Fourth: As a valuable adjunct to telegraphy, Daniell’s invention of a
“constant” galvanic battery in 1836.

Fifth : Steinheil’s remarkable discovery in 1837, that the earth may
form the returning half of a closed galvanie circuit, so that a single con-
ducting-wire is sufficient for all telegraphic purposes.

Sixth: Morse’s adaptation of the armature of a Henry electro-magnet
as a recording instrument in 1837, and in connection therewith the im-

*Subordinated to this important step, the use of the armature as the signaling de-
vice and the first adoption of an acoustic signal might be mentioned. If Morse’s
“relay” be jadged by any as of sufficient importance to rank with the more essential
elements, then Henry’s earlier and still more important device of the terminal short
circuit magnet of ‘quantity ” must not be overlooked.

tThe probable anticipations of this,—by Lomond in 1787, by Cavallo in 1795, and by
Dyar in 1525,—are here neglected, as neither sufficiently definite, nor as perhaps prac-
tically influential on the progress of telegraphy ; though this recurrence of idea should
certainly not be lost sight of in any history of the origins of inventions.

} September of 1857 is fixed upon as the earliest date on which an actnal register of
intelligible signs was made by Professor Morse. (New York Journal of Commerce, Sep-
tember 7, 1837.) These signs were not alphabetical, but were zig-zag markings repre-
senting numerals.

HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH. 325

provement in 1838, on the Schilling, Gauss, and Steinheil alphabets, of
employing instead of alternating signs (asin his first register), the simple
“ dot-and-dash ” alphabet in a single line.*

As displaying the “movement of an age,” it is interesting to observe
that these six capital steps were all effected within the fruitful period of
a single decade. If we except the first of these—the inaugurating ad-
vance, without which no electro-magnetic telegraph would have been
practicable,t it will probably be difficult for the impartial historian to
award to the succeeding five contribu¢ons their respective value and
just desert.

The earlier needle type of the electro-magnetic telegraph, as developed
by Schilling and by Gauss, has found its special and appropriate appli-
cation in extended ocean-lines ; and indeed without such development,
it is doubtful whether we could have had a transatlantic telegraph.
It is well for the exclusive partisans of the “ American system” to
reflect that in the operation of these submarine cables there enters no
element of Morse’s instrument. The receiving and indicating mechanism
devised by Gauss and Weber, and introduced some ten years earlier, is
essentially that in use to-day on either shore of the Atlantic Ocean.
The signals of the earlier invention are equal right and left deflections
of an exceedingly delicate reflecting galvanometer ; the signals of the
later invention are the unequal contacts of an electro-magnetic arm-
ature.

Many other telegraphic developments—not within the object of this
summary, such as the various modifications of the galvanometer system,
the ingenious arrangements of dial indicators, and above all—as most
ingenious of all—the printing telegraphs, (originating as we have seen,
with Alfred Vail,) present what may be called highly organized
varieties of the art; but varieties which notwithstanding the rare
order of inventive intelligence expended upon them, and the great
value possessed by them in special applications, do not promise to
exercise a corresponding influence upon the future of telegraphy. The
wonders of multiplex telegraphy (the simultaneous transmission of two
or even four or more communications In either direction over the same
wire), and of vocal telegraphy (the transmutation and transmission of
human speech by electric waves in the telephone), lie still more beyond
the scope of this review. .

In conclusion, an early averment in this historic sketch, as to “ the
growth of the electric telegraph,” may be repeated in the language of a
later writer. ‘The history of the subject thus far shows us that no
single individual can justly claim the distinction of having been the

* Professor Morse’s first use of the alphabet was made in January, 1838. (New York
Journal of Commerce, Janiary 29, 1838; also Prime’s Life of Morse, 8vo, New York,
1875, p. 331.) On the subject of “Alphabetic notation” see ‘ Supplement,” NOTE L.

tWheatstone himself does not appear to have fully realized the significance and value
of Henry’s researches till 1837. The simple clectro-chemical telegraph might have
been successfully developed without the discovery of the ‘intensity ” magnet, and
may yet prove in practice a formidable competitor with it.

326 HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH.

inventor of the electric telegraph. It was in fact a growth, rather than
an mventior, the work of many brains, and of many hands.” (Pres-
cott’s Electricity and the Electric Telegraph, 1877, chap. xxix, p. 420.)
But amid the galaxy of brilliant names who prepared the success and
organized the triumph for the execution of skillful artisans, none
stands higher, or shines with more resplendent luster, than that of

JOSEPH HENRY.

NS Ope ee eg) yl thd ley pha fl Ws

NOTE A. (From p. 263.)
THE WORTH OF ABSTRACT RESEARCH.

The eminent natural philosopher Dr. Thomas Young, has well remarked: ‘No dis-
covery however remote in its nature from the subjects of daily observation, can with
reason be declared wholly inapplicable to the benefit of mankind. .. . Those
who possess the genuine spirit of scientific investigation and who have tasted the pure
satisfaction arising from an advancement in intellectual acquirements, are contented
to proceed in their researches without inquiring at every step what they gain by their
newly discovered lights, and to what practical purposes they are applicable. They
receive a sufficient gratification from the enlargement of their views of the cons*«tution
of the universe, and experience in the immediate pursuit of knowledge that pleasure
which others wish to obtain more circuitously by its means.” *

In a similar spirit, Oersted expressed his clear perception in an anniversary address
delivered in 1814, before the University of Copenhagen, that ‘‘The real laborer in
science chooses knowledge as his highest aim. <A love of knowledge, (which some are
frequently obliged to place secondary to other duties,) with the man of science must
be the occupation of his life; he is dedicated to nourish the holy flame of wisdom
which shall diffuse its rays amidst the rest of mankind; it is his nightly lamp which
shall enlighten the earth.” t

And with no Jess earnestness and force, our own Henry declared: ‘‘ While we rejoice
that in our country above all others so much attention is paid to the diffusion of
knowledge, truth compels us to say that comparatively little encouragement is given
to its increase. . . . Assoonas any branch of science can be brought to bear on
the necessities, conveniences, or luxuries of life, it meets with encouragement and
reward. Not so with the discovery of the incipient principles of science: the investi-
gations which lead to these receive no fostering care from the government, and are
considered by the superficial observer as trifles unworthy the attention of those who
place the supreme good in that which immediately administers to the physical needs
or luxuries of life. But he who loves truth for its own sake, feels that its highest
claims are lowered and its moral influence marred by being continually summoned
to the bar of immediate and palpable utility.” {

In a plea for the endowment of abstract science, William Swainson, the naturalist,
justly observes: ‘If the depths of science are to be fathomed, and new discoveries
brought to light, the task can only be achieved by those whose time is at their own
command, whose attention is not divided or distracted by avocations purely worldly,
and whose circumstances are such as to make them free from pecuniary cares. Tal-
ents fitting their possessors for such speculations must be of a high order, and they
are consequently rare: § yet still more rare it is to find superadded to them the gifts
of fortune. From whom then if abstract science is to be fostered and rewarded, is

* Lectures on Natural Philosophy, lect. i, vol. i, p. 2.
t The Soul in Nature. Bohn’s Scientific Library, 1852, p. 141.
t Smithsonian Report for 1853, p. 8.

[§ Dr. Peter Mark Roget has well observed: ‘‘ Important discoveries in science seem
often to arise from accident; but on closer examination it is found that they always
imply the exercise of profound thought. As the fertility of the soil is essential to ths
germination and growth of the seed which the wind may have scattered on its surface,
so it is principally from the qualities of mind in the observer that an observation de-
Tives its value and may be made eventually to expand into an important branch of
science.” (Galvanism, 8vo, London, 1832, chap. i, p. 1.)]

327 e

328 HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH.

this encouragement to come? Certainly not from the public; for what the multitude
cannot appreciate they cannot be expected to reward. If indeed the speculations of
the philosopher can be turned into immediate advantage by the manufacturer or the
merchant, the inventor is in a fair way of dividing profits with the applier; but we
are not at present considering such cases. . . . That discoveries which event-
ually have proved extensively applicable to commerce were never so suspected when
their first rudiments were developed, is too notorious to be disputed; for the discovery
and the application of a new principle require very different powers of mind. . . .
It is a maxim of the vulgar to esteem every requirement of this sort in proportion
to the direct benefit it confers on their own interests.”*

It is indeed too true that the prosecution of scientific truth for truth’s sake only,
is popularly held in little favor, and instead of receiving assistance, is even unblush-
ingly decried by the would-be leaders of industrial opinion. Taking no lessons from
the splendid triumphs of the past, which constantly assure us that the discovery of
one age—naked and unprized, is the necessary foundation for the invention of the
next, intelligent editors still repeat the annual cry in superior judgment on the pro-
ceedings of learned associations, ‘‘ Dispense, gentlemen, with these barren and unin-
teresting papers, and give us something ‘practical.’ ”

The average citizen, professing a patronizing admiration of “science,” is able per-
haps to appreciate the physies of machinery, and the chemistry of manufactures.
Eager for the rewards which may be won from nature by her students, he would gladly
be taught some new magneto-electric process for converting cellulose into bread, or
*oleomargarine” into butter; and yet in ignorant ingratitude, would as gladly mo-
nopolize the very thunderbolt, when Science once has forged it for the use of Art.t

But let those incapable of conceiving a higher utility than the material, at least ex-
ercise that prudent reason they so much vaunt, and at least endeavor to secure for
that self-interest they so diligently pursue, the character of an enlightened policy. The
unpromising preparation for a possible magnetic telegraph was quietly advanced by a
fine succession of earnest students (little known or respected by the multitude), who
never paused to query ‘‘ the use of it,” and who. (it is safe to say) would never have
accomplished their beneficent mission had their investigations been directly prompted
by the inspirations of a mercenary interest.} It may be confidently proclaimed as a firm
induction trom all our past knowledge, that so intimately bound together is the entire
framework and system of the world, that no extension of our observation of the phe-
nomena of nature aud of our insight into the laws of nature (which are the laws of
Gop), is not either a direct advancement in physical power and well-being, or a neces-
sary stepping-stone to other truths which shall prove such.

“Scientific researches are often supposed by the uninformed to be of little orno real
importance, and indeed are frequently ridiculed as barren ofall practical utility. But
nothing ismoremistaken than this. The most valuable and productive of the arts of life,
the most important and wonder-working inventions of modern times, owe their being
and value to scientific investigations. By these have been discovered physical truths
and laws, the intelligent application of which to practical inventions has given im-
mense benefits to the world. The germs of these valuable improvements and inventions
have been found and developed by scientific research, —the original forms of which have
often seemed to the many to be as idle and useless as they were curious.” §

*Swainson, On the Study of Natural History (Cabinet Cyclopedia), part iv, chap. ii, ’
sects. 244, 245, pp. 354-357.

t‘* Science has scattered her material benefits so lavishly whenever she has been in
presence, that no small number of her followers and all the multitude have left off
gazing on the resplendency of her countenance, in their eager scramble for her gifts.”
(Quarterly Review, June, 1841, vol. lixviii, p. 185.)

t Of those attempting the interrogation of nature ‘‘on account of the advantage and
benefit to be derived from it,” it may be said in Bacon’s happy simile: ‘‘ Like Atalanta,
they leave the course to pick up the golden apple, interrupting their speed and giving
up the victory.” (Novum Organum, book i, aphorism 70, Bohn’s edition, 1858, p. 407.)

§ Report of special committee of the Board of Regents, on the distribution of the
income of the Smithsonian fund. Smithsonian Report for 1853, p. 86.

HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH, 329

And to the same effect let us quote in conclusion a few of Henry’s urgent utterances.
‘‘ Every well-established truth is an addition to the sum of human power; and though
it may not find an immediate application to the economy of every-day lite, we may
safely commit it to the stream of time, in the confident anticipation that the world
will not fail to realize its beneficial results.”*

“Unfortunately there has always been in England and in this country a tendency
to undervalue the advantages of profound thought, and to regard with favor only
those investigations which are immediately applicable to the wants of the present
hour. But it should be recollected that the scientific principles which at one period
appear of no practical value, and are far removed from popularappreciation, at another
time in the further development of the subject, become the means of individual pros-
perity and of national wealth.”t

“The progress of society and the increase of the comfort and happiness of the human
family depend as a basis on the degree of our knowledge of the laws by which Di-
vine wisdom conducts the affairs of the universe. He has created us with rational
souls, and endowed us with faculties to comprehend in some measure the modes in
which the operations of nature are effected ; and just in proportion to the advance we
make by patient and persevering study in the knowledge of those modes or laws, are
we enabled to apply the forces of nature to our own use and to avert the dangers to
which we are exposed from our ignorance of their varied influences. Nearly all the
great inventions which distinguish the present century, are the results immediately
or remotely of the application of scientific principles to practical purposes; and in
most cases these applications have been suggested by the student of nature, whose
primary object was the discovery of abstract truth. The statement cannot be too
often repeated, that each branch of knowledge is connected with every other, and
that no light can be gained in regard to one which is not reflected upon all. Thus re-
searches which at first sight appear the farthest removed from useful application, are
in time found to have an important bearing on the advancement of art, and conse-
quently on the progress of society.”t

“The world generally has failed to recognize the importance of abstract scientific
truths. Although these truths constitute the most important elements of modern
civilization, since they give man power and control over the inherent forces of nature,
and enable him to render these the obedient slaves of his will,—yet there is even at
this time, no country (however intelligent it may appear in other respects) that has
made adequate provision for the discovery and development of these important princi-
ples.”’§

NOTE B. (From p. 273.)
THE ORIGIN OF THE GALVANOMETER.

In 1808, Johann Solomon Christian Schweigger, professor of natural philosophy at
Nuremberg, and afterward at Halle, published a memoir ‘* On the employment of the
magnetic force for measuring the electrical.” From the somewhat obscure descrip-
tion it appears however that the instrument he had devised was simply an “ electro-
scope” for indicating the static repulsion of ordinary or mechanical electricity; the
magnetic needle, armed at each end with a brass button, being mounted on an insu-
lated stand or pivot, and used as asubstitute for the torsion electrometer of Coulomb.||
This arrangement therefore involved no principle of the galvanometer.

In 1811, De la Rive, in a letter to the editors of the ‘‘Bibiiotheque Britannique,”
recounting some experiments, applied the term ‘“‘galvanometer” to an instrument for

* Smithsonian Report for 1856, p. 20.

t Agricultural Report of Commissioner of Patents for 1857, p. 420.

t Smithsonian Report for 1859, pp. 14, 15.

§ Smithsonian Report for 1866, p. 16.

|| Gehlen’s Journal fiir die Chemie und Physik, 8vo, Berlin, 1808, vol. vii, pp. 206-208.

330 HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH.

measuring the quantity of the galvanic current by its decomposing energy.* Dr.
Schweigger, in a notice of this paper, remarked that he had previously measured
the battery force by the quantity of gases evolved from water in a given interval. t
These experiments likewise, have evidently no relation to the present use of the term
“Galvanometer.”

. Nine years earlier than this however, (or six years before Schweigger’s needle elec-
trometer, ) the galvanic deflection of the magnetic needle had been distinetly observed
and accurately recorded. For more than a century, repeated endeavors had been made
to discover some relation between the magnetic and the electric attractions and repul-
sions, or to unite them by a single law. In 1774, a prize was offered by the Academy
of Bavaria for the best examination of and dissertation on the question, ‘‘Is there a
real and physical analogy between electric and magnetic forces?” Professor J. H. Van
Swinden, of Franeker, Holland, one of the successful competitors, supported the con-
clusion that the similarities were entirely superficial, and that the two powers were
essentially different in kind, On the other hand, Professors Steiclehner and Hubner
contended that analogies so curious must imply a single agent. t

But the true reaction between these agencies could not well be exhibited until after
1800, when Volta devised his galvanic battery; which for the first time enabled physi-
cists to employ a continuous electric current. Gian Domenico Romagnosi, a native of
Northern Italy, a celebrated publicist and author of several works on historical, legal,
and political philosophy, was led near the close of the last century to occupy himself for
several years with scientific investigations. The electrical problem attracted his at-
tention, and after varied experiments with the aid of the new galvanic appliance,
his versatile activity was partly rewarded ; he being first of physical inquirers to make
the capital discovery of the singular directive influence exerted by the galvanic cur-
rent on a magnetic needle. This new phenomenon—of which he could not anticipate
the importance or the consequnces, was announced in the ‘‘Gazzétta di Trento” of
August 3, 1802, an Italian newspaper published at Trent, in which city he had for
many years resided.§ If the channel of publication for a contribution to science of
such value was unfortunate, the account was at least republished in forms better suited
to arrest attention from the learned.

In a work of some note and merit, entitled ‘‘ Essai Théoretique et Expérimental sur
le Galvanisme,” by Prof. Giovanni Aldini (a nephew of Galvani), quarto, published at
Paris in 1804, the author, at page 191, alluding to the supposed magnetic influence of
a galvanic circuit, states, ‘‘ This new property of galvanism has been confirmed by M.
Romanesi, a physicist of Trent, who has observed that galvanism produces a declina-
tion of the magnetic needle.” This work was republished shortly afterward in two
volumes octavo.

In the “ Bibliotheque Universelle” (Sect. Sciences et Arts), January, 1821, (shortly
after Oersted’s announcement,) at page 75, attention is called to Aldini’s Treatise on
Galvanism, and the passage above given is quoted. The same notice and citation are
also published in Gilbert’s ‘‘Annalen der Physik,” 1821, vol. lxviii, page 208.

* Bibliotheque Britannique, for February, 1811, vol. xIvi.

t On a Galvanometer.” Schweigger’s met fiir Chemie und Physik, 8vo, Niirnberg,
1811, vol. ii, part 4, pp. 424-434,

t Notwithstanding the plausibility of this supposition, it remains to the present day
entirely unconfirmed. Theconclusion of VanSwinden wascorrect. The only approach
to a closer analogy since obtained, is the remarkable fact discovered by Ampere
in 1820, that two insulated wires free to move, through which electricity is flowing
in the same direction, attract each other like two dissimilar magnetic poles; and that
they repel each other when their currents are reversed, like two similar magnetic poles.
But the differences between these forms of attraction are still so radical, as to incline
some physicists to the opinion that the one (that of magnetism) is inherent and in-
destructible, and the other (that of electricity) is a merely kinetic or dynamic phe-
nomenon: while others would regard the two as both kinetic.

§ Romagnosi was chief-justice at Trent, from 1791 to 1794; and in December of 1802,

not long after his scientific achievement, he was made professor of law in the Uni-
versity of Parma.

HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH. Sar

In astill more popular work on galvanism, by Prof. Joseph Izarn, entitled ‘‘ Manuel
du Galvanisme,” etc. octavo, published at Paris, in 1805, in section ix, at page 120, it
is also stated: ‘‘According to the observations of Romagnési, a physicist of Trent, a
magnetic needle being submitted to a galvanic current undergoes a declination.” This
work is referred to in a discussion by Mr. Latimer Clark, of London.* Lastly, in the
memoir of Romagnosi contained in the ‘ Nouvelle Biographie Générale” (edited by
Heefer), vol. xlii, pages 574, 575, it is mentioned, ‘‘ He discovered the deviation of the
magnetic needle by galvanism.”

Although this pregnant discovery of Romagnosi appears to have been known both
to Dr. Semmering and to Baron Schilling in 1815, yet to neither of them did it sug-
gest any applicability to the purpose of telegraphy. Dr. Hamel, of St. Petersburg, in
his interesting account of the early history of the telegraph, informs us: ‘TI have been
endeavoring to find out from the papers of Semmering whether he and Baron Schilling
might have hada knowledge of the Italian Gian-Domenico Romagnosi’s important dis-
covery made many years ago, that the magnetic needle deviates from its normal direc-
tion when under the influence of the galvanic current, and of which he had published
an account in a newspaper at Trent on the 3d of August, 1802. . . . I found that
Baron Schilling, immediately after his return to Munich in 1815, communicated to
Semmering the little book, ‘Manuel du Galvanisme,’ by Joseph Izarn, professor of
natural philosophy at the Lycée Bonaparte, which was printed in Paris in 1805, and
in which, on page 120, mention is made of Romagnosi’s discovery. I have also seen a
note from Seemmering mentioning that he had read this treatise with attention. I
came however to the conclusion that neither to Semmering nor to Baron Schilling, had
any idea of a practical application of Romagnosi’s observation presented itself.” +t Nor
is this at all surprising: for the similar discovery and announcement by Oersted in 1820,
would just as little have suggested any practical method of communicating intelligence
to a distance. And indeed had the experiment been attempted, it would have resulted
in absolute failure. It needed the keen brains and active hands of a succession of pro-
found investigators,—of Schweigger, and Ampére, and Arago, and Sturgeon, and
Henry,—to develop fully the twofold capacity of electro-magnetism.

To the natural inquiry why the very same announcement which—made at the be-
ginning of the century—fell as it were ‘‘still-born,” should when again made eighteen
years later, have sprung into so exuberant and active a vitality, the answer seems to
be,—first, the greater care taken by Oersted, the later husbandman, to scatter the seed
broadcast over Europe;{ and secondly, the riper condition of the intellectual soil,
at the later Spring. Romagnosi’s work would seem to have been prematurely attempt-
ed; while Oersted’s, no more meritorious, had the good fortune to be taken up and
fostered by still more scrutinizing coadjutors: and thus while the early sowing fell
by the wayside or in stony places, the later sowing fell on good ground, well pre-
pared ; and there speedily followed at the hands of a diligent band of laborers an
abundant and most precious harvest.

The question may possibly arise, could Oersted have probably had any intimation
of Romagnosi’s earlier cultivation of the same field? Considering how little the lat-
ter name is known among scientific men to-day, the question may be confidently -
answered in the negative. Dr. Hamel however has ventured the severe judgment:
“‘T cannot forego stating my belief that Oersted knew of Romagnosi’s discovery
announced in 1802, which was eighteen years before the publication of his own obser-
vations. It was mentioned in Giovanni Aldini’s (the nephew of Galvani’s) book. . .
. Oersted was in Paris in 1802, and 1803, and it appears from the book of Aldini,
that at the time he finished it, Oersted was still in communication with him; for he

* Journal of the Society of Arts, April 28, 1858, vol. vi, p. 356. re

t Journal of the Society of Arts, July 29, 1859, vol. vii, p. 605.

t‘‘Hans Christian Oersted, at Copenhagen, had directed the attention of the scien-
tific world much more effectually than Romagnosi of Italy had done, to the fact that
the magnetic needle deflects when a galvanic current comes near it.” Dr. Hamel.
(Jour. Soc. Arts. 1859, vol. vii, p. 606.)

332 HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH.

says at the end (page 376), he had not been able to add the information received
from Oersted, doctor of the University at Copenhagen, about the galvanic labors of
scientific men in that country.’”’*

All that is known of Oersted’s simple, generous, and upright character, utterly re-
pels any such dark suspicion: and the remarkable interval of eighteen years, which
elapsed between the two dates of publication, negatives even the probability of pla-
giarism. It seems only wonderful that no other experimental physicist happened to
hit upon the observation in all those years.t

In Sabine’s treatise on the ‘Electric Telegraph,” reference is made in a note to
Izarn’s ‘‘Manual of Galvanism” and to his statement of Romagnosi’s early discovery :t
and in the second edition (of its historical portion), published two years later, Sabine
remarks: ‘‘The discovery of the power of a galvanic current to deflect a magnet nee-
dle, as well as to polarize an unmagnetized one, was known to and described as
early as 1305 by Professor Izarn in his ‘Manuel du Galvanisme.’ . . . After ex-
plaining the way to prepare the apparatus, which consists in putting a freely suspended
magnet needle parallel and close to a straight metallic conductor through which a
galvanic current is circulating, he describes the effects in the following words: ‘Ac-
cording to the observations of Romagnési, a physicist of Trent, a magnetic needle, being
submitted to a galvanic current, undergoes a declination; and according to those of
J. Mojon, a learned chemist of Genoa, unmagnetized needles acquire by this means a
kind of magnetic polarity.’ To Romagnési, physicist of Trent, therefore, and not as
is generally believed, to Oersted, physicist of Copenhagen, (who first observed in 1820
the phenomenon of the deflection of a magnet needle by a voltaic current,) is due the
eredit of having made this important discovery.”’§

While this is undoubtedly a correct verdict, it remains none the less true that the
rapid awakening of European physicists to the significance and importance of the
principle of the galvanometer, was due entirely to its rediscovery and reannouuce-
ment by Professor Hans Christian Oersted in 1820.

NOTE C. (From p. 278.)
ANTICIPATIONS OF ELECTRO-MAGNETISM.

From the Treatises on Galvanism, by G. Aldini, published in 1804, and by J. Izarn,
published in 1805, (previously noticed, ) we learn that Giuseppi Mojon, (Joseph Moyon
in the French, ) a chemist of Genoa, on placing steel sewing-needles in connection with
a galvanic battery observed that they became magnetic: (probably with transverse
polarity.) The description is however very obscure. (Aldini, p. 191; Izarn, p. 120.)

“Tt deserves to be remembered,” says Dr. Hamel, ‘‘that from Aldini’s book it was
known that the chemist Giuseppi Mojon, at Genoa, had before 1504 observed in un-
magnetized needles exposed to the galvanic current, ‘a sort of polarity’. Izarn repeats
this also in his ‘Manuel du Galvanisme;’ which book was one of those that by order
were to be placed in the library of every Lycée in France”.||

Still a quarter of a century earlier, in 1777, (now a century ago,) Giovanni Baptista
Beccaria, a distinguished Italian natural philosopher, professor of experimental science
‘ at Turin, and author of several works on Electricity, in the course of his experiments

*Journal of the Society of Arts, July 29, 1859, vol. vii, p. 606.

t “The invention all admired; and each how he
To be the inventor missed ;—so easy seemed
Once found, which yet unfound, most would have thought
Impossible.”

(Milton’s Par. Lost, book vi.)
t The Electric Telegraph, by Robert Sabine, 8vo, London, 1867, part i, chap. iv, sev.
29, p. 22.
§ History of the Electric Telegraph, 2d edition (in Weale’s Rudimentary Treatises), 1869,
chap. iv, sec. 27, pp. 23, 24.
|| Journal of the Society of Arts, 1859, vol. vii, p. 606.

HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH. 333

“found that a needle through which he had sent an electric shock had in consequence
acquired a curious species of polarity; for instead of turning as usual to the north and
south, it assumed a position at right angles to this, its two ends pointing to the east
and west.”* This curious phenomenon (which if properly investigated might have
led to the discovery of electro-magnetism) was exhibited by the action of common
frictional or mechanical electricity: galvanism not having been discovered till some
timelater. It was probably this same transverse polarity that was afterward observed
by Mojon. ®

NOTE D. (From p. 287.)

HENRY’S SPOOL MAGNET IN EUROPE,

Among the physicists of Europe who repeated Henry’s experiments on a similar
scale, Claude S. M. Pouillet, professor of physics at the Ecole Polytechnique and director
of the Conservatoire at Paris, made in 1832, a magnet capable of sustaining 900 pounds.
At the session of the Société Philomatique of Paris, for June 23, 1832, Pouillet gave an
account of recent experiments made by him with an electro-magnet of large size,
having several thousand feet of wire wound upon it. The following is the report of
this communication published in the ‘‘ Bulletin” of the Society for August of that year:

‘““M. Pouillet communicated to the Society the results of experiments which he had
just made on the magnetization of round bars of iron, (bent in horseshoe form, and
surrounded on the arms with iron wire of a length of several thousand feet,) by
means of an electric current established in this iron wire. The magnetism thus ex-
cited in a magnet one foot in height, formed of a bar of iron two and a half inches in
diameter, and wrapped with 4,000 feet of wire, is sufficiently strong to support a
weight up to 900 pounds, even when the contact of the armature with the magnet is
reduced to an edge: so that the magnetic force isin this case stronger than the molec-
ular attraction.t Attending such magnetization, on a connection being made be-
tween the two extremities of the conducting wire, a spark and a strong shock are
produced. In another experiment, two similar magnets similarly arranged, having
been placed facing each other, and varied in + istance from contact up to a separation
of a foot, the magnetization of the one produced a magnetization of the other by in-
duction; so as to effect an electric current and spark when the two extremities of the
conducting wire were brought very close together. In the latter case there was felt
also a vivid shock. This shock may be communicated through a platinum wire even
to the distance of a hundred feet.” ¢

The source of this “ intensity ”magnetisas unmistakable asis that of the magneto-elec-
tric spark obtained byitsmeans. Had the experimenter however divided his 4,000 feet
of wire into 50 or 60 separate coils, arranging suitably his galvanic battery in ‘‘multi-
ple are” as a “ quantity” battery, he would certainly have greatly increased the at-
tractive force of his magnet, and rendered it comparable to Henry’s Yale-College mag-
net in lifting-power.

Pouillet in the third edition of his Zléments de Physique Experimentale, published in
1837, gives a drawing of a double “ intensity” magnet arranged like Henry’s ina sup-
porting frame, of which he says: ‘ Figures 432 and 433 represent an electro-magnet

*P. M. Roget, Treatise on Electro-magnetism, 1832, chap.i, art. 6, p.3. (This treatise
is included in the ‘‘ Library of Useful Knowledge,” vol. 11.)

t[ Notwithstanding the considerable range of distance through which magnetism
acts, it is not probable that the aggregate magnetic tenacity of iron in any case
amounts to more than a very small fraction of its cohesive tenacity. ]

t Seance of 23d June, 1832. Nouveau Bulletin des Sciences, publié par la “Société Philo-
matique de Paris,” livraison pour Aodt, 1832, p. 127. This brief notice, republished in
Quetelet’s Correspondance Mathematique et Physique de VObservatoire de Bruxelles, 1832,
liv. v, vol. vii, pp. 317, 318, is the only paper by Pouillet on the subject of magnetiza-
tion by clectric currents, contained in the Catalogue of the Royal Society. Presumably
therefore his only contribution on the subject,

334 HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH.

which I constructed in 1831; and which easily supports nearly one ton (more than a
thousand kilogrammes) when submitted to the current of a strong battery of 24 pairs.
It consists of two horse-shoes opposed to each other, formed of round bars from three
to four inches (8 to 10 centimetres) in diameter, and from two to two and a half feet
(60 to 80 centimetres) in total length. The two arms of each horse-shoe are enveloped
with about 1,100 yards (one thousand metres) of copper wire 26 thousandths of an
inch (two-thirds of a millimetre) in thickness. The same current traverses succes-
sively the 2,200 yards (two thousand metres) of wire ; but the helices are so disposed as to
bring their opposite poles together.” And the author repeats that as soon as the eur-
rent is established, the lower free magnet is attracted to the upper fixed magnet with
such force as to lift ‘‘an enormous weight, oftenexceeding a thousand kilogrammes.”*

The remark just made applies equally to this example of the Henry “intensity”
magnet, that by the substitution of the multiple coil and the “quantity” battery, it
should have equalled the Henry Yale-College magnet, if not his Princeton magnet.

There is however in this latter account, an evident error of date, which should be
noted. The differences of detail (in every particular) between the two magnets re-
ferred to, preclude any suggestion of the latter being an inaccurately remembered
account of the former. The systematic excess of the latter magnet in every element
of construction and performance equally excludes the possibility of its having been
devised by its author prior to his notice before the ‘‘Société Philomatique” (on the
23d of June, 1832) of his success in developing a magnetic power of 900 pounds. And
the fact that Pouillet, in the second edition of his Elements of Experimental Physics
published in 1832 (‘‘revue, corrigée et augmentée”), makes no allusion whatever to
such a magnet, may be taken as conclusive evidence that no such magnet (nor any
other) was constructed by him in 1831.t

The error of statement, in his third edition of the Elements of Physics is easily ex-
plained as a simple inadvertence in trusting to memory for a precise date.t

It may be accepted with tolerable certainty that Pouillet’s later and larger magnet
could not have been made earlier than the latter part of 1832. And yet this inadver-
tent antedating by one year (wholly unimportant though it be) has been very precisely
reproduced in the fourth edition of Pouillet’s Physics, published in 1844, in the fifth
edition published in 1847, in the sixth edition published in 1853, in the seventh edi-
tion published in 1856, and presumably in every subsequent edition, as well as in the
numerous translations of this popular work. The earliest date of publication of Pou-
illet’s 900-pound magnet is August, 1832; of his second, or 2200-pound magnet, is 1837.

NOTE E. (From p. 289.)
HENRY’S EARLY TELEGRAPHIC EXPERIMENTS.

The following are some of the testimonials of living eye-witnesses to the operation
of Henry’s early electro-magnetic telegraph, during the years 1831 and 1832.
The Hon. Alexander W. Bradford, a former pupil of the Albany Academy under
Henry’s professorship in 1831, and who left the academy in 1832, thus recalls his aca-
demic experiences, a third of a century later: ‘‘And there was another professor, whose
life has been spared, who rose with the sun to instruct his pupil eager after knowledge;
who giving his heart and soul to the duties of the school, had yet time for exploring

* Bléments de Physique Experimentale, ete. par M. Pouillet, third edition, 2 vols. Bvo.
Paris, 1837, liv. iii, sec. iv, chap. 5, art. 277. Vol. i, p.. 572.

t Eléments de Physique Experimentale, etc. par M. Pouillet, second edition, 4 vols. 8vo.
Paris, 1832.

t As if to magnify this accidental error, Dr. Lardner, in a popular text-book on the
telegraph, makes the off-hand statement: “In 18: 30, an electro-magnet of extraordinary
power was constructed under the superintendence of M. Pouillet at Paris.

With a current of moderate intensity the apparatus is capable of supporting a weight
of-several tons.” (Lardner and Bright’s Electric Telegraph, 12mo., London, 1867, chap.
li, sec. 39, p. 22.)

HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH. 335

the deep paths of science; who with his wires and silk thread winding miles of insu-
lated copper in the commencement hall of the academy, patiently toiled his way to the
demonstration of the magnetic power of the galvanic battery; and years before the
invention of the telegraph, proclaimed to America and to Europe the means of communi-
cation by the electric fluid. I was an eye-witness to those experiments and to their
eventual demonstration and triumph. In this commemorative festival, let us not for-
get to honor the name of Joseph Henry.” *

On the same interesting occasion Dr. Orlando Meads thus recounted Henry’s early
triumph: ‘‘The older students of the academy in the years 1830, 1831, and 1832, and
others who witnessed his experiments, which at that time excited so much interest in
this city, will remember the long coils of wire which ran circuit upon circuit for more
than a mile in length around one of the upper rooms in the academy, for the purpose
of illustrating the fact that a galvanic current could be transmitted through its whole
length so as to exeite a magnet at the farther end of the line, and thus move a steel
bar which struck a bell. This in ascientific point of view, was the demonstration and
accomplishment of all that was required for the magnetic telegraph. The science of
the telegraph was here complete. It needed only the inventive genius of Morse to
supply the admirable instrument which was to make it available for practical use,
. . . All honor to the inventor; but let us not forget that the click of the telegraph
which is heard from every joint of those mystic wires which now link together every
city, and village, and post, and camp, and station, all over this continent, is but the
echo of that little bell which first sounded in that upper room of the academy. These
facts are a part of the history of the academy; and it is fitting that on an occasion
like this, so important a discovery made by one of her own sons, in her service, and
under her own roof, should not be passed over in silence.” t

Professor James Hall (in the same year in which he was president of the American
Association, at its Albany meeting) addressed a letter to Professor Henry, dated Jan-
uary 19, 1856, reciting the following reminiscence :

“While a student of the Rensselaer School in Troy (New York), in August, 1832, I
visited Albany with a friend, having a letter of introduction to you from Professor
Eaton. Our principal object was to see your electro-magnetic apparatus, of which we
had heard much, and at the same time the library and collections of the Albany In-
stitute. You showed us your laboratory in a lower story or basement of the building,
and in a larger room in an upper story, some electric and galvanic apparatus, with
various philosophical instruments. In this room and extending around the same, was
a circuit of wire stretched along the wall, and at one termination of this in the recess
of a window a bell was fixed, while the other extremity was connected with a eal-
vanic apparatus. You showed us the manner in which the bell could be made to ring
by a current of electricity transmitted through this wire; and you remarked that this
method might be adopted for giving signals by the ringing of a bell at the distance
of many miles from the point of its connection with the galvanic apparatus. All the
circumstances attending this visit to Albany are fresh in my recollection; and during
the past years while so much has been said respecting the invention of electric tele-
graphs, I have often had occasion to mention the exhibition of your electric telegraph
in the Albany Academy in 1832.” f

On the occasion of a visit by Henry to the Albany Institute, about two years later
than the date of the above letter, Professor Hall made public reference to the same
vivid recollections. At a meeting of the Albany Institute, held Januay 13, 1858, in
a hall of the Albany Academy building, ‘‘ Professor Hall called attention to the fact,
in connection with the visit of Professor Henry, that in 1832 he had witnessed in this

*“ Commemorative Address,” on the celebration of the semi-centennial anniversary
of the Albany Academy, June 23, 1863. Proceedings, ete. p. 48.

t ‘Historical Discourse”, at semi-centennial anniversary of Albany Academy,
June 23, 1863. Proceedings, ete. pp. 25, 26.

{ Published in the Snithsonian Report for 1857, p. 96.

336 HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH:

building illustrations by Professor Henry of his results in electro-magnetism. He saw
here a wire of great length, through which Professor Henry transmitted a current of
galvanic electricity, and made the current to exert its power in ringing a bell at the
extremity of the wire. This was certainly the first establishment of the practicability
of the magnetic telegraph.”

“‘ Professor Henry stated that he felt gratified at this public recognition of his early
labors and discoveries in reference to the electric telegraph.” *

Henry’s primitive electro-magnetic telegraph (as already stated) was properly an
acoustic telegraph. Morse’s subsequent electro-magnetic telegraph was a recording tel-
egraph, and it was this feature of automatic register which was always regarded by
its inventor as the most characteristic and important element of his invention. ‘It
was soon discovered, after the introduction of the Morse system of telegraph, that words
could be read by the click of the magnet; but paper was used upon which the arbitrary
alphabet of dots and lines was indented by the instruments, for all matters of business
up to 1852, and by many lines even later; but at the present time there is scarcely an
office of any importance in the United States where the paper is used to receive the
record. Ten years ago the practice was almost invariable in the principal offices to
employ an operator to read the dispatch from the long strips of paper as it came from
the instrument; and a copyist who stood by his side took it down. Now the system is
entirely changed. The operator reads by the click, and copies the message himself.
By this means the expense is lessened nearly one-half, and the risk of errors in a far
greater ratio.”t To which it may be added, that the diminished duty of the armature
enables a single circuit to be operated through double the distance practicable with
the Morse recorder.

And thus it has come to pass that the Morse telegraph to-day, is (by reversion to a
more primitive type) essentially an acoustic telegraph.{ So that ‘the click of the
telegraph heard all over this continent,” is in Dr. Meads’s expressive phrase, function-
ally and in truth “but the echo of that little bell which first sounded in that upper
room of the Albany Academy.”

NOTE F. (From p. 296.)
HENRY’S RELATION TO THE ENGLISH TELEGRAPH.

In consequence of the repeated disagreements between the English patentees, Messrs,
Cooke and Wheatstone, (not long after their procurement of a joint patent in June,
1837,) as to their respective shares of originality and credit in the invention of the
needle telegraph, ‘‘Articles of Agreement” were drawn up on the 16th of November,
1340, for the submission of their grounds of claim and of dissatisfaction, to the arbi-
trament of two referees, Marc Isambard Brunel, on the part of Mr. Cooke, and John
Frederick Daniell, on the part of Mr. Wheatstone. And in December of 1840, the

* Trans. of Albany Institute, vol. iv, ‘‘ Proceedings,” p. 245.

t Prescott’s History of Electric Telegraph, Boston, 1860, chap. v, pp. 92-93. To the same
effect is the statement in his later work: ‘ In the larger telegraph offices of the United
States and Canada, the recording instrument, or register, is entirely dispensed with,
and all communications are read by the sound made by the armature lever as it vibrates
between the upper and lower stops.” (Prescott’s Electricity and the Electric Telegraph,
New York, 1877, chap. xxx, p. 435.)

¢t Numerous patents have been granted for ‘‘sounders,” having for their object the
emphasizing or re-enforcement of the sound from the receiving key or armature
impacts. Prescott, in his recent work, speaking of Thomson’s ingenious and extremely
delicate ‘siphon recorder,” remarks: ‘It is somewhat curious that in the progress ef
telegraphic improvement, Morse’s telegraph (the most valuable feature of which orig-
inally was considered to be its capacity for recording communications) should haye
been modified in practice into an acoustic semaphore, while Cooke’s telegraph (origi-
nally asemaphore) should at length have been also modified into arecording instrument.”
(Electricity and the Electric Telegraph, chap. xxxii, p. 561.)

HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH. Son

contestants presented to the said arbitrators the carefully prepared statements of their
respective ‘‘ cases.”*

Mr. Cooke, in his ‘‘Statement of Facts to the Arbitrators,” gave the following ac-
count of his telegraphic failure in February, 1837, which was precisely that encoun-
tered and announced by Barlow, some dozen years before: ‘‘I employed myself in
trying experiments upon the electro-magnet, with a view to discover at what distance
an electric current would excite the temporary magnetism required for moving the
detent of the mechanism. For this purpose I adjusted above a mile of wire in the
chambers of Mr. Lane, in Lincoln’s Inn; but the magnets and battery being ill proportioned,
my experiments were unsatisfactory.”t The cause of failure stated, evidently repre-
sents his acquired knowledge in 1840, not that in 1837. It was the singular fatality
of electro-magnetism confronting every early experimenter from Barlow downward,
that whether the number of cells in the battery were increased, or whether the length
of wire coiled around the magnet were extended, the effect upon the magnet in either
ease rapidly diminished after a certain short distance of circuit. Who then would
think for a moment of compounding these enfeebling arrangements ?

In the desperate emergency which seemed to impose an impassable barrier to his sig-
nal device, Mr. Cooke consulted successively three among the most eminent of British
electricians: Professor Faraday, Dr. Roget, and Professor Wheatstone. The following is
the continuation of his ownaccount, from the ‘‘ case” already quoted: ‘‘In this scien-
tific difficulty I sought the assistance of Dr. Faraday, who advised me to increase the
number of the plates of the battery proportionably to the length of the wires; an
expedient which in some degree overcame the defect of the magnet.{ I also con-
sulted Dr. Roget upon the same scientific point. . . . Dr. Roget informed me that
Professor Wheatstone had a quantity of wire at King’s College, which might assist
me in trying experiments upon the electro-magnet, and he advised me on that ac-
count to submit my difficulty to him.” To the same effect,in his later pamphlet pub-
lished in March, 1856, (more than fifteen years after ward,) he said: ‘‘ This result was
to be accomplished by means of an electro-magnet; and it was my inability to make
the electro-magnet act at long distances which first led me to Mr. Wheatstone.” §

At this point itis proper to turn to Professor Wheatstone’s statement of the inter-
view, in his own ‘‘ case,” as presented to the arbitrators at the same time, in Decem-
ber, 1840:

“TJ believe but am not quite sure that it was on the first of March, 1837, that Mr.
Cooke introduced himself to me. He told methat he had applied to Dr. Faraday and
Dr. Roget for some information relative to a subject on which he was engaged, and
that they had referred him to me as having the means of answering his inquiries. . . .
Relying ou my former experience, I at once told Mr. Cooke that it would not and could
not act as a telegraph, because sufiicient attractive power could not be imparted to an
electro-magnet interposed in a long circuit; and to convince him of the truth of this
assertion, I invited him to King’s College to see the repetition of the experiments on
which my conclusion was founded. He came, and after seeing a variety of voltaic

diciously designated “ Part II.” The other volume, published in 1857, embracing
matter of a much later date, is improperly designated ‘Part I.” This part comprises
a reprint of ‘‘Mr. Cooke’s First Pamphlet,” published in December, 1854; of ‘‘ Mr.
Wheatstone’s Answer,” published in January, 1856; and of ‘Mr. Cooke’s Reply,”
published in March, 1856. :

+ The Electric Telegraph, ete. by W. F. Cooke, part ii, sec. 46, p. 24.

{Faraday in his brilliant series of researches commencing in September, 1831, em-
ployed almost exclusively Henry’s “quantity” magnet of numerous short coils; and
hence naturally paid little attention to the feebler energies of Henry’s “intensity”

"magnet.
§ Work above quoted, part i, pp. 198, 199.

S. Mis. 59 22,

338 HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH.

magnets, which even with powerful batteries exhibited only slight adhesive attrac-
tion, he expressed his disappointment.” *——-‘‘ When I endeavored to ascertain how a
bell might be more efficiently rung, the attractive power obtained by temporarily
magnetizing soft iron first suggested itself to me. The experiments I made with the
long circuit at King’s College however led me to conclude that the attraction of a
piece of iron by an electro-magnet could not be made available in cireuits of very
great length, and therefore I had no hopes of being able to discharge an alarum by
this means.” t

Not a little surprising is it that three savans so distinguished, all of them familiar
in a general way with Henry’s electro-magnetic researches published more than six
years before, should each have failed to apprehend, or should have forgotten, the dis-
tinctly declared virtue of his “intensity” magnet.{ Henry, in 1829, and 1830, had fully
demonstrated that while with a single galvanic pair a small magnet surrounded with
a long wire showed very feeble magnetism (as compared with one of short coil), with
a ‘‘trough” battery of many pairs it exerted a stronger attraction after the current
had passed through 1,060 feet of wire in the circuit than when the coil was directly
connected with the battery. He had announced: ‘‘ From these experiments it is evi-
dent that in forming the coil we may either use one very long wire or several shorter
ones, as the circumstances may require; in the first case our galvanic combination
must consistof anumber of plates, inthe second it must be formed of asingle pair.” And he
had expressly called attention to the fact that the former arrangement “ is directly
applicable to the project of forming an electro-magnetic telegraph.” §

Mr. Cooke continued the narrative in his ‘‘case” as follows: ‘‘On many occasions
during the months of March and April, 1837, we tried experiments together upon the
electro-magnet; our object being to make it act efficiently at long distances in its
office of removing the detent. The result of our experiments confirmed my apprehen-
sion that I was still without the power of exciting magnetism at long distances.

In this difficulty we adopted the expedient of a secondary circuit, which was used
for some time in connection with my alarum.” ||

It is at this period that Henry made his first visit to England; and in London he
formed an acquaintance with Faraday, with Roget, and with Wheatstone, with each
of whom he had many pleasant and familiar interviews, and for each of whom he ever
entertained a warm personal regard. He has left the following account of his commu-
nication with the professor last named :

“Tn February, 1837, I went to Europe; and early in April of that year, Professor
Wheatstone, of London, (in the course of a visit by myself to him in King’s College,
London, with Professor Bache, now of the Coast Survey, ) explained to us his plans of an
electro-magnetic telegraph; and among other things exhibited to us his method of
bringing into action a second galvanic circuit. This consisted in closing the second
circuit by the deflection of a needle so placed that the two upward projecting ends of
the open circuit would be united by the contact of the end of the needle when de-
flected; and on opening or breaking the circuit so closed, by opening the first circuit
and thus interrupting the current, the needle would resume its ordinary position
under the influence of the magnetism of the earth. I informed him that I had
devised another method of producing effects somewhat similar. This consisted in

ta Electro-magnets of the greatest power, even when the most energetic batteries
are employed, utterly cease to act when they are connected by considerable lengths of
wire with the battery.” (Introduction to the Study of Chemical Philosophy : by Prot. John
Frederick Daniell, 2d ed. 1843, chap. xvi, sec. 859, p. 576.) ]

+ The Electric Telegraph, etc. by W. F. Cooke, part ii, sects. 268, 272, and 299, pp. 86,
87, and 93.

{ Faraday refers to Henry’s magnets in his Experimental Researches, etc. (Nov. 24,
1831), vol. i, art. 57, p. 15; and Roget refers to them in his excellent Treatise on Electro-
Magnetism, 8vo. London, 1832, chap. x, sec. 161, p. 55.

§ Silliman’s American Journal of Science, January, 1831, vol. xix, p. 404.

|| The Electric Telegraph, etc. by W. F. Cooke, part ii, sec. 51, p. 27.

°

HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH. 339

opening the circuit of my large quantity magnet at Princeton, when loaded with many
hundred pounds weight, by attracting upward a small piece of movable wire with a
small intensity magnet connected with a long wire circuit. When the circuit of the
large battery was thus broken by an action from a distance the weights would fall ;
and great mechanical effect could thus be produced, such as the ringing of church-bells
at a distance of a hundred miles or more,—an illustration of which I had previously
given to my class at Princeton. . . . The object of Professor Wheatstone as I un-
derstood it, in bringing into action a second circuit, was to provide a remedy for the
diminution of force in a long circuit. My object in the process described by me was
to bring into operation a large quantity magnet connected with a quantity battery in
a local circuit, by means of a small intensity magnet and an intensity battery at a
distance.” *

This important historic interchange of experiments and projects between Henry and
Wheatstone, possesses an interest and a significance quite beyond that present in the
contemplation of the writer. To Henry, the confidence imparted was striking only from
the coincidence of separate inventions in the combination or conjunction of two
circuits ; in his own case by theagency of an ‘‘intensity ” magnet ata distance, in the
other case by the agency of a galvanometer needle at adistance.t But to Wheatstone,
how different must have been theimpression and suggestion! From thesimple account
of Henry’s contrasted “intensity” and ‘‘quantity ” magnets; of his telegraphic ex-
periment in 1831,—the magnetic tapping of a bell through more than a mile of fine cop-
per wire; of his daring faith in being able to ring heavy bells by a terminal ‘‘quan-
tity” magnet, ‘at a distance of a hundred miles or more!” with what new interest and
meaning must the earlier and neglected researches of Henry have been recalled. Who
could doubt that with the unsolved problem of Mr. Cooke just fresh before him, with
his active and fertile mind awakened, quick to seize upon and develop a new idea,
(as well illustrated in his intercourse with Mr. Cooke,) who could doubt that the pre-
sentation above recorded (in April of 1837,) must have been to him a new solution and
a sudden revelation?

Surely some recognition of Henry’s published researches was to be looked for in return
for the unexpected but unquestionable benefit conferred. We search in vain for any
such requital or acknowledgment. In amplifying his own ‘‘improvements” before the
arbitrators, he says: ‘‘ But the most important point of allwasmy application of the the-
ory of Ohm to telegraphic circuits, which enabled me to ascertain the best proportions
between the length, thickness, &c., of the multiplying coils and the other resistances in
the circuit, and to determine the number and size of the elements of the battery to pro-
duce the maximum effect. With this law and its applications, no persons who had before
occupied themselves with experiments relating to Electric Telegraphs had been acquainted” !t
The ‘theory of Ohm” (announced in 1827), had avowedly no influence whatever on
Wheatstone’s researches—till after his interview with Henry, in April, 1837; nor was
the ‘‘theory of Ohm” any more definitely applied, or any more implicitly confirmed,
by the later English experimenter in 1837, than it had been by the earlier American
experimenter in 1829, and 1830. And Professor Wheatstone’s explicit declarations that
in March, 1837, he found by experience that ‘‘sufficienteattractive power could not be

* Smithsonian Report for 1857, pp. 111, 112. As Prot. Alexander Dallas Bache was
present on the occasion above mentioned, and as he was also subsequently a Regent
of the Institution, under whose direct supervision and authority the above statement
of Henry was published by the board, it may be regarded as having his implicit
corroboration.

t Professor Wheatstone, in his “Answer” to Mr. Cooke’s Pamphlet, says: ‘‘ My ex-
periments led me to believe that the motions of a needle could be produced at dis-
tances at which no effects of electro-magnetic attraction could be obtained.” (Letter
of October 26, 1840; reprint, p. 114.)

{‘*Professor Wheatstone’s Case.” The Electric Telegraph, ete. by W. F. Cooke, part
li, sect. 290, p. 91.

340 HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH.

imparted to an electro-magnet interposed in a long circuit,”—that “the attraction of a
piece of iron by an electro-magnet could not be made available in cireuits of very
great length,” excludes absolutely and forever, all possibility of competitive claim to
a discovery admittedly “the most important point of all” in the practical develop-
ment of a real telegraph ;—the discovery of the ‘‘intensity” magnet. Undoubtedly re-
quired to institute especial experiments in order to properly proportion his magnet
and battery, Wheatstone was led by self-esteem to entirely overestimate the original-
ity of such experiments, and correspondingly to underrate the value of Henry’s in-
structions or suggestions.

Reewring to his plan of a terminal secondary circuit Professor Wheatstone re-iter-
ates in the same document: ‘‘ Having convinced myself that it was hopeless to expect
to ring an alarum by the direct action of the electric current through a circuit of
great length on an electro-magnet as ordinarily constructed, I began to think whether
the effect required might not be prodnced in an indirect manner. It occurred to me
that the difficulty would be overcome if a short circuit in which the electro-magnet of
the alarum and a rather powerful electro-motor should be interposed, could be com
pleted and broken at will by some action governed by the current in the long circuit.
. . . These methods of completing the secondary circuit have lost all their impor-
tance and are scarcely worth contending about, since my discovery that electro-magnets
may be so constructed as to produce the required efiects by means of the direct cur-
rent, even in very long cirenits.”

Again returning to this fatal theme, he repeats (having resolved to ‘carry out his
investigations alone” without the co-operation of Mr. Cooke), “After this resolution
had been taken, I commenced a series of researches on the laws of electro-magnets, and
was fortunate enough to discover the conditions (which had not hitherto been made the
subject of philosophical inquiry) by which effects could be produced at great distances.
This rendered electro-magnetic attraction for the first time applicable in an imme-
diate manner to telegraphic purposes.” *—Notwithstanding that Henry, in 1830,
had demonstrated—and on the first of January, 1831, had confidently announced to
the scientific world, that his own original ‘‘intensity” magnet with a ‘‘trough”
battery, was ‘‘directly applicable to the project of forming an electro-magnetic tele-
graph”!

This redundant iteration of original discovery, this reticence as to any similar
investigation known to have been even attempted by Henry, scarcely permits the
charitable suggestion of ‘‘unconsciousness.” That his persistent claim should have
misled his colleague, Professor Daniell, into incorporating in the text of his new
edition of the ‘‘Chemical Philosophy” the following landation, is perhaps not alto-
gether to be wondered at: ‘Ingenious as Professor Wheatstone’s contrivances are,
they would have been of no avail for telegraphic purposes without the investigation
(which he was the first to make) of the laws of electro-magnets when acted on through
great lengths of wire.”t Were the name of Henry inserted in the italicised paren-
thesis, the proposition stated would be beyond the reach of cavil or exception. In-
genious as Professor Wheatstone’s contrivances were, they would have been of no avail
for telegraphic purposes, without the investigation (which HENRY was the first
to make)—of the laws of electro-magnets when acted on through great lengths of
wire.

Mr. Cooke (to whom probably even the existence of Henry was unknown) makes
the very expressive comment on the above passage from the ‘“‘ Chemical Philosophy”
of the professor at King’s College: ‘‘ Mr. Daniell might have added that this investi-

*<<Professor Wheatstone’s Case,” as above cited, sect. 306, 314, and 333, pp. 94, 96,
and 100.

t Introduction te the Study ef Chemical Philosophy, second edition, 1843, chap. xvi,
sect. 859, p. 576.

d

HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH. 341

gation had not been commenced or thought of in March, 1837!”* In this pamphlet
controversy which oceurred between the joint-patentees some fourteen years after the
memorable ‘ award,” Professor Wheatstone in his ‘‘Answer” (of January, 1856,) to
Mr. Cooke’s first pamphlet (of December, 1854,) somewhat more feebly re-echoes:
“With this law and its applications no persons in ENGLAND who had before occupied
themselves with experiments relating to electric telegraphs had been acquainted.”t

The substance of the ‘‘award” rendered by the distinguished arbitrators April 27,
1841, in the matter of the Cooke and Wheatstone controversy, was that ‘‘Mr. Cooke
is entitled to stand alone as the gentleman to whom this country is indebted for having
practically introduced and carried out the electric telegraph as a useful undertaking,
promising to be a work of national importance: and Professor Wheatstone is ac-
knowledged as the scientific man whose profound and successful researches have
already prepared the public to receive it as a project capable of practical application.”{
This decision—studiously non-committal as is its language, and even as interpreted
by the extra-judicial letter of Professor Daniell, dated March 24, 1843, (two years sub-
sequently,) cannot be regarded as sustaining the prominent theory of ‘‘ Professor
Wheatstone’s Case,” assuming priority of suggestion or of application of the needle
telegraph, as compared with Mr. Cooke.

NOTE G. (From p. 305.)
THE AUTHORSHIP OF THE ‘‘MORSE ALPHABET.”

It appears from various concurring testimonies, that the new recording instrument
constructed for Professor Morse by Mr. Vail during October, November, and Decem-
ber, 1837, was entirely of his own design, without any suggestions from Professor
Morse; and that its arrangement for discontinuous marking was specially contrived
by its maker for an alphabet exclusively devised by himself; which he abstained
from publicly claiming, owing to a delicate sense of obligation incurred by his con-
tract with Professor Morse, to render him every assistance in perfecting the mechan-
ical arrangements of the telegraph.§

That Professor Morse had no conception on the 3d of October, 1837, of the form of
instrument contemplated by Mr. Vail, is clearly shown by his autographic ‘‘ caveat”
of that date. And his letter to Mr. Vail, of October 24th, announcing the completion
of the numbered dictionary, (in which he wrote ‘‘ we can now talk or write anything
by numbers,”) is equally conclusive evidence that at this later date, he was still
unconscious of any alphabetic improvement.

An article in the New York Sun, by its editor, Mr. Moses S. Beach, (written in 1858, )
under the heading ‘‘ Honor to whom honor is due,” makes the statement, ‘‘We will
mention a few incidents connected with Professor Morse’s own experience, which we
have never seen in print, and which lose none of their interest from the unassuming
modesty of the parties referred to.” And after alluding to the assistance furnished

* Mr. Cooke’s ‘“‘ Reply” to Professor Wheatstone’s ‘‘Answer.” (The Electric Telegraph,
ete. by W. F. Cooke, part i, p. 199.) Dr. John Locke, of Cincinnati, who was in Lon-
don in the summer of 1837, on his return to this country, having informed Professor
Morse of Wheatstone’s telegraphic experiments, Professor Morse in a letter from New
York to Alfred Vail, at Speedwell, dated October 24, 1837, thus referred to the matter :
“We have just heard that Professor Wheatstone has ‘tried an experiment with his
method, twenty miles, with success. We have therefore nothing to fear.” (Prime’s
Life of Morse, chap. viii, p. 326.) At this date Professor Gale had operated the Morse
instrument through only three miles of wire in the circuit.

t The Electric Telegraph, etc., by W. F. Cooke, part i, p. 57.

t The Electric Telegraph, etc., by W. F. Cooke, part i, p. 16: and part ii, pp. 214 and
268.

§ By the terms of the partnership in the telegraph, Mr. Vail agreed ‘to devote his
personal services and skill in constructing and bringing to perfection, as also in im-
proving, the mechanical parts of said invention, . . . without charge for such
personal services to the other proprietors, and for their common benefit.”

342 HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH.

the inventor in his ‘early imperfect experiments by the Messrs. Vail, the editor con-

tinues: ‘‘Alfred Vail entered into these experiments with his whole soul, and to him

is Professor Morse indebted, quite as much as to his own wit, for his ultimate
triumph. He it was who invented the far-famed alphabet; and he too was the inventor
of the instrument which bears Morse’s name. But whatever he did or contrived,
went cheerfully to the great end. Alfred felt rewarded in seeing the gradual ac-
complishment of the dream.”*

In an interesting article entitled ‘‘The first week of the Telegraph,” written in
1869 for a New York monthly magazine, by Dr. William P. Vail, the following sig-
nificant allusion to his deceased nephew, Mr. Alfred Vail, occurs: ‘‘The birth-time
and the birth-place of the telegraph as a recording instrument of intelligence,
the parties who wrought the rude original plan into working order and gave it effi-
ciency, the man who invented the ‘ Morse alphabet’ (so called), and to whose ingenuity,
mechanical skill, and tireless perseverance, the clock-work of the telegraph machine
islargely due, . . . all this is well understood, and for the most part is written
down, and the record some day in the near future must find its place in history, upon
the true principle of suwm cuique.” t

It is noteworthy that neither the published statement made by the editor of the
“Sun,” nor that made by Mr. Vail’s uncle in the “ Hours at Home,” (both widely cir-
culated, and copied into other journals during Professor Morse’s life-time,) was ever
called in question by the celebrated telegrapher. His painful silence under the cir-
cumstances is not easily defensible.

Mr. Francis O. J. Smith, one of the partners in the original telegraph patent of
Morse, (having had as capitalist and business manager, a one-fourth interest in the
enterprise, ) has also stated in a published letter, dated March 30, 1872, (not long be-
fore Professor Morse’s death,) that the modified horizontal lever adapted ‘‘ to emboss
the alphabetic characters,” was ‘‘neither invented nor combined in the telegraph by
Professor Morse, but exclusively by our associate—Mr. Alfred Vail; although for
reasons that will be satisfactory to most minds, they were never publicly credited to
him, but lave been claimed exclusively by Professor Morse as his own invented com-
bination.’

Dr. Gale, the only surviving member of the original partnership, states in a recent
letter on the subject, that he does not distinctly remember whether the changed ar-
rangement of the lever to a horizontal position in the new model constructed by Mr.
Vail, was his exclusive invention or not.

In a biographical sketch of Alfred Vail by Mr. Frederick Brent Read, of Cincinnati,
published in 1873, the writer states without qualification: ‘ Alfred Vail first pro-
duced in the new instrument the first available Morse machine. He invented the first
combination of the horizontal lever motion to actuate a pen or pencil or style, and the
entirely new telegraphic alphabet of dots, spaces, and marks, which it necessitated ;
and he did so prior to September, 1837, the month when the old instrument passed into
his hands for reconstruction. . . . The new machine was Vail’s, not Morse’s.

* New York Sun, for September 25, 1858. Republished in the Weekly Sun, for Octo-
ber 2, 1858. In a recent letter on the subject, Mr. M. S. Beach, the author of the
above, states: ‘‘T was then personally acquainted with the Vails, anda not unfr equent
visitor at the homestead in Morristown; besides of course having a personal ac-
quaintance with Professor Morse, and with the telegraph managers generally. My im-
pression is that the article was at the time approved for its exact statement—never
controverted.”

tSeribner’s Hours at Home, September, 1869, vol. ix, pp. 435, 436. In response to
an inquiry as to the evidence of Mr. A. Vail’s invention of the ‘‘dot-and-dash” alpha-
bet, Dr. W. P. Vail, the author of the above, declares in a recent letter, “‘It was so
y understood by all Ww ho were admitted to his intimacy. In a conv ersation with him
shortly before his death, in 1859, he so assured me. I am not aware that Mr. Morse
ever set up an adverse claim.”

tA pamphlet entitled ‘‘ History Getting Right on the invention of the American
Electro-magnetic Telegraph,” 1872, p. 21. It does not appear that Professor Morse
ever did explicitly claim these inventions as his own.

HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH. 343

The claim is clearly made then, that Alfred Vail in the first place invented an entirely
new alphabet; secondly, he invented an entirely new machine in which was the first
combination of the horizontal lever motion to actuate a pen or pencil or style, so ar-
ranged as to perform the new duties required with precision, simplicity, and rapidity ;
and thirdly, Vail invented, several years afterward [in 1844], the new lever and
[grooved ] roller -which embossed into paper the wholly simple and perfect alphabetic
characters which he alone originated.”*

Numerous experiments with various kinds of pencils, fountain-pens, and inked
roulettes, having shown their inefficiency for the uniform marking of the ‘‘ dot-and-
dash” alphabet, Alfred Vail at last boldly discarded all marking devices, and em-
ployed a blunt steel point near the end of the registering lever, playing directly ove-
a narrow groove in the roller which supported the record-fillet of paper. In this man,
ner the variable lines of the Vail alphabet were permanently indented in the paper
with perfect facility and unerring regularity. Mr. F. B. Read in his biographical
sketch of Samuel F. B. Morse (in the work just quoted), after alluding to his original
apparatus as being placed by him “ in Mr. Vail’s hands for an entire mechanical recon-
struction throughout, to speak a language not only wholly unknown to the first ma-
chine, but to perform entirely new functions, and to produce an entirely new system of
signs and letters which the first by its structure was physically incapable of being made
to speak ;” adds with regard to Mr. Vail’s subsequent improvement, ‘‘ His more perfect
invention of a steel style upon a lever which could strike into the paper as it was
drawn onward over a grooved roller and emboss upon it the same alphabetic characters,
was not made until 1844, about the time the first line of telegraph began to operate
between Baltimore and Washington.”t

Simple as may appear the substitution of the dry point for the inked wheel or pen,
its introduction effected a wonderful saving of time, of attention, and of annoyance.
In a memorandum attached to the original model of the lever-style and grooved roller,
Alfred Vail wrote, ‘‘I have not asserted publicly my right as first and sole inventor,
because I wished to preserve the peaceful unity of the invention, and because I could
not according to my contract with Professor Morse, have got a patent for it.”

Mr. Read, in the same biography of Morse, after quoting his feebie and insufficient
tribute to Vail, in his speech at the banquet given at New York on the evening of
December 29, 1868, in honor of the ‘‘successful” inventor, (in which he said of his
intellectual offspring, “It found a friend in Mr. Alfred Vail, of New Jersey, who with
his father and brother furnished the means to give the child a decent dress;”) makes
the comment, “It would have been more magnanimous if in those last days of the aged
savant he had stated the precise facts, and given Alfred Vail the full credit to which
he was justly entitled. He would thus have generously raised a fitting monument
to the memory of one who had years before ‘been gathered to his fathers’ in the prime
of manhood, who had with wondrous modesty and singular reticence refrained from
claiming as of his own inverition, the improved ‘Morse’ instrument and alphabet.” §

In again referring to this subject in his following sketch of the life of Vail, the
author adds, “These are the quiet and subdued terms in which Professor Morse was
content to hand his co-inventor and early friend down to posterity. He makes no
allusion to Alfred Vail which would lead any one to suspect that he was anything
more than a skillful mechanic ;—that Vail had ever done anything beyond putting
into form the conception of Morse’s brain. To say the least, if was an unhappy ho!d-
ing off from a magnanimous and generous course.” ||

*A collection of biographical notices, entitled Up the Heights of Fame and I oriune,
by F. B. Read, 8vo. Cincinnati, 1873, pp. 270, 271. Thirty-four pages are devoted to an
account of the life of Alfred Vail; who died at Morristown, January 18, 1859.

t Up the Heights of Fame and Fortune, pp. 244, 245.

{Quoted in same work: p. 291. § Same work: p. 244.

[Same work: p. 297. A friend of Mr. Vail, (unnamed,) who visited Professor
Morse at his request during his last illness in March, 1872, is reported as stating, ‘‘In

344 HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH.

At a meeting of the Directors of the ‘‘ Magnetic Telegraph Company” held at Phila-
delphia on the 16th of February, 1859, for the purpose of giving expression to their
feelings on the recent death of Alfred Vail (a brother Director), Amos Kendall in
seconding and warmly supporting the offered resolutions of respect and grief, is thus
reported: ‘In the words of the distinguished associate and friend of both, the Hon.
Amos Kendall, ‘If justice be done, the name of Alfred Vail will forever stand associated
with that of Samuel F. B. Morse, in the history of the invention and introduction into
public use, of the Electro-magnetic Telegraph. . . . Mr. Vail was one of the most
honest and scrupulously conscientious men with whom it has ever been my fortune to
Tee tee

Surely it is time that Alfred Vail should receive the tardy justice of some public
acknowledgment of his very ingenious and meritorious inventions in telegraphy, and
of grateful remembrance particularly for his valuable contribution to the ‘Morse
system” of its practically most important element.

NOTE H. (From p. 317.)
AN UNWARRANTED ARRAIGNMENT.

Henry, elected December 3, 1846, to the position of ‘‘ Secretary” and Director
of the Smithsonian Institution, was for ten years engaged in a difficult but resolute
struggle to impress upon its administration his own sagacious and far-sighted pol-
icy; at that time but little appreciated by the vast majority of those who wielded
political or literary influence. It was during the latter portion of this critical period,
while still almost entirely abstracted from his favorite pursuits, that he was made the
subject of a most wanton, unprovoked, and unlooked-for aspersion. In this ill-advised
attack—elaborately prepared either by or for Professor Morse, more than a year before
its wide-spread publication,t the pamphleteer not only boldly assailed the scien-
tific reputation of the great experimental physicist, but ventured (for the first
time in the latter’s career) to impugn his truthfulness, in an important testimony
given in certain telegraph suits, some half a dozen years previously, in reluctant
obedience to legal summons.} This testimony thus exacted, of course failed to
sustain the complainant’s exorbitant claims to all possible forms of the electro-magnetic
telegraph, and correspondingly failed to satisfy the eupidity of the actual prosecutors ;
and in this remarkable accusation, first published in 1855, could readily be discerned
the mercenary inspiration of interested capitalists and assignees—anxious only to
stretch the monopoly to its extremest grasp. To Professor Morse hunself, in his early
efforts, Henry had generously rendered every encouragement and assistance; and in

a conversation of two hours, he several times said, ‘The one thing I want to do now, is
justice to Mr. Vail’ . . . Just four weeks from that day, he passed from earth;
and I have never heard that he left one word for it. Indeed, I did not expect that he
would.” To this statement, Mr. Read adds, ‘‘ Here we leave Professor Morse and his
relations to Alfred Vail. Our only purpose has been simply to bring the facts concern-
ing this wonderful invention, to the light of day. (Same page of the work: — p. 297.)

* Same work: p. 296.

t Professor Morse’s signature upon the last page of the Impeachment (p. 96), is
dated December, 1853. The pamphlet was published January, 1855.

+ The Hon. S. P. Chase, while Governor of Ohio, (subsequently Chief Justice of the
Supreme Court of the United States, ) in a letter to Henry, dated Columbus, November
26, 1856, after reciting his professional connection with the litigations of 1849, says:
‘“‘T remember very well that you were unwilling to be involved in the controversy
even as a witness, and that you only submitted to be examined in compliance with
the requirements of law. Not one of your statements was volunteered ; they were
all called out by questions propounded either verbally or in writing. . . . You
could not have refused to respond to the questions propounded without subjecting
yourself to judicial animadversion and constraint. Nothing in what you testified, or
your manner of testifying, suggested to me the idea that you were animated by any
desire to arrogate undue merit to yourself, or to detract from the just claims of Pro-
fessor Morse.”

HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH. 345

his later successes had as freely extended his congratulations and his testimonials of
the practical merits of his invention.*

To descend to a personal controversy with Mr. Morse, was utterly repugnant to
Henry’s feelings; to permit his serious impeachment to stand untraversed, appeared
scarcely less objectionable. With a calm and self-respecting dignity, Henry simply
presented the published arraignment to the Board of Regents, for their consideration
and action, with a communication dated March 16, 1857, in the following terms:

“GENTLEMEN: In the discharge of the important and responsible duties which de-
volve upon me as Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, I have found myself exposed,
like other men in public positions, to unprovoked attack and injurious misrepresenta-
tion. Many instances of this it may be remembered occurred about two years ago,
during the discussions relative to the organic policy of the Institution; but though
very unjust, they were suffered to pass unnoticed, and generally made I presume no
lasting impression on the public mind. During the same controversy however there
was one attack made upon me of such a nature, so elaborately prepared and widely
circulated by my opponents, that though I have not yet publicly noticed it, I have
from the first thought it my duty not to allow it to go unanswered. I allude to an
article from the pen of Prof. S. F. B. Morse, the celebrated inventor of the American
electro-magnetic telegraph. In this, not my scientific reputation merely, but my moral
character was pointedly assailed ; indeed, nothing less was attempted than to prove
that in the testimony which I had given in a case where I was at most but a reluctant
witness, I had consciously and willfully deviated from the truth, and this too from
unworthy and dishonorable motives.

“Such a charge, coming from such a quarter, appeared to me then, as it appears
now, of too grave a character and too serious a consequence to be withheld from the
notice of the Board of Regents. I therefore presented the matter unofficially to the
Chancellor of the Institution, Chief Justice Taney, and was advised by him to allow
the matter to rest until the then existing excitement with respect to the organization of
the Institution should subside; . . . and Inowembrace the first opportunity of bring-
ing the subject officially to your notice, and asking from you aninvestigationinto the
justice of the charges alleged against me. And this I do most earnestly, with the de-
sire that when weshall all have passed from this stage of being, no imputation of having
attempted to evade in silence so grave a charge shall rest on me,—nor on you, of having
continued to devolveupon me duties of the highest responsibility, after that was known
to some of you individually, which if true should render me entirely unworthy of
your confidence. Duty to the Board of Regents, as well as regard to my own memory,
to my family, and to the truth of history, demands that I should lay this matter be-
fore you, and piace in your hands the documents necessary to establish the veracity of
my testimony so falsely impeached, and the integrity of my motives so wantonly as-
sailed.” t

A select committee of the Board of Regents having accordingly been appointed to
examine fully into the imputations referred to, and thereupon to report the conclusion
reached,—after a careful consideration of all the evidence and documents accessible,
presented through its chairman, President Felton, of Harvard University, a compre-
hensive report, from which the following extracts are made: ‘

“The committee have carefully examined the documents relating to the subject, and
especially the article to which the communication of Professor Henry refers. This ar-
ticle oce upies over ninety pages, and purports to be ‘a defense against the injurious

**Tb was py w wish in ev ery statement to render Mr. Morse full and scrupulous jus-
tice. While I was constrained therefore to state that he had made no discoveries in
science, I distinctly declared that he was entitled to the merit of combining and ap-
plying the discoveries of others in the invention of the best practical form of the
magnetic telegraph. My testimony tended to establish the fact that though not enti-
tled to the exclusive use of the electro- magnet for telegraphic purposes, he was enti-
tled to his particular machine, register, alph: ubet, coe This however did not meet
the full requirements of Mr. Morse’s comprehensive claim.”

t Smithsonian Meport for 1857, pp. 85, 86.

346 HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH.

deductions drawn from the deposition of Prof. Joseph Henry (in the several telegraph
suits), with a critical review of said deposition, and an examination of Professor Hen-
ry’s alleged discoveries bearing upon the electro-magnetic telegraph.’ The first thing
which strikes the reader of this article is, that its title is a misnomer. Itis simply an
assault upon Professor Henry ; an attempt to disparage his character; to deprive him
of his honors as a scientific discoverer; to impeach his credibility as a witness, and his
integrity asaman. Itisa disingenuous piece of sophistical argument, such as an un-
scrupulous advocate might employ to pervert the truth, misrepresent the facts, and
misinterpret the language in which the facts belonging to the other side of the case
are stated.

“Mr. Morse charges that the deposition of Professor Henry ‘contains imputations
against his (Morse’s) personal character,’ which it does not, and assumes it asa duty ‘to
expose the utter non-reliability of Professor Henry’s testimony ;’ that testimony being
supported by the most competent authorities, and by the history of scientific discoy-
ery. He asserts that he ‘is not indebted to him [Professor Henry] for any discovery
in science bearing on the telegraph,’ he having himself acknowledged such indebted-
ness in the most unequivocal manner, and the fact being independently substantiated
by the testimony of Sears C. Walker, and the statement of Mr. Morse’s own associate,
Dr. L. D. Gale. Mr. Morse further maintains that all discoveries bearing upon the tele-
graph were made not by Professor Henry, but by others, and prior to any experiments
of Professor Henry in the science of electro-magnetism ; contradicting in this proposi-
tion the facts in the history of scientific discovery perfectly established and recognized
throughout the scientific world.

“The essence of the charges against Professor Henry is, that he gave false testimony
in his deposition in the telegraph cases, and that he has claimed the credit of discov-
eries in the sciences bearing upon the electro-magnetic telegraph which were made by
previous investigators; in other words, that he has falsely claimed what does not be-
long to him, but does belong to others. . . . Your committee do not conceive it to
be necessary to follow Mr. Morse through all the details of his elaborate attack. For-
tunately, a plain statement of a few leading facts will be sufficient to place the essen-
tial points of the case in a clear light.”

[After a review of the evidences furnished (unnecessary-to be here reproduced), the
report proceeds: ]

“Tt thus appears, both from Mr. Morse’s own admission down to 1848, and from the
testimony of others most familiar with the facts, that Professor Henry discovered the
law, or ‘principle,’ as Mr. Morse designates it, which was necessary to make the prac-
tical working of the electro-magnetic telegraph at considerable distances possible ; that
Mr. Morse was first informed of this discovery by Dr. Gale; that he availed himself of
it at once, and that it never occurred to Mr. Morse to deny this fact until after 1848.
He had steadily and fully acknowledged the merits and genius of Mr. Henry, as the
discoverer of facts and laws in science of the highest importance in the success of his
long-cherished invention of a magnetic telegraph. Mr. Henry was the discoverer of a
principle, Mr. Morse was the inventor of a machine, the object of which was to record
characters at a distance, to convey intelligence; in other words to carry into execu-
tion the idea of an electric telegraph. But there were obstacles in the way which he
could not overcome until he learned the discoveries of Professor Henry, and applied
them to his machine. These facts are undeniable. They constitute a part of the his-
tory of science and invention. They were true in 1848, they were equally true in 1855,
when Professor Morse’s article was published. . . .

“What changed Mr. Morse’s opinion of Professor Henry, not only as ascientifie in-
vestigator, but as a man of integrity, after the admissions of his indebtedness to his
researches, and the oft-repeated expressions of warm personal regard? It appears
that Mr. Morse was involved in a number of lawsuits, growing out of contested claims
to the right of using electricity for telegraphic purposes. The circumstances under
which Professor Henry, as a well-known investigator in this department of physics,
Was summoned by one of the parties to testify have already been stated. The testi-

HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH. 347

mony of Mr. Henry, while supporting the claims of Mr. Morse as the inventor of an
admirable invention, denied to him the additional merit of being a discoverer of new
facts or laws of nature, and to this extent perhaps was considered unfavorable to
some part of the claim of Mr. Morse to an exclusive right to employ the electro-magnet
for telegraphic purposes. Professor Henry’s deposition consists of a series of answers
to verbal, as well as written, interrogatories propounded to him, which were not
limited to his published writings, or the subject of electricity, but extended to investi-
gations and discoveries in general having a bearing upon the electric telegraph. He
gave his testimony at a distance from his notes and manuscripts, and it would not
have been surprising if inaccuracies had occurred in some parts of his statement; but
all the material points in it are sustained by independent testimony, and that portion
which relates directly to Mr. Morse agrees entirely with the statement of his own
assistant, Dr. Gale. Had his deposition been objectionable, it ought to have been im-
peached before the court; but this was not attempted; and the following tribute to
Professor Henry by the judge, in delivering the opinion of the Supreme Court of the
United States, indicates the impression made upon the court itself by all the testimony
in the case: ‘It is due to him to say that no one has contributed more to enlarge the
knowledge of electro-magnetism, and to lay the foundations of the great inventions
of which we are speaking, than the Professor himself.’”

The committee, in summing up the various testimonies, justly declare of Professor
Henry, that ‘‘he has freely communicated information to those who have sought it
from him, among whom has been Mr. Morse himself, as appears by his own acknowl-
edgments. But he has never applied his scientific discoveries to practical ends for his
own pecuniary benefit. It was natural therefore that he should feel a repngnance to
taking any part in the litigation between rival inventors, and it was inevitable that
when forced to give his testimony, he should distinctly point out what was so clear in
his own mind and is so fundamental a fact in the history of human progress, the dis-
tinctive functions of the discoverer, and the inventor who applies discoveries to prac-
tical purposes in the business of life.

“Mr. Henry has always done full justice to the invention of Mr. Morse. While he
could not sanction the claim of Mr. Morse to the exclusive use of the electro-magnet, he
has given him full credit for the mechanical contrivances adapted to the application
of his invention. :

*‘ Your committee come unhesitatingly to the conclusion that Mr. Morse has failed to
substantiate any one of the charges he has made against Professor Henry, although
the burden of proof lay upon him; and that all the evidence, including the unbiased
admissions of Mr. Morse himself, is on the other side. Mr. Morse’s charges not only
remain unproved, but they are positively disproved.

“Your committee recommend the adoption of the following resolutions:

“ Resolved, That Professor Morse has not succeeded in refuting the statements of
Professor Henry in the deposition given by the latter in 1849, that he has not proved
any one of the accusations against Professor Henry, and that he has not disproved any
one of his own admissions in regard to Professor Henry’s discoveries in electro-
magnetism, and their importance to his own invention of the electro-magnetic tele-
graph.

“ Resolved, That there is nothing in Professor Morse’s article that diminishes in the
least, the confidence of this Board in the integrity of Professor Henry, or in the value
of those great discoveries which have placed his name among those of the most dis-
tinguished cultivators of science, and have done so much to exalt the scientific repu-
tation of the country.

“Resolved, That this report, with the resolutions, be recorded in the Proceedings of
the Board of Regents of the Institution.”

The report was accepted, and the resolutions were unanimously adopted by the
Board of Regents.*

* Smithsonian Report for 1857, pp. 88-98.

348 HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH.
NOTE I. (From p. 319.)
OVERSTATEMENT OF MORSE’S INVENTION.

It was perhaps to have been expected that the owners of the Morse patents, know-
ing the influence which the unbiased opinions of Henry (subpenaed as an expert) un-
doubtedly exercised upon the minds and decisions of the justices before whom the
telegraph suits were brought for trial, should regard with much stronger feeling what
seemed to them adverse in his testimony, than what was really favorable to their inter-
ests. But that the sweeping assumptions advanced by the claimants were unwar-
rantable, has been distinctly affirmed by the highest judicial authority.

Justice Woodbury, presiding at the United States Cireuit Court (Massachusetts), in
his decision in 1850, in the case of ‘‘Smith vs. Downing and others,” remarked of the
successive reissues of the original Morse patent, with expanding claims: “ In his last
renewal of 1848 there are introduced for the first time some changes of language, and
some tendencies in a part of them (as well as in some of the arguments) to make the
claim broader, and as in the letter just quoted, to cover all applications of electro-
magnetism, if not of electricity, to convey intelligence, or to telegraph to a distance.
. . . As this broader claim goes far beyond what we have already seen was that
made in the caveat and in the first specification and in the original patent, as well as
in all the subsequent renewals; as it conflicts with much of the language of this very
last renewal, looking only to a new method and a mere improvement on what existed
before; and as he seems to disavow it in his own evidence; and as on everything in
the case, it is at least questionable whether he could have intended to patent anything
except an improvement on what before existed, Ido not think it just to place a broader
construction on his language than the whole subject-matter and description and nature
of the case seem to indicate as designed. . . . And Ithe more readily adopt this
course for his own protection, as such broader view might subject his patent to be
considered void, both for claiming too much, and for claiming also the invention of
a mere principle. It would be claiming too much, as it would cover the application
in every way—of electro-magnetism to telegraphs; when this as will be seen here-
after by the history of this subject, and as is sworn to by a large number of highly in-
telligent experts, had been known publicly and for years before Morse’s first attention
to the subject in 1832. Indeed he himself virtually admits the truth of this in his
testimony. Others no less than the persons cited, as well as the history of the pro-
gress on this subject, show that several had before Morse not only made this discovery,
but applied both electricity and electro-magnetism to the purpose of teleeraphing.
But if by his alphabet and record, he has been successful in making an improvement
in the use of electricity for that purpose, and wished to secure the new method of
doing it, he was at liberty in point of law to make out a patent for that new mode; but
for nothing more. He came into the world too late for truly claiming much as new.
A large galaxy of discoverers on this subject had preceded him.”

To a similar purport was the language of Chief Justice Taney of the Supreme Court
of the United States in his final decision in the case of ‘‘O’Reilly and others vs. Morse
and others ;” which however went so far as to condemn as untenable the substance
of the eighth claim introduced by Morse’s reissued patent of 1848. The Chief Justice
said: “Tt is impossible to misunderstand the extent of this claim. He claims the ex-
clusive right to every improvement, when the motive power is the electric or galvanic
current, and the result is the marking or printing intelligible characters signs or let-
ters at a distance. . . . The patent confers on him the exclusive right to use the
means he specifies to produce the result or effect he describes,—and nothing more.
. . . Indeed, if the eighth claim of the patentee can be maintained, there was no
necessity for any specification further than to say that he had discovered that by
using the motive power of electro-magnetism he could print intelligible characters at
a distance. We presume that it will be admitted on all hands, that no patent could
have issued on such a specitication,”’*

*Howard’s Keports, vol. xv, pp. 112-119.

HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH. 349
NOTE J. (From p. 319.)
HENRY’S APPRECIATION OF PROFESSOR MORSE.

Although Henry (together with several other eminent physicists and electricians, )
was summoned by the contestants of Professor Morse’s patent, his testimony tended
probably quite as much to sustain what appeared to him the patentee’s equitable
claims, as to restrain his overshadowing pretensions. That both before and after
these legal controversies, Henry cherished only kindly feelings toward Professor
Morse, the following correspondence will sufficiently attest.

At the close of October, 1837, Henry had learned from Professor Gale, with a natu-
rally warm interest, of his success in operating the Morse recorder by a proper adjust-
ment of the length of coil on his Henry magnet, and a battery of 87 cells (each hay-
ing about 14 square inches of zinc surface), through the length of five miles of cotton-
wrapped copper wire (one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter), coiled on a large reel.*
And on the 13th of November following, he was informed of his further success in in-
terposing a second similar reel of wire (making ten miles) in the circuit, with but
little diminution of effect.

In the following year, 1838, Henry, during his elaborate and profound researches
on electrical “induction” (since become classical), desired to borrow one of these five-
mile reels of wire, for the purpose of pressing his inquiries to their furthest extent. Pro-
fessor Morse being then absent in Europe, his colleague Professor Gale very cheerfully
lent the wire. On returning the borrowed wire in 1839, Henry, in acknowledgment
of the courtesy, sent both to Professor Gale and to Professor Morse a copy of his
memoir (read before the American Philosophical Society, November 2, 1858), ‘‘ with the
respects of the author.”

Professor Morse, on his return, addressed a letter to Henry, dated New York, April
24, 1859, in which he said :

“My Drar Str: On my return a few days since from Europe, I found directed to
me, through your politeness, a copy of your valuable ‘‘ Contributions,” for which I beg
you to accept my warmest thanks. . . .

“T was glad to learn, by a letterreceived in Paris from Dr. Gale, that a spool of five
miles of my wire was loaned to you, and I perceive that you have already made some
interesting experiments withit. In the absence of Dr. Gale, who has gone South, I feel a
great desire to consult some scientific gentleman on points of importance bearing on my
telegraph. I should be exceedingly happy to see you, and am tempted to break away
from my absorbing engagements here to find you at Princeton. In case Tshould be able
to visit Princeton for a few days, a week or two hence, how should I find you engaged?
. . . Ihave many questions to ask, but should be happy in your reply to this letter
of an answer to this general one: Haye you met with any facts in your experiments
thus far that would lead you to think that my mode of telegraphic communication will
prove impracticable? . . . Ithink that you have pursued an qriginal course of
experiment, and discovered facts of more value to me than any that have been pub-
lished abroad. I will not trouble you at this time with my questions until I know
your engagements. Accompanying this is a copy of a report made by the Academy
of Industry, of Paris, on my Telegraph, which I beg you to accept.

“Believe me dear sir,
“With the highest respect,
“Your most obedient servant,
“(SAMUEL F. B. MORSE.”

* This coil of wire, wound on a small axis of iron, formed a solid cylinder eighteen
inches long and thirteen inches in diameter. Professor Gale’s preparation for this
experiment was noticed in Silliman’s 4m. Journal of Science (October, 1837, vol. xxxiil,
p. 187). And Professor Morse, in a letter to Mr. A. Vail, dated October 7, 1837, con-
gratulated himself that ‘‘ Professor Gale’s services will be invaluable to us, and I am
glad that he is disposed to enter into the matter with zeal.”

350 HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH.

To this letter Henry replied as follows:
PRINCETON, May 6, 1839.

DEAR Sir: Your favor of the 24th ultimo came to Princeton during my absence,
which will account for the long delay of my answer. J am pleased to learn that you
fully sanction the loan which I obtained from Dr. Gale of your wire; and I shall be
happy if any of the results are found to have a practical bearing on the electrical tele-
graph. It will give me much pleasure tosee you in Princeton after this week; my en-
gagements will not then interfere with our communications on the subject of electric-
ity. Iam acquainted with no fact which would lead me to suppose that the project
of the electro-magnetic telegraph is impracticable; on the contrary, I believe that sci-
ence is now ripe for the application, and that there are no difficulties in the way, but
such as ingenuity and enterprise may obviate. But what form of the apparatus, or
what application of the power, will prove best, can I believe be only determined by
careful experiment. I can say however that so far as I am acquainted with the mi-
nutie of your plan, I see no practical difficulty in the way of its application for com-
paratively short distances ;* but if the length of the wire between the stations be
great, I think that some other modification will be found necessary in order te develop
a sufficient power at the farther end of the line.t I shall however be happy to con-
verse freely with you on these points when we meet. In the meantime, I remain,

““With much respect,
“Yours, &c.,
“ JOSEPH HENRY.”

A short time after this, Professor Morse visited Henry at Princeton; and during this
first personal interview in May, 1839, received satisfactory answers to various ques-
tions presented. Among them, Henry stated that he had no reason to doubt that
magnetism could be induced in soft iron ‘‘at the distance of a hundred miles or more
by a single impulse or from a single battery:” (a striking expression of faith in his
own ‘‘intensity” magnet:) also, that with a given battery, circuit, and electro-magnet
at a distance, the inclusion of intermediate electro-magnets at way-stations would
not sensibly reduce the magnetic power at the several points. On the subject of the
differences between ‘‘quantity” and ‘‘intensity” magnets, Professor Morse was still
greatly in the dark, and he asked the question, ‘“‘Is it quantity or intensity which has
most effect in inducing magnetism in soft iron?” Henry fully explained to him that
for producing the greatest magnetic effects, a ‘“ quantity” magnet and battery, with
short and free circuit, were required; but that for a long circuit (required for magnet-
izing at a distance), an “‘intensity” magnet and battery were indispensable.t

*{It must be borne in mind that this was a year anda half after the writer had been
informed by Dr. Gale of his successful experiment through ten miles of wire. By
“comparatively short distances,” therefore, he must evidently have intended distances
less than those separating our principal cities. ]

t[The peculiar form of expression here used, suggesting the probable occasion for
another modification ‘in order to develop a sufficient power—at the farther end of the
line,” points directly to his own contrivance (exhibited before his classes, four years
previously) of a supplemental ‘‘ quantity” magnet and battery at the distant station.
Henry had no doubt of being able to magnetize iron at a distance of several hundred
miles, and hence evidently did not contemplate dividing the line into a ‘‘relay” of
circuits, as devised by Professor Morse. His language that a re-enforcement may be
necessary ‘‘if the length of the wire between the stations be great,” plainly shows this.
But he anticipated that the attractive power developed would be feeble ; while he de-
clared his confidence that there were no scientific ‘‘ difficulties in the way.” Surprise
has been expressed that Henry did not frankly give Professor Morse the benefit of this
solution of the suggested difficulty, ifit were then in his mind. But isnot the subsequent
reticence of Professor Morse, on the expedient of a “relay” (invented by him two
years previously, as alleged), much more surprising? Henry referred to the enfeeble-
ment on a long line, as a merely ‘ practical difficulty” easily ‘‘ obviated by ingenuity.” ]

{Of the communications made on the occasion of this very interesting and impor-
tant interview, occupying an ‘‘afternoon and evening,” we have unfortunately only
the result furnished by Professor Morse’s very meager statement. (Prime’s Life of
Morse, chap. x, p. 422.) That Henry, in explaining the differing functions of the two

HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH. 351

During the long and weary interval in which Professor Morse—with hope deferred—
was unavailingly prosecuting his memorial to Congress for assistance, Henry wrote to
him the following encouraging and friendly letter:

“PRINCETON COLLEGE, February 24, 1842.

“My Dear Sir: I am pleased to learn that you have again petitioned Congress in
reference to your telegraph, and I most sincerely hope you will succeed in convincing
our representatives of the importance of the invention. In this you may perhaps
find some difficulty; since in the minds of many, the electro-magnetic telegraph is
associated with the various chimerical projects constantly presented to the public,
and particularly with the schemes so popular a year or two ago, for the application of
electricity as a moving power in the arts. The case is however entirely different in
regard to the electro-magnetic telegraph. Science is now fully ripe for this applica-
tion, and I have not the least doubt, if proper means be afforded, of the perfect suc-
cess of the invention. The idea of transmitting intelligence to a distance by means
of electrical action has been suggested by various persons from the time of Franklin
to the present; but until within the last few years, or since the principal discoveries
in electro-magnetism, all attempts to reduce it to practice were necessarily unsuccess-
ful. The mere suggestion however of a scheme of this kind, is a matter for which
little credit can be claimed, since it 1s one which would naturally arise in the mind
of almost any person familiar with the phenomena of electricity ; but the bringing
it forward at the proper moment, when the developments of science are able to furnish
the means of certain success, and the devising a plan for carrying it into practical
operation, are the grounds of a just claim to scientific reputation as well as to public
patronage. About the same time with yourself, Professor Wheatstone, of London,
and Dr. Steinheil, of Germany, proposed plans of the electro-magnetic telegraph; but
these differ as much from yours as the nature of the common principle would well
permit: and unless some essential improvements have lately been made in these

European plans, I should prefer the one invented by yourself.
‘With my best wishes for your success, I remain, with much esteem,

“Yours truly,
“ JosrePH HENRY.”

Professor Morse’s biographer, in reproducing this letter, makes the comment: ‘This
was the most encouraging communication Professor Morse received during the dark
ages between 1839, and 1843.” And he again notices it on a subsequent page: ‘In
the summer of 1842, Professor Morse communicated to the Hon. W. W. Boardman,
member of the House of Representatives in Congress, the encouraging letter frum Pro-
fessor Henry, of February 24, 1842.”* And when on December 30, of 1842, the Hon.
Charles G. Ferris, of New York, reported in the House of Representatives the bill au-
thorizing the construction of the telegraph, this justly valued testimonial of Henry,
accompanied Professor Morse’s memorial. The Hon. Fernando Wood, of New York (a
colleague of Mr. Ferris), in reviewing the history of that enactment some thirty years
later, (on the occasion of the memorial proceedings at the Capitol in honor of Professor
Morse,) did not forget to remark: ‘‘ With this letter [from Professor Morse] was an-
other to him from Prof. Joseph Henry, now of the Smithsonian Institution, and then
of Princeton College, indorsing and sustaining the application. Professor Henry was
deemed high authority on all scientific subjects generally, and especially upon this, to
which he had devoted much attention, being himself a successful investigator in elec-
tro-magnetic science.”+ The bill of Mr. Ferris passed the House of Representatives,

kinds of magnets, would have unfolded the utility of the “quantity” magnet as a
terminal re-enforcement of a long ‘‘intensity” line, seems highly probable,—if not
almost inevitable. If Professor Morse did not profit by it, or failed rightly to appre-
hend it, this may be explained by his possible preoccupation with the project of
dividing a long line into a succession of ‘‘relays.”

*Prime’s Life of Morse, chap. x, pp. 423 and 433.

t Memorial of F. 8. B. Morse, April 16, 1872, Washington, 1875, p. 79.

352 HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH.

February 23, 1843; and the Morse appropriation was secured, by passing the Senate,
March 3, 1843.

Very shortly after this successful issue, Prof. James C. Fisher, who in the absence
of Dr. Gale had taken his place in assisting Professor Morse, wrote to Henry explain-
ing the method proposed for insulating the wires and laying the line of conductors
underground, and asking advice as to the best method of wrapping. To this commu-
nication Henry replied by letter dated—

“PRINCETON, April 17, 1843.

“Dear Sir: A friend of mine in Trenton has a machine for winding wire of which
he promised to give a description. I will write to you on the subject and send you a
copy of his answer. The greatest practical difficulty you will have to contend with,
I should think, will be the insulation of the wires. Twine is a partial conductor, and
by making the surface sufficiently extended, lateral transmission will take place to
some extent. The loss however on this account can only be determined by direct
experiment with extended wire. It will probably increase with an increasing ratio;
first on account of the greater surface of contact, and secondly because electricity
of greater tension will be required to send the current through the longer wire. In
order to diminish the number of points of contact, it might perhaps be well to wrap
around each wire—besides its continuous covering, an extra strand of coarse twine,
with the several turns at a distance from each other. . . .”

When Professor Morse, in August, 1843, received 160 miles of covered copper wire,
designed to form two independent circuits, each of a double line of 40 miles in extent,
to reach from Washington to Baltimore (one pair for the ontgoing circuit and the other
for the return cirenit), he invited Henry and others to be present at a preliminary ex-
periment in New York City, on the 8th of August, to test the capacity of electrical
transmission. This very interesting trial with so unusual a length of conductor would
for the first time decide the correctness of Henry’s opinion that magnetization could be
effected ‘‘at the distance of a hundred miles or more by a singleimpulse.” This erit-
ical test—never before attempted, Henry was unfortunately prevented from witnessing,
by reason of his professional duties. The experiment was eminently successful with
a battery of 100 Grove elements; and the magnet was operative with even half that
number. The following letter to Professor Morse expressed Henry’s regrets at being
compelled to miss such an opportunity :

‘¢PRINCETON, August 22, 1843.

“My Duar Sir: I hope you will pardon me for not before acknowledging the receipt
of your kind letters of invitation to attend your galvanic exhibition. My time has
been so much occupied during the last three weeks with an extra course of lectures
and our examination, and so little at my own disposal, that I was unable to say
whether I could be in the city on the day you mentioned or not. I did hope however
to get away, but the examination prevented. Dr. Torrey was also engaged, and could
not leave. Ido not know however that I could have done much in the way of orig-
inal experiments in the course of a single day. I am not quick in the process of in-
venting experiments unless my mind is thoroughly aroused to the subject by several
days’ exclusive attention to the work, and then I am obliged to pause between each
effort.* I have not been able since I last saw you to devise a satisfactory process for
determining the velocity of galvanic electricity; and on reflection I did not think it
worth the expense which would be incurred, to have a machine constructed for the
mere repetition of the experiments of Wheatstone.

“T think it probable that I shall visit the city next week, as I shall be unemployed
from this time until a week from next Monday. If there is any prospect of your

*[An indication of the logical care bestowed by Henry on his experimental work, and >
the key to his successes. He had little confidence in the profit of empirical or ‘* hap-
hazard” trials. ]

HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH. 353

repeating any of your experiments previous to that time, I will be with you on any

day you may appoint.
“With much respect and esteem,

“Yours truly,
“JOSEPH HENRY.”

The answer to this, or whether any further preliminary experiments were jointly
performed on the 160 miles of wire, does not appear. As the line of wires between
Washington and Baltimore was being laid, Henry, anxious to emphasize the importance
of keeping the separate wires at some distance apart throughout their circuit, ad-
dressed to Professor Morse the following friendly letter on the subject:

“‘PRINCETON, January 24, 1844.

‘““My Dear Sir: I am anxious to hear from you in reference to the telegraph, and
I have intended to write to you on the subject for a month past, but extra college
duties have occupied all my thoughts and all my time since the beginning of the
present term. During the last vacation I occupied myself as usual with my investi-
gations in electricity, and among other results, I arrived at one which I think may
have an important bearing on the success of the telegraph. It is this: while a current
of electricity is passing through a wire, one part of the conductor is constantly plus to
any other part which succeeds it, the difference in the degree of the electrical state
constantly increasing as the distance of the two points is greater. The maximum
difference is therefore at the two ends; and when the two extremities of long wires
are brought into near approximation, there is a great tendency in the elecricity to cut
across from the one to the other. This tendency is not due as has been supposed,
merely to the great resistance of the long wire and the cross-cut offering a less resist-
ing channel, but tothe fact of the one part being positive and the other negative, and
the consequent great attraction of the electricity in the one part for the unsaturated
matter in the other. . . . Onreading your letter on the subject of the telegraph
in the newspapers, I was struck with the idea that you had probably met with the
very difficulty my researches have led me to anticipate. If this is the case, and
your insulation is not found sufficient, you have no cause to blame yourself, since the
previous state of knowledge on the subject of electricity could not lead you to suspect

such a condition of things.
“With much respect,

Yours truly,
‘“‘ JOSEPH HENRY.”

The danger apprehended by Henry was realized ; and of the nine miles of quadruple
conductors laid in the ground, Professor Gale had already discovered that the galvanic
current could not be carried through a single mile; a result partly due to the injury
done to the insulation of the wires at some points, in the process of enveloping them
in a tube, and partly to the energetic induction from the ‘‘extra current” first dis-
covered by Henry. In a couple of weeks, Professor Morse wrote to Henry as follows:

‘‘ BALTIMORE, February 7, 1844.
“My Dear Sir: You must think it strange that I have not answered your letter
of the 24th ultimo before this; but I have this moment received it in passing through
this place on my way to New York, which I trust will be a sufficient apology for my
apparent neglect. I have read your letter with much interest, and it has determined
me to make you a visit on my return from New York, which will be the beginning of
the week, perhaps on Tuesday morning, the 13th instant. . . . I found the diffi-
culty which you apprehend in the insulation.of my wires; but this I will explain

when I have the pleasure of seeing you.
“Tn the mean time, believe me, with sincere respect,
“Your most obedient servant,
‘‘SAMUEL F, B. MORSE.”

S. Mis. 59-——23

354 HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH

At his next interview with Henry on the 13th of February, 1844, (on his way from
New York,) he was advised to suspend his wires through the air on poles, at a suffi-
cient elevation to avoid injury from the recklessness of mischievous boys: as Henry
feared that the risk of ‘‘ cross-cut” on long lines, even with good insulation, was
scarcely avoidable.* Henry also informed him that this plan had been successfully
adopted by Gauss and Weber ten years previously.

Professor Morse, who had thought of this method before, but with much distrust, at
once determined to carry it out, and early in the following month, March, made prepa-
rations for its execution. Two methods of suspension were suggested, the first plan
(that of Mr. Vail), the gathering of the four wrapped or insulated wires together at
their supports, requiring but a single insulator on each pole, to which Professor Morse
was himself inclined as involving least cost; the second plan (that of Mr. Ezra Cor-
nell), the scattering of the wires, and the supporting of them apart on independent
insulators. The following is Professor Morse’s account to Mr. Cornell of a second in-
terview and consultation with Henry on this subject, on the Ist of March, 1844, (on
his way back to New York,) which he inadvertently confounds with his preceding
interview two or three weeks earlier:

““On my way to New York, where I went to order the fixtures, I stopped at Prince-
ton, and called on my old friend Professor Henry, who inquired how I was getting
along with my telegraph.t I explained to him the failure of the insulation in the
pipes, and stated that I had decided to place the wires on poles in the air. He then
inquired how I proposed to insulate the wires where they were attached to the poles.
I showed him the model I had of Mr. Vail’s plan; and he said: ‘It will not do; you
will meet the same difficulty you had in the pipes.’ I then explained to him your
plan, which he said would answer.”{ And this is the method since universally
adopted in this country. On the 24th of May following, the first message was sent
over the completed telegraph line by Professor Morse from Washington to Baltimore,
and immediately repeated by Mr. Vail from Baltimore back to Washington.

The success of this new enterprise (foreseen, encouraged, and promoted, by Henry)
having been assured, various competitors sprang up as usual, (with similar and with
dissimilar systems, ) to share in its benefits and profits; and in a. few years numerous
litigations arose in resistance of real or supposed infringements. Notwithstanding
the zeal and bitterness infused into these controversies by interested partisans, Henry
never lost his interest in the success of Professor Morse’s plan of telegraphing; but
while desirous that meritorious rival schemes (such as that of the printing telegraph,
—first invented by Alfred Vail, in September, 1837, and developed by Royal E. House
in 1846, to a practical operation) should have a fair trial, he steadily refused to be
made a party to any such discussions; until at last he was summoned by subpena to
attend a trial at Boston, to testify to the pre-existing sthte of the art.§ In occupying

* “Mr. Morse visited me at, Princeton to consult me on the arrangement of his con-
ductors. During this visit we conversed freely on the subject of insulation and con-
duction of wires. I urged him to put his wires on poles.” (Smithsonian Report for
1857, pp. 112, 113.

+ [Such an inquiry would appear superfluous in view of Professor Morse’s recent
letter dated February 7, The whole coloring of the interview is inaccurate. ]

{ Prime’s Life of Morse, chap. xi. pp. 479, 480. A treatise on the ‘‘ Telegraph,” just
published, gives the following account of the plan adopted: ‘‘ An arm thirty inches
long, with a pin at each end, bearing a glass bureau-knob,—an insulation proposed by
Mr. Cornell and approved by Professor Henry, was secured to the upper end of each
pole. Around the bureau-knobs the conducting wires were wrapped.” (The Telegraph
in America. By James D. Reid. 8vo. New York, 1879, chap. xi, p. 116.)

§ ‘fA series of controversies and law-suits having arisen between rival claimants
for telegraphic patents, I was repeatedly appealed to to act as expert and witness in
such cases. This I uniformly declined to do, not wishing to be in any manner in-
volved in these litigations, but was finally compelled under legal process to return to
Boston from Maine, (whither I had gone on a visit,) and to give evidence on the sub-
ject.” (Smithsonian Report for 1857, p. 7.)

HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH. 355

a position so distasteful to his sensitive and generous nature, if may well be supposed
that however reserved and cautious his attitude, and whatever his preferences, the
answers (necessarily conscientious) drawn from him by skillful attorneys defending
the alleged infringements, and the coloring given to such answers in their elaborate
arguments, would be little calculated to please the plaintiffs,—naturally intent on the
broadest scope and comprehension of their claims. And from this time, Professor
Morse, under the misjudging influence of interested supporters, seemed to forget that
Henry had been among the most serviceable and unselfish of his many friends.

In 1854 Professor Morse’s patent (of fourteen years from 1840) was about expiring,
and an application for its extension for seven years longer, according to the provis-
ions of the law, was pending before the Hon. Charles Mason,—one of the most able,
conscientious, and indefatigable of Patent Office Commissioners. Inclined from the
testimony he had examined, to believe that the merits of Professor Morse’s invention
had been greatly overestimated, and that his patent from the breadth of interpreta-
tion it had received, was acting to some extent as an obstruction to further pro-
gress in the art, he consulted with his friend, Professor Henry, as to the independent
value of the Morse system, in view of the antecedent state of the art. Henry, with
no other sentiment than that of impartial arbitrator, represented that Professor
Morse, without the advantage of scientific culture, had the great merit of having
combined and of having energetically developed and established a system of electro-
magnetic telegraphy, in its method of signaling and of recording, the most efficient
of contemporary methods. He referred to the needle-telegraph of his personal friend,
Professor Wheatstone (whom he regarded as one of the most intelligent and ingenious
of modern physicists), as being in his judgment inferior practically to the Morse tele-
graph; and he urged that care should be taken not to let the extravagant pretensions
of Professor Morse’s would-be friends lead to the opposite error of underrating an in-
vention which was certainly of far greater value to the community, than any remu-
neration which had yet been reaped by its author from the short-lived monopoly.

The application of the patentee was granted by the Commissioner; and the patent
was legally extended for seven years from the 19th of June, 1854. Professor Morse,
in ignorance of this service, had at the time unfortunately written (or at least given
his signature to) the ungracious and ungrateful assault on Henry, as a pretender in
science, and a detractor of merit, when rising fame excited his envy. And early the
following year, to the injury of himself alone, had the stricture published in a pam-
phlet, and widely distributed.

As a sufficient corrective of the strange misconception of his disposition and motives,
Henry inquired of Judge Mason, if he recalled their interview on the question of ex-
tending the Morse patent ; and the Commissioner of Patents responded in the follow-

ing letter:
“UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE, March 31, 1856.

“Str: Agreeably to your request, I now make the following statement: Some two
years since, when an application was made for an extension of Professor Morse’s pat-
ent, I was for some time in doubt as to the propriety of making that extension. Under
these circumstances I consulted with several persons, and among others with yourself,
with a view particularly to ascertain the amount of invention fairly due to Professor
Morse. The result of my inquiries was such as to induce me to grant the extension.
I will further say that this wasin accordance with your express recommendation, and
that I was probably more influenced by this recommendation, and the information I
obtained from you, than by any other circumstance, in coming to that conclusion.

“*T am, sir,
“Yours very respectfully,

‘““ CHARLES Mason.”
‘Prof. J. HENRY.”

356 HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH.

NOTE K. (From p. 322.)

THE DATE OF PROFESSOR MORSE’S ‘‘ RELAY.”

Although the depositions of Professor Morse, and of his principal assistant (given in
law suits more than ten years after the event), assign from memory as the date ofinven-
tion of the ‘‘relay” the spring of 1837, all the documentary evidence existing, points
rather to the spring of 1838, as the date of its inception. First, we should expect at
least a reference to this device in the article prepared for Silliman’s Journal of Spetember,
1837, in announcing the intention of experimenting with ‘‘a circuit of several miles.”
Secondly, we should certainly expect to find it spoken of as a saving expedient in
the caveat of October 3, 1837, if it were at that time in the author’s mind, and he were
desirous of protecting it. Thirdly, we should expect to find it unavoidably brought
forward (at least as a suggestion) before the committee of the Franklin Institute,
February 8, 1838, when the doubt was expressly discussed in the committee’s report as
to the practicable distance to which the telegraph could be made to signal. This con-
spiracy of silence, this conspicuous absence (in every published case) of the slightest
hint upon the subject, although so directly prompted and invited, is difficult (ex post
facto) to account for. The earliest documentary reference now extant, to a junction
of circuits, occurs in the application for a patent signed by Professor Morse April 7,
1838.

On filing this application in the Patent Office, he had requested that it might be re-
tained in the secret archives, unacted upon, until he should have procured his foreign
patents. He left this country for Europe with that object May 16, 1838, and returned.
to New York April 15, 1839. For a year or more afterward he took no step toward
procuring his patent, till he wrote the following letter to the ‘‘ Hon. H. L. Ellsworth,

Commissioner of Patents”:
“New YorK, May 2, 1840.

“‘Drar Str: I have never received my patent papers from your office. I believe
there was something to be done on my part in relation to a drawing for one of the
duplicates, which I was prevented from accomplishing by the necessity of preparing
suddenly for my visit to Europe with the telegraph. I have nearly completed an im-
proved apparatus for which Iintend to take out a patent, adding it to my patent
already executed, as an improvement.

“Your old friend and classmate,
“SAMUEL F. B. MORSE.”

To this the Commissioner replied as follows:

‘“¢ PATENT OFFICE, May 14, 1840.

‘Str: The specifications and drawings of your alleged improvement in the mode of
communicating signals by the application of electro-magnetism are herewith re-
turned to you, the explanatory reference in the same not being sufficient to properly
illustrate the invention. Some annotations pointing out the parts where these are
wanting are marked in pencil in the margin of the description.

“Your favor of the 2d instant has been received; in reply to which the office has to
state that the delay attending the granting of your application has not been caused
by any want of attention on its part. Some two years since, when your patent was
about being issued, a request was made by you that the case might be postponed until
you should have received letters patent from the European governments. This request
was complied with, and as no communication has been received from you since in re-
lation to the issuing of the patent, the case has been permitted to lie over. The pat-
ent will be issued however immediately on the return of the papers.

“Yours respectfully,
“A. L. ELLSwWorTH.”

The amended specification and a duplicate set of drawings were returned to the
Patent Oifice by Professor Morse, with a letter dated New York, May 18, 1840. It was
then discovered that the original oath of invention required by law was defective in

HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH. 357

omitting a specific date, the space for the day and the month having been left blank,
The applicant having been informed of this by official letter dated May 26, 1840, a new
affidavit, properly executed, was sent to the Patent Office May 29, 1840, and the pat-
ent was finally issued June 20, 1840.

Whether the true date of the invention of the ‘‘ relay,” by Professor Morse, be 1837,
or 1838, is not regarded as a matter of any importance historically, as in either case,
he is fully credited with its original conception.

NOTE L. (From p. 325.)
ALPHABETIC BINARY NOTATION.

It seems proper to take some notice of the growth of that beautiful invention, the
bi-signal alphabet. Its origin appears to be considerably earlier than that of its con-
gener, the binary arithmetical notation devised by Leibnitz two hundred years ago.
An alphabetic code of signals is indeed as old as the time of the Greek historian Poly-
bius (150 years before the Christian era), who describes in the tenth book of his Gen-
eral History a method of signaling to a distance any required dispatch by means of
torches,—which he says was invented by Cleoxenus and Democlitus, and perfected by
himself. In this scheme the Greek alphabet of 24 letters is distributed into five series
or tablets, each comprising five letters: (the last space being vacant.) Then torches
(from one to five) exposed on the left side, will indicate the group or tablet; and sim-
ilar torches raised on the right side, will indicate the place of the letter on the tablet.*
This system may obviously be very easily resolved into a bi-signal alphabet. It ap-
pears that the emperor Leo VI, (of the eastern division of the empire) about the year
A. D. 900, in a chapter of his ‘‘ Military Tactics,” on naval warfare, described a plan
somewhat similar to the above. t

An early English example of the bi-signal alphabet is to be found in Francis Bacon’s
“Advancement of Learning,” published in 1605. In this Treatise, discoursing on cryp,
tography, he observes: ‘‘ We shall here annex a cipher of our own, that we devised at
Parisin our youth. . . . Theinvention is this: let all the letters of the alphabet be
resolved into two only, by repetition and transposition; for a transposition of two let-
ters through five places or different arrangements, will denote two-and-thirty differences,
and consequently fewer or four-and-twenty,—the number of letters in our alphabet.”
(It will be remembered that at this date the letters J and u had not been differentiated
fromtandv.) Bacon then gives an example of ‘a bi-literal alphabet” consisting of
the permutations of ‘‘a” and “‘b” through five places; and he subjoins the comment
that ‘‘this contrivance shows a method of expressing and signifying one’s mind to any
distance, by objects that are either visible or audible, provided the objects are capable
of two differences, as bells, speaking-trumpets, fire-works, cannon, &c.” {

Inthe ‘‘ Cyclopedia” of Doctor Abraham Rees, published early in the present century
(1802-1819), under the word ‘‘cipher” are presented among a variety of interesting
alphabetic notations, examples of one formed by the combinations of three characters,
and of one formed by two characters; the latter evidently copied from Bacon. The
compiler says: ‘‘Another mode of corresponding by cipher is striking two, or three-
bells of various sizes.” After remarking that two symbols require a larger combina-
tion for each letter than three, and giving an example of each kind, the writer adds:
“The effect will be the same, whether the writer make use of arithmetical characters,
letters, dots, lines, mathematical diagrams, or any other sign which admits of two, or of
three differences.” Employing as an instance the figures 1 and 2, he makes use of
five recurrences for each letter, as in the example given by Bacon, and he follows a

*Polybius’s History; lib. x. cap. 45. Greek and Latin edition of A. F. Didot, Paris,
8vo. 1852. pp. 474, 475.

t*“The emperor Leo VI, in his chapter on naval tactics (chap. xix), describes almost ex-
actly Myer’s army code, concluding with the remark, ‘as the ancients did.’” (Johnson’s
Universal Cyclopedia; edited by Dr. Barnard: art. ‘‘Naval Signals,” vol. iii. p. 734.)

{ On the Dignity and Advancement of Learning, book vi, chap. i.—Bohn’s edition, 1858,
pp. 222, 223.

358 HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH.

similar order of permutations. The two symbols—the single dot or period (.), and the
double dot or colon (:),—are also employed for the same purpose. *

In the following table are displayed several examples of bi-signal alphabets, chrono-
logically arranged.t In the first column, the two symbols ‘‘a” and ‘‘b,” and in the
second column the two symbols ‘‘1” and 2,” may stand for dots, lines, colors, bells,
or any other distinctions of sight or sound, as indicated by Bacon and by Rees. In
the third column is exhibited the notation of an acoustic alphabet devised by Mr. James
Swaim, of Philadelphia, and published in 1829, in a pamphlet entitled “The Mural
Diagraph, or the Art of Conversing though a Wall.” In this scheme (sometimes
designated the prison alphabet), the symbol ‘‘t” signifies an audible tap or knock,
and the ‘‘s” an audible scratch.{ In the next three columns, the two symbols ‘‘r”
and ‘‘1” represent a movement of a galvanometer needle to the right and to the left.
In the last three columns, the symbols ‘‘s” and ‘‘1” represent a short mark or dot,
and a long mark or dash.

1, IL. 100 IV. ive Vale VII. VIII. IX.
Bacon. Rees. Swaim. | Schilling. Cone Steinheil. Cee eA wursuess
1605. | 1809. 1829; | - = =.= |) 1833. 1836. 1838. 1844. 1851.
A aaaaa 11111 t rl r lr] sss sl sl
B aaaab 11112 tt rrr ll lrrl Ss ss Isss lsss
Cc aaaba 11121 ttt rll rir llr sss sss Isls
D aaabb 11122 tttt rrl trl rl SSS S Iss Iss
E | aabaa | 11211 s ie 1 1 s 8 8
F | aabab 11212 ss YTIT rir Irr S sss sls ssls
G aabba 11221 sss Wl Irr rrl sss lls lls
H. aabbb 11222 SSss rill lll Trrr ssss SSSS SSSS
I abaaa 12111 ts cE IT r sl ss ss
JJ ---- 12112 | +t tts tril ---- r sss Isls slll
K abaab 12122 tt rrrl rrr llr Isl Isl Isl
L ababa 12211 ‘tobe Irrr lir rll V V slss
M ababb OOO tebtt lrl Irl YIT lss ll ll
N abbaa 12221 | +t tttt Ir rll Ir ls Is Is
O | abbab 12222 ts rir rl lil ss 8s lll
P | abbba 21111 tss llrr TTIr rilr SSSSS SSSSS slls
Q |; abbbb| 21112) tsss llr ----|---- ssls ssls isl
R baaaa 21121 | tssss lrr rrrl i ss S$ ss sls
S baaab 212 ae tts ll rrlr lirr sls sss sss
4v baaba 21211 | tt tts 1 rir Ir lls 1 ]
Wiha liicaa nc 21212 tt t llr Ir rir sll ssl ssl
V baabb 21221 tt tt 00 rir rir 1 sss] sss]
W babaa 12121 |. tt ttt rivl lrrr rirl ssl sll sll
x babab 22212 | tt tttt Irir ----|---- ll slss Iss]
Y | babba 22291 tt 8 rilr ----|---- sl SS SS Isl
Z babbb | 22122] ttss rirr rrll rrll sls sss Ss llss

* Rees’ Cyclopedia, vol. viii, art. “‘ Cipher.”

t Of two early alphabets for the electric telegraph,—that of Lomond in 1787, and that
of Dyar in 1828, no records appear to exist. A plan was suggested by Henry at Al-
bany in 1831 or 1832, for indicating letters on a bell by the number of their position in
the alphabet: ‘‘a” by 1, “b” by 2, “‘c” by 3, &c. Thus the words ‘come back”
would be represented by the following taps: 3-15-13-5—2-1-3-11; the word “ electro-
magnet,” by 5-12-5-3-20-18-15—13-1-7-14-5-20. The cipher or zero oceurring at the
10th letter ‘‘j,” and at the 20th letter “+t” would be indicated by a rapid rattle of the
bell. It does not appear however that this alphabet was actually employed, unless
perhaps experimentally.

{ The Mural Diagraph, ete. ‘ Through the wall they are content | To whisper, at the
which let no man wonder.” Midsummer Night’s Dream, vy. i. By James Swaim. 16-
mo. 24 pages. Philadelphia. Printed by Clark & Raser. 1829. pp. 13, 14. The
signs were used numerically ; and beyond 26” (the letters of the alphabet) were ap-
plied to a numbered vocabulary.

HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH. 309

The first column in the above tabular view, represents the scheme proposed by Bacon,
and designated by him ‘A Bi-literal Alphabet ;” a scheme—as he points out, ‘‘ prac-
ticable in all things that are capable of two differences.” The advantage of represent-
ing every letter by five tokens, is that it dispenses with the necessity of spacing the
letters from each other.

The second column represents an alphabet shown and described in Rees’ ‘‘ Cyclopex-
dia” as already referred to. In this alphabet the first nine letters follow exactly the
notation of Bacon. After the interpolated letter J, (which takes the symbol fork, ) the
remainder of the alphabet from kK to v inclusive, follows regularly the notation of
Bacon—shifted two letters downward. The only symbols differing from Bacon’s, are
those for x, Y, and z.

The third column gives the alphabet of Swaim above mentioned. The author has
not been successful in arranging for his letters the siinplest combinations of taps and
scratches which might have been selected; having given to N, R, T, and wW, five sig-
nals, and to X, six; while four of his signs are sufficient to represent 30 different char-
acters. Moreover by adopting a numeral system of designation, he has been driven
to the awkward and entirely unnecessary expedient of introducing spaces into letters
in seventeen cases, or in two-thirds of the alphabet ; that is in all letters following the
ninth letter—t.

The fourth column gives the alphabet of Schilling, as represented in Vail’s ‘‘ Electro-
Magnetic Telegraph:” (page 156.) The date of this is uncertain; involving as it does
the question when Schilling first employed a single circuit and a single galvanometer
in his telegraphic arrangement. Whether he or Gauss and Weber first devised this
very important simplification is equally undetermined ; though the presumption is in
favor of Schilling having been the first to introduce the bi-signal alphabet into teleg-
raphy. With a judicious distribution of the simplest signs to the most frequent let-
ters, the average number of elementary signals need not exceed two and a half for
every letter used, (or just one-half the number required by Bacon’s alphabet,) in any
lengthy communication. Steinheil, who was very imperfectly acquainted with Schil-
ling’s labors, appears to regard his system as imitated from that of Gauss and Weber.*

The fifth column gives the alphabet of Gauss and Weber, as represented in Turnbull’s
““Electro-Magnetic Telegraph.” t In this alphabet c and k have the same symbol;
as have also F and v.

The sixth column gives the alphabet of Steinheil as represented in Dub’s Anwendung
des Elektromagnetismus : Berlin, 1863: (2d ed. 1873, sec. vy, page 343:) in Vail’s Treatise;
(page 182:) and in Turnbull’s Treatise ; (1853, page 97.) In this alphabet c and k
have the same character; 1 and J have the same; and v and v have the same; the
letters Q, X, and y, being dispensed with. Steinheil remarks of its arrangement,
“The alphabet I have chosen represents the letters that occur the oftenest in German,
by the simplest signs”; a plan also adopted by Schilling and by Gauss.

The seventh column gives the original alphabet of Morse, as devised by him (or by his
assistant—Mr. Vail) in 1838; and for the first time described in his application for a
patent dated April7, 1838. Thisis accordingly the alphabet presented in Morse’s first
patent, dated June 20, 1840. In this, he has given the same symbol to Gand J; the same
torand y; and the same tos and Zz. It must be borne in mind that down to the year
1838, Professor Morse had conceived only the naval system of signals by means of
numbered words, and the method of recording such numbers by the alternating or
continuous zig-zag mark, equivalent to the right and left deflections of Steinheil’s
register ;{ and that not till some time in January of that year (1838), did he make the
great advance of substituting the up and down movement of the armature recorder,
for its transverse motion. He then for the first time made his telegraphic communi-

*Sturgeon’s Annals of Electricity, ete. vol. iii, pp. 448, 450.
tSecond edition, 1853, p. 60.
{New York Journal of Commerce, of September 7, 1637, and of January 29, 1838,

360 HENRY AND THE TELEGRAPH.

cations by means of an alphabet; and improving on his predecessors, devised this
alphabet in its simpiest form, of a rectilinear succession of dots and lines.

A few years later, the modification given in the eighth column was adopted; * being
the code now in use in this country. This second alphabet of Morse retains but seven
of the letters in his original alphabet; namely, E, H, K, L,N,P, and Q. The remain-
ing symbols are changed in their application. Both of these alphabets present the
anomaly of employing for the letter L the unique symbol, a dash of double length: a
symbol whose combinations with dots might have been much more appropriately re-
served for designating numerals. And they both also present the very awkward ar-
rangement of introducing in five or six cases, a space in the middle of a letter. This
occurred with B, C, D, F, G or J, and R, in the first alphabet, and remains with ©, 0,
R, Y, and Z in the later alphabet. Whence it becomes difficult to distinguish be-
tween C and If, between 0 and EE, between Rand EI, between y and 11, and between Z
and SE; and if on the other hand the intra-literal space be made too brief, Cc or R
may easily be mistaken for s, 0 for 1, and yY or Z for H.

The ninth and last column gives the alphabet adopted by the Vienna convention in
October, 1851, for European languages; as represented in Prescott’s larger treatise on
Electricity and the Electric Telegraph, 1877: (page 480.) This alphabet avoids the obvi-
ous blunder in Morse’s notation, and presents a homogeneous system. In this code
eleven of the Morse letters are changed: C, F, L, and R, having been taken from
Gerke’s alphabet, 0, and Pp, from Steinheil’s, and J, Q, X, Y, and Zz, from other sources.
Of the original ‘‘ Morse alphabet” only four letters are retained, viz, E, H, K, and N.
This European or ‘‘ international” alphabet is however in a few of its symbols, bet-
ter adapted to the German than to the English language. Accordingly in the Atlantic
cable alphabet, the two letters m (11), and o (111), have been transposed; as in Eng-
lish the letter 0 occurs nearly three times as frequently as the letter M.

We thus perceive by what apparently small steps so simple a contrivance as an al-
phabetic notation, (scarcely demanding the exercise of invention,) has been succes-
sively modified and improved. But although the “ Vienna” alphabet is now univer-
sally employed elsewhere, American operators have not yet had the intelligent courage
to incur the temporary additional labor and inconvenience of change, for the perma-
nent advantage of a more perfect system. t

* Represented in Vail’s Treatise, 1845, p. 27; in Turnbull’s Treatise, 1853, p. 735 in
G. B. Prescot*’s Hist. of Electric Telegraph, 1860, p.89; and in F. L. Pope’s Modern Prac-
tice of the Electric Telegraph, 4th ed. 1871, p. 101.

-+ “It has been proposed to introduce the European alphabet in this country also ;
but although the advantages of such a reform would doubtless be numerous, yet it
may perhaps be better to suffer some inconvenience from an acknowledged imperfec-
tion, than to attempt to remedy it by introducing a change that would for a time ~
cause serious annoyance to the thousands of skillful operators now in the service.”
(Prescott’s Electricity and the Electric Telegraph, 1877, chap. xxx, p. 431.)

THE EFFECT OF IRRITATION OF A POLARIZED NERVB—" PFLU-
GER’S ELECTROTONUS.”

By B. F. LAUTENBACH, M. D., Pu. D.,
First Assistant in the Laboratory of Physiology at Geneva.

HISTORICAL RESUME.

Ritter* observed, when he applied for a long time (4 hour) a strong
galvanic battery to a nerve, that there resulted a continual decrease in
the movements of the finger and the arm on the silver (7. e., negative)
side of the battery. In the same parts on the zine (positive) side he ob-
served a continual increase in the motor effects of the current. This
effect lasted for a short time after the experiment was discontinued.

On carefully repeating this experiment, Ritter came to the result that
the current developed by the battery inhibited the voluntary movements
in the arm to which the negative electrode was applied, while the mo-
bility of the other arm, to which the positive electrode was applied, was
increased.

Du Bois Reymond} attributed these results to diminution and aug-
mentation of the irritability of the nerves caused by the constant cur-
rent; the augmented excitability being produced by the passage of an
ascending current, while the diminished excitability was caused by a
descending current.

In 1828~30 Nobilit observed certain facts which bear more nearly
on our present subject than those observed by either of the previous ex-
perimenters. This investigator found that frog preparations, which
through accident had become tetanized, grow quiet when a current in
a special, or possibly in any, direction, was passed through the nerve.
In explanation, Nobili believed that the constant current places the
nerve in such a state as to render impossible the receiving and conduct-
ing of the contraction-producing cause. Nobili, at the same time, rec-
ommended his discovery to physicians for the cure of tetanus.

Matteucci§ made some experiments on this subject, but these resulted
in but little that was not previously known. With the exception that
he proved that the relief afforded in tetanus by a constant current is but

* Beitriige zur niikeren Kenntniss des Galvanismus, etc., Jena, 1802, B. ii.
t Unters. iiber thierische Electrici tit, B. i, p. 367.
{ Analyse expér. et théor. des phén. phys. produits par Vélectric. sur le grenouille,
etc., Annales de chimie et phys., 1830, p. 91.
§ Essai sur les phén. électr. des animaux, Paris, 1840, 8, p. 29.
361

362 EFFECT OF IRRITATION OF A POLARIZED NERVE.

transitory and that currents travelling in both directions act paretically,
his results were but confirmatory of those obtained by Nobili.

The first who really systematically investigated this subject was
Valentin.* This investigator applied the constant electrodes to the
ischiadicus, just at the entrance of this nerve into the gastrocnemius,
while the irritating electrodes were applied at the point of exit of the
nerve from the pelvis. Valentin found that when the constant current
was passing through the nerve the irritating current gave a weaker con-
traction than when this was not the case, or, at times, none. This author
also showed that the same diminution in the effect of the irritating current
occurred when this was placed between the constant current and the
muscle. This latter result, however, was produced in the experiments
of Valentin only when the current was ascending, and not when a de-
scending current was employed.

Eckhardt confirmed the observations of Nobili and Valentin. He
found that an electrical irritation can be made to lose its effect when
between it and the muscle a constant current is made to pass through
a given portion of the nerve. Not only did he find this to be true for
electrical but also for mechanical and chemical irritants. This inhibi-
tory effect was manifest when the polarizing or constant current was
made to pass in either an ascending or a descending direction, provided
that this current was of a certain strength (5-6 large Daniel elements).
This author also confirmed the statement of Valentin that when the irri-
tation (mechanical, chemical, or electrical) is applied to the nerve above
the point where this is being polarized the effect is no longer so constant.

In his first paper Eckhard made the statement, which he afterwards
withdrew, that the “paretic” effect was most constant when an ascend-
ing polarizing current was used.

In a second papert Eckhard irritated by means of an induced current,
and measured the muscular contractions thereby produced by means of
a Helmholtz myograph. His previous observations were confirmed.
When the constant current was applied to the nerve above the irrita-
tion, ascending polarization only diminished the effect of the irritation,
thus showing adiminished excitability of the nerve between the positive
electrode and the muscle. When the descending current was employed
a state of augmented excitability of the nerve was produced between the
negative electrode and the muscle.

Pfliiger,§ whose experiments and “laws” will frequently be referred
to in this paper, was the next investigator who devoted his atttention
to this field of research. He made use of Weak currents, while the pre-

*Lehrb. der Phys. des Menschen, B. ii, Abth. 2, D. 155.

t Der galv. Strom als Hinderniss der Muskelzuckung. Zeitschr. fiir rat. Med.,N. F.,
B. iii, p. 198.

tUeb. den Einfl. des const. galv. Stromes auf die Erregbark. der motor. Nerven,
Beitriige zur Anat. und Phys., H. 1, 1855, p. 25.

§ Allgem. Centralzeit., 1856, Nov. 22, 1857. Unters. tiber die Phys. des Elektrotonus,
Berlin, 1859.

EFFECT OF IRRITATION OF A POLARIZED NERVE. 363

ceding investigators always employed strong currents. This author
found that the ascending polarizing current did not under all conditions
produce a diminution in the excitability of the nerve. The following
are the results of this investigator :

PACs I.C.

“T, When a constant descending current is passed through the sciatic
nerve near the gastrocnemius, and a descending irritating current is ap-
plied immediately above this, I found the irritation to give a smaller
contraction when the constant current was passing through the nerve
than when this was not the case.”

Under these circumstances the muscular contractions were increased
during the passage of the current.

“TI, The constant descending current passes through the nerve near
the central end, a descending irritating current is applied to the nerve
nearer the muscle. The irritations seem stronger when the constant
current was absent.”

LGC: Pe:

The contractions produced by the irritation are stronger during the
absence of the polarizing current.

“TI. The constant ascending current passes through the nerve near
the muscle, while the irritation was made at a more central portion.
During the presence of the constant current the contractions are stronger
than when it is absent.” .

“TV. The constant ascending current is applied to the nerve near the
plexus, while the ascending irritating current is applied nearer the muscle.
During the presence of the constant current the contractions are less
strong than when this is removed.”

LG: (Pai

Contractions less strong during the passage of the polarizing current.
In conclusion Pfliiger sets up the theory that the action of all irrita-

*¥n these diagrams, which are added by the author for the easier understanding of
the views of Pfliiger, M stands for the muscle, N for the nerve, and C for its central
end; I.C.and P. C. stand for irritating and polarizing current. The arrows give the
direction of the current.

364 EFFECT OF IRRITATION OF A POLARIZED NERVE.

tions which lie to the side of the negative pole (kathode) of a polarizing cur-
rent is increased; while all irritations lying to the side of the positive pole
(anode) have their action di:ninished.

When, however, this author used stronger currents he obtained the
Eckhard results.

Pfliiger repeated his irritations, alternately with and without polari-
zation, sixty or more times a minute. This is certainly too often to ob-
tain accurate results, as under these circumstances I have a number of
times observed that the effects of the removal of the previous irritation
overlap into the time of the succeeding irritation. His results were ob-
tained on frogs taken in winter, spring, and summer, and in both varie-
ties of the Rana esculenta, and in diseased as well as in healthy frogs.

When this investigator used polarizing currents of greater strength
he obtained the results of Valentin and Eckhard. Both the irritations
and the polarization were made by means of the albumen electrodes
(i. é., non-polarizable electrodes). To obtain the weakest possible cur-
rents which would produce muscular contractions, Piliiger made use of
the rheochord. In some of his experiments the irritations were made
by an interrupted current.

Schiff,* though in a number of experiments he obtained results simi-
lar to those obtained by Pfliiger, was the first to experimentally criticise
the theory of this investigator. He states that an experiment which at
first corresponded in its results to those obtained by Pfliiger, after a
half hour gave the very opposite results. He also saw diminished ex-
citability of the nerve produced by the constant current to the side of
negative pole (katelectrotonus), and increased excitability occur to the
side of the positive pole (anelectrotonus). In one experiment he saw
augmented excitability of the nerve both above and below a descending
polarizing current and diminished excitability above and below an
ascending polarizing current.

Valentin, t ina later work on this subject, found, when very weak cur-
rents were employed, an increased excitability to occur to the side of
the negative and also to the side of the positive pole of the polarizing
current. These experiments were made with the nerve in situ, and con-
sequently the non-polarizable electrodes had to be dispensed with.

Nor was Budget more successful in his efforts to convince himself of
the constancy of Pfliiger’s results. This experimenter’s polarizing cur-
rent was derived from 1—2 Daniel cells. His electrodes in some experi-
ments were of amalgamated zine, but in other experiments platinum and
copper electrodes were used, as with these Budge states he obtained the
same results as with the former. To test the excitability of the nerves
this author resorted to a solution of ordinary salt as an irritant. He

*Lehrbuch der Nerven und Muskelphysiologie, 1859, p. 94.

+ Valentin’s paper I was never able to obtain, but was kindly informed of its con-

tents by Professor Schiff.
t Virchow’s Archiv., Bd. 18, p. 457.; Bd. 28, p. 398.

EFFECT OF IRRITATION OF A POLARIZED NERVE. 365

found that when a solution of salt, just strong enough to produce mus-
cular twitchings, was applied above either a descending or ascending
polarizing current, augmented contractions always occurred during the
passage of the latter current. When, however, the salt solution was
strong enough to produce tetanus, a polarizing current in either direction
caused this to cease.

In another series of experiments the irritation was made by the clos-
ing of a constant current. When this irritating current was taken so
weak as to produce only a trace of contraction in the muscle, the polar-
izing current on the contrary being very strong, the augmented excita-
bility was only produced by a descend ng irritating current, and the con-
trary effect was produced by an ascending irritating current. When the
polarizing current was of less strength and the irritating current stronger
Pfliiger’s results were obtained.

Fick * used the induced current as an irritant. His results are as fol-
lows:

1. A descending irritating current applied to the nerve above an as-
cending polarizing current caused marked augmentation in the muscu-
lar contractions during the passage of the polarizing current.

2. An ascending irritating current applied to the nerve above an as-
eending polarizing current produced an unimportant augmentation in
the muscular contractions during the passage of the latter current.

3. A descending irritating current applied toa nerve above a descend-
ing polarizing current produced marked diminution in the muscular con-
tractions during the passage of the latter current.

4, An ascending irritating current applied to the nerve above a de-
scending polarizing current produced not very marked diminution in
the muscular contractions during the passage of the latter current.

From these results Fick coneludes, against Pfliiger, that, with mod-
erately strong induced currents, the exciting impulse does originate in
the region of the negative electrode, and that, with a very strong polar-
izing current the whole intrapolar portion of the nerve is put into a
state of anelectrotonus.

In descending katelectrotonus Munkt found the excitability of the
nerve increased for the descending and diminished for the ascending
irritating current, but immediately after electronizing the nerve the re-
verse effect was obtained. In weak ascending anelectrotonus the mus-
cular-contraction-exciting properties of the descending irritating cur-
rent were increased, diminished for the ascending, while the opposite
effect was obtained when the polarizing current was stronger. In weak
ascending kate- and anelectrotonus the excitability was increased for
currents traveling in the same direction. By polarization with stronger
currents the excitability was increased for irritating currents traveling

* Beitriige zur Phys. des Elektrotonus, Vierteljahrschr. der Ziiricher Naturforsch.
Gesellschaft, 1866, p. 48.
t Unters. zu allgem. Nervenphys. Arch. fiir Anat. und Phys., 1866, p. 369.

366 EFFECT OF IRRITATION OF A POLARIZED NERVE.

in either direction. For the intrapolar portion of the nerve the excita-
bility was increased for irritating currents traveling in the same direc-
tion as the polarizing current, and decreased for currents traveling in
the reverse direction, provided weak polarizing currents were employed.
But when these currents were stronger the excitability of the nerve was
decreased to irritating currents traveling in either direction.

Schiff and Herzen* publish a number of characteristic experiments
which give results also widely differing from those obtained by Pfliiger.
These authors observed that if the polarizing current excites the nerve,
after a lapse of time the opposite effect was obtained; and, vice versa,
if the polarizing current ‘‘paretically” affected the nerve this could
after a time be replaced by an augmentation of the excitability.

Notwithstanding so many of the best experimenters found it impossi-
ble to confirm the results of Pfliiger, these results are now formulated
in the books as laws. All other investigations are simply ignored and
those of Pfliiger adopted, it may be, because no other investigator has
advanced a more beautiful theory which can be made to correspond to
what is known of the electro-motor properties of the nerves. Even
Wundtt was convinced of the truth of Pfliiger’s theory, though it ap-
pears that the results which he obtained by no means correspond with
those of Pfliiger, for on pages 34 and 35 of his ‘“ Untersuchungen” he
speaks of an increased irritability between the anode and the muscle
where an ascending current was used, which, according to Pfliiger’s
theory (it demanding a diminished irritability under these circum-
stances), is an impossibility.

This was the state of the subject when early in September, 1876, Pro-
fessor Schiff drew my attention to it, since which time I have constantly
had it under consideration. The subject was so discouraging that I fre-
quently felt like giving it up in disgust, but, urged on by Professor
Schiff, I continued the study, and a definite explanation of the contra-
dictory facts was arrived at late in December, 1876. Up to that time I
had made almost two hundred successful experiments on the subject.
The results then arrived at were presented in a preliminary communica-
tion in the February (1877) number of the Archives de sciences phys. et
naturelles, as follows: ‘ The difference in the effect of an irritation of a
polarized nerve, compared to that of a non-polarized nerve, does not solely
depend on the circumstance that the portion irritated is to the side of the
anode or to the side of the kathode, but much more on the proportion which
exists betaveen the strengths of the irritating and polarizing currents.”

This conclusion my later experiments have abundantly confirmed, and
in this paper it is designed not only to expose the results of these later
experiments, but also to give in extenso the experiments which caused me
to come to the foregoing conclusion. It may be thought that this is a

* Ueber die Veriinder. der Erregbarkeit in dem dursch schwache constante Stréme
polaris. Nerven, Moleschott’s Untersuch., Bd. x, p. 432.

tI must here express my thankfulness for the kind assistance of M. Darier in a
number of these experiments.

EFFECT OF IRRITATION OF A POLARIZED NERVE. 367

waste of “ printer’s ink,” but when it is recollected that the Pfliiger laws
of electrotonus are universally adopted by electro-therapeutists, it will
be seen that such an innovation as I propose to make in this branch of
physiology must be substantiated by solid facts. As will be shown
either in this work or in a paper to appear later, the facts here pre-
sented are not only of importance in this connection, but really derive
their greatest importance from their affording us a long-sought-for means
of explaining the symptoms produced by certain previously occult
changes in the central nervous system.

THE EXPERIMENTS OF THE AUTHOR.

The method and apparatus employed.—The irritations were made by
means of 1-4 small Daniel elements, the strength of which was reduced so
as to produce a minimal contraction, by means of a rheochord compris-
ing 3,199 centimetres of silver wire. A Valentin hammer or ‘“ key,” in-
troduced to make the connection of the current, was so placed as to
always fall from the same height. This is absolutely necessary in all
these experiments, as the height from which the hammer falls greatly
influences the height or strength of the contractions by affecting the
strength of the passing current.

The polarizing current was derived from 1-2 Daniel elements, and was
also in connection with a smaller rheochord, 58 centimetres in length.

The electrodes employed for both polarization and irritation were
Du Bois Reymond’s “ Zine-clay non-polarizable electrodes,” which, as
Pfliiger will no doubt concede, are less objectionable than the albumen
electrodes which he employed.

The frog preparations and the electrodes were brought into a moist-
chamber, where all the irritations were made.

The use of a myographion—especially with a weight attached, as it
seems Pfliiger used it—had to be dispensed with in the first series of ex-
periments, as my object was to obtain minimal contractions, which can-
not be obtained with a myographion as these contractions are too feeble
to raise or move the lever of this instrument.

The distance between the two irritating electrodes was 4-6", which was
also the distance between the polarizing poles. The distance between
the two currents varied from 5-11"".

The frogs employed had been in captivity but a short time and were
largely of the temporaria variety.

These experiments were especially guarded against the errors arising
from the occurrence of “ secondary polarization,” and from wmpolar excita-
tions.

A descending polarizing current applied to a nerve above a descending
irritating current.

N.

Lc. LEAOE

368

EFFECT OF IRRITATION OF A POLARIZED NERVE.

Under these circumstances, if Pfliiger’s theory be true, the constant
polarizing current must always cause the irritation to produce a stronger
muscular contraction than when it is absent.

Number of ex-

Time. :
periment.

Trritation without
polarization.

1 °
1st irritations. .-

2d irritations. ---
3d irritations. ...
4th irritations. -.

5th irritations -.
6th irritations. - -

Movements very slight

Movements less than
before.

Very slight movements

eae tn)

Irritation during
polarization.

Movements more
marked.

Remarks.

Rana temporaria.
4 cells for polarization; 2 for
irritation.
4 cells for polarization ; 1 for
irritation.
Do.

In this, as in following experiments, the effect of the opening of the
irritating was not noted, while that of closing alone was observed. During
the polarization not only were the movements more marked, but they ex-
tended over a greater portion of the limb. It may be here remarked,
what was forgotten when speaking of the “methods” of experimenta-
tion, that in these experiments the sciatic nerve of frogs was used.

N

Number of ex-
‘|. periment.

2.

1st irritations. -.
2d irritations. - - .
3d irritations -..
4th irritations. ..
5th irritations. --
6th irritations. - -

Be
1st irritations - -.
2d irritations....
3d irritations. .-.

4th irritations. -.
5th irritations. - -

6th irritations. ..

7th irritations. - -
4.

1st irritations - - -

2d irritations. --.
3d irritations. - -.

De
10 15 | 1st irritations...
24 | 2d irritations. -..
42 | 3d irritations. --.
11 01 | 4th irritations. --
6.
12 04 | 1st irritations...
10 | 2d irritations. --.
* 15 | 3dirritations....
19 | 4th irritations. .-.
22 | 5th irritations. .-

Trritation without
polarization.

2 cells, rheochord:
2781 cent.-..-.-.. 2.
1214 cent.....- 1.
1318 cent...... 1:

1.
1009 cent..-.-- 1.5
2.

Irritation during
polarization.

esses

Remarks.

Rana temporaria.
Polarization with 2 Daniel
cells.

Rana temporaria.

Irritation (2 cells), 3109 cent. ;
polarization, 2 cells.

Trritation (2 cells), 3053 cent. ;
polarization, 2 cells.

Irritation (2 cells), 3045 cent. ;
polarization, 2 cells.

Do.

Trritation (2 cells), 3003 cent. ;

polarization, 2 cells.

Time of experiment, 22 min-
utes.

Rana temporaria.
Polarization, 4 Daniel cells;
irritation, 2 cells.

Rana temporaria.

Polarization, 4 Daniels; irri-
tation, 2 Daniels.

Polarization, 1 Daniel.

Rana temporaria. :
| Polarization, 4 Daniels; irri-
tation, 2.

s

Number of ex-

Time. periment.
Te
him.

3 06 | Ist irritations. --
08 | 2dirritations.-..
19 | 8dirritations....
- . 409 | 4th irritations...

= Ss.

9 58 | 1st irritations. -.
10 02 } 2d irritations. ---
\ 03} 8dirritations -.
05 | 4th irritations. -.
07 | 5th irritations. -.

9.

10 35 | 1st irritations...
36 | 2d irritations. --..
88 | 3d irritations. ---
43 | 4th irritations. --
44 | 5th irritations. --
45 | Gth irritations. --
48 | Tthirritations. --
53 | 8th irritations. - -
58 | 9thirritations -.
11 06 | 10th irritations. -

10.

11 10 | 1st irritations -.-.
22 | 2d irritations. ---

it.

11 40 | 1st irritations - --
47 | 2d irritations.--.
49 | 3d irritations. ---

12.

2 09 | 1st irritations. -

10 | 2d irritations. --.

: 13 | 8dirritations. --.
7] 17 | 4thirritations --
23 | 5th irritations- --

25 | 6th irritations. --

13.

2 35 | 1st irritations -
42 | 2dirritations. -
45 | 3dirritations.-
48 | 4th irritations.
52 | 5th irritations. - .

Oh ea
ceo

'

14.

3 27 | 1st irritations. -

29 | 2d irritations. --.

D, 32 | 3dirritations.-..
| 35 | 4th irritations. --
40 | 5th irritations. --

15.

| 4 02 | 1st irritations. --
q 06 | 2d irritations. --.
, 10 | 8dirritations. --.
q 13 | 4th irritations. -.
16 | 5th irritations. -.

20 | 6th irritations. --

_ 30 | 7th irritations. ..

35 | 8th irritations. - -

ON OF A POLARIZED NERVE

Trritation without Irritation during

esse
o1roro1cr

SSS
HN

ae ae
reroSsSRee
a Crore

fia

Ce CE et coe

Soe

Pero
corpo bo
gus oven

esecsssss
Crotr or or or or bo bo
scessssss
aoomnmwnc

S. Mis. 59——24

369

Remarks.

Rana temporaria.
Polarization with 1 Daniel.

Rana temporaria.

Polarization, 1 Daniel.

Diminished irritating eur-
rent.

Rana temporaria.
Polarization, 4 Daniels.

Polarization, 2 Daniels.
Polarization, 3 Daniels.

Rana temporaria.
Polarization, 4 Danie}s.

‘
Rana temporaria.

Polarization, 4 Daniels.
Polarization, 3 Daniels.

Rana esculenta.
Weak irritating currents.
Do.

Do.

Strong irritating currents.
Do.
Do.

Rana temporaria.

Rheochord (irrit.), 2458 eent.

Rbeoohord (irrit.), 2350 cent.
0.

Do.
Rheochord (irrit.), 2127 cent.

Rana esculenta.

Hhegetond (irrit.), 2907 cent.
0.

Rheochord (irrit.), 1793 cent.

Beheoohord (irrit.), 2781 cent.
0.

Rana esculenta.

Rheochord (irrit.), 3058 cent.
Rheochord (irrit.), 2562 cent.
Rheochord (irrit.), 2249 cent.

370

‘

~

EFFECT OF IRRITATION OF A POLARIZED NERVE.

Number of ex-

Trritation without

Irritation during

Remarks.

AEDS periment. polarization. polarization.
16.

h. m. Rheochord:

11 15 | 1st irritations --- 2781 cent... --- 0. 0.
20 | 2d irritations. -.. 2675 cent. =~ 0.5 Bh)
23 | 3d irritations. -.. 2675 cent.----- 15) Pa
25 | 4th irritations. -- 2458 cent...--- 5) ak
30 | 5th irritations. - - 223 cent.----- 3. ORS)
32 | 6th irritations. -- 22a Cente se 3. 0.5
39 | 7th irritations -.- 223 Cent... -. 8. 0.5
43 | 8th irritations. .- 1634 cent..---- 5) ie
45 | Sth irritations -- 2127 cent --...- ‘O85 2:
47 | 10th irritations. - 2127 cent ...-. 0.5 2.
473) 11th irritations -, 1413 cent..-..- 0.5 2.
48 | 12th irritations. - 1109 cent -:--. O85 2.
49 | 13th irritations. . 223 Cent ocecade 4,
53 | 14th irritations. -| 223 cent. 2.-6-0; 4.
54 | 15th irritations. -| 2231Celiees oct 0.5 4.
56 | 16th irritations. - 22aiCONb, «-5 = 0.5 4,

17.
| Rheochord:

-10 46 | Ist irritations ---| 1893' cent .-...- 1.5 0.
544) 2d irritations. --.| 2016 cent..---- 112.5} 5.
57 | 3d irritations. --. 22oiCelb sence 2. 4.
58 | 4th irritations. -- 1893 cent -.--.- 0. 4.
59 | 5th irritations. - UpAlazeyey als Anes 0. 4,
594! 6th irritations. -- 1634 cent....-- 0. 3.

11 003| 7th irritations. -- 1526 cent......0. 3.
01 | 8th irritations -- 1413 cent...--- 0. 3.
02 | 9th irritations. - -| 1308 cent:.---- 0. 3.
023) 10th irritations. - 691 cent....-- O= 3.
06 | 11th irritations. . 488 cent...--- (S| 3.
09 | 12th irritations. - PIRTCEN th ocma 0. 3.
10 | 13th irritations. - 293 /Cent).ca2 o: 0. 3.
15 | 14th irritations. - 293 cent. ....- 0. 3.

is. abe
| Irritation, 1 cell, rheo- | Polarization, 4 cells:
chord:

9 45 | 1st irritations - -- 2955 cent..--.- ik Gb =
49 | 2d irritations. --. 295bIcenti see =e Te 0.
50 | 3d irritations. --- 2955 Gent. .-==- 0.5 0.
60 | 4th irritations -. 2055 centeeraee 0. 0.

10 02 | 5th irritations. -- 9955 cent. _.. -- 0. 0.
05 | 6th irritations. -. 2401 cent...--- 4. 4.
07 | 7th irritations. -. Di28icent) waee- 4. 1.
09 | 8th irritations. -- 2728 cent .....4. 1.
12 | 9th irritations. -- 9728 cent. .-.-- 0. 0.
16 | 10th irritations. - 223 cent cece 4. 4.
20 | 11th irritations. - 228) centisseee 2. 0.5
22 | 12th irritations. - 27298 cent. ss 002: 0.5
28 | 13th irritations. - 2728 cent ...:-2. 0.5
34 | 14th irritations. - DB centiasee: 0.5
40 | 15th irritations. - 2728 cent..--..- ibis: 0.
43 | 16th irritations. - OPI Mio one 1.5 0.5

19.
1 cell, rheochord:

1 32 | 1st irritations --- 223 cent ... ..5. 4.
39 | 2d irritations. -.. 223 cent. 2-25 0. 4.
50 | 3d irritations... - 223 cent) | once 0. 4

20.
Trritation, 1 cell, rheo- | Polarization, 4 cells:
chord: ;

2 10 | 1st irritations --. alo9icent.-s-—- 0. 0.
15 | 2d irritations... . 3179 cent..-.-- 0. 4.
19 | 3d irritations. -.. 3198 cent ..-.- 0. 4,
21 | 4thirritations -- 223 Cent... ..- 3. 3.
22 | 5thirritations .- 3198 cent ...-- 0. 0.
36 | 6th irritations. .- 3198 cent... .-. 0. 0.
45 | 7th irritations. -- 3198 cent. ...--0. 0.
47 | 8thirritations -- 2849 cent... --.-2. 0.
49 | 9th irritations -- 2295 cent .....2. 2.
50 | 10th irritations. - 223 Cent.2.2.- 2. 2.

.8 05 | 11th irritations. . - 3058 cent....-- 0. 0.
06 | 12th irritations. . 3194 cent..-.-- 0. 0.
14 | 18th irritations. . 3194 cent...-.- 0. 0.
15 | 14th irritations. - 223 cent...... 11543) 3.
35 ' 15th irritations... 223; cent. .---= als iL,

Rana temporaria.

Rana esculenta.

Rana temporaria.

Rana temporaria.

Rana temporaria.

10

11

12.

8
9

10

54
06
10
14
25
30
36
40

EFFECT OF IRRITATION OF A POLARIZED NERVE.

As i) a anh ca
eye, sii) a : '
BP NTT. eee.

‘

-

371

Number of ex-

periment.

Trritation without
polarization. “

Irritation during
polarization.

Remarks.

21.

Jst irritations
2d irritations.

3d irritations. -..
| 4th irritations --

22.

1st irritations
2d irritations -
3d irritations.

4th irritations --
5th irritations --
6th irritations -.

7th irritations

8th irritations.

9th irritations

10th irritations. -|

11th irritation

|

12th irritations. .)
18th irritations - .|
14th irritations. -|
15th irritations. -|

16th irritations
17th irritations. -
giz

18th irritation
19th irritation

20th irritations. -|
21st irritations --

22d irritations
23d irritations

24th irritations. -
25th irritations. -
26th irritations. .
27th irritations. -|
28th irritations. -|

Zs.

Ist irritations --

2d irritations.
3d irritations.

4:h irritations --
5th irritations. - -

6th irritations

S--|

7th irritations --
Sth irritations. --
9th irritations -__|

24.

1st irritations -.
2d irritations -
3d irritations. -..
4th irritations -.
5th irritations.
6th irritations --
7th irritations --
8thirritations --

25.

1st irritations -.

2d irritations ..

3d irritations .- |
4th irritations --|
5th irritations -.-|

6th irritations -.
7th irritations --
8th irritations. --}

|

9th irritations.

10th irritation

11th irritations. -

12th irritation

ar

8..|

Trritation, 1 cell, rheo-
chord:

3109 cent.....- 0.
Le47 cent. -.- 0.
1413 cent... -... 4.

223 cent .....5.

Trritation, 1 cell, rheo-
chord:

3197 cent..---- 0.
3197 cent...-.- 0.
BLOT Cente=--.- 0.
3197 cent...... 0.

v2e Cent. ...2-0.
3109\cent:----- 0.
ib cell eee eee 5.
eel e2t2%2 <2 0.
il Coro Uae 3.
ni Cers): hs eee Qe
AUC CLEA e maa 4.
ICON R= san caee 4.
1580 cent .... 4.
2728 cent ...- 0.
2728 cent .... 1.
wi2o CeMbeccaas il
2128'cent. =. ..... 1.
2728 cént...... i
PAP SM AS emt 215
MeV, soeceah
2728 Cenk. =... 4,
AesiCOuUbes sa. 4.
PAieseh (XO Wee aee 3:
2128 COM ae ees
2849) cent. ....... a
2849 cent...... 1.
2849 cent......1.
2849 cent.----. 3.

Trritation, 1 cell, rheo- |

chord:

ol Centess ee 0.
3197 cente-s-e: 0.
22p\CeNb sec= O=
1793 cent -.-. 4.
1793. cent. ..=-- 4.
2010 cent..-..- 3:
Zo LOiGent=- =. = 4,
2010'cent.-.... 25
2010 cent...... 2.5

Irritation, 1 cell, rheo-
chord:

3109 cent...--- 0.
2183 cent.-.--- ah
2183 cent.--.--- 0.
2016 cen... 5... Ze
IGO0/cents-.5.38.
1360: cent. --.-. 1

1360 cent. .-...0.5
POO Gent 2.200055

Irritation, 1 cell, rheo-
chord:
BLO Genin eeaOs
3197 cent......0

BOT OMG erie
3058 cent --.-- 0.
3008 cent... -...5,
3003 cent... 2.0.
8003 cent...... 4.

3003 Gent! 222. 3:
3058 cent
3058 cent. .....0.
2955 cent. ..... 2.
2955 cent .- ..2.

Polarization, 4 cells:

sre

Polarization, 4 cells:

0.

|
| Polarization, 4 cells:

ecrersess

corer

Polarization, 3 cells:

SUSU EN SU OT ST TN EA SITE

3.

SSSSSS SNE MORN NN SSN wNawA

Polarization, 3 cells:

co

| Rana esculenta.

Rana temporaria.

Rana temporaria.

Rana temporaria.

Rana temporaria.

- bal 2 oh NN) Dec LET
: a) a oe!
\ 3 ! ro Ne Sthy pay et A
one EFFECT OF IRRITATION OF A POLARIZED NERVE, it.
, se! i
. Number of ex- Trritation without Tiritation during
Time: “" periment. polarization. polarization. — Remarks.
h. m.| |
57 | 18th irritations. -| 2955 cent...... 2. 5.
11 04 | 14th irritations. - 2955 cent. ----- if Ds
07 | 15th irritations. -| 2955 cent... --- 0. 5.
ibe | 16th irritations. - 2955 cent... - .- 0. | 4,
21 | 17th irritations. - 2959 1\CeNt--o2e— 0. | 5.
i} | |
| Tritabign, 1 cell, rheo- Polarization, 3 cells: | Rana esculenta.
chor¢ |
9 27 1st irritations -.- 3197 cent......- (eee 5.
32 | 2d irritations... .| BLOF cent =... 0, 5.
37 | 3d irritations. --.. 3197 cent... -.-- On} ay
41 | 4th irritations. - -| 3058 cent..... 1. | Ds
50 | 5th irritations. --| 3058icent.-.2- 72. | 4,
55 6th irritations. --| 3058 cent.----. 0. 4.
10 03 7th irritations. --| 3058 cent....-- 0.5 3.
08 | 8thirritations -- 3058 cent-.-.-.0.5 4.
13 | 9th irritations. -- 3058 cent..-.-- ne A 4.
16 10th irritations- - 3058 cent.--..- 0. 4.
20 | 11th irritations. - 2955 cent... -.-- 2. 0.5
22 | 12th irritations. - 2849 cent....-- ps, ale
24 | 13th irritations. - 2028 Cent----=2 4, 2:
27 | 14th irritations... 2128, Cente =< -5- 3. 0.
29 | 15th irritations. - 2350 cent. ....- 4, A,
32 16th irritations- -' 2350 cent -....4. ik
33 17th irritations. - 223 cent..-..- 5. 5.
35 | 18th irritations. - 2350)¢ent. 2... 2 4. if
11 32 | 19th irritations. -| 2562 cent--=-..- 4, Bs
33 | 20th irritations--| 2562, Cent. 22-- 4, | a
34 | 21st irritations - - 2849 cent... -- Dee ial tay
35 | 22d irritations. - - 2955 cent... .-. 0.5 5.
3/7 | 23d irritations -- 2955:cent-. -- 0: | 5.
38 | 24th irritations. - 2901 cent--.-- 2: 5s
39 | 25th irritations- - 2901 cent... --- 3. 5;
42 | 26th irritations. - 3003 cent... ---- 2. ib 9]
44 | 27th irritations. - 3003 cent. -.--- 3. \ ibs
50 28th irritations. . 3003 cent... -- 0.5 5. | But 1 polarizing cell.
51 | “29th irritations. - 3003 cent......4. 0. 4 polarizing cells.
52 | 30th irritations. - 3003 cent... --. 5 0.5 Do.
53 | 31st irritations - - 3003 cent. --.-- Ds Ae) T| Do.
56 | 32d irritations --. 3003 Cent-. 5-200. 2. Do.
| QT.
| Trritation, 1 cell, rheo- | Polarization, 3 cells: | Rana esculenta. Other lez
chord: | of last frog.
11 12 | 1st irritations ...| 278i icentice.<- =. 0. by,
15, | 2d-irritations. --. 2675. cent...... 0.5 Os
30 | 3dirritations -- 257 DiCeN bes. 2. 0. D:
dl) 4th irritations. - - 2562 cent. -.-- 2. 5.
32 | 5th irritations. - - 2062 cent--..- if 5.
40 | 6th irvitations. -_| 3058 cent... .-- 0. 5.
41 7th irritations --| 3003 cent.-.---1. 5:
46 | 8tu irritations --| 3003 cent -.--. 2 4.
48 | 9th irritations. - 3003 cent. -.--- 2. 4,
53 | 10th irrits ations. - 3003 cent... ---.- 0. Ds
54) 11th jreifatsoneee| 3003 cent... --- 0. 4.
53» - 12th irritations- - DUD ACeNUe epee 0. 4.
|
| 28. }
Anritabion, 1 cell, rheo- | Polarization, 4 cells. Rana temporariz.
enorad:
1 56 | 1st irritations --- 3109 cent... --- us 4.
58 | 2d irritations -.. 3109 cent ..--. 0.5 | 4. Polarization, 1 cell.
59 | 3d irritations. --- 3179 cent. --.-- 0. 4. Do.
200 | 4th irritations. -- 3179 cent..... 0. 4. Polarization, 4 cells.
05 | 5th irritations. -- SIT Gent. - cee 0! 4a Do.
G6 | Gth irritations -- s7OiGentes 7-240: 2. Polarization, 1 cel!.
10 7thirritations -- 3603 cent --.. 1. 4, dO.
12 | 8th irritations. --| 3003 cent.. -. 2. 4, Polarization, 4 cells.
27 | 9thirritations - 3003 cent... --- 0.5 Dal Do.
29 | 10th irritations... s003 cent. =-- =. 0.5 5. | Polarization, 1 ceil.
33 | 11th irritations. . 30U3 cent... --- (ai a Do.
84 | 12th irritations. -| 3003 cent... --. 0. 4. | Polarization, 4 cells.
40 | 13th irritations. 3003 cent. ..--- Bh! 4. Vo.
43 | 14th irritations. - 3008icent 2225. 2: 4, Polarization, 1 cell.
45 | 15th irritations. - 1160 cent....-- 4. 5. Do.
. 46 | 16th irritations. . 1160i\cent..---- 4, 5: Polarization, 4 cells.
464, 17th irritations. ‘| 341 cent.-.-- 4 4, 0.
474: 18th irritations. . 341 cent..... 4. 4. Polarization, i coll

Meera yale te cr ae
rye , isk

‘

EFFECT OF IRRITATION OF A POLARIZED NERVE. 373

ae eee 2 Pati |

: | Number of ex- Tivitation without | Irritation durmg | paras
Time. periment. polarization. polarization. Remarks.
|
|
him
248 19th irritations. - 3003 cent..-.--1. 0. Polarization, 1 cell.
49 20th irritations. - 3008 cent....-. AG) a Polarization, 4 cells.
52 | 21st irritations - - 3003 cent....- 0.5 4. Do.
53 | 22d irritations. -. 3003 cent... --. 0.5 0. Polarization, 1 cell.
54 | 23d irritations. -- 3003 cent: .---. 4. 4. Do.
5d =624th irritations- - 3003 cent......4. 4. | Polarization, 4 cells.
58 25th irritations. - 2955icent-- =~ =- 0.5 | 0. Polarization, 1 cell.
300 26th irritations. - 301 cent.....- 4.5 | ie, Polarization, 4 cells.
OL 27th irritations- -| 691 ‘cent. 2... 4.5 | 5. | Polarization, 1 cell.
02 | 28th irritations. -| Oral centereasals 3. | Do.
16 29th irritations. - 2675 Cent. ----- 3. 0. | Polarization, 4 cells.
18 30th irritations. - 2675‘cent_---2- 2s 1. | Polarization, 1 cell.
|
| Irritation, 1 cell, anal Polarization, 4 cells, | Rana temporaria.
| chord : rheochord:
11 29 | 1st irritations... 3197 ‘cent: == -- 2: | Holcenb=s eae sae Polarization current from 1
| cell.
31 | 2d irritations. a 8197 cent... --- px DDIGEN teehee ose al Do.
33 | 3d irritations --. SUG Cente. -— Os | DieCenbae-=- eee es Do.
45 4th irritations. -- 3176 cent....-. 0. GRMAA es ome Do.
50 5th irritations. - - 3176 cent. -....- 0. o6.Cent= e254 ea Do:
55 «6th irritations... 376icent= =... 0.5 | 56 cent. 2.22.2: Pr | Do.
|
|
| 30.
Irritation, 1 cell, rheo- Polarization, 4 cells, Rana temporaria.
| chord: rheochord:
9 29 | Ist irritations. -- 3013 cent. ..--- 0. OiCen bee ee 5)
85 | 2d irritations - -. 292 5icentes -- = OS HCeNtiaeae ee os
36 8d irritations. --- 2925 centes---= OF Ssieent! =o: 4,
37 | 4th irritations. -- 2925 centeemecs 2: SolCeNtoae a] se:
58 | 5th irritations.~ -. 2oorCOlbeees = 0. 48 cent--=..-.- rs
J0 01 | 6th irritations. ..| 2849 cent...... 0. 38 cent= 2-2. il
| Sr. | |
| | Irritation, 1 cell, rheo- Polarization, 4 cells, Ranatemporaria. *
| | chord: rheochord:
9 00 1st irritations. -- PP BY Ce) Niece 0.5 TOKCentee see eee
05 | 2d irritations. .-. 223 cent----.-- 0. 10k¢ent=a-022- nS Ea
10 | 3d irritations...) 223 cent...<-- 0.5 1O;cent. 2922-4 Tee)
|
| 32.
| Irritation, 1 cell, rheo- | Polarization, 1 cell, | Rana temporaria.
| chord: rheochord:
9 20 | 1st irritations - --| 3109 cent-.---. ile 48 cent: 25-2-6- il,
9 30 | 2d irritations --- B02aCent essa lose) BUNGE) a oaose SE
31 | 3d irritations - .- 3025 cent--.-<- ak 30/(Cent-oc=- ==: 2.
38 4th irritations...) BUeDIGGnuse seer 0. 5: | 30 cent.------ PS
43 5th irritations --, 3025 cent ---. 2. 30 Cent. --.~)--- 5.
45 6th irritations -.) 2955 ess | 30KCentae eee ates
48 7th irritations. --| S0lGenby ss o4-ee Oa1 i}
49 8th irritations. -- ; BUICONIh see 3h
52 9th irritations || 2955 Cent-s.--- 2. sdicent 5252-205:
55 »10th irritations- :| 2955 cent .--- 2. BOLCCNbs 2-4 = Pas
10 00 | 11th irritations...) 2781 cent. ---=- 49) | 30'cent 2-2-2):
02 12th irritations... 2781 cent------ 5. 30'cent+--.5--- See
06 | 13th irritations-- 2875 cent------3. | 30lcent =-5--- 4.
07 14th irritations. -| 2875 Cent.-.... 3. | 3 ONC Glibe= ha ey |
08 | 15th irritations... 2875 cent------ Tides eh S0ICENtee aes ase ie
10 | 16th irritations. . 2875 cent------ 0. S0iGent es. e=- 0.
12 | 17th irritations.. 2728 cent----- -2. 30 cent <-..:- Ds
13. 18th irritations- -| 2728 cent------ 4. S0KCentess- eases 4
i4 | 19th irritations. -| 2728 cent.----.3.5 30 cent.-.-.--. 4
16 | 20th irritations. -| YIPB cent: - s=-. 4, 20 centi=e. se; 4.5
18 | 2istirritations -.! 2728 cent.---.. 325: | 49;cent.coeaeot« 3.5
19 | 22d irritations. -- 2728 cent.----. 3 49 cents. 3.22 3.
22 | 23d irritations. - . 2722 Gent: ----- 0.5 49 cent..-...-. 2.
35 24th irritations- -| 2675 cent --.. 5. 49 cent........5.
87 25th irritations. - 2700 cent..-.. 3. 49"Gentnse-s 3.
40 26th irritations-- 2700 cent..---- 3} 49; cent. nea se oe
44 27th irritations. - 2700: cent.-.--- i}, 49 cent..-..-. 4,
47 28th irritations. -| 2700 centi-<.25. Ea 49 cent. . =<... 4,
50 | 29th irritations. - 2700 cent...... 4. 49 cent... +. -2.4.
aoe | 30th irritations. ._ 2700 cent... --'- ry 49, Gent.-\-.--.- 3h
57 | 31st irritations -.! 2700 cent ..... Oe | A cente- eee: Be
58 | 32d irritations. .- 2700 cent..-.-. 2.5 | 49 cent.--..-.-. 3.
11 Ol | 88d irritations. -. 2700 cent .-.. 2. 49) cent=a=5-> 56 25:5)
04 | 84th irritation--. 2700 cent.....- 3 || 49 cent .. 0.2.04.

14 35th irritations. -| 2700 cent....-. 4, AoiGentines sees 4.5

*

r
374 EFFECT OF IRRITATION OF A POLARIZED NERVE.
13 | Number of ex- Irritation without Irritation during | d
ae: periment. polarization. polarization. at Remarks.
: 33.
} Trritation, 1 cell, rheo- | Polarization, 1 cell, | Rana temporaria.
h.m. chord: rheochord:
1 20 | Ist irritations - -- 2781 cent...--- Bi 49 cent..2 2.022 4.
21 | 2d irritations. --- 2901 cent. -.-.-3. 49.cent i222 lee 4.
223) 3d irritations. - -- 2901 cent.-.---2.5 10:centy 22282 Aus
24° 4th irritations. -. 2901 cent....-- 2. LO.centesssee esa ||
40 5th irritations. -- 2901 cent... -- 2: 1Oicentesse se. 3h
47 6th irritations. - 2675 cent..-.-- 2. 1LO:centy pees 3.
2 01 | 7th irritations. - 2075 cent.-.-..2. LO<centezeeene ch
04 | 8th irritations. - 2675 cent ..-. 2. lOj;centyasee ahs)
08 | 9th irritations. -- 2Gio.CONb. -a5e, 10-¢entuss-2 52" 2. |
10 10th irritations... 2675 cent... ---2. LO centus te: oe By
11. 11th irritations. - ABiDIGeNta se. == aD Z0centeeere ee 3: |
16 | 12th irritations. - 2675 Cent: .---42) | 30 cent. --.- - facto
18 | 18th irrications- . 2675 cent -..- 1 BUA ea waenGh
24 14th irritations Zoho Cenba-s ee 1. aeeenta-oe = 2.
27 ‘15th irritations- - 2°62 cent if, s0i:centz 5. = 2.
28 | 16th irritations. .- 2962/ Cente. s- why s0ieentisse Lee pe
30 | 17th irritations... 2562 cent .--. 2. BULCeTUE eeeee te PM
31 18th irritations. - 2062 cent...... 2: UCC eco 2h. || 2
34 | 19th irritations. .- PARP] Basse 2A S0iCentaaot ee 2. |
38 20th irritations. - 2016 cent--_.-_2: 30 cent --...- 2.5
41 21st irritations -. 2016 cent. -...- 2. 30: cents = 2-2 ee) 2.0
42 | 22d irritations. .. 2016 cent-.-...-2. 30lcent=s.-22-2 2.
44 23d irritations. -- CAPAC ame oe 2 30 cent 220
45 24th irritations -- PAL Keer erry BOVCCIibse ae eeeaeL
50 | 25th irritations - PAPAIN eee 1.5 | 30!cent <=. 2.2 2
2 26th irritations- - 2127 cent. ----- ile 30Gent..-c2ss- 2.
| 34.
| Irritation, 1 cell, rheo-| Polarization, 1 cell, | Rana temporaria.
chord: rbeochord:
9 39 | 1st irritations - -. 3169 cent. - 22. 1. I0Centeseseeee a
40 | 2d irritations. - . 3169 cent. ----- 0.5 | 30 cent... 1.5
44 | 3d irritations. --. 3169 cent...--- 0.5 | 30'cente-ceeee 0.5
46 4th irritations. -- 3189 cent-.-....- 0.5 | 30) cent. = 2-2 --- 1.
#
woe | |
Irritation, 1 cell, rheo- | Polarization, 1 cell: Other leg of last frog.
chord: : ;
10 06 | Ist irritations -. 2781 cent .----1.5 | 10. Gente 2seee-- 2. |
10 2dirritations -- 2S Cent... c== 0.5 | LOKGenteere nos. lie) ||
12 | 3dirritations -.. 2/81 cent..-.-- 0.5 LO \centiese: oe 0.5 |
14 | 4th irritations. -- 2781 cent ...--- | i Oisenbese eee 1 Le
17 | 5th irritations. -. 2781 cent......0.5 30 cent. .-. |
20 | 6th irritations. -. 2781 cent-.----0)5 30 cent. scceue (0:5,
39 | 7th irritations. -- 1526 cexb..-. <2 0.5 30 cent. =2222- 1. |

In the preceding experiments the muscular contractions caused by
the closing of the circuit were used to measure the excitability of the
nerves, and are represented by the figures in columns 3 and 4. Of these
figures 5 represents maximal and 0.5 minimal contractions.

Out of the thirty-five experiments just given, but nine (experiments 1,
4, 7, 14, 17, 27, 29, 30, and 31) go to confirm the theory of Piliiger, while
fourteen (experiments 2, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 15, 16, 18, 21, 22, 23, and 24)
give results indirect opposition with it. Of the remaining twelve ex-
periments, in two (5 and 12) an increased excitability of the nerve was
produced by the polarizing current in one-half the irritations. In ten
experiments (3, 19, 20, 25, 26, 28, 32, 33, 34, and 35) Pfliiger’s result was
usually obtained.

From this we must conclude that Pfltiger’s theory does not hold good
as regards the effect of a descending polarizing current on the excita-
bility of the nerves, as measured by means of the muscular contractions
produced by the closing of an electric circuit.

EFFECT OF IRRITATION OF A POLARIZED NERVE.

375

In the following experiments the muscular contractions noted were
produced by the opening of the circuit.

Number of ex-

Trritation without

Irritation during

Time. periment. polarization. } polarization.
36. he
Tirritation, 1 cell, rheo- | Polarization, 2 cells:
h.m. chord:

1

1

1

to

1st irritations - - -
2d irritations. --.
3d irrititions -.

4th irritations. --
5th irritations...

37.

3d irritations .--.
4th irritations. --
5th irritations. - .

3S.

1st irritations - -
2d irritations. ...
dd irritations. - ..
4th irritations. -.
5th irritations. - -
6th irritations. --
7th irritations. - -

39.

1st irritations - --
2d irritations. -..
3d irritations. .-.
4th irritations. -.
5th irritations. -.

40.

1st irritations - ..
2d irritations. -..
3d irritations. -..
4th irritations. ..

41.

1st irritations - ..
2d irritations. -.-
8d irritations -..
4th irritations. --

42,

1st irritations - -.
2d irritations.--.
3d irritations. ...

43.

Ist irritations -.-.

2d irritations. --.
| 8d irritations. --.

4th irritations. -.
| 5th irritations. -

6th irritations ._|

1st irritations - -.|
2d irritations. -.-|

2900 cent. -..-. 2.
2695\cent <--- 2:
2770 cent...-..2.

1526 cent...-- g.
1308 cent..-.-.0.5
1000 cent.-...--. 0.5

| Irritation, 1 cell, rheo-
chord:

| 3:
3.

3109 cent.....- 05
3109 cent..-.. 0.5
BL0Scentyea- 0.5

Irritation, 1 cell, rheo-

Trritation, 1 cell, rheo-
chord:
2675 cent...... 0.

267d \Cenbee. 5 0.
223 Cent. ...-.- iE
223) Cent .=-6 =: ile

1634 cent...... ib

Irritation, 1 cell, rheo-

chord:
2408 Cente. = ik
2390’ Gent. -- 2. - 15
2300/cent.-.-.- 15,
Zo0UIGEN Dae s asia 155

Irritation, 1 cell:

3109-cent...... 0.5
3109\cent...... 0.5
3109 cent...... 0.
3109 cent..-.... 0.

| Irritation, 1 cell:

ees

|
Trritation, 1 cell, rheo-

| chord:

2562 cent.....- ip
2249 cent. ....- ie
2249 cent....- ie
2249 cent. ..->.1.
2249 cent.----- Us

chord:

3109 cent .--.. 0.5 |
oLOOcent.----- 0.5
3109 cent..2.. 2.
3109 cent. --.-.0:5
38003 cent ---. 0.5
3003 cent------ 0.5
3003 cent. ----.- 0.5

Orsi or

cosscs
1S) TS) iS) TS) |

Polarization, 4 cells:

So ego ge

| Polarization, 4 cells:

f=)
on

ppp wrys

Polarization, 4 cells:

eecen
oO

Polarization, 4 cells:

Hees

Polarization, 4 cells:

Polarization, 3 cells:
3.
3.
3.

Polarization, 3 cells:

Oucr

esses

SUC

| Rana temporaria.

Rana temporaria.

Rana esculenta.

Rana temporaria.

Rana temporaria.

Rana esculenta.

Remarks.

Rana temporaria,

11

tbo

10

| 9th irritations. ..
| 10th irritations. -

| 2d irritations. -- .

| 2drritations. --.

| 1st irritations...

EFFECT

Number of ex-
periment.

iY

OF IRRITATION OF A POLARIZED NERVE.

Trritation during
polarization.

44,

1st irritation ©. --
2d irritations. - - -
3d irritations. -..

45.
1st irritations -.-..)
2d irritations -..
3d irritations --.

AG.

1st irritations - --
2d irritations. -..
8d irritations. .-.
4th irritations. --
5th irritations. - -
6th irritations. --
7th irritations --
8th irritations...

47.
1st irritations - .-)

3d irritations. --.
4th irritations. - -
5th irritations. -.

4S.
1st irritations...

3d irritations .-..
4th irritations. ..

49.

2d irritations -..
3d irritations. - .-

50.

1st irritations ...
2d irritations ...
3d irritations. .-.

ot.

1st irritations . --
2d irritations -.

3d irritations. --.
4th irritations. --

dz.

1st irritations - -.
2d irritations. .-.
3d irritations. --.
4th irritations. --
5th irritations. ..
6th irritations. .-
7th irritations. -.
8th irritations. -.
9th irritations - --
10th irritations. .
11th irritations. -
12th irritations. -
13th irritations. -
14th irritations. .

Trritation without
polarization.
Trritation, 1 cell, rheo-

chord:
3189 cent... --- 0.5
3169 cent ....-- O85
3189 cent-- == 0.5
Trritation, 1 cell:
0.5
0.5
0.5
Trritation, 1 cell:
il.
ib
ib,
itt,
1.
alk
2.
1.
Te
0.5
Irritation, 1 cell:
if
if
0.5
0.5
0.5
Trritation, 1 cell:
ub
1.
Als
0.5
Trritation, 1 cell:
i
ils
2.
Trritation, 1 cell:
1..
ib,
il,
Irritation, 1 cell, rheo-
chord:
223 cent.--.---- 15
223 CONb-~--—=-0:
223 Cent. .....- 1.5

223 cent.....-.1.5

Tiritation, 1 cell, rheo-

chord:
2955 cent. <..-- 1.
2955 cent.....-. ile
2955 cent. ...-- Ue
2955 cent...--- 0.5
2401 cent...-.-- BE
2728 cent------ Ss
2728 cent.....- 2.5
223 cent...... 4.
2728 cent...-- 2
2728; cent: ----- 2.
2728 cent. ..--- 2.
2728 cent... -- al 5)
2728 cent. ....- 15:
2128 Cenbe 5-2 alayet

Polarization, 3 cells:

Polarization, 4 cells:

Polarization, 4 cells:

Polarization, 4 cells:

Polarization, 2 cells:

Polarization, 4 a) 5

0.
0.

Polarization, 4 cells:
0.
0.
0.

Polarization, 4 cells:

Polarization, 4 cells:

eessssesics

eessss

ewww

SSeS

SSSOMPeRwswosyws
ao

a

oor

oO

o

Remarks,

Rana esculenta.

Rana temporaria.

Polarization, 2 cells.
Polarization, 4 cells.

Rana esculenta.

Rana temporaria.

Rana temporaria.

Rana temporaria.

Rana esculenta.

Rana temporaria.

Polarization, 1 cell.

EFFECT OF IRRITATION OF A POLARIZED NERVE.
: Number of ex- Trritation without Trritation during oe
Cote periment. po.arization. polarization. HSAs
Dd.
Trritation, 1 cell, rheo- | Polarization: Rana temporaria.
h. m. chord:
210 | 1st irritations. -- 8109'cent- -----1.'5 AL GOlIS See eetemen Os
15 | 2d irritations. ---| 3179 cent -..... 0. TiGelllesaaeese a 3h
19 | 8d irritations ... 223;Centseeees 3. 4. cells; 2-2-2 ert-
21 | 4th irritations. -. cattle} (Wer Pere ae 0. Licelle- see s52 31
22 | Sthirritations -- 3198 cent...-.- 0. Licelliz.2ktee 2 3.
36 | 6th irritations -.- 3198 cent. ..--- 0. Lcelle.cteees 3h
45 | 7thirritations -. 2849 cent....-- 0. Neellee eee
47 | 8th irritations. -- 2295 cent----.- 0 Licellis. scenes 3.
49 | 9th irritations. - 223icent) <i... By icelleesseeseo- 3.
50 | 10th irritations.. 8058 cent...-.. 0. Licey. 22 ase< 8s
3 05 | 11th irritations. - 3194 cent.-..--- 0. INcellizesee aieiatseoe
06 | 12th irritations. - 3194 cent. ..... 0. Tcelliss sseccace a
14 | 13th irritations. - 225 °CONb saeco at
15 | 14th irritations. - DetCeL bees sake O! 3.
o4.
ata 1 cell, rheo- | Polarization, 4 cells: | Rana temporaria.
chord:
2 30 | Ist irritations... BLOT Centiee see 3. 0.
2 | 2d irritations. -.. 3197 cent-.=--- 2. 0.
52 | 3d irritations. --. 3197 cent: ----- 2. 0.
|
55. |
Irritation, 1 cell: Polarization, 2 cells: | Rana temporaria.
9 05 | Ist irritations. -. 3197 cent. -.....0. 4, |
10 | 2d irritations... 3197 cent... --- 0. Er |
18 | 8d irritations -.. S19 Centueecees 0: 4.
28 | 4th irritations. -. 3187 cent.-.-.- 0. 354
40 | 5th irritations. -- 3187 cent .....0. 2.
45 | 6th irritations. -- 3.87, cent. ---.- 0. 0.5
10 07 | 7th irritations. -- 1793 cent... -.- 0. Bp
09 | 8th irritations. -- 22s CeMte =e kee 0. 0.
56. Sey
Irritation, 1 cell, rheo- | Polarization, 3 cells: | Rana temporaria.
chord:
10 29 | 1st irritations. -- 303 cent..---- 5. 5.
86 | 2d irritations. --- 3003 cent ..... 4. 5.
41 | 3d irritations -.. 3003 cent ......3. 5.
46 | 4th irritations. -- 3058 cent.---.. 0. 5.
50 | 5th irritations. -- 3058 cent. .---- 0. 5.
52 | 6th irritations - 2955 cent -...- 2: 5.
544) 7th irritations. -- 2955 cent--.-.- 2 6.
574| 8th irritations... 2955 cent-..-.-- 0. 5.
11 05 | 9th irritations 2955 ceut.....- 1 5.
07 | 10th irritations... 2955;cent- --..- 0.5 5.
114, 11th irritations. - 2955 cent. -.-..0! 5.
17 | 12th irritations. - 2955 cent..---- 0. 5.
21 | 15th irritations. - 2955 cent.....- 0. 5.
a7.
Trritation, 1 cell, rheo- | Polarization: Rana temporaria.
chotd:
11 15 | Ist irritations. -- Zora Cente -anee 0. 4:cells, -a.6 <2: 0.
31 | 2d ixritations =<... 2562 cent. ---.. 0. ANGOUSS 2-20 568 0.
46 3d irritations... 2955 cent -..-.0. Aicellseseee sees ik;
48 | 4th irritations --| 2955 cent .....0. 4cellseaaarcsee is
53 | 5th irritations. -- 2955 cent. -...-. 0. acl shee eeseaee a
54 | 6th irritations. -- 2955 cent.-..... 0. Leen). eee es 0.5
55 | 7th irritations. --! 2955) cent...--- 0. Teele ecnn.en0:
58.
Irritation, 1 cell: Polarization : Rana temporaria.
2 00 | Ist irritations. . -| 3179} Genteeee-- 0. A’ COllSResaereer 0.
05 | 2d irritations. -- | 3179 cent. .--.- 0. 4:cellgaasscee 0.
06 | 3d irritations. ---| 3179 cent..-.-- 0. li cell n2acescsee!
10 | 4th irritations .. 8003 cent....-- 0. I callie ae
12 | 5th irritations. -- 3003 cent... .-- 0. a. cellseteceeeae 0.
40. Gthirritations -- 3003 cent.-..-..- 0. A/CGllSkeeeeee O59)
43 | Tth irritations al 3003 cent-.-..-- 0. Weel 4)
45 | 8th irritations... 1460 cent -.-.. 0. heer) eee 0.
46 | 9thirritations --.| 1160 cent......0. AVCOlIS Mae nee ela
463 10th irritati ions... 341 cent---..- 0. 4 cellS3as-eaece 1
474 11th irritations. . 341 cent.-.--.-0. Meelis coven e er ik
48 | 12th irritations. - 3003 cent...... One! ikeelis ss eyes 3h

3718

EFFECT OF IRRITATION OF A POLARIZED NERVE.
“ Number of ex- Lrritation without Irritation during
EG periment. polarization. polarization. Remarks.
h.m.
2 49 | 13th irritations. - 3003 cent..-.--0. @icellss25 355 0.
52 | 14th irritations-. 3003 cent.----- 0. 4 cells Soul
53 | 15th ivritefions. - 3003 cent------ 0. a ors) Uae 3.
54 | 16th irritations. - 3003 cent..... 0. ‘tr cell S.oeheeee 1
55 | 17th irritations. - 3003 cent... -- 0. Aicellsiae 3 eee: 0
58 | 18th irritations. - 2955 cent... =... 0. keeles ce eee 2.
3 00 | 19th irritations-- 691 cent...--- 0. 4°cellSs s.2aeee- 0.
01 | 20th irritations. - 691 cent... --- 0. NGelleee sees 1
02 | 21st irritations. - 2781 cent.----- 0. eels -oeseee 0
16 | 22d irritations. -- 2O7OKCeNbe aes il 4:cellsze. -ceeee 0.
18 | 28d irritations. - - 2675 cent..---- de i Gels. ceeeeee 0.
59.
Irritation, 1 cell, rheo- | Polarization, 4 cells, | Rana temporaria.
chord: | yheochord:
2 19 | 1st irritations. -- 3197 cent....-- 0.5 SICENbeAe ees
21 | 2d irritations -- B19 eCenbas sae 0.5 3) Centee eae 153,
24 | 3d irritations. --- 3179 cent. ..-.- 0. Olcents2e2a-s5: ah
34 | 4th irritations. -- 379 cent. ..2-- 0. hiGentaeassear 3:
40 | 5th irritations. -- 3179 cent ....-.0. ANCON Oe a steeeee 3h

In the last twenty-four experiments it will be seen that an augmented
excitation of the nerve for the breaking of an irritating current to the
side of the kathode of a constant current was produced, as a rule, in
but ten experiments (38, 42, 48, 53, 55, 56, 57, 58, and 59). A diminished
excitability of the nerve occurred ee Hee ieciniereneee in fourteen
experiments (36, 37, 39, 40, 41, 43, 45, 46, 47, 49, 50, 51, 52, and 54).

The results obtained in these fifty-nine experiments cannot be ex-
plained by the theory which demands an increased excitability of the
nerve to the side of the kathode of the constant or polarizing current.

In searching for an explanation of these varying results, it occurred to
me that the nerves and muscles on which these experiments (as also those
of Pfliiger) were made could hardly be considered as being in a normal
state, in spite of the precautions used. The differences in the results

could then be explained by referring them to the changes taking place
in a dying nerve or muscle, which changes have been so little studied.
To determine whether or not this was the explanation, a series of ex-
periments were made on the uninjured nerve in its normal position.
Copper electrodes were covered with wax, except at the point where
they touch the nerve and passed underneath this structure, which was
then experimented upon. The making of the circuit was observed in the
following experiments:

_ | Number of ex- Trritation without | Irritation during M
Time. periment. polarization. polarization. Remarks.
60. | ;
Irritation, 1 cell, rheo-| Polarization, 1 cell, | Rana temporaria.
h.m. chord: | rheochord: Whenever the nerve showed
3 06 | Ist irritations. -- 3003 cent..-.. 0. | LO\Genbes-ses 0. sions of becoming dry in
10 | 2d irritations. --.| 3003 cent -....0. | 55 cent. .-..-- 0. any of the following e xperi-
15 | 3d irritations --.| 2781 cent... -- 0. | 55 cent..-..-- 4. ments it was moistened
16 | 4th irritations -.| 2781 CONiere=ce 0. 10j\cenb-- =. 2-2: 1. witha .015 solution of pure
163| 5th irritations. --| 2781 cent.....- 0. DDICODUe same e ne 25 chloride of sodium.
20 | 6th irritations --, 2781 cent.....- 0, DorCent ea seeee 0,
32 | 7th irritations. --| 1739 cent.....- 2. 5d cent.--.---. 2.
34 | 8th irritations. -.| 1739\ cent... -- 22: 5biGentesceeemocs
$6 | 9th irritations. --! 1739 cent.....- 2. 10\centee eee 2.
4 00 | lUth irritations. . 1739 cent....-.2. 50/centis-2es-< 4.

rt

10

10

ll

EFFECT OF IRRITATION OF A POLARIZED NERVE.

17
20

Oy
22

| 5th irritations. --
| 6th irritations. .

Number of ex-
periment.

61.

1st irritations -..
2d irritations. --..

3d irritations. - -.|

4th irritations. --
5th irritations. --
6th irritations. -.

7th irritations. --|

8th irritations. .-

O2.

Ist irritations --
2d irritations --
3d irritations. - - -

| 4th irritations. --

7th irritations. --

Ist irritations -
2d irritations --
3d irritations - -

4) 4th irritations. --

5th irritations. --
6th irritations. --
7th irritations. - -
8th irritations. -.

64.

Ist irritations --

| 2d irritations. -.-

3d irritativoas....
4th irritations. --
5th irritations. - -
6th irritations --
7th irritations. - -
8th irritations. - -

65.

1st irritations. -.
2d irritations -..
3d irritations. --.
4th irritations -

G6.

1st irritations. --
2d irritations. - --
3d irritations -.

4th irritations. -.
5th irritations- --
6th irritations...
7th irritations. --
8th irritations. --
9th irritations --
10th irritations- -

67.

Ist irritations ..

2d irritations....
idirritatious:...

Irritation without
polarization.

Trritation during
polarization.

Remarks.

| Irritation, 1 cell, rheo-
chord:

| 1951 cent...--- 0.

| 341 cent.----. 3:
1214 cent +---. Pa
1214 cent .... 0.5
1214 cent... 2-- Os

| 1214 cent...-..0.5

| 1214cent.--. -- ORD

2016 cent.....- 3.

Trritation, 1 cell, rheo-
chord:

1S26icente.. 4-1 0.

1009 cent ---- 1.

888 cent...--. 0.

888 cent...... 16

888 cent. -.---- i

| 888 cent. ---.-- 0.
888 cent.-..--. 0.5

Trritation, 1 cell, rheo-

chord:
888 cent...-- 0.5
| 888 cent...--. 0.5
888 cent....--- 0.

888 cent ..-. 0.
888 cent...-..0.5

Sos Centeece on i.
888 cent...--- 0.5
888 cent..---- 0.5

Trritation, 1 cell, rheo-
chord:

2618 cent. ----- (i).
2618 cent..---. 0.
2618 cent .-.--. 2.
2562 cent. --.-- 3:
2062 cent. ----- 2.5
2678 cent......0.5
2678 cent...-..0. 5
2678 cent...... 0.5

Trritation, 1 cell, rheo-
chord:
2675 cent..----0.5

2618 cent. .---- 0.
2618'cent--.....- 0.
=| 2618 cent.-..-- 0.

Trritation, 1 cell, rheo-

chord:

1847 cent .....0.5
1847 cent...--- 0.5
1847 cent..-.-.-- ‘ONS
1847 cent.---.-0.5
2016 cent...... 0.
2562 cent......0.
2618 cent..--.. 0.
2728 cent...... 0.
2618 cent...-.-. 0.

| 2618 cent... --- 0.

| chord:

1413 cent......0.
1634 cent .....0.
1654 cent..--.- 0.

Irritation, 1 cell, rheo-

Polarization, 1 cell,
rheochord :
50licentaassss—= 0.
LO Gent eoasee 5h
5OCente eee eco:
MEET. Cocos We
10 cent:-=- 2=- ae
10: cent-- =.=]: 0.
HO0ICCRte eee ere 0.
49 cent. -....- 0.
Po'arization, 1 cell,
rheochord:
49 cent.....-- 0.
49 cent --...- 0.
49 cent.=-.-=-: 0.
40Gb senate 0.
LOkicent) o2- 20:
49 centzace- aoe 0.
10jcent-=-22--- 0.
Polarization, 1 cell,
rheochord:
UO ssescneck
49/cent-=-/.-- --- 0.5
49 cent: ....--.2.
ROKCentiese ae 2s
10 cent -=----- 0.
49 cent sseacc" 0
49icent= 2 ese. 0.3
L0ieent.=----- 0.3
Polarization, 1 cell,
rheochord:
i0lcenti sas.-- 0.5
byl Gattis soneeas 4.
10 cent...-..-.3.
LOvcente ss == oe
1Orcentrese---- 3.
lOVGentres eee 0.5
5D Gent mancee- ms
BS) CGiis sess 0.5
Polarization, 1 cell,
rheochord:
54 CON. seas 0.5
52 Gent. os. ==. 0.5
5YICONbe se secee 0.5
10\Centese.-2-- ale
Polarization, 2 cells,
rheochord:
OCeNts cane 1.
50iCen bess acne 2.
[sO] Gisiabe dee oa cHlth
LONeCente. sees OF
55 CONG. 2 = -=='- = 2
1OGenteseeeece 0.5
LOVGenteasss= 0.5
VOieedtaseaeae 0.5
LO centineseeeee clo
bolGehbseeeeee 0.5

| Polarization, 4 cells,

rheochord:
S0\cenbeee cs saaex
50icent te. -5 52.
o0Cent. -- 25252 2.

Rana temporaria.

| Electrodes brought nearer to

each other.

Rana temporaria.

Rana temporaria.

Rana esculenta.

Distance between polarizing
irritating electroces

and
2.5 mm.

Rana esculenta.

Distance between eiectroces

5 mm.

Rana esculenta.

Rana temporaria.

Distance between electrodes

3 mm.

- a « 4 - <
f 2
i ‘ »
380 EFFECT OF IRRITATION OF A POLARIZED NERVE. 5
. | Number of ex- Lrritation without Irritation during e
Anes periment. polarization. polarization. Les slp
|
] 6S.
| Trritation, 1 cell, rheo-) Polarization, 4 cells, | Rana temporaria.
h. m. | chord: rheochord:
10 35 | 1st irritations. -- 1951 cent --..- 1.5 SCenUs ten =e 1.5
42 | 2d irritations. --.. 2295 centi.---=- OFS) 5SCeNu eeeees 2
43 | 3d irritations. -.. 2295 cent. .--=- iS 57 Cent. .-.--- |
11 15 | 4th irritations. -- 1526 cent.-.--.. 0.5 | HMCenbs nee ae 0.5 |
16 5th irritations. --| 1526 cent...... 0. 2 | DiCelo nena 1
17 | 6th irritations. -- 1526 cent......0.5 | HTRCeNbeseaee ae 0.5
18 | 7th irritations. -- 1526. cent .--=-.0:5 10ycentie ese 52 0.5
19 | 8th irritations. -- 1526 cent.-.---1: 10 cent........0/5
20 | 9th irritations. -. 1525 cent.....- (05) 10 centi) ee asce 0.5
30 | 10th irritations. - 1526 cent .....0.5 NOKCentaeeeeeee 0.5
87 | 11th irritations - 1526 cent -...- 0.5 HOCEntEe ee ee OsD
45 | 12th irritations. - 1O26.CeNb essere ORD I Geo oacauise 0.5 ‘
46 | 13th irritations. - 1526 cent =.2.- 0.5 OBCOTNU Sets see 0.5
48 | 14th irritations. - 1526)cent.- 265. 0.5 ORGS beerateerets 0.5
69.
Irritation, 1 cell. rheo | Polarization, 1 cell, | Rana temporaria.
| chord: rhoechord: Distance between electrodes
2 35 | Ist irritations. .. 2675 cent .---. 0. 10%centb, 2-2/2. 0. 8 mm.
3 00 | 2d irritations. .-. 2618 cent...--- 0.5 | SSIGeNUL ee ee ea ale
03 | 3d irritations ... 2618 cent-.-.--- 0. Bench tigseacsee ya

Out of the ten experiments made in this manner, in six (60, 64, 65, 66,
67, and 69) the polarizing current produced an increased excitability,
and failed to produce this effect in four experiments.

In the following experiments, made after the same plan, the muscular
contractions following the opening of the irritating current are recorded.

: Number of ex- Trritation without Trritation during '
Time. periment. polarization. polarization. Remarks.
70. F
Irritation, 1 cell, rheo-| Polarization, 1 cell, | Rana temporaria.
h.m chord: rheochord:
2 15 | 1st irritations. -- 2728 cent. -...- 5 10° cent... -----2.
22 | 2d irritations. ..- 2728 cent. ----- ye, bicenteeceeeeees
24 | 3dirritations.-.- 2728 cent.----- 0. 5h Contaaeeeae0n0
25 | 4th irritations -- 2728 cent... --- 0. 10\cent=s-.- = 0.5
35 | Sthirritations. - - 267D1cent .---- 0.5 Ohcenteee eee 0.5
36 | 6th irritations. -. 2675 cent..---- 0.5 10icenbsee-on-- 15
37 | Tthirritations .. 2675 cent ..---0.5 58icenteaccs ans 0.5
45 | 8thirritations. -- 2618 cent.-.--.- 0.5 58 cent: -=-- <5 ilk
47 | 9thiritations -- 2618 cent. ----- 0. De Cebuesee =a 0.5
3 00 | 10th irritat ons. - 2618 cent.--- = - 0.5 | 58 Celts ik
03 | 11th irritations. - 2618 cent..---- 0.5 58 cent... --- == 1.
08 | 12th irritations. . 2618 cent.----- 0. 58 cent.. .----2.
‘
71. ;
Irritation, 1 cell, rheo-| Polarization, 4 cells, Rana temporaria.
chord: rheochord:
11 15 | 1st irritations... 1526 cent.-...- 2.5 | BY Cesitime aeease 3.
16 | 2d irritations... 1526 cent ..---3. DieeCentenasasee 3)
17 | 3dirritations---. 1526 cent. -.-.. 0.5 GY CCG Wien reece 0.5
18 | 4thirritations -. 1526 cent -..--. 3. AOicent42-2-44 By
19 | 5thirritations -. 1526 cent -.--- a} UNCeingosesaac 3
20 | 6thirritations- .. 1526 cent. ----- 0.5 LOCenb-seeecse 2.
30 | 7thirritations. -. 1526 cent.-.--- ils 10ecent=3.—.-=- es
45 | 8thirritations - 1526 cent....-- 0.5 DaCGehbasses=ee 0.5
46 | 9thirritations - 1526 cent. -.--.- 0.5 bi Celta sco 0.5 :
48 | 10th irritations. 1526 cent. --.-- 0.5 Hi COnva pp eanae 0.5
7.
Irritation, 1 cell, rheo-| Polarization, 1 cell, | Rana esculenta.
chord: rheochord:
10 21 | 1st irritations. -- DOT CON tesseiae usta) UGS GENS = A= aac- 3
45 | 2dirritations -. 2618 cent. .---- 0.5 1Olcente sacs ns)
45 | 3d irritations... - 2618.cent.-.-.--- 0.5 SOCOM tea ae 85)
49 | 4th irritations. 1847 cent.----- LS TO\Gerthes eee is

EFFECT OF IRRITATION

OF A POLARIZED NERVE.

381

- | Number of ex- Irritation without Trritation during s %
“Tn: periment. polarization. polarization. IES
h.m. ~ ‘
10 50 ; Sthirritations -.- WS4ieents-sssnds 50 GENE seem ene 2.
53-| 6th irritations. ..| 2016\cent:= = - =: ae
57 | Tthirritations. -..| 2562 cent....-- 0.5
58 | 8th irritations. --| 2618 cent...<-+ 0.5
11 05 | 9th irritations. - 2728 cent..... 0.5
06 | 1Uth irritations. 2618 cent....-- 0.5
07 | 11th irritations. 2618 cent...... 0.5
Tad-~
Irritation, 1 cell, rheo-| Polarization, 1 cell, | Rana temporaria.
chord: rheochord:
10h ak) | 1st irritations. -- 1526 cent...... 0.5 AS centiqesaceee 1
12 00 | 2dirritations.... 888 cent.....-2. LOVGeNT Assen ees oe
003 3d irritations... . 888 cent......2. 49 cent.2----.1 3
OL | 4th irritatjons- -- 888 cent....--2. 49 cent..--.---: 3.
013) 5th irritations -- 888 cent...-.. 2. 10icent==- <a 3
07 | 6thirritations- --| 888 cent .... 0.5 49 cent. =.= ti On2ii
08 | 7th irritations. -. 888 cent.....- iL LO'cent=------- 0.2
74. |
Trritation, 1 cell, rheo-| Polarization, 1 cell, | Rana temporaria.
chord: rheochord:
4 15 | 1st irritations --! 1957 cent......0.5 RGA Bas seomcol ls fT |
17 | 2d irritations... -. 1957 cent. ...-- 0.5 10 cent-- a)
20 3dirritations--.. Beeenbe-- ee O: 10 cent. - aby
21 | 4th irritations --| 11214 cent. ....-5. SU Cent: 5... -)- 5:
22.) Sth irritations. --| 1214 Gent. 5-7 5: LO\cent=s--5- = 5.
23 | 6thirritations. --| Hala centes 220: VOlCenbes-c- =. =O:
50 | Tthirritations -.-) 2016; cent: .----2. AQ Gente oceeaec 3.
| |
76 |
Irritation, 1 cell, rheo- | Polarization, 1 cell, "Rana temporaria.
| chord: rheochord:
3 06 | 1st irritations. -- 8003 cent -..- 0:2 TO\cent=-sse2s- 3.
08 | 2d irritations..-.. BUOBICCM tse 0. SpCeNbeseeee Be
10 | 8d irritations... .| 3003 cent... -.-- 0.5 Dp IGOMtiaa= pero os
15 | 4thirritations- -.| 2781 cent... --- 2. DS ICGN Doe aes
16 | 5thirritations -.| DiSlicent.-- 2. = 0. 1OCeNnbE Sees = 26)
164. Gth irritations. -- 2781 cent.-.--- 0. GEV MNS = m5 Bh
20 | Tthirritations -- 2781 cent.---.- 1. HOICeMbeeeeeaes 2:

In four of these experiments the polarizing current usually produced

an increased excitability of the nerve to the side of the

negative pole;

while in two experiments the polarization seemed to have little or no
influence on the effect of the irritating current.

A “half-saturated” solution of pure chloride of sodium was now sub-
stituted for the irritating current and the experiment repeated in this
manner. The solution was applied to the nerve near the muscle and
5™™ below the point of application of the descending polarizing current.

EXPERIMENT 76.—Sciatie nerve and gastrocnemius muscle of a Rana
esculenta.

Polarizing current from 1 Daniel.

First irritations.—Salt solution alone=1. With polarization, 3.
Second irritations.—Salt solution alone=1. With polarization, 0
Third irritations.—Salt solution alone=1. With polarization, 0.
Fourth irritations.—Salt solution alone=1. With polarization, 0.
Fifth irritations.—Salt solution alone=1. With polarization, 0.
Sixth irritations.—Salt solution alone=1. With polarization, 0.
Seventh irritations.—Salt solution alone=1. With polarization, 0.

382 EFFECT. OF IRRITATION OF A.POLARIZED NERVE. aa

EXPERIMENT 77.

Polarization current from 2 Daniels.

FKighth irritations.—Salt solution alone=1. With polarization, 0.

Ninth irritations. —Salt solution alone=1. With polarization, 0.

Tenth irritations.—Salt solution alone=1. With polarization, 0.

Eleventh irritations.—Salt solution alone=1. With polarization, 0.
EXPERIMENT 78.—Sciatic nerve and gastrocnemius muscle of a Rana

esculenta.
Polarizing current from 1 Daniel cell.

First irritations.—Salt solution=3. With polarization, 5
Second irritations.—Salt solution=3. With polarization, 5.
Third irritations.—Salt solution=3. With polarization, 5.
Fourth irritations.—Salt solution=2. With etme One
Fifth irritations.—Salt solution=2. With polarization,

EXPERIMENT 79.—Sciatie nerve and gastrocnemius an of a Rana
esculenta.

Polarization current from 4 Daniel cells.

First irritations.—Salt solution alone=0.5. With polarization, 0.
Second irritations.—Salt solution alone=1. With polarization, 3.
Third irritations.—Salt solution alone=1. With polarization, 2.
Fourth irritations.—Salt solution alone=1. With polarization, 2.
EXPERIMENT 80.—Sciatie nerve and gastrocnemius muscle of a Rana
temporaria.
Polarizing current from 4 Daniel cells.
First irritations.—Salt solution alone=1. With polarization, 5.
Second irritations.—Salt solution alone=1. With polarization, 5
Third irritations.—Salt solution alone=1. With polarization, 5,
Fourth irritations.—Salt solution alone=1. With polarization, 5.
EXPERIMENT 81.—Sciatie nerve and gastrocnemius muscle of a Rana
temporaria.

Polarizing current from 1 Daniel cell.

First irritations.—Salt solution alone=1.5. With polarization, 3.
Second irritations.—Salt solution alone=1.5, With polarization, 1.5.
Third irritations.—Salt solution alone=1.5. With polarization, 1.5.

After twenty minutes :

Fourth irritations.—Salt solution alone=1. With polarization, 3.
Fifth irritations.—Salt solution alone=1. With polarization, 3.
Sixth irritations.—Salt solution alone=1. With polarization, 3.
Seventh irritations.—Salt solution alone=0.5. With polarization, 4.
Eighth irritations. —Salt solution alone=0.5. With polarization, 4.
Ninth irritations.—Salt solution alone=0.5. With polarization, 4.
Tenth irritations.—Salt solution alone=0.5. With polarization, 4.

EXPERIMENT 82.—Sciatie nerve and gastrocnemius muscle of a Rana

temporaria.
Polarizing current from 4 Daniel cells.

First irritations.—Salt solution alone=1.5. With polarization, 2.
Second irritations.—Salt solution alone=1.5. With polarization, 3.
Third irritations.—Salt solution alone=1.5. With polarization, 0.
Fourth irritations. —Salt solution alone=1.5. With polarization, 0,

EFFECT OF IRRITATION OF A POLARIZED NERVE. 383

Fifth irritations.—Salt solution alone=1.5. With polarization, 0.5.
Sixth irritations.—Salt solution alope =1.5. With polarization, 0.5.

EXPERIMENT 83.—Sciatie nerve and gastrocneriius muscle of a Rana
temporaria.
Polarizing current from 4 Daniel cells.

First irritations. —Salt solution alone=2. With polarization, 2.
Second irritations.—Salt solution alone=2. With polarization, 2.

Third irritations.—Salt solution alone=2. With polarization, 2.
Duration of experiment 13 minutes.

EXPERIMENT 84.—Sciatic nerve and gastrocnemius muscle of a Rana
temporaria.
Polarizing current from 4 Daniel cells.

First irritations.—Salt solution alone—0.5. With polarization, 0.5.

Second irritations.—Salt solution alone=0.5. With polarization, 0.8.

Third irritations.—Salt solution alone=0.5. With polarization, 1.

Fourth irritations.—Salt solution alone=0.5. With polarization, 0.5.

Fifth irritations.—Salt solution alone=0.5. With polarization, 1.

Sixth irritations.—Salt solution alone=0.5. With polarization, 0.

EXPERIMENT 85.—Sciatic nerve and gastrocnemius muscle of a Rana
temporaria.
Polarizing current from 4 Daniel cells.

First irritations.—Salt solution alone=3. With polarization, 4.
Second irritations.—Salt solution alone=3. With polarization, 4.
Third irritations.—Salt solution alone=3. With polarization, 4.
Fourth irritations.—Salt solution alone=3. With polarization, 3.5.
Fifth irritations.—Salt solution alone=3. With polarization, 3.5.
Sixth irritations.—Salt solution alone=3. With polarization, 3.5.
Seventh irritations. —Salt solution alone=3. With polarization, 3.
Lighth irritations.—Salt solution alone=0. With polarization, 2.
Ninth irritations.—Salt solution alone=0. With polarization, 2.5.
Tenth irritations.—Salt solution alone=0. With polarization, 2.
Eleventh irritations.—Salt solution alone=0. With polarization, 2.

This series of experiments made with chemical irritants certainly give
us no more reason to believe in the infallibility of Pfliigers “laws” than
the preceding series.

In finishing these series of experiments the following conclusion seems
to be demanded by the facts observed: When a descending polarizing
current is applied to a nerve above a descending irritating current, the effect
of the latter in exciting the nerve to produce muscular contractions is not
necessarily increased during the passage of the former. On the contrary,
it often appears to be less irritating during the passage of the descending
polarizing current through the nerve.

The ascending polarizing current applied to a nerve above a descending
irritating current.

‘ 1+ J ,

384 EFFECT OF IRRITATION OF A POLARIZED NERVE. -,

The irritation being here to the side of the anode, it should, according
to Pfliiger, produce a stronger contraction during the absence than dur-
ing the presence of the constant or polarizing current. The method of
experimenting adopted was that described some pages back. As there, |
the first experiments were made with the closing of an electric circuit
as an irritant.

- Number of ex- Trritation without Irritation during oe
amie: periment. polarization. polarization. Remarks.
86.
h. m. Irritation, 2 cells: Polarization: Rana temporaria.
1st irritations. --) ak 4\cellgs- e241 css 6 al,
2d irritations. -.-. BF 2 cells, 2o32 es 0.
3d irritations. .-- 1 0.
4th irritations. -- 0.5 0.
5th irritations. -. 1 0.
S87. |
Terie, 1 cell, rheo- | Polarization, 2 cells: Rana temporaria.
chord:
1st irritations. -- 3703 cent.----. 0.5 0.
2d irritations. ---. 3703 cent-.-.---- 0.5 al
3d irritations. --. 2907 cent..-..- 0. ib
4th irritations. -- 2675 cent. .-.-- 0. 0.5
5th irritations. . - 2781 cent. ----- 2. 0.
6th irritations. -- ArSlecentieec= oe 1.5 2. 10 minutes later.
7th irritations. - - 1214 cent <...- 0. 3.
8th irritations. - - 1308 cent...-.-- 0. 3.
9th irritations. - - 13808 cent...-.- 0. 3.
10th irritations. - 1308 cent. -.--- 0. 3.
11th irritations. - PPB XO ie See 0.5 3.
12th irritations. - 228 Cent. -e 0.5 3.
13th irritations. - 223 cent=.<--- 0.5 3.
88.
| Irritation, 1 cell, rheo- | Polarization, 2 cells: Rana temporaria.
chord:
1st irritations. -- 3109 cent..,--.0. 0.5
2dirritations. --- 3109 cent....-- 0. 0.5
3d irritations. - -. 3109 cent..---- 0. 0.5
4th irritations. -- 3109 cent..-.--- 0. 0.5
$9.
Irritation, 1 cell, rheo- | Polarization, 2 cells: Rana temporaria.
chord:
2 46 | Ist irritations - 3109 cent... -- 0.5 0.5
3 05 | 2dirritations. --.| 3109 cent .... 0.5 0.5
10'| 3d irritations.---| , (3109/cent----.< 0.5 0.5
13 | 4thirritations --! 3109 cent -...- 0.5 0.5
20 | Sthirritations --| 3109 cent. ...-. 0.5 0.5
25 | 6thirritations. .. 3109 tent... .-- 0.5 0.5
30 | 7th irritations. --| 3109 cent...... 0.5 0.5
35 | 8thirritations. -- 8109 cent:....- 0.5 0.5
|
90.
| Irritation, 1 cell: Polarization, 2 cells: Rana temporaria.
1st irritations --| il 3.
2d irritations --. al 0.5
| 8d irritations .-.! i 0.5
91. |
| Irritation, 1 cell: Polarization, 2 cells: Rana temporaria
9 09 | 1st irritations --| uh 0.
13 2dirritations.--. ae | 0.
93. :
| Irritation, 1 cell: Polarization, 2 cells: Rana temporaria,
10 05 | 1st irritations. .-! al 0.
07 | 2d irritations. -..; 1 3.
11 | 8dirritations. --- ale 3.
40 | 4th irritations. - - 1 3.
11 00 5thirritations. --. nF 0.5

EFFECT OF IRRITATION OF A POLARIZED NERVE.

385

! Ist irritations. ..

Number of ex-
periment.

93.

1st irritations. ..
2d irritations. ...
3d irritations. ...

94.

1st irritations. .-
2d irritations. ...
3d irritations. ...
4th irritations. -.

95.

1st irritations. --
2d irritations. ...
3d irritations. .-.
4th irritations. --
5th irritations. --

96.

1st irritations. .
2d irritations. .-..
3dirritations -.-
4th irritations. ..
5th irritations. - .
6th irritations. --
7th irritations. .
8th irritations. .
9th irritations. .

97.

1st irritations. -.
2d irritations. -..

3dirritations. -..

4th irritations...

98.

1st irritations. .
2d irritations ....
3d irritations. ...

99.

2dirritations- ...
3d irritations...

100.

1st irritations -
2d irritations. -
3d irritations. -
4th irritations.

101.

1st irritations...
2d irritations....
8d irritations. ...
4thirritations...

102.

1st irritations...
2d irritations. ...
3d irritations. ...
4th irritations. ..

S. Mis. 59

Irritation without
polarization.

Irritation, 1 cell:

he

Irritation, 1 cell:

Ber

Irritation, 1 cell:

Sicits

Trritation, 1 cell:

PeCR eS

Irritation, 1 cell:

Hie ee

Irritation, 1 cell:

Irritation, 1 cell, rheo-
chord: ;

a5
1,

Irritation, 1 cell, rheo-
chord;
it.
1.
1.
1,

Irritation, 1 cell, rheo-
chord:

2458 cent...... iL
2350 cent...... ih
2350 cent...... a
2127 cent...... 0.

Irritation, 1 cell, rheo-
chord:
2907 cent...... O05

2907 cent...... 0.5
1793 cent...... 15
2781 cent...... L5

25

Irritation during
polarization.

Polarization, 2 cells:
0.
0.
0.
Polarization, 2 cells A

0.
0.
0.

Polarization, 2 cells:

ooo

5

0.5

Polarization:
Acellgtccssscece p

Polarization, 4 cells:
3.

3.

is

- 0.
Polarization, 4 cell

8:
0.
0.
0.

Polarization, 4 cells:
0.

0.
0.

Polarization, 4 cells:

2

Polarization, 2 cells:

Sosos

Polarization, 2 cells:

5

crore

ooo

Remarks.

Rana esculenta,

Rana temporaria.

Kana esculenta.

Rana esculenta.

Rana temporaria,

Rana temporaria.

Rana esculenta,
Weak irritating currents.

Last frog again used.

Strong irritating currents.

Rana temporaria.

Rana esculenta,

386

Time.

11

1}
12

EFFECT OF IRRITATION OF A POLARIZED NERVE.

Number of ex-
periment.

103.

1st irritations...
2d irritations. -..
3d irritations....
4th irritations --
5th irritations. -.
6th irritations. - .
7th irritations. -.
8th irritations. -.

104.

1st irritations. --
2d irritations. --..
8d irritations. - - -
4th irritations. --
5th irritations --
6th irritations --
7th irritations. - -
8th irritations. --
9th irritations -.-
10th irritations. .
11th irritations. .
12th irritations. -
13th irritations. -
14th irritations. .

105.

1st irritations. ..
2d irritations. -.-.
3dirritations -..
4th irritations. ..
5th irritations. -.
6th irritations. - -
7th irritations. ..

8th irritations. ..

106.

1st irritations. .-
2d irritations....
3d irritations... --
4th irritations --
5th irritations ..
6th irritations --
7th irritations. --
8th irritations. - -
9th irritations. -.
10th irritations. .
11th irritations. -
12th irritations. -
13th irritations. -
14th irritations. -
15th irritations. -
16th irritations. -

17th irritations. .
18th irritations. -

107.

1st irritations. -.
2d irritations. -..
3d irritations. .-.

108.

1st irritations. -.
2d irritations. . --
3d irritations. - -.
4th irritations. - .

Irritation without
polarization.

Irritation, 1 cell, rheo-

chord:
2562 cent...-.-- 0.
2562 cent..---- 0.
2249 cent..-.-.- 1,
2249 cent.....- a
2249 cent...-.- 1.
2249 cent....-.- ik
2249 cent.-.--.- ie
2249 cent..-.-.-.- ns

Irritation, 1 cell, rheo-| Polarization, 2 cells:

chord:
2(8lcents. 2-2 0.
2675) cent. -.-—- 0.
2458 cent....-. 3.
223’ cent.....- 1.5
2231CONG co ee 1.5
1634 cent ..... us
2127 cent...... 1,
1634 cent...... 1.
1413 cent. ....- 1.
L109 cents2o. 22 is
223 cent ..... 1b
228'cent....-- 0.
223'cent....-'- 1.
223 cent...... ib

Irritation, 1 cell, rheo-

chord:

1893 cent....-.- 1.

223 cent....-- 1.
2016 cent ...--- iL

223 cent....-- 1,
1893 cent ......0.
1793 cent...... 0.
1634 cent ...... 0.
1526 cent...... 0.

Trritation, 1 cell, rheo-
chord:

2955 ‘cent. ...-- iL
2955 cent.....- ile
2955 cent...-.- 0.5
2955 cent.....- 0.
2401 cent.-.--.. P;
2728 cent.....-2.
2728 cent..-.-- IE
2728 cent... --- 6.
2728 cent.....- 0.
223 cent. .---- 1.5
2728 cent... ie
2728 cent: .-.-- 1.
2728 cent...... i
2728 cent: ....- 1.
2728 cent...... ib
2728 cent...... Un
2128 CON =. = il,
2728 cent.....- 1.

Irritation, 1 cell, rheo-
chord:

223 cent....-- Si
223 cent.-.-..- 3.
223 cent...-.. 3.

Trritation, 1 cell, rheo-
chord:

3179 cent...... 0.
3198 cent ..... 0.

223 cent .....- 3.
3198 cent.....-. 0.

Irritation during

polarization.

Polarization, 2 cells:

Polarization, 2 cells:

Polarization :

4 Cell Stscuanceeet
Weelletes 2 Sec
4:cellg..24 ciscen

Polarization, 2 cells:

Polarization, 1 cell

3.
3.
3.

$9 99 99 99

SSVSSSSSSOVEN wy eferrssss

eecowens

SesssssrPessFtyssss

by By ES Se) BS Ss |

ooo

Remarks.

Rana esculenta.

, Rana esculenta.

Rana esculenta.

Rana temporaria.

Rana temporaria.

Rana temporaria.

EFFECT OF IRRITATION OF A POLARIZED NERVE,

Number of ex-

periment.

5th irritations. - -
6th irritations. --
7th irritations. - -
8th irritations. . -
9th irritations. -

10th irritations... <

109.

1st irritations . --

| 2d irritations. - -.

3d irritations. - --
4th irritations. . -

110.

| 1st irritations. ..

2d irritations. --..
3d irritations. - - -
4th irritations. -.
5th irritations. --
6th irritations. --.
7th irritations. --
8th irritations. - -
9th irritations. --

111.

1st irritations. --
2d irritations....
3d irritations....

4th irritations. --
5th irritations. - -
6th irritations. --
7th irritations. - -
8th irritations. - -
9th irritations. --
10th irritations. -
11th irritations. -
12th irritations. -
13th irritations. -
14th irritations. -

112.

1st irritations. --
2d irritations....
3d irritations. ...
4th irritations. --
5th irritations. - -
6th irritations. --
7th irritations. -.
8th irritations. --
9th irritations. -

10th irritations. -

113.

1st irritations...
2d irritations. - --
3d irritations. ---
4th irritations. -.
5th irritations. -.
6th irritations. - -
7th irritations. - -
8th irritations. --

114.

1st irritations. ..
2d irritations. ...

Irritation without

polarization.

2849 cent....-- iL

2256 cent.....- 1.
223 cent ..... 2.5

3194 cent...... 0.
223 cent.-..... 1.5
223 cent...... iL

Trritation, 1 cell, rheo-
chord:

3109 cent.....- 0.

1847 cent....-- 2.

1413 cent .....2.5
223-cent.....- 4.

Trritation, 1 cell, rheo-
chord:

3197 cent...... 0.
3197 cent...--- 0.
3197 cent...... 0.
319% cent. -.- =. 0.

23 cent...... 0.

3109 cent...... 0.

Trritation, 1 cell:

2.

4.

4.

Rheochord:

1580 cent.....- 4.
2728 cent...-.- 0.
2728 cent...-.-- 1.
2728 cent...-..- 1.
2728 cent.----- 2.
2728 cent.....- 1.
2728 cent...--- abs
2728 cent...... ils
2728 cent.....- D:
2728 cent..-..- 4,
2781 cent...... 0.

Irritation, 1 cell, rheo-
chord:
2728 cent-..-.--- 3.

2728 cent.....- 4.
2781 cent...--. 4.
2781 cent......3.
2781 cent..-..-. 3.
2781 cent.----- 3.
2849 cent. --.-- Dy
2849 cent...... il,
2849 cent...--- Xe

2849 cent....-- 3.

Trritation, 1 cell, rheo-
chord:

3187 cent...... 0.
223 cent...... 5.
17S3 cent...... 4.
1793 cent...... 3.
2510 cent...... 3.
2510 cent...... 4.
2510 cent...... 2.
2510 cent...... 2.5

Irritation, 1 cell, rheo-
chord:
3109 cent......0.
2183 cent...... 3.

Tnritation during
polarization.

Poebthrs
oa

Polarization, 4 cells:

Pros
on

Polarization, 2 cells:

Polarization, 2 cells:

hoppy

peeressorre
on or

Polarization, 2 cells:

=

SesssssS

Polarization, 3 cells:

1.5

SeSechnyry
on

Polarization, 4 cells:

2.
0.

Remarks.

Rana esculenta.

Rana temporaria.

Rana temporaria.

Rana temporaria.

Rana temporaria.

Rana temporaria,

387

388 EFFECT OF IRRITATION OF A POLARIZED NERVE.

P Number of ex-| Irritation without Irritation during
oe periment. polarization. polarization. Remarks.
h. m.
9 10 | 3dirritations. ---. 2183 cent.....- 0. 0.
14 | 4thirritations. -. 2016 cent.-.-.-- 2. 0.
25 | 5th irritations. -- 1360 cent.....- 3 0.
30 | 6th irritations. -- 1360 cent.....- ib 0.
36 | 7th irritations... 1360 cent....-- 0.5 0.
40 | 8thirritations. -- 1360 cent....-. 0.5 0.
115. : :
Treliation, 1 cell, rheo- | Polarization, 3 cells: | Rana temporaria.
chora:
10 14 | 1st irritations. -- 3197 cent.....- 0. 5B
17 | 2dirritations.-.. 3197 cent..-.--- 0. 5.
21 | 3dirritations-.-.- 3197 cent....--0. 5.
25 | 4th irritations. -- 3058 cent...... 0. 5.
26 | 5th irritations. -- 3003 cent--.-.- 5; 5,
29 | 6th irritations. -- 3003 cent..----5. 3.
36 | 7th irritations. -- 30038 cent...--- 4. iS
41 | 8th irritations. -- 3003 cent. ----- 3. i
52 | 9th irritations. -- 2955 cent-..--- 2. 0.
544) 10th irritations. - 2955 cent....-. 2. 0.
574| 11th irritations. - 29551cent-.---- 2. 0.
11 044) 12th irritations. - 2955 cent...... i 0.
116.

Erle cell, rheo- | Polarization, 4 cells: | Rana temporaria.
chora:

8 47 | 1st irritations. -. 3197 cent.....- 0. Ds
52 | 2d irritations. --. aloicent==.--- 0. 5.
57 | 3dirritations. -.. 3197 cent...-.-- 0. om

9 01 | 4thirritations. -. 3058 cent....-- if 55.
10 | 5th irritations. - - 3058 cent....-- 2. 5.
15 | 6th irritations. -. 3058icent.... 22 0. 4,
23 | 7th irritations. - - 3058 cent...--- 0.5 2.
28 | 8th irritations... 3058 cent..---.- 0.5 Ls
33 | 9th irritations. -. 3058 cent. -.--- 0.5 if
36 | 10th irritations... 8058 cent...... 0. 3.
40 | 11th irritations. - 2955 cent.....- 2. 4,

117. fg
Terie, 1 cell, rheo- | Polarization, 4 cells: Rana temporaria.
chord:

9 52 | Ist irritations. .- 2849 cent-:..... 2. A
54 | 2d irritations. .-- 2728 cent.....- 4. iL
56 | 3d irritations. --. 2728 cent...... 35 0.
58 | 4th irritations... 2350'cent.----- 4, 3:

10 01 | 5th irritations. -. 2350 cent......4. us
03 | 6th irritations. - - 223 cent.....- 5. 5.
05 | 7th pritations. -. 2350 cent...... 4. uF
32 | 8th irritations. .-. 2062 Cent. - =.=" 4. 2.
33 | 9th irritations... 2562 cent.-....-. 4, 0.
34 | 10th irritations. . 2849 cent.--.-.- 2. 0.
35 | 11th irritations. - 2955 cent...--- 0.5 0.
38 | 12th irritations. - 2901 cent......2. 0.
39 | 13th irritations. . 2901 cent...-.. 3) 3
42 | 14th irritations... 3003 cent....-..2. 2.
44 | 15th irritations. - 3003 cent...--- 3: 2.

118. Trritation, 1 cell, rheo- | Polarization:
chord: Rana temporaria.
3000 cent....-.0.5

11 00 | 1st irritations... 3000 cent...-.- 0.5
01 | 2dirritations.-... 3000 cent.....- 0.5
02 | 3d irritations. -.. 8000 cent..-.-- 0.5
03 | 4thirritations. -- 3000 cent....-- 2.

06 | 5th irritations. -. 3000 cent...... 2.
07 | 6thirritations. .-
119.
Trribsiien, 1 cell, rheo- | Polarization, 4 cells: | Rana temporaria.
chord:

11 12 | 1st irritations... 2781 cent. --.-- 0. 5.
15 | 2dirritations.... 2675 cent.....- OF5, 5.
30 | 3d irritations. --.. ZOroicentenesee 0. Ds
31 | 4th irritations. - - 2562 cent-..--.. 2. 5.
32 | 5dthirritations. -- 2562 cent...... ab 5.
40 | 6th irritations. .. 3058 cent.....- 0. 5.
41 | 7thirritations. -- 3003 cent-..... As 5,
46 | 8thirritations. -. 3003 cent. .----. 2. 4.
48 | 9thirritations... 3003 cent...... 2. 4.
53 | 10th irritations. - 3003 cent. --..- 0. 4,
55 | 11th irritations.. 3003 cent...... 0. 5.

EFFECT OF IRRITATION OF A POLARIZED NERVE.

389

Time.

Number of ex-
periment.

120.

1st irritations. --
2d irritations. ...
3d irritations....
4th irritations. -.
5th irritations. ..
6th irritations. .-.
7th irritations. --
8th irritations. --
9th irritations. ..
10th irritations. -
11th irritations. -

121.

1st irritations...
2d irritations. .-.
3d irritations...
4th irritations. ..

“Sth irritations. ..

6th irritations. -.
7th irritations.
8th irritations. --
9th irritations. - -
10th irritations-.
11th irritations. -
12th irritations. -
13th irritations. -
14th irritations. -
15th irritations. -
16th irritations. .
17th irritations...

OE O60

122.

1st irritations. -.
2d irritations. ...
3d irritations. -..
4th irritations...
5th irritations...
6th irritations. --
7th irritations. -.

123.

1st irritations...
2d irritations. ...
3d irritations. -...
4th irritations. ..
5th irritations. --

124,

1st irritations. -.
2d irritations. ...
8d irritations...

126.

1st irritations. ..
2d irritations. -..
3d irritations. ...

127.

1st irritations . ..

2d irritations. -..

3d irritations. ...

4th irritations...

Trritation without

polarization.
Irritation, 1 cell, rheo-
chord:
3197 cent..... i
3197 cent...... 0.5
3179 cent-..... 0.
3179 cent......0.
3003 cent...-.. ib
3003 cent-...... 2.
3003 cent-...... 0.5
3003 cent-...... 0.5
3003 cent..-... 0.5
3003 cent.....- 0.
3003 cent...... 3.

Trritation, 1 cell, rheo-
chord:
3003 cent...... 2.
1160 cent..
1160 cent.

4
4
3003 cent......1.
S003;COnt=ees. 4 1)
3003 cent..-...0.5
3003 cent...-.. 0.5
3003 cent...... 4,
3003 cent.....- 4.
2950 cent.
700 cent.
700 cent.

2775 cent.....-1.
2675 cent...... 3.
2675 cent...... 2,

Trritation, 1 cell, rheo-
chord:
3197 Cent=-<.<. 2.
3197 cent......2.
AG
=O:
-0.

3176 cent...

3176 cent. ...-
2910 cent.-.... 0.5
2910 cent...... 0.

Irritation, 1 cell, rheo-
chord:

3018 cent...... 0.
8018 cent...... 0.
3018 cent...... 2.
2875 cent.....- 0.
2850 cent...... 0.

Irritation, 1 cell, rheo-
chord:

1400 cent...... 3.
2125 cent...... 0.
2125 cent....0« 0,

Irritation, 1 cell, rheo-
chord:
223 CONG. - cco ne ale
220 CONG noneas 0.5
223) CONG... seke

Trritation, 1 cell, rheo-
chord:

3100 cent...--- us
3025 cent...... 2.
3025 cent...... if
8025 cent...... 0.5

Irritation during
polarization.
Polarization:

4 cellgec cence 3.
Gellxe sees: 0.
Veell.c 5-005
4 cells. 3. seanea4s
lcell ccc ccacns 2:

3.

3.

3.

3.

4.

4.

Polarization:

Veell. 5. cccc255 0.
Neel... o-cecnes 4.
4 cellsizcocceue 4.
4 cells. -dses= 4.
ieellis2s sao e2 4.
celles ccemcose 0.
&cellse-sseeeeasts
Scells 2s. .-a-- 2.
MiGellsess eee a4 0.
Aer 10 I aps ma ay.
4 cells.- cecea, 4s
Heellsc-ccasteus 0.
4 Ces: s ceseneny
celle ss.ssscee Ds
Weellesaccccoes 0.
4:cells: 22.6. 0.
Leell e5.<a50505

Polarization, 4 cells,
rheochord:

Si cent... scas- 5
Sicent.caesaa- 5.
Ojcent:.ec5,.-.05 3.
SiCOnb.. = 465,52 3.
2COntsc ssa nes 3.
20(cent. . = 400 uF
20 cent........ 2.

Polarization, 4 cells,
rheochord:

Wcent..cotese °
20 cent. .

20 cent... aes
10 cent. ....... als

20 cent........0.5

Polarization, 2 cells,

rheochord:
20iCeNntse-sesaees
20 Gent... 2s)... 0.
20 cent........ 0.

Polarization, 4 celis,

rheochord:
LO Gentes 5 5
10\cent S255.
10 cent=--s.cc. r 5

Polarization, 4 cells,
rheochord:

A8\cent- = eran. al
30'Cent...--paes 3.
30 cent........ 2.
80 cent. .: <5... 2.

Remarks.

Rana, temporaria,

Rona temporaria,

Rana temporaria,

Polarization, 1 ceil.

Rana temporaria,

Rana temporaria.

Rana temporaria,

Rana temporaria.

390

12 02

EFFECT OF IRRITATION OF A POLARIZED NERVE.

Number of ex-
periment.

5th irritations. --
6th irritations. -.
7th irritations...
8th irritations. -.
9th irritations. -

10th irritations. -

11th irritations. -

12th irritations. -
13th irritations. -
14th irritations. .
15th irritations. -
16th irritations. -
17th irritations. .
18th irritations. -
19th irritations. .
20th irritations. -
21st irritations - -
22d irritations. - -
238d irritations. -.
24th irritations. -
25th irritations. -
26th irritations. -
27th irritations. .
28th irritations. .
29th irritations. .
30th irritations. .
31st irritations ..
82d irritations. . .
3éd irritations. --
34th irritations. .
35th irritations. .

‘128.

1st irritations - ..
2d irritations. --.
3d irritations...
4th irritations. .-
5th irritations. ..
6th irritations. - -
7th irritations. -.
8th irritations. -.
9th irritations. -

10th irritations. -

129.

1st irritations -.-.
2d irritations. ...
3d irritations. .-.
4th irritations. --
5th irritations. ..
6th irritations. ..

130.

1st irritations - --
2d irritations...
3d irritations. --.
4th irritations. ..
5th irritations. --
6th irritations. --

131.

1stirritations ...
2d irritations. - --
8d irritations. ...
4th irritations. - -
5th irritations. --
6th irritations. ..
7th irritations. - -
8th irritations. -.
9th irritations. - -
10th irritations. .

Trritation without

polarization.

2950 cent.....- 2s
2950 cent...... 2.
2950 cent....-.- 3.
2950 cent...... 3.
2950 cent...... 2.
2950 cent.....- 2.
2790 cent.....- 4,
2790 cent.....-. 5.
27D /Centee- =. 3.
2875 cent...--- 3.
2870 Cent... -- 1,
2875 cent.-.-.-.-- 0.
2730 cent...... 2.5
2730 cent...... 4.
2730 cent...... 3.
2730 cent. ....-. 3.
2730 cent....:. Ax
2730 cent.....- 33
2730 cent. ....- 1.
2600 cent...--- 5.
2700 cent.....- 3.
2700 cent....-.- 3.
2700 cent. -...- PAH
2700 cent...... 2.5
2700 cent...... 265
2700 cent...... 225
2700 cent...... 2.5
2700 cent...-.-.- 4,
2700 cent...... 2.5
2700 cent...... 2.
2700 cent...... 3.

Trritation, 1 cell, rheo-

chord:
2295 cent...... 3.
2401 cent.....- 2.
2401 cent...... 3.
2401 cent...... 3.
2675 cent...... 2.
2675 cent...... 3.
2781 cent...... 1.
2781 cent...... 0.5
2458 cent...... 2.
2901 cent.....- 0.

Irritation, 1 cell, rheo-

chord:
2675 cent.....- 2.
2675 cent...... 1.
2675 cent...... 0.
223 cent.....- 2.
223 cent.....- 2.5
223 cent.....- 3.

Irritation, 1 cell, rheo-

chord:
2781 cent...... 3.
2901 cent.....- 3.
2901 cent...... 2.5
2901 cent.....- 2.
2901 cent...... Se
2901 cent.....- 2.

Irritation, 1 cell, rheo-

chord:
2955 cent.....- z
3025 cent.....- 3.
3150 cent...... 0.
3197 cent...... 2.
3197 cent....-- 2.
3198 cent.-...- 1.5
3198 cent.....- ie
3198 cent... -- 0.5
3198 cent....-- 0.5
3189 cent.....- 0.5

Lrritation during

polarization.

30 cent... ..... 4.
30) Centaa5. ce 2.
380) cenb:- 2 ...42 4
30 cent... ..- 3
30) centieseeade 3.
30 cent. .....-. 2
30'cent. =... 32 5
B0CentL eee 5
30'cent... 2-5: 3.
30 cent......- 3.
30cent.co scons 3.
380 cente sees. se 3
30 cent........ 5.
30 cent..-..... 5,
30 cent........ 5.
30 cent........ 5.
30 cent:/.-22 2 4.5
SO Cent wees: 5.
60 'cent: -..--4: 5.
50 cent........ 15
50 cent......-- 5
50 cent........ 3.
S0/centi--- see 3.5
50'cent....- ce 3.
50/centia. te .26 3.
50 cent........ 4.
50 cent.....--. 3.
50 cent......-- 5,
50 cent.....-.-- 3
50 cent........ 2.5
50 cent........ 4.5

Polarization, 4 cells,
rheochord :

30 cent........ 3.
B0CeNt Es sees 2.
30 cent. -...<-: By
10icenb- —-mue- 20s
10 cent......-- 2.5
10 ‘cent... ==. 5
LO/cente eect: 1:5
10 cent....... 0.5
10 cent.-....... 3.
30 cent........ 1m

Polarization, 4 cells,
rheochord :

B0iCentesoecises ae
1Ovcent = -cn-cen.
10 cent. ....... 2.
1Oicenh= =~ see 2.
40 cent..-...-. RR
40 cent........ 3.

Polarization, 4 cells,
rheochord :

49 cent......-- 4.
49 cent......-- 4,
1Ofcentisea- set 4.
NOVCen bos cece 4
Loicent=25--2/- 3
10 cent.......- 3.

Polarization, 4 cells,
rheochord:

38 cent. ....... 4,
20 cent. . I
20 cent........ 0.
1G centieeeace= 3.
45 cent......-- 3
10 cent... ...-: 2
AO centaa-c-e8 2
80 cent........ 1.5
30 cent. .....=- 0.5

30 cent...-....1.

a =

Remarks.

Rana temporaria,

Rana temporaria.

Rana temporaria.

Rana temporaria,

391

Out of the preceding forty-five experiments twenty usually gave ade-
creased excitability of the nerve to the side of the anode of the constant
current. In three experiments (89, 107, and 124) no effect was pro-
duced by the polarization. In one experiment (115) in the beginning an
increased excitability was produced to the copper side of the constant
current, and in another the result was inconstant. In twenty experi-
ments, however, the irritating current usually or always produced an
increased excitability of the nerve in the anelectrotonus portion of the
nerve; 7. ¢., an effect directly opposite to that demanded by Piliiger’s
theory.

In the following experiments the opening instead of the closing of the
irritating current is recorded :

EFFECT OF IRRITATION OF A POLARIZED NERVE.

Trritation without

Number of ex-
i polarization.

: Trritation during
periment.

polarization. Remarks.

Time.

132.
Trritation, 2 cells:

Rana temporaria.
1st irritations. --

Polarization, 4 cells -
0.

2.
2d irritations. ... 0.5 0.
3d irritations. --. 0.5 0.
4th irritations. -- 0.5 0.
5th irritations. - - 0.5 0.
133. :
Treitstion, 1cell, rheo- | Polarization, 2 colls: | Rana temporaria.
chord:
1st irritations. -- 2500 cent.....- ik 0.
2d irritations. ... 2100 cent..... ale 0.
3d irritations. ... 2100 cent. - a
4th irritations. . . 2728 cent.. 5 1.
5th irritations. -- 2728 cent-.. 5 0.
6th irritations. -. 1308 cent.. -5 1
7th irritations. .. 1000 cent.....- 1 0.
134. F
ae teton, lcell, rheo- | Polarization, 4 cells: | Rana temporaria,
chord:
1st irritations. -. 3100 cent.....- 1. 0.
2d irritations. -.-. 3100 cent...... 1. 3.
3d irritations. --. 3100 cent...... 0. 3.
4th irritations. -. 3100 cent.-.. -0. 3.
135.
Trritation; 1cell, rheo- | Polarization, 4 cells: | Rana temporaria,
chord:
1st irritations. -. 3100 cent.....- 2. ub
2d irritations. -.- 3100 cent...... 0.5 ib
3d irritations. --. 3100 cent.....- 2. a
4th irritations. -. 3100 cent...... 13 1.
5th irritations. -- 3100 cent.-.... 1h 1.
6th irritations. -. 3000 cent....-. 1. 1.
7th irritations... 3000 cent.....- ite 1.
8th irritations. -. 3000 cent...... 1 1.
136. i
| Irritation, 1 cell: Polarization, 4 cells: | Rana temporaria,
1st irritations. -. 0. 2.
2d irritations. --. 0. 1.5
3d irritations. --. 0. 1.5
137. ges
Trritation, 1 cell: Polarization, 4 cells: | Rana temporaria,
1st irritations. -. 0. 2.
2d irritations... . 0.5 VA
3d irritations. -.. 0.5 1.
4th irritations... 0.5 L

392 EFFECT OF IRRITATION OF A POLARIZED NERVE.

. Number of ex- Trritation without Irritation during
rime periment. polarization. polarization. Fs Remarks,
h.m.
138.

Trritation, 1 cell: Polarization, 4 cells: | Rana temporaria.
12 30 | 1st irritations. -. 0.

45 | 2dirritations.... 1

46 | 3d irritations. ... ik

48 | 4thirritations. -- 1.

54 | 5thirritations. -- 0.

59 | 6thirritations-.. 1
117 | 7thirritations... a

139.

o
essessss

Irritation, 1 cell: Polarization, 4 cells: | Rana temporaria.
3 09 | 1st irritations.

; ail
10 | 2dirritations.... Ae 0
12 | 3dirritations.... 05 0.
14 | 4thirritations... 0.5 e 0
16 | 5thirritations... 0.5 0
19 | 6thirritations... 0.5 0
140.
Trritation, 1 cell: Polarization, 4 cells: | Rana esculenta.
4 56 | 1st irritations. -- ab 0.
57 | 2dirritations.... ib 0.
58 | 3dirritations.... il 0.
59 | 4th irritations. -. 1s 0.
5 03 | 5thirritations.-.. ik 0.
05 | 6thirritations -- 1. 0.
06 | Tthirritations. -- ib 0.
09 | 8thirritations... ik 0.
14 | 9thirritations. .. 1.5 0.5
18 | 10th irritations. . ib; ak
141. i
Irritation, 1 cell: Polarization, 4 cells: | Rana temporaria.
1st irritations... 1s 15
2d irritations. ... 2. 4,
3d irritations. ... 3. 3.
4th irritations. .. 1.5 1.5
142.
Irritation, 1 cell: Polarization, 4 cells: | Rana temporaria.
1 00 | 1st irritations... A; 0.5
05 | 2dirritations.... 1, 0.5
10 | 3dirritations.... 1. 0. |
143. ‘ .
Irritation, 1 cell: Polarization, 4 cells: | Rana temporaria,
1 20 | 1st irritations... ib 0.
24 | 2dirritations.... 1. 0.
27 | 3dirritations.... ib 0.
144. ‘
Irritation, 1 cell: Polarization, 4 cells: | Rana temporaria,
1 32 | 1st irritations... 0.5 0.
36 | 2d irritations. -... 0.5 0.
39 | 3dirritations.... 0.5 0.
45 | 4thirritations. -- i 0.
46 | 5thirritations. .- ik 0.
50 | 6thirritations. -. 1. 0.
2 05 | 7thirritations. .. 7 0.

15 | 8thirritations -.

145.
ees 1 cell, rheo- | Polarization, 4 cells: | Rana esculenta,
chord:
11 32 | 1st irritations... 2781 cent.....- 15 0.5
40 | 2d irritations.... 223 cent...... aD 0.5
43 | 3dirritations.... 223 cent...---1.5 0.5
146. ‘
spat eee 1 cell, rheo- | Polarization, 1 cell: Rana temporaria,
chord:
11 48 | 1st irritations. -. 2955°cent-o.-—- ib, 5.
50 | 2d irritations. -... 2955 cent... 5.
54 | 3dirritations.... 2955 cent 4,

EFFECT OF IRRITATION OF A POLARIZED NERVE.

393

Number of ex-
periment.

4th irritations. ..
5th irritations. -.
6th irritations. - -
7thirritations --

147.

1st irritations. --
2d irritations. ...
3d irritations. .-.
4th irritations. ..
5th irritations. --
6th irritations. --
7th irritations. - -
8th irritations. -.
9thirritations. - -
10th irritations. --

148.

1st irritations. -.
2d irritations. --.
3d irritations. --.
4th irritations. -
5th irritations. .-
6th irritations. --
7th irritations. -
8th irritations. --
9th irritations. --
10th irritations. -
11th irritations. .
12th irritations. -
13th irritations. -
14th irritations. -

149.

1st irritations. -.
2d irritations. -..

150.

1st irritations. -.
2d irritations. --.
3d irritations. ...
4th irritations. --
5th irritations...
6th irritations.
Tthirritations -.
8thirritations -.
9th irritations. -.

151.

1st irritations. -.
2d irritations. .
3d irritations. -
4th irritations.

152.

n. A G4
Gaenett

1st irritations. --
2d irritations. -..
3d irritations. -.-
4th irritations...
5th irritations...
6th irritations. -.
7th irritations. --
8th irritations. --
9th irritations. - -
10th irritations. .
11th irritations. .

Irritation without

polarization.
2955 cent.....- 0.5
2400 cent.....- 0.5
2720 cent. ....- 3.
2720 cent.....- 3.
Irritation, 1 cell, rheo-
chord:
2700 cent.....- 1.
223 cent.-....- 4.
2700 cent...... il,
2700 cent...... its
2700 cent.....- Me
2700 cent.....- iL.
2700 cent..-... al
2700 cent. --..- 1.
2700 cent...... IS
2700 cent...... ih

Trritation, 1 cell, rheo-

chord:

3170 cent..--.-- 0.
3199 cent.....- 0.
3199 cent...... 0.

223 cent.-...- 4,
3199 cent...... 0.
3199 cent...-..- 0.
3199 cent...-.-0.
3199 cent.....- 0.
3199 cent....-.- 0.

220 Cent... .- 4,
3199 cent....-- 0.
3199 cent.....- 0.
3199 cent.....-. 0.

223 cent.....- 3.

Irritation, 1 cell, rheo-

chord:
3198 cent.....- 3.
3198 cent...... 2.

Trritation, 1 cell, rheo-

chord:

3198 cent...... 0.
3198 cent.....-. 0.
3198 cent.....-. 0.
3177 cent ....- 0.

223'cenb.-...- 4.
SLWgcentesease 0.
3169 cent.....-. 0.
3169 cent. ....- 0.
2510 cent. ....- 0.

Irritation, 1 cell, rheo-

chord:
1070 cent....-- 3.
1070 cent....--1.
1360 cent.....- 0.5
1360 cent.....- 0.5

Trritation, 1 cell, rheo-

chord:
3000 cent....-- 3.
3000 cent...... 4.
3000 cent....-.- 3.
3058 cent.....- 0.
3058icent=s-.5- 0.
2950 cent.....- 2.
2950 cent.....- 2.
2950 cent. ..... 0.
2950 cent...... 0.5
2950 cent...... 0.
2950 cent....-. 0.

Irritation during
polarization.

Polarization, 1 cell:

Polarization, 1 cell:

BOO 162 /nF EE bE A HP hm

Polarization, 4 cells:

0.
0.

Polarization, 1 cell:

Polarization, 3 cells:

escr
ono

Polarization, 3 cells:

em Cro oi

SeSesesseFrrs

PSD NP ee oo pt

ou

oo

Remarks.

Rana temporaria,

Rana temporaria,

Rana temporaria,

Rana temporaris.

Rana temporaria,

Rana temporaria,

394 EFFECT OF IRRITATION OF A POLARIZED NERVE.

Number of ex- Irritation without Irritation during

Time. periment. polarization. polarization. Remarks.
h. m.
153.
eatin 1 cell, rheo- | Polarization, 1 cell: Rana temporaria.
chord:
10 52 | 1st irritations. -- 3000 cent. -....- 0. it
56 | 2dirritations.-.. 3000 cent....-- 0. ub
57 | 3dizritations.-... 8000 cent....-- 0. 2.
154.
In atettion, 1 cell, rheo- | Polarization, 1 cell: Rana temporaria.
chord:
11 06 | 1st irritations -- 3000 cent...... 0. ue
13 | 2dirritations.... 3000 cent...... 0. ib
18 | 3dirritations.... 3000 cent...... 0. 0.5
155.
be Sad 1 cell, rheo- | Polarization, 1 cell: Rana temporaria.
chord:
1 57 | Istirrttations. .. 3198 cent......0. ie
59 | 2dirritations.-... 3179 cent......0. I:
2 07 | 3dirritations.... 3179 cent.....-. 0. 2.
10 | 4th irritations. .. 3000 cent....-. 0. 4,
12 | 5th irritations. .. 3000 cent-...--. i 0. | Polarization, 4 cells.
20 | 6th irritations. -. 3000 cent.-.... 0. 4, Polarization, 1 cell.
25 | 7thirritations. -. 1160 cent.....- 0. iL
26 | 8thirritations. -- 541 cent...... 0. af
27 | 9thirritations. . 341 cent...... 0. ab
28 | 10th irritations... 3000 cent......0. 3.
32 | 11thirritations- - 3000 cent.....-. 0. 3.
34 | 12th irritations... 3000 cent.....- 0. 1.
38 | 13th irritations. - 2781 cent.....- 0. 0.5
2 | 14th irritations. . 2690 cent.....-. iL, 0.
47 | 15th irritations. - 2690 cent...... a 0.5
156.
Trritation, 1 cell, rheo- | Polarization, 1 cell, | Rana temporaria,
chord: rheochord:
9 12 | 1stirritations -.-. 3196 cent. ..... 0. A\CONti scan cnees
15 | 2dirritations. .-.. 3196 cent...... 0. 4° centcccocteee 3
18 | 3dirritations.... 3058 cent.....- 0.5 4 cent: nce see 5.
22 | 4th irritations. .-. 3058 cent...... 0.5 4centsoccc-eee 5s
30 | 5thirritations. -- 3058 cent...... 0.5 4 cent... .s2ck? 5.
157. :
Trritation, 1 cell, rheo- | Polarization, 1 cell, | Rana esculenta.
chord: rheochord:
2 00 | Istirritations - .. 2900 cent...... 0. 1Sicent-nsesse = 0.5
06 | 2dirritations. ... 2900 cent.....-. 0.5 18 cents... 2.
11 | 3dirritations.... 2900 cent...... 0.5 18 cent........ il
15 | 4th irritations. .. 2900 cent...... 0.5 18cent-- meee ie
158. .
Irritation, 1 cell, rheo- | Polarization, 2 cells, | Rana temporaria.
chord: rheochord:
2 28 | Istirritations. .. 3050 cent...... 0.5 AD Cenb. oman 0.5
30 | 2d irritations... 3050 cent....-.0.5 AACEMG ssc see 0.5
32 | 3dirritations.... 2900 cent.....- as 12 cent........ 1.
34 | 4thirritations... 2900 cent...... 0.5 SOlEeNb coe sees 3.
35 | 5th irritations... 2900 cent...... 0.5 30) cent. ..022.. i
* 38 | 6th irritations. -- 2675 cent...... 0. 30 cent... 22... ik
41 | 7thirritations. .. 2675 cent.....- 0. SOIGENT. = eseee 0.5
44 | 8thirritations. -- 2675 cent...... 0. 10 cent.......3.3.
159.
Trritation, 1 cell, rheo- | Polarization, 2 cells, | Rana temporaria.
chord: rheochord:
8 51 | 1st irritations -.-. 3130 cent...... 0. 20 cent...... =. 1.
52 | 2d irritations... 3130 cent....-..0. QO0IGENG ee -cens 0.5
55 | 3d irritations. --. 3196 cent....-.0. 10 cent..... (areal
57 | 4th irritations. -- 3196 cent...... 0. 45\ cent. .- ssn ue

Out of these last twenty-eight experiments, in but eleven was the
irritation less effective in producing muscular contractions during the
presence of the constant current than when the irritating current alone was

395

applied to the nerve; of the remaining experiments, in fourteen the op-
posite result was obtained, though the manner of experimenting was
the same as adopted in the other experiments.

In the following experiments the nerves were irritated in their normal
position, without having previously been injured. As in similar experi-
ments, before described, made with the descending polarizing current,
the non-polarizable electrodes had to be substituted by copper electrodes.
These were covered with wax, except at the point where they touched

EFFECT OF IRRITATION OF A POLARIZED NERVE,

the nerve. With this exception the apparatus was unchanged. In this
series of experiments the irritation was made by the closing of a gal-
vanie circuit. .
- Number of ex- Irritation without Irritation durin
Time. periment. polarization. polarization. “ Remarks.
h.m.
160.
Irritation, 1 cell, rheo- | Polarization, 2 cells, | Rana esculenta,
chord: rheochord:

1st irritations... 2675 cent.-..--- 0.5 521 Cente aos sc) 0.5

2d irritations --.- 1847 cent.....- At 50 cents <n 2.

3d irritations -.- 1847 cent...-.. 1. 10 cent. ....--. 1.

4th irritations. -- 2016 cent-.-..--- i 52 €enthassn--)s al

oth irritations. -. 2016 cent..-.--- 1, 52\cenb: ssess 1 1.

6th irritations... 2070 cent...-.. ik 10igenb:-.-s5-.'- 0.5

7th irritations... 2600 cent.....-. 0.5 10 Cente oem ot 0.5

8th irritations. -- 2728 cent....-. 0.5 LCicenta--s--—- 0.

9th irritations... 2618 cent..-... 0.5 LOlcente cee 0.5

10th irritations. - 2618 cent.-...-- 0.5 55 cent...-.--- 1.5

161.
Trritation, 1 cell, rheo- | Polarization, 2 cells, | Rana temporaria,
chord: rheochord:
1st irritations - -- 890 cent..---- is 48) Genb!.-22 =: 0.5
2d irritations --.. 890 cent....-. 1. Di centea-as-ee ale
3d irritations -.. 890 cent...... 0.5 12 cent: =... 2.
4th irritations... 890 cent.----. 0. 49 cent........ 2
5th irritations. -- 890 cent.--.--. 0. PL Centicceeaet 2
6th irritations. .. 890 cent .....- 0. 10 cent.......- 2

7th irritations. -.
8th irritations. -.

162.

890 cent.--..-..0.
890 cent....-..1.

Trritation, 1 cell, rheo-

49 cent. ace Zee 5

Polarization, 2 cells,

chord: rheochord:
ist irritations. .. 1500 cent.....-. 0.5 LOcenticesscs- ik
2d irritations - -- 1800 cent...--. 0.5 bel cent. ses85 als
3d irritations ... 1800 cent.-.-.--- 0. 50 cent........ 0.5
a

163.

Irritation, 1 cell, rheo-

Polarization, 2 cells,

: chord: rheochord:
1st irritations. -. 3000 cent...... 0. 25 cent: =. stie=- 0.5
2d irritations --.- 3000 cent...--.- 4. 25 Conta s.cseee 5.
3d irritations . -. 3000 cent.....-. 2. 25 CON’. -sacer 2
4th irritations. -- 1739 cent...... 2. 50 Geng. -222.ce 2.
5th irritations. - - 1739 cent.....-. 2. 60cent. .-2./<6 2
6th irritations. -- 1739 cent..---- 2. 1Oicentl=... cee 2.
7th irritations. .. 393 cent.....- 2. 40 cent.-...--.- 4,
164,

Irritation, 1 cell, rheo-

Polarization, 2 cells,

chord: rheochord:
1st irritations. -. 2500 cent...... 2. 52icent.. sswea- 3.
2d irritations --.- 2500 cent...... 2. 62!centi. eae 4
3d irritations --- 2500;cent.<- <= 2. 12Zicent.cassee~ 2.
4th irritations. -. 2100 cent...... 0.5 52/cent.-- 2-2. 15

165.

Irritation, 1 cell, rheo-

Polarization, 2 cells,

chord: rheochord:
1st irritations. -. 1950 cent...... 2. 57 Cont. oacectes 2
2d irritations ... 1950 cent...... L5 S57 cent. <... ae 15

Rana temporaria,

Rana temporaria.

Rana temporaria.

Rana, temporaria.

396

EFFECT OF IRRITATION OF -.A-POLARIZED. NERVE.

Number of ex-

Irritation without

Irritation during

Time. periment. polarization. polarization. Remarks.
h. m.
3d irritations -.. 2675 cent.-.... 0.2 57 cent: 2.25... 0.3
4th irritations. -- 2400 cent.....- 2. Hii cenbzess44.5 2
5th irritations. - - 2400 cent...... ik 67 Cent...ssee~ 0.5
6th irritations. -. 2300 cent...... 1. 57cent.. 224... 0.5 |
7th irritations. - - 2300 cent......0. 57 conte. ces: 0.5
8th irritations. - - 2300 cent...... nl 57 cent..... ait /
{
166. ; ;
Irritation, 1 cell, rheo- | Polarization, 2 cells, | Rana temporaria.
chord: rheochord: |
1st ivritations. -- 1526 cent...... 0.5 58 cent... 5.222 if
. | 2d irritations ..- 490 cent...... 2. 58:cent-. 225). 4. |
3d irritations --.. 490 cent...... 0.5 08) Cente eeeeee 0.5
4th irritations. .. 1526 cent.....- 0.5 DS cente = ee ib
5th irritations. .. 1526 cent...... 0.5 DSiCenbenaseeee 1, |
167.
Irritation, 1 cell, rheo- | Polarization, 2 cells, | Rana esculenta.
chord: rheochord:
1st irritations. - . 1725 cent...... 0.5 (6icent:---seee 0.5
2d irritations -.. 1725 cent.....- 0.5 16 cent........ 0.5 )
8d irritations -.. 1725 cent...... 0.5 16icents =. 255-6 0.5
4th irritations. -. 1725 cent...... 0.5 16: cent... sue: 0.5
5th irritations. -. 1725 cent ... .0.5 16 cent. .
6th irritations. - - i725 cent. . sae 0.5 16 cent..
7th irritations. .. 1725 cent...-.- 0.5 16 cent.......
8th irritations. -. 1725 cent.....- 0.5 16 ‘cent: ... 322.4 0.5
9th irritations. -. 1725 cent...... 0.5 16 cent... <.4..0:\5
168.
Trritation, 1 cell, rheo- | Polarization, 2 cells, | Rana temporaria.
chord: rheochord:
1st irritations. -. 2400 cent...... 1. 58 cent. .....-. 2.
2d irritations -.. 2850 cent...... 0. 58 cent.......- 0.5
3d irritations -.. 2850 cent...... 0. 2 20.cent 2.2.2. 0.5
4th irritations. -. 2850 cent. ..... 0.5 10lcentsea-2-ee 1.
5th irritations... 2725icent:... sas 0.5 10 cent... hese ip
6th irritations. .. 2675icent..- 25 0. 10 cent. ....2.: 15
7th irritations. -. 2675 cent...... 0. 10rcent.. 5. hese 1
8th irritations. -. 26/8 cent...... 0. O08. Cena. -cherats 2,
9th irritations. -. 2618 cent...... 0. 58 cent......... 2.
10th irritations. - 2618 cent....-.. 0. 58 cent.....22. 1.5

In the following experiments the irritation produced by the opening
of an electric circuit is recorded:

5 ca

Number of ex- Irritation without Irritation during

Eine. periment. polarization. polarization. Remarks.
169.
Lrritation, 1 cell, rheo- | Polarization, 2 cells, | Rana temporaria.
h. m. chord: rheochord:

1st irritations -.. 2675 cent......1. 10seent.- ne 2

2d irritations. -.. 2675 cent...... 2. 10) cent... 225: 2

3d irritations. ... 2675 cent...... 105 10 cent........ 0.5

4th irritations. .. 2675 cent.....: 0. 10 cent........ 0.5

5th irritations. -- 2675 cent...... 0. 10icéent..... see 0.5

6th irritations. -. 2675 cent...... 0. 58 cent......2.

7th irritations -- 2675:cent-asces 0. 58 cent... \.

8th irritations. -. 2675 cent.....- 0. 58 cent........ 2.

170.
Irritation, 1 cell, rheo-| Polarization, 2 cells, ) Rana esculenta.
chord rheochord:

1st irritations... 2495 Cent,,..=ni<5 HS 50 cent: .. /t2 3.

2d irritations. ... 2728 cent....-: 2. 50 cent........: 2.

3d irritations. -.. 2728 cent.....- 2. LOlcenbs...seees

4th irritations. -- 2728 cent.....- 3. 10 cent. .- 22. 3.

5th irritations. . . 2728 cent.....- 0.5 10'cent:.....--.- 2.

6th irritations. - - 2728 cent..-=-- us 10 cent... -2...2 2.

7th irritations -. 2728 cent...... 0.2 10 cent........0:5

8th irritations... 2728 cent...... 0. 10 cent........0.2

EFFECT OF IRRITATION OF A POLARIZED NERVE,

397

Time.

h. m.

Number of ex-
periment.

171.

1st irritations...
2d irritations....
3d irritations...
4th irritations. --
5th irritations. ..

172.

1st irritations...
2d irritations....
3d irritations. --.
4th irrita.ions. --
5th irritations...

173.

1st irritations. -.
2d irritations. ...
3d irritations. ...

174.

1st irritations. --
2d irritations. .--
3d irritations. -..
4th irritations. -.
5th irritations. --
6th irritations. -.
7th irritations. -.
8th irritations. - -
9th irritations. --
10th irritations. -
11th irritations. .
12th irritations. -
13th irritations. -
14th irritations. .-
15th irritations. -

175.

1st irritations. -.
2d irritations. ...
3d irritations. ...
4th irritations. --
5th irritations. --
6th irritations. -
7th irritations. --
8th irritations. ..
9th irritations. ..

176.

1st irritations...
2d irritations....
3d irritations....
4th irritations...
5th irritations. -.
6th irritations. .-.
7th irritations. ..

177.

1st irritations. --
2d irritations. ...
3d irritations....

Irritation without
polarization.

Irritation, 1 cell, rheo-

chord:
488 cent...-....-2.
488 cent.......0.
1525 cent......: 2.
1625 cent... ...\<2 2.
1525 cent. ...... 2.5

Irritation, 1 cell, rheo-

chord:
2o0u0 cent.-.... 2.
2600 cent..-.-.. 2.
2600 cent.----- 2.
2600 cent..-...- 1:5
2600 cent...... 1

Irritation, 1 cell, rheo-

chord:
1645 cent.--..- 0.5
1645 cent.-.-...- 0.5
1645 cent..-..-- 0.5

Irritation, 1 cell, rheo-

chord:
2605 cent.....- 0.5
2605 cent...... 0.5
2605 cent...--- 0.5
2605 cent...-.- 0.5
2605 cent.-.--- 0.5
1825 cent.....- 1.
1825 cent.-.... ls
1825 cent.....- ue
1825 cent...... 12
1825 cent.-..-.- ib
1825 cent...--- 0.5
1825 cent...--- 0.5
V825icent. 24-25 0.5
1825) cent: ssa 0.5
1825 cent.-...- 0.5

Trritation, 1 cell, rheo- | Polarization, 2 cells,

Irritation during
polarization.

Polarization, 2 cells, | Rana temporaria,

rheochord:
55 cent...<<=--4
DD Cilia sisiswa(e 3.

DD CeNte acdsee os
Ha CeNtasoeeetoe
65 cent....s-.2 3.

Polarization, 2 cells,
rheochord:
93' cent..ccae- os
23 Cent... )asiae

Rana temporaria,

23 Cent.<.2-ce 25
23 cent. caer sae
23\cent.....2- 2.

Polarization, 2 cells, | Rana temporaria.

rheochord:
58 cent....5...0:5
58'cent.....223 0.5
58'cent..c...-. 0.5

Polarization, 2 cells, | Rana temporaria.
rheochord:
bo\cent-~2.-4-- le
52); Celiboee--- si 1
52, cent... ..--)--1.
50 cent...--... 1.5
B0CONUseE =o = 5)
50 cent...---.- ra:
50:cent-.-.-- 2:1.
DOLCON De ass == 2.
50 cent-....... 2:
50'cent.---.<-. 2.
50lcents2tio- sas 1,
50icentis=—---- 1
50.cent. <t2s< 25 1
50'cent------.- 1
55 cent....-..: 1.5

Rana esculenta,

chord: rheochord:
1526 cent-..... 0. 45'cents---+---1.
1526 cent...... 0. 45 cent.......-. 3:
1526 cent:..... 0. 45'Centeecesa--0-
1526 cent...... 0. 45) COHb cs awcian:- 2.
1526 cent--..-- 0. A5'CONUsces<0 ~~ 2.
1526 cent.....- 0. 45:centicess. = 0.5
1526 cent...... 0. 45 cent-.2-..--0:09
1526 cent.....- 0. 45 CONE-4 cece om 0.5
1000 cent...... fs 45 cent........ 3 Lt33

Irritation, 1 cell, rheo-

chord:
900 cent....... 0.5
900 cent......-1.
900) cents. --=.- 1s
900 cent.....-- ib
900 cent...-.-- 0.5
900 cent. ......2.
900 cent....... 2.

Trritation, 1 cell, rheo-

chord:
223 centic. cdee cleo
223 Cente. cess= 0.5
1675 cent.......1.

Polarization, 2 cells, | Rana temporaria.

rheochord:
40 cent....--.. 1.5
40\cent. (2S
40 cent........1.
40 cent .co scene 08
40 cent.......-2.
40 cent........ 2.
40 cent........ 3.

Polarization, 2 cells, | Rana esculenta
rheochord:

JO centys- sceos -8.

10"cent=-..-<--

10 cent........ i

Remarks.

398

Number of ex-

Irritation without

Krritation during

EFFECT OF IRRITATION OF A POLARIZED NERVE.

Time. periment. polarization. polarization. Remarks.
h. m. 178. ‘
Irritation, 1 cell, rheo- | Polarization, 2 cells, | Rana temporaria.
chord: rheochord:
1st irritations. -- 1500 cent...--- 5. 58 cent_.....--5.
2d irritations. -.. 1500 cent...... 4. 68icentlsae-eee 4.
3d irritations... 1500 cent.---.- 4. 68: cents so.ces 4.
4th irritations. -- 2350 cent...... 0.5 40 cent... 22.22 ii:
5th irritations. -. 2350 cent...... 14 45\cent..- 25-2 205
6th irritations. -. 2000 cent.....- 2. 45:cent.-...00% 3.
179.
Irritation, 1 cell, rheo- | Polarization, 2 cells, | Rana temporaria.
chord: rheochord:
1st irritations. .-. 3003 cent...... 4. 25.Cenblissosee I
2d irritations. ... 3003 cent...... 2. 20 CONb-e Joneses ds
3d irritations. -... 3003 cent...... io 25;cent. 5.556515.
4th irritations. -. 3003 cent... 2 47 cent-. aioe
5th irritations. - - 3003 cent......0. 52 cent. - HA:
6th irritations. -- 3003 cent--..-.- 0. 10 cent... .-....3.5
7th irritations. - 3003 cent......0. 10 cent.....-.. ¥
8th irritations. -. 3006 cent......0. 55 icents- aces ot 2.5
9th irritations. - - 3006 cent.....- 0.5 Sdicent.ss2ueL 22:
10th irritations. - 3006 cent...-..0.5 10 cent.2. SD
11th irritations. - 2700 cent.-.-.- te 55 cent----<... 3.

Of this last series of twenty experiments not one could be used as an
illustration of Pfliiger’s theory, and almost all of them gave results di-
rectly opposite to what is demanded by this theory. In fifteen of the
experiments the polarizing current usually produced an increased exci-
tability of the nerves.

Thus far one hundred and seventy-eight new experiments have been
recorded in this paper, in but seventy-two of which was the theory of
Pfliiger confirmed. This result convinced me that this theory could not
be true except in a modified state. For, if true, how will the directly
opposite results obtained in over one-half my experiments be explained.
Yet, as in so many of my experiments an increased excitability was found
in the katelectrotonic portion of the nerve, or a decreased excitability
in the anelectrotonic portion, I could not but believe that a grain of
truth was mingled with the peck of chaff which has been given us as
orthodox truth in the books of physiology under the name of “ Pfliiger’s
Laws of Electrotonus.” The “grain of truth” consisted in the fact
that this condition sometimes did occur, and it was therefore necessary
to determine why it is not always present.

On looking more carefully over my experiments it occurred to me that
the effect of irritating a polarized nerve is influenced by the strength of the
polarizing and irritating currents. The experiments of Budge*, Munkt,
and Schiff and Herzent have already shown that the strengths of the cur-
rents did in some way influence the effect of the polarization on the
excitability of the nerve, but no one has thought of using this fact to
explain the varying results obtained by irritating a polarized nerve.

For illustrations of this fact as respects the strengths of the polarizing
currents vide experiments 9 (irritations 2, 3, and 4), 11, 26 (invitations
27 to 32), 28 (irritations 18 to 30), 46 (irritations 3 and 4), 52 (irritations
1 and 2), 53 (irritations 1 to 5), 58, 118, 121, 160, &e.

*Loc. cit. tLoce. cit. tLoe. cit. -

EFFECT OF IRRITATION OF A POLARIZED NERVE. 399

In illustration of the fact that the strength of the irritating current
influences the effect of the polarizing current on the excitability of nerves
vide experiments 12, 13, 14, 16, 22, 26, 28, 43, 127, &e.

May not the extent of muscular contractions produced by the irrita-
tion of a polarized nerve be largely due to the proportion between the
strengths of the two currents ?

In the first experiments made in answer to this question the irritations
were made by means of an induction apparatus, the non-polarizable
electrodes being, however, still adhered to. The polarizing current,
whose strength was never changed, was produced by a single Leclanche
cell. In these experiments I found that when the strength of irritation
produced a minimal contraction—no weight being attached to the myo-
graph—both the ascending and descending polarizing current produced
an increased irritability of the nerve to the side of the anode as well as
to the side of the kathode. With a somewhat stronger induction ecur-
rent, or, what amounted to the same thing, by attaching a weight to the
myograph, and then observing the minimal contractions, the results of
Pflitiger were obtained; that the polarizing current produced an in-
creased excitability of the nerve to the side of the kathode and a decreased
excitability to the side of the anode. By still further increasing the
strength of the irritation the results of Eckhard were obtained—a de-
creased excitability of the nerve to the side of the kathode as well as to
the side of the anode.

Illustrative -experiments.

Trritation
alone.
Se = . . . .
Number of experiment. | ° |; & Irritation caning polariza- ERemarks.
aa| 3 ne
we] 3s
aH Bc}
eS] &
n ‘s)
cent. | mm mm.
180.

Descending polarization: Rana ésculenta.
1st irritations............ 24, OB tate oinin ais rmin ein tiastaeer ane alate ete In these experiments 0. cent
2dirritations=-..ie- cs -1s Pale \srosos Contraction. -.-..-.. 13.5 represents the strongest pos-
sauirritationss--2 +e se eee- 24, 6.4 Contraction. ....... 13.5 sible irritation.
4th irritations. ...-..2<... 24. 14. Contraction........ LT 30 minutes later.
5th irritations....-........ 24, 9. Contraction. ....... 14,

181.

Ascending polarization : Rana esculenta.
1st irritations ...... Si) wBE 10. Contraction. .......138.
2dirritations...... wal) 13s 11.9 Contraction
3d irritations...- 14, 10.1 Contraction
4th irritations. -.... won| 45 ws Contraction
5th irritations............ 14.5] 0. Contraction. .
6th irritations: -...2....-. 15. 0. Contraction
itharmtations...........- 15. 0. Contraction
S8thirritations:2soc..<.-.< 9; 9.5 Contraction
Sth irritations............ 9 9.1 Contraction
10th irritations... ......... 0. 5.5 Contraction

182,

Ascending polarization : Rana esculenta.
Istirritations............ 8. Oca pear weiner ae e'ceiaees cute cacaece
ZAUTTILatIONS. oe se eee cee 8. setts Contraction... ...... 8.6

3dirritations...... aes 6. OiGalSosccoseecies scence Ccacceavce ee

400 EFFECT OF IRRITATION OF A POLARIZED NERVE.

. Illustrative experiments—Continued.

Trritation
alone.
J
ey 5 . . . .
Number of experiment. | ©; | 3 | Tmtation during polariza- Remarks,
2e/
= z
AH ~~
eS | 8
R 6)
cent.| mm. mm.
4th irritations.........-.- 6: GES et: Contraction.-...... 10.
5th irritations...........- 6. Qe teem e aco mac ciciacleivineim smear
183. J ‘ ,
Descending polarization: Last preparation again used.
A SCAITTILAtIONG . = iim \ces= = 6. Be Nha ge Oe Ne leh a ne re re hajeiaiemiorens
2d irritations. --../. 2.2. 6. 4, Contraction.---.-.. 5.9
Sau rribablons? seems t= = Gs adlece sen Contraction........ 5.9
4thirritations.........-.- 6. GaBN tS sacs ee ie ero se sete ames
bthirritations.~--c+..-se< Be alee e Contraction........ val
184. 4
Ascending polarization: Rana esculenta.
Ist irritations .........-.- TBE GHAI eee Eee teacsecsotants 10 grammes weight attached.
DOITTIbAONS ee ee case ae ns seal Peg Contraction........ 6.2
BOUL bAMONS ee ome Se = soe S55 62s fame cet ennest-ciadgonuyeceieee
4th irritations............ Stal eee Contraction........ 6.1
Sthirritations.<.22....-.- S50 PBal lecceenwseceke oss. ceckes bse eee
6thirritations-<.........- Sob lceece. Contraction........ 6.
7th irritations.........-.. EG ea rs ease ree reise See enor Pemercelae Weight reduced to 2 grammes,
ShMITTitavlonss--=-esese ee SD Aeeeees Contraction........ 8.5
9th irritations. -.......... SISTMISA MN se oan. cect te sea aes
10th irritations........... 10:5! (PE ShG) | sae erecscaccon cues saeeeedodee
Dthirritationss: 2.22 .ck << ORS) Zt see Contraction.....-... ps
I2thirritations..........- ibe AMG bonotponssne5se sia[aia\sielaielei sea (ciate
1th irritations 2S oS 22kk VIDS! ON ef ae ee Contraction........ 5.9
14th irritations.-.......-. 18 B55 YC eee eee eee mae .._.| Another portion of the nerve ir-
Lothirritations=ccsceosese AS CPe|eete ee Contraction........ 2.5 ritated.
16th irritations-.......... 18 Si ileseceee eel gS sid cewisinc ele eeaieins
Tthirritations.---..-.-.. Sie a caceee Contraction.-....... 3.5
18th irritations..........- TSU i | PONS Paces cee eee coe ane e areata
19th irritations........... 18-5+l-=552 Contraction. -...... 3.5
20th irritations........... ONS: | APR alco ceee cee cot oak en ee oe sees
2ishurritations--2- 222-02. 195 |e Contraction........ 2.6
22d irritations. . Dn allsnccaaasbesene eeemeee ce eee es
23d irritations. .22.-s--+. 2 OM Mescstoewaseee cee eto Greek
24th irritations........... la | cee Contraction........ 4.3
2oth irritations. ..22...... 20. Os Vewee cet tins ine ccs ease siemens
26thirritations..........- Ale lS Se Contraction........ ies
2ithirritations........... 20. I... ilseconsscoceemavcceescccemeee
28th irritations........... IE irs Se Contraction........ 5.15 ‘
29th irritations........... 8. Br UL cietsekac coe re ceeaee sea ees Weight increased to 10 grammes.
30th irritations. -.....-...< fo elle Pas Sage) Contraction........ 2.6
sistirritations..<2.2cc... 14, Ms) v |\scnvcensetessooc ces cose eeteons
32d irritations..........-- 145 Boe ae Contraction
33d irritations..-... 5.2... 14, Bb! bana tee cee omaneicre
34th irritations. .....-.i<. il Feet | eee Contraction
35th irritations........... 14. Do Ml emeac wanes cmisise aetcee ance
36th irritations........... MAR Gil oe 8 Contraction........ 0.
185.
Ascending polarization: Rana esculenta.
Ast irritations............ TOBA Oss aoe eee ae eee oe ett 2 grammes weight attached to
2adurritatlons. sssceceeoses a Kise) bee Ste Contraction........ 6.9 muscle.
sqirritations. 225222. 5222" 10:53) Oe Alaa ee eee ee eee ee
4th irritations.....0...... O55 225 deesitakSeeter recsebeas ase ook
Sth irritations............ Ce Eee Contraction.
6th irritations............ 9.:5)| 10, plecess- «perenne
“thirritations....-...-..- (yal eee oe Contraction
8th irritations............ 9, OA tlece sc ee -eeeteeeseeee= eee eee ae
9th irritations............ 9: sae Contraction........ 3.6
LOthirritations-...<.....- 9, OSs Meseee ates teen cee eee
11th irritations. -.-....... eo Bere Contraction. --...... 6.5 £
Dethvirritahionss: sos sca s.|), 745) MSG ee een eee partqrenec as S543 Weight, 10 grammes,
13th irritations........... 4.15) annem Contraction........ 3.6
14th irritations. .......... 4.:5'|||. 3. 5ilicss oc -eeeteer ssa webercsceees
15th irritations: .......<.- 4: Dilisaacca Contraction
16th irritations........... 0. A. | seecoes cbcateesoeee
Mth irritations. ...5.....< (ea hes ae Contraction. -
18th irritations........... 0. 3.5 | scmeidsedueteoeediceies se aes
19th irritations...... SE Gril (iO MEE Rees Contraction
20th irritations..........- 0. Soni onan Sb wcamemeneteuetoecacaane

EFFECT OF IRRITATION OF A POLARIZED NERVE. AOL

The next series of experiments was made with the assistance of the
apparatus before described, with the addition of a Marey myograph to
write the strength of the contractions. The results obtained were simi-
lar to those obtained when the irritations were made by means of the
induced current. The supposition that the effect of a constant current
on the excitability of the nerves can be modified by changing the strength
of the irritation employed being settled in the affirmative, it seemed
very probable that a change in the strength of the polarizing current
could produce a similar eftect. This was also found to be so in a Jong
series of experiments. It was also defermined that the effect of a polar-
izing current may change after a varying period of time, so that it will
take a stronger current (the irritation remaining the same) to cause the
same relation to be produced between the contractions from the irrita-
tion of the non-polarized and polarized nerves as was produced in an
earlier stage of the experiment.

A few of these experiments are here given as il!nstrations. They, I
think, will set this vexed question in nervous physiology at rest. For,
as results from these experiments, the excitability of a polarized nerve
can be increased or decreased at will, not only by changing the direction
of the current, but also by changing the intensities of the currents, these
two facts must in conjunction form a law.

The excitability of a polarized nerve is determined by the proportion exist-
ing between the strengths of the polarizing and irritating currents. With
certain proportions of the strengths of these currents the excitability of the
anelectrotonie portion of the nerve is reversely influenced from that of the

katelectrotonic portion.
EXPERIMENT 186.

Trritation alone. Irritation plus polarization.
oe : oe . Remarks.
Height of ae | Height of
Strength of the irritation.) the con- Sirenethiokihe constant the con-
| tractions. ; tractions.
mm. cent. mm.
1 Daniel :
1 small Daniel 6. Rheochord! \2eee- ss 38 6.2 | An ascending polarizing
5.4 |.----- dO ..------------ 38 6.2 current applied 6™
(a7. Us Ee eae Gls saobosgcconenc 38 24.6 above a descending ir-
1G eee eee WD sdcdsoscsorse 38 21.2 ritating current.
(i BOM ee OOo ose syeiece.. 38 22.8
5S) alesse COs fests ose 33 14. 2
Orig ilpeeetrs do. RAR SUneE 22.1
TBAB ese ee GO essa Rcseetees 33 20. 2
45 Santee acre OO}ze seseeoensee 48 21.4
GEGr ese ee QO veeecesees= ed 48 20.8
ie: oe eee does seb oo 48 21.3
2052 ieeec ns DOs oath eae sereseic 53 | 6. 2
19. 2 SOM: eee 53 16.6
TED esas Gone Seas 53 6.2
TASS! Mees ee Cokeee eats S 333 20.6
SShOy lest: GO cela ooeteod 15.4
ate leases CO eRe ae NOE 14.1
3 7 a ees Ove etineaevexteee 33 15.8
1480 lisence GO ee sas eee se 56 14.8
1G a5 ieee xe Ct eee ee 56 14.3
Ey eetecoe GO Fee ae ee 56 14.2
A ie dl bese (heer enc ieee 56 10.8
1ecell 12.8 | 1 cell 1.9
12.6 do 4.2
13.3 do 2.8
1B} do Bil
oo a = aS
S. Mis. 59 26

402 EFFECT OF IRRITATION OF A POLARIZED NERVE.

In the above experiment the descending irritating current was kept
of the same streneth throughout. In the beginning, while the ascend-
ing polarizing current was weak, it produced an increased excitability
of the nerve. When, however, it was increased to “rheochord 53,” Pflii-
ger’s result (7. e., a diminished excitability) was obtained, which became
more marked when the polarizing current was increased to 1 cell. A
curious phenomenon was observed which is to be seen, to a greater or
less degree, in all the experiments. In the beginning “rheochord 33”
produced an increased excitability of the nerve, while thirteen irritations
later it produced the opposite effect. So it must be concluded that the
preparation becoming older causes the effect of a polarizing current of a
certain strength on the excitability of the nerve to change. This will
explain the result obtained by Schiff and Herzen. These investigators
found that while in the beginning of an experiment on the excitability
of polarized nerves they might obtain certain results, 15 or 30 minutes
later entirely different results were obtained.

EXPERIMENT 187.

Trritation alone. Trritation plus polarization.
ae . ape Remarks
Height of Xs Height of :
Strength of the irritation. | the con- Stre neu Dalbe cOneta the con-
| tractions. | current. tractions.
cent. mm. cent. mm.
1 Daniel cell:
NID EWN Socotocsse oer 16:1 |) Rheochord==..--2 +. 38 29.2 | A descending polarising
Rheochord.......-- =... 691 8.8 28.4 current 8=™, above a
5.5 14. 4 descending irritating
17.3 24.3 current. —
5.5 11. Rana temporaria
12.2 14.5
RNeOCHOrGeseeecsaee 1308 3.8 3.8
3.8 3.8
3.8 3.8
Rheochord-=--.-.--- 1214 4.2 0.
2. 1 0.
Dal 0.
Rheochord.......... 1009 1.6 > Ns
10.1 0.
1.2 0.
8.2 4.9
PEDANTIC Ves- meine -feoeresioe 18.9 Ui Daniel S24cceekcencicters: 10. 2
Un e6oChord sees eee. 188 1631 >| Rheochordises-eae-ss- 38 12.6
BaD AMNIel wat Gees eect ereee ay Rheochord :......--- 33 8.2
15.5 15:9
8.2 26. 2
12.1 20k
21. Rheochorde-s--sse-4-00 8.2
3 8.2
10. 8.2
14.9 9. 2
QDanicl cells... ..sc<s<sm- 0. 7.8
22.2 14.1
16.5 Cesta
38h 3L.
37. 7.2
7.2. | Rheochord!.s--cs-+-<~- 48 10.3
12:1 iP |
29.4 14.3
28. 6 14.1
6.7 | Rheochord....--..... 56 PRI
6.4 7.6
3. 2 13.4
ablyal 8.
3.2 3.5
SLID ASReeBeE ee a eee 29. § fi Daniel Sacceeeescce-es 6.3
PNHeOCHONd esses as 1009 28. Riheechordenssseess=s 38 f
4.4 0.

EFFECT OF IRRITATION OF A POLARIZED NERVE. 403

~ EXPERIMENT 187—Continued.

Irritation alone. Irritation plus polarization.
== aI 5 : Remarks.
Height of | « a Height of
Strength of theirritation.| the con- Streneth of ne constant the con-
tractions. | ae tractions.
cent. mm. cent. mm.
Rheochord........:. 789 3. 2 8.9
26 10.3
5.5 11.8
4. 13.1
5.1 8.3
Rheochord.......... 691 Ss 19.6
5.8 11.2
2. 4.5
10.1 11.6
0. 4.
0. 3.5
Rheochord:-:-.-:..<. 482 4. 4.
3.6 3.4
3.6 3.4
7.2 4.
Rheochord..-----.--. 223 4.5 4.
4.8 4.
4. 4.
Rheochord...--..... , 188 8.7 3.8
| 9.5 7.9
2 Daniels 3.2 | 1 Danol 3.2
Seen neoChordeeeseesscers 53 | 3.2
LOS | Rheochord!=—.-.--— 48 | 3.4
13.3 3.
: 1.2 3.1
1 Daniel 3.1 7.4
3. end
3. 7.2
2.5 | Rheochord .-.........50 ie
2. 1 7.2
2. H 12.
|

In this experiment a descending polarizing current of a given strength
(1 Daniel cell, ‘“rheochord 38”), and an irritating current from 1 Daniel,
“rheochord 691,” produced an increased excitability of the nerve to
the side ot the kathode (Pfliiger’s result.) But when the irritating
current was reduced in strength to 1 Daniel, ‘“‘rheochord 1308,” the
influence of the polarizing current on the excitability of the nerve was
annihilated, and we had the same contraction resulting from the irrita-
tion alone as from the irritation and polarization in conjunction. With
the irritating current somewhat stronger (1 Daniel, “‘rheochord 1214,”
and ‘“rheochord 1009”), the polarizing current absolutely paralyzed the
effect of the irritating current. Increasing this latter current still more,
the polarization had a varying influence on the effect of the irritation.
When, however, the polarizing current was now decreased in strength
(to 1 Daniel, “‘ rheochord 56”),the polarizing current again caused the
nerve to become more excitable. The same effect was attained with the
former polarization current (‘‘rheochord 38”) by using an irritating cur-
rent of 1 Daniel, ‘‘rheochord 789” or “rheochord 691.” With a stronger
irritating current the polarized nerve was less excitable than the non-
polarized nerve. ‘This corresponds to the result obtainedby Nobili, Mat-
teucci, Valentin, and Eckhard, who always employed comparatively
strong currents. Using a polarizing current of 1 Daniel, “‘rheochord
48,” or “rheochord 50” strength, with the irritation of 1 or 2 Daniel cells,
the former always increased the excitability of the nerve.

‘ \
404 EFFECT OF IRRITATION OF A POLARIZED NERVE.

EXPERIMENT 188.

Irritation alone. Irritation with polarization.
a F Remarks.
Strength of the contrac- Height Strength of the constant Hiigberot
tion. eat aTiee current. tractions.
cent. mn. cent. mm
2 Daniels 3.5 | 1 Daniel 1.4 | An ascending polarizing
Rheochord........-- 1413 5. Wheochord en samen eos 53 4.8 | current above a de-
10. 0. scending irritating cur-
12.5 0. rent.
4.7 6. Descending polarization.
0. 4.
3.1 4. |
3.7 5.
4/9 | Rheochord’..-.------- 57 4.9
4.9 4.9
4.9 4.9
5. 1 Daniel 10.2 | Ascending polarization.
5.2 | Rheochord..........- 6 8.4 |
5.4 7.5
6.5 9.5 | Descending polarization.
4. 5. 6
5.4 9.4 |
1 Daniel 1.2 | Rheochord........... 10 1.5 | Ascending polarization.
Rheochord.--.------- 1109 15a 1.6
re 1.6 :
aBal 0.
1.3 0. Descending polarization.
1.5 0.
2.5 | 3 Daniels 0.
2.1 0. 6
1.9 0.
2.6 0. Descending polarization.
3.1 0.
2.5 0.
1.3 | 2 Daniels 0.
2.4 0.
Tete} 0.
ifs 1 Daniel 4.5
fs 4.4
3.5 4.7

In experiment 188, with a descending irrigating current of 2 Daniel
cells, “‘rheochord 1413,” an ascending polarizing current, Daniel,
“rheochord 53” usually produced a decreased excitability of the nerve.
With a descending polarizing current of the same strength the opposite
effect was obtained. Increasing this current to “ rheochord 57,” it failed
to influence the effect of the irritation. A polarizing current of 1 Daniel,
‘“‘rheochord 6,” passing in either direction, increased the excitability of
the nerve. With an irritating current derived from 1 Daniel, “‘ rheochord
1109,” an ascending polarizing current from 1 Daniel, ‘‘rheochord 10,”
still slightly increased the excitability. When with the same strength
of currents the polarization was descending, this latter always abolished
the effect of the irritation. The latter effect always occurred when the
polarizing current was increased to 2 or 3 Daniels. When but 1 Daniel
was used for the descending polarization, this produced increased excit-
ability of the nerve.

EFFECT OF IRRITATION OF A POLARIZED NERVE. 405

: EXPERIMENT 189.
Irritation alone. | Irritation with polarization.
ae eee ae :; I. Observations.
| Height of | Height of
Strength of theirritation., the con- Strength of Se oe the con- |
tractions. EDK tractions.
mm. cent. mm.
| J Daniel: -
1 Daniel 3.2) Rheochord:--.-.-.--- 57 5.1 Descending polarizing
4.8 7.3 current.
4.2 le Descending irritating
ote eRheochord:cese~ ese ee 48 Dre current.
5.1) 5.1 | Rana temporaria.
| pat] 5.
Oo eRbeochords <2. <j - 43 5.8
10. 1 | 6.
10.1 | 4.9
11.9 5.
Genk. 3.5 | Descending polarizing
8. 6.1 current.
Coa at ‘Gale
9:2 | 7.3
3. | Rheochord........-- 28 3.4
5. 7.8
0. 7.2
4. Cel
ee) 7.8
as 5.5 | Ascending polarizing
Uail 6.2 current.
7.6 6.6
7.8 0.
oe 0.
8.9 1.4
te 6.1
7.2 5.9
7.3) | Rheochord....-..--.- 18 7.3 | Descending polarizing
6. 6. current.
6. 6.
6. 6.
6. 6.
7.1 5.2 | Ascending polarizing
5.3 3.1 current.
6.2 5.
ae Rheochord.....-...--- 8 5.9
6.1 | 6.1
4.5 0.6
5. 19
5.1 2.4
0.4 7. | Descending polarizing
0. 4.3 current.
0.5 9
0.3 | 5.8
3.1 , 2 Daniels 0.
4.2 | 0.
3.1 | 0.
4.2 0.5 Ascending polarizing
4.5 0.6 | current.
4.4 0.5
Ione heOchorderesesceecre 8 0.
4.2 | 0.
3.1 1.2
0. 3. Descending polarizing
0. 4. current.
0. 2.8

In experiment 189 the descending irritating current was kept of the
same strength (1 Daniel ceil) throughout the experiment. With de-
scending polarization, 1 Daniel, ‘‘ rheochord 57,” the excitability of the
nerve was increased. With 1 Daniel, “‘rheochord 48,” the excitability
remained unaffected. Further increasing the strength of the polarizing
current to “ rheochord 28,” an increased excitability is produced for the
descending current and increased for the ascending. On increasing it
still farther to “ rheochord 18,” the excitability of the nerve remained
uninfluenced by the descending constant current. A polarizing current
of still greater strength diminished the excitability of the nerve.

406 EFFECT OF IRRITATION OF A POLARIZED NERVE.
EXPERIMENT No.190. °
Irritation alone. Trritation with polarization.
oF Observations.

Height of Height of

AME Strength of the constant
Strength of the irritation.| the con- | 227 ya eee | the con-|
a tractions. | Cum: | tractions.
cent. mm. 7 7 cent. mm.
| 1 Daniel:
2 Daniels 16ST i RheOChord=-2eeenee-- 55 9.8
15.9 ed
16 15.4
1 Daniel:
heochord. =. os... = 1261 a 0.
11.2 0.
Se 10.8 |
11.3 10.4 |
9. 11.2 |
852) | OG
Ve 9. 2
1058) |(eRheochordss-=--secee 53 11. 6 |
0. 14.1 |
0. 7.4
0. 6.
mheochord:==...c2<- 1059 a 2 Tse)
2 6.2 |
10. ioe
LOM 105 4)
10.1 T2
10.8 7.6
9.3 6.1
10.1 15)
5.2 0.
1.4 0.
0.9 | 0.
by, 8.9 |
4.1 5.3
0.7 alee
1.9 8.1
mheochord:.<--.-.<.< 440 0. heochordss-2-- see. 43 ile
0. 8.8 |
0. 4.4
ayy il 8.9
0.3 8.1 |
ils 7.4
2. Rheochordsse-eee ee 56 1.9
2s 0.9
2. 0.
2 Daniels:
Rheochord.......... 223 5. 4 | 124
1.8 1.
i's 0.
1 Daniel 9. inhbeochordsss--eeceer 38 9.
8.1 8.1
9.1 9.
3. 6.9
4.1 7.6
3.4 | 8.4
9) Rheochord= eee seer 43 os
10. 6 | 4.1
10.2 4.
A. | Rheochord. ts. --5--¢- 38 Vee
Sal! 6.1 |}
Sap) PR ReOChOrd we eaees see 33 6.
3. 2 Bak:
3. 2 beat
By ilk 5.
322) Rheochords -.s.- eee 23 Weal
ail! 6.9
3.9 te
4.19) Rheochords.-ce.<.e-< 13 5.6
4.7 eal
4.5 5. 6
4.1 58
4-8) Ribeochordss- sneer oes 4 4.8
4.8 4.8
4.8 4.8
4.5 | 1 Daniel 6.4
4.2 ts 3)
2.9 4.2
4.8 | 2 Daniels 4.
4.8 4.9
3.6 4.5

Ascending polarizing
current.
Descending _ irritating
current.

Rana temporaria.

Descending polarizing
current.

Ascending polarizing
current.

Descending polarizing
eurrent.

Ascending polarizing
current.

EFFEC’ OF IRRITATION OF A POLARIZED NERVE. A0T7

EXPERIMENT No. 190—Continued.

Irritation alone. Irritation-with polarization.
| tras 5 : | Observations.
| Height of ae bd Height of
Strength of the irritation.| the con- Sti ength of the, constant |" the con-
tractions. caene tractions. |
cent. | mm. cent. mm.
4.5 |3 Daniels 0.
4.2 0.
6. 0.
5.1 0.
1.5 | Rheochord....-......438 6.9
13) 5.
2.4 5.8
4. mheochordaaeereeecc 38 3. 2
6.1 0.
3.4 0.
4. 0.

i

In the preceding experiment descending irritating currents with both
ascending and descending polarizing currents were used. When an as-
cending polarizing current from 1 Daniel, “rheochord 55,” and irritating
currents from 2 Daniels or 1 Daniel, “‘rheochord 1261,” were used, the et-
fect of the irritation was diminished by the polarization. With the same
strengths of currents, but with a descending instead of an ascending po-
larizing current, the opposite effect was produced. That is, under these
circumstances there was diminished excitability in the anelectrotonic
and increased excitability of the nerve in the katelectrotonic phase—
Pfliiger’s result. When, now, this irritating current was increased to 1
Daniel, “rheochord 1059,” both the descending and ascending polarizing
currents diminished the excitability of the nerve. After some minutes,
however, with the same currents, augmented excitability occurred in the
‘katelectrotonic phase. With polarization, 1 Daniel, ‘“rheochord 43,” and
irritation, 1 Daniel, ‘““rheochord 440,” the ascending polarizing current
produced an increased excitability. Decreasing the strength of the polar-
izing current to 1 Daniel, ‘“rheochord £6,” the opposite effect was pro-
duced. With an irritating current from 1 Daniel cell, an ascending polar-
izing current from 1 Daniel, ‘‘rheochord 38,” at first fails to affect the ex-
citability of the nerve, but later increases it. With the same irritation, a
polarizing current from 1 Daniel, ‘“rheochord 43,” produces an increased
excitability of the nerve. The irritation being the same, an ascending
polarizing current from 1 Daniel, “‘rheochord 4,” does not in the least af-
fect the excitability of the nerve. Witha polarizing current from 1 Dan-
iel and an irritating current of the same strength, the effect of the latter
is increased during the presence of the former. The efiect of the same
irritating current is, however, absolutely annihilated by an ascending
polarizing current from 3 Daniel cells. After this it was found that the
effect of an irritation (1 Daniel) was increased by an ascending polarizing
current from 1 Daniel, “‘rheochord 43,” which earlier in the experiment
had the opposite effect. The very opposite result was obtained with
irritation, 1 Daniel, and polarization, 1 Daniel, “rheochord 38.”

EFFECT OF IRRITATION

EXPERIMENT 191.

OF A POLARIZED

NERVE.

Trritation alone.

Trritation with polarization.

Strength of the irrita-

Strength of the constant
current.

WUD WORANE

Be Ob

He DO DS OO be bP OI

to

Dee ROGD me Re

PNY WRP SONNE ERA EIR POST RON MONE WH ANWFN RUNES SSS SON GR SPOS PS DOOR MAA PONS SPP AIAN

ro AADMLS

1 Daniel:
' Rheochord .

1 Daniet

2 Daniels

3 Daniels
4 Daniels
6 Daniels
| 1 Daniel

Rheochord

Remarks.

pa

or

mo ©

To"

PAA NSS OSS SOS MN YS SPOS MUN MRO PEN OS SS OUR EOS Meh OS WO SS MN MUMS SOS POOSONAS SEP AAANN

PNKNO WCDBNWOPPARD POM

i

Do Qo IS Ol he He

woo

rr cob

Rana esculenta. De-
scendiny irritating cur-
yent applied to the
nerve below an ascend-
ing polarizing current.

—_—Soe

EFFECT OF IRRITATION OF A POLARIZED NERVE. 409

The polarizing current used in the preceding experiment passed in an
ascending direction, while a descending irritating current was applied
to the nerve below it. When the former was of the strength of 1 Daniel,
‘“rheochord 56,” it failed to influence the effect of an irritating current
derived from 1 Daniel cell. When, however, the strength of the former
current was increased to “rheochord” 53 or 48, it produced a diminished
excitability of the nerve; but with “ rheochord” 43, 38, 28, 18, or 8, the
opposite effect was produced. With ‘‘rheochord 4” a diminished excit-
ability was produced. The same result was obtained when the polariz-
ing current was increased to 1, 2, 5, 4, or 6 Daniels. A polarizing cur-
rent of 1 Daniel, “rheochord 18,” again produced an augmented excit-
ability of the nerve.

EXPERIMENT 192.

Irritation alone. | Irritation with polarization.
| |
Teic : ya patios . Remarks.
Strength of the irrita- Hele bbsc! Strength of the constant | Height’ of
ee tractions. | GLEE tractions. |
= [= = es =
mm. | cent. | mm.
| 1 Daniel:
1 Daniel 5.8 | Rheochord.......... 3 5.8 tana temporaria. A de-
5.8 5.8 | scendiuy irritating eu -
5.8 | 5.8 rent applied to the sci-
5.8 | 5.8 atic nerve below a de-
ra ‘ 6.9 | scending polarizing
: 2 Daniels 0. current.
37 1 Daniel: 0.
0. Rheochordes--s-2-5 38 6. 2
0. 4.2
3.9 4.2
3.5 1 Daniel: 5:
42.) Rheochord! ~---ee--ee 28 4.4
A) 4.2
0.4 =: 4.
4. 4.
3.9 | 23 3.9
2.2 | 3.8
3.3 2.4
3.4 48 | 3
PS. | Er]
os | 3
5. Rheochordsee------—- 18 | 2.6
5 } 0.
UGB || 0.
4.2 | 0.
3. si 2.4
3.1 He
oF 9) || 1.4
ae | 2.1
0. | 3.
a 4 1.8
0. | UE
On| 4.
0. 2.8

In the foregoing experiment the descending irritating current was
kept of one strength throughout the experiment. In the beginning it
remained unaffected by a polarizing current from 1 Daniel, ““rheochord
D0,” but the contractions which it produced were prevented by a polar-
izing current of 2 Daniels. A polarizing current of 1 Daniel, “‘rheochord
38,” increased the excitability, while still further increasing this current
to “rheochord 8” almost annihilated the effects of the irritation.

410 EFFECT OF IRRITATION OF A POLARIZED NERVE.

EXPERIMENT 193.

1
Irritation alone. Irritation with polarization.
oi | = . Remarks.
Strength of the irrita- Bicignw of Strength of the constant Tee hss
tion. tractions. BEENSIET tractions.
}
mm. | cent. | mm.
| 1 Daniel:

1 Daniel : 1S Gn sheochordse eee arte 56 14.9 | Ranatemporaria. <A de-
12.6 14.7 scending irritating
ils} 15.9 current applied to the
13.9 t 14.1 nerve below an ascend-
12.8 48 14. ing polarizing current.
13.5 13.5
13. 13.9
eal 43 13.1
13. 13.

14. 38 | 14.
13.4 ' 13.5
\ 13. 12.1
13.9 28 13.9
14. 13.
3. 2 TG)
11.5 10,

As a general rule, in this experiment an increased

excitability of the

nerve was produced of an ascending polarizing current of the anode to

the side.
EXPERIMENT 194.

|
Trritation alone. | Irritation with polarization.
|
= SS ——— a = i = +
pe | ae . Remarks.
Strength of the irrita- Gene Strength of the constant are
te tractions. | SRE Soi: tractions. °
mm. mm.
1 Daniel 5. 1 Daniel 9.9 | Rana temporaria. <A de-
7.4 NPI) scending irritating
To 11.8 curvint applied to the
nerve below an ascend-
ing polarizing current.
1 Daniel 5 10. 2 Daniels 10. Descending polarizing
10 | 10. current.
10 10.
9.8 9.8
1 Daniel 8. 2 Daniels 0. Ascending polarizing
7.8 0. current.
9.1 0.9
9: 2.4
1 Daniel 6.9 | 1 Daniel 4.2
6.9 5. 1
9. tell
9.1 3.
5.6 0.
1 Daniel 5.1 | 1 Daniel 5.1 | Descending polarizing
5. 1 5.1 current.
Sy il 5. 1
fab | 0. As ending polarizing
Sie a3 current,
by ll Lf
|

An ascending polarizing current decreased the
nerve when both currents were of the same strength

excitability of the
(1 Daniel). <A de-

scending polarizing current failed to influence the height of the contrac-

tions when the irritating current was derived from 1

and the polarizing

current from 2 Daniels, but an ascending polarizing current under these

circumstances again diminished the excitability of
each of the currents derived from 1 Daniel, the desce
failed to influence the height of the contractions.

the nerve. With
nding polarization

EFFECT 0+ IRRITATION OF A POLARIZED NERVE. All

EXPERIMENT 195.

Irritation alone. Irritation with polarization.
[Ean =| | - Remarks.
Strength of the irrita- Helebuat | Strength of the con- Beni ttt |
tion. Fear aE stant current. ean OTet
cent mm. cent mm.
1 Daniel: 1 Daniel:
Rheochord.-..---.-- 1109 118) |) Rheochord: <-.2-4-.4- 10 1.8 | Rana esculenta. A de-

1.8 i.8 | scending irritating

1.8 1.8 eurrent applied to the
nerve below an ascend-
ing polarizing current.

1.8 10 1.8 Descending polarizing

1.8 1.8 current.

0. 2 1

0. ib

0. 1,

0.6 16 0. | Ascending polarization.

0.7 0.

0.7 0.

0. 4 0.

An irritating current derived from 1 Daniel, “ rheochord 1109,” pro-
duced the same effect when the nerve was polarized in either direction
with a current derived from 1 Daniel. With a current derived from 1
Daniel, ‘‘ rheochord 10,” the excitability of the nerve was increased to
the side of the kathode. In the positive phase of a current derived from
1 Daniel, ‘“‘ rheochord 16,” the excitability of the nerve was abolished
for an irritating current derived from 1 Daniel, “ rheochord 1109.”

EXPERIMENT 196.

Irritation alone. Irritation with polarization.
. Aan | Height of s | Height of | Remarks.
Strength of the irrita- 7a a Strength of the con- | any aoe
Mon. | tractions. stant current. tractions. |
|
mm. | cent. | mm
1 Daniel: 1 Daniel: |
Theochord dee COChond ssa aeeeree 56 14.1 | Rana esculenta. A de-
14.1 | 14.1 | scecnding irritating
14.1 14.1 | current below a de-
Gee | 55 15.5 | scending constant cur-
12.2 | 19. | rent.
Wi | 24.3 |
ah 56 8. |
21.2 10.9 |
12, 10.4
26.9 10.8
23. 6 13.8
10.9 | 10.9
10.9 48 | 8. 2
8.1 4.9
8&1 The
10.4 0.
4.1 0.
9. 0.
8.7 38 9.
15 10.9
oo Gea RUReEOChOrd se o4- oe eee 38 | 9.2
Oona eal
13.9 | 48 Bh)
8.1 7.9
8.1 7.0
8.6 6.4
2 Daniels 8. 48 19.6
6. 6 | | nee 1
7.8 | 13.6
3. 2 21.6

412

é

EFFECT OF IRRITATION OF A POLARIZED NERVE.

EXPERIMENT 196—Continued.

Irritation alone.

Strength of the irrita-

Irritation with polarization.

Height of
the con-

| Strength of the con-

Height of
the con-

Remarks.

tion. tractions. | stant current. tractions.
mm cent. mm
1 Daniel 15s 2in || en eochordesseeseee: 48 gyal
ial. 1.2
3.8 0.
2.4 0.
4. 0.
0. 28 ea)
2. 2 Deo
3. 41)
0. 1 Daniel 0.8
0. gal
0. 1G
5 Daniels:
1 Daniel 5. | Rheochord Be
by 5:
Bs 5.
5: 2 Daniels 5,
OD: Ds
D: 5.
D: i,
1 Daniel 0. 1 Daniel 4.2
4. 12.4

In the preceding experiment descending irritating and descending

polarizing currents were employed throughout.

The results obtained

were similar to those obtained in the previous experiments.

EXPERIMENT 197.

Trritation alone.

Irritation with polarization.

A de-

an as-

sie ue Remarks.
Strength of the irrita- Hee Strength of the con- Height of
tion. traction. | stant current. EVOL
cent. mm. cent. mm.
1 Daniel: 1 Daniel:
UH eOChOLG sees ee eee 223 200) ale RneOChordeseseeeseee 38 6. Rana esculenta.
6. 10.3 scending irritating
645 2. 0. current applied to the
1.8 0. nerve below
3.7 0. cending polarizing cur-
2.9 0. rent.
740 0.8 2.1
0. 6.1
0.6 5.6
0.8 pal
838 yal 3.8
Bs ib
4.9 Pep
3. 0.4
2.2 0.
949 4. oo
2.2 2. 1
2:1 0.2
0.8 1.8
0. 3s

~
EFFECT OF IRRITATION OF A POLARIZED NERVE. 413

é

EXPERIMENT 198.

Irritation alone. Irritation with polarization.
: aig i rn sake _ Remarks
teen rie Height of :
Strength of the irrita- Heist yet Strength of the constant | joie es
EUR tractions. current: tractions.
cent. mm. cent. mm. :
2 Daniels 5.6 | 2 Daniels 5.6 | Rana temporaria. A de-
5.6 5 6 scending irritating
5. 6 5. 6 current applied to the

nerve below «a de-
scending polarizing
current.

9.8 5.4 | Ascending polarization.
6.5 0.
6.6 4.4
9.4 3.9
2 Daniels 6.4 | 3 Daniels 1.6
11.0 0.
5.8 0.
6.2 0.
6. 5.5 | Descending polarization.
9. 2 5.4
5.7 0.
5.5 0.
5.6 0.
2 Daniels 5. 1 Daniel Ds
5. 5.
2.3 6.1 | Weighted muscle with 3
2.4 5.6 grammes.
2. 5.
5.1 | 5. Weight removed.
2 Daniels a 3 1 Daniel 0. Ascending polarization.
: 0.
4.6 0.
5. 2 0.
0.5 2.7 | Weighted 10 grammes.
0.7 2.9
0.5 :. 2.4
2 Daniels 5. 3 Daniels 1.5 | Removed the weight.
4.7 9.4
5.1 0.
5. 0.
4.9 0.
4.9 0. Descending polarization.
4.9 0.
4.9 0.
; 4.9 0.
2 Daniels 2.2) | 1: Daniel 4.5
0. 5.1
0. 5.

s

It will be seen in this experiment that, when on one occasion dimin-
ished excitability of the nerve resulted from the application of the
descending polarizating current to the nerve attached to a non-weighted
muscle, increased excitability was produced when the muscle was
weighted. Again, later, when ascending polarization produced “ paresis”
of the nerve, attaching a weight to the muscle sufficed to bring about
the opposite result.

Weighting the muscle, therefore, influences the effect of polarization on
the excitability of the nerve.

414 EFFECT OF IRRITATION OF A POLARIZED NERVE:

EXPERIMENT 139.

Trritation alone.

Lrritation with polarization.

Strength of the irrita-

Height of

| Strength of the constant | “74,6

Height of

Remarks.

: the | con- - con-
ous tractions. Camment: tractions.
cent. mm. cent. mm
2 Daniels:
Rheochord.......--- 2127 0. 1 Daniel 8.5 | Ranatemporaria. A de-
0. 8.5 scending irritating cur-
1893 0. 9.5 rent above an ascend-
0. 8.5 ing polarizing current.
1413 0. 9.5
0. 10. 1
2.4 abate
0. 9.6
1009 7.6 7.5
5.4 2.
10.9 0.
10.9 0.
14. 0.
1618 P ey 5 | Descending polarization.
0. 10.
2 Daniels 10.5 10.5
10.5 10.5
11. 2 Daniels 7.5
11.2 0.
11.6 ile a
10.5 0.
12. 0.
11. 0. Ascending polarization.
13.9 0.
929 th
9.5 6.4
93 4.2
EXPERIMENT 200.
*
1 Daniel:
2 Daniels 14557 |eRheochordssseeses5-6 54 | 14.5 | Ranatemporaria. A de-
21 20. 6 scending irritating cur-
20. 6 20.6 rent below an ascend-
2h) 48 12. ing polarizing current.
11.8 12.
12.4 54 | 11.9
12.8 11.8
ink) LS9
12.4 48 12.4 | Descending polarization.
12.3 12.4
12.4 12.4
12.3 12.3
12.1 12.3
2 Daniels 11.5 | 3 Daniels 0. Ascending polarization.
11.5 0.
10.9 0.
10.7 0.
8. 3.5 | Descending polarization.
8.4 3.6
2 Daniels 8. 2 Daniels 25
oh) 8.4
1 Daniel 10. 3 Daniels 0.
9.4 0.
10. 2 0.
ON, 2.
12. 0. Ascending polarization.
4.5 0.
4. 0.
2. 2 Daniels ile Descending polarization.
al 0.
8.7 0.
Chal 0.
9. 5.6
10. 0. Ascending polarization.
14, 2 0.
2 Daniels 9. 9. Descending polarization,
G), Sh
9. 9.
8.7 8.7
8.7 8.7

EFFECT OF IRRITATION

Lrritation alone.

OF A POLARIZED NERVE.

EXPERIMENT 200—Continued.

A415

Trritation with polarization.

Strength of the irrita-
tion.

the

|
| Height of
con- |
tractions. |

Strength of the constant
current.

Height of
the con-
tractions.

cent.

imReochordeceee eee eee 6

| —

>
=
=

rar
POomMoS oS
Nook

Remarks.

Ascending polarization.

Descending polarization.

EXPERIMENT 201.

1 Daniel

2 Daniels

a"
pose

_

a
NAO GAS SSS ~1~1G MH Go S G0 Go Ge S 9090 90 0 G0 go FS

or

bo bo bo Orr

bo

oo

2 Daniels:
Rheochord .-...-.----- 5

on

| 2 Daniels

©
Noo

il od
morot
po

=
S
ray

e
2.2) i)
Qtwo oe

AAS eSNSS HMO
mo

Rana temporaria. <A de-
scending irritating cur-
rent applied to the
nerve below an ascend-
ing polarizing current.

Descending polarization.

Ascending polarization.

Descending polarization.

Ascending polarization.

| Descending polarization.

EXPERIMENT 202.

1 Daniel:
Rhbeochord..-.-...-. 1739

1009

2 Daniels

th

WANARWSSH ISH APRSSNHSSM

a"
NOCOCONTOF Pe

oO

1 Daniel: .
Rheochord’ -s-.2—- 4-5 Hy

1 Daniel

2 Daniels

=
boi
AWN AwWwWOdoe NEN

on

Rana temporaria. <A de-
scending irritating and
an ascending polariz-
ing current.

A16 EFFECT OF IRRITATION OF A POLARIZED NERVE.

EXPERIMENT 202—Continued.

Irritation alone. | Irritation with polarization.

|
aes lrerase Remarks.
Strength of the irvita- Boigu sb Strength of the constant Here nack
HOES tractions. eat tractions.
cent. min. cent. | mm.
10.7 | 3 Daniels 4.
8. 4.1
9. 2 4.1
11. 4.1
9.5 4.1
9.8 0.
4. ilile Descending polarization.
3.4 10.5
3.7 10.8
3.5 10.8
EXPERIMENT 203.
1 Daniel:
Rheochord.-....... 1009 11.3 | 3 Daniels 0. Rana temporaria. A de-
10.1 0. scending irritating and
10.3 0. a descending polariz-
488 10. 4 0. ing current.
10.5 0.
10. 6 9.3
9. if Ascending polarization.
9.5 0.
8.8 0.
4.5 8. Descending polarization,
6.4 ate muscle weighted 20
0. 8.2 grammes.
0. 4.
6.5 | 2 Daniels 10.9 | Weéght removed.
6.5 ler’
6.7 10.9
6.4 10. 9
1 Daniel 6.2 | 2 Daniels 0. Ascending polarization.
5. 5 0.
6.1 0.
6. 0.
2 Daniels 4.9 | 1 Daniel 8.1
Rheochord......-.---1009 1]. 13.5
11.2 12.5
11.3 12.8
9.8 14.9
12.5 19.3
4.5 3.1 | Muscle weighted 20
3. 2. grammes.
3. 0.
2.5 0.
0.6 3.5 | Weight removed.
0. 2 2.5
3 Daniels 4. 10.8
9. 2 18 19.7 | Descending polarization.
0. 8.5
0. 9. Ascending polarization.
0. 7.3
0. 7.6

In this experiment, as in “ Experiment 198,” weighting the muscle
greatly influenced the effect of polarization on the excitability of the
nerve.

I could multiply these experiments almost indefinitely, having made
upwards of 509 of them, but these few will suffice to justify the conelu-
sions at which I have arrived. It is true that the experiments given
are all made with the irritation applied peripherally from the polariza-
tion, but I have made numerous experiments where this relation was
reversed which gave the same results. These may, however, be the
subject of a future paper.

EFFECT OF IRRITATION OF A POLARIZED NERVE. 417
CONCLUSIONS.

The effect of an irritation of a polarized nerve as compared with the
effect of the same irritation of the non-polarized nerve depends—

1. On the proportion between the strengths of the polarizing and irri-
tating currents.

2. On the circumstance that the irritation is to the side of the anode
or to the side of the kathode of the polarizing current.

3. On the length of time that the nerve muscle preparation has been
exposed.

4. On the circumstance whether the muscle is weighted or not.

In at least two proportions of the two currents Pfliiger’s results can
be obtained for an uncertain period of time. Another proportion re-
verses this effect, and gives increased excitability to the side of the
anode, and a diminished excitability to the side of the kathode. Other
proportions of the two currents may give an increased or a diminished
excitability to the side of both poles. And, lastly, we may have the
polarization failing absolutely to influence the effect of the irritation.

APPLICATION OF THE CONCLUSIONS.

The results obtained in the foregoing experiments would be of interest,
even if they had but a scientific value, but their value is much enhanced
by what they Promise in enlightening our views on the pathology of the
nervous system.

As respects disea:es of the peripheral motor nerves, they open up an
entirely new field of work. Every physician who has had even the
least experience in electro-therapeutics must have come across cases of
local motor affections of the nerves, producing a paralysis, which for a
long time apparently resists all electrical treatment, when by changing
the strength of the electrical current employed a cure is effected in a
very short time.

Two such cases have come under my observation. In one of these
the attending physican had used aconstant current of very great strength,
and only aggravated the existing paralysis of the arm and forearm. I
advised and applied, daily, a constant current derived from but two
large Daniel celis, and in less than a month the arm had almost com-
pletely recovered.

Another case occurred during my presence in Vienna. A young girl
suffered from choreaic twitchings of the left hand. The application of
constant currents of but slight strength to the brachial plexus increased
these twitchings. When the current was increased in strength the
twitchings ceased, and ultimately the patient was cured.

With the sensory nerves similar phenomena can be observed. A per-
son strikes his head (or some other portion of his body) against a hard
object, and as a result a sensation of pain remains. Now, applying a
constant pressure to the injured part will increase, decrease, or even

S. Mis. 59: 27

418 EFFECT OF IRRITATION OF A POLARIZED NERVE.

abolish the pain according to the degree of pressure. Applying the
constant pressure to other portions of the body will oftentimes relieve
or increase the pain. Under these circumstances the constant current
is replaced by the pressure.

The experiments are again of importance in explaining the varying
symptoms following a hemorrhage into a given portion of the brain, and
also in explaining why a lesion in the neighborhood of the corpus stria-
tum in man should produce hemiplegia of the opposite limbs, while its
destruction in man or any of the mammals is never followed by this
symptom. Again, it will explain why we have sometimes paralysis and
at other times convulsions, or in still other cases paralysis and convul-
sions in the same person from the same brain lesion.

The fact that cerebral-hemiplegia had never been produced in animals
attracted my attention four yearsago. Since that time I have constantly

endeavored to produce this symptom in animals, but until recently with
no success.

After having found that section of the whole brain immediately above
the corpora quadrigemina is not followed by abolition of the voluntary
movements,* it occurred to me that perhaps Brown-Sequard’s theory
was the true one, and that the paralysis resulting from brain lesions
was due to the irritation and not to the destruction of the nerve tubules in
this organ. If this be so, an irritating substance injected into the brain
in the vicinity of the corpus striatum would produce Paralysis of the
opposite side of the body. I tried this by injecting aqua ammonia, but
in the first experiments injected too much, and the animals died in con-
vulsions or coma. Later, by using an injection of 1-3m, I was, in several
dogs and eats, able to produce hemiplegia on the side opposite to that
on which the injection was made. The animals, in attempting to walk,
dragged their limbs as in true hemiplegia. Even in them, however,
under unusual strong excitement, the paralyzed limbs were moved.t
This result could not have been due to pressure on distant parts, as the
injection of a similar quantity of water failed to produce the same
effect.

These experiments with ammonia were sufficient to show that hemi-
plegia can be produced in animals by the injection of irritating sub-
stances in the neighborhood of the corpus striatum. The same effect

*A most interesting case is reported by Dr. Harlow (Boston Medical and Surgical
Journal, December 13, 1848), in which the portions of the brain frequently considered
as presiding over volitional movements were destroyed. by a tamping-iron being driven
through the skull. The patient lived many years after the injury was received. No
signs of paralysis were manifest.

Another case is reported by Dr. Folsom (Pacific Medical and Surgical Journal, May,
1869), where a longitudinal hemi-section of the brain, extending nearly, if not quite,
to the base of this organ, was made by the patient falling against a circular-saw
revolving about two thousand times aminute. The manrecovered without paralysis.

t Carpenter (Physiology, 1855, note on page 635) reports similar phenomena occur-
inginaman. Abercrombie (On the Brain), Wicke (Die Grossen Veits-Tanzele), and
other authors report similar cases.

EFFECT OF IRRITATION OF A POLARIZED NERVE. 419

was produced when a solution of the glucoside saponin was substituted
for the ammonia. With these substances hemiplegia was not always
produced, though the injection was made into the same portion of the
brain. In some cases a sort of hemi-chorea, and in others general con-
vulsions, were produced.

From these experiments we must believe that hemiplegia results from
an irritation (or polarization? ) and not from the destruction of motor
centres. How are these, the varying results following irritation of the
same part of the brain, to be explained?

Ammonia or saponin applied to a nerve tubule* really acts by polar-
izing this structure. The impulse causing the animal to make volitional
movements comes from the peripheral centres, and is no doubt similar
to an irritation in its effects on the central nerve tubules. Now, it was
seen that in a polarized nerve the effect of the irritating current is in-
creased or decreased as the relation between the proportions of the two
currents is changed. A polarizing current of a certain strength applied
to the fibres in the vicinity of the corpus striatum will diminish or totally
“inhibit” an ordinary volitional impulse;t but when we increase the
strength of this irritation or impulse, as we undoubtedly do under strong
excitement, other proportions between the two currents result, and con-
sequently we have other effects.

Again, under other circumstances a lesion of the same portion of the
brain will produce convulsions. Here we have the proportions between
the strengths of the two currents again changed. The polarizing cur-
rent now increases instead of decreases the effect of the irritating current.

In conclusion, I would say that the reason why a lesion in the same
portion of the brain at one time produces paralysis, at another has no
effect, and in a third instance produces convulsions (or tremors), is to
be found in the proportion, which exists in each individual case, between
the current developed in the nerve tubule by the lesion and that which
proceeds from the peripheral centres in the production of volitional im-
pulses.

*A nerve tubule undoubtedly has the same properties whether it be of intercentral

or peripheral significance.
t A hemiplegic person has the will to move the paralysed limbs, but not the power,

.

RESEARCHES UPON FEVER.

By H. C. Woop, Jr., M. D., of Philadelphia.

The following is a brief analysis of the argument and results, so far
as reached, of the researches upon fever, which have occupied my atten-
tion for some years, and towards which the Smithsonian Institution has so
liberally contributed pecuniary aid. This article, however, affords noth-
ing more than the barest outline of the work done; many minor points
and discovered facts are altogether omitted, and no allusion is made
to the work of other persons. The extended memoir awaiting publica-
tion by the Institution will contain all necessary historical matters and
any proper acknowledgment of previous investigations. It may be
allowable here to state that, except in the chemical section, showing the
agreement between my results on heat production and studies on the
same subject, made by calculating ingesta and egesta, no experimental
results previously arrived at by other observers have been accepted
without thorough repetition and verification.

The first effort, naturally, was to determine if fever be as complex as
it seems, or whether there be not some dominant symptom which is the
characteristic one of the process. By artificially heating living animals
both throughout the whole body and in local regions, such as the head,
it was clearly shown that elevation of the bodily temperature is sufficient
to produce all the nervous and circulatory symptoms of fever, and that
the cooling of the heated part is capable of removing the symptoms.
Parallel experiments made upon man in simple thermic and other
fevers gave parallel results to those reached in the lower animals, and
warrant the conclusion that the dominant symptom of fever is the
excessive bodily temperature. Fever may therefore be defined to be a
morbid process which produces elevation of the bodily temperature. The
question that naturally presents itself at this point is—Is the increase
of the bodily temperature due to an increase of the amount of heat pro-
duced, or is it caused by a failure of the body to throw off its heat? As,”
however, the study of normal physiology naturally precedes that of mor-
bid physiology, and as our knowledge of the methods in which nature
regulates the production and evolution of bodily heat is very scanty,
it seemed proper before proceeding farther with the researches upon
fever to endeavor to elucidate the laws which govern the production or
evolution of animal heat in health.

420

RESEARCHES UPON FEVER. 421

When the spinal cord of an animal is cut above the origin of the
splanchnic nerves there is usually a great fall of the bodily temperature,
which is in a measure proportionate to the temperature of the surround-
ing air. If the animal be placed in a heated apartment the fall of tem-
perature is greatly lessened, and is sooner or later followed by a rise.
In some animals the rise of temperature thus brought about is even
greater than occurs in a normal animal placed in a similarly heated
room. When the animal with a divided cord is in a cold room, death
evidently is the result of the cold, the bodily temperature continually
falling more and more until a point fatal to life is reached. The animal
with a divided cord will live almost indefinitely in a room heated to
80°, but perishes in a very short time in a room of 40°. Another series
of phenomena connected with spinal division is that where the cord is
divided at its junction with the pons there is a very rapid rise of the
bodily temperature, even in a cold room, to a point far above normal.
It is plain that these phenomena may be either due to disturbances of
heat evolution or of heat production, and that before any explanation of
them can be satisfactorily given this point should be settled. This has
been done by means of a calorimeter, whose general plan of construction
resembles that of Senator. The principle of this is the heating of a given
weight of water in a given time. This calorimeter measures only the
amount of heat given off by the animal, or, in other words, heat evoln-
tion. If the animal gain in his bodily temperature during his stay in the
calorimeter, it is plain that heat evolution is less than the heat produe-
tion, and vice versa.

By taking the specific heat of the animal as the proportional mean
of the specific heat of its constituents, namely as .75, we are able to
calculate in heat units the amount of caloric lost or gained by the body,
and to add to or subtract from the heat evolved as may be required to
determine the amount of heat produced.

Employing this method it was found that immediately after section of
the cord there is great increase of the heat evolution, if the calorimeter
be at an ordinary temperature. On the other hand, when the hourty
heat evolution was measured, some hours after the section, it was tound
to be much less than before the operation. The first increase of the
heat evolution was always associated with a great fall of bodily tem-
perature; and when the calculations were completed it was found that
the extra heat imparted to the calorimeter during the first hour after
the spinal section was not equal to the amount lost by the body, or, in
other words, that immediately after the operation there was lessened
heat production. In the subsequent hours of life, both heat production
and evolution are markedly lessened. The result thus obtained may be
stated as follows: Section of the cord at usual temperatures is followed
by markedly lessened production of animal heat, continuing until death,
and also by an immediate excessive loss of heat, which continues until

ADF RESEARCHES UPON FEVER.

the surplus caloric of the body has been yielded up, and then becomes
proportionate to the diminished heat production.

The cause of the primary increased heat evolution is probably vasomo-
tor palsy. The interior of the body maintains its temperature by keep-
ing a partially cooled layer between it and the external air. When the
external cold is great, the superficial vessels are contracted, and loss of
heat is as far as possible prevented. After section of the cord, the super-
ficial capillaries relax and the surface temperature rises. Later on, as
the interior heat fails, the superficies and the deep parts of the body
alike grow cooler, and the great loss of heat is arrested. A question
how presented itself for solution, as to how far the loss of heat directly
checks chemical movements inside of the body, and how far the lessened
heat production after cord section is the direct result of such influence
of the cold. This was partially solved by placing the animal in a calo-
rimeter heated to about 100° Fahr. Under these circumstances it was
found that sometimes the heat production was maintained after the
operation, but in other cases was markedly diminished: the causes of the
difference will be fully detailed in the extended memoir, but are here
omitted. The calorimeter worked at a high temperature is not an
instrument of precision, so that no absolute authority can be accorded
to the experiments just spoken of. Nevertheless it will be seen that the
results accord with the fact (earlier stated) that sometimes in the heated
chamber rise of the bodily temperature was more pronounced after than
before section of the cord. The evidence indicates that after spinal sec-
tion the diminished heat production is not always or even usually in chief
part caused by loss of heat, but that the reduction of temperature may
have some influence in lessening the activity of the chemical movements
of the body.

When the great rise of bodily temperature that follows immediately
section of the cord above the governing vasomotor center in the medulla
is called to mind, the necessity of studying as to whether this rise is
due to disturbance of heat evolution or heat production becomes appa-
tent. Such studies reached the result that heat production is excess-
ively increased by section of the cord at its junction with the pons.

Anelaborate series of experiments were performed confirming the results
previously reached by other observers, that if changes in the arterial pres-
sure can be taken as a guide, the governing vasomotor center is situated
in the medulla oblongata. Conceding this, it would seem proven that
vasomotor paralysis is the cause of the diminished heat production which
usually follows section of the dorsal spinal cord, even when the bodily
temperature is artificially maintained. It is plain how such palsy must
everywhere render the circulation much less quick, more sluggish than
normal, and this is probably the immediate cause of the failure of heat
productions. The fact that sometimes, especially in very vigorous dogs,
the production of heat was rather increased than lessened by spinal
section, indicates that there is some influence at work antagonistic to

RESEARCHES UPON FEVER. 423

the changes of the circulation, which is at times able to overcome the
influence of these changes. This would seem to be rendered certain by
the effects of section above the medulla, which was found to increase
extraordinarily the production of the animal heat, the evolution not
being notably affected. In one or more of the experiments the animal
lived for twenty-four hours, and at the end of that time, notwithstanding
no food had been ingested, the rate of heat production was still notably
above normal. Where a result of nerve section remains for twenty-four
hours it is usually considered paralytic, and it seems to me only the
strongest arguments could establish that the increase of heat produc-
tion just mentioned is of other character. Three theories suggest them-
selves as capable of accounting for the phenomena: first, that there is
in the pons or higher up a center which inhibits chemical movements in
the body, and that the section of the cord at the pons takes off from
the general tissues this restraining influence; second, that the animal
heat is mainly made in the muscle, and that the vasomotor center of
the muscles is situated above the medulla, so that it is paralyzed when
the section is made between the pons’ and medulla; third, that the sec-
tion irritates the vasomotor centers and thus influences heat production
by influencing the circulation.

The irritation theory was disproved by direct experiment, careful
cardiometrical studies showing that the arterial pressure is not seri-
ously affected by the operation, and that the circulation after the opera-
tion preserved all its normal relations with the organism below the sec-
tion. Again, the persistence of the increased heat production for
twenty-four hours seems very inconsistent with the irritation theory.
Any one who has divided a spinal cord knows that all symptoms of irri-
tation subside usually in a few minutes after a clean section. Finally,
in two experiments punctures were made into the region of the junction
of the medulla and pons, just sufficient to cause irritation, and the result
was lessening of the heat production.

The conclusion that there is among the upper nerve-centers one which
directly or indirectly controls the production of animal heat independ-
ently of the vasomotor centers of the medulla was further corroborated
by a series of experiments of a different character from any as yet
spoken of. If a sensitive nerve be galvanized there is a fall of the bod-
ily temperature, which has usually been attributed to changes in the
cir@ilation and respiration. By experiments, which will be reported

_fully in the memoir, this fall of temperature is shown to be independent
of the respiration, or of any changes in the blood pressure, such as is
produced through the governing vasomotor centersof the medulla. Fur-
ther, when the pons is separated from the medulla by section, it is impos-
sible to produce a decided fall of the bodily temperature by galvanization
of a sensitive nerve, although both circulation and respiration are appar-
ently affected as in the normal animal. The only plausible explanation

of this is that there is a nerve center above the point of section, which

424 RESEARCHES UPON FEVER.

influences the development of animal heat independently of the respira-
tory or circulatory centers in the pons. It would seem, therefore, that
we must adopt one of the first two theories as the true explanation of
the phenomena observed. To decide which of the two is correct is not
at present possible. We would naturally expect some distinct altera-
’ tion of blood pressure to follow paralysis of the arterioles of the mus-
cles, but the abdominal vessels are so enormous that it is possible that
they are the dominating influence in the blood pressure. I am still
engaged upon this subject, but what will come out of it is uncertain.

It having been noticed by Hitzig and other experimenters that wounds
of certain portions of the brain cortex near the sulcus cruciatus are in
the day followed by rise of temperature upon the opposite side of the
body, attention was directed to this region. It was first proven by
cardiometrical experiment that such wounds do not affect the general
circulation to an appreciable extent. Seventeen calorimetrical experi-
ments were there made. Five with destruction of both Hitzig’s regions;
result, average increase of heat production 53 per cent. Seven with de-
struction of one Hitzig region; result, average gain of heat production
19 percent. Five with destruction of other portions of the cortex; result,
in no case increase of the heat production. Then the same region was
irritated with salt, and the heat production was found to be lessened.
These results certainly are very extraordinary if there be no connection
between this cortical region and the production of animal heat. Sup-
posing the method of investigation faulty, the chances of nineteen suc-
cessive experiments of different character, all concurring in their result,
would be very small. When it is also borne in mind that these nine-
teen experiments are in accord with a long preceding series of com-
plicated experiments, and that no exception has been met with, it is
plain how small must be the chances of serious error either in the
method or result.

In studying the subject of fever itself, the first question investigated
was whether the febrile elevation of temperature be due to increased
production, or simply lessened evolution of caloric. The experiments
were mostly made upon dogs; each experiment lasted not less than
three days, most of them six days; thermometrical readings being
made every 20 minutes by night as by day. The normal and febrile
states were studied, both when food was administered and when it was
withheld. The first result was to show that there are two distinct®va-
rieties, so to speak, of animal heat, namely, that derived from the
stored-up materials of the body, and that derived from the food; and
that the second factor in the heat production is of great value, although
it does not decidedly affect the bodily temperature. After a full meal,
the amount of heat developed is enormous; but it is evolved as fast as
produced. In fever little or no food is taken, and consequently this factor
disappears. The heat produced at the expense of the stored materials
of the body is always excessively increased in fever, and usually more

RESEARCHES UPON FEVER, 425

than compensates for the loss of the food heat. In the dog at least, how-
ever, there are periods of high temperature in which less heat is being
produced than after a full meal in the normal animal. It is plain that
disturbance of the heat production is a factor of the febrile state; but
it would seem that there is also a disturbance of the heat evolution, else
more of the extra caloric would be gotten rid of. It has been shown
that the diurnal rhythmic changes of temperature are usually parallel
in health and fever; and it would seem that in regular fever there is a
moving up of the habitual plane of heat upon which the organism is
run. What has been made out as to the methods of heat production.
and evolution naturally suggests, as a plausible theory of fever, that the
febrile state is chiefly due to a loss of power of the upper centers, mus-
culo-vasomotor, or heat inhibiting, as the case may be, and to a less
extent of sensibility of the vasomotor centers which preside over heat
evolution. As the result of the weakening of the upper centers, more
heat is developed; whilst the benumbed vasomotor centers require a
greater degree of heat to stimulate them to throw off the excessive
caloric produced. In investigating the truth of this theory, the first
effort was to determine how fever is caused. Many fevers are evidently
the result of the introduction of a poison in the blood; but it has been
thought that inflammatory fever is produced by irritation of peripheral
nerve. If, however, all the nerves going to the hind leg of a dog be
divided, and after recovery has taken place the anesthetic limb be
wounded, traumatic fever is developed as soon and as intensely as in
the normal animal similarly wounded. Such fever would seem to be
due to an absorption of a poison into the blood; for fever is a general
pathological process, involving the whole system, and the blood in the
wounded animal, with divided nerves, is the one apparent channel of
communication between the injured part and the general system. It is
plain that a poison circulating in the blood may affect heat production,
either by acting upon the nerve centers or by acting on the tissues of the
body. There are certain clinical malarial phenomena which tell very
strongly against the idea of fever being due to an action upon the uni-
versal protoplasm. Such phenomena are the regular sequence of com-
plicated symptoms which usually make up the intermittent paroxysm ;
the frequent regular interchange between this fever paroxysm and neu-
ralgic and other nerve storms, one replacing the other; the occasional
occurrence of local paroxysms of intermittent fever involving only or
chiefly certain regions of the body. To aid in elucidating the matter,
two series of experiments were performed: In the first, the efiect of
section of the cord was studied in animals suffering from fever. The
result was an exaggeration of the phenomena which occur after spinal
section in the uninjured animal, heat evolution being enormously in-
creased at first. This indicates that in fever the vasomotor nerves are
more active in restraining heat evolution than in health. The second
series of experiments consisted in irritating peripheral sensitive nerves

426 RESEARCHES UPON FEVER.

in rabbits, upon successive non-fever days, and successive pyemic febrile
days. These experiments were made, and in each case, the same irritation
being employed, the fall of temperature was much less upon the febrile
than upon the non-febrile days. This, of course, indicates that in fever
the inhibitory heat center is less powerful or active than in health.

Tn conclusion, the results reached in the research may be summed up
as follows:

First. Fever is a morbid nutritive process, whose characteristic is ex-
cessive heat production.

Second. Heat evolution is under the control of the vasomotor nerve
centers (the dominating center being situated in the floor of the fourth
ventricle, near the point of the calamus); including also in man the
nerves which preside over the secretion of sweat.

Third. Heat production is dominated by some higher nerve centers of
uncertain nature.

Fourth. That in health there is in man, and probably in every animal,
a fixed temperature mean, and a normal diurnal variation of tempera-
ture having a regular rhythm, which is beyond the control of all dis-
turbing causes that do not force the organism beyond the limits of health.

Fifth. That the maintenance of the normal variation is the result of
the play between the nervous systems which control the functions of
heat production and evolution.

Sixth. Fever is a morbid process in which there is not only an eleva-
tion of the bodily temperature but also an increase in the chemical move-
ments of the stored materials, 7. ¢., the tissues of the body; this increase
being usually but not always much more than sufficient to compensate
for the loss of food heat. The rise of the bodily temperature in fever is
not solely dependent upon increased heat production.

Seventh. In fever there is usually a daily temperature variation par-
allel to and differing from the normal health variation only in having a
higher mean.

Eighth. That vasomotor paralysis in fever is followed by an almost in-
stantaneous sinking of temperature below normal, the fall being much more
rapid and excessive than is produced by vasomotor paralysis in health.

Ninth. The higher centers which preside over the heat function are
not paralyzed in pyemic fever in the rabbit, but are certainly less capa-
ble than in health of responding promptly and powerfully to stimula-
tion; or in other words they are in a condition of paresis.

Tenth. That the clinical phenomena of malarial and other fevers
indicate that the febrile motion is of nervous origin.

Eleventh. That in most and probably in all continued fevers the symp-
toms are due to a poison in the blood.

Twelfth. That fever appears to be caused by a loss of functional ac-
tivity in the higher centers which regulate the production and evolution
of animal heat due to the action of a blood poison upon the centers.

UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA,

Philadelphia, February 6, 1879.

CONSTANTS OF NATURE.

By JoHN LE CONTE,
Of the University of California.

[ Vide. Paper on “Sound” in ‘‘Lond., Edin., Dub., Phil., Mag.” 4th Series, Vol. 27,
pp. 15, 16, 17, 18, 29 et seq— January, 1864. ]

_—_—$———————————————————————————————— ———— mee ay nlf rin DT ULI EOUEIUI UU
Constants. Logarithms.

Weight of 1 litre of mereury at
Paris, 60 metres above sea, at 0°

OR ee ee oes feeb ate 13595.93 grammes 4, 13340, 89199
Weight of 1 cubic foot (English) of

BaMe ee eae oto eee Oona ates 848.7196416 pounds avoirdupois.....---.-..------- 2. 92876, 42591
Weight of 1 cubic inch (English) of

GMT Gs 345855 pooqoodsemacosoScacacs 0.4911572 pounds avoirdupois. -.-.--.------------ —1. 69122,05210

IW Sensse cee cemoceodes soatices 3438.1004 prains -—--- <2 eee em =~ 3. 53631, 85610
Weight of 1 litre of pure, dry air at

Paris, 60 metres above sea, at 0°

C., pressure =760 ™™ of mercury,

Cie Oe cases sent} oocess SES Saeeees 1293 2207s OTANI CS tee ele a aoe eee ee 0. 11167,33192
Weight of same at sea-level -.-.--- TPB SA eis) Parnes! Wesco tpdoed spoooemccessescs6oc 0. 11167, 87259
Weight of same at equator -------- TPR) Pagrines) oe poondes spn oocobeccoTeHorgces= 0. 11037,41927
Weight of same at latitude 45° ..-.) 1.2927818 grammes .--..-------- wewecceece-| 0.11152.52294
Weight of same with 0.0004 vol-

umes of CO, at Paris, height =60™) 1.2934963 grammes - - -.- Eee rctce se eescecececwes 0. 11176,51908
Do., at Paris, height = 0™ ----..--. 12035124 oTAM MES em ae seeaiseaistetse = ofetee taille 0. 11177, 05964
Do., at equator, height =0™_..---- 1 OSOCS28lorammMesis ange eaters en alaae ce eae te re 0. 11046, 60703
Do., at latitude 45°, height—0™. .-.| 1.2930553 grammes .....--..--.+--------+-+--------- ~ 0. 11161,70987

Weight of 1 cubic foot (English) of
pure, dry air at Paris, height =
60™, at 0° C., pressure = 760 ™™ of

TH OLCUL YE eee hic aeaeiaie sis 0.0807288 pounds avoirdupois..----.-------------- —2. 90702, 86584
Weight of 1 cubic foot of same..-.| 565.101792 grains ....------------+---------+------ 2. 75212, 66984
Weight of 1 cubic inch of same. ...| 0.3270265 graims .-..------..-.---+--------------- —1. 51458, 29603
Weight of 1 cubic foot with COz...| 0.0807459 pounds avoirdupois. --.....-.-----------| —2. 90712, 05300

ID Wesgaaas oe cae abeeopocdodse RRA BY/ HAS) pepo ea anc ono soconsece seguaSodaces= 2. 75221,85700
Weight of 1 cubie inch with COz. .-| 0.8270957 graims .--..--.--------------+--++------- —1. 51467,48319

4 : 1. 2893600 b—0. 378 X 1.32 xh 3
Weight of 1 litre of air 1-10. 00367 Xt »K 760 Sy 2X") (1-40. 005307746 x sin? lat. )

1, 2896328 b—0. 378 Xf

: ; : 1.32Xh ct Be A
Weight of 1 litre of air + CO2 T+ 0. 00367 x re 760 x ( aa ) x (140. 005307746 x sin*lat.)

[Weight in grammes: t=C°; b=height of bar in ™™ of mere. at 0° C: f=tension of aq. vap.in ™ of
mere. at 0° C: k=height above sea-level: 7=rad. of earth.)

Dens. wiz =? t= 0° C: pr.=0".76..| At Paris, height = 60" = 10,513.2163 ......- 4. 02173, 56007

IDR persodbasade Re coe conE a At Paris, height = 0™ = 10,513.085 ........ 4. 02173,01940

IDM: soScobedocaesegueatCosodee At equator, height = 0™ = 10,544.712 .......- 4. 02303,47272

TDs caste eseeepreoocnodacstoss At latitude 45°, height = 0™ = 10,516.802 ......-. 4. 02188, 36905

Same + CO2 At Paris, height = 60™ = 10,510.992 ........ 4. 02164,37291

TO ee ets - eco Bote At Paris, height = 0™ =10,510.861 ......-.. 4. 02163, 83235

HOME ceca cen cecie seiner At equator, height = 0™ = 10,542,481 ........ 4. 02294, 28496

eS Se ato ncnateeaee At latitude 45°, height = 0™ = 10,514.577 ........| 4. 02179,18212
Pressure of atmosphere at t = 0°

@: bar = 0™.76 of mercury--..-.. On square centim. = 1033.29068 grammes. .-.--..- 3. 01422, 25122

TOR See eee ci os oo te gesicre On square centim. = 1.03329068 kilogrammes ..--- 0. 01422, 25122

WO ee aceeacoee sacs On square metre = 10332.9068 kilogrammes ------ 4. 01422, 25122

1D GY, seb eorneese dos On square inch = 14.6963 pounds avoirdupois .---) 1. 16720,82426

ore On square foot = 2116.268 pounds avoirdupois....| 3. 32557,07347
Height of homogeneous atmosphere

Ofpairnting — 00) Greer seers sat == "7990044388 metresi-n -2.4--sclcesecees ence -= 5 3. 90254, 91930

IDMeaaoshncoascnsobooqopacséac = 26214.52864 (English) feet..............-..-.... 4. 41854, 20762

428 ' CONSTANTS OF NATURE.

Constants. Logarithms.
Length of seconds’ Pend. Biot’s re-
sults corrected At Paris, height = 60" = 0™.99390,2053....| —1. 99734,35877
Nowss ese aes = At Paris, height = 0™ = 0™.99391,4420..-.}| —1, 99734,89915
SO ee seat cccle cs tae At equator, height = 0™ = 0™,99093,3412....} —1. 99604,44721
IDS, £5 ARSE RSs SaaS aeorerocre At latitude 45°, height = 0™ = 0™.99356,3224. ...| —1. 99719.55080
WOU Seem ckcece ces steceeeesce| Adipole: height = 0™ = 0".99619,3035. --.| —1. 99834,35010
MO) Besos ee. ceee acisee coeemenes At London, height = 0™ = 0™,99418,3474....}| —1. 99746,65397
WO eae wees oisces tines oe eeeee es! -| At London, height = 0™ = 3f.26181,573..... 0. 513845, 94229
1D) Gapgssmbnadaesoc dicieece ene At London, height = 0™ = 39in,14178,878..... 1.59264, 06690

The value for London has been computed from Sabine’s experiments. (Phil Trans. for 1828), cor-
rected by Baily (Mem. of Ast. Society, vol 7).

1.32 xh
L in metres =0».990033412( 1-=""<*) » (14 0, 005307786 x stn? lat. )
Velocity generated by gravity (g)
in a mean solar second of time.-.-} At Paris, height = 60™ = 9™,.80942,005..... 0. 99164, 33331
DO scrcces testes teton ene eo Ate ans height = 0™ = 9”,80954,210 .... 0. 99164, 87369
DO cemesopeice csciicen saceseee At latitude 0°, height = 0™ = 9™.78012,073..-.. 0, 99034,42175
TO tes 0 od Cas, Bee me an At latitude 45°, height = 0™ = 9™,£0607,593..... 0. 99149, 52534
TDG eee ene es Sa ha At latitude 90°, height = 0™ = 9™,83203,115..... 0. 99264, 32454
DORs seen eansnecnectici oe al Al EeOndon. height = 0™ = 9™.81219,755..... 0. 99176, 62851
INO Pace are teleeeine seme Tacaeiaee At London, height = 0” = 32't,19283,06...-.. 1. 50775, 91683
1.32xh F
g in metres=9".78012073 ( I~ = )x (1+0. 00530746 x sin? lat. )
Theoretical velocity of sound (New-
ton’s formula) in dry air, at t=
SIO eee sen acne Sead mecives icine 279.9602 metres per second...-.-. moped wevecercns 2. 44709, 62631
Yee se Sgossoheceaeagoscedse: 918.5210 feet per second ..... Ar AA oo (dec eaneaooS 2. 96308, 91463

Experimental velocity of sound in
dry air, at t= 0° C: Dntch ex-
periments corrected, by Le Conte.| 332.7167 metres per second..-,-----«.-------+----| 2. 52207,47

OTH eles ee a Steams aces 10917610 feetperisecond Seances ceoe neat a eee ae 3. 03806, 76
17 WEHNG GG) lis Set oee sees oaks 332.6724 metres per second .--.-.-.--..----------- 2. 52201, 67
WOs te ees so ceseeaceseatemece 109].464 feat per second .....225----------ceeee nes 3. 03800, 96

Density of gas; air = 1. Reg-
nault’s results corrected:

Oxy Ponies ste sae aes ne ane stSrce- Ties Bee Sepearcte seonenobs Soe ned esaess 0. 04360, 27
INMUIRIS 3 spe coepposooadariseacesabean (Ur BY ye ss 6 Ae or Saree sens atic Seccbese sco)! SSE TBI 3)
Hydrogen. -- > : Sol) UYU Ae oeeaseennoocs secocerebsccaesccconacodins —2. 84053, 89
CLO nocanooncdeso sepabasscsonscqc0ee 1 PO coe eae ogopanorcacmere qnode ce nageacdassse 0. 18443, 59

LIST OF APPARATUS RELATING TO HEAT, LIGHT, ELECTRICITY,
MAGNETISM, AND SOUND, AVAILABLE FOR SCIENTIFIC RE-
SEARCHES INVOLVING ACCURATE MEASUREMENTS.*

Professors WOLCOTT GIBBS, EDWARD C. PICKERING, and JOHN
TROWBRIDGE, of Harvard University, have lately corresponded with
the leading institutions of learning, and obtained consent for the use
of the below-mentioned instruments for purposes of research by prop-
erly-qualified persons.

UNITED STATES COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY OFFICE, WASHING-
TON, D. C.

The use of this apparatus may be had at the office, under appropriate
regulations. Applications must be made to Capt. C. P. PATTERSON,
Superintendent United States Coast Survey.

1. Comparators of length:

a. Saxton’s pyrometer, or mirror comparator, for end measures.

b. Repsold’s contact-lever comparator, for end measures.

c. Saxton’s tracing and comparing machine, for line measures.

d. Hilgard’s comparator, for line and end measures for any length
between three and forty inches.

e. Rutherfurd’s micrometer, with two screws at right angles, and circle
of position for measuring stellar and solar photographs.

2. Standards of length:

a. Standard iron meter of original committee for establishing metric
system (end measure).

b. Standard British yard (line measure).

Standard British yard (end measure).

Highty-four-inch scale, divided to tenths of inches, made by Troughton
and compared throughout by Hassler.

ce. Decimetre divided into centimetres and millimetres, compared with
the original standard metre.

d. Copy of toise, accurately compared.

3. Apparatus for weighing.—Balances of precision formaximum charges
of 100, 10, and 1 kilogrammes, and 100 and 1 grammes.

4, Standard weights—Standard troy and avoirdupois pounds; kilo-
gramme in platinum and in brass accurately compared.

*From the Scientific American Supplement for August, 1879.
429

430 SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS.

AMERICAN ACADEMY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES, Boston, MAss.

Applications for use must be made to Prof. JOSEPH LOVERING, chair-
man of the Rumford Committee, Cambridge, Mass.

1. Meyerstein’s spectrometer.—Aperture of collimator and telescope, 3.3
centimetres ; magnifying power of telescope 18 times; graduated circle
reads by means of two micrometers to two seconds. Instrument intended
to be used with a diagonal eye-piece for obtaining reflection at right
angles to the reflecting surface. It is not well adapted for measuring
indices of refraction, except by the special method for which the instru-
ment was designed.

2. Large hollow prism of glass, with movable glass faces, held in their
places by springs. Angle 60°.

3. Prof. J. Trowbridge’s electro-dynamometer.—Instrument for measur-
ing the strength of powerful electric currents such as are produced by
dynamo-electric machines. Mean radius of fixed coils 153.3 millimetres.
Instrument described in Proceedings of American Academy of Arts and
Sciences, October 9, 1878.

4. Thomson’s galvanometer, resistance 6 ohms.

5. Micrometer-level, constructed by Alvan Clark & Sons. Telescope,
45 centimetres focal length and 4 centimetres aperture, in Y’s moved by
vertical micrometer screw, reading to 0.3” by estimation of tenths. In-
tended also for use with eye-piece micrometer. One division of level
tube (0.15 cm.) =8.7’.. Transverse level and slow motion for rotating
telescope in Y’s. Horizontal finding circle graduated to degrees.

6. Light micrometer-level_—Telescope 21 centimetres focal length and
25 centimetres aperture, in Y’s moved by vertical micrometer screw, read-
ing to 1.4” by estimation of tenths. One division of level tube (0.25
em.) =1.8’.. Horizontal finding circle graduated to degrees.

7. Microscope-tube and accessories, specially designed for measuring
spectrum photographs. Also a standard plate of 24ths of an inch; rulings
on glass by Prof. William A. Rogers.

8. A large double induction coil of the form devised by Prof. John
Trowbridge.

9. Apparatus for the determination of the mechanical equivalent of heat.—
Devised by Prof. Henry A. Rowland, of Johns Hopkins University, and
now in his charge.

HARVARD UNIVERSITY.—RUMFORD CABINET, CAMBRIDGE, MAss.
(In charge of Professor WOLCOTT GIBBS.)

1. A spectrometer by Brunner Fréres, of Paris. The instrument has
a single-graduated circle 10 centimetres radius, reading by two verniers
to 5 seconds of arc, and by a micrometer eye-piece to about 2 seconds.
The telescope and collimator have 33 centimetres focal length, and 3.4
centimetres aperture. The micrometer is provided with cross and also

SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS. 431

with parallel spider lines, and with a separate collimating eye-piece.
The spectrometer stands upon ‘a plate of metal which can be made to
revolve, so that measurements by repetition are practicable. ‘The instru-
ment is in perfect adjustment, and has everything necessary for the de-
termination of wave lengths and of indices of refraction. In connection
with it the Rumford cabinet possesses:

2. Two gratings, Nos. 1 and 2, ruled on speculum metal by D. C. Chap-
man with Mr. Rutherfurd’s engine. One of these, No. 1, has 8,648 lines
to the inch and a ruled surface (4.3 em. X 5.2 em.). The other has 17,296
lines to the inch and the same ruled surface as No. 1. They may be ad-
justed to the spectrometer above described by plate-holders constructed
by William Grunow, of New York, with all necessary requirements for
the measurement of wave lengths.

3. A collimator, 1.6 metres focal length and 6.5 centimetres aperture,
mounted upon a stand and specially adapted to the study of the extreme
visible red and violet ends of the spectrum. Object-glass by Alvan Clark
& Sons. <A quartz lens of same focal length is to be added to this in-
strument from the workshop of Steeg & Reuter, in Homburg vor der
Hohe, as well as a telescope with quartz objective and eye-piece for
observing the ultra-violet spectrum.

4. A porte-lumiére, by Duboseq. A Foucault’s heliostat has been
ordered, and may be expected in the course of the summer.

5. Vierordt’s apparatus for measuring the intensity of light correspond-
ing to any part of the visible spectrum. Telescope and collimator 25
centimetres focal length. Apertures, 2.8 centimetres and 2.1 centimetres.
The instrument was made by Schmidt & Haensch, of Berlin, and is com-
piete with prism and colored glasses.

6. A direct-vision spectroscope, with two sets of 9 prisms each. Set 1
contains 4 prisms of carbonic disulphide and 5 of crown glass. Set 2
consists of 4 prisms of flint and 5of crown. The length of the instrument
is 60 centimetres. It is provided with a scale telescope, and the observ-
ing telescope has the usual angular motion. This instrument is also by
Schmidt & Haensch.

7. An inductorium, by Apps, of London, giving a 4-inch spark.

8. Three thermometers, by Baudin, of Paris, reading to .01 degree cen-
tigrade.

No. 1. Reading from 0.° to 12° centigrade.

No. 2. Reading from 12° to 23°.

No. 3. Reading from 23° to 35°.

In these instruments the weights of the bulbs, stems, and contained
mercury are given.

9. Edison’s tasimeter, made by Patrick & Carter, of Philadelphia, and
adjusted by Mr. Edison. See American Journal of Arts and Sciences,
3d series, Vol. XVII, p. 52. A galvanometer suited to this instrument
will be found in the cabinet in charge of Professor Trowbridge, together
with the requisite batteries and Wheatstone’s bridge.

432 SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS.

In connection with these instruments the following, ee to the
Rumford professor, are also available:

1. A large spectroscope with telescope and collimator of 4.75 centimetres
aperture and 5.5 centimetres focal length. Magnifying power from 8 to
60 times. Object-glasses by Fitz, of New York. Six hollow prisms of
carbonic disulphide—glass faces 6x8 centimetres—arranged on Mr.
Rutherfurd’s plan, so that all the prisms are constantly in the position
of minimum deviation. The stand, observing telescope, and prisms of
this instrument may be used in connection with the long collimator
belonging to the Rumford cabinet.

2. A large hollow prism, with angle of 30°—glass faces 6x 8.5 centi-
metres—for Professor Gibbs’s solution of phosphorus and sulphur in ear-
bonic disulphide. See American Journal of Science and Arts, Vol. IV, p.
G, 2d series.

3. Two flint-glass prisms—faces 8.5x5 centimetres—which may be
used singly or together. Angles of 60°.

4. Professor Gibbs’s double or compensating prism for the study of ab-
sorption spectra. See American Journal of Arts and Sciences, Vol. 1V,p. 8.

5. Five gratings ruled with Mr. Rutherfurd’s engine:

No. 1. Ruled on speculum metal, 6,480 lines to the inch. Ruled sur-
face 2.1X2.8 centimetres. Metal a little tarnished.
No. 2. Ruled on glass and silvered, 8,640 lines to the inch; 7,021 lines
upon a ruled surface 2x2.7 centimetres. Covering-plate.of glass cemented

with Canada balsam.

No. 3. Ruled on glass for spectra by transmission, 6,480 lines to the
inch. Ruled surface 1.72.7 centimetres.

No. 4. Ruled on glass for transmission of light, 12,960 lines to the inch.
Ruled surface 1.3X2.7 centimetres.

No. 5. Ruled on glass and silvered; 13,321 lines on a space 19x24
centimetres, with covering-glass cemented by Canada balsam.

Kirchhoff’s, Angstrém’s, and Mascart’s maps of the spectrum.

Mr. Rutherfurd’s original photographs, together with the German
lithographic reproduction of the same.

Mr. Rutherfurd’s recent photographs taken with the diffraction spec-
trum. ‘Thalen’s map of the absorptive bands of iodine vapor.

The thermometers by Fastré, of Paris, carefully compared with an air
thermometer reading from 0° to 100° C.

ee

HARVARD UNIVERSITY.—DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS.
(In charge of Professor JOHN TROWBRIDGE. )

1. Hdelmann’s instrument for measuring horizontal and vertical in-
tensity of earth’s magnetism.

The peculiarity of this instrament consists in its allowance of a long
suspension, and in its torsion head.

SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS. 433

2. A standard ohm, end two boxes of resistance coils running from one
to five thousand ohins.

3. An induction coil made in the horseshoe form and provided with
iron plates for armatures. The two induction coils comprise a resistance
of 12,000 ohms.

4, Galvanometer for absolute measure.—Maker: Edelmann, Munich.
A short coil minor instrument, adapted for absolute measures by certain
methods. Resistance, 6 ohms.

5. Thomson’s reflecting galvanometers.—One of 5,880 ohms resistance—
a differential instrument.

One of 6 ohms resistance, adapted for heat measures.

6. Thomson’s quadrant electrometer.r~Made by White, of Glasgow.

7. Cathetometer.—Maker: Perreaux, Paris. Reads by vernier to 2-
100ths of millimetre, or by micrometer to 1-100th of a millimetre. Focal
length of objective, 13 centimetres; magnifying power of telescope 30
times.

8. Dividing engine—Maker: Perreaux, Paris. Screw, 61 centimetres
long. Pitch of serew, one-half of a millimetre. Micrometer reads to
one four-hundredth of a millimetre. Instrument adapted only for grad-
uating tubes and scales, or for comparison of graduations.

9. Large spectroscope-—Designed by Professor J. P. Cooke, of Harvard
University. Two trains of prisms. One of nine bisulphide of carbon
prisms of 45°. One of nine flint-glass prisms of 45°. Graduated circle
reading to 10 seconds, also a micrometer eye-piece. Magnifying power
of telescope, 10 times; focal length of objective, 46 centimetres; aperture,
5.5 centimetres.

10. Reading telescope and scale—On brass leveling stand. Telescope
provided with two objectives: one for short, the other for long, distances.

Magnifying power for long distances, 22 times.

Magnifying power for short distances, 30 times.

Focal length of the objective for long distances, 30 centimetres.

Focal length of the objective for short distances, 23 centimetres.

Aperture of objectives, four centimetres.

HARVARD UNIVERSITY.—ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATORY.
(In charge of Professor E. C. PICKERING.)

LIST OF INSTRUMENTS NOT IN CONSTANT USE AND AVAILABLE FOR
RESEARCH.

1. East transit circle, by Troughton and Simms, of London. Aperture
of telescope, 44 inches; focal length, 5 feet. Described in Vol. I, pt. 1,
of the Annals of the Observatory, p. 46.

2. West equatorial, by Alvan Clark & Sons, of Cambridge. Aperture
of telescope, 54 inches; focal length, 74 feet. Described in Vol. VIII
of the Annals of the Observatory, p. 31.

S. Mis. 59 28

434 SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS.

3. Portable transit instrument, by Herbst, of Pulkowa. Aperture of
telescope, 22 inches; focal length, 33 inches. Eye-piece at end of axis.
Described in Vol. VIII of the Annals of the Observatory, p. 28.

4, Bowditch comet-seeker.—Aperture, 4 inches; focal length, 53 inches.
Described in Vol. VIII of the Annals of the Observatory, p. 52.

5. Telescope, by Lerebours. Aperture, 3 inches; focal length, 50
inches.

6. Telescope, by Alvan Clark & Sons. Aperture, 3$ inches; focal
length, 39 inches. Object-glass slightly damaged.

7. Variation transit, by Troughton & Simms, of London. Aperture
of telescope, 13 inches; focal length, 18 inches.

8. Traveler's transit theodolite, No. 3527, by L. P. Casella.

9. Sextant, by Spencer, Browning & Rust.

10. Spectroscope, by Troughton & Simms, of London, with two prisms,
and Professor Winlock’s apparatus for recording observations, as de-
scribed in Vol. VIII of the Annals of the Observatory, p. 33.

11. Spectroscope, by J. Browning, of London, with one prism, and
Professor Winlock’s apparatus for recording observations.

12. Spectroscope, by Alvan Clark & Sons, of Cambridge, with five
prisms and reflecting prism to send the light a second time through them.
Dispersive power exceeding that of 22 ordinary prisms. Prisms not
movable. Described in Vol. VIII of the Annals of the Observatory,
p. 30. ;

13. Lens of plate glass—Focal length, about 40 feet; aperture, 4
inches.

14. Lens corrected for chemical rays.—Focal length, 32 feet 5 inches;
aperture, 4 inches.

15. Photometer, by Ausfeld, of Gotha, on plan of Professor Zoller.

16. Occultator (for computation of occultations), on plan of Rev.
Thomas Hill.

17. Position circle, read by verniers to minutes of are.

18. Thermometric chronometer, by C. Frodsham, of London, No. 3,424,
constructed so as to increase its daily rate: by 6.11” on a reduction of one
degree Fahrenheit.

19. Clock, by W. Bond & Son, of Boston, No. 312.

20. Small chronograph, by Herbst, of Pulkowa.

21. Portions of the magnetic apparatus described in Vol. I, part 1, of
the Annals of the Observatory.

(Property of Professor WILLIAM A. ROGERS.)

1. Small line and circle graduating engine. This machine is designed
for all kinds of graduations, in which the length of the line to be ruled
does not exceed 2 inches. The errors of the serew for one-thousandth
of an inch have been carefully investigated. It is not automatic in its
action, and hence it is not adapted to ruling diffraction gratings. The
circular graduations are only approximate.

SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS. 435

2. Machine for original graduation of circles from J-inch to 15-inch
disk.

3. Machine for shaping and polishing diamonds for marking on glass
and on all kinds of metals.

4. Microscope comparator for short lengths.

5. Comparator for long standards of length.

6. In process of construction at the Waltham Watch Factory: A uni-
versal line graduation engine. This machine is designed:

(1). To rule Nobert’s bands.

(2). To graduate both short and long standards of length.

(3). To rule diffraction gratings in which—

(a) Any required relation between the relative width of the lines and.
the spaces may be secured.

(b) Errors of any required magnitude may be introduced, whether in-
dividual or systematic, without interference with the remaining gradua-
tions.

HARVARD UNIVERSITY.—MEDICAL SCHOOL PHYSIOLOGICAL LABORA-
TORY.

(In charge of Prof. H. P. BOWDITCH.)

1. Thomson's galvanometer, No. 26, Elliott Brothers.. Resistance at
55° F. = 5,995 B. A. units.

2. Wiedemann’s galvanometer, with mirror and two pairs of coils of 4,000
and 98 turns respectively.

3. British Association unit of resistance, No. 74, right at 15.5° C.

4, Pendulum myograph, described by Dr. J. J. Putnam at the Ameri-
can Academy, March, 1879.

5. Cylinder chronograph: Baltzar, Karolinen Strasse, 14, Leipsic.

6. Chronograph, with long roll of paper. Baltzar. Leipsie.

7. Clock for making or breaking an electrical circuit once in 1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 10, 15, 20, 30, or 60 seconds, the duration of the make or break varia-
ble from 0 to 4 seconds.

STEVENS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, HOBOKEN, N. J.
(For the use of this apparatus application may be made to Prof. A. M. MAYER.)

1. Apparatus for the determination of coefficients of expansion.—Con-
sists of the tube (invented by Professor Mayer) to hold the rod under
measurement. This tube is so constructed that the rod up to its termi-
nal planes is kept permanently at the temperature of melting ice, or at
the boiling-point, or at any intermediate temperature, by passing a cur-
rent of water or hot oil through the tube; at the same time the terminal
planes of the rod are exposed for abutment against micrometer screws,
&c. The rod is supported in the tube at quarters of its length from its

436 SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS.

ends, and the weight of tube and inclosed rod is taken off the V’s of the
apparatus by straps and spring balances.

The measuring part of the apparatus is entirely distinct, and at a dis-
tance from the tube. The tube is only placed in contact with the measur-
ing apparatus at the moment of making the measurement.

The measures are made by Saxton’s reflecting comparator, or by mi-
crometer screws brought up to the ends of the rod, and contact deter-
mined by the closing of a voltaic circuit.

Successive contacts, made by successively placing the rod (cooled to
melting ice), give a range of measures on a rod one metre long, equal to
about 1-30,000th of an inch. Micrometer screws, pitch 1-50th and 1-100th
inch.

2. Vertical comparator, with contact lever, micrometer screw, pitch
= 1-100th inch. Well made, heavy cast-iron frame of T section, mounted
on a cast-iron tripod base.

3. Apparatus for the comparison of yard and metre (end or line meas-
ures) by Airy’s method. Massive cast-iron plate with guides, two mi-
crometer microscopes, with apparatus for handling measures.

4, Spectrometer.—Circle divided by Brunner of Paris, reading by ver-
nier to 5’. Telescopes: one set, one inch aperture, 10-inch focus.
Another set: collimator, 5 feet long, and observing telescope, 18 inches
focus. (Property of Professor Mayer.)

5. Interferential refractometer of Arago.—Tube of one metre for holding
gas whose index of refraction is to be measured. Collimator, six inches;
observing telescope, three-quarters of a metre focus.

6. Two of Hipp’s chronoscopes.

7. Electric clock, to be used in connection with inductorium and rotat-
ing cylinder, to determine the number of vibrations of tuning-forks and
other solid bodies.

8. Spherometer, by Brunner, of Paris, furnished with a contact lever.
Pitch of screw 0.5 millimeter.

9. Full sets of resistance coils, condensers, and high and low resistance
Thomson galvanometers.

MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY.—DEPARTMENT OF
Puysics, Boston, MAss.

(In charge of Professor CHARLES R. CROSS.)

1. Cathetometer, by Staudinger. Scale graduated to millimetres ;
length, 1,020 millimetres. Vernier reads directly to 1-20th millimetre.
Focal length of telescope is 280 millimetres. One division of level cor-
responds to 5”,

2. Dividing engine, by Buff and Berger. The microscope is carried by
two screws moving at right angles to each other, so as to give two co-
ordinates. The pitch is 1-20th inch, and the length of the screws, 16
inches and 4.5 inches respectively. Circles are divided into 100 parts,

SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS. 437

read by estimation to tenths. The instrument is arranged especially for
measurement rather than for graduation.

3. Spectrometer, by Clark. Furnished with five 60° and one 30° prisins,
the latter silvered on its rear surface. A greater or less number of prisms
ean be used at will. Face of prisms 5.7 centimetres by 7.3 centimetres.
Focal length of telescope, 70 centimetres; diameter of object-glass 5.2
centimetres. Diameter of circle, 43.5 centimetres, reading to 10” by
verniers. Smaller angles are measured by spider-line micrometer. The
same telescope serves as collimator and observing telescope, the method
of reflection from the silvered surface of the glass being used.

4. Diffraction grating, ruled by Chapman on Mr. Rutherfurd’s engine.
17,256 lines to an inch; 30,600 spaces. Area of ruling, 4.5 centimetres
square.

2. Two prisms of quartz, 60°, faces 5.5 centimetres by 4.0 centimetres.
Also various prisms of flint glass and heavy glass.

Eaton's direct-vision prism of glass and carbon disulphide. Small
direct-vision prisms of glass.

6. Polarimeter of Professor Pickering, for sky-polarization. See Proc.
Am. Acad., Vol. IX. .

7. Wheatstone’s bridge, by Elliott, measuring from .001 to 1,000,000
ohms.

8. Thomson’s long-coil galvanometer.—Resistance, 3,000 ohms. Thom-
son’s short-coil galvanometer for thermo-electrical work; resistance,
6-10 ohm.

9. B. A. divided metre bridge.

10. Tangent galvanometer.—36 coils, 26 centimetres radius. Gaugain
tangent and sine galvanometer. Cosine galvanometer.

11. Induction coil, by Ritchie, giving 6-inch spark.

CoLUMBIA COLLEGE, NEW YORK.
(In charge of Professor O. N. Roop.)

1. Newman’s standard barometer ; diameter of tube, 0.6 inch; reads to
1-500 inch.

2. Grunow’s spectrometer.—Focal length of lenses, 14 inches; diameter
of circle, 9 inches; aperture, 1.3 inches; reads to 10 seconds.

3. Cathetometer.—Length, 800"; focal length of telescope, 10 inches ;
aperture, 1.1 inches. Provided with extra object-glass for reading at
short distances.

4, Wild’s photometer, simple construction, diameter of circle, 6 inches.

5. Apparatus for measuring the velocity of sound in rods of wood by
means of longitudinal vibrations. Described in American Journal of
Science, Vol. X VIL.

6. Magneto-electric machine, by Wallace (no motor).

7. Ruhmkorff’s diamagnetic apparatus.

438 SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS.

8. Tangent compass.—Diameter of circle, 13.5 inches.

9. Original Siemens’ unit.

10. Helmholtz apparatus for vocal sounds.

11. Koenig’s phonautograph.

12. Koenig’s cylinder for determining the vibrations of tuning-forks.
13. Nachet’s large inverted microscope.

14. Koenig’s monochord.

15. Lissajows comparator.

16. Comparator for the standard yard.

JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY.—PHYSICAL LABORATORY, BALTIMORE,
Mp.

(In charge of Professor Henry A. ROWLAND. )

The list does not include apparatus for demonstration.
ACOUSTICS.

All the ordinary apparatus by Koenig, of Paris, including Helmholtz’s
double sirens, Lissajou’s vibrating microscope, Hastings’s pendulum com-
parator, &e.

OPTICS.

Meyerstein spectrometer—large model. The circle is of 16 centimetres
radius, divided on silver to 6’ and reading by two microscopes to 2’, The
probable and periodic errors of graduation have been investigated, and
are given in the American Journal of Science, Vol. XV., p.270. Having
a common axis with the large cirele is a table rotating independently,
6.5 centimetres radius, graduated on silver limb and by two verniers to
single minutes. The massive stand has a joint by which the circle may
be brought into a vertical plane. Aperture of telescope and collima-
tor, 4.0 centimeters ; focal length, 34 centimetres; powers, from 13 up-
ward. A smaller telescope, 2.0 centimetres aperture, 18.0 centimetres
focal length, power 7,may be placed on a third support rigidly connected
with the microscope bearers. The accessories of this instrument are:

(a.) Two telescopes with Nicol prisms before objectives; longer diag-
onals of prisms, 2.0 centimetres; length of telescopes, 20.0 centimetres ;
power 3; position-angles of prisms read by circles of 3.5 centimeters
radius to minutes of are.

(b.) Babinet’s compensator with wedge of 3 centimetres available
length.

(c.) High power collimating ocular.

(d.) Low power collimating ocular.

(e.) Three micrometer eye-pieces.

2. Spectrometer, by Schmidt and Haensch. The circle has a silver
limb 16 centimetres radius, divided to 6’ and read by microscopes to 2”.

SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS. 439

Table in center has a graduation 6.0 centimetres radius, reading by ver-
niers to 1’. Aperture of objectives of telescope and collimator, 3.9 cen-
timetres; focal length, 35.0 centimetres ; power, 13. The angle between
lines of collimation of telescope and collimator may be read by small
circle to single degrees.

3. Steinheil’s spectroscope.—The clear aperture of train, including two
60° prisms, is 4.0 centimetres. Focal length of collimator and telescope,
32.5 centimetres ; powers, 8, 12, &c. Photographic scale.

4, Silbermann’s heliostat, &c.—This instrument, by Duboseq, has two
mirrors 18.0 centimetres by 9.0 centimetres, one silver under glass and
the other silver. Also, porte-lumiére.

5. Jamin’s interferential refractometer, with tubes 100 centimetres long,
for the study of refraction in gases, and a glass trough 20 centimetres
long for liquids, by Duboseq.

6. Complete apparatus for the study of phenomena of interference, by
Duboseq.

7. Photographic apparatus.—Objective 6.1 centimetres aperture, and
about 40 centimetres focal length for plates; 10x12 inches, by Steinheil.
Dark room, collection of chemicals, and everything necessary for experi-
ments on the subject.

8. Becquerel’s phosphoroscope, by Duboseq.

9. Polarizing apparatus, from Steeg; also from Duboseq.

10. Apparatus for producing monochromatic light of any color. Do-
signed by Hastings and made by Schneider.

11. Prisms, gratings, &e.

a. Hollow prism from Meyerstein; aperture, 6.15.2 centimetres.

b. Hollow prism from Steinheil; aperture, 2.2 centimetres.

ce. Thallium glass prism from Steinheil; aperture, 4.8 centimetres.

d. Two flint glass prisms from Steinheil; aperture, 4.7 centimetres.

e. Crown glass prisms from Steinheil; aperture, 4.8 centimetres.

J. Two quartz prisms from Steeg; faces, 3.4x3.0 centimetres.

g. Iceland spar prism; faces, 2.6X2.2 centimetres, by Steeg.

h. Two rock-salt prisms, faces, 5.0x4.0 centimetres, by Steeg. Also
rock-salt lens.

i. Large Nicol’s prism, largest diagonal 6.5 centimetres. Also a num-
ber of smaller ones.

j. Gratings on speculum metal, 4.5x3.9 centimetres, with 8,648 lines
to the inch, and 4.4x 4.4 centimetres, with 17,396 lines to the inch, and
asmaller glass grating, with 8,648 lines to the inch, all by Chapman
with Rutherfurd’s engine.

Kirchofi’s, Angstrém’s, and Rutherfurd’s maps of the solar spectrum.

k. Old telescope by Dollond. Objective about 4 inches diameter and
6 feet focal length.

ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM.

The distinguishing feature of the apparatus for these subjects is its
-accuracy and the determination of the constants in absolute measure.

440 SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS.

12. Rowland’s absolute electrometer for potentials represented by sparks
of about 0.1 to 1 inch. Designed on Sir William Thomson’s guard-ring
principle, and constructed by Edelmann, of Munich. Guard-ring, 33.5
centimetres, and can be separated about 7 centimetres, the distance
being read by vernier to 0.01 centimetre. Movable disk, 10 centimetres
diameter, and jirmly attached to arm of a balance sensitive to 1 mgr.
Balance moves only 0.01 centimetre, and means of two distances of the
disks are taken, the one to move it to upper and the other to lower stop.
Weights of from 1 to 5 grammes ordinarily used. Disks ground and
polished to mirror surface after nickel-plating.

13. Rowland’s electrostatic standard condenser.—Constructed by Grunow,
of New York. One sphere within the other nickel-plated and ground to
mirror surface, with extra ball for interior. Balls, 7 and 8 inches diam-
eter. Hollow sphere, 10 inches diameter. Apparatus for centering.
Radii determined by loss of weight in water. Can be charged and dis-
charged any number of times at rate of three per second, by means of
fine wires which pass in momentarily from outside, and so do not change
the capacity much. Any condenser can be compared with it by means
of an electrometer.

14. Thomson's quadrant electrometer, by White, of Glasgow, with
Thomson’s key.

15. Condenser, 1-3 microfarad, by Elliott.

16. Commutators for high (say 1 inch spark) as well as low tension.

17. Rowlands galvanometer for the absolute measurement of discharges
of high tension. Constructed by Rowland & Schneider. Coils wound
with paper between, and boiled in parafiine in vacuo at 100° C., to be
thoroughly dry. Needle shielded from electrostatic action, and deflec-
tion read by mirror and scale. Number of coils about 11,000. Constant
on the cm. gr. second system 19091.=G of Maxwell, as determined by
comparison with galvanometer described in American Journal of Science,
Vol. XV, p. 334. See No. 27, below.

18. Rowlands absolute galvanometer for the measure of quick, weak
currents. Constant, 1833.2. See American Journal of Science, Vol. XV,
p. 334. Constant very accurately known. 1,790 turns. Can be used as
sine galvanometer or with mirror and scale. Horizontal circle reads to
1’, but is readily estimated to 30’. Telescope and bar for determining
horizontal intensity in exact position of instrument.

19. Rowland’s tangent galvanometer, brass circle, 50 centimetres diam-
eter. Circle graduated to 15’ and 20 centimetres diameter. From 1 to
243 turns can be used, the constant of each set being known with great
accuracy. Made by Meyerstein, but altered and wound and coils meas-
ured by Rowland.

20. Two Thomsows galvanometers of high and low resistance, the first
differential with coils around both needles and set of shunts. Made by
Elliott, of London.

21. Two Nobili astatic galvanometers, by Elliott, and one by Salleron.

SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS. 441

22. Wiedemann galvanometer, with two sets of coils and two kinds of
needles. Reading by mirror and scale.

23. Galvanometer with large wire for experiments on the damping
effect of the coils on the needle, and for determining resistances in ab-
solute measure. Designed by Rowland and made by Schneider, instru-
ment maker at the university.

24. Tangent galvanometer, wooden circle, with a variety of coils of known
constant.

25, Mirror galvanometer.

26. Rowland’s wooden circle, 84 centimetres diameter, carefully laid up
out of maple wood, and containing several grooves on the edge to con-
tain single wires. It is used to surround a galvanometer, when, by aid
of the electro-dynamometer, the horizontal intensity can be measured
at any instant.

27. Electro-dynamometer of form given in Maxwell’s Electricity, Vol. I,
p. 330. Outer circles about 27.5 centimetres diameter, with 240 windings
on each side. Constant, G, of outer coils 78.371 on cm. gm. second sys-
tem. Inner coils about 5.5 centimetres diameter, with 63 coils in each.
Moment of inertia of suspended coil accurately known. Constant cal-
culated and also determined by comparison with a tangent galvanometer
made of the circle described above. Made (partly) by Gurley, of Troy,
and circles wound and measured by Rowland.

28. Hlectro-dynamometer, Quincke’s form for weak currents. Made by
Edelmann, of Munich.

29. Standards of resistance, mounted so that they can be placed in
water 1 and 10 ohms, by Elliott; 10, 100, and 1,000 ohms, by Warden,
Muirhead & Clark, of London; also mounted in another style—1, 10,
and 100 Siemens, units, by Siemens & Halske, of Berlin. Also three
copies of coil whose absolute resistance was determined by Rowland as
34.719 earthquad. = sec.

30. Resistance coils in boxes, 1 to 10,000, and 10,000 to 100,000 ohms,
by Elliott, and 1 to 10,000 Siemens’ units by Edelmann.

31. Rowland’s resistance comparator.—Ten coils, of 10 ohms each, ar-
ranged so that they can be joined in series or abreast, thus making 1,
10, and 100 ohms, besides intermediate ones. Made by Schneider and
adjusted by Rowland.

32. Two bridges of Jenkins’s form for the accurate comparison of equal
resistances, and also a Wheatstone bridge, having wire of platinum-
iridium alloy one metre long, by Elliott.

33. Magneto-electric machine for 1,200 candles, by Siemens Brothers,
London, with engine to drive it, and both Siemens’s and Foucault’s lamps.
Also a battery of 60 large bichromate cells.

34. Ruhmkorff coil, spark 15 or 20 centimetres, by Ruhmkorff, of Paris.

30. Rowlands earth inductor, with brass circle, 30 centimetres diameter,
wound and measured by Rowland. Made by Meyerstein, of Gottingen.

442 SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS.

36. Ruhmkorff’s apparatus for diamagnetism. Made by Ruhmkorff, of
Paris. |

37. Hlectric cloeks beating seconds from regulator.

38. Rowland’s standard of electro-magnetic induction—Three coils on
brass cylinders which can be placed accurately on top of each other.
See American Journal of Science. Mutual potential of coils with unit
current 3,775,500; 2,561,974; 2,051,320, &c., on the cm. grm. second sys-
tem.

39. Telescopes, scales, and mirrors.—Silvered brass millimetre scale by
Brown & Sharp. Mounted telescope by Steinheil, objective 4.0 centi-
metres diameter, with three oculars, giving powers of 20, 40, and 80.
Unmounted telescope by Steinheil, objective 2.7 centimetres diameter,
and 3 oculars.

Mounted telescope and paper scale by Meyerstein; objective, 2.7 cen-
timetres diameter.

40. Thin mirrors and plain parallel glasses by Steinheil. The mirrors
give a perfect image with the highest magnifying power.

Thomson's replenisher on large scale for use with electrometer, Holtz
and friction machines, Leyden jar batteries, Geissler tubes, &c.

HEAT.

41. Rowlands instrument for comparing the mercurial with the air ther-
mometer between 0° and 100° C. Constructed by Schneider, instrument
maker attheuniversity. Readings seldom differ more than 0.02° or 0.03°
C. at any one point, especially up to 40° C., and a change is contemplated
which will much improve it.

42, Rowland’s instrument for comparing thermometers from 0° to about
300° C. Constructed by Schneider. Accurate to about 0.1° C.

43. Regnault’s air thermometer, Golaz, Paris.

44, Jolly’s air thermometer, by Berberich, Phys. Inst. Univ. of Munich.

45. Regnault’s apparatus for expansion of gases, both at constant press-
ure and constant volume, also Regnault’s form of Rudberg’s apparatus,
Golaz, Paris.

46. Regnault’s apparatus for tension of vapors, including: a. The boiler;
b. The reservoir for compressed air; ¢. A rotary pump for compressing
gases; d. Mercurial manometer. Maker, Golaz, Paris.

47. Regnault’s apparatus for specific heat of solids, Golaz, Paris.

48. Regnault’s hygrometer with aspirator, Golaz, Paris.

49. Thermometers, about 30 or 40, principally by Baudin, Paris, and
Geissler, of Bonn. Many of these have been compared with the air
thermometer as well as with standards by Fastré, Casella, or from Kew.
The thermometers up to 40° C. undoubtedly represent the air thermome-
ter more accurately than any so far constructed, and are supposed to
agree with it to about 0.01° C. They have been compared with it eight -
times during about one year or more. The error in calorimetric investi-

SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS. 443

gations from using uncompared thermometers may amount to two per
cent.

50. Rowlands apparatus for determining change of specific heat of liquids
with temperature. Constructed by Schneider.

51. Dulong’s apparatus for the heat of combustion, Salleron, Paris.

52. Melloni’s apparatus for radiant energy, Salleron, Paris.

53. Two instruments for the calibration of mercurial thermometers, one
by Golaz and the other by Salleron.

54. Rowlands apparatus for determining the mechanical equivalent of
heat, or for investigating the specific heat of liquids and their change
with rise of temperature.

This instrument was constructed by the aid of funds contributed by
the Rumford committee of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences,
but the instrument will remain for the present at Baltimore. It was
constructed by Schneider. It is run by a petroleum engine, No. 66 below.

To be constructed soon : *

Apparatus for compressing gases to 1,000 atmospheres.

Apparatus for accurately determining the form of the adiabatic curve
of gases and vapors at any temperature up to about 100° C.

MISCELLANEOUS.

55. Comparator, by Meyerstein, for bars 1 metre long. Microscopes
cannot be set nearer than 10 centimetres. One division of head of
micrometer screws is about 1-700 millimetre.

56. Microscope comparator, designed by Rowland after Rogers’s plan,
and made by Grunow.

57. Dividing engine, by Perreaux. Free motion about 55 centimetres.
Screw, 4 millimetre thread. Head divided into 250 parts. 5.1 divisions
of head gives 1 millimetre almost exactly. Subsidiary screw at right
angles to other one.

58. Air pumps.—Rotary and common, by Ritchie, of Boston; mercury,
on Jolly’s plan, by Berberich, of Munich.

59. Rotary pump for compressing gases to 15 atmospheres. Golaz,
Paris.

60. Three mercury gauges; one about 25 metres high, and measuring
pressures up to about 33 atmospheres; one movable and measuring
pressure from 1 to 4 atmospheres; and one measuring from 0 to 1 atmos-
phere.

61. Barometer, by James Green, of New York, with very large tube.

62. Two cathetometers; one by Meyerstein and the other by Salleron.

63. Standard metres, compared at Washington.

64. Balances and weights —One balance weighing to 5 kilos. and aceu-
rate to about 1 mg., with weights from 5 kilos. to 1 mg. One weighing
‘to 200 grms. accurate to about 0.1 mg., with weights from 100 grs. to 1

~* Nos. 18, 24, 25, and 27, and the silvered scale of No. 39, belong to Professor Row-
land, but are used in the laboratory.

444 SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS.

mg. These are by Schickert, of Dresden. One heavy balance weigh-
ing to about 25 kilos. and accurate to about 0.1 grm., by Schneider.

Standard glass kilogramme on Jolly’s plan, and compared with Ber-
lin standard. From Berberich, in Munich.

The first balance mentioned is mounted on top of a case, so that
globes for weighing gases can be suspended beneath it.

65. Clock-work with Foucault’s regulator for running small apparatus
at a regular velocity.

66. Petroleum engine of three-horse power. It is capable of giving a
large amount of compressed air at more than 100 pounds to the square
inch pressure, and might be used for repeating Thomson’s and Joule’s
experiments or any others on the flow of gases.

67. Two spherometers; large by Meyerstein, and small by Salleron.

68. Several extra micrometer eye-pieces.

69. Apparatus for researches on the flow of liquids.—Greatest available
head about 1.4 metres.

BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY.
(In charge of Professor H. N. MARTIN.)
Apparatus for exact measurements.

1. Pendulum myographion, modified from Fisk’s; available for the
measurement and analysis of rapid movements. The instrument con-
sists essentially of a pendulum carrying a glass plate at the bottom,
swinging on friction rollers, and corrected for the latitude of Baltimore,
so as to swing in one second. Behind the pendulum is a divided are,
and the amplitude of the swing can be varied from a few inches to four
feet. In use an electro-magnet is moved along the divided circle, and
then—the current being closed through it—the pendulum, on being
raised, is held by it. On the other side is a catch, also movable along
the are. By turning a key at the side the current in the electro-magnet
is broken, and the pendulum swings across and is held by the catch on
the other side. During its transit the movement to be analyzed is in-
scribed on the glass plate, which is previously smoked. Designed by
A. G. Dewsmith, esq., Trinity College, Cambridge, England. Made by
Elliott, London.

2. A set of three pairs of K6nig’s recording tuning forks for measur-
ing small periods of time; giving respectively 50, 100, and 200 double
vibrations per second.

3. Bernstein’s differential rheotome, with Helmholtz’s electromotor to
drive it. Zimmermann, Heidelberg.

4, Two Sir William Thomson’s reflecting galvanometers; one large
and the other small resistance. Elliott, London.

5. Ludwig’s kymographion; to give uniform horizontal movement to
an endless sheet of paper, on which vertical movements can be recorded
and subsequently measured and analyzed. The instrument is provided

‘

SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS. 445

with an electzo-magnetic chronograph. Made by Fulcher, Cambridge,
England.

6. AKymographion.—Modification of the above. Made by Warden,
Muirshead & Black, London.

7. “Signal” of Deprez. Electro-magnetic chronograph, recording up
to 250 double vibrations per second.

8. Chronograph of Masey. Similar to above, recording to one-hun-
dredth of a second.

9. Spectroscope, one prism, by Browning, London.

10. Wild’s Polaristrobometer.—Schmidt & Haensch, Berlin.

11. Completely fitted microscope, by Zeiss, Jena. With microspectro-
scope and polarizing apparatus.

12. Seconds clock with electric attachment. Elliott, London.

CONDENSED LIST OF APPARATUS IN SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

1 Shaw’s testing machine. 14 radiometers.
1 Gaiffe’s induction coil and bat- | 1 phonautograph.
tery. 1 Koenig’s chronograph.
1 Varley’s resistance coil. 2 electrical interrupters..
6 Ruhmkorff’s galvanometers. 1 set Koenig’s acoustical apparatus.
1 electrometer. 1 Hough’s barograph.
2 Holtz electrical machines. 1 Green’s siphon barometer.
3 Soleil’s polariscopes. 2 Casella’s sensitive hygrometers.
1 Hall’s spectroscope. 1 magnesium lamp.
1 heliostat. Miscellaneous optical,electrical, and
1 telescope, with rock salt objective. meteorological apparatus.

ORNITHOLOGICAL EXPLORATION OF THE CARIBBEE ISLANDS,

By F. A. OBER.

The first week in December, 1876, I left New York in a small vessel
for Martinique, situated in latitude 15° N. The usual passage is less
than twenty days, but, owing to unskillful navigation, our vessel was
stranded on the Bomunda reefs, and we were detained a month for re-
pairs, not reaching Martinique until January 25, 1877. Learning that
the island of Dominica, 30 miles to the northward, would be likely to
give better results than Martinique, I sailed for that island in a small
native sloop, landing at Roseau, the principal town, the 1st of February.
Owing to unavoidable delays I did not reach any important collect-
ing ground until the 1st of March, thus losing the first two months of
the year in which fine weather generally prevails.

To properly understand the fauna of the Caribbean group, it should be
borne in mind that, between the degrees of 12° and 18° north latitude,
all the principal islands, except Antigua and Barbuda in the north, and
Barbados away to the eastward, are volcanic, consisting mainly of high
hills and mountains. The general resemblance strikes one forcibly as
he sails along this chain of islands; each one like a huge rock thrown
up from the ocean depths, terminating either in a single peak or split
into a succession of mountain peaks and hills. In Dominicais the high-
est mountain south of Jamaica, in the West Indies, ‘Monte Diablotin,”
being above 5,000 feet in height. A slight sketch of the prevailing
characteristics of the vegetation of this island will answer for all the
voleanic islands.

There are, as it were, three zones or belts of vegetation, viz: that of the
coast; that of the higher hills and lower mountains; that of the mountain
tops. The first-named contains the plantations, upon which are found but
few birds of any kind, owing to the absence of trees. The second contains
all that is luxuriant in tropical vegetable life, and is especially peculiar in
being the zone in which are first found the tree ferns and the forest of
huge trees known as the “high woods.” It may be roughly estimated as
located between 500 and 2,500 feet above sea-level. Where an opening
occurs for the sun to penetrate, animal life will be found more abundant
than in the lower region. This I soon ascertained, and established my-
Self in an opening in the forest where a sloping strip of land had been

cleared of trees, about 1,500 feet above the Caribbean Sea, which it over-
446

ORNITHOLOGICAL EXPLORATION OF CARIBBEE ISLANDS. 447

looked at a distance of about five miles, This slope had been cleared
by the ancestors of some half a dozen families of French colored people,
and was planted fifty years ago with coffee trees ; but now was overgrown
with grass and wild trees. On all sides were high hills covered with
the almost impenetrable forest. As the only collector who had visited
this or any other island had not visited the mountains, but had merely
examined the shore and the easily reached cultivated valleys, I knew my
attention would be better directed to the wilderness, and that my only
opportunity for rare or new birds would be among the half-civilized
people of the mountains. The results have shown the correctness of my
plans, and have been fully shown in the several catalogues prepared by
Mr. Lawrence, from my notes and collections. In this region I obtained
not less than five new species and two new varieties: The Thryothorus
rufescens, Dendreca plumbea, Myiarchus oberi, Vireosylvia calidris var.
dominicana ; Ohaetura dominicana, Blacicus brunneicapillus, and, later, in
September, the Strix flammea var. nigrescens. As the more extended
notes of my collections are already in manuscript for the catalogues and
some already published, I will not refer to them here.

In April I returned to the coast, and, having left my specimens (200 in
number) with a friend, to be sent to the States, started again for another
part of the island, over the mountain ridges to the Atlantic coast, among
the Caribs. It is a two days’ journey, as I had to take it on foot, and
several rapid swollen streams had to be crossed. All my baggage was
carried upon the heads of my mountaineer friends, of whom I had four,
three girls anda man. At the last house before reaching Indian coun-
try, five miles distant, I was hospitably entertained by the planter, who
also secured me a comfortable hut from the natives.

As my space is here limited, I can do no more than rapidly sketch
what would require many pages of description. Suffice it to say, that I
found the Caribs of to-day different from the Charaibs of one hundred and
fifty years ago, as described by Pere Labat. They speak a French patots
and are good Catholics, and through the influence of the French priests,
who make them monthly visits, they have been compelled to intermarry
with negroes to such an extent that the individuality of the Carib is
gone. There are not more than twenty families of uncontaminated
blood in the island. These, with a few in St. Vincent, comprise the whole
of the remainder of the many thousands found in these islands by Colum-
bus. A few old men and women only can speak the ancient Carib tongue;
from these I obtained a good vocabulary, which, by comparing with an-
other I secured in St. Vincent, I found to be correct. The Caribs are
more peaceful citizens than the negro, more cleanly and intelligent, but
not a whit more’ industrious or virtuous. They subsist by fishing and
cultivating provision grounds in the mountains, but very few of them
follow the chase. I remained with them six weeks, secured many valu-
able photographs, and many notes respecting them of value to the eth-
nologist and philologist. I was prostrated by fever upon my return to

\

448 ORNITHOLOGICAL EXPLORATION OF CARIBBEE ISLANDS.

Roseau, and passed the period of convalescence on the Caribbean coast,
procuring, in my intervals of strength, the birds breeding in the cliffs.
It was in the Atlantic Mountains that I procured the first specimens of
the Imperial Parrot (Chrysotis angusta) ever sent to America.

The 4th day of July, 1877, I arrived at Antigua, in latitude 17° north,
and examined that island, and also Barbuda, 30 miles farthernorth. These
islands are of different formation from the others of the chain, though
owing their origin, perhaps, to the same cause. The rocks of the west-
ern portion of the island, according to Davies, are of igneous character,
denoting violent action and protrusion from beneath, akin to the vol-
canic, but without actual eruption or explosion. Eastern rocks belong
to the “tertiary aqueous formation, being chiefly calcareous freestone and
limestone, containing organic remains.” ‘In the intermediate space
are exhibited both igneous and aqueous action; the former in the indu-
rated clays and siliceous cherts, forming the skirting western declivities ;
the latter in the numerous petrifactions, varieties of wood or coral, prin-
cipally, if not entirely, siliceous.” In Barbuda are many deer, wild guinea
fowl, and horses, the result of stock introduced from England many years
ago.

In Antigua I found one species of owl, since declared to be new, the
Speotyto amaura, but few birds of any kind. In September large flocks
of plover, and in October teal and duck, visit this island in large num-
bers. Its full avé-fauna will be found in the catalogue recently prepared
by Mr. Lawrence from my notes.

In September, I sailed for St. Vincent, stopping two weeks, on my way
south, at Dominica, to procure further specimens of the species declared
new and rare by letter from Mr. Lawrence. I was there fortunate in
securing the ow] since identified as a local variety of Stria flammea, with
three eggs. Two specimens were shot, male and female. Reaching St.
Vincent in October, I early set to work, but was hindered by the rains.
I not only searched all around the coast, but penetrated to the mount-
ains. Here I was peculiarly fortunate, securing seven new species. The
names, as appearing in the catalogue of the birds of St. Vincent, since
published, are as follows: Turdus nigrirostris, Myiadestes sibilans, Thry-
othorus musicus, Certhiola atrata, Certhiola saccharina, Leucopeza bishopi,
Calliste versicolor. My adventures in securing the Myiadestes sibilans
were most interesting. I found that the only way to reach it was to camp
upon the crest of the crater of the voleano, which I did, making my home
in a cave for five days and nights, 3,000 feet above the sea. It rained
continually during my stay, in my exposure to which I contracted a severe
cold which culminated in a fever several weeks later. I had the ex-
quisite pleasure, however, of securing there the wonderful bird named
above, known to the natives as the “invisible souffriere bird.” Barely
a hint of the existence of this bird is contained in scientific annals, and
that only in Goss’s Birds of Jamaica, in a letter to the author of that
work.

ORNITHOLOGICAL EXPLORATION OF CARIBBEE ISLANDS. 449

The Rev. Lansdowne Guilding, a clergyman residing in St. Vincent at
that period, made many unsuccessful endeavors to procure it, and it was
an object of search for fifty years. It was left for an American, however,
to settle the doubt hovering over its identity, and to establish the fact
that it is a separate species, and, what is of greater interest, a mew one.

The proudest moment of my life, I think, was that in which I held the
first specimen of that bird in my hand, after two days’ search and the
use of all my arts of allurement as taught me by my Carib friends. With
the specimens of this genus, and the related genera of Dominica and
Martinique, obtained by me, I feel assured that all doubts regarding their
affinity may be set at rest. I secured six specimens of this bird, and at
the same place and time the new species which they have done me the
honor to name for my friend Nathaniel H. Bishop, the famous canoe
voyageur. Irom the volcano I descended to the eastern slope, and passed
three weeks with the Caribs there. Many photographs and much valua-
ble matter relating to their traditions and language were obtained, but I
could not secure such a series of their former implements of agriculture
and warfare as I desired, owing to the same reason as in Dominica: the
mountainous character of the island giving hiding-place to thousands of
objects that in a flat country would be easily found, even after the lapse
of centuries.

From the Carib country I returned to the west coast in a Carib canoe.
In December, 1877, I again crossed the souffriere or volcano, and took up
my line of investigation, to complete the circuit of the island. In this
trip I procured two species of that rare and beautiful parrot, the Chrys-
otis guildingi.

In February, 1878, having recovered from my fever, I explored one of
the northern grenadines, where I found in a cave an elegantly carved
tortoise of wood. In this trip I also shot the first specimens of the black-
bird, afterwards obtained in Grenada, pronounced new, the Quiscalus
luminosus. These were lost through the wrecking of our boat. In St.
Vincent I photographed and sketched two rocks which tradition affirmed
were sacrificial rocks of the Caribs, containing incised figures upon them,
fast being obliterated. A carefully drawn reproduction of this photo-
graph will be forwarded with my detailed description. There is a larger
rock of similar character in Guadaloupe.

IT reached Grenada, the southernmost of the volcanic chain, in latitude
12° north, early in March, and at once proceeded to the interior of the
mountains. There, in the high woods surrounding the famous mountain
lake or “grand etang,” I procured the wren, since named (new) Thryotho-
rus grenadensis, and two other birds from the coast, Quiscalus lumino-
sus and Turdus caribeus, three new species in all. Grenada is the only
island containing the armadillo, and one of three only containing mon-
keys.

In the fauna of Grenada I was much disappointed; hoping to find
many new and tropical species from Trinidad and the mainland of South.

S. Mis. 59 29

450 ORNITHOLOGICAL EXPLORATION OF CARIBBEE ISLANDS.

America, less than 100 miles away. Instead I found that there were
fewer resident species than in the more northern (mountainous) islands,
and but a hint afforded here and there of species I later found abundant in
Tobago, and belonging to the continental fauna. This subject is spoken
of more at length in my introduction to the Grenada catalogue. In April
I sailed for Tobago, an island out of the route allotted me, but one con-
taining valuable species, and the study of which, in connection with my
previous observations in the Antilles proper, was imperatively neces-
sary. In this island I brought to light many new facts regarding the
early correspondence and discoveries of Mr. Kirk, the friend and collector
of Sir W. Jardine, forty years ago.

Leaving Tobago I arrived in Barbados the last of June, and at once
proceeded to Martinique, in which island I remained seven weeks. Mar-
tinique and Guadaloupe have both been well investigated, and I do not
anticipate anything of value from these islands. Regarding the range of
the “ Sifflewr montagne,” or “mountain whistler,” found also in Dominica,
I consider my notes of value, and also relating to a few others. Here I
encountered much trouble from the terrible serpent peculiar to that
island and St. Lucia, the Craspedocephalus lanceolatus, two specimens of
which, in rum, I sent to the museum.

In August I sailed for Guadaloupe, reaching the mountains the last
week in that month. Here, though I do not expect there are any new
birds among my collections, I procured some very rare ones, among
which was the Tappeur or woodpecker—the only one found in the Car-
ibbee Isles and not found in any other—the Picus Vherminieri of Lesson.
Also the Perdix croissant, a dove peculiar to this island, the Geotrygon
mystacea. Three of this species I brought home alive to Mr. Lawrence.
Regarding the almost mythical Diablotin, the Procellaria diabolica? of
Vherminier, [ procured notes of interest. In Guadaloupe, as in Marti-
nique, there is an excellent museum called the Musée de L’herminier.
Nearly all the valuable collections of the late Dr. Lherminier were de-
stroyed in the great fire that ravaged Point a Pitre a few years ago.
Though the doctor discovered many new species here, some of the types
of which he sent to France, and some of which (I think) are in the de la
Fresnaye collection in Boston, none of his original notes are extant. I
was told that they perished with his collections in the conflagration.

Leaving Guadaloupe in October, 1878, I arrived in New York, after
a tempestuous passage, to find that of all the specimens shipped to
the museum at different times, not one was lost. It will be seen that
in ornithology alone my collections contained eighteen species and varieties
new to science, a result that cannot fail to be considered gratifying.
There yet remain (at this present writing, December) the collections from
Martinique, Guadaloupe, and Tobago unexamined.

Fortunate as [ have been, I cannot but regret that the appropriations
for finishing my search and completing a work but little more than half
accomplished were not forthcoming. All my private funds and all fur-

ORNITHOLOGICAL EXPLORATIONS OF CARIBBEE ISLANDS. 451

nished me by the Institution were exhausted when I was obliged to re-
turn. Another year to study the many problems, which require time
for their solution, would, with the information now in my possession, add
greatly to what has already been obtained, and give to our National

Museum the first series of types, complete, of the Birds of the Lesser
Antilles.

REPORT OF EXPLORATIONS IN GREENLAND,

By L. KUMLEIN.

The Florence sailed from New London harbor August 2, 1878. The
general equipment was good, but some important items had been over-
looked, which occasioned the scientific department much inconvenience.

The first harbor made was at Niantilic in Cumberland Gulf, after a
passage of forty-one days. The prevailing winds were easterly and
light, with much fog. Off Resolution Island a heavy northeast gale
was encountered which stove one boat and did other damage. ‘The
ground was covered with snow on our arrival and it looked gloomy.
The stay in Niantilic was short; having procured some Eskimo we set
sail for the opposite shores of the gulf, and then for the North. Ar-
rived in Annanatook harbor (the head of Cumberland Gulf) October 7,
1878. Arrangements were immediately made for an observatory, con-
sisting of a canvas tent, around which a hut of snow was built. In this
illy-lighted and poorly-warmed structure Mr.Sherman and myself spent
our time till July.

During the winter we could procure Pagomys fotidus at almost any
time. This is by far the most common seal in Cumberland and the prin-
cipal food of the Eskimo. Phoca barbata is only procured when there
is open water, as they do not have breathing-holes in the ice. Phoca
cristata was rare. Callocephalus vitulinus is often taken by the Eskimo in
the salmon fjords. Pagophilus grenlandicus common during open water.
Trichecus rosmarus is common around Cape Mercy and on the opposite
shores, but now not found at the head of the gulf, though their remains
are common. Reindeer could be procured at any time a short distance
from the coast inland, and even on the islands in winter. Lepus glacia-
lis is quite common in some localities, but only two were obtained at our
winter harbor. Canus occidentalis are met with in roving bands where
the reindeer are the most common. Vulpes lagopus everywhere, but most
plenty where there are numbers of hare and ptarmigan. Ursus mariti-
mus 18 no rarity about Cape Mercy and the mouth of the gulf, but very
rarely seen in the upper fjords. A single lemming was procured, and
but two Mustela. Cetaceans of many species were common, especially
so Delphinapterus lucas (of which a fine skeleton was procured), and their
dreaded enemies Orca gladiator. An excellent series of skins, skeletons,
and skulls of Phoca fetida were secured; they range from a 6-inch foetus

to the adult of 5 feet. Studies were attempted on the diseases of the
452

EXPLORATIONS IN GREENLAND. 453

Eskimo dog, and good points were ascertained. While dissecting one
of these animals I had the misfortune to cut a finger slightly, and the
virus (?) together with a frost-bite made me a cripple for two months,
and came very near costing me the loss of my arm; this occurring in
my busiest season, I lostmany specimens. Eskimo women were instructed
to skin and clean birds and mammals, which they soon learned to do very
nicely, invariably removing the fat with the teeth. The greatest cold was
in January—52°.5. From the 27th of February to March 18 the tempe-
rature did not rise above 55°. The heaviest snow-fall wasin June. Dur-
ing the latter part of June the winds were southerly, driving the ice in a
compact mass towards the head of the gulf so that it was nearly impossible
to make any excursions away from the ship. No birds except Corvus co-
rax, Falco candicans, and two species of Lagopus remain during the
winter. The first birds to return are Larus glaucus, often long before
there isany open water; they cruise up the ice-covered fjords and feed
on the young of Phoca fotida. As soon as the snow begins to melt
Plectrophanes nivalis greets one with a very pretty song. Eiders, Som-
ateria mollissima, nested by thousands on the rocky islets around our
winter harbor, and the eggs were a very welcome addition to our rations.
Some rare eggs were procured, among them Tringa subarquata, Sterco-
rarius pomatorhinus, and parasiticus Haliastus albicilla.

Some Pacific species were added to the fauna of the Atlantic seaboard,
and some birds of N. temperate North A. were found breeding to 68° 30/
N. Specimens were procured of Pagophila eburnea, Buphagus skua Larus
glaucescens, and leucopterus, &c. The fauna seemed to be nearly identical
with that of north Baffin’s Bay. Only forty-two species of birds were
met with in Cumberland Sound, and of these four at least were stragglers.
Interesting notes were procured on rare or little-known Arctic water-
birds.

Some fossils were procured from Lake Kennedy and some interesting
minerals. We left much too early to secure a fair representation of the
flora of the district, poor as it is. The same species were collected on
the Greenland coast in 70° 50’, much more luxuriant. The algz could
not be collected in the spring on account of the ice around the shores..
They were abundant both in species and numbers, some of them remark-
ably large.

Some interesting notes on the habits, legends, &e., of the Eskimo were:
secured with drawings; also a good number of Eskimo drawings, which.
are very interesting.

Eskimo implements few, but still some very valuable forms were
found. Great difficulty was experienced in getting the Eskimo to part
with implements in use; even a considerable reward would not induce
them to part with some things. The vicinity of Annanatook (our win-
ter harbor) was a most remarkably barren place, bare granitic islands
with steep bluff shores offering no place to collect marine life even at
low tide. Notes of value were obtained on the distribution of mammals

454 EXPLORATIONS IN GREENLAND.

and birds. Fishes were rare; we could only get two kinds in sufficient
numbers to use as food—Cottus scorpius and Salmo salar. Other species
were collected, but very few specimens. Did not get out of Cumberland
Gulf till the 19th of July. We then took the pack-ice off Cape Mercy,
and with strong east winds worked through 250 miles of it. Reached
Godhavn Harbor on the last day of July. We had expected to meet
the government expedition here, and had fifteen Eskimo, thirty dogs,
clothing, and a vast amount of material requisite for a Polar expedition.
We waited here till the 22d of August, and then set sail to return the
Eskimo to their native place. During our stay in Godhavn we were
greatly aided in our researches by Governor E. Fincker and Inspector
K. Smitz, who did all in their power to make our stay pleasant, besides
giving us much valuable information and many specimens. The ice in
Baffin’s Bay was the heaviest ever known to the Danish traders. No
vessels, even the large Dundee steam-whalers, were able to get out of
the Waigal Straits, nor could the Danes get to the Upernavik settle-
ments. While returning to Cumberland we experienced a tremendous
southeast gale which lasted nearly four days. When it abated we found
our ship in the mouth of Exeter Sound, on the opposite shore of Davis’
Straits, from where we had started.

During these four days we drifted at the mercy of the winds and waves
among hundreds of icebergs, but received no damage to speak of. The
Eskimo were landed and given some presents on the last of August.
On the 12th of September we set sail for home, arriving at St. John’s,
Newfoundland, on the 26th, after a very stormy passage. On the 11th
of October we sailed from St. John’s. From this time till we reached
Provincetown, Mass., we rode out six heavy gales of wind. The shir
sprung a leak off Sable Island, and gave us much work and anxiety. Out
provisions also became rather short, so we were put on allowance, and
a very small allowance at that. I must not forget to mention that I
used only a Remington breech-loading shot-gun, and that it did not fail
me on a single occasion, though subjected to every kind of ill-treatment

ae

RESEARCHES IN SOUND:

WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO FOG-SIGNALING.

By JosErH HENRY.

[FroM THE ANNUAL REpoRTS OF THE U. S. Licgut-HotsE BOARD. ]

PREFATORY NOTE.

[The series of investigations undertaken by the late Professor Henry
in the interest of the light-house service, embracing not only observa-
tions more than usually laborious and extended, with regard to the
atmospheric conditions affecting the propagation of sound to a distance, .
but varied and elaborate experimental inquiries, as well, with reference:
to the most efficient character and form of sonorous instruments for
fog-signaling purposes, commenced as far back as the year 1865, and
continued to the last year of his life.

These important investigations, though in the language of an official
report, they “have resulted in giving us a fog-signal service conceded
to be the best in the world,”* have hitherto received so little publicity
and attention, owing to the purely official character and channel of their
presentation, that their collection and republication here (in advance of
of a possible edition of Henry’s collected works), appears to be called
for in the interests of science, as well as of a just appreciation of the
value of his prolonged researches.

The first part, extracted from the Appendix to the Light-House Re-
port for 1874, comprises a preliminary statement and an account of ob-
servations and experiments made by the author, from 1865, at New

*Executive Document No. 94, Forty-fifth Congress, second session, Senate, p. 2.
This is a report to the Hon. Secretary of the Treasury, made since Professor Henry’s
death. To a similar effect, may be quoted an official statement made five years
earlier. In 1873, Major George H. Elliot, of the Light-House Board, commissioned to
make a tour of inspection of European light-house establishments, presented the re-
sults of his observations abroad in a very able and elaborate report, published by the
Senate in 272 octavo pages, with numerous illustrations. In his preliminary report to
the Board, dated September 17, 1873, he concludes, that while there are ‘‘many details
of construction and administration which we can adopt with advantage,” (from the
British and French light-house systems,) ‘‘there are many in which we excel. Our
shore fog-signals, particularly, are vastly superior, both in number and power.”
(Executive Document No. 54, Forty-third Congress, first session; Senate, p. 12.)

455

A}56 RESEARCHES IN SOUND.

Haven, Conn., to 1872, at Portland, Me. The second part is a commu-
nication made to the ‘ Philosophical Society of Washington” (of which
he was the president) December 11, 1872, embracing a discussion of
some abnormal phenomena of sound, and is extracted from the Bulletin
of the Society, vol. ii, appendix ix. The third part, forming the latter
portion of the Appendix to the Light-House Report for 1874, comprises
investigations extending from 1873, at Whitehead Station, off the coast
of Maine, to 1874, at Sandy Hook, NewJersey. The fourth part, extracted
from the Appendix to the Light-House Report for 1875, comprises his
investigations for that year. And the fifth part, from the Appendix to
the Light-House Report of 1877, embraces his latest observations dur-
ing September and October of the year 1877.

These papers necessarily are more fragmentary, and at the same time
involve more recapitulation than would have been the case, could they
have received the revision of their distinguished and lamented author.
It has however been considered more just to reproduce these contribu-
tions in this form, than to attempt either a compilation of extracts, or a
condensation of their substance in the form of an abstract. |

S. F. BARD.

RESEARCHES IN SOUND.

INTRODUCTION.*
Foca.

Among the impediments to navigation none perhaps are more to be
dreaded than those which arise from fogs, and consequently the nature
of this impediment and the means which may be devised for obviating
it are objects of great interest to the mariner. Togs are in all cases
produced when cold air is mingled with warm air saturated with moist-
ure. In this case the invisible vapor of the warmer air is condensed by
the cold into minute particles of liquid water, which, by their immense
number and multiplicity of reflecting surfaces, obstruct the rays of light
in the same way that a piece of transparent glass when pounded becomes
almost entirely opaque and is seen by reflection as a white mass. So
greatly does a dense fog obstruct light, that the most intense artifi-
cial illumination, such as that produced by the combustion of magnesium,
by the burning of oxygen and hydrogen in contact with lime, and that
produced between the charcoal points of a powerful electrical apparatus,
are entirely obscured at comparatively short distances. Even the light
of the sun, which is far more intense than that of any artificial illumina-
tion, is so diminished by a single mile of dense fog that the luminary
itself becomes invisible. Recourse must therefore be had to some other
ineans than that of light to enable the mariner to recognize his position
on approaching the coast when the land is obscured by fog.

The only means at present known for obviating the difficulty is that
of employing powerful sounding instruments which may be heard at a
sufficient distance through the fog to give timely warning of impending
danger. Investigations therefore as to the nature of sound and its
applications to fog-signals become an important object to those in charge
of aids to navigation. Such investigations are of special importance in
connection with the light-house service of the United States. The
northeastern coast of the United States on the Atlantic, and the entire
western coast on the Pacific, included in our territory, are subject,
especially during the summer months, to dense fogs, which greatly im-
pede navigation, as well as endanger life and property.

The origin of the fogs on our coast is readily explained by reference
to a few simple principles of physical geography. In the Atlantic Ocean
there exists a current of warm water proceeding from the Gulf of Mex-
ico, between Cuba and Florida, which flows along our coast to the lati-

* From the Report of the Light-House Board, for 1874.
457

458 RESEARCHES IN SOUND.

tude of about 35°, and then turning gradually to the eastward, crosses the
Atlantic and impinges against the coast of Northern Europe. Through-
out its entire course, on account of the immense capacity of water for
heat, the temperature of the stream is greater than that of the ocean on
either side. In addition to this stream, the Atlantic Ocean is traversed
by another current of an entirely opposite character, one of cold water,
which, coming from the aretic regions down Davis's Strait, is thrown, by
the rotation of the earth, against our coast, passing between it and the
Gulf-stream, and sinking under the latter as it approaches the southern
extremity of the United States.

These conditions are those most favorable to the production of fogs,
since whenever the warm air, surcharged with moisture, is blown from
the Gulf-stream over the arctic current and mingles with the cold air
of the latter, a precipitation of its vapor takes place in the form of fog.
Hence, especially in summer, when the wind in the eastern part of the
United States is in a southeasterly direction, fogs prevail. As we pro-
ceed southerly along the coast, the fog-producing winds take a more
easterly direction.

A somewhat similar circulation in the Pacific Ocean produces fogs on
the western coast of the United States. In this ocean a current of warm
water, starting from the equatorial regions, passes along the shores of
China and Japan, and, following the general trend of the coast, turns
eastward and continues along our shore. The northern part of this
current being warmer than the ocean through which it passes, tends to
produce dense fogs in the region of the Aleutian Islands and the coast
of Alaska. As this current descends along the American coast into
lower latitudes it gradually loses its warmth, and soon assumes the
character, in regard to the water through which it passes, of a compara-
tively colder stream; and to this cause we would attribute the preva-
lence of fogs on the coast of Oregon and California, which are most
prevalent during the spring and early summer, with wind from the
northwest and west.

From what has been said, it is evident that the fogs in the Aleutian
Islands occur chiefly in summer, when southwesterly winds prevail and
mingle the moist air from the warm current with the colder air of the
more northerly latitude. In winter, the wind being from the north
chiefly, the moist air is driven in an opposite direction,-and dense fogs
therefore at this season do not prevail.

In regard to the fogs on the coast of Maine, the following interesting
facts were furnished me by the late Dr. Stimpson, formerly of the Smith-
sonian Institution and of the Chicago Academy of Sciences, who had
much experience as to the weather during his dredging for marine speci-
mens of natural history in the region of Grand Manan Island, at the
entrance of the Bay of Fundy.

‘So sharply marked,” says Dr. Stimpson, “is the difference of tem-
perature of the warm water from the Gulf-stream and that of the polar

RESEARCHES IN SOUND. 459

current, that in sailing in some cases only a few lengths of a ship the
temperature of the water will change from 70° to 50°. The fog fre-
quently comes rolling in with the speed of a race-horse; in some cases
while dredging, happening to turn my eyes to the south, a bank of fog
has been seen approaching with such rapidity that there was scarcely
time in which to take compass-bearing of some object on shore by which
to steer, before I would be entirely shut in, perhaps for days together.”
He also mentions the fact that it frequently happened during a warm
day, while a dense fog existed some distance from the shore, close in to
the latter there would be a space entirely clear; this was probably due
to the reflection and radiation of the heat from the land, which converted
the watery particles into invisible vapor.

Dr. Stimpson has also noticed another phenomenon of some interest.
“When a dense fog, coming in regularly from the sea, reaches the land,
it gradually rises in the atmosphere and forms a heavy, dark cloud, which
is frequently precipitated in rain.” This rising of fog is not due, accord-
ing to the doctor, to a surface-wind from the west pressing under it and
buoying it upward, since the wind at the time is from the ocean. It is
probably due to the greater heat of the land causing an upward cur-
rent, which, when once started, by its inertia carries the cloud up to a
region of lower temperature, and hence the precipitation. The height
of the fog along the coast is not usually very great, and can be frequently
everlooked from the mast-head. The deception as to size and distance
of objects as seen in a fog is also a remarkable phenomenon when ob-
served for the first time. A piece of floating wood at a little distance is
magnified into a large object, and after much experience the doctor was
not able to overcome the delusion. It is said that the sailors in the Bay
of Fundy prefer of two evils a fog that remains constant in density to
one that is variable, although the variation may be toward a greater
degree of lightness, on account of the varying intensity producing a
varied and erroneous impression of the size and distance of the object
seen through it. It is also his impression that sound can be heard as
well during fog as in clear weather, although there is a delusion even
in this, since the source of sound, when seen, appears at a greater dis-
tance than in a clear atmosphere, and hence the sound itself would
appear to be magnified.

Fogs also exist on the Mississippi, especially on the lower portion of
the river. They are of two classes, those which result from the cooling
of the earth, particularly during the summer in clear nights, with wind
probably from a northerly direction, followed by a gentle, warm wind
from the south surcharged with moisture, and the other induced by the
water of the river, which, coming from melting snow of northern regions,
is colder than the air in the vicinity. The air over the river being thus
cooled below the temperature of a gentle wind from the south, the
moisture of the latter is precipitated. This fog, which occurs in the last
of winter, during the spring, and beginning of summer, is very dense,

A60 RESEARCHES IN SOUND.

but is confined entirely to the atmosphere above the river, while the
other class of fog exists over the land as well.

FoGc-SIGNALS.

The importance of fog-signals as aids to navigation, especially on the
northeastern portion of our coast, of which the shore is exceedingly bold
and to the approach of which the sounding-line gives no sure indication,
has been from the first an object of special attention.

At the beginning of the operations of the Light-House Board such
instruments were employed for producing sound as had been used in
other countries; these consisted of gongs, bells, guns, horns, &ec. The
bells were actuated by clock-machinery, which was wound up from time
to time and struck at intervals of regular sequence by which their posi-
tion might be identified. The machinery, however, by which these bells
were struck was of a rude character and exceedingly wasteful of power,
the weight continuing to descend during the whole period of operation,
including the successive intervals of silence. This defect was remedied
by the invention of Mr. Stevens, who introduced an escapement arrange-
ment, similar to that of a clock, which is kept in motion by a small
weight, a larger one being brought into operation only during the
instant of striking.

Bell-buoys were also introduced at various points. These consisted
of a bell supported on a water-tight vessel and rung by the oscillation
of the waves, but all contrivances of this kind have been found to be
untrustworthy; the sound which they emit is comparatively of feeble
character, can be heard at but a small distance, and is frequently ineffi-
cient during a fog which occurs in calm weather. Besides this, auto-
matic fog-signals are liable to be interfered with by ice in northern
positions, and in all sections to derangement at times when no substi-
tute can be put in their place, as can be in the cases of the bells rung
by machinery under the immediate control of keepers. A signal which
is liable to be interrupted in its warnings is worse than no signal, since
its absence may give confidence of safety in the midst of danger, and
thus prevent the necessary caution which would otherwise be employed.

Guns have been employed on the United States coast, first under the
direction of General Bates, engineer of the twelfth district, at Point
Bonita, San Francisco Bay, California, The gun at this station con-
sisted of a 24-pounder, furnished by the War Department. The neces-
sary arrangements being made, by the construction of a powder-house,
and laying of a platform, and employment of a gunner, notice to mari-
ners was given that after the 8th of August, 1856, a signal-gun would
be fired every hour and half-hour, night and day, during foggy or thick
weather. The first year, with the exception of eighty-eight foggy days,
omitted for want of powder, 1,390 rounds were fired. These consumed
5,560 pounds of powder, at a cost of $1,487, pay of gunner and incident-
als excluded. The following year the discharges were 1,582, or about

RESEARCHES IN SOUND. AG1

one-eleventh of the number of hours and half-hours of the whole time.
The fog-gun was found to answer a useful purpose; vessels by the help
of it aloue having come into the harbor during a fog at night, as well as
in the day, that otherwise could not possibly have entered. This signal
was continued until it was superseded by a bell: boat. A gun was also
used at West Quoddy Head, near the extreme eastern part of Maine.
Tt consisted of a short piece, or carronade, 5 feet long, with a bore of 54
inches, charged with four pounds of blasting-powder. The powder was
made up in cartridges and kept in chests in the work-house. The gun
was only fired on foggy days, when the steanboat running between Boston
and Saint John, New Brunswick, was approaching the light-house from
the former place. In going in the other direction the signal was not so
much required, because in the former case (of approach) the vessel had
been for some time out of sight of land, and consequently its position
could not be so well known. The firing was commenced with the hear-
ing of the steamer’s whistle as she was approaching, and as the wind
during the fog at this place is generally from the south, the steamer
could be heard five or six miles. The firing was continued as frequently
as the gun could be loaded until the steamer answered by a signal of
three puffs of its whistle. The number of discharges was from one to
six, the latter exhausting a keg of powder valued at $8. The keeper of
the light-house acted as gunner, without compensation other than his
salary. The cost of powder was paid by the steamboat company. The
report of the gun was heard from two to six miles.

This signal has been abandoned,—bevause of the danger attending its
use,—the length of the intervals between the successive explosions,—
and the brief duration of the sound, which renders it difficult to deter-
mine with accuracy its direction.

The lamented General Bache, of the Light-House Board, adopted a
very ingenious plan for an automatic fog-signal, which consisted in tak-
ing advantage of a conical opening in the coast, generally designated a
blow-hole. On the apex of this hole he erected a chimney which termi-
nated in a tube surmounted by a locomotive-whistle. By this arrange-
ment a loud sound was produced as often as a wave entered the mouth
of the indentation. The penetrating power of the sound from this
arrangement would not be great if it depended merely on the hydro-
static pressure of the wave, since this, under favorable circumstances,
would not be more than that of a column of water 20 feet high, giving
a pressure of about 10 pounds to the square inch. The effect however
of the percussion might add considerably to this, though the latter
would be confined in effect to a single instant. In regard to the prac-
tical result from this arrangement, which was continued in operation
for several years, it was found not to obviate the necessity of produc-
ing sounds of greater power. It is however founded on an ingenious
idea, and may be susceptible of application in other cases.

462 RESEARCHES IN SOUND.
EXPERIMENTS BY PROFESSOR ALEXANDER, IN 1855.

The Light-House Board was not content with the employment alone
of the fog-signals in ordinary use, but directed a series of experiments
in order to improve this branch of its service. Tor this purpose the
board employed Prof. J. H. Alexander, of Baltimore, who made a
report on the subject, which was published among the documents. The
investigations of Professor Alexander related especially to the use of
the locomotive steam-whistle as a fog-signal, and in his report he details
the results of a series of experiments in regard to the nature and adjust-
ment of the whistle, the quantity of steam necessary to actuate it, with
suggestions as to its general economy and management. He found,
what has since been fully shown, that the power of the sound depends
upon the pressure of the steam in the boiler, and the pitch upon the
distance between the circular orifice through which the steam issues,
and the edge of the bell. He appears however to be under an erro-
neous impression that the sound is produced by the vibrations of the
metal of the goblet or bell, while in fact this latter portion of the appa-
ratus is a resounding cavity, which, as I have shown in subsequent
experiments, may be constructed of wood as well as of brass, in order
to produce the same effect. Mr. Alexander also mentions the effect of
the wind in diminishing the penetrating power of sound when in an
adverse direction, either directly or approximately. He also recom-
mends the adoption of an automatic pump to supply the boilers with
water, and also to open and shut the valves at the proper intervals for
blowing the whistle. He states that the location of a sound can be
determined more precisely in the case of loud, high sounds than in that
of feebler or lower ones. On this point Iam not prepared to concur
with him in experiments of my own. In all cases however loud sounds
are more desirable than feebler ones, in order that they may be heard
at a greater distance above the noise of the surf and that of the wind
as it passes through the spars and rigging of vessels.

The board however at this time were not prepared to adopt these
suggestions, and an unsuccessful attempt to use a steam-boiler, rendered
abortive by the incapacity of the keeper to give it proper attendance,
discouraged for a time efforts in this line.

Previous to the investigations of Mr. Alexander, at the expense of the
Light House Board, Mr. Daboll, of New London, had for several years
been experimenting on his own account with reference to a fog-signal,
His plan consisted in employing a reed trumpet, constructed after the
manuer of a clarionet, and sounded by means of air condensed in a res-
ervoir, the condensation being produced by horse-power operating
through suitable machinery. Although the sound of this was more pene-
trating than that of bells, still the expense and inconvenience of the
maintenance of a horse, together with the cost of machinery, prevented
its adoption. Mr. Daboll however after this presented to the board a

RESEARCHES IN SOUND. 463

modification of his invention, in which a hot-air engine of Ericsson’s
patent was substituted as the motive power, instead of the horse; and
the writer of this report, as chairman of the committee on experiments
in behalf of the board, examined this invention and reported in favor of
its adoption. Theother members of the committee made an unfavorable
report, on the ground that fog-signals were of little importance, since the
mariner should know his place by the character of his soundings in all
places where accurate surveys had been made, or should not venture
near the coast until the fog was dissipated. The board however estab-
lished Daboll trumpets at different stations, which have been in constant
use up to the present time.

PART L—INVESTIGATIONS FROM 1865 TO 1872.*
EXPERIMENTS NEAR NEW HAVEN, IN 1865.

The subject of sound, in connection with fog-signals, still continued to
occupy the attention of the board, and a series of investigations was
made in October, 1865, at the light-house near New Haven, under the
direction of the writer of this report, in connection with Commodore, now
Admiral, Powell, inspector, and Mr. Lederle, acting engineer of the third
district.

The principal object was to compare the sound of bells, of steam-
whistles, and other instruments, and the effect of reflectors, and also the
operation of different hot-air engines. For this purpose the committee
was furnished with two small sailing-vessels. As these were very imper-
feetly applicable, since they could not be moved without wind, the writer
of the report devised an instrument denominated an “artificial ear,” by
which the relative penetrating power of different sounding bodies could
be determined and expressed in numbers by the removal of the observer
to a comparatively short distance from the point of origin of the sound.
This instrument consisted of a conical horn, made of ordinary tinned
sheet iron, the axis of which was about 4 feet in length, the diameter of
the larger end 9 inches, and tapering gradually to i? of an inch at the
smaller end. The axis of this horn was bent at the smaller end in a
gentle curve, until the plane of the section of the smaller end was at
right angles to the perpendicular section of the larger end, so that when
the axis of the trumpet was held horizontally and the larger section
vertically, then the section of the smaller end would be horizontal.
Across the smaller end a thin membrane of gold-beater’s skin was slightly
stretched and secured by a thread. On this membrane fine sand was
strewn. To protect the latter from disturbance by the wind, it was sur-
rounded by a cylinder of glass, cut from a lamp-chimney, the upper end
of which was covered with a plate of glass; and, in the improved condi-

*From the Report of the Light-House Board, for 1874.

464 RESEARCHES IN SOUND.

tion of the instrument, with a magnifying lens, with which to observe
more minutely the motions of the sand. ‘To use this instrument in com-
paring the relative penetrating power of sound from different sources,
as for example from two bells, the axis being held horizontal, the mouth
was turned toward one of the bells, and the effect causing agitation of
the sand, was noted. The instrument was then removed to a station a
little further from the bell, and the effect again noted, the distance being
increased, step by step, until no motion in the sand could be observed
through the lens. This distance, being measured in feet or yards, gave
the number indicating the penetrating power of the instrument under
trial. The same experiment was immediately repeated, under the same
conditions of temperature, air, wind, &c., with the other sounding appa-
ratus, and the reiative number of yards indicating the distance, taken
as the penetrating powers of the two instruments. It should be observed,
in the use of this instrument, that it is intended merely to concentrate
the rays of sound, and not to act as a resounding cavity; since in that
case the sound, in unison with the resounding note, would produce effect
at a greater distance than one in discord.

The indications of this instrument were compared with the results ob-
tained by the ear in the use of the two vessels, and in all cases were in
exact accordance; and it was accordingly used in the following investi-
gations, and has been found of great service in all subsequent experi-
ments on the penetration of sound.

The only precaution in using it is that the membrane shall not be of
such tension as to vibrate in unison with a single sound or its octaves;
or, in other words, that the instrument must be so adjusted by varying
the length of the axis or the tension of the membrane that it shall be in
discordance with the sounds to be measured, and only act as a condenser
of the sonorous waves.

The first experiments made were with regard to the influence of re-
flectors. For this purpose a concave wooden reflector had been prepared,
consisting of the segment of a sphere of 16 feet radius, and covered with
plaster, exposipg a surface of 64 square feet. In the focus of this, by
means of a temporary railway, a bell or whistle could be readily intro-
duced or withdrawn. The center of the mouth of the bell was placed in
the horizontal axis of the reflector. This arrangement being completed,
the sound of the bell, with and without the reflector behind it, was alter-
nately observed. Within the distance of about 500 yards the effect was
evidently increased, as indicated by the motion of the sand on the mem-
brane, but beyond this the difference was less and less perceptible, and
at the limit of audibility the addition of the reflector appeared to us en-
tirely imperceptible. This result was corroborated by subsequent ex-
periments in which a whistle was heard nearly as well in the rear of a
reflector as before it. It would appear from these results that while
feeble sounds, at small distances, are reflected as rays of light are, waves

~~ ae

RESEARCHES IN SOUND. 465

of powerful sound spread laterally, and even when projected from the
mouth of a trumpet, tend at a great distance to embrace the whole circle
of the horizon.

Upon this and all the subsequent experiments, as it will appear, the
principle of reflection as a means of re-enforcing sound is but slightly ap-
plicable to fog-signals. It is evident however that the effect will be some-
what increased by augmenting the size of the reflector, and by more com-
pletely inclosing the source of sound in a conical or pyramidal reflector.

Another series of experiments was made to ascertain whether the pen-
etration of the sound was greater in the direction of the axis of the bells,
or at right angles to the axis; or, in other words, whether the sound was
louder in front of the mouth of a bell or of its rim. The result of this
experiment was considered of importance, since, in one of the light-
houses, a bell has been placed with the plane of its mouth at right angles
to the horizon, instead of being placed, as usual, parallel to the same.
The effect on the sound in these two positions was similar to that pro-
duced by the bell with a reflector, the noise being greater at a short
distance with the mouth toward the observer than when the rim was in
the plane of the ear. At a distance however, the difference between
the two sounds was imperceptible. In practice therefore it is of very
little importance whether the axis of the bell is perpendicular or parallel
to the horizon.

The first fog-signal examined in this series of experiments was a double
whistle, improperly called a steam-gong, designed principally for a fire-
alarm and for signals for the commencement of working-hours in large
manufacturing establishments. It consisted of two bells of the ordinary
steam-whistle on the same hollow axis, mouth to mouth, with a flat, hol-
low cylinder between them, through the upper and lower surface of which
the circular sheets of steam issue, the vibration of which produces the
sound. In the instrument under examination, the upper bell was 20
inches in length of axis, and 12 inches in diameter, and the lower-whistle
was of the same diameter, with a length of axis of 14 inches. The note

_ of the shorter bell was a fifth above that of the longer. This arrangement

gave a melodious sound, unlike that of the ordinary locomotive-whistle,
and on that account had a peculiar merit. The sound was also very
loud, and, according to testimony, had been heard under favorable
circumstances more than twenty miles. It however rejuired a large
quantity of steam to give it its full effect, and the only means to obtain
an approximate idea as to this quantity was that afforded by observing
its action on a boiler of a woolen manufactory near Newport. It was
here blown with a pressure of at least 75 pounds. From theoretical con-
siderations however, it might be inferred that its maximum penetrating
power would be not greater than that of a single whistle using the same
amount of steam, and this theoretical inference was borne out by the
subsequent experiments of General Duane. But from the strikingly
S. Mis. 59-——30

466 RESEARCHES IN SOUND.

distinetive character of its tone it has, in our opinion, an advantage over
a single whistle expending an equal quantity of steam.

The fact that the vibration of the metal of the bell had no practical
effect on the penetrating power of the sound was proved quite conclu-
sively by winding tightly around each bell, over its whole length, a thick
cord, which would effectually stop all vibration. The penetration of the
sound produced under this condition was the same as that with the bells
free. It is true, the latter produces a difference in the quality of the
tone, such as that which is observed in a brass instrument and that of
one of wood or ivory. The inventor was not aware that the sound pro-
duced was from the resonance of the air within the bell, and not from
the metal of the bell itself, and had obtained a patent, not only for the
invention of the double whistle, but also for the special compound of
metal of which it was composed.

Another apparatus proposed to be used as a fog-signal was presented
for examination by the Marine Signal Company, of Wallingford, Conn.
It consisted of a curved tube of copper nearly in the form of the letter
C, and was supported on an axis passing through the center of the
figure. An ordinary bell-whistle was attached to each extremity of the
tube, the instrument being placed in a vertical position and partially
filled with water, then made to oscillate on its center of support. By
this means the air was drawn in at one end and forced out through the
whistle at the other. The motion being reversed the air was drawn in
at the end through which it had just made its exit and forced out through
the whistle at the other. By rocking the instrument, either by hand or
by the motion of the vessel, a continued sound could be produced. The
motive-power in the former case was muscular energy, and the experi-
ments which were made at this time, as well as all that have been made
subsequently, conclusively prove that the penetrating power of the
sound for practical use as a fog-signal depends upon the intensity of the
motive-energy employed. No instrument operated through levers and
pumps by hand-power is sufficient for the purpose.

One of these instruments with two 4-inch whistles gave a sound, as
indicated by the artificial ear, the power of which was about one-tenth
of that of a steam-trumpet. It was supposed however that this in-
strument would be applicable for light-ships ; and that if extended en-
tirely across the vessel, and armed with whistles of large size, it would
be operated by the rolling of the vessel, and thus serve to give warning
in time of thick weather. But as it frequently happens that fog exists
during a calm, this invention could not be relied upon to give warning
in all cases of danger. Besides this, the ordinary roll of a ship is not
sufficient to produce a hydrostatic pressure of more than five or six
pounds to the square inch, which is insufficient to give an effective
sound. It has however been proposed to increase the power by using
quicksilver instead of water; but, besides the first cost of this material,
and the constant loss by leakage and oxidation, the tendency to affect

RESEARCHES IN SOUND. AGT

the health of the crew is an objection to the introduction of this modi-
fication of the apparatus into light-ships.

The other instruments which were subjected to trial were an ordinary
steam-whistle and a Daboll trumpet. The bell of the whistle was 6
inches in diameter, 9 inches in height, and received the sheet of steam

through an opening of one-thirtieth of an inch in width; was worked

by a pressure of condensed air of from 20 to 35 pounds per square inch,
and blown once in a minute for about five seconds. The air was con-
densed by a Roper engine of one-horse power. The penetrating power
of the sound was increased by an increase in the pressure of the air,
and also the pitch. The tone however of the instrument was lowered
by increasing the distance between the orifice through which the circular
Sheet of air issued at the lower rim of the bell or resounding cavity.
To prove conclusively that the bell performs the part of a mere resound-
ing cavity, a wooden one, on a subsequent occasion, was substituted for
that of metal without a change in the loudness or the pitch of the sound.
The penetrating power of the whistle was compared with a Daboll
trumpet, actuated by an Ericsson engine of about the same power; the
reservoir for the condensed air of each machine was furnished with a
pressure-gauge, and by knowing the capacity of the condensing pumps
and the number of strokes required to produce the pressure, the relative
amount of power was determined. The result was that the penetrating
power of the trumpet was nearly double that of the whistle, and that an
equal effect was produced at the same distance by about one-fourth of
the power expended in the case of the latter. It must be recollected
however, that the whistle sends sonorous waves of equal intensity in
every direction, while the greatest power of the trumpet is in the diree-
tion of its axis. This difference however is lessened on account of the
spreading of the sound to which we have before alluded.* The whistle
was blown, as we have said, with a pressure of from 20 to 35 pounds,
while the trumpet was sounded with a pressure of from 12 to 15 pounds.
In the case of the whistle, the pressure in the reservoir may be indefi-
nitely increased with an increase in the penetrating power of the sound
produced, while in the case of the trumpet a pressure greater than a
given amount entirely stops the blast by preventing the recoil of the
vibrating tongue; this being made of steel, in the larger instruments
23 inches wide and 8 inches long, would receive a pressure of steam, at
only 10 pounds to the square inch, of 200 pounds, tending to press it
into the opening and to prevent its recoil, this circumstance limits, as it
were, the power of a trumpet of given dimensions. It is however well
fitted to operate with a hot-air engine, and is the least expensive in fuel
of any of the instruments now employed. The whistle is the simpler
and easier of management, although they both require arrangement of
machinery in order that they may be operated automatically.

*It is worthy of uote however that in the case of a sound having primarily an axial
direction, the subsequent lateral diffusion must result in enfeebling the whole sphere
of expanding sound-waves in 2 more rapid ratio than the square of the distance.

468 RESEARCHES IN SOUND.

It is a matter of much importance to obtain a hot-air engine of suffi-
cient power, and suitable for working fog-signals of all classes. This
will be evident when we consider the difficulty in many cases of obtain-
ing fresh water for producing steam, and the expense of the renewal of
the boilers in the use of salt-water, as well as that of the loss of power
in frequently blowing out the latter, in addition to the danger of the use
of steam by unskillful attendants.

The merits of the two engines however under consideration could not
be fully tested by the short trial to which they were subjected during
these experiments. The principal objection to the Ericsson engine was
the size of the fly-wheel and the weight of the several parts of the ma-
chine ; the Koper engine was much more compact, and appeared to work
with more facility, but from the greater heat imparted to the air the
packing was liable to burn out and required to be frequently renewed.
Although at first the impression of the committee was in favor of the
Roper engine, yet in subsequent trials of actual practice it was found
too difficult to be kept in order to be employed for light-house purposes,
and its use has consequently been abandoned ; another hot-air engine
has been employed by the board, the invention of a Mr. Wilcox, which
has also been discontinued for a similar reason. I was assured by the
person last named, a very ingenious mechanician, that when the several
patents for hot-air engines expired, a much more efficient instrument
could be devised by combining the best features of each of those now in
use.

For determining the relative penetrating power of these instruments,
the use of two vessels had been obtained, with the idea of observing the
sound simultaneously in opposite directions.

Unfortunately however the location which had been chosen for these
experiments was of a very unfavorable character in regard to the em-
ployment of sailing-vessels and the use of the artificial ear. It was fully
open to the ocean only in a southerly direction, navigation up the bay
to the north being limited to three and a half miles, while on shore a
sufficient unobstructed space could not be obtained for the proper use
of the artificial ear. With these obstructions and the necessity of beat-
ing against the wind, thereby constantly altering the direction of the
vessel, exact comparisons were not possible, yet the observations made
were sufficiently definite to warrant certain conclusions from them as to
the relative power of the various instruments submitted to examination.

The following is a synopsis of the observations on four different days.
Before giving these however, it is necessary to observe that at each
stroke of the piston of the hot-air engine a loud sound was produced by
the blowing off of the hot air from the cylinder, after it has done its work.
In the following statement of results the noise thus produced is called
the exhaust. On the first day but one set of observations was made, the
vessel’s course being nearly in the line of the axis of the trumpet. The

RESEARCHES IN SOUND. 469

order of penetrating power was as follows: 1, trumpet; 2, exhaust; 3,
bell; these instruments being heard respectively at 53, 33, and 2 miles.
The whistle was not sounded.

The second day simultaneous observations were made from two ves-
sels sailing nearly in opposite directions. The results of the observations
made on the vessel sailing in a southerly direction were very irregular.
The trumpet was heard at 33 miles and lost at 42 miles with the wind
slightly in favor of the sound, and heard at 64 miles with the wind some-
what against the sound; it was heard even at 73 miles from the mast-
head, though inaudible from the deck. In all these cases the position
of the vessel was nearly in line with the axis of the trumpet.

The whistle and exhaust were heard at 74 miles with a feeble oppos-
ing wind, and lost at 64 miles when the force of the wind became greater.

The order of penetration in this series of observations was: 1, trumpet
and gong; 2, whistle; 3, exhaust.

In the case of the vessel sailing northward, its course being almost
directly against the wind and in the rear of the trumpet, all the sounds
were lost at less distances than in the case of the other vessel. The
observations showed very clearly the effect of the wind, the bell at a
certain distance being heard indistinctly with a strong opposing wind
and more and more plainly as the wind died away. The trumpet was
heard only as far as the whistle, the vessel being in the rear of It.

The third day observations were made from the two vessels, both
however sailing to the south. From the vessel sailing at right angles
to the direction of the wind the order of penetration was: 1, trumpet;
2, whistle; 3, exhaust; 4, bell.

In the case of the other vessel the opposing effect of the wind was
greater, and the sounds were heard to a less distance; the order was:
1, trumpet; 2, whistle; 3, exhaust; 4, bell; 5, rocker.

On the fourth day two trips were made by the same vessel in the
course of the day, one being northward and the other southward. In
the first case the trumpet was lost at 5{ miles, the vessel being nearly
in its rear; in the second case, the wind being almost directly opposed
to the sound, the large bell was heard at 14 miles, and lost at { of a
nile, probably due to increase of the force of the wind; the trumpet was
was lost at 35 miles.

In all these observations, owing to the unfavorable conditions of the
locality, and the direction of the wind, we were unable to obtain any
satisfactory observations on sound moving with the wind. In all cases
the results were obtained from sounds moving nearly against the wind,
or at right angles to it. From the results of the whole it appears that
the sound was heard farther with a light opposing wind than with a
stronger one, and that it was heard farthest of all at right angles to the
wind. From this latter fact, however, it should not be inferred that in
this case sound could be heard farther at right angles to the wind than
with the wind, but that in this direction the effect of the wind was neu-

470 RESEARCHES IN SOUND.

tralized. The results also exhibited, in a striking manner, the diverg-
ency of sound from the axis of the trumpet, the trumpet being heard in
the line of its axis in front at 6 miles and behind at 3, the wind being
nearly the same in both cases.

All the observations were repeated on land with the artificial ear as
far as the unfavorable condition of the surface would permit. Although
the limit, as to distance, at which the sand might be moved was not in
most cases observed, yet the relative degree of agitation at a given dis-
tance established clearly which was the most powerful instrument, the
result giving precisely the same order of penetration of the different in-
struments as determined by direct audition.

During this series of investigations an interesting fact was discovered,
namely, a sound moving against the wind, inaudible to the ear on ‘the
deck of the schooner, was heard by ascending to the mast-head. This
remarkable fact at first suggested the idea that sound was more readily
conveyed by the upper current of air than the lower, and this appeared
to be in accordance with the following statement of Captain Keeney,
who is commander of one of the light-house vessels, and has been for a
long time on the banks of Newfoundland in the occupation of fishing:
‘When the fishermen in the morning hear the sound of the surf to the
leeward, or from a point toward which the wind is blowing, they take
this as an infallible indication that in the course of from one to five hours
the wind will change to the opposite direction from which it is blowing at
the time.” The same statement was made to me by the intelligent keeper
of the fog-signal at Block Island. In these cases it would appear that
the wind had already changed direction above, and was thus transmit-
ting the sound in an opposite direction to that of the wind at the surface
of the earth.

Another remarkable fact bearing on this same point is established by
the observations of General Duane. At Cape Elizabeth, 9 miles south.
easterly from the general’s house, at Portland, is a fog-signal consisting
of a whistle 10 inches in diameter; at Portland Head, about 4 miles from
the same city, in nearly the same direction, isa Daboll trumpet. There
can be no doubt, says the general, that those signals can be heard much
better during a heavy northeast snow-storm than at any other time.
‘“‘As the wind increases in force, the sound of the nearer instrument, the
trumpet, diminishes, but the whistle becomes more distinct; but I have
never known the wind to blow hard enough to prevent the sound of the
latter from reaching this city.” In this case, the sound comes to the city
in nearly direct opposition to the course of the wind, and the explanation
which suggested itself to me was that during the continuance of the
storm, while the wind was blowing from the northeast at the surface,
there was a current of equal or greater intensity blowing in an opposite
direction above, by which the sound was carried in direct opposition to
the direction of the surface current. The existence of such an upper
current is in accordance witl the hypothesis of the character of a north-

RESEARCHES IN SOUND. ae

east storm, which sometimes rages for several days at a given point on
the coast without being felt more than a few miles in the interior, the air
continuously flowing in below and going out above. Indeed, in such
cases a break in the lower clouds reveals the fact of the existence above
of a rapid current in the opposite direction.

The full significance, however, of this idea did not reveal itself to me
until in searching the bibliography of sound I found an account of the
hypothesis of Professor Stokes in the Proceedings of the British Associa-
tion for 1856,* in which the effect of an upper current in deflecting the
wave of sound so as to throw it down upon the ear of the auditor, or
directing it upward far above his head, is fully explained. This subject
will be referred to in the subsequent parts of the report, in the attempt
to explain various abnormal phenomena of sound which have been ob-
served during the series of investigations connected with the Light-
House Board.

During these investigations an attempt was made to ascertain the
velocity of the wind inan upper stratum as compared with that in the
lower. The only important result however, was the fact that the veloc-
ity of the shadow of a cloud passing over the ground was much greater
than that of the air at the surface, the velocity of the latter being de-
termined approximately by running a given distance with such speed
that a small flag was at rest along the side of its pole. While this
velocity was not perhaps greater than six miles per hour, that of the
shadow of the cloud was apparently equal to that of a horse at full
speed.

During this and subsequent investigations, inquiries were made in
regard to the effect of fog upon sound, it being a subject of considera-
ble importance to ascertain whether waves of sound, like the rays of
light, are absorbed or stifled by fog. On this point, however, observers
disagree. At first sight, from the very striking analogy which exists in
many respects between sound and light, the opinion largely prevails
that sound is impeded by fog; although observers who have not been
influenced by this analogy have, in many instances, adopted the opposite
opinion, that sound is better heard during a fog than in clear weather.
For instance, the Rev. Peter Ferguson, of Massachusetts, informs me
that from his own observations, sound is conveyed farther in a fog than
in a clear air. He founds this opinion on observations which he has
made on the sound of locomotives of several railways in passing over
bridges at a distance. Unfortunately, the question is a difficult one to
settle, since the effect of tbe wind, in order to arrive at a true result,
must be carefully eliminated. Captain Keeney, who has previously
been mentioned, related the following occurrence, in the first part of
which he was led to suppose that fog hada very marked influence in
deadening sound, though in a subsequent part he came to an opposite
conclusion: He was sailing during a dense fog, witha slight wind bear-

* Report of British Association, 1856; Abstracts, p. 22.

AR, RESEARCHES IN SOUND.

ing him toward a light-vessel, the locality of which he expected to find
by means of the fog-signal. He kept on his course until he thought
himself very near the ship, without hearing the stroke of the bell. He
then anchored for the night, and found himself next morning within a
short distance of the light-vessel, but still heard no sound, although he
was assured when he got to it that the bell had been ringing all night.
He then passed on in the same direction in which he had previously
sailed, leaving the light-vessel behind, and constantly heard the bell for
a distance of several miles, the density of the fog not perceptibly dimin-
ishing. In this case it is evident that the deadening of the sound was
not due to the fog, but, as we shall hereafter see, in all probability to the
combined action of the upper and the lower currents of air.

On returning to Washington the writer took advantage of the occur-
rence of a fog to make an experiment as to the penetration of the sound
of a small bell rung by clock-work, the apparatus being the part of a
moderator-lamp intended to give warning to the keepers when the sup-
ply of oil ceased. The result of the experiment was contrary to the sup-
position of absorption of the sound by the fog, but the change in the
condition of the atmosphere as to temperature and the motion of the
air, before the experiment could be repeated in clear weather, rendered
the result not entirely satisfactory.

EXPERIMENTS AT SANDY Hook In 1867.

The next series of experiments was made from October 10 to October
18, 1867, under the direction of the wricer of this report, in connection
with General Poe, engineer-secretary of the Light-House Board, Com-
modore (now Admiral) Case, then inspector of the third light-house dis-
district, and Mr. Lederle, acting engineer of the same district.

The principal object of these investigations was to compare different
instruments, and to ascertain the improvements which had been made
in them since the date of the last investigations, especially the exami-
nation of a new fog-signal called the siren, and the comparison of it with
the Daboll trumpet, although other investigations were made relative to
the general subject of sound in relation to fog-signals. The locality
chosen was Sandy Hook, a narrow peninsula projecting northward,
about five miles into the middle of the Lower Bay of New York, and al-
most at right angles to its coast, having a width of about half a mile.
Near the northern point on the east shore a temporary building was
erected for the shelter of the engines and other instruments.

The comparisons in regard to penetrating power were made by the
use of the artificial ear, heretofore described, by carrying this off a
measured distance until the sand ceased to move. This operation was
much facilitated by previous surveys of members of the Engineer
Corps, who had staked off a straight line parallel with the shore, and
accurately divided it into equal distances of 100 feet.

On account of the character of the deep and loose sand, walking

RESEARCHES IN SOUND. 473

along this distance was exceedingly difficult, and, to obviate this, a car-
riage with broad wheels, drawn by two horses, was employed. An
awning over this vehicle protected the observer from the sun, and ena-
bled him, without fatigue and at his ease, to note the agitations of
sand on the drum of the artificial ear, the mouth of which was directed
from the rear of the carriage toward the sounding instrument.

For these and other facilities we were indebted to General Humphreys,
Chief of the Engineer Bureau, who gave orders to the officer in charge
of the military works at Sandy Hook to afford us every aid in his power
in carrying on the investigation.

The instruments employed were—

Ist. A first-class Daboll trumpet (the patent for which—since the
death of Mr. Daboll, is owned by Mr. James A. Robinson,) operated by
an Ericsson hot-air engine. It carried a steel reed 10 inches long, 23 inches
wide, and 4 inch in thickness at the vibrating end, but increasing gradu-
ally te an inch at the larger extremity. This was attached to a large
vertical trumpet curved at the upper end into a horizontal direction and
furnished with an automatic arrangement for producing an oscillation
of the instrument of about 60° in the are of the horizon. Its entire
length, including the curvature, was 17 feet. It was 34 inches at the
smaller end and had a flaring mouth 38 inches in diameter. The engine
had a cylinder 32 inches in diameter, with an air-chamber of 45 feet in
diameter and 6 feet long, and was able to furnish continually a five-second
blast every minute at a pressure of from 15 to 30 pounds.

2d. A siren, originally invented by Cagniard de Latour, and well
known to the physicist as a means of comparing sounds and measuring
the number of vibrations in different musical notes. Under the direc-
tion of the Light-House Board, Mr. Brown, of New York, had made a
series of experiments on this instrument in reference to its adoption as
a fog-signal, and these experiments have been eminently successful.
The instrument as it now exists differs in two essential particulars
from the original invention of Latour: 1st, it is connected with a
trumpet in which it supplies the place of the reed in producing the agi-
tation of the air necessary to the generation of the sound; and 2d, the
revolving disk, which opens and shuts the orifices producing the blasts,
is driven not by the blast itself impinging on oblique openings, as in
the original instrument, but by a small engine connected with the feed-
pump of the boiler.

The general character of the instrument may be understood from the
following description: Suppose a drum of short axis, into one head of
which is inserted a steam-pipe connected with a locomotive-boiler, while
the other end has in it a triangular orifice, through which the steam is
at brief intervals allowed to project itself. Immediately before this head,
and in close contact with it, is a revolving disk, in which are eight
orifices. By this arrangement, at every complete revolution of the disk,
the orifice in the head of the drum is opened and shut eight times in

474 RESEARCHES IN SOUND.

succession, thus producing a rapid series of impulses of steam against the
air into the smaller orifice of the trumpet placed immediately in front of
the revolving disk. These impulses are of such intensity and rapidity
as to produce a sound unrivalled in magnitude and penetrating power
by that of any other instrument yet devised.

The siren was operated by an upright cylindrical tubular boiler, with
a pressure of from 50 to 100 pounds on the square inch. For this form
of boiler has been subsequently substituted an ordinary horizontal
locomotive-boiler with a small engine attached for feeding it and for
rotating the disk, the latter being effected by means of a band passing
over pulleys of suitable relative dimensions.

3d, A steam-whistle 8 inches in diameter. Through some misunder-
standing a series of whistles of different diameters was not furnished
as was intended.

The first experiments to be noted were those in regard to the com-
parison of penetrating power of the siren and the whistle, the fitting up
of the Daboll trumpet not having been completed. The principal object
of this however was to test again the truthfulness of the indications of
the artificial ear in comparison with those of the natural ear. .

An experiment was made both by means of the artificial ear on land
and by actually going off on the ocean in a steamer until the sounds be-
came inaudible to the natural ear. By the latter method the two sounds
ceased to be heard at the distances of six, and twelve and a half miles,
respectively. The indications of the artifical ear gave a similar result,
the distance at which the sand ceased to move in one case being double
that of the other. In both cases the conditions of wind and weather
were apparently the same. In the case of the steamer the distance was
estimated by noting the interval of time between the flash of steam and
the perception of the sound.

Comparison of the Daboll trumpet and the siren.—The pressure of the
hot air in the reservoir of the hot-air engine of the trumpet was about
20 pounds, and that of the steam in the boiler of the siren about 75
pounds. These pressures are however not considered of importance in
these experiments, since the object was not so much to determine the
relative amount of motive power employed as the amount of penetrat-
ing power produced by these two instruments, each being one of the
first of its class. :

1. At distance 50 the trumpet produced a decided motion of the sand,
while the siren gave a similar result at distance 58. The two observa-
tions being made within ten minutes of each other, it may be assumed
that the condition of the wind was the same in the twocases, and hence
the numbers above given may be taken as the relative penetrating power
of the two instruments.

2. Another series of experiments was instituted to determine whether a
high or a low note gave the greatest penetration. For this purpose the

RESEARCHES IN SOUND. AT5

siren was sounded with different velocities of rotation of the perforated
disk, the pressure of steam remaining at 90 pounds per square inch.
The effect upon the artificial ear in causing greater or less agitation of
sand was taken as the indication of the penetrating power of the differ-
ent tones. The number of revolutions of the disk in a given time was
determined by a counting apparatus, consisting of a train of wheels and
a series of dials showing tens, hundreds, and thousands of revolutions;
this was temporarily attached to the projecting end of the spindle of
the revolving disk by pushing the projecting axis of the instrument into
a hole in the end of the spindle.

From the whole of this series of experiments it appeared that arevolu-
tion which gave 400 impulses in a second was the best with the siren
when furnished with a trumpet. On reflection however it was con-
cluded that this result might not be entirely due to the pitch, but in ~
part to the perfect unison of that number of impulses of the siren with
the natural tone of the trumpet. To obviate this complication, a series
of experiments was next day made on the penetration of different pitches
with the siren alone, the trumpet being removed. The result was as
follows :

The siren was sounded at five different pitches, the artificial ear be-
ing at such a distance as to be near the limit of disturbance by the
sound. In this condition the lowest pitch gave no motion of sand. A
little higher, slight motion of sand. Still higher, considerable motion
of sand; and with a higher pitch again, no motion of sand. The best
result obtained was with a revolution which gave 360 impulses in a
second.

3. An attempt was made to determine the most effective pitch or tone
of the steam-whistle. It was started with what appeared to be the funda-
mental note of the bell, which gave slight motion of sand; a higher
tone a better motion; still higher, sand briskly agitated; next, several
tones lower, no motion; higher, no motion; stillhigher, no motion. The
variation in the tone was madeby altering the distance between the bell
and the orifice through which the steam was ejected.

The result of this experiment indicated nothing of a definite charac-
ter, other than that with a given pressure there is a maximum effect
produced when the vibrations of the sheet of air issuing from the cireu-
lar orifice are in unison with the natural vibrations from the cavity of
the bell, a condition which can only be determined in any case by actual
experiment. In practice, Mr. Brown was enabled to produce the best
effect by regulating the velocity until the trumpet gave the greatest
penetrating power, as indicated by an artificial ear of little sensibility,
in order that it might be employed for determining the relative power
while the observer was but a few yards from the machine.

These expériments have been made in an apartment of less than 80
feet in length, in which the sounding apparatus was placed at one end

476 RESEARCHES IN SOUND.

and the artificial ear at the other, substituting fine shot instead of sand.

The experiments with the siren however indicate the fact that neither
the highest nor the lowest pitch of an instrument gives the greatest pen-
etrating power, but one of a medium character.

Another element of importance in the construction of these ee
ments is the volume of sound. ‘To illustrate this, it may be mentioned
that a harpsichord-wire stretched between two strings of India rubber,
when made to vibrate by means of a fiddle-bow, gives scarcely any
appreciable sound. We attribute this to the want of quantity in the
aerial wave; for if the same wire be stretched over a sounding-board
having a wide area, the effect will be a comparatively loud sound, but
of less duration, with a given impulse. It was therefore suggested that
the width of the reed in the Daboll trumpet, the form and size of the
holes in the disk of the siren, and the circumference of the vibrating
sheet of air issuing from the circular orifice of the whistle, would affect
the power of the sound. The only means of testing this suggestion is
by using reeds of different widths, sirens with disks of different-shaped
openings, and whistles of different diameters. In conformity with this
view, Mr. Brown has made a series of empirical experiments with open-
ings of different forms, which have greatly improved the operation of
the siren, while Mr. Wilcox has experimented on several forms of reeds,
of which the following is the result:

The best reed obtained was 24 inches wide, 8 inches long in the vi-
brating part, 2 inch thick at the ute and 4 inch thick at the free end.
This sounded at a pressure of from 20 to 30 pounds. The thinner reeds
gave a sound at a less pressure, from 5 to 10 pounds, the thicker at from
20 to 30 neds s. A reed 84 inches long in the vibrating part, 1 inch thick
at the butt, # inch thick at the end, and 3 inches wide, did not begin to
sound until ; pressure of 80 pounds was reached, then gave a sound of
a dull character. Another reed of the same width, 3 inch thick at the
butt, and =4; inch at the end, and same length, gave a sound at 75 pounds
pressure, but still dull and of little penetrating power. These reeds
were evidently too heavy in proportion to their elasticity. These were
made without the addition of a trumpet, and therefore to produce the
best result when used with a trumpet, the latter must be increased or
diminished in length until its natural vibrations are in harmony with
those of the former, as will be seen hereafter. General Duane has also
made experiments on whistles of different diameters, of which the result
will be given.

Another consideration in regard to the same matter is that of the am-
plitude of the oscillations of the tongue or steel reed in its excursion in
producing the sound; the time of oscillation remaining the same, that
is, the pitch, the amplitude will depend upon the elasticity of the reed,
the power to surmount which will again depend upon the pressure of
steam in the boiler, and hence we might infer that an increase of pres-

RESEARCHES IN SOUND. ATT

sure in the boiler with an increase of the elasticity of the reed, every-
thing else being the same, would produce an increase in penetrating
power. From the general analogy of mechanical effects produced by
motive power, we may denote the effect upon the ear by the expression
mv, in which m expresses the mass or quantity of air in motion, and v
the velocity of the particles in vibration.

If this be the expression for the effect upon the ear, it is evident that
in case of a very high note the amplitude of the vibration must be so
small that the effect would approximate that of a continued pressure
rather than that of distinct alternations of pressure, giving a vibrating
motion to the drum of the ear.

4, Next, experiments were made to determine the penetrating power in
the case of the siren under different pressures of steam in the boiler.
The experiments commenced with a pressure of 100 pounds. The pres-
sure at each blast was noted by two observers, and to compare these
pressures with the indications of the sand, the time of the blasts was
also noted.

The following are the results:

Pressure. Relative distances a4 which
the sand ceased to move.
MOO seyare-cis by errata k= ads ay ce a Cs OS tare, teehee ora ae 61
LUI PBS EVAR a Me ie ea AN ga eat nay cl Dea oe aie eS fi Nt 59
Pohl geal << A ee de Bi ae TR es ie et AR AR eel Aap eae 58
TOI SRN ee aha SEL ese ce a ate Le ee ee ANG, 57
GOP PASSE UIG wel SRA Ais) Obed Mab PL od by ttt Se pate dT
nay | eg See Mee a ee emer Ee ABE Bere RRA ila Sag hhe 25 totes eg sh 56
A eperpapeieyats ee Te SCR ere ea ee A ee Re et ae re ee 5d
Fa OM ae aa eg ne ae oe a rt dt Ue Abe tI Ce sk D3
A esis tater stare, Sm ed Ate Soe meee re BE Sek eb ee eT ol

From this series of experiments, it appears that a diminution of pres-
sure is attended with a comparatively small diminution in the pene-
trating power of the siren.

In regard to this unexpected result of great practical importance, the
following appears to be the explanation. It is a well-known principle
in aerial mechanics that the velocity of the efflux of air from an orifice
in a reservoir does not increase with an increase of condensation, when
the spouting is into a vacuum. ‘his is evident when we reflect that
the weight of density of the air moving out is increased in proportion
to the elasticity or pressure; that is, the increase in the propelling force
is proportional to the increase in the weight to be moved, hence the
velocity must remain the same.

In the foregoing experiments with high pressures large in proportion
to the resistance of the air, the velocity ot efflux should theretore be
but little increased with the increase of pressure, and inasmuch as the
velocity is the most important factor in the expression mv”, which indi-
cates the effect on the tympanum, the penetrating power of the sound
Should be in accordance with the above experimental results.

478 RESEARCHES IN SOUND.

A similar result cannot be expected with the use of the whistle or
the trumpet, since in the former the stiffiiess of the aerial reed depends
upon its density, which will be in proportion to the pressure in the
boiler, and in the case of the latter no sound can be produced on: the
one hand unless the pressure be sufficient to overcome the resistance of
the reed, and on the other the sound must cease when the pressure is
so great as to prevent the recoil of the reed.

5. An experiment was made to determine the effect of a small whistle
inserted into the side of a trumpet near the small end. The whistle
being sounded before and after it was placed in the trumpet, the result
was as follows: The penetrating powers were in the ratio of 40: 51,
while the tone was considerably modified. From this experiment it
appears that a whistle may be used to actuate a trumpet or to exercise
the functions of a reed. In order however to get the best results, it
would be necessary that the trumpet and whistle should be in unison,
but it may be doubted however whether an increase of effect, with a
given amount of power, would result from using such an arrangement;
it might nevertheless be of advantage in certain cases to direct the
sound of a locomotive in a definite direction, and to use a smaller
whistle, especially in cities, in which the locomotive passes through long
streets; perhaps in this case the sound might be less disagreeable than
that of the naked whistle, which sends its sound-waves laterally with
as much force as in the direction of the motion of the engine.

6. General Poe called attention to the sound produced by the paddle-
wheels of a steamer in the offing at a distance estimated at four and a
half miles. The sound was quite distinct when the ears were brought
near the surface of the beach.

In this connection he stated that he had heard the approach of a
small steamer on the northern lakes when its hull was still below the
horizon, and was even enabled to designate the particular vessel from
among others by the peculiarity of the sound.

The sound in the case of the steamer is made at the surface of the
water, and it might be worth the trouble to try experiments as to the
transmission of sound under this condition, and the collection of it by
means of ear-trumpets, the mouths of which are near the water, the
sound being conveyed through tubes to the ears of the pilot. In order
however to determine in this case the direction of the source of sound,
two trumpets would be necessary, one connected with each ear, since
we judge of the direction of a sound by its simultaneous effects on the
two auditory nerves. This suggestion, as well as many others which
have occurred in the course of these researches, is worthy of special in-
vestigation.

7. A series of experiments was made to compare trumpets of different
materials and forms having the same length and transverse areas, all
blown at a pressure of 94 pounds.

a4

RESEARCHES IN SOUND. 479

The following table gives the results :

- Ls: : Relative distances at which
No. Material of trumpet. Cross-section. ee Anan cont alanis,
i Wood. Square. 13
2 Brass. Circular. 23
3 Cast iron. Cireular. 24
4 Wood. Circular. 30

From these experiments it would appear that the material or elasti-
city of the trumpet had little or no effect on the penetrating power of
the sound, although the shape appeared to have some effect, the pyri-
midal trumpet, or one with square cross-section (No.1), giving a less re-
sult than the conical ones of the same sectional area. A comparison
was made between a long straight trumpet and one of the same length
curved at its upper end, which gave the same penetrating power with
the same pressure. It is probable that a thin metallic trumpet would
give greater lateral divergency to the sound, and also a slightly differ-
ent tone.

8. The effect of a hopper-formed reflector was next tried with the
whistle, the axis of which was about 5 feet in length, the mouth 6 feet
Square, and the small end about 18 inches. When the whistle was
sounded at the small end of this reflector, the distance at which the
sand ceased to move was 51; the sound of the same whistle without the
reflector ceased to move the sand at 40. The ratio of these distances
would have been less with a more sensitive instrument at a greater dis-
tance on account of the divergency of the rays.

9. In order to determine the diminution of sound by departing from
the axis of the trumpet, a series of experiments was made with a ro-
tating trumpet, the axis of which was at first directed along the gradu-
ated line of observation, and subsequently deflected from that line a
given number of degrees. The following were the results:

Direction of the trumpet. Relaniwodistanee a
which sand moved.

PAMPHLET SINE). welt wa aici eicfelars) el atsie.c'a se ais oes ise er oee nee 26
PPETEE LEM SOO 242 FSO II Frye tL) a APS EE AO) 23
Mefiected: 600 jsan si Be eiaiel ork LOHR ae 21
MeHSehed DNC. bie cae ekie hie) ie Jy cist ky! Sa aiene 18
EH CUC DAO tuck ee ag cw Se | Aes ee 14

These results illustrate very strikingly the tendency of sound to spread
on either side of the axis of the trumpet; had the experiments been made
with a more sensitive instrument, and at a greater distance, the effect

480 RESEARCHES IN SOUND.

would have shown a much greater divergency. It should be observed
however that the mouth of the trumpet in this case was 36 inches, which
is unusually large.

From the experiments made near New Haven, and also from those at
this station, it appears that the actual amount of power to produce sound
of a given penetration is absolutely less with a reed trumpet than with a
locomotive whistle. This fact probably finds its explanation in the eir-
cumstance that in each of these instruments the loudness of the sound
is due to the vibration of the air in the interior of the trumpet and in
the bell of the whistle, each of these being a resounding cavity; and
furthermore that in these cavities the air is put in a state of sustained
vibration by the undulations of a tongue, in the one case of metal, in
the other of air; and furthermore it requires much more steam to set
the air in motion by the tongue of air than by the solid tongue of steel,
the former requiring a considerable portion of the motive power to give
the current of which it consists the proper degree of stiffness, if I may
use the word, to produce the necessary rapidity of oscillation. But what-
ever may be said in regard to this supposition, it is evident, in case reli-
able hot-air engines cannot be obtained, that the Daboll trumpet may be
operated by a steam-engine, although at an increased cost of mainte-
nance, but this increase we think will still not be in proportion to the
sound obtained in comparison with the whistle.

Another question which naturally arises, but which has not yet been
definitely settled by experment, is whether both the siren and the whis-
tle would not, equally with the trumpet, give more efficient results when
worked by condensed air than by steam.

From hypothetical considerations this would appear to be the case,
since the intensity of sound depends upon the density of the medium in
which it is produced; and as the steam is considerably lighter than air,
and as the cavities of ali of these instruments are largely filled with steam,
the intensity of sound would, on this account, seem to be less than if
filled with air.

At the conclusion of the experiments at Sandy Hook, the siren was
adopted as a fog-signal, in addition to the reed-trumpet and the locomo-
tive-whistle, to be applied to the more important stations, while large
bells were retained for points at which fog-signals were required to be
heard at but comparatively small distances. These instruments of the
first class being adopted, it became of importance to determine, in actual
practice, the cost of maintenance, the best method of working them, and
any other facts which might have a bearing on their use.

But as investigations of this kind would require much time and pecu-
liar advantages as to location and mechanical appliances, this matter
was referred to General Duane, the engineer in charge of the Ist and
2d light-house districts, who had peculiar facilities near his residence,
at Portland, Me.,in the way of workshops and other conveniences, and
who, from his established reputation for ingenuity and practical skill

: RESEARCHES IN SOUND. A81

in mechanism, was well qualified for the work. The assignment of this
duty to General Duane by the Light-House Beard was made during my
absence in Europe, in 1870, and as my vacation in 1871 was devoted to
light-house duty in California, I had no opportunity of conferring with
him on the subject until after his experiments were completed. His re-
sults are therefore entirely independent of those obtained under my di-
rection, and I give them herewith in his own words, with such com-
ments as they may suggest and as are necessary to a proper elucidation
of the subject.

EXPERIMENTS AT PORTLAND, ME. 1871, BY GENERAL DUANE.

The apparatus employed consisted of the first-class siren, first-class Daboll trumpet
and steam-whistles of various sizes.

The points to be decided were:

Ist. The relative power of these machines; i. e., the distances at which they could be
heard under various conditions of the atmosphere.

2d. The amount of fuel and water consumed by each.

3d, The attention and skill required in operating them.

4th. Their endurance.

5th. Whether they are sufficiently simple in construction to permit of their being
managed and kept in running order by the class of men usually appointed light-
house keepers.

In conducting these experiments the following method was pursued :

The signals were sounded at alternate minutes, and their sound compared at dis-
tances of two, three, and four miles, and from different directions. On every occasion
the quantity of fuel and water consumed per hour by each was carefully noted, and
the condition of each machine examined, both before and after the trial, to ascertain
whether any of its parts had sustained injury.

Before giving the results of these experiments some facts should be stated, which
will explain the difficulty of determining the power of a fog-signal.

There are six steam fog-whistles on the coast of Maine ; these have been frequently
heard at a distance of twenty miles, and as frequently cannot be heard at the distance
of two miles, and this with no perceptible difference in the state of the atmosphere.

The signal is often heard at a great distance in one direction, while in another it
will be scarcely audible at the distance of a mile. This is not the effect of wind, as
the signal is frequently heard much farther against the wind than with it. For ex-
ample, the whistle on Cape Elizabeth can always be distinctly heard in Portland, a
distance of nine miles, during a heavy northeast snow-storm, the wind blowing a gale
directly from Portland toward the whistle.

[In this sentence, General Duane certainly does not intend to convey
the idea that a signal is frequently heard “at a much greater distance
against the wind than with it,” since this assertion would be at variance
with the general experience of mankind; but the word “frequently ”
applies to the whistle on Cape Elizabeth, which has been already men-
tioned as a remarkably exceptional case, in which the sound is heard
best against the wind during a northeast snow-storm. |

The most perplexing difficulty, however, arises from the fact that the signal often
appears to be surrounded by a belt, varying in radius from one to one and a half miles,
from which the sound appears to be entirely absent. Thus, in moving directly from
a station, the sound is audible for the distance of a mile, is then lost for about the
same distance, after which it is again distinctly heard for a long time. This action is
common to all ear-signals, and has been at times observed at all the stations, at one
of which the signal is situated on a bare rock twenty miles from the main-land, with
no surrounding objects to affect the sound.

All attempts to re-enforce the sound by means of reflectors have hitherto been un-
successful. Upon a large scale, sound does not appear, on striking a surface, to be
reflected after the manner of light and heat, but to roll along it like a cloud of smoke.

S. Mis. 59 dl

482 RESEARCHES IN SOUND. ©

[This statement is in a measure in accordance with results which I
have previously found in connection with investigations at the light-
house near New Haven, in which the conclusion was arrived at, that
although rays of feeble sounds, and for a short distance, observe the
law that the angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence after
the manner of light, yet powerful sounds tend to diverge laterally to
such a degree as to render reflectors of comparatively little use. |

In view of these circumstances, it will be obvious that it was extremely dificult to
determine the extent of the power of the various signals under examination.

It should be remembered that while the sound from the whistle is equally distrib-
uted in all directions,* that from the two other signals, both of which are provided
with trumpets, is not so distributed.

[The difference is apparent near by, but, as we have seen before, on
account of the tendency of sound to spread it is imperceptible at a dis-
tance. |

In the siren the sound is most distinct in the axis of the trumpet.
In the Daboll trumpet it is usually strongest in a plane perpendicular to this axis.

[This is at variance directly with any observation I have myself made. |]

Relativé power.—From the average of a great number of experiments the following
result was obtained :

The power of the first-class siren, 12 whistle, and first-class Daboll trumpet, may
be expressed by the numbers Y, 7, 4.

The extreme limit of sound of the siren was not ascertained. That of the 12’ whistle
is about twenty miles, and of the trumpet twelve.

Consumption of fuel and water.—The siren, when working with a pressure of 72 pounds
of steam, consumes about 180 pounds of coal and 126 gallons of water per hour.

The 12” whistle, with 55 pounds pressure of steam, consumes 60 pounds of coal and
40 gallons of water per hour.

The Daboll trumpet, with 10 pounds pressure of air in the tank, consumes about 20
pounds of coal per hour.

The relative expenditure of fuel would be: siren, 9; whistle, 3; trumpet, 1.

The siren.—Of the three machines this is the most complicated. It uses steam at a
high pressure, and some of its parts move with very great velocity, the siren spindle
making from 1,800 to 2,400 revolutions per minute. The boiler must be driven to its
full capacity in order to furnish sufficient steam. A large quantity of steam is, at
intervals, suddenly drawn from the boiler, causing a tendency to foam, and to eject a
considerable amount of water through the trumpet.

The constant attention of the keeper is required to regulate the fire, the supply of
water to the boiler, of oil to the journals, &c.

In general terms, it may be stated that the siren requires more skill and attention
in its management than either of the other signals.

The Daboll trumpet.—As the caloric engine, which has been hitherto employed to
operate this signal, requires little fuel, no water, and is perfectly safe as regards
danger from explosion, it would, at the first glance, appear to be the most suitable
power that could be applied to fog-signals, and was accordingly at first exclusively
adopted for this purpose. It was however found to be so liable to accident and so
difficult to repair that of late years it has been almost entirely rejected. In the steam-
boiler the furnace is surrounded by water, and it is impossible, under ordinary circum:
stances, to heat the metal much above the temperature of the water. The furnace of
the caloric engine is surrounded by air, and is therefore liable to be burned out if the
fire is not properly regulated.

The working-piston is packed with leather, and as it moves horizontally, with its
whole weight resting on the lower side of the cylinder, the packing at its lower edge
is soon worn out.

If the engine is allowed to stop with the piston at the furnace-end of the cylinder,

*The sound of the whistle is equally distributed horizontally. It is, however,
much stronger in the plane containing the lower edge of the bell than on either side
of this plane. Thus, if the whistle is standing upright, in the ordinary position, its
sound is more distinct in a horizontal plane passing through the whistle than above
or below it.

RESEARCHES IN SOUND. 483

the leather is destroyed by the heat. The repacking of a piston is a difficult and
expensive operation, requiring more skill than can be expected among the class of
men from whom light-house keepers are appointed.

Another accident to which these engines are subject arises from a sudden check in
the velocity of the piston, caused either by the jamming of the leather packing or the
introduction of dirt into the open end of the cylinder, in which case the momentum of
the heavy, eccentrically-loaded fly-wheel is almost sure to break the main rocker-shatt.

The expense of repairs is considerably increased by the fact that these engines are
not now in general use, and when important repairs are required it is usually neces-
sary to send to the manufacturer.

This signal requires much attention. The fires must be carefully regulated to avoid
burning out the furnace, the journals thoroughly oiled, and the cylinders well sup-
plied with tallow.

The steam-whistle.—This machine requiring much less steam than the siren in propor-
tion to the size of its boiler, there is not the same necessity for forcing the fire; the
pressure of steam required is less, and the point from which it is drawn much higher
above the water-level in the boiler, and there is consequently no tendency to foam.

The machinery is simple; the piston pressure very light, producing but little strain
on the different parts of the engine, which is therefore not liable to get out of order
and requires no more attention than a common stationary engine.

One marked advantage possessed by this signal is that should the engine become
disabled, the whistle may still be sounded by working the valve by hand. This is not
the case with the two others, where an accident to any part of the machinery renders
the signal for the time useless.

It will thus be seen that the siren is the most expensive of the fog-signals as regards
maintenance, and that it is adapted only to such stations as are abundantly supplied
with water and situated in the vicinity of machine-shops where the necessary repairs
can be promptly made.

On the other hand, as it is the most powerful signal. there are certain stations where
it should have the preference ; as, for example, Sandy Hook, which from its import-
ance demands the best signal that can be procured, regardless of cost. Such stations
should be provided with duplicate apparatus, well supplied with spare parts, to guard
against any possibility of accident.

There should be a keeper whose sole business must be to attend the signal. and who
should have sufficient mechanical skill to make the ordinary repairs. He should
moreover be a licensed engineer.

There will also be required an assistant, who may be one of the light-keepers, to
relieve him during the continuance of foggy weather.

The steam-whistle is the simplest in construction, most easily managed and kept in
repair, and requires the least attention of all the fog-signals. It is sufficiently power-
tul for most localities, while its consumption of fuel and water is moderate.

It has been found on this coast that a sufficient quantity of rain-water can be col-
lected to supply the 12” whistle at nearly every station. This has been the case for
the last two years at Martinicus.

The Daboll trumpet, operated by a caloric engine, should only be employed in ex-
ceptional cases, such as at stations where no water can be procured, and where, from
the proximity of other signals, it may be necessary to vary the nature of the sound.

The trumpet however may undoubtedly be very much improved by employing
steam power for condensing the air. The amount of work required, which is that of
compressing 70 cubic feet of air to an average pressure of 8 pounds per inch, would be
less than two-horse power. For this purpose the expenditure of fuel and water would
be moderate ; indeed, the exhaust steain could be condensed and returned to the cis-
tern, should the supply of water be limited.

The siren also is susceptible of improvement, especially as regards simplification.

[In the foregoing remarks we think the general has expressed a some-
what undue partiality for the whistle, and somewhat overestimated the
defects of the other instruments. The trumpets, with Ericsson engine,
have not been abandoned, except partially in the two districts under
the direction of General Duane, to which he probably intended to con-
fine his statement. They are still in use in the third district, where
they are preferred by General Woodruff, who finds no difficulty in keep-
ing them in repair, having employed a skilled machinist who has made
these instruments lis special study, and who, visiting them from time
to time, makes repairs and supplies new parts. ]

484 RESEARCHES IN SOUND.

The intermittent action of fog-signals makes it necessary to employ a peculiar form
of boiler. The steam used is at a high pressure, and drawn off at intervals; conse-
quently there is a tendency to foam and throw out water with the steam. ‘To obviate
this difficulty the form of boiler found by experience to be best adapted to this service
is a horizontal tubular boiler (locomotive), with rather more than one-half of the inte-
rior space allowed for steam-room. The steam-dome is very large, and is surmounted
by a steam pipe 12” in diameter. Both the dome and pipe were formerly made much
smaller, but were gradually enlarged as long as any difficulty with regard to foaming
was noticed. The steam is drawn off at a point 10’ above the water-level in the
boiler. The main points to be observed are to have plenty of steam-room, and to draw
the steam from a point high above the water-level. It will be readily perceived that
a vertical tubular boiler is entirely unsuited to this work.

It is essential, both as regards economy of fuel and the efficient working of the sig-
nal, that the boiler, including the dome and stand-pipe, should be well covered with
some good non-conductor of heat. A material, called salamander felting, manufac-
tured in Troy, N. Y., was used on the fog-whistle boiler at House Island during the
winter of 1870. There resulted a saving of more than 20 per cent. of fuel over that
consumed in the same boiler when uncovered. Where this material cannot be pro-
cured, a thick layer of hair felting, covered with canvas, will be found to answer a
good purpose.

Various expedients have been proposed with the view of keeping the water in the
boilers hot when the signals are not in operation, that the signal may always be ready
to sound at a very short notice, and that the water in the boiler and pipes may be
prevented from freezing in extremely cold weather. One of these contrivances is
‘*Sutton’s circulating water-heater.” It consists essentially of a small, vertical, tubu-
lar boiler, entirely filled with water, and connected with the boiler or tank which
contains the water to be heated, by two pipes on different levels. As soon as the
water in the heater is warmed, a circulation commences, the hot water flowing through
the upper pipe into the boiler, and the cold through the lower pipe from the boiler to
the heater. As the furnace in the heater is very small but little fuel is consumed, and
nearly the entire heat produced by the combustion is utilized.

The apparatus has been extensively employed in heating the water in tanks designed
for filling the steam fire-engine boilers, when the alarm of fire is first given, and appears
admirably adapted to thispurpose. If used in connection with a steam-boiler, it should
be disconnected before steam is raised in the latter, as, from its construction, it is not
calculated to withstand any considerable pressure.

An arrangement, similar in principle, has been used in the first light-house district,
consisting of a small cylinder coal-stove, of the ordinary pattern, around the interior
of which, and above the grate, is introduced a single coil of 2 pipe. This coil is
connected with the boiler by two pipes, one entering near the bottom, the other about
2 feet higher. It has been found that in consequence of the rapid circulation of the
water through this coil, and the great capacity of water for heat, that nearly all the
heat from the fire in the stove is transferred to the water in the boiler. This arrange-
ment possesses the advantage of the }?’ pipe, being strong enough to stand any press-
ure that can be used in the boiler, rendering it unnecessary to disconnect it at any time.

Experience has, however, proved that none of these contrivances are essential. It
is seldom that an attentive keeper cannot foresee the approach of fog or snow in time
to have the apparatus in operation as soon as required, even when obliged to start his
fire with cold water in the boiler.

Keepers should be directed to watch the state of the weather carefully, and to light
their fires at the first indication of fog or snow-storm. As soon as the water in the
boiler is near the boiling point, should the necessity for sounding the signal have not
yet arisen, the fire may be banked, and in this state the water may be kept hot for any
length of time at a moderate expenditure of fuel. With proper care, no more fuel is
required to keep the water at the requisite temperature by means of a banked fire than
by any other method, and it is a matter of great importance to avoid complicating
fog-signal apparatus by unnecessary appendages.

The same plan should be adopted in extremely cold weather to prevent the water
in the boiler from freezing. There should be a small air-cock in the draught-pipe near
its junction with the feed-pump, and in cold weather this should be opened when the
pump is not in use, in order to allow the pipe to empty itself.

When the draught-pipe cannot be protected from the cold, and the well is at a con-
siderable distance from the engine, the following expedient has been employed with
success: The pipe is inclosed in an India-rubber hose of about double its diameter,
and from time to time steam is forced through the space between the hose and draught-
pipe by means of a small pipe from the boiler.

Although the laws governing the reflection of light and heat are undoubtedly, in a
great measure, applicable to sound, there are yet so many disturbing influences, such as
intlection, refraction, caused by the varying density of the atmosphere, &c., interfering
with the reflection of the latter, that but little use can be made of this property in

RESEARCHES IN SOUND. 485

directing and condensing the waves of sound issuing from afog-signal. This fact may
be illustrated by an account of some experiments made during the last year.

A whistle being sounded in the focus of a large parabolic reflector, it was very per-
ceptible to an observer in the immediate vicinity that the sound was louder in the
front than in the rear of the reflector. As the distance of the observer from the whistle
was increased this disparity rapidly diminished, and at the distance of a few hundred
yards entirely disappeared. The beam of sound had been dissipated and the shadow
had vanished. The effect of a horizontal sounding-board 10 feet square, suspended over
the whistle to prevent the escape of sound in a vertical direction, was inappreciable at
the distance of a quarter of a mile.

The employment of a trumpet with the whistle was rather more successful. The
trumpet was constructed of wood, in the form of a square pyramid; the lower base
being 10’ by 10’, the upper base 2’ by 2’, and the height 20’. The axis was horizontal
and the whistle placed at the smaller end. By this arrangement the increased power
of the sound could be perceived at the distance of a mile, the action being similar to
that of a speaking-trumpet.

It is probable that some modification of this form of whistle may be advantageously
employed in certain localities, but there is however a disadvantage attending the use
of a trumpet with fog-signals.

The sound from a trumpet not being uniformly distributed, it is difficult to estimate
the distance of the signal, or,as the pilots term it, ‘‘ to locate the sound.” This has
been observed in the siren and Daboll trumpet. The sound from these signals being
stronger on one course than any other, may be distinctly heard from a vessel when
crossing the axis of the beam of sound, but as its distance from this line increases, the
sound appears fainter and more remote, although the vesselmay be approaching the
signal.

From an attentive observation, during three years, of the fog-signals on this coast,
and from the reports received from captains and pilots of coasting vessels, I am con-
vineed that in some conditions of the atmosphere the most powertul signals will be
at times unreliable.

Now it frequently occurs that a signal, which under ordinary circumstances would
be audible at the distance of fifteen miles, cannot be heard from a vessel] at the dis-
tance of a single mile. Thisis probably due to the reflection mentioned by Hum-
boldt. F

The temperature of the air over the land where the fog-signal is located, being very
different from that over the sea, the sound, in passing from the former to the latter,
undergoes reflection at their surface of contact. The correctness of this view is ren-
dered more probable by the fact that when the sound is thus impeded in the direction
of the sea, it has been observed to be much stronger inland.

When a vessel approaches a signal in a fog, a difficulty is sometimes experienced in
determining the position of the signal by the direction from which the sound appears
to proceed, the apparent and true direction being entirely different. This is undoubt-
edly due to the refraction pf sound passing through media of different density.

Experiments and observation lead to the conclusion that these anomalies in the pen-
etration and direction of sound from fog-signals are to be attributed mainly to the want
of uniformity in the surrounding atmosphere, and that snow, rain, fog, and the force and
direction of the wind, have much less influence than has generally been supposed.

[In the foregoing I differ entirely in opinion from General Duane as
to the cause of extinction of powerful sounds being due to the unequal
density of the atmosphere. The velocity of sound is not at all affected
by barometric pressure, but if the difference in pressure is caused by a
difference in heat, or by the expansive power of vapor mingled with the
air, a slight degree of obstruction of sounds may be observed. But this
effect we think is entirely too minute to produce the results noted by
General Duane, while we shall find in the action of the currents of wind
above and below, a true and sufficient cause. |

The experimental whistles were of the following dimensions, viz: 23’, 3’, 4’, 5’’, 6’,
10”, 12”, and 18” in diameter. Those of 23”, 3”, 5’, and 10” were fitted, instead
of the ordinary bell, with long cylinders, provided with movable pistons, so that
the effective length of the bell could be altered at pleasure. The pitch of the
blast was found to vary with the length of the bell, and the power of the whistle
with its diameter. The ratio of the power to the diameter was not accurately ob-

tained, but it is probable that the extreme range of sound of a whistle is proportional
to the square root of its diameter.

A86 RESEARCHES IN SOUND.

[This, result, that the pitch varies with the length of the bell, is in
conttity with well-established principles of resounding cavities; and
that the power should increase with the extent of the aerial reed, the
vibrations of which give motion to the resounding air within the cavity,
1s also, as we have seen, in accordance with hypothetical considerations ;
but as the density of this stream of steam, and consequently the rapid-
ity of its vibrations, depends upon the pressure of the steam in the
boiler, a perfect whistle should have the capability of changing its di-
mensions, not only in relation to the width of its throat, but also in
regard to the pressure of the steam in the reservoir. |

The pitch giving the greatest range appears to be at the middle of thescale of sound.
It is certain that a good result cannot be obtained from either a very shrill or a bass
note. This remark is applicable to all varieties of signal.

The 10” and 12” whistles are recommended for ordinary use. The 18” whistle is
more powertul, but the increase of power bears too small a proportion to that of the
expenditure of fuel to render its employment generally advisable. The best results
were obtained by giving the whistle the following proportions: The diameter of the
bell equaling two-thirds of its length, and the set of the bell, i. e., the vertical dis-
tance of the lower edge above the cup, the one-third to one-fourth of the diameter for
a pressure of 50 to 60 pounds of steam

A bell, whether operated by hand or by machinery, cannot be considered an efficient
fog-signal on the sea-coast. In calm weather it cannot be heard half the time at a
greater distance than one mile, while in rough weather the noise of the surf will
drown its sound to seaward altogether.

On approaching a station I have frequently seen the bell rung violently by the
keeper, without being able to hear the sound until I had landed.

Nevertheless, all important stations should be provided with bells, as there are occa-
sions when they may serve a useful purpose, but it should be well understood by mari-
ners that they must not expect always to hear the bells as a matter of course.

Bells should not be omitted at stations furnished with steam fog-signals, especially
when the latter are not in duplicate, and mariners should be warned that the bell will
be sounded when the regular signal is disabled.

It has been observed that a bell rung by hand can be heard further than when
sounded by machinery, and many of the steamboat companies on this coast pay the
keepers of bells rung by clock-work to ring them by hand when the boats ef their
jine are expected to pass. <j

[We think the difference in the effect of ringing of bells by hand or
by machinery is so slight as to be inappreciable except at a short dis-
tance. It is true, as I have before observed, that the sound is louder
when the mouth of the bell is directed toward the hearer than when the
edge is so directed, but on account of the spreading of this sound the
effect is lost in a small distance, and indeed in one light-house the bell
is permanently placed with the axis of its mouth directed horizontally,
and in this position, if the bell were struck interiorly with a hammer,
which would give it a larger vibration than when struck exteriorly, I
doubt whether any difference would be observed between the two meth-
ods of ringing; and if any existed it would probably be in favor of the
fixed bell rung by machinery.] i

On rivers, narrow channels, and lakes, where the difficulty from the noise of the surf
does not exist, this species of signal may be used to advantage, as its maintenance
requires but a small expenditure of either money or labor, and by a proper arrange-
ment of the machinery the intervals between the strokes of the bell may be so regu-
lated as to avoid the danger of confounding the signals, however near together.

Although a bell may be heard better when sounded by hand than by clock-work, yet
in thoroughfares where the signal must be kept in constant operation during the en-

tire continuance of a fog, it would be impracticable to make use of the former method,
and recourse must be had to machinery.

RESEARCHES IN SOUND. A87

In arranging the signal the bell and machinery must be placed as low as possible,
as the sound is heard much more plainly on the water when the bell is near its sur-
face, and also as the machinery, when thus situated, is steadier and more readily ac-
cessible.

Particulars as to the siren.—The boiler of a second-class apparatus is 12 feet long, 42
inches in diameter, and has 300 feet heating-surface. The dome is 2 feet in diameter
and 3 feet high.

The eylinder of the engine is 4 inches in diameter and 6 inches stroke. The prolon-
gation of the piston-rod forms the plunger of the feed-pump. The main shaft carries
three pulleys, the larger driving the siren-spindle; the second, the worm and screw
gear; and the third, the governor,

In the worm-gear ‘the wheel makes two revolutions per minute, and is provided with
a cam, which, acting on a lever, opens the valve, admitting steam through the siren-
disks. ‘The cam has such a length as to hold the valve open for about seven seconds.
A counter-weight closes the valve as soon as the lever is released by the cam.

The siren itself consists of a cylindrical steam-chest, closed at one end by a perfor-
ated brass plate. The perforations are twelve in number, equidistant from each other,
and arranged on the circumference of a circle, whose center is in the axis of the cyl
inder. The other end is closed by a cast- -iron head. The heads are connected by a
brass pipe, through which the spindle passes.

The perforated head is covered on the exterior by a brass disk, attached to the
spindle, having twelve rectangular notches corresponding to the apertures on the for-
mer, and so arranged that by its revolution these apertures are simultaneously opened
and closed. The spindle is driven by a belt from the large pulley on the main shaft.
This shaft makes 180 revolutions per minute; the spindle, 1,620; and as there are 12
apertures in the disks, from each there will issue jets of steam at the rate of 19,440
per minute. The sound produced by these impulses may be rendered more or less
acute by increasing or diminishing the velocity of revolution.

The valve and valve-seat are disks similar to those already described, having how-
ever four openings instead of twelve. The valve revolves on the brass tube inclosing
the siren-spindle, and is worked by a bevel gear. The trumpet is of cast-iron.

The Daboll trumpet.—The apparatus used in the foregoing experiments is a second-
class trumpet, operated by an Ericsson caloric-engine. The air- -pump is single-acting.
Its cylinder is 12’ in diameter by 12” stroke. The engine makes forty strokes per min-
ute. There is a screw-thread raised on the main ‘shaft, which, acting on a wheel,
drives a bevel gear, giving motion to a cam-wheel. The latter makes one revolution
in two minutes, and is furnished with three equidistant cams. These cams, pressing
on the valve-lever, throw the valve open once in forty seconds, admitting the com-
pressed air through the reed-chest into the trumpet.

The quantity of air forced into the tank should be in excess of that needed for the
trumpet, the surplus being allowed to escape through a delicate safety-valve. This is
necessary to provide against a deficiency in case of leakage, and also to allow the
pressure ‘of air to be reg culated to accommodate the reed. Each reed requiring a differ-
ent pressure, it is necessary to alter the pressure of the valve-spring whenever a reed
is changed.

The first-class trumpet differs only in size from that described.

The caloric-engine for the first class has a 30’ cylinder. The air-pump is 16} by
15” stroke.

The steam-whistle.—The boiler of this machine is that of the siren. On the forward
part of the boiler the bed-plate of a small engine is secured by two cast-iron brackets.
The cylinder of this engine is 4” by 9”. The fly-wheel shaft carries an eccentric,
which, acting through a “rod and pawl on a ratchet-wheel, gives the required motion
to the cam-wheel shaft.

The cam-wheel, which makes one revolution per minute, is provided with one or
more cams, depending on the number of blasts to be given in a minute; the length of
the blast being regulated by that of the cams.

The valve for admitting the steam into the whistle is a balance-valve, the diame-
ters of the #wo disks being respectively 34” and 23, which difference is ’ sufficient to
cause the pressure of steam “to close the valve tight without requiring too great a force
to open it. The valve is worked by a stem attached to the rocker-shaft at the lower
part of the steam-pipe. This shaft passes through a stuffing-box in the steam-pipe,
and is provided with a collar which the pressure of the steam forces against the inte-
rior boss on the pipe, thus making the joint steam-tight. The exterior arm on this
rocker-shaft, as well as that on the engine, is perforated i in such a manner as to allow
the throw of the valve to be adjusted.

A88 RESEARCHES IN SOUND.

In the comments we have made on the report of General Duane, the
intention was not in the least to disparage the value of his results, which
can scarcely be too highly appreciated ; but inasmuch as the true explana-
tion of the phenomena he has observed has an important bearing on the
location of fog-signals and on their general application as aids to naviga-
tion, and are as well of great interest to the physicist, who values every
addition to theoretical as well as practical knowledge, we have not only
thought the remarks we have offered necessary, but also that special
investigations should be made to ascertain more definitely the condi-
tions under which the abnormal phenomena the general has described
occur, and to assign, if possible, a more definite and efficient cause than
those to which he has attributed them.

We have, therefore, given much thought to the subject, and since the
date of General Duane’s report, have embraced every opportunity which
occurred for making observations in regard to them. The first step we
made toward obtaining a clew to the explanation of the phenomena in
question resulted from observations at New Haven, namely: 1st, the
tendency of sound to spread laterally into its shadow; 2d, the fact that
a sound is frequently borne in an opposite direction to the wind at the
surface by an upper current ; and 3d, that a sound moving against a wind
is heard better at a higher elevation. The first point to consider is in
what manner the wind affects sound. That it is in some way connected
with the distance to which sound can be heard is incontestably settled. by
general observation. At first sight, the explanation of this might seem
to be very simple, namely, that the sound is borne on in the one diree-
tion and retarded in the other by the motion of the wind. But this ex-
planation, satisfactory asit might appear, cannot be true. Sound moves
at the rate of about 780 miles an hour, and therefore, on the above sup-
position, a wind of 7.8 miles per hour could neither retard nor accele-
rate its velocity more than one per cent., an amount inappreciable to
ordinary observation; whereas we know that a wind of the velocity we
have mentioned is frequently accompanied with a reduction of the pene-
trating power of sound of more than 50 per cent.

The explanation of this phenomenon, as suggested by the hypothesis of
Professor Stokes, is founded on the fact that in the case of a deep current
of air the lower stratum, or that next the earth, is more retarded by fric-
tion than the one immediately above, and this again than the one above it,
andsoon. The effect of this diminution of velocity as we descend toward
the earth is, in the case of sound moving with the current, to earry the
upper part of the sound-waves more rapidly forward than the lower parts,
thus causing them to incline toward the earth, or, in other words, to be
thrown down upon the ear of the observer. When the sound is in a
contrary direction to the current, an opposite effect is produced,—the
upper portion of the sound-waves is more retarded than the lower, which
advancing more rapidly, in consequence inclines the waves upward and
directs them above the head of the observer. To render this more clear,

x

RESEARCHES IN SOUND. 489

let us recall the nature of a beam of sound, in still air, projected in
a horizontal direction. It consists of a series of concentric waves per-
pendicular to the direction of the beam, like the palings of a fence.
Now, if the upper part of the waves has a slightly greater velocity
than the lower, the beam will be bent downward in a manner some-
what analogous to that of a ray of light in proceeding from a rarer to a
denser medium. The effect of this deformation of the wave will be
cumulative from the sound-center onward, and hence, although the ve-
locity of the wind may have no perceptible effect on the velocity of sound,
yet this bending of the wave being continuous throughout its entire
course, a marked effect must be produced.

A precisely similar effect will be the result, but perhaps in a consid-
erably greater degree, in case an upper current is moving in an opposite
direction to the lower, when the latter is adverse to the sound, and in
this we have a logical explanation of the phenomenon observed by
General Duane, in which a fog-signal is only heard during the occurrence
of a northeast snow-storm. Certainly this phenomenon cannot be ex-
plained by any peculiarity of the atmosphere as to variability of density,
or of the amount of vapor which it may contain. ;

The first phenomenon of the class mentioned by General Duane, which
I had the good fortune to witness was in company with Sir Frederick

_ Arrow and Captain Webb, of the Trinity House, London, in their visit

to this country in 1872. At the distance of two or three miles from an
island in the harbor of Portland, Maine, on which a fog-signal was
placed, the sound, which had been distinetly heard, was lost on ap-
proaching the island for nearly a mile, and slightly regained at a less
distance. On examining the position of the fog-signal, which was sit-
uated on the farther side of. the island from the steamer, we found it
placed immediately in front of a large house with rising ground in the
rear, which caused a sound-shadow, into which, on account of the late-
ral divergence of the rays, the sound was projected at a distance, but
not in the immediate vicinity of the island. In the same year I made
an excursion in one of the light-house steamers, with Captain Selfridge,
to an island on the coast of Maine, at which abnormal phenomena were
said to have been observed, but on this occasion no variation of the
sound was noted, except that which was directly attributable to the
wind, the signal being heard much farther in one direction than in the
opposite.

r]
490 RESEARCHES: IN SOUND.

PART 11.—REMARKS ON SOME ABNORMAL PHENOMENA OF
SOUND.*

The communication which I propose to make this evening is brought
forward at this time especially on account of the presence of Dr. Tyn-
dall, he being connected with the light-house system of Great Britain,
while the facts I have to state are connected with the light-house service
of the United States, and must therefore be of interest to our distin-
guished visitor. The facts I have to present form part of a general re-
port to be published by the United States Light-House Board.

The Light-House Board of the United States has from its first estab-
lishment aimed not only to furnish our sea-coast with all the aids to
navigation that have been suggested by the experience of other countries
and to adopt the latest improvements, but also to enrich the light-house
Service with the results of new investigations and new devices for the
iunprovement of its efficiency, or, in other words, to add its share to the
advance of a system which pertains to the wants of the highest civiliza-
tion.

Among the obstructions to navigation none are more serious, especially
on the American coast, than those caused by fogs.

Fog, as it is well known, is due to the mingling of warmer air sur-
eharged with moisture with colder air, and nowhere on the surface of
the earth do more favorable conditions exist for producing fogs
than on both our Atlantic and Pacific coasts. On the Atlantic the
cold stream of water from the polar regions in its passage southward,
on account of the rotation of the earth, passes close along our eastern
coast from one extremity to the other, and parallel to this but opposite
in direction, for a considerable distance is the great current of warm
water known as the Gulf Stream. Above the latter the air is constantly
surcharged with moisture, and consequently whenever light winds blow
from the latter across the former, the vapor is condensed into fog, and
since in summer along our eastern coast the southerly wind prevails,
we have during July, August, and September, especially on the coast
of Maine, an almost continuous prevalence of fogs so dense that distant
vision is entirely obstructed.

On the western coast the great current of the Pacific, after having
been cooled in the northern regions, in its passage southward gives rise
to cold and warm water in juxtaposition, or, in other words, a current of
the former through the latter, and hence whenever a wind blows across
the current of cold water, a fog is produced.

From the foregoing statement it is evident that among the aids to
navigation fog-signals are almost as important as light-houses. The
application however of the science of acousties to the former is far less
advanced than is that of optics to the latter. Indeed, attempts have
been made to apply lights of superior penetrating power, as the electric

———

* Made before the ‘‘Philosophical Society of Washington,” December 11, 1872.

;
;
b

RESEARCHES IN SOUND. AOL

and calcium lights, to supersede the imperfect fog-signals in use. When
however we consider the tact that the absorptive power of a stratum of
cloud, which is but a lighter fog, of not more than two or three miles in
thickness, is sufficient to obscure the image of the sun, the intensity of
the light of which is greater than that of any artificial light, it must be
evident that optical means are insufficient for obviating the difficulty in
question.

The great extent of the portions of the coast of the United States
which are subject to fogs renders the investigation of the subject of fog-
signals one of the most important duties of the Light-House Board.

In studying this subject it becomes a question of importance to ascer-
tain whether waves of sound, like those of light, are absorbed or stifled
by fog; on this point however, observers disagree. At first sight, from
the very striking analogy which exists in many respects between light
and sound, the opinion has largely prevailed that sound is impeded by fog.
But those who have not been influenced by this analogy have in some
instances adopted the opposite opinion—that sound is better heard during
a fog than in clear weather. To settle this question definitely the Light-
House Board have directed that at two light-houses on the route from
Boston to Saint John the fog-signals shall be sounded every day on
which the steamboats from these ports pass the station, both in clear
and foggy weather, the pilots on board these vessels having, for a small
gratuity, engaged to note the actual distance of the boat when the sound
is first heard on approaching the signal and is last heard on receding
from it. The boats above mentioned estimate their distance with con-
siderable precision by the number of revolutions of the paddle-wheel as
recorded by the indicator of the engine, and it is hoped by this means
to definitely decide the point in question. We think it probable that
fog does somewhat diminish the penetrating power of sound, or in
other words, produce an effect analogous to that on the propagation
of light. But when we consider the extreme minuteness of the parti-
cles of water constituting the fog as compared with the magnitude of
the waves of sound, the analogy does not hold except in so small a de-
gree as to be of no practical importance, or, in other words, the exist-
ence of a fog is a true, but, we think, a wholly insufficient cause of di-
minution of sound, which view is borne out by the great distance at
which our signals are heard during a dense fog.

Another cause, which without doubt is a true one, of the diminution
of the penetrating power of sound is the varying density of the atmos-
phere, from heat and moisture, in long distances. The effect of this,
however, would apparently be to slightly distort the wave of sound
rather than to obliterate it. However this may be, we think, from all
the observations we have made, the effect is small in comparison with
another cause, viz, that of the influence of wind. During a residence of
Several weeks at the sea-shore, the variation in intensity of the sound

’

of the breakers at a distance of about a mile in no case appeared to be
coincident with the variations of an aneroid barometer or a thermome-
ter, but in every instance it was affected by the direction of the wind.

The variation in the distinctness of the sound of a distant instrument
as depending on the direction of the wind is so marked that we are war-
ranted in considering it the principal cause of the inefficiency in certain
cases of the most powerful fog-signals. The effect of the wind is usu-
ally attributed, without due consideration, to the motion of the body of
air between the hearer and the sounding instrument; in the case of its
coming towards him it is supposed that the velocity of the sound is re-
inforced by the motion of the air, and when in the opposite direction
that it is retarded in an equal degree. A little reflection, however, will
show that this cannot be the cause of the phenomenon in question, since
the velocity of sound is so vastly greater than that of any ordinary
wind that the latter can only impede the progress of the former by a
very small percentage of the whole. Professor Stokes, of Cambridge
University, England, has offered a very ingenious hypothetical explana-
tion of wind on sound, which we think has an important practical bear-
ing, especially in directing the line of research and subsequent applica-
tion of principles.

His explanation rests upon the fact that during the passage of a wind
between the observer and the sounding instrument the velocity of this
will be more retarded at the surface of the earth on account of friction
and other obstacles, and that the velocity of the stratum immediately -
above will be retarded by that below, and so on, the obstruction being
lessened as we ascend through the strata. From this it follows that the
sound wave will be deformed and the direction of its normal changed.’
Suppose, for example, that the wind is blowing directly from the ob-
server. In this case the retardation of the sound wave will be greater
above than below, and the upper part of the wave-front will be thrown
backwards so that the axis of the phonic ray will be deflected upwards,
and over the head of the observer. If, on the other hand, a deep river
of wind (so to speak) is blowing directly towards the observer, the upper
part of the front of the wave will be inclined down and towards him,
concentrating the sound along the surface of the earth.

The science of acoustics in regard to the phenomena of sound as ex-
hibited in limited spaces has been developed with signal success. The
laws of its production, propagation, reflection, and refraction have been
determined with much precision, so that we are enabled in most cases
to explain, predict, and control the phenomena exhibited under given
conditions. But in case of loud sounds and those which are propagated
to a great distance, such as are to be employed as fog-signals, consider-
able obscurity still exists. As an illustration of this I may mention the
frequent occurrence of apparently abnormal phenomena. General War-
ren informs me that at the battle of Seven Pines, in June, 1862, near
Richmond,—General Johnston, of the Confederate army, was within three

492 RESEARCHES IN SOUND,

RESEARCHES IN SOUND. 493

miles of the scene of action with a force intended to attack the flank of
_ the Northern forces, and although listening attentively for the sound of
the commencement of the engagement, the battle, which was a severe
one, and lasting about three hours, ended without his having heard a
single gun. (See Johnston’s report.) Another case of a similar kind
occurred to General McClellan at the battle of Gaines’ Mills, June 27,
_ 1862, also near Richmond. Although a sharp engagement was progress-
j ing within three or four miles for four or five hours, the general and his
staff were unaware of its occurrence, and when their attention was
_ cailed to some feeble sound they had no idea that it was from anything
more than a skirmish of little importance. (See Report of the Commit-
tee on the Conduct of the War.) A third and perhaps still more re-
, markable instance is given in a skirmish between a part of the Second
Corps under General Warren and a force of the enemy. In this case
| the sound of the firing was heard more distinctly at General Meade’s
headquarters than it was at the headquarters of the Second Corps itself,
_ although the latter was about midway between the former and the point
| of conflict. Indeed the sound appeared so near General Meade’s camp
that the impression was made that the enemy had gotten between itand
General Warren’scommand. In fact so many instances oceurred of wrong
impressions as to direction and distance derived from the sound of guns
that little reliance came to be placed on these indications.

In the report of a series of experiments made under the direction of
the Light-House Board by General Duane of the Engineer Corps is the
following remark: ‘‘ The most perplexing difficulty arises from the fact
that the fog-signal often appears to be surrounded by a belt varying in
radius from one to one and a half miles. Thus in moving directly from
a station the sound is audible for the distance of a mile, is then lost for
about the same distance, after which it is again distinctly heard for a
long time.” ;

Again, in aseries of experiments at which Sir Frederick Arrow and Cap-
tain Webb, of the Trinity Board, assisted, it was found that in passing in
the rear of the opposite side of an island in front of which a fog-signal
was placed, the sound entirely disappeared, but by going further off to
the distance of two or three miles it reappeared in full force, even with
a large island intervening. Again, from the experiments made under the
immediate direction of the present chairman of the Light-House Board,
with the assistance of Admiral Powell and Mr. Lederle, the light-
house engineer, and also from separate experiments made by General
Duane, it appears that while a reflector, in the focus of which a steam
whistle or ordinary bell is placed, reinforces the sound for a short dis-
tance, it produces little or no effect at the distance of two or three miles,
and, indeed, the instrument can be as well heard in still air at the dis-
tance of four or five miles in the line of the axis of the reflector, whether
the ear be placed before or behind it. From these results we would
infer that the lateral divergency of sound, or its tendency to spread lat-

A94 RESEARCHES IN SOUND.

erally as it passes from its source, is much greater than has been sup-
posed from experiments on a small scale. The idea we wish to convey
by this is that a beam of sound issuing through an orifice, although at
first proceeding like a beam of light in paralled rays, soon begins to
diverge and spread out into a cone, and at a sufficient distance may in-
clude even the entire horizon.

We may mention also in this connection that from the general fact
expressed by the divergence of the rays of sound, the application of
reflection as a means of reinforcing sound must in a considerable degree
of necessity be a failure.

By the application of the principle we have stated and the effect of
the wind in connection with the peculiarities of the topography of a
region and the position of the sounding body, we think that not only
may most of the phenomena we have just mentioned be accounted for,
but also that other abnormal effects may be anticipated.

In critically examining the position of the sounding body in the experi-
ment we have mentioned, in which Sir Frederick Arrow and Captain Webb
assisted, it was found that the signal was placed on the side of a bank
with a large house directly in the rear, the roof of which tended to deflect
the sound upwards so as to produce in the rear a shadow, but on account
of the divergency of the beam this shadow vanished at the distance of
a mile and a half or two miles, and at the distance of, say, three miles
the sound of the instrument was distinctly heard. I doubt not that, on
examination, all the cases mentioned by General Duane, with one ex-
ception, might be referred to the same principle, the exception being
expressed in the following remarkable statement in his report to the
Light-House Board: “The fog-signals have frequently been heard at a
distance of tecenty miles and as frequently cannot be heard at the distance
of two miles, and with no perceptible difference in the state of the atmos-
phere. The signal is often heard at a greater distance in one direction,
while in another it will be scarcely audible at the distance of a mile.
Forexample, the whistle at Cape Elizabeth can always be distinctly heard
in Portland—a distance of nine miles—during a heavy northeast snow-
storm, the wind blowing a gale nearly from Portland towards the whistle.”

Thisissoabnormal acase, and so contrary to generally received opinion,
that I hesitated to have it published under the authority of the board
until it could be verified and more thoroughly examined. In all the
observations that have been made under my immediate supervision, the
sound has always been heard farther with the wind than against it. It
would appear, therefore, from all the observations that the normal effect
of the wind is to diminish the sound in blowing directly against it.

There is however a meteorological condition of the atmosphere dur-
ing a northeast storm on our coast which appears to me to have a
direct bearing on the phenomenon in question. It is this: that while a
violent wind is blowing from the northeast into the interior of the country,
a wind of equal intensity is blowing in an opposite direction at an ele-

RESEARCHES IN SOUND. 495

vation of a mile or two. This is shown by the rapid eastwardly motion
of the upper clouds as occasionally seen through breaks in the lower.

As a further illustration of this principle I may mention that on one
occasion (in 1855) I started, on my way to Boston from Albany, in the morn-
ing of a clear day, with a westerly wind. The weather continued clear
and pleasant until after passing the Connecticut River, and until within
fifty miles of Boston. We then encountered a storm of wind and rain
which continued until we reached the city. On inquiry I learned that
the storm had commenced in Boston the evening before, and, although
the wind had been blowing violently towards Albany for teenty hours,
it had not reached inwardly more than fifty miles. At this point it met
the west wind and was turned back above in almost a parallel current.
This is the general character of northeast storms along our coast, as
shown by Mr. Espy, and is directly applicable to the phenomenon men-
tioned by General Duane, and which, from the frequency with which he
has witnessed the occurrence, we must accept as a fact, though by no
means a general one applicable to all stations. While a violent wind was
blowing towards his place of observation from Cape Elizabeth, at the
surface of the earth, a parallel current of air was flowing above with
equal or greater velocity in the opposite direction. The effect of the
latter would be to increase the velocity of the upper part of the wave
of sound, and of the former to diminish it; the result of the two being
to incline the front of the wave of sound towards the observer, or to
throw it down towards the earth, thus rendering the distant signal audi-
ble under these conditions when otherwise it could not be heard. I think
it is probable that the same prineiple applies in other cases to the abnor-
mal propagation of sound.

For the production of a sound of sufficient power to serve as a fog-
signal, bells, gongs, &e., are too feeble except in special cases where the
warning required is to be heard only at a small distance. After much
experience, the Light-House Board has adopted, for first-class signals,
instruments actuated by steam or hot-air engines, and such only as de-
pend upon the principle of resonance, or the enforcement of sound by a
series of recurring echoes in resounding cavities.

Of these there are three varieties. First, the steam-whistle, of which
the part called the bell is a resounding cavity, the sound it emits having
no relation to the material of which it is composed; one of the same
form and of equal size of wood producing an effect identical with that
from one of metal. Another variety is the fog-trumpet, which consists
of a trumpet of wood or metal actuated by a reed like that of a clario-
net. The third variety is called the siren trumpet, which consists of a
hollow drum, into one head of which is inserted a pipe from a steam-
boiler, while in the other head a number of holes are pierced, which are
alternately opened and shut by a revolving plate having an equal num-
ber of holes through it. This drum is placed at the mouth of a large
trumpet. The sound is produced by the series of impulses given to the

496 RESEARCHES IN SOUND.

air by the opening and shutting of the orifices and consequent rushing out
at intervals with explosive violence of the steam or condensed air. The
instrument, as originally invented by Cagniard de Latour, of France,
was used simply in experiments in physics to determine the pitch of
sound; but Mr. Brown, of New York, after adding a trumpet to it, and
modifying the openings in the head of the drum and the revelving plate,
offered it to the Light-House Board as a fog-signal, and as such it has
been found the most powerful ever employed.

In ascertaining the penetrating power of different fog-signals, I have
used with entire success an instrument of which the following is a
description: A trumpet of ordinary tinned iron of about 3 feet in
length, and 9 inches in diameter at the larger end, and about 1 inch at
the smaller, is gradually bent so that the axis of the smaller part is at
right angles to the axis of the larger end ; on the smaller end is soldered
a cone, of which the larger end is about 2 inches in diameter. Across
the mouth of this cone is stretched a piece of gold-beater’s skin. When
the instrument is used, the opening on the larger end is held before
the instrment to be tested, the membrane being horizontal, and the mouth
of the trumpet vertical ; over the membrane is strewed a small quantity
of fine sand, which is defended from the agitation of the air by a cylinder
of glass, the upper end of which is closed by a lens. When the instru-
ment under examination is sounded, being sufficiently near the sand, is
agitated ; it is then moved further off, step by step, until the agitation
just ceases; this distance, being measured, is taken as the relative pene-
trating power of the sounding instrument. The same process is repeated —
with another sounding instrument, and the distance at which the sound
ceases to produce an effect on the sand is taken as the measure of the
penetrating power of this instrument, and so on. On comparing the re-
sults given by this instrument with those obtained by the ear on going out
a sufficient distance, the two are found to agree precisely in their indica,
tions. The great advantage in using this contrivance is that the rela-
tive penetrating power of two instruments may be obtained within a
distance of a few hundred yards, while to compare the relative power
of two fog-signals by the ear requires the aid of a steamer and a de-
parture from the origin of sound in some cases of 15 or 20 miles.

PART TL—INVESTIGATIONS DURING 1873 AND 1874.*
OBSERVATIONS ON SOUND AND FoG-SIGNALS, IN AUGUST, 1873.

Professor Henry, chairman, and Commander Walker, naval secretary
of the Light-House Board, left Portland August 12th, 1873, at 3 o’clock
P. M. in the steam-tender Myrtle, Captain Foster, for Whitehead light-
station, at which place abnormal phenomena of sound had been observed.

* From the Report of the Light-House Board, for 1874,

RESEARCHES IN SOUND. AQT

Whitehead light-station is on a small island about a mile and a half
from the coast of Maine, on the western side of the entrance to Penob-
scot Bay, and in the direct line of the coasting-steamers and other ves-
sels from the westward bound into the Penobscot Bay and River. The
light-house and fog-signal are situated on the southeast slope of the
island, the surface of which consists almost entireiy of rock, the middle
being at an elevation of 75 feet above the mean tide-level.

The phenomena which had been observed at this and other stations
along the coast consisted of great variation of intensity of sound while
approaching and receding from the station. As an example of this we
may state the experience of the observers on board the steamer City of,
Richmond on one occasion, during a thick fog in the night in 1872. The
vessel was approaching Whitehead from the southwestward, when, at a
distance of about six miles from the station, the fog-signal, which is a
10-inch steam-whistle, was distinctly perceived and continued to be
heard with increasing intensity of sound until within about three miles,
when the sound suddenly ceased to be heard, and was not perceived
again until the vessel approached within a quarter of a mile of the sta-
tion, although from conclusive evidence furnished by the keeper it was
shown that the signal had been sounding during the whole time. The
wind during this time was from the south, or approximately in an oppo-
site direction to the sound. Another fact connected with: this occur-
rence was that the keeper on the island distinctly heard the sound of
the whistle of the steamer, which was commenced to be blown as soon
as the whistle at the station ceased to be heard, in order to call the at-
tention of the keeper to what was supposed to be a neglect of his duty
in intermitting the operations of his signal. It should be observed in
this case that the sound from the steamer was produced by a 6-inch
whistle, while that of the station was from an instrument of the same
kind of 10 inches in diameter; or, in other words, a lesser sound was
heard from the steamer, while a sound of greater volume was unheard
in an opposite direction from the station. It is evident that this result
could not be due to any mottled condition or want of acoustic transpar-
ency of the atmosphere, since this would absorb the sound equally in
both directions. The only plausible explanation of this phenomenon
is that which refers it to the action of the wind. In the case of the
sound from the steamer, the wind was favorable for its transmission,
and hence it is not strange that its sound should be heard on the island
when the sound from the other instrument could not be be heard on the
steamer. To explain on the same principle the fact of the hearing of
the sound at the distance of six miles, and afterward of losing it at the
distance of three miles, we have only to suppose that in the first in-
stance the retarding effect of the wind was small, and that in the sec-
ond it became much greater on account of a sudden increase in the rel-
ative velocity of the current in the upper and lower portions.

After making a critical examination of the island and the position of

S. Mis. 59 32

498 RESEARCHES IN SOUND.

the machinery, and also in regard to any obstacle which might interfere
with the propagation of the sound, the keeper was directed to put the
instrument in operation and to continue to sound it for at least two
hours, or until the steamer was lost sight of, which direction was com-
plied with. In passing from the island, almost directly against a light
wind, the intensity of the sound gradually diminished as a whole, with
the increase of distance,. but varied in loudness from blast to blast,
now louder, then again more feeble, until it finally ceased at a distance
of about fifteen miles, as estimated by the intervals between the blasts
and the sight of the steam as seen through a spy-glass, and also from
points on the Coast-Survey charts.

The result of this investigation clearly showed the power of the appa-
ratus in propagating sound under conditions not entirely favorable,
since the wind, though light, was in opposition to the sound.

Cape Elizabeth Light-Station, Maine, August 29, 1873.—The fog-signal
at this place is ona prominent headland to which the course of all ves-
sels is directed when bound from the southward into Portland Harbor.
It is furnished with two light houses 919 feet apart and 143 feet above
sea-level. The easterly tower is connected with the keeper’s dwelling
by a wooden-covered way 200 feet long and about 12 feet high; the
station is furnished with a 10-inch steam fog-whistle, placed to the
southward of the easterly tower, at a distance of about 625 feet and
about at right angles with the covered way; it therefore has a back-
ground, including the covered way, of about 65 feet above the height of
the whistle, which was found to reflect a perceptible echo. The whistle
was actuated by steam at 55 pounds pressure, consuming from 60 to 65
pounds of anthracite coal per hour. The whistle itself differs from the
ordinary locomotive-whistle by having a projecting ledge or rim around
the lower part through which the sheet of steam issues to strike against
the lower edge of the bell. What effect this projecting ledge or rim may
have is not known to the observers. This whistle is provided, (for the
purpose of concentrating the sound in a given direction,) with a hollow
truncated pyramid 20 feet long, 10 feet square at the large end, and 23
feet square at the small end, the axis of the pyramid being placed par-
allel to the horizon, with the whistle at the smaller end. In order to
ascertain the effect of this appendage to the whistle the simplest plan
would have been to have noted the intensity of sound at various points
on a circle of which the whistle would have been the center. This being
impracticable on account of the intervention of the land, the observations
were confined to points on the three ares of a circle of about 120°, of
which the axis divided the space into 80° and 40° and a radius of one,
two, and three miles. The result of these observations was that, starting
from the axis of the trumpet on the east side, the sound grew slightly
less loud until the prolongation of the side of the trumpet was reached,
when it became comparatively faint and continued so until the line be-

RESEARCHES IN SOUND. 499

tween the whistle and observer was entirely unobstructed by the side
of the trumpet, when the sound was apparently as loud as in the pro-
longation of the axis itself. On the west side of the axis of the trumpet
the sound in a like manner diminished from the axis until the prolonga-
tion of the side of the trumpet was reached, when it became feeble
again, slightly increased, and then gradually diminished until the line
of direc‘ion made an angle of about 80° with the axis of the trumpet,
when it ceased to be heard at a distance of about one and a half miles.
It should be observed, however, that at this point the line of sight of
the observers was obstructed by the side of the trumpet and the smoke-
stack of the boiler. The wind was light, at south-southwest, approxi-
mately in direct opposition to the direction of the sound when it ceased
tobe heard. We are informed that complaints had previously been made
by officers of steamers passing near this point that the sound was here
inaudible previous to the introduction of this trumpet; it would there-
fore follow that it is of no use in increasing the effect on the western
side of the axis and is of injury to the sound on the lines of prolonga-
tion of its sides. If the sound ceased to be heard at the point mentioned,
when the trumpet is removed the only apparent cause of the phenome-
non will be the prevailing direction of the wind, which, coming from the
southwest, will be in opposition to the sound of the whistle; but in the
case of the present investigation the force of the wind was so small that
it scarcely appeared adequate to produce the effect, and this question,
therefore, must be left for further investigation. It may be important
to state that in the case where the sound ceased to be heard it was re-
gained by sailing directly toward the station about one mile, or at half
a mile from the station. After making the foregoing observations as to
the intensity of sound in different directions from the station, the obser-
vations were closed by sailing directly along the axis of the trumpet
until the sound, which gradually grew fainter as the distance increased,
finally ceased to be heard at a distance of about nine miles. In com-
paring this last result with an instrument of about the same power at
Whitehead, which gave a perceptible sound at a distance of fifteen
miles, the only apparently variable circumstance was the velocity of the
wind, in both cases adverse to the direction of the sound; but in that
of Cape Elizabeth it was of considerable more intensity.

During the foregoing experiments, when the vessel was about a mile
from the station, steaming directly outward, in the prolongation of the
axis of the instrument, there was heard after each sound of the whistle
a distinct echo from the broad, unobstructed ocean, which was attributed
at the time, as in other cases, to reflections from the crests and hollows
of the waves, a similar phenomenon having since been referred to a re-
flection from air of a different density. This observation becomes im-
portant in regard to the solution of the question as to the abnormal
phenomena of sound.

500 RESEARCHES IN SOUND.

Cape Ann Light-Station, Massachusetts, August 31, 1873.—This is one of
the most important stations on the New England coast. It is furnished
with two first-order lights, and a 12-inch steam-whistle, actuated by 60
pounds pressure of steam. The present is the fourth engine which has
been erected at this station, in consequence of the complaints either as
to the inefficiency of the sound or its failure to be heard in certain direc-
tions. It was at first proposed to sail entirely around the island in order
to test the intensity of the sound in different directions, but this was
found impracticable on account of want of depth of water on the inland
side; the observations were therefore confined to the direction in which
complaints had been made as to the deficiency of the signal, namely, in
a southerly direction. The result of these observations, the points of
which included an are of 120°, was that the sound was heard with equal
intensity except when the direction of the station was to the northward
and eastward of the observers; then, in one instance, the sound became
very indistinct, and in another was entirely lost, both at a distance of
about two miles. In these cases the line of sight between the observers
and the signal was interrupted, in the first by a small building, the gable-
end of which was within 10 feet of the whistle, and in the second by the
south light-tower, which is within 30 feet of the whistle. In this series
of experiments, as with the last, the wind was against the sound; the
effect was noted by passing over the are several times at different dis-
tances. The wind was from the southward and westward and very
light, and the sound was finally lost at about six miles, and in the direc-
tion of the obstructions.

Boston Light-Station, August 31, 1873.—The light-house is situated on
a low, rocky island, on the north side of the main outer entrance to Bos-
ton Harbor, nine miles from the city. It is furnished with three caloric
engines, two of the second class and one of the first. The two second-
class engines are so arranged as to act separately or together, and in the
latter arrangement serve to duplicate the larger engine. At the time
the observations were made, the larger engine was about being repaired,
and one of the smaller engines with the double air-reservoir was used.
The larger engine is used with 12 pounds pressure of air, which falls to
8 pounds in producing the sound. The smaller engine, with the double
reservoir, is started with {) pounds pressure, which falls to 8 pounds.
This difference in the pressure of air in the two engines is caused by the
larger ratio of the reservoir to the size of the reed. With a greater
pressure than 12 pounds to the square inch in the larger engine and 9
pounds in the smaller no sound is produced; the reed is unable to act
against the pressure, and, consequently, the orifice remains closed. The
trumpet of the larger of the engines is reported to have been heard
eighteen miles at sea, which, in consideration of the results obtained at
Whitehead, we thought very probable. The time required, from start-
ing fires, to get a good working-pressure, is about half an hour. The
amount of coal consumed per hour is 17 pounds.

RESEARCHES IN SOUND. 501

There is moreover at this station a bell, operated by a Stevens clock,
not at present used. It is placed on a high, wooden frame-structure, on
which one of the ancient bell-striking machines was originally erected.
The most proper position for the fog-signal is on the ground occupied by
this bell-tower, but as this was not removed at the time of the erection
of the trumpets, they were placed in such positions as to have the line
of sound interrupted to the northeastward by the bell and light towers.
It was therefore thought probable that this was the cause of the de-
ficiency of sound in this direction. To test this the vessel was caused
to traverse the ares of several concentric circles, in the portion of the
horizon where the sound was most required as a signal. The first are
traversed was about one and one-half miles from the signal. The vessel
on this crossed the axis where the sound was quite loud, and proceeded
northward until the sight of the trumpet was obscured by the before-
mentioned towers, when the sound became almost inaudible. The ves-
sel next returned across the axis, on a circle of about three miles radius,
with similar results; but after crossing the axis the sound on the south-
ern side continued to be but little diminished in intensity along an are of
two and a half miles, or as far as the land would allow the vessel to go.
The vessel was next put upon an are, of which the radius was one and
a half miles, and on the south side of the axis, and sailed to the north-
ward until the axis was reached, it was then turned and ran for the en-
trance of the harbor, hugging the southern shore, keeping as far from the
signal as possible. Throughout this passage the sound was clear and
loud, showing very little, if any, diminution of power as the several posi-
tions deviated more and more from the direction of the axis, until the
vessel was at right angles with the axis, the land not permitting any
greater distance. The vessel approached to within three-quarters of a
mile of the signal and then continued still farther around, until nearly in
the rear of it, the sound still continuing clear and loud. ‘The vessel next
proceeded up the harbor, nearly in the line of the axis of the trumpet
prolonged in the rear, still continuing to hear the signal distinctly until
the keeper, losing sight of the vessel, stopped sounding the instrument.
These observations were made under very favorable circumstances, it
being nearly calm. What wind did exist was about equally favorable
to points on either side of the axis. The inference from these observa-
tions is, first, that small objects placed near the source of sound tend to
diminish its intensity in the direction of its interruption, and should,
therefore, if possible, be removed, or the instrument so placed as to ob-
viate such obstructions; and, second, that, even with the trumpet, the
sound so diverges from the axis as to be efficient even in the rear of the
instrument.

OBSERVATIONS ON FoG-SIGNALS, AUGUST 25, 1874.

The first of these was on board the steamer Putnam, at Little Gull
Island, with Admiral Trenchard, inspector of lights of the third dis-

502 RESEARCHES IN SOUND.

trict, accompanied by Governor Ingersoll, of Connecticut, and Captain
Upshur, U. 8. N.

At this place are two sirens, the one to replace the other in case of
an accident. One of the sirens was sounded with the pressure of 50
pounds per square inch. The wind was across the axis of the trumpet,
and almost precisely at right angles to it.

The steamer was headed against the wind, on a line at right angles
to the axis of the trumpet. The sound in this case also travelled against
the wind, which was at an estimated velocity of from 4 to 5 miles per
hour. The distance travelled before the sound became inaudible was
estimated, by the speed of the steamer, at 3$ miles.

The steamer was next headed in an opposite direction and returned
along its previous path, across the mouth of the trumpet of the siren,
the sound gradually increasing in strength without any marked irregu-
larity, until the siren was reached, and on leaving this, the course re-
maining the same, the sound gradually diminished im intensity, but with
less rapidity than before, until it was finally lost at a distance of 74
miles. In the latter instance the movement of the sound was with the
wind. The result of these observations was conformable to that gene-
rally obtained from previous observations, namely, that the sound is sel-
dom or never heard at the same distance in different directions, and, more-
over, that it is generally heard farther with the wind than against it.

The observations of this day also illustrate the spread of the sound-
wave on either side of the axis of the trumpet, a fact which has fre-
quently been observed in other investigations. It may be well to men-
tion that the siren trumpet at this locality is directed horizontally with
its prolonged axis passing over, immediately in front of the mouth of
the trumpet, a space of very rough ground, the surface of which is
principally composed of bowlders, one of which, of very large size, is
directly in front of the trumpet, and the idea occurred to me that this
rough surface might produce some effect on the transmission of sound
to a distance. I observed by strewing sand upon a paper that the
former was violently agitated when held near the surface of the large
bowlder just mentioned, during the blast of the siren trumpet.

At this station, during the visit of Sir Frederick Arrow, the sound
was lost in the direction of the axis of the trumpet at a distance of two
miles, and then again regained with distinctness at the light-vessel, a
distance of four and one-half miles; this was what we have denominated
as an abnormal phenomenon, which we think was due to a slight varia-
tion in the velocity of the lower or upper part of the current of air, but,
unfortunately, the demand for the use of the vessel as a light-house
tender prevented the attempt to ascertain whether the same phenomenoa
would be observed a second time and to further investigate its cause.

The second investigations this season were September 1, 1874, with
General Barnard, of the Light-House Board, and General Woodruff,

—

RESEARCHES IN SOUND. 503

engineer of the third district. We proceeded on this occasion in the
steamer Mistletoe to Block Island, one of the outer stations of the
Light-House Board, fully exposed, without intervention of land, to the
waves and storms of the ocean.

On the southerly side of this island a light-house is about being erected,
and a siren station at this locality had been established and was in full
operation.

There are here two sirens attached to one boiler, one to be used in case
of an accident to the other. For the sake of experiment they are of
slightly different qualities, one with a larger trumpet with a revolving
disk of the old pattern, giving a lower tone; the other a smaller trumpet,
having a revolving disk with openings allowing a much more sudden
full blast of steam, and revolving with greater velocity so as to give a
higher pitch. The latter is far the superior instrument, as was evident
to us by the sound which it produced, and as had been established by
the use of the artificial ear in the manufactory of Mr. Brown. The
effect on the unguarded ear was scarcely endurable, and the very earth
around appeared to tremble during the blast. The keeper (an intelli-
gent man who has been promoted from the station of assistant keeper
at Beaver Tail light to this station) informed us that a fleet of fishing-
vessels coming in distinctly heard it at a distance estimated by their
rate of sailing at scarcely less than thirty miles; this was on two sepa-
rate occasions. The keeper had been directed to note and record the
date at which he heard the sound from other signals; he reported that
he had frequently heard the fog-signal at Point Judith, a distance of
seventeen miles, and that the observer at the latter place frequently
heard his signal; but on comparing records the two sounds had not
been heard simultaneously by the two keepers; when it was heard from
one station it was not heard from the other, illustrating again the gen-
eral rule that sound is not transmitted simultaneously with equal inten-
sity in opposite directions.

This oceasion also furnished very favorable conditions for observing
the remarkable phenomenon of the ocean-echo. At the cessation of
each blast of the trumpet, after a slight interval, a distinct and pro-
longed echo was returned from the unobstructed ocean. It is important
to observe, in regard to this phenomenon, that the siren is placed near
the edge of a perpendicular cliff, at an elevation of from 75 to 100 feet
above the ocean, and, furthermore, that the direction of the wind formed
an angle of about 35° with the axis of the trumpet. Now, the loudness
of this echo was not the greatest at the siren-house, but increased in
intensity until a point was reached several hundred yards from the
trumpet, approximately more in accordance with a reflection from the
waves. The wind was blowing from the shore with the direction of the
sound as it went off from the trumpet, and nearly against it on the re-
turn of the echo. I have attributed this phenomenon, which was first
observed in 1866 at East Quoddy Head on the coast of Maine, and since

504 RESEARCHES IN SOUND.

at various stations, at which the trumpet or siren has been used, to the
reflection of the sound from the crests and slopes of the waves, and the
observation we have mentioned would appear to favor this hypothesis.
In connection with this explanation, I may mention that my attention
has been called by General Meigs, of the United States Army, to an
echo from the palings of a fence, and also from a series of indentations
across the under side of the arch of one of the aqueduct bridges of the
Washington water-works. The fact that the sound was much louder at
a point considerably distant from the trampet was noted by one of the
party entirely unacquainted with the hypothesis.

The keeper at this station confirmed without a leading question the
statement of Captain Keeney, that it frequently happens that a feeble
sound of a distant object, as the roar of the surf, can be heard against
the direction of the wind, and that in this case it always betokens a
change in the weather, and is, in fact, used generally by the fishermen
as a prognostic of a change in the direction of the wind, which will, in
the course of a few hours, invariably spring up from an opposite quar-
ter. In such case, it is highly probable, as has been stated, that a change
has already taken place in the direction of the upper strata of the air,
although, from theoretical considerations, we might infer that the same
result would be produced if the wind were stationary above and moving
with a considerable velocity in a direction opposite to the sound at the
surface of the earth, the velocity gradually diminishing as we ascend,
for in this case, also, the inclination of the sound waves would be down-
ward.

The third series of investigations, September 23, 24, 1874, was made
in company with Captain John Davis and Major Hains, both of the
Light-House Board, and General Woodruff, engineer of the third dis-
trict, and Mr. Brown, patentee of the siren. For the purpose three
light-house tenders were employed, viz: Mistletoe, Captain Keeney;
Putnam, Captain Field; Cactus, Captain Latham.

The place of operation chosen for the first day’s series was about 14
miles from the northern point of Sandy Hook.

From the experience gained by the accumulated observations which
had been made, it was concluded that the phenomena of sound in re-
gard to perturbing influences could not be properly studied without
simultaneously observing the transmission of sound in opposite direc-
tions. It was therefore concluded to employ at least two steamers in
making the investigations.

In regard to this point the commission was fortunate in being able to
command the use, for a limited period, of the three tenders mentioned
above, which happened to be at the time assembled at the light-house
depot, Staten Island, and could be spared from their ordinary opera-
tions for a few days without detriment to the service. It was also for-
tunate in selecting for the scene of the investigations an unobstructed

RESEARCHES IN SOUND. 505

position in the lower bay of New York, and perhaps still more fortunate
in the season of the year when, on account of the heat of the sun, a land
and sea breeze, which changed its direction at a particular hour of the
day, enabled results to be obtained bearing especially on the phenomena
to be investigated.

Attention was first given to the character of the several steam-whistles
which were intended to be used as the sources of the sound during the
series of investigations.

These whistles, which were sounded during the whole of the observa-
tions with 20 pounds of steam on each boiler, gave at first discordant
sounds, and were found by their effect upon an artificial ear to be con-
siderably different in penetrating power; they were then adjusted by
increasing or diminishing the space between the bell and the lower cylin-
der by turning a screw on the axis of the bell intended for that purpose,
until they produced the same effect upon the sand in the membrane of
the artificial ear; but in order to further be insured of the equality of
the penetrating power of the several whistles, the three steamers abreast,
forming as it were a platoon, were directed to proceed against the wind,
sounding all the time in regular succession—the Cactus first, then, after
an interval of a few seconds, the Mistletoe, and then the Putnam—until
the stationary observers lost the sound of each. They became inaudible
all very nearly at the same moment. The sound of the Putnam was
thought to be slightly less distinct; it was therefore chosen as a station-
ary vessel, from which the observations of the sound of the other two
were to be made.

The Putnam being anchored at the point before mentioned, arrange-
ments were made for sending off the other two vessels in opposite direc-
tions, one with and the other against the wind, with instructions to return
when the sound became inaudible to those on the stationary vessel, this
to be indicated by a flag-signal. It should be mentioned that the velocity
of the wind was measured from time to time during the subsequent ex-
periments with one of Robinson’s hemispherical cup anemometers, made
by Casella, of London. The velocity of the wind first observed by this
instrument, just before the starting of the vessels, was 6 miles per hour,
the instrument being freely exposed on the paddle-boxes of the steamer.
A sensitive aneroid barometer marked 50.395 in. and continued to rise
gradually during the day to 50.43 in. the temperature was 71° F.

The vessels left at 11:18 A. M. the wind being from the west, Captain
Davis taking charge of the sounding of the whistle on the Cactus, which
proceeded east with the wind, the sound coming to the ear of the observer
against the wind; while the sounding on the Mistletoe was in charge of
General W oodrutt, and, as the vessel steamed against the wind, the sound
came to the observers on the stationary vessel with the wind; the other
members of the party remained on the Putnam, at anchor at the point
before mentioned, off the Hook, Major Hains having charge of the sig-
‘nals. The sound of the first of the vessels was heard faintly at 14 min-

506 RESEARCHES IN SOUND.

utes after leaving, but not heard at 16 minutes; we may therefore assume
that it became inaudible at 15 minutes. And within a minute of the
same time, by a mistake of the signal, the other ceased to advance, and
commenced to come back; the sound from it, however, was very distinct,
while at the same moment the sound from the other was inaudible. On
account of the mistake mentioned, the relative distance at which the
sounds from the two vessels might have become inaudible cannot be
accurately given; but the fact observed, that the sound which came
with the wind was much more audible than the other, is in conformity
with the generally observed fact that sound is heard farther with the
wind than against it. In the mean time the velocity of the wind had
sunk to 14 miles per hour.

Next, the vessels, leaving at 11:55 A. M. changed positions; the Cac-
tus, under Captain Davis, steamed west, directly in the direction from
which the wind came, while the Mistletoe, under General Woodruff,
steamed east, directly before the wind. The result of this trial was well
marked in all respects; the sound of the Mistletoe was lost in 9 minutes,
which, from the speed of the steamer, was estimated at about 14 miles,
while the sound of the Cactus was heard distinetly for 30 minutes, or
at an estimated distance of 5 miles. The wind at the middle of this
trial had sunk to 0.42 mile per hour, or nearly to a calm. The result of
this trial was somewhat abnormal, for though the wind had sunk nearly
to a ecalin, the sound was still heard three times as far in the direction of
the sight wind as against it.

After a lapse of an hour and a half a third trial was made; in the
mean time the wind had changed within two points of an exactly
opposite direction, blowing, from the indications of the anemometer, at
the rate of ten and one-half miles per hour.

The Cactus again steamed in the eye of the wind, which was now
however from nearly an opposite point of the compass, while the other
vessel steamed in an opposite direction. The sound of the Cactus was
lost at the end of twenty-seven minutes, with the wind, or at a distance
of four and a half miles.

The sound of the Mistletoe was lost at the end of thirty minutes, or
at a distance of five miles, moving against a brisk wind then blowing.

This result was entirely unexpected and much surprised every member
of the party, since it was confidently expected that an increase in the
intensity of the wind of more than ten miles per hour, and a change to
the opposite direction, would materially affect the audibility of the
sound, and give a large result in favor of the sound, which moved in
the same direction with the wind, but this was not the case. In the
course of all the observations in several years in which investigations
have been carried on under the direction of the chairman of the board,
this is the only instance in which he had heard a sound at a greater dis-
tance against the wind than with it, although, as before stated, a num-

RESEARCHES IN SOUND. 507

ber of cases have been reported by other observers in which, under
peculiar conditions of the weather, this phenomenon has been observed.

To briefly recapitulate the results, we have in this case three instances,
in succession, in which a sound was heard farther from the west than
from the east, although in the mean time the wind had changed to nearly
an opposite direction. Had these results been deduced from the first
cbservations made on the influence of wind on sound, or, in other
words, without previous experience, the conclusion would have been
definitely reached that something else than wind affected the convey-
ance of sound, and this conclusion would have been correct, if the sug-
gestion had been confined to the wind at the surface ; but from previous
observations and theoretical conclusions, the observed phenomena are
readily accounted for by supposing that during the whole time of ob-
servation the wind was blowing from the west in the higher part of the
aerial current, and that the calm and opposing wind observed were con-
fined to the region near the surface. To test this hypothesis, Major
Hains constructed a balloon of tissue-paper, which, after being coim-
pleted, was unfortunately burned in the attempt to inflate it with heated
air.

The remainder of this day was devoted to observations on the sound
of the siren at the light-house at Sandy Hook. For this purpose the
Cactus, under Captain Davis, was directed to steam in the eye of the
wind, while the Mistletoe, under General Woodruff, steamed before the
wind, and the Putnam steamed at right angles to the wind. Untfor-
tunately, on account of the diminution of light at the closing in of the
day, nothing could be observed. The only result obtained was that one
of the duplicate sirens was heard more distinctly than the other, namely,
the one with the higher note.

Experiments September 24, 1874.—The place chosen for the observa-
tions of this day was still farther out in the ocean, at the Sandy Hook
light-vessel, 6 miles from the nearest point of land. The pressure of the
atmosphere was a little greater than the day before, being 30.52; the
temperature about the same, 72° Fahr. wind light, from a westerly
direction, as on the previous day, with a force, as indicated by the
anemometer, of 1.2 miles per hour. Having been provided with a num-
ber of India-rubber toy balloons, the two vessels were sent off in opposite
directions—the Mistletoe toward the west, against the wind, the Cactus
toward the east, with the wind, leaving at 10:40 A.M. A change was
also made in observing the sound. In these observations the sound was
noted at each vessel from the other, the speed of the steamers being the
same; the distance between them when the Mistletoe lost the sound of
the Cactus was two miles, while the Cactus continued to hear the Mistle-
toe’s Sound coming with the wind until they were four miles apart. Simul-
taneously with this observation a balloon was let off from the Putnam
at the light-vessel, which, in its ascent, moved continuously obliquely

508 RESEARCHES IN SOUND

upward in a line slightly curving toward the horizon, in the direction of
the wind at the surface, as far as it could be followed with the eye, in-
dicating a wind in the same direction in the several strata through which
it passed, but of a greater velocity in the upper strata.

The vessels now changed places, the Cactus steaming west, the Mis-
tletoe east, the wind having entirely ceased at the surface of the earth.
In this case the Cactus lost the sound of the Mistletoe when the vessels
were two miles apart, while the Mistletoe continued to hear the sound
of the Cactus until they were three miles apart. A balloon let off as-
cended vertically until it attained an elevation of about one thousand
feet, when, turning east, it followed the direction of the previous one.
The sound in this case from the east was heard three miies, while that
from the west was heard two miles, while in the preceding observations
the distances were as 2 to 1; the only changing element, as far as could
be observed, was that of the wind at the surface, which became less.

Third trial, 12:45 p. m.—The wind previous to this trial had changed
its direction 10 points or about 1124° round through the south, and as
indicated by the anemometer at a velocity of 4.8 miles per hour. In
this case the Cactus, going against the wind, lost the Mistletoe’s sound
coming to her against the wind when the vessels were 1 mile apart,
while the Mistletoe heard the Cactus, the sound coming to her with the
wind when the vessels were 17 miles apart. The several balloons set
off at this time were carried by the surface wind westwardly until nearly
lost to sight, when they were observed to turn east, following the diree-
tion of the wind observed in the earlier observations. The results of
the whole series of observations are extremely interesting. In all the
experiments the difference in the audibility of the sound in different di-
rections was very marked, and indeed it rarely happens that the sound
is equal in two directions, although from the hypothesis adopted this
may be possible, since, according to this hypothesis, both the upper and
lower currents have an influence upon the audibility of sound in certain
directions. From the first trial, the motion of the air being in the same
direction both below and above, but probably more rapid above than
below on account of resistance, the upper part of the sound-wave would
move more rapidly than the lower, and the wave would be deflected
downward, and therefore the sound, as usual, heard farther with the wind
than against it. In the third experiment of the same day, in which the
wind changed to an almost opposite direction, if the wind remained the
same above, as we have reason to suppose it did from the observations
on the balloons on the second day, the sound should be heard still
farther im the same direction or against the wind at the surface, since,
in this case, the sound-wave being more retarded near the surface would
be tipped over more above and the sound thus be thrown down.

The observations of the second day are also in conformity with the
same hypothesis, the change in the wind being probably due to the
heating of the land, as the day advanced, beyond the temperature of

RESEARCHES IN SOUND. 509
¢
the water, and thus producing a current from the latter to the former,

while the wind observed in the morning from the west was the land-
wind due to the cooling of the latter.

In the morning the wind was blowing from the west both in the
higher strata and at the surface of the earth, and in this condition the
sound was heard farther with the wind than against it.

The wind at the surface about midday gradually ceased, and shortly
afterward sprang up from an east direction; in this condition the sound,
with the wind at the surface, was heard at a greater distance. This is
also in strict conformity with the theory of a change in the form of the
sound-wave, as in the latter case the lower portion would be retarded,
while the upper portion of the wave would be carried forward with the
same velocity, and hence the sound would be thrown down on the ear
of the observer. To explain the result of the third trial of the second
day, we have only to suppose that the influence of the upper current
was less than that of the lower. The conditions for these observations
were unusually favorable, the weather continuing the same during the
two days, and the change of the wind also taking place at nearly the
same hour. ;

The fact thus established is entirely incompatible with the supposition
that the diminution in the sound is principally caused by a want of
homogeneity in the constitution of the atmosphere, since this would
operate to absorb sound equally in both directions.

In May, 1873, Professor Tyndall commenced a series of investigations
on the subject of the transmission of sound, under the auspices of the
Trinity House, of England, in which whistles, trumpets, guns, and a
siren were used, the last-named instrument haying been lent by the
Light-House Board of the United States to the Trinity House for the
purpose of the experiments in question. The results of these investi-
gations were, in most respects, similar to those which we had previously
obtained. In regard to the efficiency of the instruments, the same order
was determined which has been given in this report, namely, the siren,
the trumpet, and the whistle. Professor Tyndall’s opinion as to the
efficiency of the siren may be gathered from the following remarks.
Speaking of the obstruction of sound in its application as a fog-signal,
he says, “There is but one solution of this difficulty, which is to make
the source of sound so powerful as to be able to endure loss and still
retain sufficient residue for transmission. Of all the instruments hitherto
examined by us the siren comes nearest to the fulfillment of this condi-
tion, and its establishment upon our coasts will, in my opinion, prove an
incaleulable boon to the mariner.” Professor Tyndall arrived at the
conclusions which the information we had collected tended to establish,
that the existence of fog, however dense, does not materially interfere
with the propagation of sound; and also that sound is generally heard
farther with the wind than against it, although the variation of the in-

510 RESEARCHES IN SOUND.

tensity of the sound is not in all cases in proportion to the velocity of
the wind. The result of his investigations in regard to the pitch of sound
was also similar to those we have given; and, indeed, all the facts which
he has stated are, with a single exception as to the direction of the echo,
in strict accordance with what we have repeatedly observed. We regret
to say, however, that we cannot subscribe to the conclusions which he
draws from his pecans as to the cause of the retardation of sound
that it is due to a flocculent condition of the atmosphere, caused by the
intermingling with it of invisible aqueous vapor.

That a floceulent condition of the atmosphere, due to the varying den-
sity produced by the mingling of aqueous vapor, is a true cause of ob-
struction in the transmission of sound is a fact borne out by deduction
from the principles of wave-motion, as well as by the experiments of the
distinguished physicist of the Royal Institution of Great Britain; but
from all the observations we have made on this subject we are far from
thinking that this is the efficient cause of the phenomena under consider-
ation. A fatal objection, we think, to the truth of the hypothesis Pro-
fessor Tyndall has advanced is that the obstruction to the sound, what-
ever may be its nature, is not the same in different directions. We think
we are warranted in asserting that in the cases of acoustic opacity which
he has described, if he had simultaneously made observations in an op-
posite direction, he would have come to a different conclusion. That a
flocculent condition of the atmosphere should slightly obstruct the sound
is not difficult to conceive; but that it should obstruct the ray in one
direction and not in an opposite, or in a greater degree in one direction
than in another, the stratum of air being the same in both cases, is at
variance with any fact in nature with which we are acquainted. We
would hesitate to speak so decidedly against the conclusions of Professor
Tyndall, for whose clearness of conception of physical principles, skill
in manipulation, and power of logical deduction we entertain the highest
appreciation, were the facts which were obtained in our investigations
of a less explicit character.

While the phenomena in question are incompatible with the assump-
tion of a floceulent atmosphere as a cause, they are in strict accordance
with the hypothesis of the refraction of the waves of sound due to a
difference in velocity in the upper and lower portions of the currents of
air. We do not say, however, that the transmission of sound in the
atmosphere is fully investigated, or that the abnormal phenomena which
are said to have been observed in connection with fog-signal stations
have been fuliy explained. So far from this, we freely admit we are as
yet in ignorance as to how the hypothesis we have adopted is applicable
to the critical explanation of the obstruction to sound in the abnormal
cases mentioned by General Duane. We feel, however, considerable
confidence in its power to afford a rational explanation of these pheno-

mena when the conditions under which they exist shall have been accu-
rately determined.

RESEARCHES IN SOUND. 511

We are farther confirmed in our conclusion by the publication of an
jnteresting paper in the proceedings of the Royal Society by Professor
Osborne Reynolds, of Owens College, Manchester, intended to show that
sound is not absorbed by the condition of the atmosphere, but refracted
in a manner analogous to the hypothesis which has been adopted in the
preceding report.

Much further investigation is required to enable us to fully under-
stand the effects of winds on the obstruction of sound, and to determine
the measure of the effect of variations of density in the air due to in-
equality of heat and moisture. But such investigations can only be
made under peculiar conditions of weather and favorable localities, with
the aid of a number of steamers, and a series of observers, by whom the
transmissibility of the air may be simultaneously observed in different
directions. The position which we were so fortunate to obtain in our
experiments in the lower bay of New York at the season of the prev-
alence of land and sea breezes was exceptionally favorable for the study
of the action of wind upon sound. It is the intention of the Light-
House Board to continue observations in regard to this matter, and to
embrace every favorable opportunity for their prosecution under new
and varied conditions.

Ligut-Howusk Boarp, October, 1874.

PART IV.—INVESTIGATIONS IN 1875.*

PRELIMINARY REMARKS.

In the Appendix to the Light-House Report of 1874 I gave an account
of a series of investigations relative to fog-signals, which had been made
at different times under the direction of the chairman of the committee
on experiments.

These investigations were not confined to the instruments for produc-
ing sound, but included a series of observations on sound itself, in its
application to the uses of the mariner. In the course of these investiga-
tions the following conclusions were early arrived at:

Ist. That the rays of a beam of loud sound do not, like those of light,
move parallel to each other from the surface of a concave reflector, but
constantly diverge laterally on all sides; and, although at first they are
more intense in the axis of the reflector, they finally spread out so as to
encompass the whole horizon, thus rendering the use of reflectors to
enforce sound for fog-signals of little value.

2d. That the effect of wind in increasing or diminishing sound is not
confined to currents of air at the surface of the earth. but that those of
higher strata are also active in varying its transmission.

od. That although sound is generally heard farther with the wind than
against it, yet in some instances the reverse is remarkably the case, espec-

*From the Report of the Light-House Board, for 1875.

512 RESEARCHES IN SOUND,

ially in one locality; in which the sound is heard against a northeast
snow-storm more distinctly than when the wind is in an opposite direc-
tion. This anomaly was referred to the action of an upper current in
an opposite direction to that at.the earth, such a current being known
to exist in the case of northeast storms on our coast. But in what man-
ner the action of the wind increased or diminished the audibility of
sound was a problem not solved. It could not be due, as might be
thought at first sight, to the acceleration of the sonorous impulse by the
addition of the velocity of the wind to that of sound, on the one hand,
nor to the retardation of the latter by the motion of the wind, on the
other. The inadequacy of this explanation must be evident when we
reflect that sound moves at the rate of 750 miles an hour, and therefore
a wind of 75 miles an hour would only increase its velocity one per cent.;
whereas the actual increase in audibility produced by a wind of this
intensity is in some instances several hundred per cent.

In this state of our knowledge, a suggestion of Professor Stokes, of
Cambridge, England, which offered a plausible explanation of the action
of the wind, became known to us, and was immediately adopted as a
working hypothesis to direct investigations.

This suggestion, the importance of which appears to have escaped
general recognition, is founded on the fact that the several strata into
which a current of air may be divided do not move with the same veloe-
ity. The lower stratum is retarded by friction against the earth and by
the various obstacles it meets with, the one immediately above by friction
against the lower, and soon; hence the velocity increases from the ground
upward—a conclusion established by abundant observation. Now, in
perfectly still air, a sounding instrument, such as a bell, produces a series
of concentric waves perfectly spherical; but in air in motion the differ-
ence of velocity above and below disturbs the spherical form of the
sound-wave, giving it somewhat the character of an oblique ellipsoid,
by tending to flatten it above—to the windward, and to increase its con-
vexity above—to the leward; and since the direction of the sound is per-
pendicular to the sound-wave, against the wind it will be thrown upward
above the head of the observer, and in the opposite direction downward
toward the earth. A similar effect will be produced, but with some varia-
tions and perhaps greater intensity, by a wind above, opposite to that at
the surface of the earth.

These propositions will be rendered plain by the following illustrations
(Figures 1, 2, and 3), for which I am indebted to an article in the Ameri-
can Journal of Science, by William B. Tayler.

Fig. 1.

RESEARCHES IN SOUND. 518

In these, Figure 1 represents the effect of a favorable wind in depress-
ing the waves of sound, 8 being the signal-station and O the point of
observation. The wind blowing from W to E, as the spheroidal faces
of the sonorous waves become more pressed forward by the greater ve-
locity of the wind above, assuming it to be retarded at the surface by
friction, and the direction of the acoustic beam being constantly normal
to the wave-surfaces, the lines of direction of the sound will gradually
be bent downward and reach the ear of the observer with an accumu-
lated effect at the point O.

Figure 2 represents the ordinary effect of an opposing wind blowing
from E to W against the sound; the wave-faces being more resisted
above than below, assuming as before a retardation at the surface, the
sound-beams are curved upward, and the lowest ray that would reach,
in still air, the distant observer at O, is gradually so tilted up that it
passes above the ear of the listener, leaving him in an acoustic shadow.

Fig. 3.

Figure 3 represents the disturbing effect of two winds, the lower in
opposition to the sound at the surface, and the upper with it. In this
case the principal effect will be a depression of the sound-beam, similar
to that shown in Figure 1, but more strongly marked, as the difference
of motion will be greater as we ascend. Attending this action, says
Mr. Taylor, there will probably be some lagging of the lower stratum
by reason of the surface-friction, the tendency of which will be to dis-
tort the lower part. of the sound-waves, giving them a reverse or serpen-
tine curvature. In this ease the upper ray of sound would only have a
single curvature, similar to that shown in Figure 1, while the lower rays
would be represented by the lower line 8S O, rendering the sound less
audible at an intermediate point, ¢, than at the more distant station O.
This hypothetical case of compound refraction offers a plausible ex-
planation of the paradox of a nearer sound being diminished in power
by the wind which increases the effect of a more distant one.

S. Mis. 59 3d

514 RESEARCHES IN SOUND.

In these figures and all the succeeding ones the direction of the wind
is indicated by arrows.

The hypothesis we have adopted in connection with the fact of the
lateral spread of sound gives a simple explanation of various abnormal
phenomena of sound such as has been observed in the previous investi-
gations, and of which the following are examples: First, the audibility
of asound at a distance, and its inaudibility nearer the source of sound;
second, the inaudibility of a sound at a given distance in one direction,
while a lesser sound is heard at the same distance in an opposite direc-
tion; third, the audibility of the sound of an instrument at one time
at the distance of several miles, while at another time the sound of the
same instrument cannot be heard at more than a fifth of the same dis-
tance; fourth, while the sound is heard generally farther with the wind
than against it, in some instances the reverse is the case; fifth, the sud-
den loss of sound in passing from one locality to another in the same
vicinity, the distance from the source of the sound being the same.

The first four of these phenomena find a ready explanation in the
hypothesis adopted by supposing an increase or diminution in the rela-
tive velocity of the currents of wind in the upper or lower strata of air.
The fifth is explained by the interposition of an obstacle which casts,
as it were, a sound-shadow, disappearing at a given distance by the
divergence of the rays on each side of the obstacle into what would be
an optical shadow.

Accounts of these investigations were presented from time to time to
the Light-House Board, and to the Philosophical Society of Washington
in 1872. Subsequently a series of investigations on the same subject
was instituted in England by the Elder Brethren of the Trinity House,
under the direction of their scientific adviser, the celebrated physicist,
Dr. Tyndall. While in the latter investigations various abnormal phe-
nomena, similar in most instances to those we have mentioned, were
observed, they were referred by Dr. Tyndall to an entirely different
cause, viz, to the existence of acoustic clouds, consisting of portions of
the atmosphere in a flocculent or mottled condition, due to the unequal
distribution of heat and moisture, which, absorbing and reflecting the
sound, produce an atmosphere of acoustic opacity. While we do not
deny the possible existence of such a condition of the atmosphere, we
think it insufficient to account for all the phenomena in question, and
believe that a more general and efficient cause is that of the wind, in
accordance with the hypothesis of Professor Stokes.

We regret to differ in opinion from Dr. Tyndall, and have published
our dissent from his views in no spirit of captious criticism or desire to
undervalue the results he has obtained, some of which are highly im-
portant. Our only object in our remarks and in our investigations is
the establishment of truth.

The determination of the question as to the cause of the abnormal
phenomena of sound we have mentioned, and the discovery of new phe-

=

RESEARCHES IN SOUND. 515

nomena, are not mere matters of abstract scientific interest, but are of
great practical importance, involving the security of life and property,
since they include the knowledge necessary to the proper placing of
fog-signals, and the instruction of mariners in the manner of using
them.

The hypothesis we have adopted, that of the change of direction of
sound by the unequal action of the wind upon the sound-waves, is
founded on well-established mechanical principles, and offers a ready
explanation of facts otherwise inexplicable. It is also a fruitful source
from which to deduce new consequences to be verified or disproved by
direct experiment. It would however ill become the spirit of true
science to assert that this hypothesis is sufficient to explain all the facts
which may be discovered in regard to sound in its application to fog-
signals, or to rest satisfied with the idea that no other expression of a
general principle is necessary. An investigation however to be fruit-
ful in results, as a general rule, must be guided by @ priori conceptions.
Hap-hazard experiments and observations may lead to the discovery of
isolated facts, but rarely to the establishment of scientific principles,
There is danger however in the use of hypotheses, particularly by those
inexperienced in scientific investigations, that the value of certain
results may be overestimated, while to others is assigned less weight
than really belongs to them. This tendency must be guarded against.
The condition of the experiment must be faithfully narrated, and a seru-
pulously truthful account of the results given. While we have used
the hypothesis above mentioned in the following investigations as some-
thing more than an antecedent probability, we have not excluded ob-
servations which may militate against it, and we hold ourselves ready
to admit the application of other principles, or to modify our concep-
tion of those we have adopted, when new facts are discovered which
warrant such changes. But we require positive evidence, and cannot
adopt any conclusions which we think are not based upon a logical
correlation of facts.

The investigations described in the following account, though simple
ju their conception, have been difficult and laborious in their execution.
To be of the greatest practical value they were required to be made on
the ocean, under the conditions in which the results are to be applied to
the use of the mariner, and therefore they could only be conducted by
means of steam-vessels of sufficient power to withstand the force of
tough seas, and at times when these vessels could be spared from other
duty. They also required a number of intelligent assistants skilled in
observation and faithful in recording results.

OBSERVATIONS IN AUGUST, 1875, AT BLOCK ISLAND.

The party engaged in these investigations consisted of the chairman
of the Light-House Board; General Woodruff, U. S. A., engineer third
light-house district; Dr. James C. Welling, president of Columbian Uni-

516 RESEARCHES IN SOUND.

versity, Washington, D. C.; Mr. T. Brown, of New York, patentee of
the siren; Mr. Edw. Woodruff, assistant superintendent of construction ;
and Captain Keeney, commander of the light-house steamer Mistletoe.

They arrived at Block Island on the afternoon of the 4th of August,
1875. This place was chosen as the site of the experiments, first, on
account of its insular position, being as it. were in the prolongation of
the axis of Long Island, distant fifteen miles from the most easterly
part of the latter, and entirely exposed to the winds and waves of the
Atlantic Ocean; and, secondly, because there are on Block Island two
light-houses, one of which is of the first order, and connected with it are
two fog-signals, one of them with the latest improvements. (See Fig. 4.)

OBSERVATIONS IN REGARD TO THE AERIAL EcHo.

This phenomenon has been frequently observed in the researches of
the Light-House Board, in case of powerful sounds from the siren and
from the fog-trumpet.* It consists of a distinct reflection of sound as if
from a point near the horizon in the prolongation of the axis of the trum-
pet. The question of the origin of this echo has an important bearing,
according to Dr. Tyndall, on the explanation of the abnormal phenom-
ena of sound we have mentioned. He refers it to the non-homogeneous
condition of portions of the air, which reflect back the waves of sound
in accordance with the analogy of the reflection of light at the common
surface of two media of different densities. We have adopted, as a pro-
visional hypothesis, that it is due to the reflection from the waves and
the larger undulations of the surface of the ocean, in connection with
the divergency of beams of powerful sounds. To bring these hypotheses
to the test of a crucial experiment, arrangements were made, under the
direction of Mr. Brown, to change the direction of the axis of one of the
sirens from the horizontal to the vertical position.

The first observations were made August 5, with the siren in its usual
horizontal position, while the air was so charged with fog as to render
the sound of the instrument necessary for the guidance of the mariner,
the image of the sun being obscured and the land invisible from the
sea. Under these conditions an echo was heard when the pressure of the
steam reached 50 pounds per square inch. The reflection in this case,
as usual, was from a point in the sea-horizon in the prolongation of the
axis of the trumpet. It was not, however, heard more distinctly when
standing near the origin of the sound than at several hundred feet on
either side of it. The interval between the cessation of the original
sound and the commencement of the echo was not as marked as in some
previous observations, not being more than four or five seconds. The

*The same phenomenon is mentioned by Froissart in hisaccount of the embarkation
of the expedition of the French and English to the coast of Africa to assist the Genoese
against the pirates in 1390. ‘It wasa ‘beautiful sight,” says the chronicler, ‘‘ to view
this fleet, with the emblazoned banners of the difterent lords fluttering in the wind,
and to hear the minstrels and other musicians sounding their pipes, clarions, and trum-
pets, whose sounds were xe-echoed back by the sea. ve (See Illustrations of Froissart
by H. N. Humphrey, Plate IV.)

RESEARCHES IN SOUND. 57

duration of the echo was on the average about eight seconds, beginning
with the time of its first perception, and not with the cessation of the
sound of the trumpet. General Woodruffand Doctor Welling both noted
the peculiar character of the echo, which was that of a series of reflec-
tions varying in intensity from a maximum, near the beginning, and
gradually dying away. The wind was nearly at right angles to the axis
of the trumpet and also to that of the crests of the swell of the ocean,
which was rolling in from the effects of a commotion without. The
barometer at 12 M. indicated 30.2 inches; the dry-bulb thermometer
75° FB, the wet-bulb 70° I. indicating a remarkable degree of aqueous
saturation. During the whole day the air in all the region around
Block Island was undoubtedly in a homogeneous condition.

August 6.—On this day the weather was nearly the same. The fog-
signal on the 5th instant was kept in operation for the use of the mariner
nineteen hours, and on this day it was blown twenty hours continuously.
The barometer marked 30.20 inches; the thermometer 70° F.; the fog
not as equally distributed as on the preceding day; the north end of the
island, distant four miles, being distinctly visible. The wind was 8S. W.
to S., making an angle of about 60° with the axis of the fog-trumpet.
The echo continued to be heard distinctly with a sound varying in
intensity, but was not as loud as we have heard it on certain occasions
in previous years.

During this and the preceding day, workmen were employed under
Mr. Brown in inserting a flexible India-rubber tube, two inches in diam-
eter, between the revolving plate of the siren and the smaller end of the
trumpet, so that it might be brought into a vertical position. This work,
though apparently simple, was difficult in execution, since it involved
the necessity of strong supports for the cast-iron trumpet, which in itself
weighed eight hundred pounds, and also of a union of the parts of suf-
ficient strength to resist the pressure of the steam at fifty pounds to the
square inch.

August 7.—Wind from the 8.8. W. Fog continued; the workmen had
not as yet completed the attachment.

August 9.—Barometer 30.30 inches at 12 mM. Dry-bulb thermometer
74° F.; wet bulb 719.5. Wind 8. 8. W. Fog dense along the south
coast, but light over all the northern portion of the island. The echo
was heard all day, not very loudly, but distinetly. Siren still horizontal,
the arrangement for elevating it not having been, at 10 a. m., completed.
Experiments were made on the reciprocal sounds of the whistles from
two steamers, the results to be given hereafter. At 5 P. M. the adjust-
ment of the flexible tube to the smaller end of the trampet was finished,
which, giving an additional length to the instrument of about 5 feet,
threw it out of unison with the siren proper. To restore this unison the
speed of revolution of the perforated plate was diminished, and after this
the trumpet, still being horizontal, was sounded. An echo similar in

518 RESEARCHES IN SOUND.

character to those which had been observed on the preceding day, and
the earlier part of the same day, was produced.

August 10.—Barometer 30.10 inches. Dry bulb 74°; wet bulb 69° F.
Wind W.S. W.; atmosphere hazy. Observations first made with the
trumpet horizontal. Echo as that of preceding days, distinct but not
very loud, and coming principally from the portion of the horizon in the
direction of the axis of the trumpet. The position of the trumpet was
then changed, its axis being turned to the zenith in order to make what
was thought might be a crucial experiment. When the trumpet was
now sounded a much louder echo was produced than that which was
heard with the axis of the trumpet horizontal, and it appeared to encircle
the whole horizon; but though special attention was directed to the point
by aH the party present, no reverberation was heard from the zenith.
The echo appeared however to be more regular and prolonged from the
ocean portion of the horizon than from that of the land.

In this experiment, while there was no reflection from the zenith in
which the sonorous impulse was strongest, there must have been
reverberations from the surface of the land and the ocean. This will
be evident when we consider the great divergeney of sound by which
sonorous waves from a vertical trumpet are thrown down to the
plane of the horizon on every side, some of which, meeting oblique sur-
faces, must be reflected back to the ear of the observer near the source
of the sound. This inference will be more evident when it is recol-
lected that the reflected rays of sound diverge as well as those of the
original impulse. Hence reflection from the surface of the sea is a true
cause of the echo, but whether it be a sufficient one may require further
investigation. For this explanation it is not necessary that the sea
should be covered with crested waves; asimilar effect would take place
were the surface perfectly smooth but in the form of wide swells, which
in places exposed to an open sea are scarcely ever absent. Moreover,
the increased loudness of the echo is a fact in accordance with the same
view.

The observations were repeated with the same effect on succeeding
days, until this class of experiments was ended by the bursting of the
India-rubber tube. Had a distinet echo been heard from the zenith, the
result would have been decidedly in favor of the hypothesis of a reflec-
tion from the air; but as this was not the case the question still remained
undetermined, especially since the atmosphere during these experiments
was evidently in a homogeneous condition. We do not agree however
in the position taken in the report of the Trinity Board, that on the
origin of this echo depends the whole solution of the problem as to the
efficient cause of the abnormal phenomena of sound. ‘The ingenious ex-
perimental illustrations of the reflection of sound from a flame or heated
air, establish clearly the possibility of such reflection; but it must be
remembered they were made under exaggerated conditions, the atmos-
phere being in a state of extreme rarefaction in a limited space, and the

RESEARCHES IN SOUND. 519

sound of a feeble character, while the phenomena in nature are produced
with a comparatively small differenee of temperature and with powerful
sounds.

EXPERIMENTS AT BLOCK ISLAND

RELATIVE TO THE EFFECT OF ELEVATION ON AUDIBILITY.

For this investigation the first-order light-house at Block Island offered
peculiar facilities. It is situated near the edge of a perpendicular bluff,
152 feet above the sea. The tower being 52 feet above the base, gives a
total height to the focal plane of the lens of 204 feet, on the level of which
the ear of the observer could be placed.

The first and second experiments of this class were made on the 10th
of August, with two light-house steamers, the Putnam and the Mistletoe,
moving simultaneously in opposite directions. The barometer indicated
30.10 inches of atmospheric pressure; the dry-bulb thermometer indi-
cating 74° F., and the wet-bulb 69°. The wind at the time of the ex-
periments was from the west, and of a veloeity of seven miles per hour.
The vessels started from the point C, Fig. 4, opposite the light-house,
A, about one mile distant, a position as near the shore as it was con-
sidered safe to venture. The Putnam steamed with the wind, the Mis-
tletoe steamed against the wind, each blowing its whistle every half
minute. The duration of the sound was noted at the top of the tower and
at the level of the sea, Mr. Brown being the observer at the latter sta-
tion, while the chairman of the board, with an assistant, observed at the
former. On comparing notes, the watches having been previously set
to the same time, it was found—

First. That the duration of the sound on the tower, when coming
’ against the wind, was nine minutes, while at the base of the cliff it was
heard only one minute. It was afterward found from the records on
board of the Putnam, the sound of which came against the wind, that
this vessel was moving, during the experiment, at half-speed, and hence
the duration of the sound on the tower should be considered as 44 minutes,
and the difference in favor of audition on the tower 4 minutes instead
of 8, as given by the first record.

Second. That the sound of the Mistletoe, coming to the observer with
the wind, was heard on the tower during 15 minutes, while it was heard
at the base of the cliff during 34 minutes, the difference being 19 minutes
in favor of hearing at the level of the sea. This result, which differs from
that of all the other experiments of the same class, deserves special at-
tention.

After making the foregoing experiments of this class, and others, on
the effect of wind on sound, to be described in the next section, the ves-
sels were called off for other duty, and the investigations were not re-
sumed until August 17, when the following experiments were made:

The third experiment.—The wind was from the E. N. E., at the rate of

520 RESEARCHES IN SOUND.

about five miles per hour at the surface, and a greater velocity at the
height of the tower. Barometer, 30.25 ins.; thermometer, 72°.

Fig. 4.

BLOCK ISLAND

RESEARCHES IN SOUND. 52

In this and the subsequent experiments of the same day but one
steamer—the Mistletoe—was employed. It started at 10:30 A. mM. from
the point C, Fig. 4, at the foot of the cliff, and steamed W. 8. W. along
C B for about 12 minutes, or a distance of two miles, blowing the whistle
every half-minute. To note the duration of the sound, Dr. Welling was
stationed at the foot of the cliff, at the level of the sea, while the chair-
man of the Light-House Board, with an assistant who acted as clerk,
was on the upper gallery of the tower, the ears of the latter being almost
precisely 200 feet above those of the observer at the foot of the cliff.

The watches having been previously set to the same time, on compar-
ing results it was found that the whistle was heard at the top of the
tower for twelve minutes and at the bottom of the cliff for five and one-
half minutes, making the difference in favor of audition on the tower six
and one-half minutes. In this experiment the sound came to the ob-
servers nearly against the wind.

The fourth experiment consisted in directing the Mistletoe to proceed
in the opposite direction from the same point, along the line C D. It
started at 11:5 A.M. the breeze being light at the time, and proceeded
about two and one-half miles before the sound was lost to the observers.
On comparing notes it was found that the sound was heard at the top
of the tower during fifteen minutes, and at the level of the sea for eleven
minutes, giving a difference in favor of the hearing on the top of the
tower of four minutes.

In the jifth experiment, the Mistletoe steamed again in the direction
with the wind, the sound from its whistle coming to the ears of the ob-
servers against the wind. Starting about 11:45 A. M. and steaming about
two miles, the sound was heard on the tower during twelve minutes
and at the foot of the cliff during five and one-half minutes, making a
difference of six and a half minutes in favor of audition on the tower.
Previous to this experiment the wind had veered one point to the west,
bringing the direction of the sound to the observers in less direct oppo-
sition to the wind than in the last experiment.

The sixth exaperiment.—In this case the steamer was directed to proceed
in the opposite direction, or against the wind, so that the sound of the
whistle would reach the ear of the observers in the same direction as
that of the wind. It started at 12:19 p. M. and proceeded two and one-
sixth miles; the whistle was heard during thirteen minutes on the top of
the tower, and at the bottom of the cliff during precisely the same time,
the difference between the top of the tower and the bottom of the cliff
in this case being nothing.

The vessel having again been called off on other duty the seventh ex-
periment was made the 1st of September. On this day the wind was
northeast; the velocity at the top of thie tower was thirteen and a half
miles per hour, and at the bottom of the tower eleven miles per hour.
The barometer indicated 30.20 inches pressure, the dry bulb 72°, and the
wet bulb 674°.

522 RESEARCHES IN SOUND.

The theoretical conditions for exhibiting the effect of height on andi-
tion in this experiment were much more favorable than any of the pre-
ceding. First, the velocity of the wind was greater; second, the differ-
ence between the velocities at top and bottom of the tower was well
marked, and the direction of the wind was more favorable for direct
opposition to the sound as it came to the ear of the observer. In this
case General Woodruff was the observer at the bottom of the cliff, while
the chairman of the Light-House Board and his assistant, with several
visitors, were at the top of the tower.

The steamer started at 10:58 A. M. and proceeded during eight minutes,
or a mile and one-third, when the sound was lost at the top of the tower.
In this case, though the sound was heard for eight minutes from the top
of the tower, and the first five blasts marked on the notes as quite loud,
it was not heard at all at the bottom of the cliff at least a hundred yards
nearer the source of the sound.

This result, which interested and surprised a number of intelligent
visitors, who were in the tower at the time, strikingly illustrates the
effect of elevation on the audibility of sound moving against the wind.
The result was so important that it was thought advisable to imme-
diately repeat the experiment under the saine conditions.

In the eighth experiment, the Mistletoe was again directed to proceed,
in the direction of the wind, along the line it had previously traversed.
It started at 11:25 A. M., and proceeded during six minutes, or one mile,
when the sound was lost at the top of the tower. In this case, the first
blast of the whistle was feebly heard at the base of the cliff, but no
other, while thirteen blasts were heard at the top of the tower, of which
the first Six were marked as loud.

That this remarkable effect was not produced by an acoustic cloud or
a flocculent atmosphere is evident from the experiment which imme-
diately succeeded.

The ninth experiment.—In this trial, the Mistletoe was directed to pro-
ceed against the wind, so that the sound of its whistle should come to
the ears of the observers with the wind. It started at 11:48 A. M., and
proceeded during sixteen minutes, or two and two-thirds miles, when
the sound of its whistle was lost to the observers on the top of the tower.
Jn this case the sound of the whistle became audible at the bottom of
the cliff as soon as the position of the vessel became such as to bring the
sound to the observers approximately with the wind, and continued to
be audible during fifteen minutes, or within one minute as long as the
sound was heard at the top of the tower. d

It may be mentioned as an interesting fact, that an assistant who was
observing the sound with General Woodruff at the foot of the cliff, when
the sound could not be heard at the level of the sea, in the sixth experi-
ment perceived it distinctly by ascending the side of the cliff to a height
of twenty-five or thirty feet.

All the conditions and results of these experiments are strikingly in

i

RESEARCHES IN SOUND. 523

conformity with the theory of the refraction of sound which we have pre-
viously explained. ;

The following recapitulation of the results of the foregoing experi-
ments will exhibit their correspondence with the general theory :

Sound heard coming against the wind.

Heennioats Duration at the Duration at the base of | Difference in favor of
oe ~~" | top of the tower. the cliff. audition on the tower.
DING Us steeper a 41 minutes ..... aes MALMO ees Soreness 4 minutes.
hindssssss oe. 12 eimnuwtes) 7222-954 “Mimupest.2 ole e- a. cen |) OF MINES:
1 Dri 05 Seaeseees | 12 minutes -...- Sd) MINIMesE Sse Fy eee - 64 minutes.
Seventh -..... 8 minutes --.... Notcheard:-o-- sn s29-- 8 minutes.
Eighth! -—sso2. 6 minutes ..... First blast heard, but | 54 minutes.
no other,
4 minute after starting.
424 minutes -.-.. 12 minutes. 304 minutes.
Average..| 8} minutes ..... PA AL Mb on oocG gooces oS 6.1 minutes.
Sound heard coming with the wind.

: , | Duration at the | Duration at the base of | Difference in favor of
SU top of the tower. the cliff. audition at base of cliff.
Second@. +. 15 e MIMUeS! sess ods IMM besa sae saee ose 19 minutes.
Hourthy=2j222-. 15) pminutes =... 11 minutes.--......-....| — 4 minutes.

Sibep hemes ea. ISS minwhes)..-.. Oo) MOINUGES see aes 0 minutes.
INA O Soe Geet 16° minutes -..-. 15 minutes...---.-.-...| — 1 minute.

59 minutes -.... (ee wi ER eae boss o6eS 14 minutes.

Average..| 142 minutes --.-- 18+ MiMUbeS os. 3.)S4-e)2- 34 minutes.

From the first of the foregoing tables it appears that the elevation of
the observer has a marked effect on the audition of sound moving against
the wind while, from the second, with one important exception, it has
very little, if any, effect on sound moving with the wind. Another ex-
periment relative to the same class of phenomena was made on the 19th
of August (see Fig. 4), the wind being 8.S.W. Two observers, General
Woodruff and Dr. Welling, starting from the bottom of the cliff imme-
diately below the light-house, went along the beach, the one in the diree-
tion A f, and the other in direction A e. General Woodruff found that
the sound of the siren was distinctly heard all the way to the break-
water, and was so loud that it probably could have been heard for sev-
eral miles in that direction. Dr. Welling, on the contrary, entirely lost
the sound within a quarter of a mile of the light-house. This result is
readily explained as a case of lateral refraction; the wind was in the
direction traversed by General Woodruff, and contrary to that pursued
by Dr. Welling. In the one case the wind, retarded by the surface of

524 RESEARCHES IN SOUND.

the cliff, moved with less velocity than it did farther out, and conse-
quently the sound was thrown against the face of the cliff, and on the
ear of the observer, and in the other thrown from it, thus leaving, as it
were, a vacuum of sound. The effect in the case was very striking, since
the siren was pointed toward the zenith, and the sound in still air could
have been heard for miles in every direction.

INVESTIGATIONS AT BLocK ISLAND

IN REGARD TO THE EFFECT OF WIND ON AUDIBILITY.

These were made by the aid of two steamers. Captain Walker, naval
secretary of the board, having completed a series of inspections in the
Third District, sent the steamer Putnam, under Captain Fields, to aid
the Mistletoe in the investigations. They were commenced on the 9th
of August, at 12 o’clock. The wind was 8. 8. W. with a velocity of 74
miles per hour. Barometer, 30.3 inches; thermometer, dry bulb, 74° F.
wet bulb, 714° F.

The two steamers started from a buoy near the north end of the island,
the one steaming against the wind, and the other with it, each blowing its
whistle every minute. The distance travelled by each steamer was esti-
mated by the running time, which, from previous observations, was found
to be ten miles per hour. Each vessel was furnished with a whistle of
the same size, of 6 inches diameter, actuated by the same pressure of 20
pounds of steam, and which, by previous comparison, had been found to
give sound at this pressure of the same penetrating power. The obser-
vations on the Mistletoe were made by General Woodruff, and on the
Putnam by Dr. Welling, each assisted by the officers of the respective
vessels. The two steamers proceeded to buoy off the north end of the
island, in which position the wind was unobstructed by the land—a low
beach. Indeed, the island being entirely destitute of trees, and consist-
ing of a rolling surface, the wind had full sweep over it in every direction.

First experiment.—The Putnam went against the wind and the Mistle-
toe in the opposite direction. ‘The Putnam lost the sound of the whistle
of the Mistletoe in two minutes and stopped, but continued to blow the
whistle. The Mistletoe continued on her course and heard the Putnam’s
whistle for twenty minutes in all. During the first two minutes both
vessels were in motion, and therefore the space throngh which the sound
was heard moving against the wind would be represented by 4, while the
space through which the sound was heard moving with the wind would
be represented by 20:4 2 = (22), the ratio being 1 : 55.

Second experiment.—In this the Putnam went with the wind and the
Mistletoe in the opposite direction. The Mistletoe lost the sound of the
Putnam’s whistle in two minutes. The Putnam then stopped and re-
mained at rest, while the Mistletoe continued on her course until the
Putnam lost sound of her whistle, twenty-six minutes later. As both
steamers were separating during the first two minutes with equal speed,

+

RESEARCHES IN SOUND. _ 525

the distance travelled by the sound heard moving against the wind is
represented by 4, while the distance of the sound heard with the wind
is represented by 26 + 2—28, the ratio being 1:7. It should be men-
tioned, however, that the notes in this experiment are defective and
somewhat discrepant.

Third experiment—The Putnam went against the wind, the Mistletoe
in the opposite direction. The Putnam lost the sound of the whistle of
the Mistletoe in two minutes, while the Mistletoe continued to hear the
whistle of the Putnam ten minutes longer. Owing to a misunderstand-
ing, one of the steamers stopped for two minutes and then resumed its
course. As both steamers were separating during the first two minutes
with equal speed, the distance of the sound heard moving against the
wind is represented by 4, while the sound heard with the wind through
a space denoted by 2 x 10 + 4—2=22, the ratio being 1: 53.

Fourth experiment.—The vessels again changed directions, the Putnam
going with the wind, and the Mistletoe in the opposite direction. The
Mistletoe lost the sound in two minutes, and the Putnam nine minutes
later. As each steamer was moving from the other at the same rate,
the distance of the sound heard moving against the wind would be rep-
resented by 4, while the distance of the sound moving with the wind —
would be represented by 9 K 2+ 4=22, the ratio being again 1:54.

Fifth experiment.—This experiment was made August 10, by the same
vessels and same observers, wind W. 8. W., of about the same intensity
as on previous days; barometer, 30.1 ins.; dry bulb, 74° F. wet bulb, 69°.
The Putnam steamed against the wind, and the Mistletoe in the opposite
direction. The Putnam lost the sound in two minutes, and the Mistle-
toe nine minutes later. The two vessels moving apart with equal veloc-
ity, the space traversed by the sound moving against the wind was rep-
resented by 4, while that in the opposite direction was represented by
22, Viz, 9 X 24+ 4=22.

Sixth experiment.—The vessels were next separated in a direction at
right angles to the wind, when each reciprocally lost the sound of the
other on an average of six minutes, giving a distance travelled by the
sound, while audible, of twelve spaces.

Seventh experiment.—The vessels were next directed along an interme-
diate course between the direction of the wind and a line at rightangles
to it, with the following results: The Mistletoe, against the wind, lost
the sound in about two minutes, while the Putnam heard the sound
seven minutes longer. As in the previous case, the two vessels moving
apart with equal velocity would in two minutes be separated by a space
represented by 4, which would indicate the audibility of the sound mov-
ing against the wind, and for the same reason the other vessel, hearing
the sound seven minutes longer, would have the additional space repre-
sented by 14, and adding to this four spaces, we have 18 to represent
the audibility of the sound in the direction approximating that of the
wind.

526 RESEARCHES IN SOUND.

The following table exhibits at one view the results of the foregoing
experiments, which relate to sound moving against the wind, and with
the wind, reduced to miles.

Experiment. Sound with the wind. Sound against wind.
Miles.
Ly 5p Si ee ee a eee ee 0.66
Pe =. > ote = cisin ie Steen 0.66
ROE tas 5 s\n'n c akimin wie § ates oustetens.e 0.66
ob Goo OE eR re I eee Sc 0.66
peta) Jett SHEE OE RSS 0.66

on

These results are in accordance with those of all the direct observa-
tions which had previously been made on sound in regard to wind by
the Light-House Board, with the exception of those at Sandy Hook in
September, 1874, as given in the last report, In which the sound was
heard from a steamer farther against the wind than in the direction of
the wind. This anomaly was explained by the existence of an upper
current of air, moving in an opposite direction to that at the surface,in
accordance with the hypothesis of the refraction of sound.

It will be observed that four of the experiments give exactly the same
distances to represent the audibility of sound with and against the
wind. This coincidence was not observed until after the notes were
collated for discussion, and, if not accidental, was due to the equal ve-
locity of the wind and the general conditions of the atmosphere on the
two days.

Ta give a definite idea of these relations we have plotted the results
obtained on August 10, in Fig. 5, converting the distances into miles and
referring them to a common center, and tracing through the several ex-
tremities of the lines representing the distances a continuous line, which
may be designated as the curve of audibility. C being the center to
which the sounds are referred, C A represents the distance at which the
sound was heard against the wind, and C B in the direction of the wind,
while C E and © D represent the distance at right angles to the wind
and F C and © G the distances respectively with and against the wind
on an intermediate course.

RESEARCHES IN SOUND. 527

Fig. 5.
Yr
=
i ae
B
2 \
Ff
2/3 Be
G
int * Meg
ays D
Yyw
4,
2

The curve which is presented in the foregoing figure may be considered
as that which represents the normal limit of audibility during the two
days in which the experiments were made. The line D E divides the
plane of the curve into two unequal portions, D A F E and DG B B,
the former representing the audibility of sound moving against the
wind, and the other the audibility of sound moving with the wind.

We can scarcely think that any other condition of the air than fhat
of its motion could producea result of this kind. It exhibits clearly the
fact that sound is not heard as a general rule at right angles to the wind
farther than with the wind, as has been asserted. In this case the ratio
of the latter to the former is as 11 to 6, or nearly double.

The investigation of the relation of wind to the penetration of sound
was renewed in a series of subsequent experiments, the results of which
are to be given in a succeeding part of this report.

It should be observed, in comparing Fig. 5 with the subsequent fig-
ures representing the curve of audibility, that the arrow representing
the direction of the wind points in the longest direction to the figure,
whereas in other figures the pointing is in the opposite direction. The
difference arises from the fact that in Fig. 5 the sound is supposed to
radiate from the center, C, while in the others the sound converges to the
center as a point of observation. The foregoing diagram and all that
follow in this report-were plotted by Mr. Edward Woodruff, assistant
superintendent of construction of the third Jight-house district.

528 RESEARCHES IN SOUND.
EXPERIMENTS AT LITTLE GULL ISLAND, SEPTEMBER, 1875.

The next series of experiments made during this season was at Little
Gull Island, at the east end of Lond Island Sound. This location was
chosen on account of its convenience of approach from the harbor of
New London, seven miles distant, at which the light-house steamers of
the third district usually remain when not engaged in active service,
and also because there is a light-house on the island furnished with two
sirens of the second order, and an extent of water on every side which
would allow the vessels used in the experiments to proceed from the
island as a center to a considerable distance in every direction. The
island itself is a small protuberance above the water, merely sufficient
in area to support a raised circular platform of about 100 feet in diam-
eter, on which the light-house and other buildings are erected. The
following sketch (Fig 6) will give an idea of the position of Gull Island
relative to the main-land and the islands in the vicinity.

From this it will be seen that the position was not the most favorable
for a stable condition of the atmosphere. As the heat of the sun in-
creases during the first part of the day, the temperature of the land
rises above that of the sea; and this excess of temperature produces
upward currents of air, disturbing the general flow of wind both at the
surface of the sea and at an elevation above. But although the locality
was unfavorable for obtaining results tending to exhibit the effects of
broad eurrents of wind flowing in one direction, it had the advantage
of offering more varied phenomena than could otherwise have been ex-
hibited. Before commencing the experiments, directions were given to
attach a rotating iron neck to the trumpet of one of the sirens, in order
that it might be directed to the zenith; while the other siren remained
with its axis in a horizontal direction. The observers in these investi-
gations consisted of the chairman of the board; General Woodruff,
engineer third district; Porter Barnard, assistant superintendent of
construction; Captain Keeney, and other officers of the Mistletoe; with
an assistant who acted as one of the observers and recording clerk. The
Mistletce was daily employed, though on two occasions the Cactus,
another of the light-house steamers, rendered assistance.

RESEARCHES IN SOUND. 529

Fig. 6.

Bartletts Reef Lt. Leaf

ay,
M ak,
Fishers Fd.
Race Rock

Be: Néw ayer P
| ‘ %
anes
|

er Littte Guilt Td. L.H.

Little Gull Island

Gardiners ig & Vicinity
1 LHS
isleme aN “ Seale of miles
\ ff ES) 1 2 3 Ss

S. Mis. 59-—34

530 RESEARCHES IN SOUND.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE ECHO AT LITTLE GULL ISLAND.

The first observations to be mentioned are those relating to the echo ;
the results, however, in regard to this are not very satisfactory. The
sirens were of the second order, and therefore the echoes produced were
not as distinct as those from the larger instrument at Block Island.
The echo from the horizontal trumpet was distinct, and in the prolonga-
tion of its axis; the interval however between the blast of the siren
trumpet and the commencement of the echo was very brief; so short,
indeed, that the ending of the one and the beginning of the other were
generally difficult to distinguish. <A slight leak in the apparatus of the
siren produced a continuous hum, which interfered somewhat with the
distinct appreciation of the sound of the echo. The keeper thought the
weather was not favorable for the production of echoes. He thinks
they are heard most distinctly during a perfect calm, which did not occur
during the course of these investigations.

The axis of the siren with the movable trumpet being directed to the
zenith, strict attention was given by all the observers to any echo which
might be produced from it; but in this case, as in that at Block Island,
the slight echo which was heard came from all points of the horizon.
On one occasion General Woodruff called attention to a small cloud pass-
ing directly over the zenith, from which a few drops of rain fell upon the
platform on which the light-house is erected. Advantage was taken of
this occurrence to direct strong blasts of the siren toward the cloud,
but no perceptible echo was returned. We have failed, therefore, in
this series of investigations, to obtain any positive facts in addition to
those already known as to the character of the echo. In regard to the
hypothesis offered for its explanation, if we found little in its support,
we have met with nothing to invalidate it. But whatever may be the
cause of the phenomenon, we do not consider it an important factor in
explanation of the results we have obtained, since it was too feeble to
produce any effect in the way of absorbing any notable part of the
original sound. Its importance from Dr. Tyndall’s point of view is its
apparent support of the hypothesis of a flocculent condition of the
atmosphere.

OBSERVATIONS ON EFFECT OF ELEVATION ON AUDIBILITY.

The next class of experiments at Little Gull Island had relation to
the effect of elevation on sound. The conditions here, however, for ar-
riving at definite results on this point were by no means as favorable as
those at Block Island. The height which could be commanded was only
that of the tower of the light-house, the gallery of which is 74 feet
above the platform upon which the buildings are erected, and 92 feet
above the level of the sea, much less than that at Block Island. Be-
sides this, the variableness of the wind at the surface of the ocean and
at heights above was not favorable for the illustration of the point in
question.

RESEARCHES IN SOUND. 531

The theoretical conditions in order that the sound may be heard with
greater distinctness at an elevation than below are, as we have said
before, that the wind be moving with a greater velocity in a given di-
rection at an elevation than at the surface of the earth, and that the
difference in the velocities may be against the sound-wave, so that its
upper part may be more retarded than the lower. In this case the di-
rection of a beam of sound will be curved upward, leaving as it were
a vacuum of sound beneath. The distance of the origin of sound, how-
ever, must not be too great relatively to the elevation of the observer;
otherwise it will pass over his head, as well as over that of the observer
at the surface of the earth. In most instances the sound was not con-
tinuous, but was interrupted—heard for a time, then lost; again be-
coming audible, it was heard until it finally became imperceptible.
Besides this, it was difficult to determine when the sound ceased to be
heard, since this depended on the sensibility of the ear and the greater
or less attention of the observer at the time of the observation. To
obviate these difficulties as well as the unfavorable condition of too
great a distance of the origin of sound from the observer, it was con-
cluded to adopt as the duration of the sound the elapsed time between
its beginning and the period when it was first lost.

The observer on the tower was Mr. P. Barnard, while the one below
was General Woodruff. From the records of the observations of these
gentlemen the following tables are compiled, the first of which indicates
the relative duration of sound on the top of the tower and at the bottom,
the sound moving against the wind; the second, the same duration, the
sound moving with the wind; and the third, the same with the sound
at right angles to. it.

TABLE 1.—Sound against the wind.

Heard at |

Date. top of | Farin

tower. F t
1875. min. sec.) min. sec.

ECAC 2 GRR ORE oh. cae ee Pees, oe Pay Sr 5 30] 4 00
“INE ge 5 Ua GUN AL) eae Seo ES BN A Aiea AA ae 4 30 3. 30

ge WPS! eatly hd 0B, LOG Sk Ree eon, Moat d Pets b-30 3 00

Fie ap UR i pre ed O05 Lend la am a oa Zeer SS IR 5: 00 4 00

G2AL tPA Se eS oe Ae O00 hd

Ouse coe sat ee ees did PAS. RE eee 4 00 3 00

| ee Pee a ee ee ee Poe Cel Pred Camas + tS by OOH 22) 05

RL, AON iN ely Ae ME ema SES Le la 6 00) 4 00

Oh sc as be aaa ne Meets tus ss ated in ate er et aes Peau oe ae

Sead, SEs eR ene ees Pe mere eae Sead pad ma lls

Su lal JRA ER ee eh, Me a hhs 3. 00 Leer

114 (28 ( ee aaa See a Carry ner Long FE Pere eming iy ers 4,57 Ol

532 RESEARCHES IN SOUND.

It appears from Table 1 that without a single exception the duration of
the sound was greater at the top of the tower than at the bottom, al-
though the difference in favor of the top of the tower in the several experi-
ments is very variable. These results are in accordance with what was

anticipated.
TABLE 2.—Sound with the wind.

Heard at | Heard at
Date. top of foot of
tower. tower.

min. Sec.| Min. SeC.

September 2co see ee ee eee oe oe site eieate oetier 30 00 | 30 00
Di Lies AERO: en esa Pee nee eae 16 30|18 00

Ae Us ipa eres) ena let: | US eae Dak aaa ne ee 21 00 | 20 30

FER eae eae IPG Tee EN EC i a Minti 9 al Se Pw Gok, 18° 200 | 23-4350

ripen Tes) FTN ARTA. Repeat: We yen PTA ae re 12, 30°) 125730

Rh Ries 1 RAO fos Rvp AEC eB) on) SLT 6 30 | 2o.400

Mien 282 uo vie ok SEE CUS) SERS Ee eee LE 254) 1S. e20

In these observations the duration of the sound at the bottom and top
are nearly the same, fror which we might infer that the elevation of
the observer has little effect on the hearing of sound moving with the
wind. Were it not for the result of the first experiment of this class at
Block Island, we should not hesitate to adopt this as a general conclu-

sion.
TABLE 3—Sound heard nearly at right angles to the wind.

Heard at | Heard at

Date. top of | foot of

tower. tower.
min. sec. | MIN. SEC.

September 2...... mevihce ta te etetee: eae EPMA SESS AGE PRM: 6 00} 4 00
Dy elect he AS SEPT ie re ty eee vote y bees 6) 45.) 105 oe

Di PONE Phy eee ave Nagy ke SEP Ie Ge coed ee SPER oe 25 00 | 23 00

SEIS Beet Pe Dine yo Pa ee VRE A dS LSE L DS 16 30 4 00

SP cic fa Sle! NE ee oe aD Se OEE SOC or ge eee ats 200.4) 192

SS PRs See Seba mW eer NR ye A ie ie SR aie Oe 16. 00 | 14 30

Py ROMP TAPS CAE Die E08 alte Pale ees oso rhe ernment 8 93 "30: |p hOr ere

y: IPOPRA SRE OP Rat A See Age CLARE Ya 3 RR eR te 19°30 )17 30

6. 8. eee re ee eee 6 30 5 30

{ (ORG pr EE MRL Na Do Se he 2 5° 00 6 45

YT ste ee A eS LR de 2 900 .| 12a oe

CLE ine S28 STE Mas ys ee S14 Oe ee ee ETL Woy) 5)

so een PPR Re Sener ee OC oma ind ip pcre 9 30| 5 00
Wenn sof eli. Sew chee aca ea ee eee 13 12|10 55

RESEARCHES IN SOUND. 533

From the result of this table it would appear that the sound can be
heard moving at right angles to the wind better at an elevation that at
the surtace—a result not anticipated.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE EFFECT OF WIND ON SOUND.

This series was commenced on the 2d of September. Barometer, 30.3
inches; thermometer, dry-bulb, 70°.5 IF. wet-bulb, 679.5. Wind at the
surface of sea was six miles per hour, and variable; at 3 p.m. the ve-
locity was eight miles at the surface. (See Fig. 7.)

7

Pig.

—

_—
-—

—

1° course

Hing

as}
SS

Xx

The experiments were made by means of the steamer Mistletoe, which
proceeded from the light-house, as a center, in different directions,
blowing the whistle every half-minute, and returning when, from a sig-
nal, the sound was lost; the time being noted by different observers,
and the distance estimated by the position of the steamer in reference
to known objects on the Coast-Survey chart, as well as by angles of
azimuth and time of sailing. The steamer was directed to proceed, as
indicated in Fig. 7, Ist, against the wind, so that the sound would come
to the observers with the wind; 2d, at right angles to the wind; 3d, in
an intermediate direction between the last course and the direction of
the wind; 4th, approximately with the wind, so that the sound would
come to the ears of the observers against the wind; 5th, in an interme-
diate direction ; and, 6th, again at right angles to the wind. It was

534 RESEARCHES IN SOUND.

supposed that by this arrangement a symmetrical curve of sound would
be obtained ; and we think this would have been the case had the wind
remained constant in direction. It did remain nearly the same during
the time of describing the first, second, and third courses, and only
slightly varied during the fourth; but previous to running the fifth and
sixth courses the wind had changed to a direction nearly at right angles
to its first course.

As is shown in Fig. 7, the first, second, third, and fourth courses form
a normal curve of audition; the fifth and sixth courses, however, give
discordant results, being much longer than a symmetrical curve would
indicate, showing a change in the condition of the medium from that
which existed during the running of the other courses; this change was
evidently that of the wind, which, veering, as we have seen, through
an are of a little more than 90°, brought it nearly at right angles to the
fifth course, and approximately in the direction of the sixth course; the
wind also increased its velocity. These changes are sufficient, without
other considerations, to give a rational account of the phenomena ob-
served. They both tend to increase the distance at which the sound
would be heard.

In these experiments, as in subsequent ones, it is to be regretted that
for want of balloons the motion of the air above could not be ascer-.
tained, as was done at Sandy Hook in September, 1874. Previous to
sailing from the depot at Staten Island attempts had been made to se-
cure a supply of toy balloons, but none could be found at that time in
the city of New York. Arrangements were therefore made for procur-
ing a reservoir of condensed hydrogen, by which India-rubber balloons
could be inflated at the time they were wanted. Unfortunately this ap-
paratus did not arrive in time to be of much avail in this series of experi-
ments. Besides this, on account of the smallness of the balloons, the
ascent was too slow compared to the horizontal motion to indicate the
direction of the wind at a considerable elevation above the points of
observation. They were however of use in pointing out definitely the
direction of the wind and the changes it was undergoing. Moreover, at
the time of leaving New York we were only able to procure one ane-
mometer, whereas we ought to have had a number, one for the top of
the tower, one for the bottom, and one for each vessel.

Experiments of September 3.—Barometer, 30.02 inches; thermometer,
dry bulb, 72°.5 F. wet bulb, 70°; wind from the east, but too slight to
move the cups of the anemometer; it soon however spang up from the
opposite direction, in which it continued during the remainder of the
day, attaining a velocity of five and a quarter miles per hour.

In these experiments two light-house steamers were employed, the
Mistletoe and Cactus, which enabled us to obtain the results in half the
time, and thus to obviate the effect, in some degree, of any change in
the direction of the wind. On this occasion the sound was noted at the
light-house as it converged to a center from the whistle of each vessel,

RESEARCHES IN SOUND.

Fig. °.

"

4

, 6 miles 4, miles
| ”

—

a
~t

{

| ane
|

| Mistletoe {st covrse

536 RESEARCHES IN SOUND.

and also simultaneously by each vessel as it diverged from the vertical
siren.

We were enabled, in this way, to produce two curves by a reverse
process. These are plotted in Fig. 8, and exhibit a remarkable degree
of similarity. The corresponding parts of the two curves, being in each
case reversed, exhibit the fact that, through the same space in opposite
directions, the audibility of the sound was similarly increased with the
wind and diminished against it. The effect however of the wind in the
experiments of this day was less marked than on any in the whole
series, and conseque®@tly the two curves of audition more nearly ap-
proximate circles.

We can see in this result no other effect than that which would be
produced from a wind flowing with a uniform but slow velocity at the
surface, but having a slightly increased velocity above. Had there been
no wind, according to this view the two curves would have exhibited
two concentric circles.

Experiments of September 4.—Barometer, 29.85 inches, falling; ther-
mometer, dry bulb, 77° F. wet bulb, 739.25. Wind south by west,
twelve and one-fourth miles per hour at the top of the tower and nine
and one-fourth miles below; variable.

These experiments were also made with two vessels. The distances
and directions are given in Fig. 9. With the exception of the fourth
course of the Cactus, the other courses would form nearly a symmetri-
cal curve, but in this case the sound of the whistle of the Cactus was
lost at the point a ata distance of one mile, and was afterward regained
at the point b, and continued audible until the steamer reached the
point ec.

This presents one of the abnormal phenomena of sound which might
in part be accounted for by the existence of a flocculent cloud between
a and b, but why the sound could be heard so much farther in this direc-
tion than in the others is not easy to explain on that hypothesis.

The line b ¢ was described after all the lines of Fig. 9 had been com-
pleted, and therefore the curve given in the figure correctly represents
the boundary of the area of audition while these courses were beingrun,
the point a being the termination under that condition of the fourth
course of the Cactus. To explain the abnormal line b ¢, we haye only to
suppose that a change in the velocity of the wind afterward took place,
by which its opposition to the sound-wave was diminished ; this will ac-
count for the greater length of the line; the change however did not
reach the light-house until after the vessel had passed the point 0.

a a

RESEARCHES IN SOUND. 537
Fig. 9.
Caetus
4.7% course 2 é
§

2rd Coupge

s
Be
Sa)

As affording evidence in support of this hypothesis, it may be men-
tioned that on examining the records of the Signal-Service, of which there
is a station at New London, seven miles north of the position at which
these observations were made, it was found that the wind in the morn-
ing of that day was south, in the afternoon southwest, and in the even-
ing northwest, and that it was probable, as in other cases, that the wind
had changed above while the part of the course b ¢ was run.

Experiments of September 6.—Barometer, 29.93 inches ; thermometer,
dry bulb, 749.5 F. wet bulb, 67°; wind from northwest to southwest,
seventeen miles per hour. The wind, though of higher velocity than on
any other occasion, was variable. On this day the experiments were
principally made with the Mistletoe. The Cactus, being obliged to leave
on other duty, ran one course a distance of two-thirds of a mile before
the sound of her whistle was lost at the light-house. She afterwards
steamed off in the direction C b (Fig. 10), noting the sound of the siren,
which was lost at the point b, afterward regained, and heard distinetly
ten and one-half miles distant.

During the passage of the first course of the Mistletoe, the wind at
the surface and above was from southwest, the latter being indicated

538 RESEARCHES: IN SOUND.

by a cloud passing the zenith. During the second course the wind was
variable, changing its direction about 90°, principally from the north-
west; while during the third course the wind was again from the south-
west. The long course of the Cactus marked on the figure indicates the
sound of the siren, from the center outward, as it was heard seven and
one-fourth miles, then lost for an interval, and afterward heard again at
a distance of three and one-fourth miles farther, making, in all, ten and
one-half miles.

Experiments of September 7.—Barometer, 30.1 inches ; thermometer,
dry-bulb, 73° F. wet-bulb, 62°; wind, eight miles per hour above, and
five miles per hour below, tower. The wind was variable, as indicated
by the letting-off of balloons, which however did not rise to any great
height. The direction of the wind is shown in Fig. 11 by arrows. There
is nothing remarkable in the curve of audition of thisday. It indicates,
as usual, a greater distance toward the side on which the sound was
moving with the wind.

Experiments of September 8.—Barometer, 30.3 inches; thermometer,
dry-bulb, 71° I. wet-bulb, 64°.5; wind, west-southwest, fifteen miles
per hour at top of tower, nine miles per hour below. Fig. 12 indicates
the curve of audition of the vertical siren as compared with that of the

RESEARCHES IN SOUND. 539
Fig. 11.
4* Be Go! =

horizoutal siren. The steamer first proceeded along the line C a nearly
in the direction of the axis of the horizontal trumpet. For the distance
of the first three miles the horizontal trumpet was the louder. At the

point a, four miles distant, the two were distinct and very nearly equal.
At b they were distinct, also very nearly equal, the vertical perhaps a
little more distinct. At ¢ very nearly equally distinct. At d the verti-
cal siren was decidedly more distinct just before entering the optical

540 RESEARCHES IN SOUND.

shadow of the light-house tower and the keeper’s dwelling. This shadow
continued to the point e, which was nearly the extent of the acoustic as
well as of the optical shadow, since from d to e the sound was heard
from neither instrument, and the origin of sound was too near to cause
much difference between these two shadows. From / to a, through the
point g, the two instruments continued to be fully heard—the vertical
the more distinct. The effect of the wind in this figure is also very
distinctly marked, the longer lines indicating the distance the sound
was heard with the wind, and the shorter against it. The curve of this
figure is not traced through points at which the sound was absolutely
lost, but at which it was heard feebly and with nearly equal distinctness.

Thus far all the facts we have observed, if not in strict conformity
with our conception of the hypothesis of Professor Stokes, are at least
not incompatible with it. We are now however to direct attention to
a fact of much interest, which may not have escaped the attention of
the reader; namely, the remarkable difference in the area of audition
as exhibited in the several figures, all drawn to the same scale. Com-
pare, for example, the curve of Fig. 10 with the inner curve of Fig. 8.
It might at first sight be inferred that the smallness of the curve in
the former case was due to a mottled condition of the atmosphere,
which, by absorbing the sound, diminishes the sphere of audition; but,
unfortunately for this explanation, it would appear from the observa-
tions made by the Cactus within the hour of obtaining the data for
describing the curve, that the air was then in a remarkably favorable
condition for the transmission of sound, since it was heard ten and a
half miles, the ordinary limit of the maximum penetrating power of the
instrument—a siren of the second order; while on the 3d of September,
the day on which the large curve, Fig. 8, was described, the greatest
distance at which the sound of the same instrument could be heard was
eight and a quarter miles.

The only difference in the condition of the air observed during the
time of describing the curve of audition given in the figure, and the
hearing of the sound by the Cactus for ten and a half miles, was a
change in the direction, and perhaps in the intensity, of the wind, in the
latter case the direction being the same as that of the course of the
Cactus.

Before therefore admitting any other solution of the question as to
the cause of the difference in the area of audition, we must inquire
whether it is not possible to refer it to the action of the wind itself.

The most marked difference in the conditions which apparently af-
fected the phenomenon on the days in question was that of the greater
velocity of the wind, both at the surface of the sea and at the top of the
tower, and by comparing the several figures in regard to the wind it
will be seen that where the condition of the air was nearest that of a
calm the larger was the curve of audition, and the nearer the figures
approach to a circle, of which the point of origin of sound or the point

RESEARCHES IN SOUND. BAL

of perception is the center. From these facts we are inclined to think
that sound is not heard as far during a time of high wind in any direc-
tion as it is during a perfect calm, and that it is heard farthest with a
gentle wind. This conclusion, which was not anticipated at the begin-
ning of these investigations, is we think in strict conformity with the
hypothesis adopted. In the case of sound moving against a strong
wind, the sonorous waves being thrown up above the ears of the ob-
server, the sphere of audition in that direction is without question
greatly diminished; and that it should be also diminished when sound
is moving with a strong wind having a greater velocity above than be-
low is not difficult to conceive. In this case the sound-wave will be so
thrown down against the earth, and so much of it absorbed, as to weaken
the intensity of that part which reaches the ear, while in the case of a
feeble wind, moving faster above than below, the portion of the wave
thrown down from above will only be sufficient to compensate for the
smaller loss by friction, and thus the sound may be heard at a greater
distance than in still air. But on this point, as well as others, further
experiments are required.
While we consider the wind as the principal agent in producing the
abnormal phenomena of sound, we do not by any means regard it as
the sole agent. Prof. Osborn Reynolds, of Owens College, Manchester,
without any knowledge of what was doing in America on this subject,
instituted a series of experiments on the effect of wind upon sound, and
finally adopted precisely the same hypothesis which we have used for
generalizing the observed phenomena. He has however in a very in-
genious and important paper, presented to the Royal Society in 1874,
extended the same principle to the effect of heat in changing the form
of the sound-wave, and has shown, both by reasoning and experiment,
_that the normal direction of the sound-wave in still air, instead of pro-
ceeding horizontally should be turned upward, on account of the greater
velocity of sound near the earth, due to the greater heat of the strata in
that position than of those above. This principle, which indicates the
existence of a true refraction of sound independent of the motion of
the medium, is undoubtedly applicable as a modifying influence to the
phenomena we have recorded. It produces however only a slight ef-
fect in the case we have last mentioned, since the observation on board
the Cactus shows the condition of the air was that of little acoustie ab-
sorption. It would nevertheless favor the hypothesis that sound in
perfectly still air of homogeneous density could be heard farther than
sound in a moving medium, or in one of unequal temperature. This is
also in accordance with the fact repeatedly observed in arctic regions,
in which the sound of the human voice is heard at great distances dur-
ing times of extreme cold. In this case, the air is of a uniform temper-
ature above and below, but of diminished elasticity, and should, on this
account, transmit sound with less intensity; and yet the audibility is
increased, which is explained by the assumption that its stillness and

542 RESEARCHES IN SOUND.

uniformity of temperature more than compensate for the diminished
elasticity. The same may be said with regard to the audibility of sound
during a fog, which usually exists during extreme stillness of the air.

Whatever be the cause of the variation in the limit of audition as
exhibited in the diagrams, it is less efficient than the ordinary action of
the wind in producing the same phenomena. This is evident from the
fact that while the ratio of the extreme variation in the limits of audi-
tion in the first case is not more than 1:3, in the second it is that of
sd.

Moreover, when the effect of the wind on the andition of sound in
relation to elevation is considered, we think we are fully warranted in
asserting, as we did in our last report, that the wind is a more efficient
cause of the variability of the penetration of sound than the invisible
acoustic clouds adopted by Professor Tyndall for the explanation of the
phenomena.

The object of these investigations, as stated at the beginning of this
report, was to obtain facts which might serve to establish the true theory
of the abnormal phenomena of sound, an object, independent of its
scientific interest, of much practical importance in its application to fog-
signals. Although the observations were not as perfect as we could
wish in many respects, from want of certain appliances, they are yet
sufficient we think to establish principles of much practical value. For
example, if the mariner in approaching a fog-signal while the wind is
blowing against the sound fails to perceive it on deck, he will probably
hear it by ascending to the mast-head; or,in case a sound from a given
station is constantly obscured in a certain direction, while it is audible
in adjacent directions, we may attribute it to a sound-shadow produced
by some interposing object. If again, the obscuration of sound in a
given direction is only observed during a wind moving against the sound,
the cause will probably be found in a lateral refraction, due to the re-
tardation of the current of wind against a perpendicular wall or cliff, as
in the zase observed at Block Island, August 19. The subject however
is one of great complexity, and requires further investigation, but the
results thus far obtained may be considered as furnishing the preliminary
data on which to found more precise observations. These should be
made with the aid of a number of steamers simultaneously employed,
each furnished with anemometers and balloons for determining with more
accuracy the direction and velocity of the wind.

We hope to renew the investigations during next summer, and in view
of this have directed that in the mean time the light-keepers at Block
Island and at Point Judith shall continue to sound their sirens a certain
length of time every Monday, noting the direction and velocity of the
wind, the temperature and pressure of the air, and the audibility of the
aan as it comes reciprocally from each instrument.

It is shown, from the results thus far obtained from these reciprocal
observations, that sound is occasionally heard more distinctly against

RESEARCHES IN SOUND. 543

the wind than in a contrary direction. We think however that these
instances are generally followed by a change in the direction of the wind
at the surface of the earth.

LIGHT-HOUSE BOARD, October, 1875.

PART V.—INVESTIGATIONS IN 1877.*

On account of the occurrence of the Centennial Exhibition, which
absorbed most of the time of the officers of the Light-House Board not
devoted to ordinary light-house service, but few observations were made
relative to sound in 1876, and an account of what were made is incor-
porated in the following report.

Agreeably to previous engagement, I visited Portland, Me., to make
some investigation in regard to an abnormal phenomenon of sound,
which was noticed in a former report. We left Portland on the after-
noon of September 3, 1877, in the steamer Iris, which had been fitted up
during the year under the direction of the inspector, Commander H. F.
Picking, and was in excellent condition, and well adapted to the duty
of a light-house tender. The party consisted of General J. C. Duane,
engineer of the first district; Commander H. F. Picking, inspector of
the first district; Mr. Edward L. Woodruff, assistant engineer of the
third district; Mr. Charles Edwards, assistant engineer of the first dis-
trict, and myself.

We first examined one of the automatic whistling-buoys invented by
Mr. Courtenay, of New York. This was in place and emitting sounds
at a station called Old Anthony, off Cape Elizabeth, about nine miles
from Portland. On approaching it at right angles to the direetion of
the wind, we heard it at the distance of a mile. But the sound did not
appear loud even within a few rods. It was however of considerable
quantity, being from a locomotive whistle of ten inches in diameter.
The instrument is operated by the oscillation of the waves, which at
this time were not of sufficient height to move it vertically through a
space of more than one foot. It emitted a sound at each oscillation.
This invention consists of a large pear-shaped buoy about twelve feet in
diameter at the water-surface, and floats about twelve feet above the
same plane. In the interior of this buoy is a large tube or hollow eyl-
inder, three feet in diameter, extending from the top through the bottom
to a depth of about thirty feet below the latter. This tube is open at
the bottom, but projects air-tight through the upper part of the buoy,
and is closed with a plate having three orifices in it, two for letting in
the air into the tube, and one between the others for letting it out to
operate the whistle. These orifices are connected with three tubes
which extend downward to near the level of the water, where they pass

544 RESEARCHES IN SOUND.

When the buoy rises, the water in the cylinder by its inertia retains:

its position, and a partial vacuum is formed between the head of the
column and the diaphragm, into which the air is drawn through two of
the tubes, and when the buoy descends, the escape through the injec-
tion-tube being prevented by valves, it is forced out of the inner tube
and actuates the whistle.

The mooring-chain, which is sixty fathoms in length, is attached to
the cylinder at a point just below the buoy, and is secured to a large
stone weighing about six tons. The apparatus rides perpendicularly.

The sound in this instrument is not produced merely by the difference
in hydrostatic pressure of the water in the two positions of the buoy,
but by the accumulated effect of impulse generated by the motion of
the apparatus.

Plans have been devised, but have not yet been perfected, to condense
the air in the buoy by the effect of repeated oscillations, until a valve
loaded to a definite pressure would open automatically and allow the air
to escape. In this way the sound from the accumulated pressure would
be produced at intervals to a greater or less extent, and would serve to
diversify the character of the sound so as to enable the mariner to dis-
tinguish different locations. .The invention, as it is, is considered a
valuable addition to the aids to navigation, has received the unqualified
approbation of all navigators on this coast who are acquainted with its
operation, and will probably be introduced in all countries where its
merits are known. Experience has shown that it can be permanently
moored in deep water, and that vessels can safely approach it within the
nearest distance, and take perfect departure from it.

The Light-House Board has adopted this buoy as one of its permanent
aids to navigation, and will in time introduce it at all points where its
presence will be of importance to the navigator. In order to obtain
reliable data as to the operations of the automatic buoy, Commander
Picking has established a series of observations at all the stations in the
neighborhood of the buoys, giving the time of hearing it, the direction
of the wind, and the state of the sea, from which it appears that in the
month of January, 1877, one of these buoys was heard every day at a
station one and one-eighth miles distant; every day but two at one two
and one-quarter miles distant; fourteen times at one seven and one-half
miles distant, and four times at one eight and one-half miles distant.
It is heard by the pilots of the New York and Boston steamers at dis-
tances of from one-fifth to five miles, and has been frequently heard by
the inspector of the first light-house district at a distance of nine miles,
and even, under the most favorable circumstances, fifteen miles.

We sailed around the buoy and observed the difference in the intensity
of sound in regard to the direction of the wind, which was at the time
a fresh breeze of from twelve to fifteen miles per hour, from the west-
ward, the greatest intensity being apparently at points forty-five degrees
ou either side of the axis of the wind. The effect however was not
very definitely marked, though the sound on the whole appeared to be

RESEARCHES IN SOUND. 545

greater on the semi-cireumference of the circle to the leeward; but the
velocity of the wind was so great that the noise produced by it on the
rigging of the vessel prevented the effects from being definitely observed.

Experiments have been made with this buoy carrying whistles of dif-
ferent sizes, the result being that a whistle of less than ten inches diam-
eter does not give a sound which can be heard as far as one of the latter
size, although it appears to the ear near by equally loud.

There is a difference between the quantity of sound and the loudness.
Two sounds may be equally loud when heard near by, yet differ very
much in regard to their being heard at a distance, the loudness depend-
ing upon the intensity of sound or on the amplitude of vibration of the
sounding body, while the quantity of sound depends on the extent of
the vibrating surface.

The size of the whistle must be limited by the quantity of air ejected
at each oscillation of the buoy. The fact that the ten-inch whistle gives
a sound which can be heard farther than one of eight inches appears to
have a bearing on the question (the actuating force being the same) of
the united effect of two sounds of the same quantity and pitch, since.
the sound from several parts of the circumference of the larger whistle
may be considered as a union of several sounds of less quantity.

After these observations on the automatic buoy we proceeded along the
coast to White Head, at the entrance of Penobscot Bay, a distance of
sixty miles, which we reached at about twelve o’clock at night, and cast
anchor in Seal Harbor, near the White Head light-house.

Our first operation next morning was the examination of an automatic
fog-bell, invented by Mr. Close, and which has been erected by a special
appropriation of Congress. It is very simple in conception, and would
do good service in southern latitudes, where it would not be affected by
the ice. It consists of an upright shaft thirty-two feet long, fastened to
the rock beneath the water, and kept in a vertical position by a series
of iron rods serving as braces. Around this shaft is a hollow metallic
float, having sufficient buoyancy by the motion of the waves to elevate
a vertical rod having at the upper end a rack gearing into a ratchet-
wheel. By means of projecting pins on the surface of the wheel the
hammer of the bell is elevated and the bell sounded at each descent of
the float. This arrangement is the most simple and efficient of any of
the kind of which we have any knowledge.

The objection to it is its liability to be deranged by the action of ice
and the rusting of the parts from exposure to the weather.

Our next operation at this place was the examination of the remark-

able abnormal phenomenon, which was the principal object of our

excursion. It has been frequently observed by the captains of the

steamers plying between Boston and New Brunswick, and has also been

noticed on two different occasions by officers of the light-house estab-

lishment. The phenomenon, as reported by these authorities, consists
S. Mis. 59—35

546 RESEARCHES IN SOUND.

in hearing the sound distinetly on approaching the station at the distance
of from six to four miles, then losing it through a space of about three
miles, and not hearing it again until within about a quarter of a mile of
the instrument, when it becomes suddenly audible in almost full power.
This phenomenon is always noticed when the vessel is approaching the
signal from the southwest, and the wind is in the same or in a southerly
direction, and therefore opposed to the direction of the sound from the
station, which is the case during a fog. Commander Picking, having
frequently received complaints from masters of vessels as to losing the
sound at this place, concluded to verify the facts by his own observation.
For this purpose he embraced the opportunity of an inspection-tour in
July, 1877, to approach the station from the southwest during a fog.
In his own words, he heard the sound distinctly through a space of from
six to four miles, then lost it and could hear nothing until within a
quarter of a mile of the station, when the blast of the whistle burst
forth in full sound. The wind at this time was from the southward, or
against the sound. This cessation in the hearing of the sound could
not have been due to the failure of the instrument to emit sound, since
its operation is automatic when once started, and in this case the fog so
lifted on nearing the station as to admit the observation of the puffs of
steam emitted at each blast of the whistle.

On a previous occasion General Duane and Mr. Edwards on approach-
ing the same signal from the southwest heard the sound at about six
miles distance, then lost it, and did not again hear it until within about
a quarter of a mile. The wind in this instance was also the same as that
in the observation of Commander Picking, namely, from the southwest.

So well established was this phenomenon that General Duane at-
tempted to remedy the evil by elevating the duplicate whistle (with
which every station is provided) to a height twenty-two feet above the
level of the other whistle, by placing it on the upper end of a tube.
But this arrangement produced no beneficial effect.

Inthe morning of September 4, 1877, on which we commenced our ex-
periments, the weather was clear, the wind west-southwest, the velocity
from ten to twelve miles, remaining nearly constant during the day.
Our first object was to verify by direct observation the several features of
the phenomenon, and for this purpose we steamed to the southward, or
directly to the windward, from the station through the region in which
the abnormal phenomena had been noticed. The pressure of the atmos-
phere, as indicated by an aneroid barometer, was 28.9 inches. The tem-
perature of the air was 67° Fahrenheit; that of the water at various
points along our course was 58°, except at two points where the ther-
mometer indicated 57°, This difference was too small to have any per-
ceptible effect on the density of fhe rapidly moving air which was
passing over the surface of the water. As we increased our distance
from the signal the sound slightly diminished in loudness until the dis-
tance was between a quarter and half a mile, when it suddenly ceased

RESEARCHES IN SOUND. BAT

to be heard, and continued inaudible through a distance of about a mile,
when it was faintly heard and continued to increase in loudness until we
reached the distance of four miles; at this point it was heard with such
clearness that the position of the station could be located with facility ;
but on proceeding farther in the same direction it appeared to diminish
eradually except at one point, when a blast, as indicated by the steam
issuing from the whistle, was inaudible; but on turning the vessel around
the next blast was distinctly heard.

As a second experiment we retraced the same line back to the station
and observed the same phenomena in a reverse order. The sound was
heard the loudest at a point four miles from the station; afterward it
diminished and then became inaudible through a space of two miles,
and then suddenly burst forth nearly in full intensity at the distance of
a quarter of a mile, and continued loud until the station was reached.

As a third experiment the same line was traversed again, the only
difference in the condition of the experiment being that the whistle on
the steamer was sounded every minute between the blasts of the signal
at the station; and while the observers on the vessel noted the sounds
from-the latter, those at the station observed the sound from the former.
The same phenomena as described in the previous experiments were
witnessed by those on board the vessel, but on receiving the report of
the observers at the station, it was found that no cessation of the sound
from the steamer was observed through the whole distance traversed by
the vessel. It should be noted that the whistle at the station is ten
inches in diameter, actuated by a pressure of sixty pounds of steam,
and that on board the vessel six inches in diameter with twenty-five
pounds of steam. It appears from this remarkable result that a feeble
sound passes freely through what has been called the region of silence
when sent in the direction of the motion of the wind, when a louder
sound does not pass in the opposite direction.

As a fourth experiment the vessel proceeded northward on the oppo-
site side of the station to that before traversed, but in the prolongation
of its previous course. The sound in this case from the signal to the
observers on the vessel was with the wind, while that from the vessel
to the observers at the station was against the wind. In this experi-
ment no cessation was observed on the vessel in the hearing of the
sound from the station; it was heard with varying intensity to the dis-
tance of four and a half miles, and could probably have been heard
much farther had our progress not been interrupted by land. On return-
ing to the station the observers there reported that after the vessel had
left the station and was scarcely more than a hundred yards distant not
a single blast of its whistle was heard. In this case the phenomena
which had been observed on the southerly side of the station were
exhibited in a reverse order on the northerly side.

In what may be considered the fifth experiment, the vessel being at a
distance of four miles from the station on the line traversed in the first

548 RESEARCHES IN SOUND.

two experiments, the sound was heard slightly. The vessel then altered
its course so as to steam, as it were, around the signal, keeping at the
same distance until the direction of the station from the vessel was
nearly at right angles to the direction of the wind; at this point no
sound was heard from the station, although it had been slightly heard
at points along the curved line traversed in reaching the point men-
tioned. The vessel then proceeded toward the station in a straight line,
but no sound was heard until it approached the latter within one-fourth
of a mile. The. observers at the station however heard the sound from
the vessel through the whole distance.

This experiment was made to ascertain the truth of the general impres-
sion that at this place the sound was always heard better coming at right
angles or across the wind than in the direction in which it was blowing.
The experiment however was found in conformity with the general rule
previously established, that the sound was usually heard farthest with
the wind, less against the wind, and at an intermediate distance across
the wind. |

The primary object of these investigations is to determine the mechan-
ical causes to which the phenomena may be referred and from which
new conclusions may be deduced, to be further tested by experiment,
and such definite views obtained as may be of value in the employment
of fog-signals for the uses of the mariner.

For this purpose a number of different hypotheses may be provision-
ally adopted and each compared with the actual facts observed.

The first hypothesis which has been suggested for the explanation of
the phenomena in question is that they are due to some configuration of
the land; but on inspecting the Coast-Survey chart of this region it will
be seen that the nearest land consists of a series of broken surfaces not
rising above the ocean enough to reflect sound or in any way to produce
sound-shadows in the region through which the phenomena are observed.
This hypothesis therefore is inadmissible.

Another hypothesis is that of what have been called invisible acoustic
clouds or portions of atmosphere existing over the water at the region
of silence, which might absorb or variously refract the sound. That
such a condition of a portion of the atmosphere really exists in some
cases is a fact which may be inferred from well-established principles of
acoustics, as well as from experimental data. They would occur espe-
cially in the case of dissolving clouds, which would be accompanied by
local diminutions of temperature, and also from portions of air which
have been abnormally heated by contact with warm earth. But, if the
phenomena in question were produced by a cloud of this kind, its pres-
ence ought to be indicated by transmitting through it the usual set of
meteorological instruments. This was done in the foregoing experi-
ments, but no change was observed in the indications either of the
thermometer or barometer. Unfortunately we had not a hygrometer in
our possession, but this observation was less necessary, since from:

RESEARCHES IN SOUND. 5A

abundant testimony it is established that the same phenomena are ex-
hibited during a dense fog, in which all parts of. the atmosphere for
miles in extent must be in a homogeneous condition. Furthermore, a
local cloud could not-:continue to exist in a given space for more than an
instant while a wind was blowing with a velocity of from ten to twelve
miles an hour. Again, this hypothesis fails entirely to explain the fact
that this phenomenon is always observed at nearly the same place, espe-
cially during a fog, when the wind is in a southerly direction. JT inally,
it is impossible to conceive of a cloud so arranged as a screen produc-
ing a sound-shadow of greater intensity on one side than on the other.

Another hypothesis is that of the refraction of sound due to the action
of the wind. It is an inference from well-established theory, as well as
from direct observation, that the sound is refracted by the wind, that it
tends to be thrown upward when moving against the wind, and down-
ward with the wind. This result is attributed very properly to the dif-
ferent velocities of the strata, that next the surface being retarded,
those above being less retarded.

The upper part of the front of the wave is thus thrown backward, and
the direction of the wave turned upward. In the case of the experi-
ment south of the station, the wind passing over a long line of rough
sea was moving less rapidly in its lower stratum than in the higher, and
consequently the sound-wave was thrown backward above, and, as it
issued from the instrument, tended to rise above the head of the observer,
and at a certain distance from the origin of the sound, depending upon
the difference of velocity above and below, was lost entirely to the ob-
server, and a sound-shadow was thus produced by refraction which is
closed in again by the lateral spread of the sound at a given distance.

In the experiment on the other side of the signal, the vessel proceed-
ing to the north, the wind coming to the observer on the vessel had to
pass over a rougher surface than that of water, and consequently the
difference of velocities above and below, and therefore the refraction
would be greater, and consequently the sound from the vessel was almost
entirely lost to the observer at the station, while the sound from the
Station was heard uninterruptedly on the vessel, since it was moving
with the wind.

On examining the records of experiments of previous years, I find a
number of cases recorded where sounds were heard at a greater dis-
tance, while inaudible at a less distance, especially one in connection
with the fog-signal at Gull Island, in 1874. In this case the sound, in
passing from the signal, was heard distinctly at the distance of about
two miles against the wind, then lost for a space of about four and a
half, and heard again distinctly for a distance of perhaps one mile. At
the same station, during the experiments of 1875, the sound of the
whistles of the steamers was heard for a certain distance, then ceased
to be heard for a considerable interval, and was then heard again. Fur-
thermore, the pilots of the steamboats from New York to Boston report

550 RESEARCHES IN SOUND.

that the automatic buoyis found to intermit its sound, being heard at
a distance, then becoming inaudible, and heard again as the steamer
approaches the source of sound.

From all the facts which we have gathered on this subject, I think it
highly probable that in all cases in which sound moving against the
wind is thrown up above the head of the observer it tends to descend
by the lateral spread of the sound-wave and to reach the earth at a dis-
tance; the conditions however for the actual production of this effect
are somewhat special, and will depend upon the amount of the initial
refraction and the quantity of the sound-waves. Besides the lateral
spread of the sound-wave there are two other causes sufficient, in certain
cases, to biing a portion of the sound-waves which have been elevated
in the air back again to the earth: the first is when an upper current
of wind is moving in an opposite or approximately opposite direction
to that at the surface of the earth, in which case an opposite or down-
ward refraction would take place; and the second is the case in which
the surface-wind is terminated above by strata of still air; in this case,
also, a reverse refraction, but of less amount, would take place, which
would tend to bring the sound-wave downward.

We can readily imagine that an isolated island, cooled by the radia-
tion of the heat by night, would send every morning, in all directions,
a current of cold air from its center. In this case, the sound from a
whistle placed in the center of the island would be inaudible in a space
entirely surrounding it, and thus give rise to a condition mentioned by
General Duane, in which a fog-signal appeared to be surrounded by a
belt of silence.

The next experiment was made on the morning of the 5th, on leaving
the station. In this case we proceeded along the direction of the same
line in which the first, second, and third experiments were made the day
before. The wind had changed about four points to the southward.
As in the preceding experiments, the sound was lost again at the dis-
tance of about one-fourth of a mile, but was not distinctly regained,
though some of the observers thought they heard it at a distance of two
and one-half miles.

The only perceptible difference in the wind on the 5th was that it was
a little less rapid, and four points more to the southward.

From a subsequent report of the keepers, the whistle of the vessel
was heard continuously as far as the pufts of steam could be observed,
a distance six or seven miles. In this case the sound was moving with
the wind. These results therefore are in accordance with those pre-
_ viously obtained.

The next experiments were made at Monhegan, an island sixteen miles
southwest of White Head. On this island there is a Daboll trumpet
actuated by a hot-air engine.

We departed from this station in.a westerly direction at an angle of

RESEARCHES IN SOUND. 551

45° to the right of the direction of the wind, and after proceeding about
one mile, as estimated by time, we lost the sound of the signal. We
then turned at right angles to our former course and proceeded toward
the leeward, keeping about the same distance from the signal, when the
sound was regained at a point which probably depended upon the direc-
tion of the wind and the axis of the trumpet combined. From this point
it was heard to a point to the leeward, and thence we retraced our
course at about the same distance and proceeded across the axis of the
trumpet toward the windward, where the sound was again lost. The
only definite result from this experiment was another case of the sound
being heard farther to the leeward than to the windward.

After this experiment we returned to Portland.

An interesting fact may be mentioned in connection with this station,
having a bearing upon the protection of light-houses from lightning.
The fog-signal is placed on a small island separated from the large island
by a water-space of about one-eighth of a mile. General Duane, desir-
ing to connect the light-house and fog-signal by an electrical communi-
cation, suspended a wire between the two points and attempted to form
a ground connection by depositing a plate of metal in the ground on
each island, but to his surprise, though the arrangements were made by
a skilled telegrapher, no signal would pass. The two islands being
composed of rock and the soil limited in thickness, the conduction was
imperfect, and it was only by plunging the plate of metal into the water
on each side of the space between the two islands that a signal could
be transmitted.

No further experiments on sound were made during this excursion,
because the vessel could no longer be spared from more pressing light-
house duty in the way of inspection and the stated supply of materials
to the stations.

On my return to New York, accompanied by Mr. Woodruff, I took the
route by the Western Railway to the Hudson River at Troy. This line
was chosen in order to make some investigations relative to any pecu-
liarities of sound which might be observed in the Hoosac tunnel, through
which the railroad passes. For this purpose we spent a day at Hast
Windsor, a village situated near the west end of the tunnel, and were
very cordially received by the engineers in charge.

The tunnel is four and three-quarters miles in length, twenty-four feet
wide, and twenty feet high to the crown of the arch. It ascends slightly
from either end to a point near the center, where there is a ventilating-
shaft 1,028 feet high extending to the outer air above. In winter, when
the external temperature is less than that within the tunnel, there is a
constant current from each end toward the center, and in the summer,
when the temperatures are reversed, there is a current out of the tunnel
at either end, except when the external wind is sufficiently strong, es-
pecially from the west, to reverse the direction of the current from one

552 RESEARCHES IN SOUND.

half and direct the stream entirely out of the other entrance. At the
time of our visit, there was a gentle current flowing out of both ends.

The only peculiarity of sound which had been observed, as stated by
the engineers, was that it was greatly stifled at the time by the smoke
with which the air was filled immediately after the passage of a loco-
motive. So great was this in some cases that accidents were imminent
to the workmen, who are constantly occupied in the tunnel in lining the
crown of the arch with brick, by the sudden appearance of a locomo-
tive, the approach of which had not been heard.

That the audibility of sound should be diminished by smoke was so
contrary to previous conceptions on the subject, since sound is not prac-
tically interrupted by fog, snow, rain, or jail, that I was induced to
attribute the effects which had been observed to another cause, and to
regard the phenomenon as due to an exaggerated flocculent condition
of the air in the tunnel; adopting in this instance the hypothesis ad-
vanced by Dr. Tyndall, and so well illustrated by his ingenious ex-
periments. The effect which would be produced in the condition of
the air in the tunnel by the passage of a locomotive is indicated by
the appearance of the emitted steam extending behind the smoke-
stack of a locomotive in rapid progress before the observer at a dis-
tance. This consists of along stream composed of a series of globu-
lar masses produced by the successive puffs of steam which are emitted
at equal intervals. Allowing the diameter of the driving-wheels to be
five feet, then since four puffs are made at each revolution of the wheeis,
a puff of hot steam would be given out at every four feet travelled by
the engine, and these puffs mingling with the air at the ordinary tem-
perature would produce an exaggerated flocculent condition. On our
expressing a desire to witness the effect upon sound of the passage of a
locomotive through the tunnel, Mr. A. W. Locke, one of the engineers
who had charge of the western section, politely offered us the means ef
experimenting on this point, and also of passing leisurely through the
tunnel on a hand-ear.

To observe the effect of a locomotive on the sound we took advantage
of the entrance of a freight train, impelled by two engines, the extra
one being necessary to drive the load up the inclined plane to the mid-
dle of the tunnel, where it was detached and returned along the same
line, while the train was drawn the remaining distance along the eastern
decline by a single engine. In order to make the experiment with re-
gard to sound the time was accurately noted during which the noise of
the entering engines could be distinctly heard, which would give ap-
proximately the distance the sound travelled through the flocculent at-
mosphere produced by the locomotive before becoming inaudible, and
again the time was noted from tht first hearing of the returning engine
until it reached the end of the tunnel. In the mean time the current of
air blowing through the tunnel had removed a considerable portion, at
least, of the flocculent atmosphere, so that the seund in this case came

RESEARCHES IN SOUND. 553

through an atmosphere of comparative uniformity of temperature, or
one much less floceulent than the other; the result was that the dura-
tion of sound in the first case was about a minute, while in the second
it was upward of two minutes. The darkness in the tunnel, on account
of the smoke, was so profound immediately after the passage of a loco-
motive, that with two large torches, charged with mineral oil, the sides
of the tunnel at a distance of six feet could scarcely be observed; while
in the other half of the tunnel, where no smoke existed, the eastern
opening could be observed like @ star in the distance of upward of two
miles. It was therefore not surprising that the stifling of the sound
which was observed should be referred to the smoke as a palpable cause,
and that the more efficient one of the varying density or flocculent con-
dition should be disregarded.

The method of determining by experiment the question as to which of
these causes was the efficient one did not occur to me until we had left
the tunnel, and then the simple expedient suggested itself to me, for the
purpose of repeating the experiment, that instead of locomotives charged
with wood, two locomotives charged with charcoal or coke—which emit
no smoke, but only transparent gases principally carbonic acid—should
be used in an experiment similar to the one just described. This ex-
periment Mr. Locke has kindly promised to perform as soon as a con-
venient opportunity shall oceur.

The opportunity was embraced while at the mouth of the tunnel to
make some observations which might have a bearing upon the phenom-
ena of the aérial echo. For this purpose, advantage was taken of a
large tool-chest, which happened to be placed about twenty or thirty
feet within the western mouth of the tunnel. By slamming down vio-
lently the cover of this chest, a loud sound of an explosive character
was produced, from which a prolonged echo was returned from the in-
terior of the tunnel. This echo was slightly intermittent, suddenly in-
creasing in loudness at intervals for a moment, and again resuming its
uniform intensity. This effect was attributed to projecting pieces cf
rock in that part of the tunnel which had not been lined with brick.
An echo was however evidently returned from that portion of which
the sides were not projecting, which I would consider an effect of the
same cause which produces the aérial echo.

AERIAL ECHOES.

During the year 1877, (as also in 1876,) series of experiments were
made on the aérial echo, in which I was assisted—in the first series by
General Woodruff, engineer of the third light-house district,—and in the
second series by Edward Woodruff, assistant engineer of the same dis-
trict. These experiments were made principally at Block Island, but
also at Little Gull Island. Especial attention has been given to this
phenomenon, which consists in a distinct echo from the verge of the
horizon in the direction of the prolongation of the axis of the trumpet

554 RESEARCHES IN SOUND.

of the siren, because the study of it has been considered to offer the
easiest access to the solution of the question as to the cause of all the
abnormal phenomena of sound, and also because it is in itself an object
of much scientifie interest.

In my previous notice of this phenomenon, in the report of the light-
house board for 1874, I suggested that it might be due to the reflection
from the crests of the waves of the ocean; but as the phenomenon has
been observed during all conditions of the surface of the water, this ex-
planation is not tenable.

Another hypothesis has been suggested, that it is due to a flocculent
condition of the atmosphere, or to an acoustic invisible cloud, of a
density in different parts differing from that of the general atmosphere
at the time. ‘To test this hypothesis experimentally, the large trumpet
of the siren was gradually elevated from its usual horizontal position to
a vertical one. In conception, this experiment appears very simple, but
on account of the great weight of the trumpet, it required the labor of
several men for two days to complete the arrangements necessary to the
desired end. The trumpet, in its vertical position, was sounded at in-
tervals for two days, but in no instance was an echo heard from the
zenith, but one was in every case produced from the entire horizon.
The echo appeared to be somewhat louder from the land portion of the
circle of the horizon than from that of the water. On restoring the
trumpet to its horizontal position, the echo gradually increased on the
side of the water, until the horizontal position was reached, when the
echo, as usual, appeared to proceed from an angle of about twenty de-
grees of the horizon, the middle of which was in the proiongation of
the axis of the trumpet. A similar experiment was made with one of
the trumpets of the two sirens at Little Gull Island. In this case the
trumpet was sounded in a vertical position every day for a week with
the same result. On one oceasion it happened that a small cloud passed
directly over the island on which the light-house is erected, and threw
down on it a few drops of rain. At the moment of the passage of this
cloud the trumpet was sounded, but no echo was produced.

From these experiments it is evident that the phenomenon is in some
way connected with the plane of the horizon, and that during the contin-
uance of the experiment of sounding the trumpets while directed toward
the zenith no acoustic cloud capable of producing reflection of sound ex-
isted in the atmosphere above them.

Another method of investigating this phenomenon occurred to me,
which consisted in observing the effects produced on the ears of the ob-
server by approaching the origin of the echo. For this purpose, during
the sounding of the usual interval of twenty seconds of the large trumpet
at Block Island, observations were made from a steamer which proceeded
from the station into the region of the echo and in the line of the pro-
longation of the axis of the trumpet, with the following results:

1. As the steamer advanced, and the distance from the trumpet was

RESEARCHES IN SOUND. 555

increased, the loudness of the echo diminished, contrary to the effect of
an echo from a plane surface, since in the latter case the echo would
have increased in loudness as the reflecting surface was approached,
because the whole distance travelled by the sound-wave to and from the
reflector would have been lessened. The effect however is in accord-
ance with the supposition that the echo is a multiple sound, the several
parts of which proceed from different points at different distances of the
space in front of the trumpet, and that as the steamer advances toward
the verge of the horizon, it leaves behind it a number of the points from
which the louder ones proceed, and thus the effect upon the ear is dimin-
ished as the distance from the trumpet is increased.

2. The duration of the echo was manifestly increased, in one instance,
from five seconds, as heard at the mouth of the trumpet, to twenty
seconds.

This would also indicate that the echo is a multiple reaction of vary-
ing intensities from different points, and that at the place of the steamer
the fainter ones from a greater distance would be heard, which would
be inaudible near the trumpet.

3. The are of the horizon from which the echo appeared to come was
also increased in some cases to more than three times that subtended by
the echo at the place of the trumpet. This fact again indicates that the
echo consists of multiple sounds from various points at or near the sur-
face of the sea, the angle which the aggregate of these points subtend
necessarily becoming greater as the steamer advances.

But perhaps the most important facts in regard to the echo are those
derived from the series of observations on the subject, made by Mr.
Henry W. Clark, the intelligent keeper of the principal light-house sta-
tion on Block Island, and by Joseph Whaley, keeper of the Point Judith
light-house. Mr. Clark was furnished with a time-marker to observe the
duration of the echo, and both were directed to sound the trumpets every
Monday morning for half an hour, noting the temperature, the height of
the barometer, the state of the weather as to clearness or fog, the diree-
tion and intensity of the wind, and the surface of the ocean.

From the observations made at these two points, for more than two
years at one station and over a year at the other, the echo may be con-
sidered as produced constantly under all conditions of weather, even
during dense fogs, since at Block Island it was heard 106 times out of
113, and at Point Judith 50 times out of 57, and on the occasions when
it was not heard the wind was blowing a gale, making a noise sufficiently
intense to drown the sound of the echo. These results appear to be
sufficient to disprove the hypothesis that the phenomenon is produced
by an acoustic cloud accidentally situated in the prolongation of the axis
of the trumpet. It must be due to something more permanent in its
effects than that from a portion of air differing from that of the general
atmosphere in temperature or density, since such a condition cannot
exist in a dense fog embracing all the region of the locality of the phe-

556 RESEARCHES IN SOUND.

nomenon. Indeed, it is difficult to conceive how the results can be pro-
duced, even in a single instance, froma flocculent portion of atmosphere
in the prolongation of the axis of the trumpet, since a series of patches
of clouds of different temperature and densities would tend to absorb or
stifle by repeated reflections a sound coming from their interior rather
than to transmit it to the ear of the observer.

The question, therefore, remains to be answered: what is the cause
of the aérial echo? As I have stated, it must in some way be connected
with the plane of the horizon. The only explanation which suggests
itself to me at present is that the spread of the sound which fills the
whole atmosphere from the zenith to the horizon with sound-waves
may continue their curvilinear direction until they strike the surface
of the water at such an angle and direction as to be reflected back to
the ear of the observer. In this case the echo would be heard from a
perfectly flat surface of water, and as different sound-rays would reach
the water at different distances and from different azimuths, they would
produce the prolonged character of the echo and its angular extent along
the horizon.

While we do not advance this hypothesis as a final solution of the
question, we shall provisionally adopt it as a means of suggesting further
experiments in regard to this perplexing question at another season.

GENERAL CONCLUSIONS.

From all the experiments which have been made by the Light-House
Board in regard to the transmission of sound in free air and those de-
rived from other observations which can be fully relied upon, the follow-
ing conclusions may be considered established, subject however to such
further modification and extension as subsequent investigation may
seem to indicate:

1. The audibility of sound at a distance (the state of the atmosphere
being constant) depends upon the character of the sound. ‘The distance
through which a sound may be heard is governed by the pitch, the loud-
ness, and the quantity of sound. The pitch or frequency of the impulses
in a given time must not be too high, otherwise the amplitude of vibra-
tion will be too small to allow a sufficient quantity of air to,be put into
motion; neither must the pitch be too low, for in this case the motion of
the atoms of air in the sound-wave will not be sufficiently rapid to con-
vey the impulse to a great distance. Again, the greater the loudness
of the sound, which depends upon the amplitude of the vibrations of the
sounding-body, the greater will be the distance at which it will be heard.
And fmally, the greater the quantity of sound, which depends upon the
magnitude of the vibrating surface, the greater will be the distance to
which it is audibly transmitted. > These results are derived from observa-
tions on the siren, the reed-trumpet, and the automatic buoy. The effect
of quantity of sound is shown in the fact that in sounding different in-

RESEARCHES IN SOUND. 557

struments at the same time, it was found that two sounds apparently of
the same loudness were heard at very different distances.

2. The audibility of sound depends upon the state of the atmosphere,
A condition most favorable to the transmission of sound is that of per-
fect stillness and uniform density and temperature throughout. This
is Shown by the observations of Parry and other Arctic explorers; al-
though in this case an efficient and co-operating cause is doubtless the
downward refraction of sound due to the greater coldness of the lower
strata of air, as first pointed out by Professor Reynolds. Air however is
seldom in a state of uniform density, but is pervaded by local currents,
due to contact with portions of the earth unequally heated, and from
the refractions and reflections to which the sound-wave is subjected in
its passage through such a medium it is broken up and lost to the ear
at a less distance.

3. But the most efficient cause of the loss of audibility is the direct
effect produced by the wind. As a general rule, a sound is heard far-
ther when moving with the wind than when moving against it. This
effect, which is in conformity with ordinary observation, is not due to an
increase of velocity of the sound-wave in one direction and a diminution in
the other by the motion of the wind except in an imperceptible degree; for
since sound moves at the rate of about seven hundred and fifty miles an
hour, a wind of seven miles and a half an hour could increase or dimin-
ish the velocity of the sound-wave only one per cent. while the effect ob-
served is in some cases several hundred per cent. It is however due to
a change in its direction. Sound moving with the wind is refracted or
thrown down toward the earth; while moving against the wind it is
refracted upward and passes over the head of the observer, so as to be
heard at a distance at an elevation of several hundred feet when in-
audible at the surface of the earth.

4, Although, as a general rule, the sound is heard farther when mov-
ing with the wind than when moving against it, yet In some instances
the sound is heard farthest against the wind; but this phenomenon is
shown to be due to a dominant upper wind, blowing at the time in an
opposite direction to that at the surface of the earth. These winds are
not imaginary productions invented to explain the phenomena, but
actual existences, established by observation, as in the case of the
experiments made at Sandy Hook, in 1874, by means of balloons, and
from the actual motion of the air in the case of northeast storms, as
observed at stations on the coast of Maine.

5. Although sound issuing from the mouth of a trumpet is at first con-
centrated in a given direction, yet it tends to spread so rapidly that at
the distance of three or four miles it fills the whole space of air inclosed
within the circuit of the horizon, and is heard behind the trumpet nearly
as well as at an equal distance in front of its mouth. This fact precludes
the use of concave reflectors as a means of increasing the intensity of
sound in a given direction; for although at first they do give an increase

558 RESEARCHES IN SOUND.

of sound in the direction of the axis, it is only for a comparatively short
distance.

6. It has been established, contrary to what has formerly been thought
to be the case, that neither fog, snow, hail, nor rain, materially interferes
with the transmission of loud sounds. The siren has been heard at a
greater distance during the prevalence of a dense and widely-extended
fog than during any other condition of the atmosphere. This may
however be attributed to the uniform density and stillness of the air at
the time.

7. In some cases sound-shadows are produced by projecting portions
of land or by buildings situated near the origin of the sound, but
these shadows are closed in by the spread of the sound-waves, and thus
exhibit the phenomenon of sound being heard at a distance and after-
wards lost on a nearer approach to the station.

8. It frequently happens on a vessel leaving a station, that the sound
is suddenly lost at a point in its course, and after remaining inaudible some
time, is heard again at a greater distance, and is then gradually lost as
the distance is farther increased. This phenomenon is only observed
when the sound is moving against the wind, and is therefore attributed
to the upward refraction of the sound-wave, which passes over the head
of the observer and continues an upward course until it nearly reaches
the upper surface of the current of wind, when the refraction will be re-
versed and the sound sent downward to the earth; or the effect may be
considered as due to a sound-shadow produced by refraction, which is
eradually closed in at a distance by the lateral spread of the sound-
wave near the earth, on either side, in a direction which is not affected
by the upward refraction. Another explanation may be found in the
probable cireumstance of the lower sheet of sound-beams being actually
refracted into a serpentine or undulating course,.as suggested in the
Appendix to the Report of the Light-House Board for 1875. (See page
513.) Such a serpentine course would result from successive layers of
unequal velocity in an opposing wind; as being retarded at and near
the surface of the earth, attaining its maximum velocity at a height of
a few hundred feet, and then being again retarded at greater elevations,
by the friction of upper counter currents or stationary air. In some
cases the phenomenon is due to one or the other of these causes, and in
other cases to all combined. That it is not due to the obstructing or
screening effects of an abnormal condition of the atmosphere is shown
by the fact that a sound transmitted in an opposite direction, through
what is called the region of silence, passes without obstruction. It is
probable from all the observations, that in all cases of refraction of a
sound moving against the wind it tends again to descend to the earth
by the natural spread of the sound.

9. The existence of a remarkable phenomenon has been established,
which is exhibited in all states of the atmosphere during rain, snow, and
dense fog, to which has been given the name of aérial echo. It consists

RESEARCHES IN SOUND. 559

of a distinct echo, apparently from a space near the horizon of fifteen or
twenty degrees in azimuth, directly in the prolongation of the axis of
the trumpet. The loudness of this echo depends upon the loudness and
quantity of the original sound, and therefore it is produced with the
greatest distinctness by the siren. It cannot be due to the accidental
position of a flocculent portion of atmosphere, nor to the direct reflection
from the crests of the waves, as was at first supposed, since it is always
heard except when the wind is blowing a hurricane.

AS a provisional explanation, the hypothesis has been adopted that
in the natural spread of the waves of sound, some of the rays must take
such a curvilinear course as to strike the surface of the water in an
opposite direction and thus be reflected back ‘to the station or location
of the origin of the sound.

LicgHt-HovusE BoArp, October, 1877.

CONTENTS OF THE REPORT OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
FOR THE YEAR 1878.

Resolution by Congress to print report -.----- -------- so noogeebols Menconecqec st 2
Letter of Secretary transmitting report -.---.-------------+-----+-----+e----- 3
Regents of the Institution - .....----.------ ------ --- 02 eee eee creer rcs tees 5
Executive Committee ------ Sor Sls Oe RE Ceca Sas osb oat bo ceeded concue oncsor 5
Members ex-officio ..-. -- 0-2-2 -- 2 2 een ee ene ce ene enn enn e cee e ene e ee eee eee 5
Officers and assistants - -.--.--------+------ -e+ 220 ee eeee eee e re cece eres sees 6
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY .... .----- 2-2-2 cooe oo nnn ween ns eens oo == 22 =e 7
TSTINOS! WoheSd Shed SabS50b 85555 CbbnSS SeeSaessaese SESS Sasa teer cookeasoos 11
Building .--. .--. ------ 22-202 eon cee nee eo eens cee cee s eens recone eere noes 12
Mb eatlons <5 secss-, 2 ete== = See eo esis fa aya cee ate eee eiteione serherersinars soec 12
Contributions to Knowledge..--- A ead Bans cabo beccno cooceEinasa cede sod 13
Miscellaneous Collections....-----. --.- .--. --200- ---- ---- ve n= oe = oes 15
Bulletins of the National Museum...-.......---------- ----------+---- . 20
Proceedings of the National Museum ..-.--...--------------------+----- 22
Reports of the United States Fish Commission...--..----------------- 22
Annual report. ...--. 2. 2-2-2 ee noe ee ene cee ce enn cen teen ne cen nee 23
Anthropology ..---. ---- ----24 --- 2-2 coer ee eee e ee eee eee eee sisisioie ches selet= arate 23
Meteorology .-.--- 2-00 seen ee cone nee oo en nnn ene cee conn ne woe n en eens 25
TREE NET GS See Baebes Gecdos Bee eee snd ado boebod bees HSS6s5 Snes pononS cosas 27
Laboratory ----- ---- --2- ee ene cee occ e tees ne cone rene cee ene cone ones 28
Telegraphic announcement of astronomical discoveries. ...-..------------+ 29
Correspondence -.---. .--. ------ 2-2-2 22 eo en een ee cee eee cee eee 29
Exchanges. --- 2-2-2. 0-2-2 one cen ne nnn cone cece nem ens eee cere ene oon- 32
Tabrary ~~. 2-22 2-0. 2 oe cans eo en ne cme come nn co ee cnc ne none ener e wenn ann 36
NatronaleMntsenmnmn esses ceeeenee ee sso tee eseena—se os RAS ee 39
Anthropology .-. .----- -----2 --- 2-2 ee eens cece ee cee ene eens reece renee 44
Mrrmnmalseteets oo o.oo ce cccccelcdcces woos ance== r= =aeelaioans pameerer 47

Bind see en seek bee catine cece dactees occtasce cece cee a stehacae ata —e 48 ;
Like eS oi oe eld Coe ecisooced Co OBI TEI 2 Me IS AOS ECT ES Ae Seen 49
LOI NS teks Gs Smod SC Cet RAC OBOE BE CROACUICEE CO BOE Ceo ooIneus Hector. cehecso 50
Ti Were Wi? 1.5 poms Gedo See EOE ero ReriGOOr aco coeSte see Seqdcnd cece ded dL
Mineralogy *-222<ci2.s2st+ssscis Sloss Tee 22 ates 222 Ses ocelnnn 54
Scientific investigation of collection...-...-.--.---------------- ------ 55
Distribution Of COMCCIIONS te ses. soe se ciee = ase ae scinela site sesso a ote ane = 55
Gallery of art 2222252. oe eee ne esos oon ee seo nigene cece =nena= -n~ ===" 55
United: States tush Commission 2. 2S2c)c ae cela cele om oe aeieeelel ae lesa em = 56
Elagitase COnimiss1Olee oe en eisteeciae een a et aiae as aetna are e(aettetatare eis (ota r= lnle =e 60
Statistics of-sea:fisheres.<= =<: -2-2+2----sece ccc en aaa ecee were e--~s 61
I Geyer WenaYs(nuks| Same See SA eet opting SEDO ORe CaS BARA SOCOS COC CO COSY CEE SOR EOE 62

36 561

S. Mis. 59:

562 CONTENTS.

Page
APPENDEXG TON THM REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. oe sosmeteeeo eee eee eee fe
Government explorations and! surveyS--- 2 2o--6- ssececlacisnaclecee eceeiee. 65
United States Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories,
Prot. Ey Vi. Haydenmnkcharge: aeseemessissesse sees see ee eree eee 65
United States Geographical Surveys West of the 100th Meridian, Lieut.
George M. Wheeler: charge!-- 2-2 ..-.2seeeni cee eee eee eee ae Zee
Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region,
by, Brot. J. We Jhowellesee see cee acters eine eee eee renee eaeears 79
Entries in the record-books of the United States National Museum --..----. 82
Distribution of duplicate: specimens) fa ssceeamtee oe pee ee cloee Soe sec ee 82
Additions to the collections of the United States National Museum........ 83
imbternational xb bihon S762 2 see saac saree ense se eee eee ene ae ils!
Certificatecof award... o2.ccmms) co sote ssn emilee ton seer ne ceem ines se ctelsee ein meliics
SHApIStICsOeXCUAM RES seme a= = neee ee asaatets SSBB SEH SSS ols Suee sou GoooaS conc 113
Jsyopesisheouiny PORES 6S ORS SBS eon ooacsG Gobo astSod LsooSe ghsoHSoSse Sess 113
Packages received from Europe 2222 22 --~. 22255 oo ene ons cone oon ene 114
Agents for transmission and distribution -...-.. .----. 2.2.2 ---.2----- 123
Acts and resolutions of Congress relative to the Smithsonian Institution
angio Nationale Mnseumssas=s sscesscoscteecten nee see ne aeeaee rece 125
REPORT OF LHR EE ECULLY Ey COMMUED Meo eem oeeeee = elena ena eee aes 126
(Choraaliinorn OE TNE 55 S5e5 Se 5S56 66655 Sago ASSh65 SHS soSses Soosh6 otosse se 126
TENOR OS 355 SSagon Os08 SSE SEH S555 NOU SSE.S5S5SE S555 o59s568 Eos Ssncds Senses se 127
IDSGUEWG HERES) S335 .5565 cogeao bosicoo 6508 950000 080505 2605 HSSSSb sesso oSd506 = 127
iEamiltion! PEQuUestcsco-0cse oomiee eee ae ele on see sleele eee meee ee 127
1shmmilaltayers | S656 G6 66nn cobs aSaSS0 Gaenn5 S555 cobe0d Bane Hesse Sac8 cts 4565 Ssee 127
COINGTANL Chg EGE 535.5555 Sons 0SG580 6666 465555 159566555059 S480 S555 Gedo dee 128
Puilblicabions presearcnes ic C seman e= ase eee iene tee eis leetelet ieee eee ieee 128
IMAP WINGS) BAS OSS Cocos dobG0d 65550505 626 SSO BOONES Ga0 Ga s50s ShaS500ce0s¢ 128
IDI ADIT 356 56 SS Aan 000 oS0 He a5 O55050 SUSU SeESao SUSSEG Ho Sso beso O4adés 129
Hstimated: recelpts:c-. 5 cscs. scenic. ocencctocscdvccceecceceasmacisece 129
Bstimated appropriatlonsrssst--- o-oo esleecieee eines eo eteeae ee reenter 129
National Museum ..-.--. Seeded sealed tele sneeeeiieeemsbeeetese clea aeere eae 130
Receipts. x. scwisecs-ewaatosees seoe ecole ont tewree cent els oeniseniaes 130
Expenditures oJs2 == se sec accesses eecliecemerincsce eee teeeeeeeeee 130
SUMIMALY cece see escmere nomen eee cere ser teneemcer ei eealeseee eee er aise 131
JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS ..---..--..---------- 133
Biographical memoir of Joseph Henry, by Prof. Asa Gray .---.----.-- pee 8 1S)
CRNERATL APP HINDI cena seseeleecaeseese ase ene cneiesenteas seeee ae 178
CONDORCET: (auBlography, by M. ARAGOmsscceeeseccesencl-seeieeeieae noes 180
Louis AGAssiz: a Biographical Notice, by ERNEST FAVRE..........------ 236
HENRY and the TELEGRAPH, by WILLIAM B. TAYLOR .......-...--------- 262
The Effect of Irritation of a Polarized Nerve—‘“ Pfliiger’s Electrotonus,” by
iB. LAUTENBAGH. Mii 2h.) pe esoenenseseis closes seceeeteceeeeraeeee 361
Researches upon Fever, by H.C. Woon; Wdr., Mo D |. oni o oe ee eeeer eee 420
Constants of Nature, by, JOHNS bECONTE eee eeeee-nse- cece eee eeaee eee eee 427
List of apparatus relating to heat, light, electricity, magnetism, and sound,
available for scientific researches involving accurate measurements. ..---- 429
Ornithological Exploration of the Caribbee Islands, by F. A. OBER...----. 446
Report of Explorations in Greenland, by L. KUMLIEN ..---...------------ 452

Researches in Sound, with special reference to Fog-Signaling, by JOSEPH
ITMN Ne ccsecacissss nscecccenme Oniedcedescgetscpaigaeeet comin eee meee nme

CONTENTS. 563

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Page.
Researches in sound, by Joseph Henry:

Fig. 1. Diagram, Action of the wind in depressing waves of sound....--.. 512
Fig. 2. Diagram, Action of the wind blowing against sound..-.------.---- 513
Fig. 3. Diagram, Disturbing effect of two winds. ........-.-.------------ 513
Hig: 4. Diagram, Block Island! <25-s.2-cceslscwes tec cele sem selena = =~ 1- 520
Fig. 5. Curve representing normal limit of audibility -.-.....-.-.-------- 527
Fig. 6. Diagram, Little Gulf Island and vicinity ...-.....--..-----.------ 529
Fig. 7. Diagram, Effect of wind on'sound ...< 2-2 5o..)soc6 coco eneniene= =o=0 533
Fig. 8. Diagram, Effect of wind on sound..-.....-...- 2.2. -.2. -t-----. ---- 535
Fic. 9. Diagram? Pifteet: of windcon sound ios2.-02 <3. 25.6. cicseeeteeueteaae 537
Fig. 10. Diagram, Effect of wind on sound ....--..---- cases Coco anna cos - 538
hice Ui Diaoram,, itech of wind On SOUNGd wccelencinioseslceiclesnale=eeleseaete 539
Fig. 12+ Diagram, Effect of wind on sound-...........- S COCO GEUONOROIOSGO= 539

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Abbe, Prof. Cleveland, examination by, of work by Smithsonian Institution
OGBINCTCOTOLOPY 9 oo sac ome G,<i9 ain,aisienisieieinnaeianrsiaceriaise iene eee
Act of Congress to appoint an acting secretary .-.......------.----.-2-. eee
Acts and resolutions of Congress relative to the Smithsonian Institution ....-
Agassiz, Louis, a biographical notice, by Ernest Favre............---.------
A SEDCIOS TOOK CN ANS EOS coco qn qqanaa sao acendanaitsteits on) eee o cata ace eee
AS ONS: OF CHO INStI UT ON A i558 ae nerqarca, .acisia a en eee nea eae
Agricultural Department, transfer of articles to.........-..-.-----.-.---.---
assistance in prosecution of meteorology ....-.....

Alaska, collections from ............---. POCEHS choco Coe céc/ HeoUjwOSEooS HeOoC
oben AS COM ADOT ALOR ace aime nica aes om rere often ras sare opera eee
PARSLON ae Bi Lu COll ab ORAL LS poate < pean pria = sneie acl: sicko yaectortee Se keenee este
American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Boston, apparatus at ....-.....--..
American Express Company, acknowledgments due_-......-.-.--2-.---2 eee
Analyses made by the Smithsonian Institution -.....---..-2...--2. 2... 2-2.
PADUEESON yh lp CONSCLION OF LSNESaai es see ae eeel scat nee cseceee eee eee eee
AGH TON OLOLVEnciclecanccieeeces(=sceicecca. om doe cece scree ec op Eee ase eee eee
CONECHLONSUNE oem emraciceecioces ee EOE eee eee eee

Apparatus available for scientific researches ......---..------ ---- -- e202 e+e 2 oe
Appleton, Messrs.,.& Co., acknowledgment die.-..,.-.6-2- sceswere soe soones
PEO PEO PE ALTONS Ve CONS TCRS oer ara. aiayaic alee a ain miata laa aera toe ee
by Smithsonian Institution for Dr. H. C. Wood, Jr ..........

AAC ON. biography oC ondorcet, Dyseaeciasa-nieeaeeesseeee eee meee nena
ee OlO PICS CITC WA ee er ee ee eens eee laaeieie ee ee ea eee eee
subjects, correspondence relative to------.... .----. ..----.--.

ATEhicRAmMer ca, CcOlleChlons trOMy.-\=empee meres erisscieeee meee eee Senate
Armory building, appropriation by Congress for_-.-.---2.. 22... see ees cece cone
collectionsisiored: Ine sseeeeee ee ee eecses se -nes eee eee

serstants! Of he MUSSUM, « -6\<.0,0 ie neseie pimp me seieisicmedeaey aoe har ns SE
Astronomical discoveries, telegraphic announcement of ........---.-....-..-
worlk,of the Wheeler survey <ace.ccsn.ccs sveweceas wa ARS Peete

Atkins, Charles |G. collection of fishes. 220555 cteete 10 See saeco eeenee

Page,

26

125
125, 130
236

33

123

51, 52
26

53

31

53
130
40, 41

77
50

Baird, Prof. 8. F., elected Secretary of the Institution. ......-...........-.10, 135, 137

appointed to make arrangements for funeral of Professor

PTUs ial cpoiatminre ints eiay ce heaces ee reore ee On TES
GIFeCtGE OF InstipnhONs.. 655445 cpa ner ee eee
letter to Congress transmitting Report
presented financial statement...... 2.222. --.c0. cone ee eee
report. to Board of Regents... eee eeamek one

BANGrO Lt, George, TESISNALION OF 6 ame ae. ie SE ee Seep eee gab tele ils

IBArOmMOeter TOdUCTIONY 390.5 ceepaaci- awison clea eelcnleseeck Sacre eee ae taece cetioae
Bassett, Thomas; collection of fishes... c--cssiveas See ee eee ee ooeecee tee
Batrachia, check-list.of, by, Edward D. Cope.__....- cocoon coc coc s+ cecces oo
BaumMhGuer,, Be, HMO = 9:5 -riamias aaaiocin cin amedarwiatrore aongenemieee Ua eis, ae, - coe

134

566 INDEX.

Page
Bean, Mr. Wi lictecos cece coos ses cslase aiemewon e seb eeeeiene cent Cees aise oelets 59
Bssistant, ichthyology...c esse oecepeciecen ssee en eee eee eee 6
COMADOLALOL |. sige Racitccos ee ceelas coeeti eerie e eee eC nee eee 55
collection presented by. s2-a2---=- cee eee sece eae eee eeeee AZ
BesTUs Ges d tel. A... ota. capmee ace — ee abingeend le aciceeee nae Seer e eee 59
ibiddle; Henry J., collection presemted-by se = * so. 35. oe oie eee oe eee 47
Bill before Congress for a new Museum building --.......-..- Aooacasdosaca0 Ss 42
Biographical memoir of Joseph Henry, by Prof. Asa Gray...........--.----- 143
notice of LowistApassy7-! cs 2. +. voce eee ee Cee e eee een 236
Biography of Condorceteisitis 2h Ssaee Sk See aes ots se 180
Birds, collections, Of noon acncwccewcecerccnnce benL cee EN ReeR LER EEE Ea Nese eee aonao
of Northwestern MexiGos 2 came oe chic cee cleicie Se ciee eae ee ae eee ete 21
of the Colorado Valley ios shs ole D4. Sen ee Bee e eae ae ee 76
Bishop, Nathaniel Beco Sue eee set cba aes nc Grattan ee eee wy eM 49, 449
iBlacktord.<b. (G. collection at iisheseAcerseeeeer cece eee reEe ee Eee eee ees 50, 51
poard of Regents, changes in nn eet iecwin we eeewleemee Site CSREES eRe 11
journal’ of, proceedings teusse os hseeeeee ee eee eee eee aoe 133
mestings of Foc eed assee tee eae ee ee eee 133, 134, 137, 139
WeECAncles Mlle eas a apo ee eee me een eee Sho Gey eres 125
Botanical ingexd. << cea sacascim cee iecime ence cee cecn ee eae tee eRe Te oeee 18
Bowditch; Prof Pe oe a eene etme we cisice eee aicneweeiscls Coe eee eee eee 435
Brachiopoda; index to; by WieplenDalle* peso ee eceee eceee eee ccsieeeeeneenee 21
Brady, Walliam, collection presented byces--- 2-22 --seneebele ore ceeeeeren ees 47
Brayton, Alembert W. jc: 2222.2. cesc debe sic scbl abd seein eae ews neeee selee eC une lee
Brodnax, Dr. Benjamin H., collection presented by ............--.---------- 47
Brown, SolomoniG., clerk, transportation 2222---- 2c. -seeceeecens ss ees eeeee 6
Bryant, Wr, Henry, collections byccaoe+.-s=cocses cee ceeeeeeieeee Seneseees 49
Building, Oxpenses jcc nc eiceciccpisccninnjeuud seen easter waste caus HeEeu eee cee 127
LEPAIES\ can sesicccis lees ce ares ete e ee aoe eees end Sees tee ott 12
Capehart DMs Soccer mess eoesrewe inne ee eek ei seneceemeei ee reaee main eiseeretne 57
Caribbee Islands, ornithological exploration of, by F. A. Ober.-.......------ 446
@aribs, account of, by-Obers--...casccwe cw u cee oe soeeeeeaces: ee eee eee eee eee 447
Carp, cultureiols-cose-seee ec ac ascecee Sonera eee seeee we ieceeectoaetienesetane 57, 58
Casey, Col. Thomas L., United States Engineers.........----. .-.2 cece ------ 131
Casts, coloring of plaster ..--- onecaoecsceeececeneuet es esuuudee mecblebmb ee cls 49
Centennial exhibit’... 2222 2 oe- UR eRe SE SS Lee Ces er enes 40, 41.
Certificate of award to Thomas Donaldson....2. coccn .cccce ot cece --- oe ---- 113
Chemical analyses -oc- 222. cee eect ens cee heeeer LORE CRE See eee eter 28, 31
Chester, Capt HuiC. cp acascctl chee tenets ue aws eee ee emo Seen ratetee 59, 60
Chinese,Government, donatiom by:-c--s-<e~ eee ce ee nese eee wee eee eeeee ee oee 41
Circular respecting death of Professor Henry .........--..-2--+ ---0 eaee-e --- 136
respecting election of Professor Baird.........-..---- s---e0 ++ eeeee < 137
relative ‘to ¢xchampes’. sce ee a et ee che wae vt to Leeleeosen seamen 34
Clark. A.., SUEVCYuh-ces te oeeee Cesc s cere eee CE Reeeoneeee SOLO Pll ececeeae 75
Clark. “Prank N.. oo -0) > poor ncnemetince ccc cere ene Re nnac en teeee cence aise 58, 60
Clark Prot Henry J.,spaperion lucemaria esses eels «ee seme eneeae see 13
Clark, Samuel E., assistance! byinc-aceeuusese deere shee eae eee eee. ase aieee 13, 21
Clarke; W.cH., astronomer sic.cssaccan theo eoes eotee tube eke Remeen. Soeeerecner aes
Clymer, Hon. H., acts of, as Regent... 2. - 12. --n0ccceee 133, 134, 135, 137, 1389, 141, 142
Coast Survey Office, scientific apparatus at... 220. cece eniaw ee best eee 429
Gofiin, Professor... Winds: of the globe... .... cc. bees coe ceewetebdeceeeesee. 26
Collections, additions to..--........ Ube. Ca Re eee cee 83
of anthropology su .2cccsikcccsw es kecenemecceeerreee be teeeee re aeeee 44
DiPds see aie sleseece Coe e cee ore ee eae eee Eee eee eee 48, 49

INDEX. 567

Page
Collections of invertebrates ....-- 2-2. 20-25-52 eo Beec nec nee weduderceuseuttes 51
ManiMialgesesstens coo Soe Uy alara odio eis esis icia, «dina e sieosele 47, 48
fossiiiferous rock........---. Saar oat pete letteataesiole = ciatse 52
ShOUS Ts ss2ssaeladvorssheus Vises.coperece errata gianiside on ald 52
POptiless2 sacsscsancs ra sscctecee else ccc e ome seecees cases 50
MATIN O-ATD sos s\esas oho as Nessa ss nee ae aaa ae access 53
MATING INVETLCDEMLES sas sad sess sass seed eee Sate eae clanasn 51
MALIN MOWUSCAtecseaseese sss sole sa cles a acelaea eee eal 51
increase of..... Cade dads Seda edo onewsresssoaedaetsesecs 41,82
Character Ol< sesso sadscesacosr ed eccisec sested cian semecteueetas 41
scientific investigation ..... akaiciatUioia} Jiciclafsisito out aes aa ote 55
distribution of ......--- sadder wawaet see bess delatlelats wos acta eS -) US yiter4
Collins, Captain, acknowledgments due ...-.. Shel sald Pata ater atelnetotoe aoe 48
Columbia College, New York, apparatus at...-.. see saelreto= ss jenee aeoleele 437

WOM CHSIGISCOVELE OE: ocrentoxcles acjchoraiterny ae eratsinte oats ata Jalatalet a) ate| ata) oale erie dale serene 2
Commission Belge d’Echanges internationaux ...-..-.--..--.----- HEboSCO Coe. 33
Commission Frangaise des Echanges internationaux ..-.--.--...-.-- SB roecooac 33
Committee to examine meteorological work of Institution. ..-.-.-.......--.- 26
Condorcet. biography Of, bys MLC ATag 05s cera airer smo oe eee oon eee ee 180
Congress, acts and resolutions of, relative to the Smithsonian Institution - -125, 130, 131
Orderedkprinimn o.OfrepoOLboocasoe eos oo cee ee ae ae eee eee 2
ContrbUtWONS; bO KNOW LEU LC: sas croc isco wretowiaroperdoiwie vi ciafeterwar ttf ani ouitofetsis ts Sal moms
United States National Museum ..-......--...--. afeteuniee Sue 40
Cope, Edward D., check-list of North American batrachia ..--..-...--- neg 21
Colla bona OR Gearon wisest eves wiow le see sine lo epieeinicee oleate cet 55
Da WOe el) Doe Elcy ACUSIO 1 AS Het COE ree ors cetersiofeletorm sta ralelcia ere fatn Se atatotete tet aetata yet 137, 140
Correspondence, account of ...--...--. pra uiasetectoclsiceeto cial stand Cerium oer 29, 30, 31
Clams, 1Die MMe jesse Stee 8 ee See Sa Se oS ode Choo eebece eeho doce cheer 21, 55
birds. of the: Colorado Walleyiaccens se2--)eemeselo- = eisiccr 77
tons, LEMS S\Ee 5 AAS eee eS ee 55 cad Bosees Cop enne baad bapoud DOOLSC 138
Craw-fishes, circular relative to -.--.--- ieee ceie- ei ieeeee ease dates pecbocaat 15
Crittenden; Au B-., collection presented: by..c.c2/s25cs. tec ceccdecsseeson. cose 46
Cross, Prof. Charles TU yactnarickae snore deeenet mercapecieee eS Saule te dae ants SOE Re oes 436
Sashine..b..H., assistant, ethnology: .2..Se nun cccjecew een useteaes sarweee as 6
OxalMined) Soapstone QUATLICS —see sae seates cee eee mae el ner 45, 46
DRM \ Kai be ree) 8 Rates ee eee ers See BSS pe pe ce boeo cu Ooo Seo roo DU bau cEBOSoeed once 21
; GOllaDOLAbO Leesan lore late else erste Socoee codceGuekedebade 55
INGEXs0)-DLACDIO POA: --enwioeewee se ceee season eccaleeaeiecse 21
NEMO Dy esas es scene. Solace Nase e nae tee eee eae 14
MSU EO ULO P Cre-reraieretateralacitalee vein sees coisas stele alate a isccden= 62
Mara, James We restoned aASRESEND acne cicececwee oe wieboe’ cout accel asicee 125
Mana wich ard. ONLY peck <seeecre ess cece oweins ca eCusrn voles esas cance = aster 60
i) a VACS: “Li OUISNEL ye isso a icisiee iste Shas Sioa s let eleie sou aie clenee Saeee siuasaceuees 60
De la Batut, Mons. Henri, relies of Smithson from =... -..:. 2... 22. -- 222-200 63
visiting-card of ..... ee ee eee ane 63
seal of family of-.-.-. 2... s<-<- H gmaace sotccectess Sodec 63
MPSLOSSe}= Mp ManiniCes seca eae ecica alos elenee econ = seslo an sees eeeeie ia 60
Dickinson, Henry James, portrait of, procured by Smithsonian Institution... 63
Diebitsch, Hermann, clerk foreign exchanges ..---..... Se eae ee eee 6
Diptera, list of, by Osten Sacken <2. ec eek eee case se noeaeieeas seleeoe na 16
Distribution of collections .....-..------- efefclaice'et lea) = Seah eae mstdiain <a nicne5s 55
Momestic exchan Ce eeaae- easel to oles et sak cielo w ciao el oeeiacee ero i enloel= = cbt 114
Donaldson, Thomas, minerals procured by...--.--.---.----.------ ASeIOCE sate 54

Centennial award: to «a. cos cles wocemescece' ewetescecess 113

568 INDEX.

Page.
Donaldson, Thomas, visit to France.-.----.----- ------ see. e202 enon ee enone ee 63
Smithson relics procured joyas4-- acca cee eee ieee re aeere 63

Donations by foreign governments..---..--------------+----- secletemic na SSe 40
HOMMMOLALY 25 oso ayo ets aes es len aia= iaaaiiaiaaal> stele ete tae 36
United States National Museum .-..........---..--.----------- 24
WOME, VDOSOPH w= - =o. << sce pleneeyeae renee nies alain annie aloe alate oleae 60
Wae6s, Protess0r «=... <2/.yaamenseeie- sera oe eee ee ee 54
Duke of Northumberland, portrait of, procured by Smithsonian Institution. - 63
Be se oe oo weet oa as eam ees Dna Are aOn EERE PIE Se eee eo ae ae
Wecles, James, services rendered by .--....-.---.---------- Bieeiseseckes. eae 72
awards ov wna) CuUitesiO fies aeons ee nine Mele feito mete fetee Siem eeetee eile) atel= 62
Pidsyards, VY N.,.collecttonlof fishes ee eee ae penjobe cate fabs ee tee 50
Hilection ot Secretar yieeeose nee cesses rsicehel eee eee ene eee h Specter 135
mlectric bells improduced) Ge eee een tae See eiebles neon ae ete seal teeters : 11
PMilectricihys appalavUS tOlAs se eee eee mecmace reise eee eel eee 429
Elliot, D.G., memoir by ...... ps ann ae SEER Make ets E ee ae e em ab tee eraeeescte 14
Hneke’siGometee sss -eoenes ees eee ioe Sousa ce bo esc 29
Endlich; Drs By Mus kee e mete eeteed 26 sacs eee See Serato on ee 6, 21, 55
Hintomolecicali@ ommiISsioOn Sep eee ae eae elena le bem bea tee ate eee eat ta 53
skimiossnotesjones ss. pe seeenessen soem eee eects abiecee eats ebetemam setae te 453
Estimated receipts and appropriations .--.-. 22. 520. 22s cc cas cone cone an -- - 129
IB WANS WWVe Wise eine eee Ree eeiae pea ee eine eae elses tee cetera 47,54
Pixchanpeyacemtseecs pee sieess =P ere ene ee eite sien cete tates eee e tem meee tee = = 123
Hxchanyes, ACcOunpOt 2 - eee hee eerie ee saree see eee ee elea ee as 32, 33, 34, 128
international bureaus.....--..---- BBS5s85 soSos SES ere Sei 33

SbALESTICSOL eck eer eere eee ee eev er oe eemee eae ane eee es ghes 34, 113

Executive committee of the Board of Regents.......--. 222.2 .2---- Soecesiee 5, 126
Expenditures of Insthianbionyin 618 ceeessseneer reese =—ereeaie =e 127
National:Museum:....cnl ab Aieecon sete eceeeneeee-cmcrers 130, 131

Bip lOLailOns/ ame Surveys seems eases eer eeee aetna e meet = 65
Dray deny sone cae area eee ne toe See ones Jadsur cece? 65

Lieut. George: M. Wheeler —-- <ct sseeeereeir = ee eee eee naan eee 77

BrofiJs. Wa bowels seesesereepwseses eer eeee ssh esee ee 79
iniGreenlandse-cceess eee oe op er ae ee eee eae sebinee ates aere eras 452
ornithological, of the Caribbee Islands..........-...----..--- 5 446
Fargo, James C., acknowledgments due tO .. 022. -ceccen cncnce -nnnnn -nnee-- 25
Harlow, MOCO VW lllameGuas os teserisr spel eerie ieee nie eee eeee ne etsaecres 59
Harr. Hrank. collection iofsishes sen. aeons. sree peitee Meeeeeee ser atam. see ener 51
Favre, Ernest, biographical notice of Louis Agassiz-.----..----------------- 236
Hencker, Governor, assistance rendered, Dyj pee cascee aaicineleeee = oceans eee elena 454
Berenson, Ty Bos cpessesveacceerciecvcurceacess somite es eae ee ee eee 57,58
Herrar, P., discovered Comets csc cdcscrecerseoteret neste se --peebeere astern 29
Ferrel, William, member of committee on Smithsonian meteorology -....---- 26
Wever, researches.on,. by. Dr. H.C. Wieedl gacttecee ns on hee ooineee eee Eee 27, 420
Hinances, statement.of .. cscs soe coco wo see eee eh ae Bae aoe eae einaee eee nacre 11, 12
Binsch, Dr. O.. scwe sooocece eee eee beet ee eee eee Bg ee oo Rasen aae 54
collection of, fishes .2:-. feces eels = Speers Sees (saeeaeee= 51
Fire-proof building for the National Museum. ......---..----- s----2 +--+ ---+ 142
Fire-proofing of Smithsonian building, estimate for ..--...---. Bee eos 3525 131
Bishi Commission, United. States .ocseelceceebecece oe peeeeee aerator 42, 50, 51, 52, 56, 58
Teportsiofee sesso rere ee ee ee ee Rae eee eae eee 22, 56, 57

Fishes, collections of.............- Ere eee Soe ure defapierecte 50, 51
lint, (Or Batlcn cc choos acc nchs cep eece ieee Ee eee cee eee eaeee - 54

Foreman, Edward, assistant, ethnology ..........-..---- OG Hsec!-p0n DoD6S0 S505 6

INDEX. | 569

Page.

Fossiliferous rocks,’collection of ........-..----- Ae oso Sone essen 52
MEBs aLaAtOmenbiOn sq secs ccc acecs Shs cao ety tl ee Bs coca cu 126
Galbraith, Mr., collection presented by ----.. ..-saesaeatrpadncsatse---+-s--- 47
ler Ole AUsbe sce ser cnet mec seek balaces 6 arias ence eee ihe Ge eee 55
iGalody, Mr., collections hy -.---- -..- <-2.--- Ee eoonnoooUd Jtc coe S=no te eo eee 49
Gault; AlexandervDy 2220 Soe. ss coe pote basis? cok Sas cob meee eee eeasce . 60
Gannett, -Mr., topographical party, of... -.2--- ---2 -cesi-pmaeheelinn ome bb <= 72,73
Garfield, Hon. James A., acts of, as Regent... ......-..--.-. 133, 134, 135, 137, 138, 139
Geological work.of the Wheeler Survey. ....~-.---<--<+- ---- sa<0 ssa ne celanes 78
Hay den|Survey. sc .<- os) -< sae aaen ease cones 60

ered. b., COlectOns presented: Dp. <jcs eee oo sniescnsce= sen cecenlen eee 46
Gibbs s Prof, Wiolcottvecsccacson ss se .ce oe cane 05 ocaeeb eecteoa close uy s- seeeeee 429, 430
GalbertieCakreetc seen anu see weceue cc waioels veces ececn eecisey case nse au cmeeeee 79
GallPeheodorevesos cos cea a aeie wn wae ba seecioo-< SaiSeee cosels ot eeGcasece eee 21,55
SECT OT Spee ap ee oie ae ore Sata re aoe wae ne ce owe eek cies e Sea EEE eee eee 65, 75
Gooden Gubrowilie-osenacccvek «=e ses occs sey qeplsoatieas os ncisotsie tases ei OL OOD,
animal resources of the United States......-........--.---- 21
collectionjotsishes eee eee eels seen en eee eee 50
CULRDOMOfuneyMUSSUIN: cosa siee slo == 2s = eee se oe 6

fishesioL hey ermud asses seese so-so s see eee ee anaes 21

historyaol phe menhaden|sooces-15-edesese sete =| ae eee 62

Goverment bureaus OlexChanee jo. o--)---cccs-~<-cnens case celoo = seen beee 33
publications, ,exchane Olt: cae en noes cls-oneas-e aoc ose ees ale 35, 36

Guay r Asa, achsof, a9 RCC OWb. .- <3. hee = os sc can as -waiewe 134, 135, 137, 138, 139, 140
biographical memoir of Joseph Henry, by.-.--.-------------- 145

rveniant. explorations Mens <8 <5 5sssecc,c8sseebiges bean ea aaslaasenee ai nae
Griffin, Maggie E., clerk, distribution of publications--..-....--.-.-...--..-- 6
Griffith, William, collection of fishes ....... -..- .....sc<ts wo-00 Sonasnsoncoce. 51
SrOss’s ids Of Jj AMD CAs ae arene eens a sein j2 = ee alee eel Peesaiece= i= ee 448
cialis, J see VEGA peaseao cnn sono og esc Cote 6 sosd sei Se sees ses Sees 449
onmallleyelny IDI ding Call eons lke Keeecd soeces oneo oo n0ns cagaco canes 6noss0aa¢ 49
(Siti, IDOE Us eRe ne Se Re Eee ene Cae Ieee St ont One a be sarcasadac toss 63
ino IDetShs MIGHT Nf naar eene Gono one GSR Bee Be sc a ch eG Aa BOON CoSheD sats 14
Ringe, Dis Ist. 36 Sees cong pecess coed oe so cncose cog oete Tdodse BSSs =aSaaqo- 21
er ifarxs. COMMISSION, .< 555, se.50 cose ne dee Bee ee EMBs spa ntiteS eee eee ase == 60
statistics of sea fisheries 2.- joe cclow anon) sacle se eee icee 61

elearaun hear tk dts og a) o ara ictacalrestne aie eno e nm iw soo wersiwine ercesela neque ueleeee se 12, 126, 127, 129
Hamlin, Hon. H., acts.of, as;Regent,... -.-<<0csn0 acess coceme case 133, 134, 135, 187, 138
TRE OUMOVN ERY ees aS eSOE GSE0 HOSA Sas SO bs doo node ee co6 Se 10

nardenbers; Mrs ep cccece coscsécscscedeseteetpetiusisthealis<tene-cueeas 54
Hanvard University pDatevns ab. o-2 a-s4 3-29-65 4asnHaSe=aEt -Seoee eee 430
Hayden, Dr., account of ceological survey, ~--- - <<s0ls jee iejssaaban- (ess cinaaes 65
Hayes, Rutherford B., presiding officer of Institution and member ez-officio-. 5
EeGat, apparatus £0 - socom cob a pec openers eee once ences piusehhepauarsees 429
Henry, Professor, director of the Institution ....-..-...--...-.-..- se eeeieas s 7
biographical memoir of, by Asa Gray .-...-....-.--..---.% 143

biography, of; to: beprepared: -—-- osha t a: ee eee aoe. 9

circular wespecting) deathots: .cicciseis-6 + dsjedaiseeeseence- = 10

last. illness, andideathy: 2-5). sj 26 tas ences one ema ces eclenee 9

action of Board of Regents respecting ................--134, 136, 138

foneraloticcs dad. se ners sbicras <r sia tee eee cen od on ds aiciae a

ANEMOTIAl (SELVICES 3. )< = <i simis ett pee Me eee ipa els CREE Cee on 9

ODSSQUIOS ORs Sete ces ctaalccee cere eek en Nae sacs 133

UTE See e EIR SOR n ry eras. ee eee ae 56

570 INDEX.

Page.

Henry, Professor, prepared a programme of organization ....-........0-.-.-- 9
promoted meteorology... .2c~ 2th ee we wee ee ee 25

researches 1m SOUNG <)-s%2-- LG eee ee ee eater ee eee 455

researches in connection with the telegraph... ....-.-.--.- 262

Henry, M-A.; translations byz2ssc2 <222 secede cont eee eta eae Orem
Henry, Mrs. Professor, thanks of, to Board of Regents....-...-....-.----.--- 137
Henshaw, L. W., collections Dy --<72-'.- so. ee ce ones coe ee eee eee eee 47
naturalisthu ccs caste eet L EL es eR eee eee 79

ater AOTC. J. ata iem eta trata olan eta lata tenon) eniaiate cate teel ee eee eee 54
collections bys sso ee et ee eee ee ee en ce ance 50

Herron, Joseph, janitors! sesso sac ease eae eetetae cel eaee aa eee cleo eee 6
iessel, Rudo pi secs. coceseleee eae o sale neem aes See ae eee ee nee eee were 23
PLS Mires Sct sewtara ella aia erate aoe cota Selatan ale ha a ener ae 131
History of the Institutions saeco. oan eteceete eects asctoet else ee ete eee 19, 20
Holmes, ‘Wi Hs geologist sconces ae I eee eco tectetoenas 66,73
House-rent allowed by Regents to Secretary -....---- 222222222 2222 - cote ose 139, 142
Ichthyology, North American, contribution to, by David 8. Jordan.-.---..--. 21
Intermational"exchampes 255254 sssntscstoesce cel seeelemco eee pee ese siacecease 33
Invertebrate paleontology s225 3525427 sess SS eee aes. cca 76
Invertebrates; collections ofy.2153-e tee eee ee eee eee seca ee 51
Investigations im natural shistorycca.s2s222 ose ee eee eee eee eee elon e eee 55
Tron from Sweden's 5225. si scasscsetss Sos Sas sases scene ce oe ome e eee eae 54
Irritation of a polarized nerve, effect of, by Lautenbach.-.--............---. 361
Jackson,. Mr. sphoboorap here jaaa- rea seeie ao eeecetaate eee eeeteioes Uva 72,75
James, Dr: Frank L., collection presented. by --2 [2 (S22. S22U eel oe. 2. oon 47
Japanese Government, donation= byi22 s+ s4-to=<cleciia telson ee eee eee see eee 41
Johns’ Hopkins! University, apparatus abis-son. s-csee ose a ciseelseeeisaeineiioce 438
biological laboratory, apparatus at...--.--...... 444

Jordan, David 8., contributions to North American ichthyology...-..-.---- 21, 22
Journal of proceedings of the Board of Regents..-...-... 2-222. ------.eeeee- 133
Ge evn Des 8 Bemioec ise san Soe gnoes onesie Seok Seas aoc rictoo 4a Bae Sonic 60
Kidder, J. H., M. D., natural history of Kerguelen Island.............-...--- 21
Kollmann; Professor, collection presented by -:-<--25---0ss.ct-+o-s-- e--- 2 - 47
Kumilien; L:; collections by,—-2=- 222 eee eee eee ee eee eer eee os 4a ats Ol woe
report of explorations in Greenland... -. .- 52 sccsssscesssecee- = 452
WaAbOLabOry soso ssa Sta ote Sa ee aa ae a ie cleeacio sie) 28
iatimer, George, collections by< =2:<<225-cesssccssssseeceeeeeeecessel eee cise 4G
Lautenbach, Dr. B. F., effect of irritations of a polarized nerve.--..-.-----. 361
Lawrence, George N., collaborator...-..--.-.---. bas ee PEAR oee oe cae 21, 55
Le Clear, Mr., portrait of Joseph Henry, by...-....-----.-.--- Sideoouescbsec 56
Leech, Daniel, clerk, correspondence...--.---.----.-- So00us FiSde bob adobe badae 6
ieslie, James €., collection of hshes.- 2. ssc. ne coee ors vawb ee eee ae creeks 50
Lesquereux, Leo, monograph on Tertiary flora.... 2.2.2... .222.---22 eee eee 76
brary of -Institution.<++<22<2<sesceccciceeocctcen ccc cseesecee cece cee ee 36
list of the principal works received by ...--.-......-.---- ---- ----- 36

Hicht, ‘apparatus fors<<2+2 22. ce cen ce ete OR ee ee eS oe eee eee 429
Hindall- Dyr.-J oshua z s22,4<2+222225025,ccs ae boas ee eee oe eee cla eee ee eae nee eee 54
List of foreign institutions in correspondence with Smithsonian Institution... 16,35
Mocust, report on-.: =~. ~.<5 224 25s esse se tees Soe ee ee ee ne wc eee Tel
hovering, Prof: -J oseph++ cz 2 Goud Baas eR RI a et Se ie ee eee 430
Lucernaria, by Prof. Henry J. Clark; continued by Prof. A. E. Verrill-...--. 13
Maclean, Rev. Dr. John, acts of as Regent -.-...--..-...------- 184, 135, 137, 140, 141
Maonetism; apparatus for--~...2steekes eect ect eee een ee tee eee eeeeeere 429
Mammals; collections -of 2+ <+.2-wi<cuieet ck ee. cee 47, 48

imeNationall Museum: cos. -oee ee eee een S dctotse Seeeieine eee 47

INDEX. yg

Page.

March, W. T.,;.collections: by (sc scsccco codes cu Miescsleeneccweuasecdsseuces 49
Maniemia Vente VEalOserc eat eitee sas cesisonen ae Meee eect a eaccs scce cs. . 51
Wolluscn. collec tlonustle sme esate ss see se nels eee ele eee ae taal= = alae em 51

Martin, Prof. ERS recap taetic etal sem antte cies weciue ceenieaatactaa vccw cc ce 444
Mason, Prof. O. T., circular relative to American archeology ......---.----- 15
collects archeological material........-.....-.--------- 24

Massachusetts Institute of Technology ....--....-.-- 2-2. sc00 scene -on= -- = 436
Mayer Pp PTOt At WM ecccas sates ccase soca sacs ocieweac cca elcue tel teteeetaamae=\>a 435
PC WGSN> REY 4 Wlteewe soe eee ea cc ain Seacin a Jone snoleenes ota acteltemetreare LOO, Ook
McFarlane, R: R., collections by~-..- .-----cecees -----2 sees coo now cane snes a= 25
McGuire, J. D., relative to soapstone quarry ........---..----.-------------- 46
McKinley, Hons William. ooo 5-2 oe ote ines erie mmiene woes me cies see 64
MeO kA Bis remtee saclnine cio cle eaves en set em (ew alslais elm wile win mnie win) ta iaiate tata 71
IMIGITAI ES ERO MeDse roo soc acleg Saibode Goce shoe dopece code Seeébeedssiosceenencoce D
Memorial service of Professor Henry -.......-..---0-- ---2-- see 20. -- - 134, 188, 189, 141
Menhaden histonys Of, Diya GQO00Geoe cme on et mae cae e seleleacernle)slclaiala) oleate loitalaiay 638
Merrill Dr James|©.s)COlMeCtlOUS DYaece seceer soc cine cece sajeninlo se) enon enal aie 42
Meteorological collaborators, services rendered by .....--..----------------- 25, 26
By Steni, wransfer tu Sional-Ofitec. + .-15aa-uee cesar se ceee ee 8

subjects, correspondence relative to.........----------------- 32

Meteorology, Smithsonian system. 2. <2. ~~. 22-22. cee oe oon ene - wane 25
COMMItheo ma ppOINbed moms sss seas occas secs Soweto as ce tesa erta 26

scientific discussions ...---. WE EAS te ES Oes seme ele e domelecate 8

iWwithogre dis Wi eucec eueeee caecen odoecererene SnocoCdoNo aEEDba raebosoudd cletooe 57, 60
Wig@alkmzonk Cole mMOn esos coooeceese muse ecHoIebon coue DUb CU oCeU Soodae Secs 13,15
Mops) erOtessOLs COMECHONS) Diyjsiese snes cleao satel oe oslo cle lataietel alata lett 52
MOOTE, Mi 5 = ps5. soon ca cae sce welcncecelnsdesccese saesisecs coos sedsen== uw eeaes 53
(OU G nN O38 SNES sao meme so deoo ne ceUd ODE coLCECoedogE cecces Sécr 50

Morse, Prof: HE: Ti. 220 2e0 ieee = fo oie See enn ooo ne cee ene - 202 ones wane 55 54
Collechranw presenuedu yeaa mes a eeeele = taiols se ee ete mete oreteraate 47

Menshiback: Jen bi, TUVEStIGAbIONS sas cme) scisn seal cowre cers acne sate wae alata ateaetet= 67, 73, 74
Ain mann PME Git eo eeiee ce catis ase Cocben beoSub edob osuScoeedone Sécciedad Sa0c 39
PASENTUEWAUIS) ONS Set ocadeeboodououtine HoobOU boobou SooomooScces 6

Dbulletinig srs san eS ogres eats aeeeie tale staat 20, 21

GUO ERM ES WD) Aco taeenanoScoo CoKbcond COO OéOtiS SHdS HESS hoOnr 24

(DRO GRE SUAS) Oss es pes ssa cnseos Sao Se SeaSsescon Ssooe wees 22

AMMAN NNO Tenn acee coe ence cocepo odes cot enombceooseecce 44,46

ApPPLopLuiabrons oy © ONSTESS MON nee elas eee sane atte a atetae 130

bill before Congress for a new building..-.....-..-...----- 42

THiNiG CO be pebeenS ob Beebe HOt casos cand déUnOSdoSeece SoScccc 48
Contenmnltexhibitsecs sce sccetoe es oeetos onidals he anes cote aet omen ORO

Ola nnOtls tC RSE CO BeeSee -PeScecCoUDOCoucmeaKESe occa SSoceccc 41,83

isirrpmionok collechions- a scs sesacsosesecee sess eae eteeeans 55, 82

donations by foreign governments ........---...----------- 40

EX PEN CULES: sna ase eee eh eetale seine sae aleareere a a aialeteteieltataetare 130

finS=PLOOh MUM CANDOR. c ose awel ode seale seine alate eaietelsem ate 142

AISWOS pcre ea ceke a aclcie sacar caietettaela ae suite data afeersts elementals ote 41, 50, 82

ITLVOTNEDEALCO Maecenas sede e ce lead eceeciusteeteracises aac 51

relation to Smithsonian Institution.............-......-..- 39

proposition for a new building... 22.0. .e see ec ewes con ces 42

FO ONE EB Se CoS S56 SESS RO OECUCUEEBOULCS be 6ccémebecueacr 130

PHP ULES ee see arse tee ceee sees meee celeste sealer eatet) ain ates 9) ote'a 49

Natural History Museum, Paris, collection of fishes.....-.......----.------- 51

of the Hawaiian and Fanning Islands, by Thomas H. Streets,
Sl DSC ORE amen ce eecrne Sclda sce astencuinwta tee tacaes=— 21

572 INDEX.

Page.

Natural History of Kerguelen Island, by Dr. J. H. Kidder......... nebo joec 21
Welson, sh. Wi. collections by --+ =. ete. ase eee sooo a eler eee e eee 24, 43, 44, 48, 51,53
Nerve, polarized, effect of irritation of, by A. Lautenbach.......-.....-...- 361
New combs ay. 1a: collections: by -scecacztocie esse sero ese eee ee ones tees 48
Newton, Altred: collections Dy. sso esa = sense etensecasiseee Sele eee 49
Nicholson, Prof. H. Alleyne, invertebrate paleontology ....---..----..------ 76
Whervk. sAs,-collections by 2.2 ose eel ee se ee See ae ee ee ee 43, 48, 49, 54
ornithological exploration of the Caribbee Islands ....---..-.-.. 446

Wttieews of the Institution .. 2232. e see ae ee cen See neon ae ee 6
Ornithological exploration of the Caribbee Islands......---..-.--.---. .----0 446
@sten-Sacken, Baron ‘R., list/of-diptera 12 soe ant eae bens ees are 16, 21
iRalceontolosy, workin, by Dr. Whites .22scsess-- ses esese ea eceeeee Coe ee ree 71
iralmer, Joseph, taxidermist 2-5 -.cee asses oes eas ee oc ae eee e eee at ee sae 6
plaster:casts DY 22.2) 2 scic onions oeticoeteee aces eacaen eee 49

Parker, Hon. Peter, acts of, as Regent.......----..-.--- 133, 134, 135, 187, 139, 140, 142
report of executiveicommittee yon-4 ee saee eee sew eee 132

remarks of, on Professor Henry —---=- <a 140

abterson; Capt CrP sn2-: .cc ces selec cee ae eee eee eee pee eee 429
Peale, Dr-AC.; investigations by 3-==-22-\-4--- see wee sano ee eee eee ee 67, 73,74
Perry, N.W.; mineralovist so: sles ek, ie ee et UA Sas ee eco share 75
Peters, Dr. C. H.:k.; observed comets. s22<.s252 50 cee aes: sae eases sane 29
Rhotography of Hayden Survey 22-22 vase ~ = eee Base een cae bose ne eee eee 75
Physical subjects, correspondence relative to...... ------ s--0-0 seen -------- 31
Pigkering: Prof. Wd ward'C 2222 S222 sel se ee Sa ee eee 429, 433
Planets: discovered 222 oo.) seccc- caste clacen oo eoe eae coat sean eeeeae reese seen 29
Plaster. easts of réptiles, ae ./2522.25ac< 22 cess Hace ahs ce eaeh eet oko ee eae 49
ROSY, UPrOLs Je Pic os eee Ce Pe ee ee oe te ee ae Fe a 50, 54
Porter; Dr. U.S. Ag) aon see ak ae eee SO ae a ae oe 53
collection-of fishes 22242322227. 28es toes ee acess 50

Porter, President Noah, acts of, as Regent ....2 62sec ea--ce on=-58 134, 135, 187, 139, 140
apponted:Revent)-2- <5) s- ase eeeae ee eee e ako 125

Portrait of Henry: James Dickinsonesssss- secon e a sen eens eee eee eee eee eee €3
Hugh Percy, Dake. of Northumberland 2s2- esses eeseeee see e eee 63

Professor Henry: 2 s5 sere aa Ss 6 BEE SEs eee ee oon eeee 56

Bowell, Prof. J..W.,account of survey Of iscacc- see nee ate eee ee eee 79
Powel, Samuel; collection of: fishes 222225 +52). 22S6leecc=speeeseseee- eet eene 50
Proceedings, journal of, of the Board of Regents.......-...---0.------------ 133
Publications; account of 222.52 J6. 25.550 Ba eee ee eee 12
Annual (Reports:cceces-pece oo cee seas ae eee ne ee eee ee ee ees 13, 23

Botanical: Index ..2 secs saeetee ce oeec eee re es teen ee omeee 18

Bulletins of the National Museum ....<...-....-~....-..------ 20

Circular:on icraw-fishes s-eace See cee nes tose sree esos oe eee 15

Circular relative to American archeology ..........-.--------- 15

Circular relative to living reptiles...... .---.2 222-2. 0---0- -200- 15
Contributions toKnewled pert sols a2 ou ss neeteee neces <seeeee = 12,13

Dall, W.. H., memoir by*s-cc2esod coe certo iieiacs Jocmeess 14

Elliot, D:-G.j memoir by ccescene seers eee he teen eee eee 14

OXPeNsEes OF -scesesree weer Ne AE Se Ee es ee ee 128

Habel, D.'S., memoir by-iesce son. os eee eee as eeeeeeaiatoerene 14

Rhees, William J., history of the Institution, by .-.--..------- 19
Osten-Sacken, ‘list‘of dipteras 2: Mecsicq obese eee eee eee 16,17
Publications, list of foreign correspondents -......------ ese. +--+ --0------- =e 16
Jucernaria, by Prof.-Heary J. Clark. ¢)- 20s. we eee eee seen 13

continued by Prof. A. E. Verrill ....... AREMes comme 13

INDEX, 573

Pago.
Publications, Miscellaneous Collections...... 2... -.-02. seca cues cee KMacesseeas 13, 15
Hayden Survey, o~< core tek sede etce sow aweee ie aye te a5 ve oc ct 's0 75
Wiheeler Surveys sciitic ey Leo y eM eee ooo osc ace 79
Proceedings National. Museum ..---..---- -is5.ccecs da-o-5)s00n- 6 22
Report of United States Fish Commission............---...---. 22
Scientific -writings of Smithson ... 462255522. sveansneteshsc--26 19
Rue a DLS; cman cocks soecseebeots eee sage cbaees see sehesece esacdaciseesec’-s- 26, 27
Randle, Professor, collection presented by.---.. SOOGOUIOS OS GaSSoccoddosenscee AT
Peay oD ON RICK AR oe oie ocean tec aselsasa horse eeaste eeCe ane eee erence. 59
collections: by.--.: 62.5525 ssssssashcts-cossecee se seee eeane 51, 52
Hau, Charles, assistant; archwology.'/2s-. 72.92.02 208 eso. cece 6
Inviestigationserss. Shoe Sle ess ot eet oats 24
Mesentsol.thelnstitwmtion ys s.saseseeccceses secs csobeseceo ese eeore coos 5, 125
RentroPhonseallowed Secretary +<-s<5.2sss20 5505 ossee0 555255555 55cere cueees 139, 142
Repayments.to) Smithsonian.accountussss2¢s-2sesns ssa sess eee see eee e sees 128
HRS POLLS AMMA ao os yea eras cio Sac ome o ee ae nasil re oreo e ee eee 2th WSS
Repules circular Telatlve tO). 5 aa scare socaie = barren aeeece cee see ete sates 15
rnp Nation alMuUseum, .soscs ose wos sesd asd actraace saa ee le eteeete 49
Researches under auspices of Smithsonian Institution. ........---...-.-.---- 27
imsound, by. dosephi Henny. sc. << es sister eee ea see ers 455
sclentinicianparalusawailablefors ace. tcse seis ae oe eee see 429
Resolutions. by. Congress, to -print report... ..- +... cseycacwee comsecesecces 2
of Congress relative to the Smithsonian Tnehitastion AIS EZ SSIS a 125
to fill vacancy in the Board.of Regents............---.-.---.---- 125
bye boardlot Recentsense eee paaces 133, 134, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142
Reynolds, Elmer R., articles of soapstone found by-...---.-.---.-----.------- 45
Rhees, William J., aes Clerk ga crcren seen winter nte t eteene a ail slole eter eae 5,6
prepared and edited history of the Teiaiestion Sa saee nae ee 19
edited scientific writings of Smithson.............-----.. 19
Bachand.J. Jee. coloring, of plastericasts) Dyssso0s betes vee seeerenca oe eee eea 49
Ridgway, Robert, assistant, ornithology: ..--..-----. 2.026222 ces ences ees cce 6, 55
LOY. LOL. ©., Wise COU ANOLALOI. = 5 = ase wren aoe te aes tee aaa sata 55
Robert College of Constantinople, collections by......---.-.----------.----. 49
ihogers Prot. .William A. , apparatus-0f asso peweeetste ne ose scene eee 434
ppd se rOt OLIN. <cinic occ cower rece s cece cen coc beuesin ttnsmecumem es cmeesiner 437
Cylon Ue Pat O fq SEU OTN, A saya eh nae alarae h AS oyraes Raters HOO So ee ete aa ataetetet omelet 438
Rumford Cabinet. (See Harvard University.)
Russell, J, -C.,. geological examimation-_. ! 522252222 0l 0. Save Socee cen cecelscce = 78
Sutton dy Pro fal Ese BS UPON OMT apace gai esta eet Sole ee erate eee Seopa 77
Selvin Osbert,collaboraton G2 -tiossstect cod eee te bee ee sun eletmeneecafaele ase 55
Sarcent, Hon Aaron AQ, acts of .as Regent... .-cecceerseewos- sees 133, 134, 137, 139
COULEGTONS Dice eaerecterce ieee ereeyaeee ee Sree ele aera 52
Sarcent, Professer, contributions by-..- 22. sews a sro torenres ee eee edeenes 53
Schott, Charles A., member of committee on meteorology.......---.-...----- 26
meteorological Works... ic22<sFscscamnrdatras caetecloceacek ate 26
Scientific researches, apparatus. available for.-.---.-.-....--.. 22s 5-55-ee 429
Scientific_writings of Smithson,. pnblication.of..-. 2.2.22. J2c6---.----.--.-- 19
Selater Dr. Po, collaboratbore.<csc ccs acces me ssi antet tad focssaderee nse 55
Reodder, Prof. S.. Ho. sn- cscs sseace rss seo eee si Wl ide cat see des deere et ee 53
Sculptures of Cosumalwhuapa, memoir by Dr. 8S. Habel on............------ 14
Mea tsherios.. shatishies Of, {5.5 .2- as aaa ote gh OEM ee aed © dude 61
Senl, of dela. Baint family,.copy.of- 2. 892s 25529 Sa DU SR BEE Hae 2 an. 63
Secretary of Institution, houserent allowance to......-. 0... -5.225-.--6--- 139, 142
Sennett, George B:, collections Dyieas sacs acca tenses tesnertsso sss ve coeet a= 48

Shells, collection of..... Sanecceenaees weceeue sieweiace doe eee on nica’o'e ala 52

574 INDEX.

Page.
Sherman, General W. T., acts of, as Regent....--......-. 133, 134, 136, 137, 138, 140, 142
appointed Revente ee eceepeocsees een See ee eer ee 11125
member of executive committee ...-.....-....----. 5p Ise
Shindler, wA.7Z.. coloring of plaster-casts DYyeessereaeceeae see e ee eae 49
Siam, King of, donation by, Centennial exhibit.......-....---...-.---..--.- 41
Sumllce we. pPhOvosTaphereecccngccc= «cee reine sere seman ae ents aero 6
SMTHO, Sh dl -SdBeeeSno 6c00 onShieddcdo HoH ESS HaScootondosceseso Face € See 21
Suilil | SAHGeESON .-2=+-ecsac scons ease senuee Corer ee eee bere ae ey noes 59
collectionsibyi2sqoe ce oe ence cosine see ootese mimiaie unica Rites 51, 52
Hmapason, James, sbequest'Ot 2225 (25) ca~ ene ane copa se oeelneee meee a ceione 12, 126
inventory of personal effects of, received..--....--..------ 63
paper in handwriting of, received ......-.--. SoOs00soRNeSc5 5 63
Smitz, K., assistance rendered! by, ----- <<< -< ---20--- s-<9< weecheeee nee mates 454
Soapstone quarries) s_/2 +). --jeese qecmecisesw enccna sececcseeniemece sles nae sees 44, 45, 46
Solar eclipses; discussion‘of <. - <=-.--- + -anwnnniewmcbemesnise Som ceebes ope ee eee 28
Sond) (apparatus tore. nae e.ceeeise meine ee neaaeee eee ica tooo eee 429
researches ins by Joseph) Henry). <-s-2-cs2---2 eae nidoecleoes coe neeeasel 455
SitsJohn, O:, geologist a oso sce epccccmecncesnoseenaoees SeaLeecee 67,75
St. Petersburg Botanic Garden, as ATOM 22S Leena Pee a ee et 53
StarbuckCapt. Alexander sai - 55 2oa0-- = ce aoe Seco ean ceaeeleese neces eaten. 23, 61
whale-fishery, «2-2 .cibe lass ecse shesee sees. 62
Statisticsofiexchanves 222.02 cos sscceacie cc sesenisec essen ceeeente ae come 34, 113
Sea-tigheries aes aver ee ee eee eto cissisetetiat eae sn ais aire 61
siearms, Silas, collection of fishes. Sssceecs se -ceee aac esineetesibecmoiscciee 50
Stephens Hon. AlexandertHe (Recenbenpe-seee-eeieee ee ensieeaeteeeiteiaee : 5
Stevens InstituteiotMechnolopy 22-220 Asser ose eee eres caes seen esse ene ear 435
Stevenson, Prof. J. J., geological examination ...-.. ..-. ..-22. cceee coccce =e 78
Stone, liyingston. =. sttsessee hse e 2s Seesead own cere eee atelecson a <cyee= xe 53
Assistant United States Fish Commissioner-..-....----.-. 57
} collection of fishes *. .. <-.S eeten Sate ee 3c he eee coe 50
Streets, Thomas H., M. D., natural history of the Hawaiian and Fanning
Uslands i cs.s5 ss csec st cees scans. cleo ecaes comes cince ese anoe cece ceece tome 21
Sumichrast, Francis. E., collected ints bescudedbics peccsceeletheeseceseme 21
Sunderland, Rey. Dr. Baton see oe cebere lames rites ober a cee eee Re ne cetneee 138, 141
Swan, James G., collection of fishes....-..----. 2... .--e- sibeewecensinue Geeks ~ Plo ih5s
Swatt, Lewis, .discoveredicomet ans oseccsa-sesoeee eee eceneces SB so SS8secb5 29
Swaitt; Thomas; ‘collections by-e22-- -2- sae secee eee ee eet ehee eee eee Pane ered oe 49
Taylor, William B., Henry and the telegraph... ...2.. ..200.---- 20+ ------- 262

Tebbutt, Mr., found Encke’s comet

Reese cee ees Coe ees Cee eee wees eee ees eeese osee

29
Telegraphic announcement of astronomical discoveries .......-..----------. 29
‘Belephones introdnced yo nn2c acncnn ccmomet caeeee comes peetces eee easeeee 11
Memperature tables ~-sspesessencecsurcer esse eoe See se es eetises wit weistese = 26
29
60
28

Temple’s periodic comet
Thomson, 8. R

Moda: (D. P., researches cc-cen.os ceeteewconieceen Coeee nee La Ree eee Srecisetoe
Popographical work of Wheeler Survey; csu.soossis-6-sisecs\sacceutes wasee = 78
Hayden Survey..ccchoneescabteccveseecne a oeee 73
ARTESCObts Willi ayn JE eee eee ee Peneeese rs epeuee sean thy) Hpie Bee Sk 2 60
Trochilide, memoir, by D. G. Elliot ..... eiedla SS ecciesibdenbencecloedner ceeeee 14
Trowbridee; Prof. John... ssseeess sme keh shed secs e esc BU ee nae ee Aes:
Qumer, Jane A., clerk, library ccc ce0cnckwon Soaccconoteceune cheno te cmos 6
Uhler, P. R., circular relative to craw-fishes......- Ao. uuee EE AS ee see 15
Ulke, Henry, portrait of Professor Henry, by....-...---- siveGa Nels ate 56
Upham, Wyeamen Sint on ee ee botnet Gee sees : 59

collections Dycasesa< see uenee ee sudtuaceneesneecare <a sueeuele Dinee

Page
Neen Clc.; Wi, Dx, COLGCELOUS DY: sass <snurcena oa eee ae eeem aes sabe ce oases = 49
Wasovam DT: George, COllaborabonaysacssicecatae oosteeaemceeeerieccaicsccadcoce 55
Pete rOt. Ai Bricsamcs aes soca ccis Hace mcciman icecaelteaeeeiama cludes vaciace 21, 59
ColleGhions' Dyiasa-.c2 ssiaw aes ceeeuanes eee enone sie caewe 5S
revised: paper om Lucermarian... sss sceeeeeeeeeaeeiae ln se 13
War oiniaPONdS 8 cc ciccce wasn s ccctacrissec cose ae cose nteceoaeeeeeeee 12, 126, 127, 129
Waite, Chief Justice, acts of, as Regent -...:.....--...--... 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 139
Wasson, John. --..-. oa ceclews omen cesic Mae Son cle'See be oe otis ee oa teense 54
Watson ror cereno;, botanical mdex Dy. - = nace oesanie meio eateaeeioeeieee 18
Wicabherbe Riu cosoee ccc nccac eben dc soecsel donee tic sodewoc eet see nee 60
Wesleyan University, collection oftishes —-2-.c-<< coaseocesose sel ccaeeecias 50
WWiltaloatiSheny wsamiaic misao Seek alba aera tas howls Sateeais aerate ars Synctchers cmeeteoeine 62
Wheeler, Lieut. George M., collections made by. ....-.---..-----02---------- 43,47
ACCOUNT OL SULVOVADYjsoo ales cclececio=aaleeeiaealaeers 77
Meheeler: OND pew na sect e access ceca Seen easier see's soa tejom nae ee see eoe 79, 80
WiHeCleE PELOM ete ACIS OL as eS eM bee aa clensosalse Hees eae easier 137, 138
Wice-President, Re@tent--2=- ecw =-|sseceelenceeeione === 5
VIM CHET MWh Buacseri(csts saa lecciaes. ccicisraae ays ciscsrsinice «ee cceelcese aacissereeseee 60
AV Vs Leahy eV View Viel = aclee a <cicisieis win san< eleieeisinelsccicseescceceeeeeE essen steecees 60
Wihhiheseror. CharlesrA.. collaboratorens=-. s+ ssces+ coos ews eaclecene Secoace 55
invertebrate paleontology, by -------.----+ ---- ---- 76
PRlCONTOOPISh s ccee ae a= ae ae aes ane ee aerate 71,72
Wiggin, John B., steatite specimens presented by. .....--- ------------------ 44
AWarlliamson Homes Mar scee se oe instal woe ccalenicla ona nnint oajocein soneioae se ceias 54
Wanlsen, A Di itianSulalOn DY 5... ccs <= 0o css sisocc chew Semelo=as saa gaan
Whindstole tne olObe@s a. ces -cennis ca cal noelec oa cos siecsclesscicscciocesieeesiceeatesere 26
Wimmeceke Mir ound el emples) COM Us=-a)-soeeeeiseslesessansesieeeelon alas 29
Withers, Hon. R. E., acts of, as Regent. -.-.........- pose sass 133, 134, 135, 137, 138, 139
Wood, jr., Dr. H. C., appropriation to, for study of fever -............----.-- 27
ON fOVOLe =< ce cael Sacaica ee saree oes Sceluae ee anataa arses 420
Waichhn@harlesscollectionsibyoae ssa eae = aeeescleaala seine ene clada ements 49
Weminm 1Din 18k, C55 @olllbnlyoren itor Bogen pop oo8 coc ooonSaSceqonece aeanec Sooacnss 55
Young, Clarence B., clerk, accounts..-.--. BS OOH COSEEO an ecco ncoesoosaces.coc = 6
MeNCAOM. iss ac scsn saonte cecees cuca ne) socleeesecewec’wslesnniamvin =a soe ——icneee = 54
Collections) Dysasees nese ee sees e eee ee eeeieeecenaa=eslesae cea 43, 48
Zoological collections of the Wheeler Survey -.----..-----.---- 5 OscODDNDOONC 79
Zoological Society of Philadelpia, collections from......... 5oos0s pooocdecss - 48

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