aN) 1G TD) Raw P A, sensumunset! VE AY ) As = pr SS oe Se 8 OS a Pnere: = Sen va’ ANNUAL REPORT BOARD OF REGENTS SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, THE OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND CONDITION OF THE INSTITUTION Jer ye tS OO: WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. PSO. FIFTY-FIRST CONGRESS, SECOND SESSION. Concurrent resolution adopted by the House of Representatives March 2, 1891, and by the Senate March 3, 1891. Resolved by the House of Representatives (the Senate concurring), That there be printed of the Reports of the Smithsonian Institution and of the National Museum for the year ending 30th June, 1890, in two octavo volumes, 19,000 extra copies; of which 3,000 copies shall be for the use of the Senate, 6,000 copies for the use of the House of Representatives, 7,000 copies for the use of the Smithsonian Institution, and 3,000, copies for the use of the National Museum. II LO hah deles FROM THE SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, * ACCOMPANYING The annual report of the Board of Regents of the Institution to the end of June, 1890. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, Washington, D. C., July 1, 1890. To the Congress of the United States: In accordance with section 5593 of the Revised Statutes of the United States, I have the honor, in behalf of the Board of Regents, to submit to Congress the annual report of the operations, expenditures, and con- dition of the Smithsonian Institution for the year ending June 50, 1890. I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant, S. P. LANGLEY, Secretary of Smithsonian Institution. Hon. Levi P. MorTOoN, President of the Senate. Hon. THomAS B. REED, Speaker of the House of Representatives. Tir ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION TO THE END OF JUNE, 1890. SUBJECTS. 1. Proceedings of the Board of Regents for the session of January, 1890. 2. Report of the Executive Committee, exhibiting the financial affairs of the Institution, including a statement of the Smithson fund, and re- ceipts and expenditures for the year 188990. 3. Annual report of the Secretary, giving an account of the opera- tions and condition of the Institution for the year 1889-’90, with statis- tics of exchanges, etc. 4, General appendix, comprising a selection of miscellaneous memoirs of interest to collaborators and correspondents of the Institution, teachers, and others engaged in the promotion of knowledge. IV CON EEN i Se Page Resolution of Congress to print extra copies of the Report...-... .......----. Il Letter from the Secretary, submitting the Annual Report of the Regents to WON CTESS errs cere er tee eto a PS feos Sine Sle eal eran cars oes acie nie eae meena ee III Generalisupjectsjomeme Anmual iReport sce = ese see eee ses cee ec naiier=el coe IV Wontentstorihe he pontie= ces )eeseniee ner von eke cele he cinele aoe oe cies Semin eeatons Vv histeotelllustrationsy meses se see mee ao atcme ea ee cee Scie acer eae CCe eee ee Vania Membersiveniojicoonuletstablishment: 25sec meecenessesce osee eonisaeio sae eee IX Recents thew mithsoniandnstitubion 22.22: 22 cece. sen ce ese cie erie seae Xs JOURNAL OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS -....--.-.--.---- XI Siavedemeetinion January. io. leo Oras ere aae Seneca ae ee eee XI REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMI TEF for the year ending June 30, 1890... xvir Conditionrofthertond aiuly ly N890S sera 2 oe soe enone see eee ee See XVII Receipts MOrmunery Calmeceeicystc at fosters winis cpnee iow eeisieis rapsies see tins soaeieeee XVII pon ditunres LOmsbNOpyeare ssw ste = ake ee eittie Seelam seeere XVIII SalestandsrepayiMentspeeces teceat cee ec cee eee Se Sa ae XVIII Appropriations! forinternational exchanges .2.- -sss2-c2-+6-e-o- 25 eee eee SXGIEXS Detailsyofexpendituresofieamerceates: = ecu esos eee terre XIX Appropriations for North American Ethnology....-..........-.-..------- XxX Detailsiof expenditures of Sames--- .2.5-2-.---ce----< Sotto stent aoe xX Appropriations for the National Museum... .......---.. 222-2 225202 ---se- XXI MetalsiotexpenditjuresOlisamoss snes + sat oe ae cies 2 seco meee meee XXII Appropriation for the National Zodlogical Park --.........-....-....----- OO Metailsrotexpenditures Of sAMe. oss s2-c)--0 ce cee saeco ss ssa ne aes XXXI Genera MSuimin aRyeyecme e eertee eee ciate cn ioe oes Selsiie cabin a a ne epee ees eee LOO PACOMeISV Aa plOtOr CUSUIN OE VOCAT 252-6 cose. 2-22-25 sccle cesses sasese wee een XXXUI ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS relative to the Smithsonian Institution, Nations Museum votes torelSQ0 mi ss4n oc owes = cece cceine ae cin a ocice Soe eee I OXOV REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. HEM OMULHASONTANG INS DUTU TIONG foe Seen s REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. XIX Your committee also presents the following statements in regard to appropriations and expenditures for objects intrusted to the care of the Smithsonian Institution by Congress : INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES. Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1890, ‘ for expenses of the system of international exchanges between the United States and foreign countries under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, including salaries or compensation of all necessary em- ployés” (Sundry civil act, March 2, 1889. Public 154, p. 16)........... $15,000. 00 Expenditures from July 1, 1889, to June 30, 1890. Salaries or compensation : 1 curator, 12 months, at $208.33 -.....-.-.--... $2,499. 96 [ecloricnl months cdl Ons s a see eae 1, 800. 00 Lelerlic enone, ot Meo eco cocoaceaoecosue Inc Ol IFclerktQsmonbhsy-abige Ole ete ise ssn) ee are 960. 60 Heclorkewl2 om Ont nS a lim GO) aria alessio ieee ois oi oles 900. 00 iclerk, Wismonbhs abiplorc. ase oo yas see oe 825. 00 clerk 2 monbhs abipaOeesese esc --5o es= sen eee eee eee 336. 43 Fielavsupplies/--0. 5... o.shs de sce ce soe lee ose One ieee eee 752. 84 Field supplies for distr fein tosIndians\s5-—-. esses eee 131. 36 Instruments .....-. REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. (b) Miscellaneous—Continued. Maboratonyuma perial mascots craisiesstersjsieieie sis gtaiciatne months 6 days, atg40) 22. 2k 5-6 cceeweceiccweus coeces 1 copyist, 5 months 19 days, at $40 -.......-... oeaie a sone tice cease iecopyisinl cimonblisn Ab G4Ors oo ene Sse eae aisle, setinsie 3s tees Fae Mecopyish: © months lG days, ate SA0l- coos creas as. cce since newee seis ae LEO yes UB are, pay De San Se Sonne do6asmou COCA EN Sogo UsoH cEcu 6oa> jecopyisnw months Gidaysatg4 Onss se seeee te ceiee ae eer ie eee eee 1 copyist, 2 months 28 days, at $40, $117.33; 29 days, at $1.50, $48.50. TCO yaa, IO MMM, Phy EB) oSeene codead Ses abed bbe cep ease osc esonGe ieopyish, months 9 days, abso) sox. ecl- as aol wep cno sn een om Seb ee 1 copyist, 11 months 10 days, at $35 ..-. 221 222 cecens 220s wow ee ecto 1 copyist, 7 months 13 days, at $30...........--.-.- Eee ERD SAE Hans Gers AECoOpyIShel 2 MONS + Ab WOU la <151 jaciel oot cies lode congas cons seen e-em ssees5 156. 00 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. XXVII Salaries or compensation—Continued. iveanpenter 02s days, ab Go.-)- se2e sche iceacc se -clcenceucee = 9577.00 ikcarpembernnloOr day ssa bi poate taco es saieinle sisal aley.imsievsiniers 450. 00 HeCaALpenLerrollad ays Ubipare sais sa seee sees e oleae wiecie ae 933. 00 1ecarpenter.99 ti dayswabi poe nosese teclescpee cise esis nelalelsses 298. 50 sar pOMver. 47 GAYS, Aliod-cssccas coaaacicesese als sos.ces ses 141.00 [SCARPCRUCI el 3) Cay sy Al pana sic ses Sees e eee oe ae ee 39. 00 IECATPERDEL TST 4 GAYS, Due ciccc-wiciens lotta oseiaacte jocie oss = 112.50 IMCATPENTeL Vo CAVA RAD DS s acces = citelsaciomeristgaoo win cmisctesse 9. 00 $6, 249. 00 [epainterl2 months satmuomerceseeesas secon -ceeisaiecre 780. 00 ibyeppbalaye, DHS) Glens} Qt sec hoes6 Sa50 53SouU S55 So50booS 496. 00 1, 276. 00 1skilled laborer, 54 days,at$1.50, $81; 208 days,at $1.75, $364. 445. 00 Pskilled laborer) 12) months, ati $50) ject = s-0 2 cn ele ee ae 2 600. 00 iskiledsanorers Gononths, ab gol) ssssec ease ese) 2e> ae 300. 00 1 skilled laborer, 4 months and 30 days, at $50, $248.39; 3 Gays aAbigleaOs Gos se ce cert oe ao aa sie ceisiaicc Saar se etaees 251.39 i skilled laborer, 295 days, at $2.2--<. .---c- -2-< wocene cee 590. 00 tskalledslaborerss09) Gays atin seteecer ase icceoeueee cee ee es 618. 00 icsicilled laborer, 104 days; wb G2- 25-25-65 Acecee0seec sas 208. 00 1 skilled laborer, 10 months, at $45 -.-.-.. .---..-......--- 450. 00 eee SY, YD) 1 laborer, 8 months, at $45, $360; 6 days, at $1.50, $9 ....- 369. 00 iaborersemomnthes daisy au os 0) cieiscea)ajeiatst isin! -le'ier 90. 32 1 laborer, 3 months, at $40, $120; 1 day, at $1.50, $1.50... 121.50 islaborers2sOlday sabia Oh see aes acta erent sels 345. 00 1 laborer, 6 months, at $40, $240; 2 days, at $1.50, $3. ...-- 243. 00 ipiabororelemonthws tind Use sees erase eects eee 40. 00 ielaborerso monthsyatie4 eens sesce ceiseee meee cele ee ees 120. 00 Helaborerplemonuthyatios Ueseemen cas caer cciea aoe reece 30. 00 1 cleaner, 3 months, at $30......... eisisiarereraisie anew oatemcte 90. 00 ————- 1,408.82 15, 906. 21 Contrachwepaimmorelevatotmesseneseee oases sesisiieeies sieeetae a aera 20. 00 Total expenditures for salaries or compensation. ...-...----------- 1h, 926. 21 Materials, ete. : Ex DIGLOMM CASES sts sms .aclJorappicies/=6 2, <)o oic)sreiais.sjeSicia[oie'e valeiere Desiensiandsdrawings| tor Casese.-- soe --2\-s oie ie <= -1= DTAWCLASbraYS, DOXES=.ascceosise cess Sam see sclsseei-scce Frames, stands, miscellaneous wood work .......-.------ Glass ae ace e rae crere sis a/ sec ncicem ate wines Sinarere oscaate eee cis aes @lophamcotlonnet@rwscsscmecer ses olen ese tos Seen ae acess Glassnarsvetcesten nessa seetea tee cate oe ae ioe k see oce sacs MUD Ona ee eles oe me ae Ae ee se kee ce slsisnaeuiceee AIMS OLS TUS eS ae ose ene ice inc eieiel sowieiscewice.cer WTC OBECTMILUNO seat nate sen Se ciao cos cincloe calc eae Chairs (lors alls) peacoat ee ee aoe se tee cities, 7 Sec ods5 bees odae GOL. 05 TIBIA ROKS VON Se ooanod aeqeasscabad scoSes coccotes 154. 40 Mlectricalistppliesye=tsskes see ere eer eee 110. 09 Rentalloficall=boxeses- = semace o ese eae eee eee 100. 00 Heahine wep tits mereseee resets aes He eee 269, 25 Heatinewsup plies sa-eease sees eee eee eee aaa 147. 86 Erste leet suc ate eee oe cre aero ns cieee eeraeem sie 3.20 —— 4,557,98 Total expenditures, July 1, 1888, to June 30, 1890, heating, light- Ing WObO, so conc oec oes ence see abe eh assem eee eee 9, 672. 85 Balance, July 1, 1890, to meet outstanding liabilities..--......---- 2, 327.15 POSTAGE, JULY 1, 1889, TO JUNE 30, 1890. Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1890, ‘ for postage stamps and foreign postal cards for the National Museum” (Sundry civil act, March 2, 1889. Public 154, p. 16)............------ 1, 000. 00 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. XXIX Expenditures from July 1, 188), to June 30, 1890. Honpostace stamps ana postal CALS ease corse seins Scio os e\ce oe $500. 00 PB alamcereimliyal ml SO Ober seer eteetsd selele ew in mic cetslatistcle/ Nolale eae mise mists 500. 00 PRINTING, JULY 1, 1889, TO JUNE 30, 1890. Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1890, ‘‘for printing labels and blanks for the use of the National Museum and for the Bulletins and annual volumes of the proceedings of the Museum” (Sundry civil act, March CaSO ame Dic str4D) emer cemice acter cis-ciemcce-- = PLOKOO0HO00 Appropriation in deficiency act approved December 19, 1889 (CGEM tt, 90s IL) aso Sodcnko boo Bodeau Soriaud CoCo ReOECOUEeaaas 745. 16 10, 745 16 Expenditure from July 1, 1889, to July 30, 1890. Bulle tinsyNoss45 3) sue Os dees sere cas sini o/s = cinie) sieisis siviwiclats| cielets =< $3, 235. 94 PNOCECA MNES my Ol Sepe Ni peNaMle ONT tyes way a opeay eich neyes: Soataele Sao m.c DAKO, TE) OOK aS Sa 50edibase odeGud Saud saonscassbanacco ecinnic de Riesri actos eis 489, 43 “Dy Glsts Bos cea moce odo oenoe SEB naOeHEa Hoou bedocecceposacsosed 65. 64 IWEGAN cocchs sooooeuboddoubod seuoosbase {DDC DU De Dn US0CCResaesn 364, 60 Motalkexpendituremsce- sees sei TEC tea eatee se ecaes eoieees seem: IBN no cane concSocSenon cos gon boStee CHOCHE sash casos so0d Stes Sobade FURNITURE AND FIXTURES, 1888-89, Balance July, 1, 1889; as per lash report. 2. aa. eens cone we me ene ie Expenditures from July 1, 1889, to June 30, 1890. Bact onicaseaieee were: ones eae toes cas eee ances aaa ee $525.74 IDA INGE = Sea pho eno boGEoo nesaco basHae 2555 uaboos oosoE SUB Dobaeace 65. 00 IDE GIES WRRNIS WOES coGaba ceonda booca8 sesso becnbe SopSco sHnses 650. 20 rames, stands, WO0d WOLc. osce ss te soe erie lene eam ae 36. 10 leiyeohyaies) MN) TOOK) Sooke scacse cdoone Seauua dasgen UscosaScsoosec 569. 47 GUOUN secu cone soda Boga. co00 e504 SH68 bc06 9506 Bd6555046 GaSb soososcSeS 69. 11 CCUINSING (es tee Sn oce Seen ag Sooeer soso sese Se sSem acorns se 62. 50 Lumber.-..-. SGo DRE ESO dC SO0 6dba Sasa nascon coe necodus Sabdiesescs 186. 84 IPA Sooce5 enoetonsooco seas oa code scone cass one sho odaS seedcone 4,25 (Ovites iBT cos son sas caceco sada nsSAp sooo noadGoDaas Hoodesoese 42. 98 WEIR WS Gand aden eGes saounanooe Gnod Sepuou oopend vononG sebn Sec5 431. 68 HN, WWEIC), UES Wel pGocno bocooe céscshenap Geos cowane case asaooces 148. 50 {Merle cees sq5eso cesqdo canaes eHbuce baba coggue Ss doso odeecesoasos 5. 45 OMA boncs55 Hoaobosdeqoc bbooddoSos dos cone DOugdS UsSG00 CHebCE 25, 00 Balance deposited in the U. S. Treasury, May 31, 1890.......-...-.-- HEATING, LIGHTING, ETC., 1888-’89, Balancer uly ma gkesuesaecemaee yaseee et Expenditures from July 1, 1889, to June 30, 1890. Gas ee oes cede ey ree BS ee ee ins ete tee ce em eee $77. 26 ANNO SOE coeGe peed Ba ann] SachSa 6soosangDoosa sdoccuccdsesene 200, 00 Meenas Worle oo bGocas See A Se rs ees aa sis ere pines one ern oee 578. 00 Rentaltor call boxes): .2c5 sce ec Osc osison coon soe eciseeee Se eee eee 10, 00 lS YRLIKORK) IEW} Geom sGea6. Sopecoo Goda base sence Sodoidcon asoe cscs 220. 08 Balance-te. seen. Wesaeidoeaaciems EE ee ee eee Sat $4, 198.34 4,183.16 2, 822. 82 . 40 1, 089. 33 1, 085. 34 3, 99 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. XXXI NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK. Appropriation by Congress ‘for the organization, improvement, and maintenance of the National Zodlogical Park.” Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That the one-halfof the following sums named respectively is hereby appropriated ‘out of any money in the Treasury ‘hot otherwise appropriated, and the other half out of the revenues of the District of Columbia, for the organi- zation, improvement, and maintenance of the National Zodlogical Park, to be ex- pended under the direction of the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, and to be drawn on their requisition and disbursed by the disbursing officer of said Institution: Roxriteshelterotranimalseeaese te seine sea cere ce Seen cee eee $15, 000. 00 For shelter barns, cages, fences, and inclosures, and other provisions FOTAPHercnstod yo Manlmal sees aes oes eetiew se ae cise see ceeveaceeeers 9, 000. 00 For repairs to the Holt mansion to make the same suitable for occu- PaNney, anaetor oficefurmibure === sesso ee eee ences es eee ee 2, 000. 00 For the creation of artificial ponds and other provisions for aquatic UII Bs era iol oe et erate reve Oe Sains ee ab ie leleete stmla cia erceeeaee Mee 2, 000. 00 For water supply, sewerage, and drainage...-...----...-.-..--.--.- 7, 000. 00 HOM ROAGS aWwalke wands OTid Ges ee eect tere cata Soeite mien ay etnec aiaeeieere 15, 000. 00 For miscellaneous supplies, materials, and sundry incidental expenses NOUOLLELWAISCmprOVIdEd plORee 52 syacteme ae aioe, soci eiw sis oeis eee eters 5, 000. 00 For current expenses, including the maintenance of collections, food supplies, salaries of all necessary employés, and the acquisition and EEAMSPOLLaAONHOl- SPECIMENS: “ccs vac cocci c cates see sco cies eaibeee 37, 000, 00 Sec. 2. That the National Zoélogical Park is hereby Dlaredl under the direction of the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, who are author- ized to transfer to it any living specimens, whether of animals or plants, now or hereafter in their charge; to accept gifts for the park, at their dis- cretion, in the name of the United States; to make exchanges of speci- mens, and to administer the said Zodlogical Park for the advancement of science aut the instruction and recreation of the people. Src. 3. That the heads of Executive Departments of the Government are feecy authorized and directed to cause to be rendered all necessary and practical aid to the said Regents in the acquisition of collections for the Zodlogical Park. Approved April 30, 1890. 92, 000. 06 Expenditures from April 30, 1890, to June 30, 1890, SHOlESIND ARNIS CAP CSO LGen epseins a oialeslenieicicine acteerciee Saeaesinccaen PI ahOo Miscellaneous suppliosleseccm ee sae atetise tislesemne co aan aaeieiee See bee 157 57 CELE EXP CNSOS Pec wieilos series ee eieiets wre SOs elec wiele bias cscs yale 717 10 Total expenditures National Zodlogical Park......--......-...--. 918. 50 IB DlaAncoy Uys wl SOO: oan steer come erase Cees coe beeen cme cae 91, 081. 50 RECAPITULATION. The total amount of the funds administered by the Institution dur- ing the year ending June 30, 1890, appears, from the foregoing state- ments and the account books, to have been as follows: BromepalanceotelastryearwdUly deLSS9pacss: 28ee Hecec neces secises seciece $11, 757.47 From interest on Smithsonian fund POLIT my CAT sac oe ateavine oe tisssceieeicioeis 42, 120. 00 ISLOMESALesOLpU DIT AHLONS te seiae So ete oo ocieine ee elveosoe case ee iueseeeesee 416. 01 HTOMEePayMenvseOLMMneloNts:.6lGeeem ems ce ocee ce ciceciec cc bese sm aicericic 3, 489. 50 From special gifts for astrophysical research ........-.-- Reet oteleiaversiere 10, 000. 00 TAGE ee ec ackche Pdegeetoe SEERA a ee a .- 67,842. 98 XXXII REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Appropriations committed by Congress to the care of the Institution. International exchanges : From balance of last year, July 1, 1889.....- $21. 80 Appropriation for 1889-90.......------------ 15, 000. 00 TOUR oo sco uesS50 boone ebaosadsca coed sosecs ceseeobons $15, 021. 80 North American ethnology: From balance of last year, July 1, 1889...... $13, 491. 22 Appropriation for 1889-’90.....--.------.--- 40, 000. 00 Total ..-.g------+-----+----0- Sisisie mish tiara stem te atest etelerelcie 53, 491. 22 Preservation of collections: From balance of 1887—’&8, July 1, 1889...---. $42. 69 From balance of 1888-’89, July 1, 1889....--. 4,198. 34 From appropriation for 1889~90.........---. 140, 009. 60 (MOA osbe5 coebks neG565 cS 5665050056 badc08 esb poe eoeses 144, 241, 03 Furniture and fixtures: From balance of 1887-83, July 1, 189-...-.--- $18.71 From balance of 188889, July 1, 1889...--.. 2, 823. 22 From appropriation for 1889-90.....--.-.--- 30, 000. 00 TM oncoap sebade oaQGeo COO CHD Ion oaIcOOUNS cone DadEed CouC 32, 841. 93 Heating, lighting, ete.: From balance of 1837-788, July 1, 1889-..----. $3. 70 From balance of 1888-389, July 1, 1839.-.--.. 1, 089. 33 From appropriation for 18¢9-’90........----- 12, 000. 00 TNO ooce coss5o esectio 660500 BB0OTIO SaDo sop SSC Bae uUGOONE 13, 093. 03 Postage: From appropriation for 1889-90 -.----.-.----..-----.----- 1, 000. 00 Printing: From appropriation for 1889-90 .........---------------- 10, 745. 16 National Zodlogical Park: From appropriation of April 30, 1890 ...--..------------- 92, 000. 00 ——— -$362, 434.17 (Gimnml Worle cosbooseuod 6404 secu baebse ndScbe snengu Doesancnee copess 454, 277. 15 The committee has examined the vouchers for payments made from the Smithsonian income during the year ending June 30, 1890, all of which bear the approval of the Secretary of the Institution, or, in his absence, of the Assistant Secretary as acting Secretary, and a certificate that the materials and services charged were applied to the purposes of the Institution. The committee has also examined the accounts of the ‘ Interna- tional Exchanges,” and of the “ National Museum,” and of the “ National Zoological Park,” and finds that the balances above given correspond with the certificates of the disbursing clerk of the Smithsonian Institu- tion, whose appointment as such disbursing officer was accepted and his bonds approved by the Secretary of the Treasury. The quarterly accounts current, the vouchers, and journals have been examined and found correct. The abstracts of expenditures and balance sheets under the appropri- ation for “North American Ethnology” have been exhibited to us; the REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. XXXIII vouchers for the expenditures, after approval by the Director of the Bureau of Ethnology, are paid by the disbursing clerk of said Bureau, and, after approval by the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, are transmitted to the accounting officers of the Treasury Department for settlement. The disbursing officer of the Bureau is accepted as such, and his bonds approved by the Secretary of the Treasury. The balance available to meet outstanding liabilities on July 1, 1890, as reported by the disburing clerk of the Bureau, is $12,033.08. Statement of regular income from the Smithsonian Fund to be available for use in the year ending June 30, 1890. BalancevOne han Gees UNetaU 1S dle cee. «\ quam cecins cate eo cice eieiatevnie clei eesis $30, 192. 65 Interest due and receivable July 1, 1890 ...-.........---..--- $21, 090. 00 Interest due and receivable: January 1, 1891 -.---.-.....-.-.. 21, 090. 00 ———— —- 42, 180. 00 Motalavatlable forsyearending dune 30, 18912 Sos jase eee eaeece- 72, 372, 65 Respectfully submitted JAMES C. WELLING, HENRY COPPER, M. C. MEIGs, Hxecutive Committee. WASHINGTON, D. C., November, 1890. H. Mis. 129-——111 ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS RELATIVE TO THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, NATIONAL MUSEUM, ETC. (In continuation from previous reports. ) Fifty-first Congress, first session, 1889-’90, d oD 3 CuaP. 156.—AN ACT to provide for celebrating the four hundredth anniversary of the discevery of America by Christopher Columbus by holding an international exhibition of arts, industries, manufactures, and the product of the soil, mine, and sea in the city of Chicago, in the State of Tlinois. Whereas, It is fit and appropriate that the four hundredth anni- versary of the discovery of America be commemorated by an exhibi- tion of the resources of the United States of America, their develop- ment, and of the progress of civilization of the New World; and Whereas, Such an exhibition should be of a national and interna- tional character, so that not only the people of our Union and this con- tinent, but those of all nations as well, can participate, and should therefore have the sanction of the Congress of the United States ; Therefore, Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That an exhibition of arts, industries, manufactures, and the products of the soil, mine, and sea shall be inaugurated in the year eighteen hundred and ninety-two, in the Sy of Chicago, in the State of Llinois, as hereinafter provided. Sec. 2. That a commission, to consist of two commissioners from each State and Territory of the United States and from the District of Columbia and eight commissioners at large, is hereby constituted to be designated as the World’s Columbian Commission. Src, 3. That said commissioners, two from each State and Territory, shall be appointed within thirty days from the passage of this act by the President of the United States, on the nomination of the governors of the States and Territories, respectively, and by the President eight commissioners at large and two from the District of Columbia; and in the same manner and within the same time there shall be appointed two alternate commissioners from each State and Territory of the United States and the District of Columbia and eight alternate com- missioners at large, who shall assume and perform the duties of such commissioner or commissioners aS may be unable to attend the meet- ings of the said commission; and in such nominations and appoint- ments each of the two leading political parties shall be equally repre- sented. Vacancies in the commission nominated by the governors s of the several States and Territories, respectively, and also vacancies in the commission at large and from the District of Columbia may be filled in the same manner and under the same conditions as prov ided herein for their original appointment. XX XV XXXVI ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS. Src. 4. That the Secretary of State of the United States shall, im. mediately after the passage of this act, notify the governors of the several States and Territories, respectively, thereof and request such nominations to be made. The commissioners so appointed shall be called together by the Secretary of State of the United States in the city of Chicago, by notice to the commissioners, as soon as convenient after the appointment of said commissioners, and within thirty days thereafter. The said commissioners, at said first meeting, shall organ- ize by the election of such officers and the appointment of such com- mittees as they may deem expedient, and for this purpose the commis- sioners present at said meeting shall constitute a quorum. Src. 5. That said commission be empowered in its discretion to accept for the purposes of the World’s Columbian Exposition such site as may be selected and offered and such plans and specifications of buildings to be erected for such purpose at the expense of and tendered by the corporation organized under the laws of the State of Illinois, known as “The World’s Exposition of eighteen hundred and ninety- two:” Provided, That said site so tendered, and the buildings pro- posed to be erected thereon shall be deemed by said commission ade- quate to the purposes of said exposition: And provided, That said com- mission shall be satisfied that the said corporation has an actual bona fide and valid subscription to its capital stock which will secure the payment of at least five millions of dollars, of which not less than five hundred thousand dollars shall have been paid in, and that the further sum of five million dollars, making in all ten million dollars, will be provided by said corporation in ample time for its needful use during the prosecution of the work for the complete preparation for said exposition. Src. 6. That the said commission shall allot space for exhibitors, prepare a classification of exhibits, determine the plan and scope of the exposition, and shall appoint all judges and examiners for the ex- position, award all premiums, if any, and generally have charge of all intercourse with the exhibitors and the representatives of foreign nations. And said commission is authorized and required to appoint a board of lady managers of such number and to perform such duties as may be prescribed by said commission. Said board may appoint one or more members of all committees authorized to award prizes for exhibits, which may be produced in whole or in part by female labor. Src. 7. That after the plans for said exposition shall be prepared by said corporation and approved by said commission, the rules and regu- lations of said corporation governing rates for entrance and admission fees, or otherwise affecting the rights, privileges, or interests of the exhibitors or of the public, shall be fixed or established by said corpo: ration, subject, however, to such modification, if any, as may be im- pesed by a majority of said commissioners. Sec. 8. That the President is hereby empowered and directed to hold a naval review in New York Harbor, in April, eighteen hundred and ninety-three, and to extend to foreign nations an invitation to send ships of war to join the United States Navy in rendezvous at Hamp- ton Roads and proceed thence to said review. Suc. 9. That said commission shall provide for the dedication of the buildings of the World’s Columbian Exposition in said city of Chicago on the twelfth day of October, eighteen hundred and ninety-two, with appropriate ceremonies, and said exposition shall be open to visitors not later than the first day of May, eighteen hundred and ninety-three, ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS. XXXVII and shal{ be closed at such time as the commission may determine, but not later than the thirtieth day of October thereafter. Sec. 10. That whenever the President of the United States shall be notified by the commission that provision has been made for grounds and buildings for the uses herein provided for and there has also been filed with him by the said corporation, known as “The World’s Expo- sition of eighteen hundred and ninety-two,” satisfactory proof that a sum not less than ten million dollars to be used and expended for the purposes of the exposition herein authorized, has in fact been raised ’ or provided for by subscription or other legally binding means, shall be authorized, through the Department of State, to make proclamation of the same, setting forth the time at which the exposition will open and close, and the place at which it will be held; and he shall com- municate to the diplomatic representatives of foreign nations copies of the same, together with such regulations as may be adopted by the commission, for publication in their respective countries, and he shall, in behalf of the Government and people, invite foreign nations to take part in the said exposition and appoint representatives thereto. Sec. 11. That all articles which shall be imported from foreign countries for the sole purpose of exhibition at said exposition, upon which there shall be a tariff or customs duty, shall be admitted free of payment of duty, customs fees, or charges under such regulations as the Secre- tary of the Treasury shall prescribes but it shall be lawful at any time during the exhibition to sell for delivery at the close of the exposition any goods or property imported for and actually on exhibition in the exposition buildings or on its grounds, subject to such regulations for the security of the revenue and for the collection of the import duties as the Secretary of the Treasury shall prescribe: Provided, That all such articles when sold or withdrawn for consumption in the United States shall be subject to the duty, if any, imposed upon such articles by the revenue laws in force at the date of importation, and all penal- ties prescribed by law shall be applied and enforced against such arti- cles, and against the persons who may be guilty of any illegal sale or withdrawal. Sec. 12. That the sum of twenty thousand dollars, or as much thereof as may be necessary, be, and the same is hereby, appropriated, out of any moneys in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, for "the re- mainder of the present fiscal year and for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, eighteen hundred and ninety-one, to be expended under the direction of the Secretary of the Treasury for purposes connected with the admission of foreign goods to said exhibition. Sxc. 13. That it shall be the duty of the commission to make report from time to time, to the President of the United States of the progress of the work, and, in a final report, present a full exhibit of the results of the exposition. Sec. 14. That the commission hereby authorized shall exist no longer than until the fitst day of January, eighteen hundred and ninety-eight. Sec. 15, That the United States shall not in any manner, nor under any circumstances, be liable for any of the acts, doings, proceed- ings or representations of the said corporation organized under the laws of the State of Illinois, its officers, agents, servants, or employes, or any of them, or for the service, salaries, labor, or wages of said officer 8, agents, servants, or employes, or any of them, or for any subscriptions “) the capital stock, or for any certificates of stock, bonds, mortgages, or obligations of any kind issued by said corporation or for any debts, XXXVIII ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS. liabilities, or expenses of any kind whatever attending such corporation or accruing by reason of the same. SEc. 16. That there shall be exhibited at said exposition by the Gov- ernment of the United States, from its Executive Departments the Smithsonian Institution, the United States Fish Commission, and the National Museum, such articles and materials as illustrate the fune- tion and administrative faculty of the Government in time of peace and its resources as a war power, tending to demonstrate the nature of our institutions and their adaptation to the wants of the people; and to secure a complete and harmonious arrangement of such a Government exhibit, a board shall be created to be charged with the selection, prep- aration, arrangement, safe-keeping, and exhibition of such articles and materials as the heads of the several Departments and the directors of the Smithsonian Institution and the National Museum may respectively decide shall be embraced in said Government exhibit. The President may also designate additional articles for exhibition. Such board shall be composed of one person to be named by the head of each Executive Department, and one by the directors of the Smithsonian Institution and the National Museum, and one by the Fish Commission, such se- lections to be approved by the President of the United States. The President shall name the chairman of said board, and the board itseif shall select such other officers as it may deem necessary. That the Secretary of the Treasury is hereby authorized and directed to place on exhibition, upon such grounds as shall be allotted for the purpose, one of the life-saving stations authorized to be constructed on the coast of the United States by existing law, and to cause the same to be fully equipped with all apparatus, furniture, and appliances now in use in all life-saving stations in the United States, said building and apparatus to be removed at the close of the exhibition and re-erected at the place now authorized by law. SxEc. 17. That the Secretary of the Treasury shall cause a suitable building or buildings to be erected on the site selected for the World’s Columbian Exposition for the Government exhibits, as provided in this act, and he is hereby authorized and directed to contract therefor, in the same manner and under the same regulations as for other public buildings of the United States; but the contracts for said building or buildings shall not exceed the sum of four hundred thousand dollars, and for the remainder of the fiscal year and for the year ending June thirtieth, eighteen hundred and ninety-one, there is hereby appropri- ated for said building or buildings, out of any money in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, the sum of one hundred thousand dollars. The Secretary of the Treasury shall cause the said building or build- ings to be constructed as far as possible, of iron, steel, and glass, or of such other material as may be taken out and sold ‘to the best advanta ge; and he is authorized and required to dispose of such building or build. ings, or the material composing the same, at the close of the exposition, giving preference to the city of Chicago, or to the said World’s Expo- sition of eighteen hundred and ninety-two to purchase the same at an appraised value to be ascertained in such nanner as he may determine. SEC. 18. That for the purpose of paying the expenses of transporta- tion, care, and custody of exhibits by the Government and the main- tenance of the building or buildings hereinbefore provided for and the safe return of articles belonging to the said Government exhibit, and for the expenses of the commission created by this act, and other con- tingent expenses, to be approved by the Secretary of the Treasury, upon itemized accounts and vouchers, there is hereby appropriated for the ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS. XXXIX remainder of this fiscal year and for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, eighteen hundred and ninety-one, out of any money in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, the sum of two hundred thousand dollars, or so much thereof as may be necessary: Provided, That the United States shall not be liable, on account of the erection of buildings, ex- penses of the commission or any of its officers or employees, or on account of any expenses incident to or growing out of said exposition for a sum exceeding in the aggregate one million five hundred thousand dollars. Src. 19. That the commissioners and alternate commissioners ap- pointed under this act shall not be entitled to any compensation for their services out of the Treasury of the United States, except their actual expenses for transportation and the sum of six dollars per day for subsistence for each day they are necessarily absent from their homes on the business of said commission. The officers of said com- mission shall receive such compensation as may be fixed by said com- mission, subject to the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, which shall be paid out of the sums appropriated by Congress in aid of such exposition. Sec. 20. That nothing in this act shall be so construed as to create any liability of the United States, direct or indirect, for any debt or obligation incurred, nor for any claim for aid or pecuniary assistance from Congress or the Treasury of the United States in support or liqui- dation of any debts or obligations created by said commission in excess of appropriations made by Congress therefor. SEc. 21. That nothing in this act shall be so construed as to override or interfere with the laws of any State, and all contracts made in any State for the purposes of the exhibition shall be subject to the laws thereof. Sc. 22. That no member of said commission, whether an officer or otherwise, shall be personally liable for any debt or obligation which may be created or incurred by the said commission. Approved, April 25, 1890. CuHap. 173.—AN ACT for the organization, improvement, and maintenance of the National Zoological Park. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That the one-half of the follow- ing sums named, respectively, is hereby appropriated, out of any money in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, and the other half out of the revenues of the District of Columbia, for the organization, improve- ment, and maintenance of the National Zoological Park, to be expended under the direction of the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, and to be drawn on their requisition and disbursed by the disbursing officer for said Institution : For the shelter of animals, fifteen thousand dollars. For shelter-parns, cages, fences, and inclosures, and other provisions for the custody of animals, nine thousand dollars. For repairs to the Holt mansion, to make the same suitable for occu- pancy, and for office furniture, two thousand dollars. For the creation of artificial ponds and other provisions for aquatic animals, two thousand dollars. For water supply, sewerage, and drainage, seven thousand dollars. For roads, walks, and bridges, fifteen thousand dollars. For miscellaneous supplies, materials, and sundry incidental ex- penses not otherwise provided for, five thousand doilars. XL ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS. Tor current expenses, including the maintenance of collections, food supplies, salaries of all necessary employees, and the acquisition and transportation of specimens, thirty-seven thousand dollars. SEc. 2. That the National Zoological Park is hereby placed under the directions of the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, who are authorized to transfer to it any living specimens, whether of animals or plants, now or hereafter in their charge, to accept gifts for the park at their discretion, in the name of the United States, to make exchanges of specimens, and to administer the said Zoological Park for the ad- vancement of science and the instruction and recreation of the people. SEC. 3. That the heads of executive departments of the Government are hereby authorized and directed to cause to be rendered all neces- sary and practicable aid to the said regents in the acquisition of col- lections for the Zoological Park. Approved, April 30, 1890. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES: For expenses of the system of inter- national exchanges between the United States and foreign countries, under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, including salaries or compensation of all necessary employees, seventeen thousand dol- lars. NORTH AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY: For continuing ethnological re- searches among the American Indians, under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, including salaries or compensation of all nee- essary employees, forty thousand dollars. REPAIRS, SMITHSONIAN BUILDING: For fire proofing the so-called chapel of the west wing of the Smithsonian Building, and for repairing the roof of the main building and the ceiling and plastering of the main Hall of the building, twenty-five thousand dollars, said work to be done under the supervision of the Architect of the Capitol, with the approval of the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, and no portion of the appropriation to be used for sky-lights in the roof nor for well-hole in the floor of the main building. UNDER THE SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION AS DI- RECTOR OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM. HEATING AND LIGHTING: For expense of heating, lighting, elec- trical, telegraphic, and telephonic service for the National Museum, twelve thousand dollars. PRESERVATION OF COLLECTIONS OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM: For continuing the preservation, exhibition, and increase of the collec- tions from the surveying and exploring expeditions of the government, and from other sources, including salaries or compensation of all neces- sarp employees, one hundred and forty thousand dollars. FURNITURE AND FIXTURES OF THE NATIONAL MusEum: For cases, furniture, fixtures, and appliances required for the exhibition and safe-keeping of the collections of the National Museum, including salaries or compensation of all necessary employees, twenty-five thou- sand dollars. POSTAGE FOR THE NATIONAL MUSEUM: For postage stamps and foreign postal cards for the National Museum, five hundred dollars. PRINTING FOR THE NATIONAL MUSEUM: For the Smithsonian In- stitution, for printing labels and blanks for the use of the National ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS. XLI Museum and for the “ Bulletins” and annual volumes of the “‘ Proceed- ings” of the National Museum, ten thousand dollars. EXCHANGES OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY: For the purchase of necessary books for the library, and the payment for the transmission of public documents through the Smithsonian exchange, five thousand dollars. (Sundry civil appropriation act, approved August 30, 1890.) MISCELLANEOUS: To re-imburse the Smithsonian Institution for ex- penses incurred in the exchange of the publications of the Fish Com- mission for those of foreign countries, being for the service of the fiscal] year, eighteen hundred and eighty-nine, two hundred and fifteen dollars and twenty cents. To enable the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution to purchase from Frederick S. Perkins, of Wisconsin, his collection of prehistoric copper implements, seven thousand dollars. Preservation of collections, National Museum: To supply a deficiency in the appropriation for preservation u1 collections, National Museum, for the fiscal year eighteen hundred and eighty-seven, eleven dollars and forty-five cents. Claims allowed.by the First Comptroller, Treasury Department: For international exchanges; Smithsonian Institution, one dollar and five cents. (Deficiency appropriation act, approved September 30, 1890.) APPOINTMENT OF REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. No, 23.—Joint resolution to fill vacancies in the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution: Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States, etc.—That the vacancies in the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, of the class other than members of Congress, shall be filled by the appointment of Charles Devens, of Massachusetts, in the place of Noah Porter, of Connecticut, resigned; and by the reappointment of James C. Welling, of Washington City, whose term of office has ex- pired. Approved May 22, 1890. Le 1 NO ean ik de ae el eee ven a eae | et oy Z r'¢ Ee ane T ‘ Stet . , - 7 ae | : ! . 2 s ‘ \ ‘ Na t . ‘ a - i +4 F . rt - or a 5 © : —s ie 5 - - vr , mg Ar 7 5 ' ean e é = \ 7 zi f im 7 ‘al 4 ov . 4 : ae J wes . ies ae i“ sé 4, : : . F % ore A FI * . . Y a i ‘ t ra © . 7 pir U 3 ra i - 4 rs Py 8: i. é ' : ; Fs ma if - - ' ‘ a Por” Phe tity aad x ‘3 ee SLAC ral Rotor oa Sah vial a ; : iw iy $er i. , ak viRke ie PO ‘ yj BAL : Tome , : a f . aS ey Lee we >} ¥ Ba alald ‘A Fr ets Gt ; os UJ Sin ' its lh Airc) oe Lae Boab ey ws’, ee ee | hha aed. . Oy Paige niet ale ; 7 i a teak eae 76 be, Rae eae ar j ; ‘ Leek sor ‘i i ee Do he fe CUMRI o SS SES eT Sic iibthyt aa cats i A “ai ad he. aR | | | ee ass . , PNR er : a = : pagan A> REPORT OF 8S. P. LANGLEY, SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1890. To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution : GENTLEMEN: I have the honor to submit herewith the report for the year ending June 30, 1890, of the operations of the Smithsonian Insti- tution, and of the work placed by Congress under its charge in the Na- tional Museum, the Bureau of Ethnology, the International Exchanges, and the National Zoological Park. The National Zoological Park has been formally placed under the care of the Board of Regents during this year,* although its establish- ment has been under consideration for some time and the preliminary steps connected therewith have been referred to in previous reports. THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. YHE ESTABLISHMENT. By the organizing act of Congress of August 10, 1846, sec. 1,+ it was provided that ‘The President, and Vice-President of the United States, the Secretary of State, the Secretary of the Treasury, the Secretary of War, the Secretary of the Navy, the Postmaster-General, the Attorney- General, the Chief-Justice, and the Commissioner of the Patent Office of the United States, and the Mayor of the city of Washington, during the time for which they shall hold their respective offices, and such other persons as they may elect honorary members, be, and they are hereby constituted an ‘establishment’ by the name of the ‘Smithsonian Insti- tution,’” ete. In the Revised Statutes “the Governor of the District of Columbia” was substituted for the Mayor of the city of Washing- ton, the latter office having become extinct. Two members having been added to the cabinet of the President since the passage of the act, namely, the Secretary of the Interior, and more recently the Secretary of Agriculture, there appears no good rea- son why these should not be ineluded in the list of officers of the estab- lishment. This would obviously be consonant with the original inten- tion of the framers of the act, though excluded by the phraseology actually employed. It may be worthy of consideration of the Board of Regents whether it would not be for the interests of the Institution to ask of Congress a re-construction of the section referred to, whereby *Act of Congress approved April 30, 1890. t Title Ixxiii, sec. 5579, of the Revised Statutes. 1 H. Mis. 129 1 4 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. the President, Vice-President, Secretaries of the several Executive Departments, and the Chief. Justice of the United States shall consti- tute the Establishment. THE BOARD OF REGENTS. The stated annual meeting of the Board was held on January 8, 1890, at which the resignation of Dr. Noah Porter, presented on account of failing health, was accepted in the following resolution : Resolved, That the Board having received the resignation of Dr. Noah Porter as a Regent accept it with an expression of their regret, and with assurances of their high personal esteem. At the same meeting, the appointment by the honorable the Speaker of the House of Representatives on January 6, 1890, of the following members of the House as Regents was announced: the Hon. Benjamin Butterworth, of Ohio, the Hon. Henry Cabot Lodge, of Massachusetts, the Hon. Joseph Wheeler, of Alabama. The death of the Hon. Samuel S. Cox, for many years a Regent of the Institution, and its earnest friend and supporter, was referred to in my last annual report. By a resolution of the Board of Regents a com- mittee was appointed, of which the Secretary was made chairman, to prepare suitable resolutions on his services and character, and these formal resolutions, with a brief biographical sketch, are given in full in the “ necrology ”’ appended. The institution is indebted to Mrs. Cox for a portrait of her husband, to be placed with the collection of portraits of past Regents. By joint resolution of Congress, approved by the President May 22, 1890, Dr. James C. Welling, whose term as a Regent had expired, was re-elected; and by the same resolution Judge Charles Devens, of Mas- sachusetts, was appointed a member of the Board to succeed Dr. Porter. I regret to say that Judge Devens has written to me to state that there is a provision in the constitution of Massachusetts in reference to judges of its supreme court, which it has been suggested would prevent any one of them from holding such a position. No action had been taken in the matter at the time of this report. FINANCES. The permanent funds of the institution remain as at the time of my last report, namely : Bequest of Smithson, 1846....-...---.------ -e eee cee cee e cece cee e eee eee $515, 169. 00 Residuary legacy of Smithson, 1867-.-----..-------------------+---------- 26, 210. 63 Deposits from savings of income, ete., 1967 .-.. -------------+------------ 108, 620. 37 Bequest of James Hamilton, 1874.....--. ---------------------+-++--+---- 1, 000. 00 Bequest of Simeon Habel, 1880... .----.-------- -------- +--+ -----+----- 500. 00 Deposit from proceeds of sale of “somal 1881. Tecan Suineeen sess coerce 51, 500.00 Total permanent Smithsonian fund in the Treasury of the United States, bearing interest at 6 per cent. per annum.. --..----- see é Oa 000800 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 3 It seems to me desirable in this connection to direct attention to the exceptional advantages offered in the organization of the Smithsonian Institution for the administration of funds intended for the advance- ment of science and the increase of knowledge throughout the world. The governing board of the Institution is composed of the highest offi- cers of the United States Government, associated with some of the most distinguished men of learning in the country. The United States Gov- ernment is itself pledged to the security of the funds of the Institution, guaranteeing an interest of six per cent. annually. It is safe to say that no institution of learning is better known throughout the world, and I am impressed with the belief that were it also more widely known that the United States, in accepting the gift of Smithson, has signified a willingness to become the custodian of further bequests for the increase and diffusion of knowledge, its permanent endowment would be constantly increased. The principal facts in relation to Smithson’s bequest have been stated in brief in my previous reports and elsewhere at considerable length, and need not be repeated here. At the beginning of the fiscal year the balance on hand of the in- come was $11,757.47. Interest on the invested fund, amounting to $42,180, has been received from the Treasurer of the United States, $5,000 have been received from the estate of the late Dr. Jerome H. Kidder, and a like amount from Dr. Alexander Graham Bell for the prosecution of special researches in physics, to which allusion is else- where made, and $3,905.51 have been received from miscellaneous sources, making the total receipts $67,842.98. The total expenditures have been $37,650.33, leaving an unexpended balance on June 30, 1890, of $30,192.65, or, deducting the donations for special researches noted above, amounting to $10,000, the balance available for general expenses on July 1, 1890, was $20,192.65. This sum, which is somewhat larger than usual, is in part held against cer- tain anticipated grants in aid of scientific investigation and the cost of their publication by the Institution. The Institution has been charged by Congress with the disbursement during the year of the following special appropriations: Horaunternationalkexchancess-26 25 scmece. soe coe ale conics Hoe nal lan Boerne oe $15, 000 Homenhnolorical eresearches).. -. =<). a sie ecitoe tens ees se masoaea oe Sees aoe 40, 000 For National Museum : IPresonvavlOonvOlecollectiOnss2 =e secs sec ces ate eee eet ee eenecconn. 140, 000 HUnMNGirera nds fixtanesi=s ss -eeee eee eee sence cose ete omoieass 30, 000 PFC ADIN CRATING MNP) hacia. Syne eee otisy Se Seenspd bea ec tia 2528 Seek 12, 000 LU ETC Soto 35 Sole ee ae SEIS SAREE Ale eet ae Ee el ae ee es ee ea 1, 000 EMT Oe e are ete ence as eee he Ne So iso oo cleiSc «cs clea 10, 000 Ona Wone WAOOLOmICAlihanky soa. nena aecomes ase cacelieoce ss coccce soclces 92, 000 The vouchers for the disbursement of these appropriations, with the exception of those for “ethnological researches,” have been examined by the Executive Committee, and the various items of expenditure, in- 4 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. cluding those of the Bureau of Ethnology, are set forth in a letter ad- dressed to the Speaker of the House of Representatives in accordance with a provision of the sundry civil act of October 2, 1888, while the expenditures from the Smithsonian fund, having likewise been examined and approved by the executive committee, are given in their report. The estimates for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1891, forwarded to the Secretary of the Treasury under date of October 1, 1889, were as follows: JoMeMNe YH OME EOXKCMENNEX I). 5~ 555 a snacg5 pas sa5 on sgcanass poaSogdsoe se oscs8e 27, 500. 00 North Americaniethnolowyi.-2 5-2 ss ssc ce ae sea so eae ey eioaie sistas isles 50, 000. 00 National Museum : Preservation collections! +5655 o-e sooo ene eee 175, 000. 00 Hearing tan dei nt in Oe siee aes ee ease eee ieee eee 15, 000. 00 Furniture and fixtures s.i52& - 6:5 Socios ase 3 Sess te eee steer eee ee 30, 000. 00 Living animals, in connection with zoological department. ---.....- 50, 000. 00 J Palinynayes oval UNC Seka na6 So bees os desu eteses oqo nonodasos sesc 18, 500, 00 ROStA RO oe ete ee = ie bts Sec Cee Siero =e at ainie laine inlajerscieks misc smicaia cites 500. 00 BUILDINGS. I regret that Iam unable to report any immediate prospect of relief from the over-crowded condition of the Museum building. The Re- gents nearly eight years ago, (at their meeting of January 17, 1883,) recommended to Congress the erection of a new Museum building, and the previous steps taken in pursuance of their instruction have already been laid before the Board. Since 1883, the collections of the Museum have enormously increased, so that before a new building can now be completed, the material pressing for display or even for storage, will demand a considerable part of a building as large as the present one. Sketch-plans for a building that would meet the wants of the Museum for the immediate future were laid before the Board at their meeting in January, 1890. These plans contemplated a building of two stories and a basement, it being indispensable to have rooms for the preparation and study of material apart from the rooms used purely for the purposes of exhibition. A bill appropriating $500,000 for a building was reported by Sen- ator Morrill on February 19, 1890, from the Senate Committee on Public Buildings and Grounds, and passed the Senate on the 5th of Apri, 1890. It was referred in the House to its Committee on Public Buildings and Grounds, from which it has not as yet been reported. The following letter in relation to the subject transmitted to the Hon. Leland Stanford, chairman of the Senate Committee on Public Build- ings and Grounds, sets forth at some length the urgent need for fur- ther accommodation: REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 5 [Senate Mis. Doc. No. 116, Fifty-first Congress, first session.] LETTER OF THE SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION IN RELATION TO A BUILDING FOR THE ACCOMMODATION OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM, Washington, January 21, 1890. Sir: I send you herewith a set of sketch-plans intended to show, in a general way, the extent and character of a building such as would seem to be necessary for the accommodation of the Museum collections in the present and immediate future, and respectfully request for them your attention, and a recommendation to Congress of the necessary means for such a building. These plans and sketches are provisional, but although not presented in detail, they represent the results ef studies, extending over many years, of the plans of the best modern museum buildings i in Europe and ‘America, nearly all of which have been inspected by officers of the Smithsonian Institution. The proposed building covers the same area as that finished in 1881. It is intended to consist of two stories and a basement, except in the central portion, which consists of one lofty hall open from the main floor to the roof, the height of which will be 90 feet, galleries being placed on the level of the second floor in other parts of the building. Its inte- rior arrangements are,as you will see, different from those in the actual Museum, ail the changes having been planned in the light of the expe- rience of nine years’ occupation of the present building. It will afford between two and three times as much available space for exhibition and storage under the same area of roof. The fifteen exhibition halls are completely isolated from each other, and may readily besubdivided, when necessary, into smaller rooms. The lighting will be as good as in the old building, and the ventilation perhaps still better. The sani- tary arrangements have been carefully considered. The necessity for a basement is especially great. In this, place has been provided for many storage rooms and workshops. The existence of a basement will promote the comfort and health of visitors and em- ployés, and by increasing the dryness of the air in the exhibition halls, will secure the better preservation of the collections. These proposed changes in the internal arrangements will not interfere with conformity with the other points of the present Museum building in the essential features of exterior proportion. The total capacity of this present building in available floor space is about 100,000 square feet; that of the new building somewhat exceeds 200,000. The present Museum building contains about 80,000 feet of floor space available for exhibi- tion. That proposed will contain about 103,300 square feet for exhibi- tion. The space devoted to offices and laboratories would not be much more, but the area available for exhibition halls, storage rooms, and workshops far greater. The appropriation for the construction of the present building was $250,000. This sum was supplemented by several special appropriations: $25,000 for steam-heating apparatus ; $26,000 for marble floors ; $12,500 for water and gas fixtures and electrical apparatus, and $1,900 for special sewer connections, so that the total cost was$315,400. The structure was probably completed for a smaller sum of money than any other similar one of equal capacity in the world, at an expense ralative to capacity which the present prices of material make it certain cau not be repeated. The estimates of cost on this building vary greatly with regard to 6 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. details of construction on which J do not here enter, further than to say that the whole should be absolutely fire-proof throughout, and in view of the further great variation of the cost of building materials within the past two years, I am not prepared to state the sum which would be necessary for its completion. It is certain, however, that $500,000, if not sufficient to complete it, wouid be all that would be required to be expended during the present year, and I would respect- fully represent the desirability of an appropriation of this amount for the purpose in question. Your attention is directed to certain facts in regard to the character of the materials for the accommodation of which this building is desired. The collections of the Smithsonian Institution and of the Government are especially rich in collections of natural history, which may be grouped in three general classes: The zoological collections; the botan- ical collections, and the geological collections, including not only all the geological and mineralogical material, but the greater portion of that belonging to paleontology, the study of fossil animals and plants forming an essential part of modern geological work. Besides the natural history collections, there are equally important anthropological collections which illustrate the history of mankind at all periods and in every land, and which serve to explain the develop- ment of all human arts and industries. In everything that relates to the primitive inhabitants of North America, Eskimo as well as Indian, these collections are by far the richest in the world, and with the nec- essary amount of exhibition space, the material on hand will be arranged in a manner which will produce the most impressive and magnificent effect, the educational importance of which can not be over-estimated. Again, there are collections of considerable extent which illustrate the processes and products of the various arts and industries, as well as what are termed the historical collections, which are of especial interest to a very large number of the visitors of the Museum on account of the associations of the objects exhibited with the personal history of repre- sentative men, or with important events in the history of America. The collections illustrating the arts and the art industries are rela- tivelysmall, and although in themselves of great interest and value, not to be compared in importance with those in natural history and eth- nology. In a letter addressed on June 7, 1888, to the Hon. Justin 8. Morrill, and which will be found in a report of June 12 of the same year from the Senate Committee on Public Buildings and Grounds, I madea state- ment of the rapidity of the recent growth of the Museum, mentioning that in the five years from 1882 to 1887 the number of specimens in the collection had multiplied no less than sixteen times, and endeavored to give an idea, though, perhaps, an inadequate one, of the extent to which the pressure for want of space was felt. The evil has grown rapidly worse, and as I have had occasion to mention, it has been felt in the last year in a partial arrest of the growth of the collections, which empha- sizes the demand for more room. The present Museum building is not lai ge enough even for the natural history collections alone, a number of which are without any exhibition space whatever. The proposed build- ing will afford accommodations for the ethnological and technological material already on hand, and for a large part of the natural history material also. The collections are still increasing, and the number of specimens, as estimated, is now not far from 3,000,000. The appended table (A) shows the annual increase since 1882. The increase during the last year was REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 7 comparatively small. This may be accounted for by the fact that our exhibition halls and storage rooms being filled to their utmost capacity, it has seemed necessary to cease in a large degree the customary eftorts for the increase of the Museum. Unless more space is soon provided, the development of the Govern- ment collections will of necessity be almost completely arrested. So long as there was room for storage, collections not immediately re- quired could be received and packed away for future use. This can not longer be done. The Armory Building, since 1877 assigned to the Museum for storage and workshops, is now entirely occupied by the U.S. Fish Commission, with the exception of four rooms, and by some of the Museum tax- idermists, who are now working in very contracted space, and whom it is impossible to accommodate elsewhere. Increased space in the exhibition halls is needed, the educational value of the collections being seriously diminished by the present crowded system of installation. Still more necessary, however, is room for storage, for re-arranging the great reserve collections, for eliminating duplicate material for distribution to college and school museums, and for the use of the taxidermists and preparators engaged in preparing objects for exhibition. Space is also required for the proper handling of the costly outfit of the Museum cases and appliances for installation, of which there is always a considerable amount temporarily out of use or in process of construction. The appended table (B) shows the amount of floor space now assigned to the various collections and the amount required for the proper dis- play of material already in hand, making a reasonable allowance for the expansion during the three years which would probably pass before a new building could be completed and provided with necessary cases. The appended table (C) shows the number of feet of floor space (the average height being 10 feet) required for laboratories, workshops, and for the several departments. This is in addition to storage space under the cases in the exhibition halls, and a considerable portion may be in cellars and atties. In summarizing what has just been said, it may be stated in general terms that the amount of space already required for exhibition pur- poses alone, being (table B) 207,500 feet as against 100,675 now occupied, and this being exclusive of the (table C) 108,900 square feet needed for other objects, the accumulations have now reached such a point of con- gestion that the actual space needs to be doubled, even independently of future increase; and I beg to repeat that, unless more space is pro- vided, the development of the Government collection, which is already partly arrested, will be almost completely stopped. Your obedient servant. S. P. LANGLEY, Secretary. Hon. LELAND STANFORD, Chairman Committee on Public Buildings and Grounds, United States Senate. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. TABLE A.— Annual increase in the collections. Name of department. 1882. 1883. 1884. 1885-86. 1886-87. | 1887-'88. | 1488-89. NATURAL HISTORY. | Zoology: | Mammalseeses ee eeeee 4, 660 4,920 5,694 7,451 7, 811 8, 058 | 8, 275 IbINdS eee eee asee sees 44, 354 47, 246 50, 350 55, 945 | 54, 987 56, 484 57, 974 Bindsveresier ees sciss secu | eese eerie tere= eae 40, 072 44,163 | 148,178 50, 055 50, 173 Reptiles and batrachians. |..-....--- see 23, 495 25, 344 | 27, 542 27, 664 28, 405 MuShes eens eases seme 50, 000 65, 000 68, 000 75, 000 100.000 | 101, 350 | 107, 350 MMoWUsksti a2 ce tease tee CB SATs eee ereae 400, 060 | 460,000 | 425,000 | 455,000, 468, 000 Marine invertebrates | (other than mollusks)..| 211,781 | 214.825 4200, 000 | 4350, 000 | 4450,000 | 515,000 | 515, 300 WMiSeCtsr essa -aaeaeee 1,000 |....-..--. 5151, 000 | 500,000 | 4585,000 | 595,000 | 603, 000 Comparative anatomy --- 3, 605 3, 742 7, 214 10,210 | 411, 022 11, 558 | 11, 753 hbo ee Es ooo Gee |baosoaciseallassecothen|idoc coos st||soseccbens scdese nace 220 | 491 Botany: INGOT EME 138, 634 14, 640 1114, 640 OI Cas Ose SoS Sages Baptod lepoecenpas Gece occsd lecarecacda. 1, 055 | Musical instruments --...... Sacre eulltnsnesc tan see mencer 400 | 417 427 6427 Modern pottery, porcelain, aNOmbrOnZzOS esses eee se eree Re Ne Al Spas oa Sea | oo SS 2,278 2, 238 3, O11 113,011 Paints and dyes .....-....--- roe Posey Beas cae ao basher 17 100 11100 109 Oi ne Cra bre in bara 2s sees sed|bseacsos65| bboccsesac|lossacdsec 500 500 500 1500 PhysicaluappaLavUs)==—seeeee|| sae aed oe aa | eee eines 250 | 251 11261 11251 Oilstandyeums Sesser. eee ee liege Fen (ee es eer ee c ace 8197 | 198 11198 213 Chemical products. .--...--..)---------- See cane eed sano 8659 661 11661 688 GUE Ae "193,362 | 263,143 1,472, 600 2, 420, 944 |2, 666, 335 |2, 803, 459 | 2, 863, 894 12,235 are nests. 2 Catalogue entries. 3 Including cenozoic fossils. 4 Batimated. 5 Professor Riley’s collection numbers 150,000 specimens. 6 Exclusive of Prof. Ward’s collection. N. B..—No estimate of increase of collections taken in 1885, 7 In reserve series. 8 Duplicates not included. a \ t ° Including paints, pigments, and oils. 10 Foods only. 11 No entries of material received during the year have been made on catalogue. — REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. TABLE B.—Exvhibition space. Floor Floor | Department. aay aera! | Department. ibe now) ee NATURAL HISTORY COLLEC- NATURAL HISTORY COLLEC- TIONS. TIONS—continued. Zoology: Sq. feet. | Sq.feet. || Paleontology—continued. Sq. feet. | Sq. feet. Mammalstses-s.-----]--------] 3 ce. 1,002 |) Coins, medals, paper 413,634 | 14,640) 14,990) 20,890 money, Cte. .----.--..|--------|-----=--] 0... 1,005 J Musical instruments -..|----.--.]----.--.|_......... 400 | 417 427 427 447 Modern pottery, por- | | celain, and bronzes. ..| -----.-.|--------|.......... 2,278 | 2,238 3, O11 3, O11 3, 132 Paints and dyes ..--.-.]-------.|------0-| oso 17 | 100 100 109 197 “The Catlin Gallery” -|' -------|--------| -._...... 500 500 500 | 500 (8) Physical apparatus -...|---.----]--------|....22.... 250 251 251 251 263 Oils and gums -..-.---.}-------.|--------|...... ee 197 198 198 | 213 gs (GhemicaleproduGhseeeen | =e seca 659 | 661 661 688 va Domestic animals..-....|-------. | ASDECORS| Peta ee er erteenens| Reise aoe Sgoeeede, || eaascdo: | 66 Hebbnolopy. tees ease. oe] osc ee lect cace 200,000 | 500,000 | 503,764 | 505,464 506,324 508, 830 American aboriginal pot- | ‘ein LE ee re Eee aaa a 12,000 | 25,000 | 26,022 | 27,122 | 28,222) 29, 269 Oriental antiquities. -......|-------.|.--..-.-|.-.... = |eScccesaglleoseSsecdbsocsse 850 | 3, 485 Prehistoric anthropology ..| 35,512 40,491 | 45,252 | 65,314 | 101,659 108, 631 | 116,472 |. 123,677 Mammals (skins and alco- holies) erence sass | 4,660; 4,920 5,694 | 7,451 | 7,811] .8,058) 8,275 | 8, 836 IBIRdS Sees nos ae ee Ssece ee 44, 354 | 47, 246 50,350 | 55,945 | 54,987 | 56,484 | 57, 974 60, 219 Birdsweces andinests) sae) sae fae | aos secs 40,072 | 44,163 | 48,173 | 50,055 | 50,173 | 51, 241 Reptiles and batrachians . ae ee ena Meee 23,495 | 25,344 | 27,542 | 27,664 | 28, 405 | 29, 050 Mishes secs e so ae saa: = 50, 000 | 65, 000 68,000 | 75,000 | 100,000 | 101,350 | 107, 350 | 122; 575 Wii Sans (ENE) ee cokknad| sncbdesd Lescouse| Hocondsese ecospcan ||-Saosaccd) cecnmotod||oosce5cac | 7512 Mollusks¥= 2-5: 2as.0 25 -—- 33, 375 |........| 400,000 | 460, 000 | 425, 000 | 455, 000 | 468, 000 | 471, 500 AMNSOCES ese Aa ainsi ntn aia TROO0A eee 151, 000 | 500,000 | 585, 000 | 595, 000 | 603, 000 618, 000 Marine invertebrates ---.-- 11, 781 | 14,825 | 200,000 | 350,000 | 450,000 | 515,000 | 515,300 | 520, 000 Comparative anatomy: { a 3, O39 Sata unas es 214 ; 10, 210 | 11,022 | 11,558 | 11,753 12, 326 JSTEN INS Bona sane coneee 70 103 3, 000 Palwozoic fossils.........-.|-------- 20,000} 73,000) 80,482 | 84,491 | 84,649 | 91, 126 92, 355 Mesozoic fossis! 2.52 -2-5226|ec-=5---|2 o-s50 5 100,000 | 69,742 | 70,775 | 70,925 | 71, 236 71, 305 1No census of collection taken. 2 The actual increase in the collections during the year 1889-90 is much greater than appears from a comparison of the totals for 1889 and for 1890. This is explained by the apparent absence of any increase in the Departments of Lithology and Metallurgy, the total for 1890 in both of these depart ments combined showing a decrease of 46,314 specimens, ow!ng to the rejection of worthless material. 3 Although about two hundred specimens have been received during the year, tbe total number of specimens in the collection is now less than that estimated for 1889, owing to the rejection of worth- less material. 4 The collection now contains between 3,000 and 4,000 specimens. 5 No estimate of increase made in 1890. 6 Included in the historical collection. 7 Only a small portion of the collection represented by this number was received during the year 1889-"90. 28 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Name of department. 1882. | 1883. | 1884. 1885-86. | 1886-87. | 1887-’88. | 1888-’89,| 1889-’90. Cenozoic fossils..........-. | (Included with mollusks.) HOssilsplantaper see eee ee lle eee 4, 624 7,291 | 7,429] 8,462] 10,000| 10,178 10, 507 RECON gPlAMtS ae sane lhe ee oo | ones ceciewete ete 30,000 | 32,000 | 38,000 | 38, 459 39, 654 Maineralsecetevec ao ctcc eset ae. ee 14, 550 16, 610 18, 401 18, 601 21,896 | 27, 690 37, 101 Lithology and physical ge- OlODYeerncccorcce serene 9,075 | 12,500 | 18,000 20,647 | 21, 500 22,500 | 27,000 | ) Metallurgy and economic \ 232, 762 PeOlO eye eet ae aA [ER 30,000 | 40,000 | 48,000 | 49,000} 51,412] 52,076 j ivingianimald sss. sec hace |e aecesealca set an ee serena | ae caer lnemisee cee 220 S491 IE Sa oncecee TLotallenc cscs Sesee es (193, 362 |263, 143 /1, 472, 600 |2,420, 944 2,666,335 2,803,459 |2,864,244 | 2, 895, 104 ) These numbers have reference ouly to specimens received through the Museum, and do not include specimens received for the National Herbarium through the Department of Agriculture. * Collections combined in October, 1889, under Department of Geology. The apparent decrease of more than 50 per cent. of the estimated total for 1889 is accounted for (1) by the rejection of several thousands of specimens from the collection, and (2) by the fact that no estimate of the specimens in the reserve and duplicate series is included. Of the total fur 1890, about 16,000 specimens consist chiefly of petrographical material stored away for study and comparison in the drawers of table cases. 3 Transferred to the National Zoological Park. Catalogue entries.—The number of entries made in the catalogue of the several departments of the Museum during the year is 28,293. The number of boxes and packages recorded by the registrar as having been received during the year, and entered upon the transportation record of the Smithsonian Institution, is 52,079. Of this number 827 contained specimens for the Museum. Although the total number of packages received is more than three times as great as that for last year, the number of packages containing specimens for the Museum is only a little more than one-third of the number received during 1889. Co-operation of the Departments of Government.—The friendly interest displayed in the work of the National Museum by officers of the De- partments of the Government has been continued. In no previous year has the Museum had occasion to acknowledge more gratefully the cour. teous assistance rendered by the Secretaries of the Departments and the chiefs of many of the Bureaus. Through the medium of the Department of State, several United States ministers and consuls have brought their influence to bear in obtaining for the Museum representations of the fauna and flora of the regions in which they are residing. The Secretary of the Treasury has extended the usual courtesies in connection with the free entry of specimens. Special facilities have been afforded in connection with the visit of Mr. Henry W. Elliott to the Seal Islands of Alaska, which, it is hoped, will result in the addition of several specimens of fur-seal, fishes, and other natural-history objects to the collections. The Coast and Geodetic Survey, the Revenue Ma- rine Division, the Life-Saving Service, and the Light-House Board have assisted collectors for the Museum in special ways. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 29 Several officers of the U.S. Army have made valuable contributions. The Quartermaster’s Department has extended important assistance in connection with the transportation of bulky material for the Museum. From officers of the U.S. Navy many collections have been received from foreign countries, including the West Indies, Liberia, the Samoan Islands, and Mexico. Through the courtesy of the Secretary of the Interior, the Museum has received a very valuable collection of ethnological specimens from the Indians of the Tulalip Reservation, Washington. The material transmitted to the Museum by the U.S. Geological Survey is large in exteut and quite equal in importance to the collections received from that source in previous years. From the Divisions of Animal Industry, Entomology, Botany, For- estry, and Ornithology and Mammalogy, in the Department of Agricul- ture, numerous contributions have been received. Distribution of Duplicate Specimens.—Collections of ethnological, zoo- logical, botanical, and geological specimens, contained in two hundred and one packages, have been distributed during the year to about one hundred and twenty educational establishments at home and abroad. A large number of duplicate sets of minerals and marine invertebrates were included in these distributions. Numerous applications for duplicate specimens, chiefly minerals, still remain unfilled. It is hoped that during the next fiscal year it will be possible to send out bird-skins and rocks also. ; Museum Publications.—This departinent of the Museum work has been unusually active during the year. The Museum Reports for 1886 and 1887 have been published. EKach of these volumes contains several papers based upon collections in the Museum by Museum officers and other collaborators. Volume XI of the Proceedings of the National Museum, for 1888, has been issued. This contains xi+703 pages, 60 plates, and 122 text fig- ures. It includes eighty-five papers by forty-three authors, nineteen of whom are officers of the Museum. The papers composing Volume XII of Proceedings of the National Museum, for 1889, are twenty-nine in number (Nos. 761-789); and were all published as separates dur- ing the year, although the bound volume has not yet been issued. Commencing with this volume the system of issuing sixteen pages at a time—forming a signature—as soon as sufficient manuseript had accumulated, has been discontinued. Each paper is now printed separ- ately, in advance of the bound volume, and is immediately distributed to specialists. Five numbers of the Bulletin have been published (Nos. 34-38, inclu- sive). Bulletin 34 relates to “The Batrachia of North America,” by Prof. E. D. Cope. Bulletin 35 contains a “ Bibliographical Catalogue of the Described Transformations of North American Lepidoptera,” by 30 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Mr. Henry Edwards. Bulletin 36 is entitled “Contributions to the Natural History of the Cetaceans, A Review of the Family Delphinide,” by Mr. Frederick W. True. Bulletin 38 has the title: ‘‘Contribution toward a Monograph of the Insects of the Lepidopterous family Noce- tuide of Temperate North America,” and is a revision of the species of the genus Agrotis. This Bulletin, by Mr. John B. Smith, of Rutgers College, New Jersey, was not actually published until after the close of the fiscal year, although it was put in type during the year covered by this report. The manuscript for other Bulletins relating to deep-sea fishes, by Drs. G. Brown Goode and Tarleton H. Bean, and to a descrip- tion of the metallurgical collection in the Museum, by Mr. Fred P. Dewey, has been transmitted to the Government Printing Office. A large number of papers upon scientific subjects have been pub- lished by officers of the Museum and other specialists. They are re- ferred to in the bibliography of Museum publications, constituting Sec- tion Iv of the separate report of the Assistant Secretary. Assistance to students.—The usual facilities have been granted to stu- dents in the various branches of natural history, and several collections have been lent to specialists for comparison and study. Dr. R. W. Shu- feldt, U. S. Army, requested permission to study bird-skeletons. Mr. Bashford Dean, of the College of the City of New York, received fishes for study; a collection of bats from the British Museum was furnished to Dr. Harrison Allen, of Philadelphia, for comparison and study; a part of the Museum collection of Coleoptera was sent for a similar purpose to Capt. T. L. Casey, of New York City. Several persons have received instruction in taxidermy and photography. Special researches.—Several of the curators in the Museum are pre- paring for publication in the Museum Report for 1890 papers which are the result of special investigation and research. Among these may be mentioned a hand-book of the geological collections, by Mr. George P. Merrill; a descriptive paper relating to the collection of humming-birds in the Museum, by Mr. Robert Ridgway; papers relating to Japanese religion and Japanese burials, by Mr. Romyn Hitchcock. Other gen. tlemen, not officially connected with the Museum, have also prepared papers for publication in the same volume. The Museum Report each year contains a number of descriptive papers of the kind alluded to, and the interest which they have excited among all classes of people has been very great. During this year sev- eral hundred copies of papers of this character, printed in the more re- cently published reports of the Museum, have been distributed free of cost. Among these may be especially noted the ‘* Hand-Book and Cata- logue of the Building and Ornamental Stones in the National Museum,” by Mr. George P. Merrill,* and the paper entitled ‘* The Extermination of the American Bison,” by Mr. William T. Hornaday.”t —~_ . Printed in the report for 1836 and also separately. : ae t Printed in the report for 1887 and also separately. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 31. Museum library.—The number of publications added to the Library during the year is 12,437, of which 1,479 are volumes of more than 100 pages, 2,250 pamphlets, 8,672 parts of regular serials, and 36 charts. With the exception of the charts these numbers are more than double the receipts of last year. The most notable gift was a nearly complete set of Kiener’s ‘‘ lconographie des Coquilles Vivantes,” illustrated with very beautifully colored plates. This was presented by the Wagner Free Institute of Science, in Philadelphia. Museum labels.—During the year 3,920 forms of labels have been printed (twenty-four copies of each form) for use in connection with labeling the collections of ethnology, geology, mammals, comparative anatomy, porcelains, oriental antiquities, graphic arts, foods, textiles, and materia medica. Meetings and lectures.—The use of the Lecture Hall has been granted for lectures and meetings of scientific societies, as The Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations, November 12-15, 1889, inclusive; the American Historical Association, December 28-31; the American Institute of Mining Engineers, February 18, 1890; Memorial Meeting of the Academy of Sciences, March 27; the Geological Society of America, April 17; the National Academy of Sciences, April 15-18, inclusive; Meeting of the Committee on Arrangements of the Geological Congress, April 18; The National Geographic Society, May 2. The course of Saturday lectures, ten in number, beginning February 1, and ending April 3, was delivered under the direction of the joint committee of the scientific societies of Washington. A course of four lectures relating to the anthropological exhibits at the Paris Exposi- tion in 1889 was given in May by Mr. Thomas Wilson, curator of ar- cheology. A lecture, under the auspices of the National Geographic Society, was delivered on April 11 by Ensign J. B. Bernadou on the subject of ‘* Corea and the Coreans.” Visitors.—The number of visitors to the Museum building during the year ending June 30, 1890, was 274,324. The number of visitors to the Smithsonian building during the same period was 120,894. These fig- ures are considerably less than during 1889, when, on account of the inauguration of President Harrison, immense numbers of people visited the Museum. On March 5, it may be remembered, more than 56,000 people visited the Museum and Smithsonian buildings. The total num- ber of visitors since 1381 to the Museum building is 2,111,949, and to the Smithsonian building, 970,012. EHetension of hours for visiting the Museum.—On December 20 a bill was introduced in the House of Representatives by the Hon. W. H. Crain, having for its object the opening of the Smithsonian and Museum buildings during extra hours. Mr, Crain also introduced a bill later in - 82 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. the session to provide an electric plant for lighting the buildings. Neither of these bills has been reported from the committees to which they were referred. Museum personnel.—Mr. George P. Merrill has been appointed Curator of the Department of Geology, which combines the functions of the previously existing departments of Lithology and Physical Geology, and of Metallurgy. This change in the administration of these depart- ments was made upon the resignation of Mr. Fred P. Dewey, who for several years had been in charge of the metallurgical collections. Mr. William C. Winlock, of the Smithsonian Institution, was appointed Honorary Curator of the Section of Physical Apparatus in the National Museum. Mr. William T. Hornaday, perhaps the first taxidermist in the coun- try, through his extensive knowledge of the habits and natural atti- tudes of animals, in a very wide range of travel as a field naturalist, has elevated the standard of his art by the fidelity of his groupings and his skill in the representation of life-like aspects in the plastic form. He had rendered valuable service to the National Museum as its chief taxidermist, and subsequently as Honorary Curator of the Department of Living Animals, which led to his appointment as Acting Superinten- dent of the National Zoological Park. From this position he resigned on the 15th of June last. Dr. Frank Baker was, in June, appointed Honorary Curator of the Department of Comparative Anatomy in the Museum, though as it has been found necessary to assign Dr. Baker to temporary duty as Acting Manager of the National Zoological Park, Mr. F. W. True con- tinues to fill the position of acting curator of that department. A detailed statement relating to the work of the administrative offi- cers of the Museum will be found in the volume containing the report of the Assistant Secretary. Explorations.—In connection with the expedition sent by the United States Government to the West Coast of Africa to take observations of the eclipse of the sun, the National Museum obtained the privilege of sending a naturalist for the purpose of making collections of ethnological and zoological objects. Mr. William Harvey Brown, of the National Museum, was detailed to accompany the expedition. Early in June, 1890, the first collections were received as the result of his explorations. They included mammals, fishes, insects, plants, reptiles, birds, shells, rocks, and ethnological objects. Additicnal collections will doubtless soou be received; and will be referred to in the next report. As an outcome of Mr. Brown’s exploration work, collections have been re- ceived from Rev. G. H. R. Fisk, Mr. J. H. Brady, Mr. P.-MacOwan, director of the Botanical Garden at Cape Town, Mr. Frye, of Cape Town, and others, The thanks of the Smithsonian Institution are especially a a REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 33 due to several of the officers and sailors of the U. 8S. 8S. Pensacola for assistance rendered Mr. Brown in his work. Dr. W. H. Rush, U.S. Navy, has kindly offered to collect marine in- vertebrates during his expedition to the Azores, Madeira, and the En- glish Channel. Mr. J. P. Iddings, of the U. S. Geological Survey, has expressed his willingness to bear in mind the requests of the Museum during his ex- pedition to the volcanic regions of Europe. Mr. E. M. Aaron, of the American Entomological Society, has kindly offered to be of service to the Museum in collecting entomological ma- terial during his visit to Jamaica. Mr. C. k, Orcutt, of San Diego, California, has announced his inten- tion to visit the Colorado desert and the Gulf of California, and to allow the Museuin to share the results of his expedition. Mr. Henry W. Elliott, formerly of the Alaska Commercial Company, is visiting the Seal Islands of Alaska on business connected with the United States Government, and hopes to be able to secure for the Mu- seum some fine specimens of walrus, fur-seal, fishes, and other zoolog- ical material. Department of living animals.—Upon the passage of the bill placing the National Zoological Park under the care of the Board of Regents, the department of living animals of the Museum was merged in the new park and the necessary transfers were made from the Museum rolls. For convenience, therefore, the report in regard to the principal accessions to this department have been included in the report of the acting manager of the Park. The animals are retained for the present in their sheds in the Smith- sonian Grounds for the reason that during the fitting up of the Park they can there be cared for at a much less expense; for instance, two watchmen are now required instead of twenty that would probably be needed at the Park, where each group of animals will be placed in a center from which to grow, a plan that involves the necessity at first of spreading the collection over a considerable area. The interest in this small collection has constantly inereased, and has been manifested by numerous offers of valuable gifts, most of which it has been impossible, through lack of space and immediate accommoda- tions, to accept. H. His. 129——3 34 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK. In the early part of this century a naturalist traveling in Siberia stood by the mutilated body of a mammoth still undecayed, which the melting of the frozen gravel had revealed, and to the skeleton of which large portions of flesh, skin, and hair still clung. The remains were excavated and transported many hundred miles across the frozen waste, and at last reached the Imperial Museum at St. Petersburg, where, through all these years, the mounted skeleton has justly been regarded as the greatest treasure of that magnificent collection. ' Scientific memoirs, popular books, theological works, poems—in short, a whole literature—has come into existence with this discoy- ery as its text. No other event in all the history of such subjects has excited a greater or more permanent interest outside of purely scien. tific circles; for the resurrection of this ‘relic of a geologic time ina condition analogous to that in which the bodies of contemporaneous animals are daily seen brings home to the mind of the least curious observer the reality of a long extinct race with a vividness which no fossils or petrifactions of the ordinary sort can possibly equal. Now, I am assured by most competent naturalists that few, if any, of those not particularly devoted to the study of American animals realize that changes have already occurred or are on the point of taking place in our own characteristic fauna compared with which the disap- pearance from it of the mammoth wasinsignificant. That animal was common to all northern lands in its day. The practical domestication of the elephant gives to every one the opportunity of observing a gigantic creature closely allied to the mammoth, and from which he may gain an approximately correct idea of it. But no such example is at handinthe case of the bison, the prong-horn antelope, the elk, the Rocky Mountain goat, and many more of our vanishing races. The student of even the most modern text-books learns that the characteristic larger animals of the United States are those just men- tioned, with the moose, the grizzly bear, the beaver, and if we include marine forms and aretic American animals we may add the northern fur-seal, the Pacific walrus, the Californian sea-elephant, the manatee, and still others. With one or two exceptions out of this long list, men now living can remember when each of these animals was reasonably abundant within its natural territory. It is within the bounds of moderation to affirm that unless Congress places some check on the present rate of destruc- tion there are men now living who will see the time when the animals enumerated will be practically extinct, or exterminated within the lim- its of the United States. Already the census of some of them can be expressed in three figures. The fate of the bison, or American buffalo, is typical of them all. ‘¢ Whether we consider this noble animal,” says Audubon, “ as an ob- REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 35 ject of the chase or as an article of food for man, it is decidedly the most important of all our American contemporary quadrupeds.” At the middle of the last century this animal pastured in Pennsylva- nia and Virginia, and even at the close of the century ranged over the whole Mississippi Valley and further west wherever pasturage was to be found. At the present time a few hundred survivors represent the millions of the last century, and we should not have even these few hundred within our territory had it not been for the wise action of Congress in providing for them a safe home in the Yellowstone Park. Now, for several reasons it has been comparatively easy to trace the decline of the buffalo population. The size of the animal, its prefer- ence for open country, the sportsman’s interest in it, and its relations to the food-supply of the Western Indians, all led to the observation and record of changes; and accordingly I have made special mention of this animal in representing the advantages of a national zoological park where it might be preserved; but this is by no means the only characteristic creature now threatened with speedy extinction. The moose is known to be at the present time a rare animal in the United States, but is in less immediate danger than some others. The elk is vigorously hunted and is no longer easily obtained, even in its most favored haunts. The grizzly bear is believed to be rapidly ap- proaching extinction outside of the Yellowstone Park, where, owing to the assiduous care of those in charge, both it and the elk are still preserved. The mountain sheep and goat, which inhabit less accessi- ble regions, are becoming more and more rare, while the beaver has retreated from a vast former area to such secluded haunts that it may possibly survive longer than the other species which I have just enu- merated, and which are but a portion of those in imminent danger of extinction. Among the marine forms the manatee still exists, but, although not exterminated, it is in immediate danger of beeomimg so, like the Cali- fornian sea-elephant, a gigantic creature, often of greater bulk than the elephant, which has suffered the fate of complete extinction within a few past years; at least it is uncertain whether a single individual actually survives. The Pacific walrus, upon which a large native popu- lation has always in great part depended for food and hides, is rapidly following the sea-elephant, and so on with other species. This appalling destruction is not confined to mammals. Disregard ing the birds of song and plumage, to which the fashions of the milli. ner have brought disaster, nearly all the larger and more characteristic American birds have suffered in the same way as their four-footed con- temporaries. The fate of the great Auk i$ familiar to all naturalists ; but it isnot so well known that the great Californian valture and sev- eral of the beautiful sea-fow] of our coasts have met tlic same fate, and that the wild pigeon, whose astonishing flocks were dwelt upon by Au- dubon and others in such remarkable descriptions and which were long 36 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. the wonder of American travelers, with the iess known, but magnificent ivory-billed woodpecker, and the pretty Carolina parrakeet, have all become, if not extinct, among the rarest of birds. Apart from the commercial value of its skins, the tax upon which has paid for the cost of our vast Alaskan territory, the singular habits and teeming millions of the northern fur-seal have excited general in- terest even among those who are not interested in natural history. In 1849 these animals abounded from Lower California to the lonely Alaskan Isles, and it has been supposed that the precautions taken by the Government for their protection on the breeding-grounds of the Pribilov Islands would preserve permanently tke still considerable remnant which existed after the purchase of Alaska and the destruction of the southern rookeries. But it is becoming too evident that the greed of the hunters and the devastation caused by the general adop- tion of the method of pursuing them in the open sea, destroying indis- criminately mothers and offspring, is going to bring these hopes to naught. For most of these animals, therefore, it may be regarded as certain that, unless some small remnant be preserved in a semi-domesticated state, a few years will bring utter extinction. The American of the next generation, when questioned about the animals once characteristic of his country, will then be forced to confess that with the exception of a few insignificant creatures, ranking as vermin, this broad continent ‘possesses none of those species which once covered it, since the present generation will have completed the destruction of them all. The Yellowstone Park is doing excellent work under the present management, and too much can not be said in praise of the action which has given it to the country. It is, however, also desirable and necessary that, if these vanishing forms are to be preserved, there should be some zoological preserve or garden nearer the Capital, where representatives of all these races, not only of the land, but of the water also, may be preserved under the care of those permanently interested in their protection, in the charge, that is, of men who not only have special professional knowledge of their habits and needs, but who may be considered as having an unselfish interest in looking to their preser- vation, and who may act as scientific advisers, whenever such advice is deemed desirable by Congress or by the heads of Departments. Is it realized that nearly all the principal animals indigenous to the ' United States are either substantially extinct or in danger of becom- ing so and is it sufficiently realized that, once extinct, no expenditure of treasure can restore what can even to-day be preserved by prompt action of a very simple and definite kind ? It is such considerations as these that have induced me to ask the earnest attention of the Regents, of Congress, and of the country to the immediate necessity for action. The trust is unquestionably for the ad- vancement of science as well as for the instruction and recreation of REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 37 the people, and thus becomes a fitting object for the care of the Smith- sonian Institution. In my Report for last year the preliminary steps for the establish- ment of a Zoological Park in the District of Columbia were detailed. The District of Columbia bill, which received the approval of the Presi- dent on March 2, 1889, contained an appropriation of $200,000 for the purchase of the land and established a Commission, composed of the Sceretary of the Interior, the President of the Board of Commissioners of the District of Columbia, and the Secretary of the Smithsonian In- stitution, for the purpose of selecting and acquiring a suitable site upon Rock Creek. The utmost care was exercised to keep within the limitsof this appro- priation, and the Commission is even able to turn into the Treasury a small balance upon the completion of its work. To accomplish this, however, it was necessary to leave out a strip of land of about 8 acres on the east side of the creek, which it seemed to the Commission very desirable to secure, and I venture to express the hope that Congress will see fit to make special provision for the purchase of the property at an early day. rom a commercial point of view the enterprise has already proved a most successful one, the land having risen in value since its condem- nation from 200 to 300 per cent. At the beginning of the fiscal year the ground had yet to be acquired. A careful consideration of the property in the neighborhood of Rock Creek, described in the act of March 2, 1889, had been made and an area of 166.48 acres selected.* The difficulty of establishing the bound- aries of certain tracts described in the older deedscaused a long delay, Land for the National Zoological Park. | | | Amount Owner. Acres. | paid. | How obtained. peentnne eae! 720" 77 aks en oe [Set ee Wiis Bod BNE be soncoebotseascdosnicn coasbeceocsoseneds 94. 050 | $94, 860.00 | By agreement. ED MWialbrid gence s-scssee cess. Heese Seoccsassncceteaose 14.450 | 14, 450. 00 Do. Wroodleyabarlo Syndicate eas. en oso =~ et eemeiseie seni iee 7.453 | 5, 875. 00 | Do. Peniys OaEo lu eece secs Serene wees oc atte ween is 13.360 | 40,000.00 “Do. MITE a aN Gh eer ce seinlel cos ele ercinieie.- ace neiteererin cle Sele baie 1. 440 | 3, 000. 00 | Do. METS oH sly DONIC LR) taten = ap inaciae eae si Setiee ccc em se cance sie . 392 | 170. 76 Do. PACA CUSKOLG san cinsee onan alacant tac e ee wena eee ee ccces eek 24.570 | 16, 836.48 sy condemnation. “TinlERALSGU TA We ae a eee ne ana A A ea nae | 6180} 9,270.00] Do. Union Benevolent Association......................2--20- | 1. 700 | 3, 000. 00 | Do. 15.,15853 0 agi ee eee ec Se ek | .670| 1,897.00} Do. MugPhoreons& Kinley oc 5-220 s See ee) hi #iga57f #1'372:'00' |" “Do. CAMeSMCOnVANG sas ys sae ale Se blecocue sata eeamace cdc outa 1.060 | 233. 10 | Do. United States (part Quarry road)...... Bs car ae rene eielpaee wnt. | . 846 |------ 22. Do. Rittell (eee LEE, Me Oe ee SS | 166. 486 | 190, 964. 34 38 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. A map of the park, showing the location and quantity of each lot, was filed in the public records of the District of Columbia. On exam. ination of the list it will be seen that for 131.14 acres an agreement was effected with the owners as to the sum to be paid. For 34.49 acres no such agreement could be made, and the Commission therefore took the course prescribed by the act of March 2, 1889, for this con- tingency, and petitioned the Supreme Court of the District to assess the value of the land. This was done by three appraisers appointed by the Court, and the finding of the appraisers was approved by the President of the United States. At the close of the year title deeds had already passed for the greater portion of the property. The site thus selected is, it is believed, admirably suited for the purpose for which it is designed. Situated at a convenient distance from the city in a region of remarkable natural beauty, it has a surface of great variety, offering unusual advantages of varied exposure for animals re- quiring different treatment. While some portions still retain the origi- nal forest, others are cleared or covered by a dense second growth of pine, excellent for cover and producing conditions similar to those of the natural haunts of many of the animals it is proposed to preserve. An abundant supply of water is furnished to the lower portions by Rock Creek, a small perennial stream that during freshets swells to consid- erable size, and at intervals of years, to rare but destructive floods. A number-of small runlets or “ branches ” fall into the creek giving an ‘effective drainage to all parts of the park. The system of water ways has for the most part been cut by erosion, so that the hill-sides and valleys usually present smooth, rounded slopes, practicable for roads and walks; yet this isagreeably varied at several places by an outcropping of the underlying rock, giving a somewhat bolder character. In the Appendix will be found a map showing the situation of the Zoological Park with reference to the city of Washington, and follow- ing if'a second map giving, on a somewhat larger scale, the outline of the park and its principal topographical features. Having obtained the site it became necessary to procure means for the organization and maintenance of the. park. The Commission ac- cordingly, under date of January 16, 1890, addressed a letter to Con- gress, concluding with the following words: Before the expiration of, the present fiscal year the Zoological Park Commission will have completed the duties with which it was charged by the act of Congress which called it into existence, and the title to the lands it has purchased will be vested in the United States. Pend- ing the completion of the condemnation proceedings now in progress, and the submission of a final report, it is extremely desirable that Con- gress Should enact further legislation in regard to the park. The Com. mission has no authority to put up fences and lay out roads or grounds, or to erect buildings, nor is it even certain that it has the right to ac- cept donations. The park is declared by Congress to be “ for the ad- vancement of science and the instruction and recreation of the people.” In the construction of ponds and lakes, and the erection of inclosures REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 39 and buildings for the purposes of zoological science, a stage will soon be reached where scientific direction seems obviously desirable; and it is respectfully represented to Congress that any means for laying out and improving the grounds can be most advantageously used in view of the purpose of Congress as to the ultimate disposition of the park now when the foundations of its future usefulness are being laid. If the very considerable collection of living animals now in the custody of the Smithsonian Institution is to form the nucleus of the zoological park collection its transter should be eftected by legislative enactment and suitable measures taken for its maintenance. The Commission is of the opinion that the collection referred to should, with the consent of the Regents of the Institution, be transferred to the Zoological Park as soon as possible after the Government takes full possession of the site. JOHN W. NOBLE, Secretary of the Interior, J. W. DOUGLASS, Prest. Board Com. Dis. Col., Sy oe ANG Ian Secretary Smithsonian Institution, Commissioners for the establishment of a Zoological Park in the District of Columbia. After thorough consideration the following act was passed placing the park under the direction of the Regents of the Smithsonian Institu- tion, and transferring to it the collection formerly under the charge of the United States National Museum : AN ACT for the organization, improvement, and maintenance of the National Zoolog- ical Park. a Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That the one-half of the fol- lowing sums named, respectively, is hereby appropriated out of any money in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, and the other half out of the revenues of the District of Columbia, for the organization, improvement, and maintenance of the National Zoological Park, to be expended under the direction of the Regents of the Smithsonian Insti- tution, and to be drawn on their requisition and disbursed by the dis- bursing officer for said Institution: For the shelter of animals, fifteen theusand dollars. For shelter-barns, cages, fences, and inclosures, and other provisions for the custody of animals, nine thousand doilars. For repairs to the Holt mansion, to make the same suitable for oceu- pancy, and for office furniture, two thousand dollars. For the creation of artificial ponds and other provisions for aquatic’ animals, two thousand dollars. For water supply, sewerage, and drainage, seven thousand dollars. For roads, walks, and bridges, fifteen thousand dollars. For miscellaneous supplies, materiais, and sundry incidental expen- ses not otherwise provided for, five thousand dollars. For current expenses, including the maintenance of collections, food supplies, salaries of all necessary employees, and the acquisition and transportation of specimens, thirty-seven thousand dollars. Sec, 2. That the National Zoological Park is hereby placed under the directions of the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, who are author- ized to transfer to it any living specimen, whether of animals or plants, now or hereafter in their charge, to accept gifts for the park at their 40 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. discretion, in the name of the United States, to make exchanges ot specimens, and to administer the said Zoological Park for the advance- ment of science and the instruction and recreation of the people. Sec. 3. That the heads of Executive Departments of the Government are hereby authorized and directed to cause to be rendered all neces- sary and practicable aid to the said Regents in the acquisition of col- lections for the Zoological Park. Approved, April 30, 1890. As it seemed desirable to have at once expert advice on the subject of laying out and improving the park, Mr. Frederick Law Olmsted, a distinguished landscape gardener, was requested to make a preliminary inspection of the ground.and to express an opinion as to what, under the conditions imposed by the primary objects of the law, would be the best general disposition to make of it. It soon became evident that a further survey was necessary in order to fix the boundaries of the maximum rise to be expected from Rock Creek. This stream, ordina- rily small, drains a water-shed having an area of some 83 square miles, with a slope so considerable that after copious rains the water rapidly rises far beyond its usual limits and becomes destructive to any build- ings or other fixtures situated along its course. A remarkable inunda- tion of this character occurred in June, 1889, the extent of which was noted at several points along the creek. It would bé evidently im- practicable to place any buildings of importance within the area sub- ject to these heavy floods, and the suitable locations and plans for the bridges to be constructed could not be prepared until their height and Span were determined with reference to the inaximum rise of water. The survey of the creek was not completed at the close of the year, but it has since been finished as shown in the map previously referred to. Having once secured the picturesque features of the land from oblit- eration by the rapid encroachment of the city, it has been the policy to proceed slowly with improvements and to utilize the natural advantages of the location, interfering as little as possible with its original aspects. Even with these economical principles the cost of converting the tract to the uses of a park is far beyond what would ordinarily be imagined, for it should be remembered that the cost of improving Central Park, New York, has already been not less than $14,000 per acre, and that of Prospect Park, Brooklyn $9,000 per acre, while that of the large Frank- lin Park, Boston, is estimated at $2,900 per acre. In following this policy and keeping within the limits of the appro- priations, no immediate provision has been made for the considerable expense involved in opening at once to the public the entire area of 166 acres. The complete establishment of the park in a manner befitting its national character will be a work of considerable time, and for the present it has been deemed advisable to set aside nearly 40 acres, se- lected on account of accessibility and moderate elevation, as well as on account of its being adapted to the purposes of the park without great expense, while a further tract of some 15 acres will be so arranged that REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Al it can‘ be opened to the public, though it may not have a strictly park- like cultivation. There will thus be free to the public, it is hoped by next year, between 50 and 60 acres, an area larger than that of the Zoological Gardens in the Regents Park of London, or the Jardin des Plantes of Paris. A distinct area of some 10 or 15 acres will be reserved in another portion of the park for administrative and other purposes requiring seclusion, and will contain a lodge for the resident superintendent, oftices, stable, infirmary for animals, and a proposed laboratory. It should be remembered that a most important feature of this under- taking is that it is not only a place for public resort and amusement, but it is also intended to furnish secluded places for the breeding and restoration of the various animals indigenous to this country. At London and Paris the zoological gardens are chiefly for the amusement of the people by the exhibition of curious and foreign ani- mals, and for the benefit of the naturalist; our paramount interest is to preserve the indigenous animals, and then to provide, in the words of the act, for the instruction and amusement of the people. Though anticipating the report for the coming year it does not seem out of place in the present connection to allude to the fact that the See- retary, in his private capacity, has been appointed by the Presidentone of the commissioners of the more extensive national park upon Rock Creek, contiguous to the Zoological Park, a charge which he has accepted with some reluctance on account of the pressure of present official duties, but with a feeling that by reason of the necessary inti- mate connection between the two national parks the public interests will be subserved by this action. I can not close the report in relation to this new undertaking of the Institution without reference to the loss we have sustained in the death of Senator Beck, who, though not upon the Board of Regents, took a lively interest in the Institution, and a special interest in establishing and placing under its care the preservation of the natural scenery in the neighborhood of the Capital. T regret, also, toreport that near the close of the year, the Institution was reluctantly obliged to accept the resignation of Mr. W. T, Hornaday, curator of living animals in the National Museum, who, having been as- signed to the duty of superintendent of the park under the Commission, it was hoped would be able to accept the position of superintendent of ” the park upon its transfer to the Board of Regents. His efforts assisted the Commission greatly in the selection of the land, and did much to insure the success of the measure before Congress. Dr. Frank Baker honorary curator of the Department of Comparative Anatomy in the Museum, was appointed on June 1, 1890, acting mana- ger of the Zoological Park. 42 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY. Ethnologic researches among the North American Indians were con- tinued by the Smithsonian Institution, in compliance with acts of Con- gress, during the year 1889-90, under the direction of Maj. J. W. Pow- ell, Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. The work of the Bureau of Ethnology during the year has proceeded along accustomed lines. Investigations in relation to the Sign Lan- guage and Pictography of the American Indian, preliminary reports of which subjects have appeared in annual reports of the Bureau, have been discontinued and the final results of this study will soon appear. Investigations of the Mounds of the eastern United States have also been practically brought to an end and the final discussion of the subject will speedily be published. The archeologie researches which have been inaugurated in the vicin- ity of Washington have already been fruitful of results of more than local interest. Excavations into the quarry sites and workshops of ihe district have shown that the class of archeologic objects from this vicinity, which have hitherto been assumed to be paleolithic and to represent the rude implements of primitive man, are in fact nothing but the “‘rejects” of much more recent times; and that however far back in point of time some of them may date, they are not separable from the rejects of the historic Indian. As usual, considerable attention has been paid to the collection of linguistic material, both because it is thought that languages form the only safe basis for classifying peoples, and because no material relating to our Indians is vanishing with such rapidity. The latter reason has also impelled the collection of Indian mythology. Myths are hardly more enduring than the languages in which they are preserved. Though they may persist to some extent after a language decays and falls into partial disuse, it is only in a degraded and emasculated form that de- prives them of their chief value, as embodying the religious ideas and the philosophy of primitive peoples. The medicine practices of the Indian have also received much atten- tion and a large number of the plants used in the Indian Materia Medica have been collected, preserved, and their Indian and botanical names obtained. In addition, the formulas and secret practices attend- ing their use have been carefully recorded. As was to be expected, it has been found that so intimately interwoven are the Indian systems of religign and medicine that it is practically impossible to say where the one ends and the other begins. It has also been demonstrated that contrary to popular belief, the chief and almost sole effacacy possessed by so-called Indian medicine lies, not in the inherent virtue of the } | REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 43 plants used, but in the mystic properties imparted to them by the sor- cerers or professional *“* Medicine men.” During the year one of the Bureau assistants visited Casa Grande, in Arizona, with a view to determining the best method to give effect to the act passed by Congress for preserving the ancient ruin. The preservation from the hand of the vandal and the effects of time and exposure of the more important Indian mounds and ruins which are situated within the national domain, is one that may well receive at- tention. The land upon which many of them are situated is of little value for economic purposes, and the comparatively small outlay re- quired for their restoration, when such is necessary, and for their pres- ervation, is small when contrasted with their historical and archeologi- cal value and their popular interest. No phase of tribal life and society presents a more curious and inter- esting study than that exhibited by the Pueblo Indians, who, in many respects, were far in advance of less sedentary tribes. Study of one of them, Sia, was begun during the year, and other Pueblos will be visited and studied in succession. Further details respecting the work of the Bureau will be found in the report of its director, Major J. W. Powell, given in full in Appen- dix I. NECROLOGY. SAMUEL SULLIVAN COX. I am ealled upon to record here the death of one of the most public- spirited and versatile members of Congress that have served upon the Board of Regents, the Hon. Samuel Sullivan Cox, a member of the House of Representatives, who was born at Zanesville, Ohio, Septem- ber 30, 1824, and first elected a Regent on December 19,1861. He died at his home in New York on the 10th of September, 1859. At a meeting of the Board, held on the 8th of January, 1890, a com- mittee was appointed to prepare resolutions on the services and char- acter of Mr. Cox, consisting of the Secretary, Hon. Joseph Wheeler, Dr. Welling, and Hon. Mr. Lodge, and they subsequently reported as follows: To the Board of Regents: Your committee report that the Hon. S. 8. Cox was first appointed a Regent of the Smithsonian Institution December 19, 1861, and that he filled that office, except for intervals caused by public duties, to the time of his death. While he was not aregular attendant at all the meetings of the Board, he was ever ready to advance the interests of the Institution and of science, either as a Regent or as a member of Congress; and although such men as Hamlin, Fessenden, Colfax, Chase, Garfield, Sherman, Gray, and Waite, in a list comprising Presidents, Vice-Presidents, Chief-Justices, and Senators of the United States, were his associates, 44 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. there were none whose service was longer or more gratefully to be re- membered, nor perhaps any to whom the Institution owes more than to Mr. Cox. The regard in which his brother Regents held Mr. Cox’s accuracy of characterization and his instinctive recognition of all that is worthiest of honor in other men may be inferred from the eulogies which he was requested by them to deliver among which may be particularly men- tioned the one at the commemoration in honor of Professor Henry in the House of Representatives. But though these only illustrate a very small part of his services as a Regent, your committee are led by their cousideration to recall that his first act upon your Board was the prep- aration and delivery of an address at the request of the Regents on their late colleague, Stephen A. Douglas, and that on this occasion he used words which your committee permit themselves to adopt, as being in their view singularly characteristic of Mr. Cox himself: ‘It was not merely as one of its Regents that he showed himself the true and enlightened friend of objects kindred to those of this estab- lishment; he ever advocated measures which served to advance knowl- edge and promote the progress of humanity. The encouragement of the fine arts, the rewarding of discoverers and inventors, the organiza- tion of exploring expeditions, as well as the general diffusion of educa- tion, were all objects of his special regard.” In view of these facts it is— Resolved, That in the death of Hon. Samuel Sullivan Cox the Smith- sonian Institution has suffered the irreparable loss of a long-tried friend, the Board of Regents of a most valued associate and active member dur- ing fifteen years of service, and the country of one of its most distin- guished citizens. Resolved, That the Board of Regents desire to express their deep sympathy with the bereaved family of the deceased, and that a copy of these resolutions be transmitted to the widow of their late associate. Mr. Cox was descended from a long line of distinguished ancestors. His father, Hon. Ezekiel Taylor Cox, who moved from New Jersey to Zanesville early in the century, held the position of State senator and clerk of the supreme court of Ohio; his grandfather, General James Cox, was an officer in the Revolution, speaker of the New Jersey assembly, and member of Congress at the time of his death; his great- grandfather, Judge Joseph Cox, was a distinguished man of his time, as were his great-great-grandfather, James Cox, and his great great- great-grandfather, Thomas Cox, one of the original proprietors of the province of East New Jersey. ‘Upon the completion of a classical course Mr. Cox studied law, and at theage of twenty-five, turning his attention to journalism, was the editor of the Columbia Statesman; at twenty-nine he was the chairman of the committee of the Democratic party of Ohio. When scarcely more than thirty he was offered an appointment as secretary of legation to Great Britain, but declined the honor, though he afterwards accepted a similar position and represented the United States at Peru. At thirty-two he was elected to Congress aad continued as a member of that, body, almost without interruption, for a period of over thirty years. He was elected Speaker pro tempore of the House of Representatives a REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 45 in 1876, and was minister to Turkey during the first part of President Cleveland’s administration, receiving from the Sultan shortly after this mission the degree of the order of the Mejidieh. Of Mr. Cox’s political career it is unnecessary to speak. The unani- mity with which his fellow-Congressmen hastened to pay tribute to his memory, in terms most glowing and affectionate, attests his esteem in the House of Representatives. No one upon the floor of the House of Representatives in late years has appreciated more fully or bas cham- pioned to such an extent the cause of science. To him the scientific departments of the Government looked for assistance and appreciation ; as a member of the Board of Regents he was a firm supporter of the liberal policy laid down for the Institution by Professor Henry. Respectfully sabmitted. S. P. LANGLEY, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. APPENDICES TO SECRETARY'S REPORT. APPENDIX I. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR OF THE BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY. Sir: I have the honor to present the following report upon the work of the year, dividing it for convenience into two general heads, viz, field work and office work. FIELD WORK. The field work of the year is divided into (1) mound explorations and (2) general field studies, the latter having been directed during the year chiefly to archeology, language, religious practices, and pictography. Mound explorations.—The work of exploring the mounds of the eastern United States was, as in former years, under the superintendence of Prof. Cyrus ‘Thomas. During this year he discontinued explorations in person, being engaged almost the entire time upon the preparation of the second volume of his report and of an ad- ditional bulletin, with accompanying maps of the archzologic localities. Mr. Henry L. Reynolds, however, was employed during the summer in exploring the works in Manitoba and the two Dakotas with special reference to their types and distribution. The results of this investigation proved very satisfactory, as the types within this area are found to be unusually well defined, according to physical struct- ure and contents. While thus employed other archeological remains were noted and examined, such as the bowlder outlines of circles and animals and the ancient village sites on the Missouri River. A full report concerning these investigations will ap- pear in the forthcoming report of Professor Thomas. Mr. Reynolds also made a visit to certain earthworks in lowa and Indiana for the purpose of ascertaining their types. In the autumn he was employed in South Carolina and Georgia exploring the mounds of that section, about which little was known. Two mounds—a large one on the Wateree River, below Camden, South Carolina, and one on the Savannah River, Georgia—proved of special interest. The contents of the latter consisted of as fine specimens of every class of primitive art as have been found in mounds. Mr. James D. Middleton, who had acted as a regular assistant from the organiza- tion of the division, wasengaged during the month of July, 1889, in surveying and making plats of certain ancient works of Michigan and Ohio. At the end of the month he resigned his position in the Bureau. Mr. James Mooney, although engaged in another line of research, obtained impor- tant information for the Mound Division, in reference to the location, distribution, and character of the ancient works of the Cherokee in western North Carolina and adjoining sections. General Field Studies.—In the autumn of 1889 Mr. W. H. Holmes was directed to take charge of the archologie field-work of the Bureau. In September he began exca- vations in the ancient bowlder quarries upon Piney Branch of Rock Creek, near Washington. A trench was carried across the principal quarry, which had a width of more than 50 feet and a depth in places of 10 feet. The ancient methods of quarrying and working the bowlders were studied and several thousands of specimens were col- 47 48 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. lected. Work was resumed in the next spring and five additional trenches were opened across widely separated portions of the ancient quarries. Much additional information was collected, and many specimens were added to the collection. In June work was commenced on another group of ancient quarries, situated north of the new Observatory, on the west side of Rock Creek. Very extensive quarrying and implement-making had been carried on in this place. The conditions and phenomena were almost identical with those of the Piney Branch site. Subsequently an ancient soapstone quarry near ‘enallytown was examined. The ancient pitting corresponded quite closely with that of the bowlder quarries and the condition of the pits indi- cated equal age. Dr. W. J. Hoffinan proceeded early in July to White Earth Reservation, Minnesota, to continue the collection and study of mnemonic and other records relating to the Midé wiwin or ‘Grand Medicine Society ” of the Ojibwa Indians. He had already spent two seasons with this tribe, and having been satisfactorily prepared, was initiated into the mysteries of the four several degrees of the society, by which means he was enabled to record the ceremonials of initiation, which was desired by the Indians, so that a complete exposition of the traditions of the Ojibwa cosmogony and of the Midé’ Society could be preserved for the information of their descendants. Through intimate acqnaintance with, and recognition by, the Midé’ priests, Dr. Hoffmann secured all the important texts employed in the ceremony—much of which is in an archaic form of speech—as well as the musical notation of songs sung to him for that purpose; also the birch-bark records of the society, and the mnemonic songs on bireh- bark, employed by the Mide’ priests, as weli as those of the Jé’ssakki’d and the Wa- béno’, which represent two other grades of Shamans. The so-called cosmogony charts, four versions of which were secured, had not pre- viously been exhibited to a white man, nor to Indians until after the necessary fees had been paid for such service, preparatory to admission into the society. He also secured, as having connection with the general subject, a list of plants and other substances constituting the materia medica of the above-named locality, the method of their preparation, administration, and reputed action, the whole being connected with incantation and exorcism. Mr. Victor Mindeleff made ashort trip (from December 7 to January 20) to the ruin of Casa Grande, in Arizoua, visiting also the sites of Mr. F. H. Cushing’s work while in charge of the Hemenway expedition. Plans and photographs were secured on this trip, and fragments of typical pottery were collected from the principal ruin visited. Casa Grande was found to be almost identical in character with the many ruins scattered over the valleys of both the Gila and Salado. On July 3 Mr. James Mooney started on a third trip to the Cherokee reservation in North Carolina, returning November 17, During this time he devoted his atten- tion chiefly to the translation and study of the sacred formulas used by the Shamans, obtained by him during a previous visit. In this work he employed the service of the most prominent medicine men, among them being the writers of some of the original formulas, and obtained detailed explanations of the accompanying ceremonies and the theories upon which they were based, together with descriptions of the mode of preparing the medicine and the various articles used in the same connection. He was also permitted to witness a number of these ceremonies, notedly the solemn rite known as ‘‘ going to water.” About three hundred specimens of plants used in the medicine practice were also collected, with their Indian names and uses, in addition to about five hundred previously obtained, These plants were sent to the botanists of the Smithsonian Institution for identification under their scientific names. The study of these Cherokee plant names, in connection with the medical formulas, will throw much light upon Indian botanic classification and therapeutics. The study of the botany is a work of peculiar difficulty, owing to the absence of any uniform sys- tem among the various practitioners. Attention was also given to the ball play, and several photographs of different stages of the ball dance were secured. One of the REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 49 oldest men of the tribe was also employed to prepare the feather wands used in the eagle dance, the pipe dance of the prairie tribes, and the calumet dance spoken of by the early Jesuit writers, which has now been discontinued among the Cherokees for about thirty years, These wands were deposited in the National Museum as a part of the Cherokee collection, obtained on various visits to the reservation. A considerable amount of miscellaneous information in regard to myths, dances, ete., was obtained, and a special study was made of their geographic nomenclature for the purpose of preparing an aboriginal map of the old Cherokee country. With this object a visit was made to the outlying Indian settlements, especially that on Cheowah River, in Graham County, North Carolina, and individuals originally from widely- separated districts were interviewed. ‘Lhe maps of the Geological Survey, on a scale of 2 miles to an inch, were used in the work, and the result is a collection of probably more than one thousand Cherokee names of localities within the former territory of the tribe, given in the correct form, with the meaning of the names and whatever local legends are connected. In North Carolina practically every local name now known to the Cherokees has been obtained, every prominent peak or rock, and every cove ind noted bend in a stream having a distinctive name. For Georgia and a por- tion of Tennessee the names must be obtained chiefly from old Indians now living in the Indian Territory. It may be noted here that as a rule the Cherokees and some other tribes have no names for rivers or settlements. The name belongs to the dis- trict and is applied alike to the stream, town, or mountain located in it. When the people of a settlement remove, the old name remains behind, and the town in its new location takes the name attached to the new district. Each district along a river has a distinet name, while the river as a whole has none, the whole tendency in Indian languages being to specialize. The last six weeks of this field season were spent by Mr. Mooney in visiting various points in North and South Carolina, Georgia, Tennessee, and Alabaina, within the former limits of the Cherokees, for the purpose of locating mounds, graves, and other antiquities for an archzologic map of their ter- ritory, and collecting from former traders and old residents materials for a historic sketch of the tribe. Mr. Jeremiah Curtin spent July, and until August 28, 1889, at various points on the Klamath River, from Orleans Bar to Martin’s Ferry, Humboldt County, California, in collecting myths and reviewing vocabularies of the Weitspekan and Ehnikan lan- guages. From August 30 to September 10 he was at Blue Lake and Arcata, Hum- boldt County, California, engaged in taking down a Wishoshkan vocabulary and collecting information concerning the Indians of the region thereabout. Arriving in Round Valley, Mendocino County, California, September 16, he remained there till October 16, and took vocabularies of the Yuki and Palaihnihan language. From Round Valley he went to Niles, Alameda County, California, where he obtained partial vocabularies of three languages formerly spoken in that region. Of these one was spoken at Suisun, another was kindred to the Mariposan, a third was Costanoan. On October 27 he arrived in Redding, Shasta County, California, where he obtained a considerable addition to his material previously collected in the form of myths and additions to the Palaihnihan vocabulary. During this work he visited also Round Mountain. On January 10, 1890, he returned to office work. From July 10 to November 9, 1889, Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt was engaged in field work. Until September 7 he was on the Onondaga reservation, near Syracuse, New York, where legends, tales, and myths were collected and recorded in the vernacular; also accounts of the religious ceremonies and funeral rites were obtained, the terms form- ing the Onondagan scheme of relationships of affinity and consanguinity were recorded, and valuable matter pertaining to the league and its wampum record was also collected. From the last mentioned date to the 9th of November he was engaged on the Grand River reservation in Canada, where he successfully made special etfort to obtain the chants and speeches used in the condolence council of the league. ‘The religious doc- H. Mis, 129: 4 50 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. trines and beliefs of the pagan Iroquois were recorded; plant and animal names were collected ; many religious and gentile songs were secured, and accounts of the prin- cipal Iroquoian ‘“‘ medicines” in the vernacular were obtained. A Wyandot vocabu- lary was also recorded. : Mrs. T. E. Stevenson left Washington in March, 1890, to study the Sia, Jemez, and Zuni Indians. She made Sia her first point of investigation, and found so much of ethnologic interest in this Pueblo that she continued her work there to the end of the fiscal year engaged in making a vocabulary and studying the habits, eustoms, mythol- ogy, and medicine practices of these people. She has been admitted to the cere- monials of the secret societies and has made detailed accounts of them, the altars being photographed by Miss M. 8. Clark, who accompanied her. Her investigations so far have resulted in a clear exposition of the religion of the people. OFFICE WORK. The Director was engaged during the year, when his other duties would permit, in the preparation of a work on the characteristics of Indian languages. Col. Garrick Mallery, U.S. Army, was occupied in continued study of sign language and pictography with the collection and collation of additional material obtained by personal investigation, by correspondence, and by the examination of authorities, This work was performed with special reference to the preparation for early publica- tion of a monograph on each of those subjects, that on pictography to be first pre- sented. The re-arrangement and revision of material already published in the pre- liminary papers on the sign language and on the pictographs of the North American Indians which respectively appeared in the first and fourth annual reports of this Bureau, and the insertion of matter obtained later by exploration and research, have been conjoined with discussion and comparison. By this treatment it is hoped that the monographs on sign language and pictography, having as their text the attain- ments of the North American Indians in those directions, may contribute to the understanding of similar exhibitions of evanescent and durable thought-writing, whether still employed in other parts of the world or now only found in records of material remains. During the fiscal year Mr. H. W. Henshaw was engaged, in addition to his admin- istrative duties, in assisting the Director in the final preparation of the linguistic map of North America north of Mexico, and the accompanying report, which is now completed and in the hands of the printer. He also began the final revision for the printer of his dictionary of Indian tribal names. Rev. J. Owen Dorsey completed his editorial work in connection with the publica- tion of Riggs’ Dakota-English Dictionary. He wrote articles on the following sub- jects: Measures and valuing ; The Dha-du-ghe Society of the Ponka tribe; Omaha dwellings, furniture, and implements; Omaha clothing and personal ornaments; Ponka and Omaha songs; The places of gentes in Siouan camping circles; Winne- bago folklore notes; Teton folklore; Omaha folklore; The gentile system of the Siletz tribes; and a Dakota’s account of the sun-dance. He revised some of his Omaha and Ponka genealogical tables and began the arrangement of Kansa tables of a similar character. He continued the elaboration of his monograph on Indian per- sonal names, and completed the following lists in which the Indian names precede their English meanings: Winnebago, 383 names; Iowa, Oto, and Missouri, 520; Kwapa, 15; and Kansa, 604. Dr. Dorsey finished the preparation of his texts for Contributions to North Ameri- can Ethnology, Vol. 6, The Gegiha Language. Part 1. Additional myths, stories, and letters, and corrected proof for the volume as far as page 651. He prepared w manuscript of other Omaha and Ponka letters, to be published as a bulletin. He began an article entitled “ A study of Siouan cults,” for which over forty colored illustrations were prepared by Indians, under his direction; and of this article he ¢ REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 51 completed four chapters, treating of the cults of the Omaha, Ponka, Kansa, Osage, Iowa, Oto, Missouri, and Winnebago tribes, and half of a fifth chapter that describes the cults of the Dakota and Assiniboin. When not otherwise engaged, he was occu- pied in making entries on slips for the Gegiha-English Dictionary. From September to December, 1889, he obtained from George Miller, an Omaha, who came to Wash- ington to aid him, additional myths, legends, letters, folklore, and sociologic material, grammatical notes and corrections of dictionary entries, besides genealogical tables arranged according to the subgentes as weil as the gentes of the Omaha tribe. During the year Mr. Albert 8. Gatschet was wholly engaged in office work. He finished his last draught of the ‘‘ Klamath Grammar,” a language of southwestern Ore- gon, making numerous additions, also appendices, as follows: Idioms and dialectic differences in the language; colloquial form of the language; syntactic examples; complex synonymous terms; roots with their derivatives. The typographic work on the grammar was terminated, the proofs and revises having all been read by the au- thor. The last portion of the entire work, being the “ethnographic sketch of the Klamath people,” was then re-written from earlier notes while consulting the best topographic and historical materials obtainable. Mr. Gatschet also drew a map of “the headwaters of the Klamath River,” the home of the tribes, being on a scale of 15 miles to the inch, which will appear as the frontispiece in Part 1. The “ethnographic sketch” is now in the hands of the printer. Mr. Jeremiah Curtin was engaged from January 10 to June 30, 1890, in arranging the myth material collected by him in the field and in copying vocabularies. The Hupa, Ehnikan, and Wishoshkan vocabularies were finished and the Yana partly done on June 30, 1890. The office work of Dr. W. J. Hoffman consisted in arranging the material gathered by him during the preceding three field seasons and in preparing the manuscript for publication, which has been completed. During the first three months of the year 1890 a delegation of Menomoni Indians were at Washington, District of Columbia, on business connected with their tribe, and during that period Dr. Hoffman obtained from thei a collection of facts relating to mythology, social organization and goy- ernment, the gentile system and division of gens into phratries, together with many facts relating to the Miti’/wit, or ‘‘Grand Medicine Society” as they term it. These are interesting and valuable, as some portions of the ritual explain doubtful parts of the Ojibwa phraseology, and vice versa, although the two societies differ greatly in the dramatized portion of the forms of initiation. On his return from the field in November Mr. James Mooney devoted his attention to the elaboration of the sacred formulas already obtained. Two hundred of these formulas, being about one-third of the whole number, have now been translated. In each case the translation from the original manuscript in Cherokee characters is given first, then a translation following the idiom and spirit of the original as closely as possible, and finally an explanation of the medicine and ceremonies used and the underlying theory. About one-half of the whole number relate to medicine. The others deal with love, war, self-protection, the ball play, agriculture, and life-con- juring. A preliminary paper with a number of specimen formulas will appear in the seventh annual report of the Bureau. The whole collection will constitute a unique and interesting contribution to the aboriginal literature of America. All the words occurring in the formulas thus far translated have been glossarized, with granimatic notes and references from the original texts, making a glossary of about two thousand words, a great part of which are in the archaic or sacred language. Several weeks were also given to the preparation of an archeologic map of the old Cherokee country from materials collected in the field and from other information in possession of the Bureau. During the year Mr. W. H. Holmes has been chiefly engaged in the preparation of papers on the Arts of the Mound Builders, to form a part of the monograph upon the Mound Builders, by Prof. Cyrus Thomas, Four papers are contemplated ; one upon 52 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Pottery, a second upon Art in Shell and Bone, a third upon Textile Fabrics, and a fourth upon Pipes. Three of these papers are well advanced towards completion. In addition to this work he has prepared papers relating to his field explorations. These include a report upon excavations in the ancient quartzite bowlder workshops and the soapstone quarries of the District of Columbia, and a rock shelter in West Virginia. Portions of these papers have been published in the American Anthro- pologist. Mr. James C. Pilling has continued to devote such time as he could command for the purpose to the preparation of bibliographies of the languages of North America, At the close of the fiscal year 1888-’89 the proof-reading of the Bibliography of the Muskhogean Languages was completed, but the edition was not ready for delivery. It was delivered August 8, 1889. After the Muskhogean Bibliography had been finished, work was at once begun on the Algonquian, by far the largest of those yet undertaken. Much of the material for this was already in hand, the collection having been gradually pursued during several years preceding, and the greater part of the work remaining consisted in assembling, arranging, revising, and verifying that material. August 16-22 were profitably spent by Mr. Pilling in the Lenox, Astor, and New York Historical Society libraries, at New York City, and the Massachusetts Historical Society, Boston Athe- neum, and Boston Public libraries, at Boston, chiefly in verifying and revising the material in hand. The first portion of the manuscript was transmitted to the Public Printer November 15, 1889. At the close of the fiscal year final proof had progressed to the two hundred and fifty-eighth page, carrying the work approximately half way to completion. From the 1st to the 10th of July, 18-9, Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt was engaged in collat- ing and recording Iroquoian proper names, both of persons and places, as they occur in the narratives of the early explorers and historians of the pristine habitat of the Iroquoian peoples. Afterwards, to the 9th of November, he was employed in field work. Upon his return to the office and until the end of the fiscal year he was engaged in translating and annotating the myths, legends, tales, and all of the other matter which he had previously collected in the field ; and in translating and recording for easy reference, for the purpose of verification and exposition of the matter so col- lected, the mythologic, ethnographic, and other anthropologic data found in the early French narratives of the New World, and especially that which is found in the works of Champlain, Lafitau, Charlevoix, and in the Jesait Relations. Much linguistic material has been obtained from the translations of the matter which Mr. Hewitt per- sonally collected while engaging in field work. Prof. Cyrus Thomas was personally engaged during the entire year on the prepara- tion of his report on the field work and collections of the preceding seven years. A bulletin giving the archologic localities within the mound area, together with a series of accompanying maps, was completed for publication. It will form a closely printed octavo of about two hundred and fifty pages. His report, which requires much comparison and reference as well as study of the works explored and objects obtained, is progressing as rapidly as is consistent with proper care and due regard for details, and will be completed and presented for publication during the next fiscal year. Mr. Henry L. Reynolds, on his return from field duty, assisted Professor ‘Thomas in the preparation of that part of his report and bulletin relating to those archxo- logic districts the works of which he had visited. He then resumed the preparation of his paper on the aboriginal use of metal. In May he made an examination of the metal specimens in the private and public archeological collections of New York City, and in June visited Providence and Boston ip search of certain rare historic data relating to the early life and customs of the Indians, both in respect to the use of metal and to other matters. He was engaged in the office upon this work at the close of the fiscal year. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 53 During the year Mr. Victor Mindeleff was engaged upon a report on the architect- ure of Tusayan and Cibola. This work was interrupted by a short field trip to the ruin of Casa Grande, as mentioned under the head of field work, and was resumed on his return from that trip. The report, together with the data for its illustrations, has been finished for publication. A report was also prepared on the repairs and protection of the ruin of Casa Grande, on the Gila River, in Arizona. This report was accompanied by diagram, plans, and aseries ef photographs. He also was occu- pied in an architectural discussion on this ruin, together with one on the ruins on the Rio Salado, excavated by the Hemenway expedition, which were visited by him. During the first four months of the fiscal year Mr. Cosmos Mindeleff was engaged in revising manuscript and otherwise assisting Mr. Victor Mindeleft in the prepara- tion of a report on Pueblo Architecture, his own portion of the report having been previously finished. The report was handed in for publication in December, 1889. He then commenced the preparation of a series of maps, upon which the location of all known ruins in the ancient Pueblo country will be plotted, in order to show their distribution. The maps were partly done and the plotting of the ruins was com- menced. When completed the maps will show the location of all ruins mentioned in literature or known to explorers and will be accompanied by a card catalogue con- taining a description of each ruin and reference to the literature relating to it, the whole forming a valuable record. It is intended that a résumé of this shall be pub- lished. During the year the work of the modelling room was continued under the direction of Mr. Cosmos Mindeleff, and was confined almost entirely to the enlargement of the “duplicate series,” referred to in previous reports. The large model of Peflasco Blanco, one of the Chaco ruins, reported last year as commenced, was completed, cut into sec- tions for convenience of shipment, and boxed. A duplicate of a model of the Pueblo of Tewa, the original of which was made in 1883, was finished and exchanged for the original in the National Museum. The original was condemned and destroyed and another duplicate was made for the duplicate series. A duplicate was also made of a model of Schumepovi, and the original was put in order and added to the series. A duplicate of a model of the Pueblo of Shipaulovi was also finished and added to the same series. The original model of Casa Blanca cliff ruin was withdrawn from the Museum, and a number of duplicate casts were made, one of which was finished and re-deposited in the Muscum. Duplicates were also made of models of Great Elephant Mound, Great Etowah Mound, and two others. In the latter half of the fiscal year work was commenced on the duplication of two very large models, one of Walpi and the First Mesa, the other of Mummy Cave cliff ruin. The original models had been very hurriedly made for the New Orleans Exposition, and, being cast in plaster of paris, had suffered considerably in transportation. An attempt was made to cast the models in paper, and in both cases the attempt was very successful. The first dupli- cate of the Walpi model was completed and deposited in the National Museum, to replace the original which was destroyed. The finished model weighed about 500 pounds, instead of 2,500 pounds, the weight of the original. The model of the Mummy Cave was cast, but was nos finished at the close of the year. A second dupli- cate of Walpi, for the duplicate series, was cast, but not finished, at the close of the year. It will be divided into sections for convenience of shipment. Toward the close of the year work was commenced on two new models which will be used to illustrate a report of Mr. Holmes, upon his work of the Archeology of the District of Columbia. But one demand was made during the year upon the duplicate series. This was for a number of transparencies to be exhibited as a part of the display of the United States at the Paris Exposition. Sixty of these large photographs on glass were sent and two grand prizes were awarded them. Upon the conclusion of the exposition the transparencies were returned, and some damage suffered in transportation was made good by the United States Commission. 54 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. During the year nine models, ranging in size from 2 feet square to 14 by 5 feet, were finished ; twelve models, including duplicate casts, were finished but not painted ; and four models were commenced and not finished. Mr. De Lancey W. Gill during the year succeeded Mr. Holmes in the charge of pre- paring and editing the illustrations for the publications for the Bureau. ‘he fol- lowing list shows the number of drawings that have been prepared under his super- vision for actual publication during the year: Architectural drawings, drawings of mounds, earthworks, ancient ruins, ete-... 102 Maps, diagrams, and sections ......-.--...--.- doin ape (Stattajare le jara (ore Seas els,ctelaiosSieisies see ae 64 Objectstomstone; wood shell hone eiciasss.-5- sence eee eset eee eee cee ee 377 RO bal Paasee ates oot weasiee et cls ee E Se a eee ae ee ee a ee 543 These drawings were prepared from field surveys and sketches, from photographs, and from the objects themselves. No field work has been done by Mr. Gill’s divis- ion during the year although many valuable drawings and photographs were pro- cured in Arizona by Mr. Victor Mindeleff and in the District of Columbia by Mr. W. H. Holmes. The photographie work remains under the able management of Mr. J. K. Hillers. The following statement shows the amount of work done in the laboratory : | Negatives. | Prints. Size. | Nuinber. | Size. Number. |} |—_ pe | 1. nes 36 20 by 24 6 | 20 by 24 26 14 by 17 2 Wye ge | 6 11 by 14 20M eeenlileb yal 128 8 by 8 90 8 by 10 529 5 by 8 14 5bys | 66 Photographs were obtained of Indians from sittings as follows: Tribe. | Number. Dakotayen =< ci--- DEB eLNOBh. 423 UUMOOU) m 2540 pee eek cciselelee tate ocnsieielliamte sinc ieiolteles *6, 206 Letters received.....-... 119 90 84) 108 87 91; 110) 125) 174 149) 195) 182 Letters written.......... 96 41) 164 67| 171 82) 108) 192) 217) 102) 118) 267 56 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Recapitulation. | —— Increase | Increase Yotal. over Total. over 1888-’89. 1888-’89. Number of packages received | 82, 572 | 6, 606 || Domestic individuals -.---.-- 3, 100 490 Weight of packages received | 202, 657 22,729 || Domestic packages sent.----. 13, 216 T4, 002 Entries made: Involeesiwritten:o--24seee5s- 16, 948 | 2, 850 AHOTOIQM sa nie ars cols siaet eels ec = 60, 118 13, 976 || Cases shipped abroad..-...... 873 | 180 Domestionss 2c eee ssn cccne | 16, 352 tI, 924 |} Acknowledgments recorded: | Ledger accounts : | Forel gna. means 8, 398 956 Foreign societies .......-- HL 665 Domesti¢.. Sete secceaecee 9, 026 2,144 Domestic societies.....-.- 1,481 76 || Letters received........-.... 1, 509 205 Foreign individuals. ...... 6, 340 1, 641 || Letters written.......-...... 1, 625 7425 * From December to June inclusive. t Decrease. An idea of the growth of the service since 1886 is conveyed by the annexed sumn- mary: Comparative statement. Packages. | 1886-’87. | 1887-88. | 1888-89. | 1889-’90. P vie NS pS 0 al oe S| | | | SSeS Da ae Re ee eis Rr a Bde PRISE 52,218 | 75,107 | 75, 966 82, 572 Shipped: | TOMS LUC eee eee eee RE 10,294 12,301 | 17, 218 13, 216 obeione eae ae. ae ee PER Per Name ean 41,424 | 62,306 | 58, 035 69, 036 | EXPENSE. The expenses of the Exchange Bureau are met in part by a direct appropriation made by Congress in the following terms: “For expenses of the system of international exchanges between the United States and foreign countries, under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, including salaries or compensation of all necessary employees, fifteen thousand dollars.” This is supplemented by appropriations to several Government Bureaus by which they are enabled to pay a portion of the cost of the exchange of their documents at a rate of 5 cents per pound weight as established by the Board of Regents. Smaller sums have been received from State institutions desiring to make use of the service, and the deficiency is paid from the Smithsonian fund.* The receipts and disbursements by the accounting officer of the Smithsonian Institution on account of the international exchanges, as shown in his statement for the fiscal year, dated July 1, 1890, were as follows: Receipts. Direct appropriation by Congress ............ sous m eelanicsio elses em ares eee Oe eis nie eee $15, 000. 00 Repayment to Smithsonian Institution : United States Government Departments ...--........----- e-- oe oasc-seee 1, 771. 53 Societiesiand/ othersourcesy secs -ceticcorecte ce aces ase coe ceea cence ce nee 18,45 a eS Y7 80.08 *The actual cost of the exchanges from July 1, 1889, to June 30, 1890, compiled from the accounting officer's books and including the receipts and disbursements for the fiscal year, entered up to September 24, 1890, was $17,407.30. Fifteen thousand dollars of this sum ($17,407.30) were appropriated by Congress directly to the Smithsonian Institution, $2,009.34 were repaid to the Institution by Government Bureaus, $28.40 by State institutions and the deficiency, $369.56, was met by the Smithsonian fund. Ors saber REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Br Disbursements. From Con- rressional |,, & oes Repayments. priations. Salaries andicompoensationiofemployGse----: ose + cece scinene ee sciee esses $11, 638. 49 $142. 00 Balaniesoletoreiomiacentssecava-eecasee care selcaiclece sastieniseeecemaeaatece IGEN WO aleosecacsecetho UH OM Gee oes sels cies aioe de nivietsiea ce einke oe wilatisioote dls tis See nbelc eke Siatos nial eraitae Saye 993. 67 1, 113. 06 PACKinOw OXES)-ecis sess ota eee ele eo uloe ae on aiden aie Suiseeenekbisececeecicasls 443.41 222. 50 printing stabionery, postage; OtG---.- =< s9-/-ers- so nesses eos asescsseces 407. 44 316. 53 14,988.01! 1,794.09 Bills for the transportation of exchanges have been rendered to all Government Bureaus receiving or sending publications during the year, except in a few instances where the amount was trifling. The total received from such sources was $1,771.53, as mentioned above. It may not be superfluous to repeat the statement made in previous years, that this method of meeting the expenses of the Exchange Bureau is extremely unsatisfactory both to the Smithsonian Institution and to the Government Bureaus that have occa- sion to make use of the service, and I again recommend that a sufficient appropriation be procured to cover the entire cost of the exchanges, thereby enabling it to under- stand at a glance the exact amount appropriated for such purposes. At present the appropriation is distributed through all the principal appropriation bills of the Government. In order to effect the desired change, that is, to collect in a single item the entire appropriation for international exchanges and at the same time to make allowances for the payment of ocean freight, the sum of $27,500 was asked for, for the fiscal year 1889-90 based upon the detailed statements submitted in my last report. The amount finally appropriated was $15,000, the same as that for the year preceding. CORRESPONDENTS. The number of correspondents now upon our books is 16,002, divided into societies and institutions, individuals, foreign and domestic, as follows: Foreign. | Domestic. SOcCIebIes ANG MINSLILU LIONS) sos cae c cose secs ccicitiewors oe uistaiecro a dalsieiemes smiaeceiesmenien | 5, 131 1, 431 in Gti Gna hy sea585 s6s5gq sonccon SAaeeaaeaeEr cco nOUG UDB Son adibenooeeaaascaaserondc | 6, 340 3, 100 WN Sa Ase A dacntb— SabHOC LO CDE GR EDOARAROOESOCOsORnon a coroe cease roseboncsE- 11, 471 4, 581 A comparison with similar figures for last year shows a net increase of 2,572. INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGE OF OFFICIAL DOCUMENTS. The exchange of official documents between the Government of the United States and that of foreign countries has been carried on through the intermediary of the Smithsonian Institution, though this exchange has only been placed upon a defi- nite diplomatic footing since January 15, 1889, the date upon which the convention signed at Brussels on March 15, 1856, was proclaimed by the President of the United States. This convention, the text of which was given in fullin Dr. Kidder’s report on exchanges for the year 1887~38, provided that there should be established in each of 58 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY the contracting countries a bureau for the special transmission of the publications of its Government, the transactions of its learned societies, etc., to foreign governments and individuals, and for the receipt from the similar bureaus of other countries of the publications of their government and scientific and literary societies, This in- volves, as will be seen. but little or no modification of the present long-established Smithsonian Institution exchange system, and it is hoped that the official recognition of the value of such a service by so many governments will result in extending the scheme that has been in operation here for the past forty years, the expense of which has been borne largely by the funds of James Smithson. In accordance with a provision made in the Brussels Convention the Governments of the Argentine Republic and of Paraguay have signified their adhesion to the con- vention, the former on September 3, 1889, and the latter on December 10, 1889. The countries therefore included in the international agreement are:—The United States of America, the Argentine Republic, Belgium, Brazil, Italy, Paraguay, ONE gal, Servia, Spain, Switzerland, Uruguay. While neither England nor Germany appear in the above list, both of these countries have addressed inquiries to this institution through diplomatic channels with regard to exchanges with our Government, and it is most gratifying to report that the Brit- ish Government, through Her Majesty’s Stationery Oftice, has presented to the Govern- ment of the United States, for deposit in the Library of Congress, an important col- lection of the publications of the parliamentary and executive offices from the years 1882 to 1889, constituting a most valuable series of documents and forming apartial return for the series of publications issued by our own Government since 1868 and sent regularly to the British Museum. Moreover we have the assurance that this valuable series will be continued in annual shipments. The Government of Germany has also expressed its appreciation of the international exchange service in such a way as to lead us to expect that it will in due time make fitting acknowledgment of the series of United States Government publications pre- sented to the Royal Public Library, and to the Library of the Imperial German Par- liament at Berlin. A second convention made at Brussels, and also proclaimed by the President on the 15th of January, 1889, provided fortheimmediate exchange of Parliamentary journals and the like, but it had not at the close of the fiscal year been set in satisfactory operation. An effort was made by a letter addressed to the Department of State on December 12, 1859, to carry out the stipulations of this treaty as far as the United States Government was concerned, and upon the recommendation of the Secretary of State a joint resolution appropriating $2,000 for the purpose was passed by the Sen- ate on January 22, 1890, but it has not yet been acted upon by the House. EFFICIENCY OF THE SERVICE. An inspection of the tables presented at the beginning of this report bears suf- ficient evidence that the Bureau has not decreased in efficiency during the past year, especially when it is considered that the increased number (6,606) of packages was handled and accounted for with a decrease in the clerical force during eleven months. At the close of the year there were but 321 packages on hand and the record work was tolerably well up to date. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 59 The distribution to foreign countries was made in 873 cases, representing 385 trans- missions, as follows: Cases. AT FONtINEOMREPUDLIG waecteciscescs cesis OL PANES HTH ate hoes che a cect eects iT Al acl enege meena soe etait aoe. 4 BV ailame nts: cistre sects Aes seisbre oe 4 Seca meee were a wee eee ness. i2 1 bya) Gigwise 8 Nas eR A cee 1 CO PINE CUR Gee ote arse Atos he eee a asc ID nies sees eee ek tate oerce nis Sees 3: Cea eS a ee 2 8 COlOMDIS Seeasaeneee ooo ee ee eee 6 Costaeicas: cess cS ee eee » Wi ieee ee tee ee IE 8 3 Denim arian teers) -a a aoane Bene aoe eee 9 OutehiGWilan aeeseso ese oes eee ee 1 HCuadOreeeer eee aoe eee ees 2 PSY Diber sao cee cieht aac ones Seen 2 IRIAN C Orewa thes eee lee aerate ots ener ces 2a Germany ee sae= sac aee eee ee, wees Pas Greate oribsiescae chelsea tetera ee 30 Greece sai sen ee coe teeta sae 6 Guaatemal aeweae sess ee eee ese sso 2 VAY iO Se eteynsietociety aw sere Sistas te eros 6 PMG PABY. Seeee os. sees een See 4 Nay aera css cca eeite oo ese 5 He realy penetra Pee gc Es CEE 18 AD Aer eee ete erate cies) Ae es 10 WibGriageeeee see ens eee se 2 © Nicaragua NOW aye cies crccoece es cae mee Paraguay .---- dsae Scaaee eeeueee ines Perutiee ons acae cee eas aoe IBOlYMGSi Wie aac cpeeee ts sae eee eee BOnbU Pale oes St ye se) eee eee ea Prussia* @neenslandes sa. teee oe ee aoe RUSSIAS eae Sate een rete ae 18 m= WW HH © Ww OW ide) 5 Shah es PE 1 Saxony * 4 SOUMPATIS UT allio nent yee hes 8 9 ee ee eae. Spaieetees SWC OI ae ere ote n nee 6 Murken esate co ters ees asie aceite 6 Ummenay ssscs sah 3: siecce see seta 2 WeneZ uel apse n sre essere aeeeyoee a Victoria 8 Wiestrlmdiesss-o-.cosecee eee oe eeaes (ft) Whittemibencsess> seseertese Sosnesdbd 4 * Miscellaneous exchanges included in transmissions to Germany. tIn addition to a large amount sent by mail. t By mail. The entire number of publications sent abroad during the year under the pro- visions of the act of Congress of March 2, 1867, has been 27,300, and there have been received in return but 1,820 packages or volumes. The United States Govern- ment Departments have forwarded to their correspondents abroad through the Bureau 16,496 packages or volumes, and have received in return 8,886. The total, then, of the exchanges for the enrichment of the Government libraries has been 10,706 pack- ages received and 43,796 packages sent abroad, a total of 54,502 packages, or 66 per cent. of the total number of packages handled. 60 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Statement of Governmental exchanges distributed during the year 1889~90. Packages. Packages. eer sent coed Sent for. y- fie. by. American Ephemeris ..---.------ UD eer Library of Congress.....-....-. 12207 Reenaneee Army Medical Museum .....-.-.. y jal Paes icht-Mouse boardsssses-eeeeeee 2 9 Botanical Gardens .-.----.--.---. 1 il Marine Hospital ...--.- teste total peikesveme 72 Bureau of Education .....--.-..- Gholbseconas |, Nantical’Auimanae 22-22-21 -- 18 31 Bureau of Engineers, U.S. Army. 43 272 National Academy..-.-..-...--. 276 1, 558 Bureau of Ethnology .-.---.----. 9 2,669 || National Board of Health -...-.- 25 | secon Bureau of the Mint......./....-. aE eels National Museum -...-...-.-..--- 106 | 2,200 Bureau of Statistics -......-----. 16 2 || Navy Department ...--......--. 7 | 2 Census Bureau. ..---- ORO DRCSSCES Os Reps bo | Naval Observatory ....-....---- 113 | 811 Coast Surveyacee cscs - ce sce z 72 18 || Office of Indian Affairs -.....-.. Shee sae Commissioners of the District of | Ordnance Bureau, U.S, Army... 5 7 Columbiaw-s-s-.22-2-cesrocees== La lisetisre Paberntn© Mcepes--eese eee eeeee 212 | 497 Comptroller of the Currency .-.. IW llSseacce Smithsonian Institution .....--. | 1,795 | 3,657 Department of Agriculture.-.--- 95 896 || Smithsonian Institution (by | Department of the Interior..--.- 23 102 Mf) SSooSoossee Scoseasescaes: a5; (050)) Seeeeeee Department of Labor.......----- 6 99 | Smithsonian Institution (re- Department of State ...-...-.-- A lettssteste turned to Document Division) . 22 eee Entomological Commission .---- Chllbeseceee leSignaliO fice mena -rsensee seer 74 175 MxchaneeBureaulsssseseceseacee So eect | Surgeon-General...........:...- 136 392 HishiCommission esses ese ses ese: 91 414 | Treasury Department ...------- 11 4 General Land Office...--..-..---. Ae erie as War Department -..2...---..--- 17 128 Geological Survey .....-.-------- 413 | 2,685 "10, 695 16, 494 House of Representatives . .----. UG Be eteerto Pubic cinta | 27, 300 Hydrographic Office -......------ ASU Sees Se ee | 10,625 | 43, 794 MNotaliGovernent exchanges. <2 .- Ss ie ut J Pee ae aio EI IED? es , = NATIONAL - ZO0LOGICAL MAP SHOWING THE LOCATION OF THE NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL Park. ‘. ¢ 90S. ANA JASCO 7 ba 9 s, Eg zr nm = aay = & = 7 , ; : | = i : ; : te ; : = an ; Files - i 1 i : . ie — - as ‘ib i \iludiwie Teh Lipanelliv id 2 ive mliedlo Tom ayets ee aa tt Leh nee Wily Pee GovieinHEl) ond Many oe th pif en Rae re a Ringer festly VW tilaet need Rita tet, wr heirs o's febica panei er v x : were ree at tigre ini! here nay preci), Cae RN | {pinot Se ee ‘ ° ' eu aaa re oie the wid Tweed Olt) Traetuiop oe) ort Lt 4a) i 7 ae hig nord 8he Wich y ; > Monier Dill wily Waid Le ery: sale a (00 aie 1 A C2 OMT LS ni wiih ay agate PUL Kise TIP aloe bicycles hae cine trovbiwvns (rely he yy whi svey fy aera | rik } c ae | (ye y aay ¥ od 3 : “ 7 lp ¢ ry: ay 1) send, iin Aan = poe - ae me pried beh \ ia es aed . j i i ve { yu ps 1p A tgs! Vine A ony hei aya Til) & 410 OO Gam ee ph ed ATTY Pos a a , Levy rt *14ery ih LU i PAMB Ot F be ws 4 : . i+ , ¥ : ” Bien | ’ ity ‘ mri is 2 Hei 4) 8 aye ae, Fs ney 3 ie ’ yl? arehliy Pode ie Gl te (ane Sr sisit, Tele ‘ ei) rim on + aeahiurt fi oi s' ’ : e ' oh cise Ppa hiaiiz - Ay fle : : Pes AS Lk WM” j ‘ ’ i : f wit ret Aas we peda |e atrh penny iA ; ps ota { i ‘aw ti iba » L uliidid yh ij AL fh _ ari nt i" a 5 » 14 pe uw a Wi Vay 7 “f : iy vas if. ea) * 4 Me ; | | ‘ fy Rie Pierypent rat } f ? Aoiks fs] : oe Pht Piiaat Ttaive, Wi! ¥ ie i ere Allis a hirw pint my. Joly Gini ic “ i pxortiag oF 7 iT Ty) Wiad ae nus en Ae ’* bis we 0) Cog FE geet : 7 ; - hw ook WAR tha : what fabii bi UAly Me ba peli ayy? et? ad ‘ion saritian ip CTA ty he MALT OS yah win WR wintige fol ie a a A i ; a fs gh pees At 1 ite ae — rory win 19, que ie einvaotariwnn athe, Bie 1 1) Ge eo? ‘ys or Oe, —— , cue e tad Ppeerie, pone <= me ha le Wir mel hi al ry, ee, Mir ee ‘na vita ue Hp Gl Cees af Caenntel gerevegh j ' Or LiFe) J Re Oat 4 P iy : ye 4 (iit fa *- yj treat pe aR OdE 5 We Ayrton or Manan vinckiea? ax a. Naat te Masi pies Tigom Onl. , peel git LAnntagy tive. trl Leal yy Planes wm rate a A J.P. Klingle. 6.18Acres < «gy; Miss A.E.J.Evans. 94.05 Acres S € \ J fois) g S ah a) = Hy £ rn a MAP © i or THE oie ) a iT oy NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK AS SURVEYED AND PLATTED BY THE U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, AND RECOBDED BY THE ZOOLOGICAL PARK COMMISSION, NOVEMBER 2i, 1689. Area: 166.48 acres. Scale: 1 inch = 500 feet, Redrawn and engraved to accompany the report of the Commission. + REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 65 It has hitherto been impossible to give suitable housing to these animals, most of which are gifts to the Government, and many of them are kept ina long, low shed, imperfectly lighted and heated, wherein animals accustomed to the most diverse cli- mates are of necessity indiscriminately placed, the common Virginia opossum receiy- ing the same heat and treatment that serves for the parrots and cockatoos. In an annex to this shed the monkeys are placed, and it has been possible to give them somewhat more suitable protection. The larger animals are confined either in sep- arate out-door cages or in shelter-barns and pens, but these constructions are un- suitable and insufficient even for the small number of such animals kept. Happily, this condition is not a permanent one, as Congress has provided for the care and maintenance of the collection in the National Zoological Park. No zoological collection has ever been placed in a site so satisfactory. It is ample in extent, being about four times larger than any zoological garden in this country and from ten to fifteen times the size of most of the gardens of Europe. It is within a short distance of the city, being but little over one-half mile from its limits (see map No. 1) easily accessible by excellent roads; yet it has all the quiet and seclusion of a remote country district. Within its bounds every variety of slope exposure is found, from the north sides of hills covered with dense growth, suitable for animals requiring coolness and shade, to the sunny southern aspects for tropical and sub- tropical species. The natural variety of surface is also great. Rocks form natural cliffs where wild sheep and goats can jump and climb ; densely wooded portions form an excellent cover for shy animals, and a large open field along the creek affords an opportunity for excellent grazing grounds. In the creek itself aquatic animals and birds may be suitably reared. That the picturesqueness of the region is notable isshown by the names given to different parts of it in the grants and early deeds of the eighteenth century, There it is found that a considerable part of the park was known as ‘‘ Pretty Prospect,” also as “The Rock of Dunbarton,” while other parts are from the tracts of ‘‘ Mount Pleasant” and ‘‘ Pleasant Plains.” The actual owners from whom the site was im- mediately derived are shown on the accompanying map No. 2. . == a it aa i vi GIN C yeu eenee sass 4 4.98 5. 16 0,44 GLUCysnie=ee oss 4.98 5. 16 0. 44 je-Cassiopeie -.:. 2.-- 5. 40 3.75 0.04 Polarisnessssssce neo: 2.05 0.05 0.08 a @assiopeie: 5- s25-5- 2.41 0.05 0. 04 PICASSIOPEle- eee see 2.32 0,55 0.16 y Cassiopers -.-- 2... 2. 19 0. 02 0.01 | aqvenheig ass. see Qed 0.16 0.06 | The greater part of this volume is devoted to a discussion of the parallax of 61 Cygni and the results seem to justify his remark that ‘the four comparison stars probably belong to a remote system not containing 61 Cygni.” ‘The probable errors deduced are small. At the annual visitation to the Oxford Observatory on June 12, 1890, Professor Pritchard announced the results of the determination of parallaxes of six more stars by the photographic method, as follows: Prob. | Parallax. E error. 7) | “1 EGCVOUPES oe sees. ee ei + 0.115 | + 0.034 aC yor cress cece O40 . 029 f Andromede .....-- == oWIERA - 023 CAA MOUS Some nae +- . O80 . 027 @Rerselp-ceskeee se = + 0.74 | - 029 fo Urse Miuoris --. .. | + . 922 | . 030 The subjoined table forms a summary of a paper published in the Astronomische Nachrichten, Nos. 2915 and 2916, by Dr. Oudemans, in which he collects the seattered results for stellar parallax obtained in the past sixty years. Dr. Oudemans coneludes that “stars with proper motions greater than 0.05 have probably an annual parallax of 0./10 to 0.50, ; || Jistance No. of | Proper | Annual PA lierht stars. | motion. | parallax. =) years. | | | | | | | 9 |. 4.93 0. 32 | H. Mis. 129——9 130 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890, PROPER MOTIONS. _ Professor Boss has published in the Astronomical Journal the proper motions of 295 stars of the Albany zone (+ 0° 50/ to + 5° 10’). In the Bulletin Astronomique for March, 1890, is a.most useful cata- logue, compiled by Bossert, of all stars whose proper motion is known to exceed 0.50. They are thus distributed : : Proper motion No. OR SORES | seater than al 5 5.0 4 4.0 6 3.0 9 2.0 bi 15} 30 1.2 15 1.0 38 0.8 V7 0.6 Wes | 0.5 | DOUBLE AND MULTIPLE STARS. Some very elegant and simple formule for determining the true orbit of a binary star, originally published in Russian, have been brought out by Professor Glasenapp. 2 SeorpiiUerr Schorr has made a study of the motions in this triple system by methods sim:lar to those employed by Dr. Seeliger on ‘ Caneri. The star is known as Y 1998, the magnitudes of its compo- nents Dens Ae— 3.9) P= Opa Ola 7 7 Ophiuchi has been divided into two nearly equal components by Burnham with the 36inch Lick telescope, and he thinks that it will prove to be a binary of short period. He has also found companions for Aldebaran, 7 Cassiopeiw, and 6 Cygni, and las been able to sepa- rate and measure a companion to the principal star in the pair « Hydre, the existence of which was suspected by previous observers. Photographs of the spectrum of Spica have put beyond question the reality of its motion in the direction of the line of sight. Dr. Vogel has deduced from observations of 1889 and 1899 a period of revolution of about 4 days. PHOTOMETRY. The results of observations made with the meridian photometer of the Harvard observatory by Prof. E. C. Pickering and Mr. Wendell during the years 1882-1888, have appeared as volume 24 of the Harvard Annals. The principal work done with this instrument was ‘the de- termination of the magnitudes of a sufficient number of stars con- tained in the Durchmusterung, and distributed with approximate uni- formity, to serve for future estimates or measures of magnitude, and to enable previous estimates to be reduced tothe photometric scale.” —_-) ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 131 The number of stars of which observations are recorded is 20,125; 30 that when the stars enumerated in volume 28 of the Annals are reck- oned, the total number of stars observed reaches 20,982. Measures have also been made of 166 variable stars and of several planets and satellites. In the “ Harvard Photometry” the brightest stars were com- pared solely with Polaris. In the present observations 2 Urs Minoris was selected as the standard star, but the results are made to depend upon a series of 100 circumpolar stars, the magnitudes of which were frequently determined with the smaller instrument. Photographic photometry.—The readiest and most effective means of determining the magnitudes of stars from an examination of the disks * impressed on a sensitized film is a problem that has received much attention recently, and contributions to the literature of the subject have been made from the three observatories of Harvard, Stockholm, and Potsdam. Professor Pickering gives in volume 18 of the Harvard Annals three catalogues of magnitudes, embracing, on the whole, some 2,500 stars, the first catalogue giving the photographic magnitudes of all the stars brighter than the fifteenth magnitude within 1° of the pole; the second, the magnitudes of many of the stars in the Pleiades; and the third the magnitudes of 1,131 stars generally brighter than the eighth magnitude near the equator. The contribution from the Potsdam observatory is confined to the discussion of the magnitudes of stars in the Pleiades as impressed on plates taken with a chemically corrected object-glass by Dr. Scheiner, and with the veflecting telescope of the Herény observatory, supple- mented by some photographs of the artificial stars in a Zollner photom- eter. The principal results of the inquiry are twofold: first, that the increase of the diameter of the star disk varies as the square root of the time of exposure ; and secondly, that a simple linear reJation exists between the observed diameter and the magnitude. The third contribution to this subject is from Dr. Charlier, of Stocik- holm, who deduces a formula which expresses the connection between the photographie brilliancy of a star and its photographed image in such @ manner as to insure a coincidence as far as possible between the pho- tographic and photometric magnitudes. VARIABLE AND COLORED STARS. Chandler's catalogue of variable stars.—Chandler’s admirable cata- logue of variable stars has been adopted by Schoenfeld in the ephemer- ides published in the Vierteljahrsschrift, and it also furnishes the data for the ephemerides of the Annuaire du Bureau des Longitudes and the Observatory, and is thus formally recognized as the standard authority ou variables. Mr. Chandler publishes in the Astronomical Journal (No. 216) three tables supplementary to the catalogue, containing (1) a list of new variables arranged as in the original catalogue; (2) a list of 132 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. additions and corrections to the elements of the catalogue; and (3) a list of stars probably variable, but whose variability needs further con- firmation before definitive letters can be assigned. The attention of observers is directed to this list. Taking his catalogue of 1888 as a basis, Mr. Chandler has made an investigation of the relation existing between the lengths of the periods and the number of the variables; their color, range of fluctuation, forms of light curves, irregularities of periods and of light variations. Periods under 20 days predominate, while for the long-period stars a well-marked maximum is indicated about a period of 320 days. With regard to color, the redder the tint the longer the period; and with regard to range of fluctuation, while it is probable that there is a de- pendence of range upon the duration of the period, the relation is not one of strict proportionality of range to period. It furthermore appears that the average ratio of increase to decrease for stars with periods less than 100 days is about 0.65; between 100 and 200 days it is slightly in excess of unity; it then declines as the periods lengthen ; at first, grad- ually, but in the neighborhood of a year, with extraordinary sudden- ness, recovering as quickly until it again exceeds unity in the group of extremely long periods. In the case of the numerical laws of the per- turbations of the periods, Mr. Chandler remarks that his researches are not yet complete, but that, broadly, in the case of long-period vari- ables, the irregularities are periodic in their nature, and in the case of those of short period, secular and exceptional. Algol.—Prof. H. C. Vogel, of Potsdam, has published the results of some interesting ebservations of the changes in the spectrum of Algol at the times of the diminution and recovery of its light. These, whilst fully confirming the view originally suggested by Goodricke, that the periodic variability of this star is caused by the revolution of a dark companion cutting off part of its light in the manner of an eclipse, and the caleulation of Professor Pickering that the diameter of the compan- ion amounts to about eight-tenths of that of the principal star, have enabled Professor Vogel to obtain approximate values of the mutual dis- tance and actual sizes and masses of the two stars, as well as of their orbital velocities round their common center of gravity. He finds, in fact, that their diameters are probably about 1,080,000 and 850,000 English miles respectively ; that the distance of their centers from each other amounts to about 3,290,000 miles, and that the orbital velocity of Algol is about 27, whilst that ofits companion is about 56 miles. The mass of the former he determines to be about double that of the latter, the one being approximately four-ninths and the other two-ninths of the sun’smass. It is not necessary, he remarks, to suppose that the com- panion is absolutely opaque, but only that its light is very much feeb- ler than that of the principal star. It may be added tinat the Greenwich observations confirm Dr. Vogel’s conclusion of the motion of the star in a small orbit. ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. Ho3 A remarkable star of the Algol type, having the shortest period known, was discovered in 1888 by Prof. H. M. Paul, of the U.S. Naval Observatory. The star is 12 Antlie of Gould’s Uranometria Argentina, a=9 26™ 508, d= — 28° 4.7 (1875.0). Therange of magnitude is 6.7 to 7.3, and according to Chandler it goes through its changes in 3® 20", From an examination of one of the photographie plates taken by the Harvard observatory party, at the Chosica station in Peru, Professor Pickering has announced the discovery of a long-period variable in Celum of the same class as O Ceti, 8 Hvdre, and R Leonis. The spectra show bright hydrogen lines. A number of other new variables have been detected in the exami- nation of the photographic plates taken at the observatory, and have been announced by Professor Pickering in the Astronomische Nach- richten. Some attention has also been paid to this subject by Dr. J. C. Kapteyn in measuring the plates taken at the Cape of Good Hope for the formation of Dr. Gill’s photographic southern Durchmusterung, and also by Mr. Roberts in the prosecution of bis work in astronomical pho- tography. A general index to observations of variable stars, prepared under the direction of Prof. KE. C. Pickering, forms No. 8 of Vol. 18 of the Har- vard Annals. A large number of unpublished observatious are referred to, particularly three extensive series of observations by Argelander, Heis, and Schmidt, to whose manuscripts access was given. A new edition or rather revision of Birmingham's Red Star Catalogue has been printed in No. v of the Cunningham Memoirs of the Royal Irish Academy. The work of revision was undertaken by Rev. T. E. Espin in 1886, with the 174-inch equatorial reflector, and in the course of the work a number of new red stars, new variables, and stars with bright lines in their spectra were discovered. There is also an addi- tional list of 629 ‘‘ ruddy stars.” STELLAR SPECTRA. Spectrum of € Urse Majoris—Protessor Pickering has reported a re- markably interesting peculiarity in the spectrum of this star. It was noticed that the K line was double in the photographs taken March 29, 1887, May 17, 1889, and August 27 and 28, 1889, while on many other dates the line appeared hazy as if the components were slightly sepa- rated, and at other times the line was well defined and single. It was concluded that the line was double at intervals of 52 days beginning March 27, 1887, and it was predicted that the doubling would occur again on December 9, 1889, and this prediction was confirmed by each of three photographs on the latter date. Professor Pickering says: “The only satisfactory explanation of this phenomenon as yet pro- posed is that the brighter component of this star is itself a double star having components nearly equal in brightness and too close to have been separated as yet visually. Also that the time of revolution of the sys- 134 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. tem is 104 days. When one component is approaching the earth all the lines in its spectrum will be moved toward the blue end, wanile all the lines in the spectrum of the other component will be moved by an equal amount in the opposite direction if their masses are equal. Each line will thus be separated into two. When the motion becomes per- pendicular to the line of sight, the spectral lines recover their true wave-length and become single.” From the amount of separation of the lines Professor Pickering con- cludes that the relative velocity of the two components must be about 100 miles per second. If the orbit is circular and its plane passes through the sun, the distance traveled by one component, regarding the other as fixed, would be 900,000,000 miles, and the distance apart of the two components would be 143,000,000 miles, or about that of Mars and the sun. The combined mass would be about forty times that of the sun to give the required period. Several other stars have been found from the Harvard photographs with a similar doubling of the lines, among them / Aurigze and 0 Ophi- uchi. For # Aurige Professor Pickering deduced a period of 4 days, and his results have been fully confirmed by observations made with quite different apparatus by Dr. Vogel at Potsdam. A doubling of the K line in several photographs of the spectrum of Vega taken by Mr. A. Fowler, apparently indicating that Vega was a double star of the ¢ Ursz Majoris type, has not been confirmed by the photographs of Pickering, Vogel, and Henry. The Henry Draper ee __The third annual report of Proieens Pickering announces the practical completion of two branches of the work undertaken, the photographic survey of the spectra of ail stars north of — 25° declination having been effected on a twofold seale, the one survey including all stars brighter than the seventh magnitude, the other including stars two magnitudes fainter. The Bache 8-inch doub- let employed in this work has been transferred to a station near Chos- ica in Peru and similar surveys for the stars down to the south pole have been commenced. The fourth annual report of the Henry Draper Memorial contains as a frontis piece an engraving showing the periodical duplication of the K line in the spectrum of # Aurige, the study of which, with other similar cases has been the most important work of the 11-inch equa- torial at Harvard. The spectroscopic survey of the brighter stars in the northern hemisphere (to — 25° declination) is nearly printed and the work on fainter stars is heing satisfactorily pressed. Besides the spectra, charts of the entire sky are being formed with the same telescopes. A photographie map of the sky will thus be provided, ap- proximately on the scale of the Durchmusterung, but including fainter stars; so far as it has been completed it has proved very convenient for studying suspected variables and in detecting errors in star cata- logues. ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 135 teference should also be made here to the lists of stars with peculiar spectra detected upon the Harvard Observatory photographie plates and published from time to time by Professor Pickering in the Astro- nomische Nachrichten. A spectroscopic survey of the southern heavens by direct observa- tion has been undertaken at the Melbourne Observatory. An S‘ineh refracter and the 4-foot reflector will be used in the work. MOTIONS OF STARS IN THE LINE OF SIGHT. The foilowing is a comparison of the results for motion in the line of sight obtained by Dr. Vogel at Potsdam with a photographic telescope, and those obtained by Maunder at.the Greenwich Observatory by eye observations. The motions are given in geographical miles, + repre- senting recession, and — approach : Vogel. | Maunder. | Capella sese-kees- pa tadesiel 22.5 Aldebaran........ | +30.3 +31. 6 Qi PRerseleasice et sc Stig | —22.5 Procyomes o.05 202) | — 7.2 | 3.8 Dr. Vogel’s interesting results with regard to Algol and other stars have been alluded to elsewhere. Bright lines in stellar spectra.—Mr. Espin has detected bright lines in the spectra of a number of variables when near their maxima, among them R Leonis, R Hydrie, 7 Cygni, R Andromede, and S Cassiopcie all of Seechi’s third type. Similar lines in the spectra of U and V Cygni, of the fourth type have been suspected by the Lick observers, and when these stars were far removed from their maxima. Mr. Keeler also finds that he is able to break up the apparently continuous spectra of stars of the type of the Wolf-Rayet stars in Cygnus into an extremely complicated range of absorption bands and faint bright lines. A remarkable form of spectrum has been discovered by Professor Pickering in that of the star Pleione, for the F line consists in this case of a narrow bright line superposed on a broader dark line, the other hydrogen lines showing some indications of a similar character. ASTRONOMICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. The photographic chart of the heavens.—The permanent committee appointed by the Astrophotographic Cougress at Paris, in 1887, as noted in the Review of Astronomy for the years 1887-88, held their first meeting at the Paris Observatory in September, 1890. The results of the seven séances are contained in a series of twenty-eight resolutions, some of the most important of which are mentioned below. 136 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890, The zones were assigned to the several participating as follows: NORTH. Latitude. | Zone. el sineforseeeneae eee sere cee | +60 9); +90 to +70 POtSUaIEeose ee oe ae eee BU | 70 58 Oxdordry= Soe See ee Bal. Als 58 48 Greenwiclis-s 52-52 eee eee | 51 28 48 40 AUT Sayers babes SF feet: Veg eee 48 50 40 32 Milem aoe eo an ee cpm | AS ols 32 QA | BOY entice wae s see ses | 44 50 24 18 | Monlouse 4 ees. e eee ce 43 37 18 12 | Cataniianes Serena) se a ae Aer ee 3 ak) 12 6 IAN OCT nee ceeetn Ss aoe a5 5. 28 | Sa aig —@ Sameer and OMe seer 36 27 0 to — 6 Chapuiltepecseesaeseeen eres 19 26] — 6 to—l? | TRCUDAV Asse Ceara eee | -+-19 24 | —12 to —18 | SOUTH. RIOMer Icio Ss aaeeee eee oer | 99" 54 EI to ==96 | Santiago cys. stele ae serie |} —83 26 26 sd Sydineyissee Se seen cae —33 di | 42 Cape of Good Hope..-.---..- | —33 56 42 525} a klataesss os oe ae eae | —34 55 | 52 70 Melbourne) 2-422 ease ee ee | 0) ae No observatory in the United States appears on this list. A bill was introduced in Cengress making an appropriation to enable the United States Naval Observatory to undertake a share of the work, but the bill failed to become a law. Lhe committee decided that the field of the telescope available for measurement should be 2° square; that the photographie plates em- ployed (which are to be of plate glass) should be 160™™ (64 inches) square and the series of reference lines 130™™ (51 inches) square with the lines 5™™ apart. Twelve test objects were selected, all of which are situated near the equator, at intervals of about two hours of right ascension. In addition to these, the Pleiades, Priesepe, and a group in Cygnus were selected for the use of the more northern observatories. To fix the time of exposure so that the plates shall contain stars to the eleventh magnitude, it was decided to determine first the time nec- essary to photograph a star of the 9.0 magnitude of Argelander’s scale, and thereby multiplying by 6.25 the time of exposure for magnitude 11.0 will be obtained. Three more numbers (3, 4, and 5) of the Bulletin du Comité Interna- tional permanent pour VExécution Photographique de la Carte du Ciel have been published. Among the many papers contributed to these ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. LB? bulletins which have a very important bearing upon astronomical pho- tography, may be mentioned one by Dr. Bakhuysen on the measure- ment of the plates by the method of rectangular cobrdinates, in which he obtains star places comparing favorably with those from meridian observations. Dr. Vogel contributes one or two papers on the ‘ rés- eaux ” and the measurement of the plates, and Professor Kapteyn sug- gests the expediency of taking the catalogue plates with three exposures at intervals of six months, for the purpose of determining the stars’ proper motions and parallaxes. Dr. Scheiner las an important paper on the application of photography to the determination of stellar mag- nitudes. In the fifth number of the Bulletin, Professor Holden has two papers on the photographic magnitedes of stars, and Mr. Schaeberle one on the same subject. There is also an abstract of Dr. Lindemann’s photo- metric determination of the star magnitudes of the Bonn Durchmus- terung, and a paper by M. Trépied on the necessity of coming to some understanding as to what is meant by stars of the 9th, 11th, and 14th magnitudes on the photographie plates. The question of the reproduction of the plates and of the publication of the map has been left open, but it is probable that one or more bureaus will be established for measuring the negatives obtained at observatories not provided with special apparatus for the purpose, and photographie copies of all plates will be preserved in selected places in case of accident to the original negatives. A meeting of those interested in the various branches of astronomical} photography other than the chart was called by Messrs. Janssen and Common in September, 1889. The chief matters for discussion being a complete photographic record of solar phenomena, including solar spectrum photography; a systematic description of the lunar surface by photography on a large scale; photographs of pianets and their satellites, of comets, meteors, and particularly of nebulie, clusters, and of stellar spectra. In discussing the theory of the photography of a star projected upon a bright background, Professor Holden cails attention to the faet that the most important factor is the ratio of the focal length to the aperture of the objective; generally speaking it would be an advantage to dia- phragm the objective during the day. This is also true with regard to ordinary observations during the day, a point of particular importance in connection with meridian observations. Authoritative testimony as to the value of photography for obtaining accurate measures of star clusters is given by Dr. Elkin, who has com- pared Dr. Gould’s reductions of Rutherfurd’s photographs of the Plei- ades taken over 20 years ago, with the heliometer measures made at Konigsberg and New Haven. The smallness of the probable error Dr. Elkin regards as proof that in photography we have a means of in- vestigation for micrometri¢ work at least on a par with any existing 138 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. method, and doubtless far surpassing the present methods in ease of measurement and output of work. The Henry Brothers are reported to have made a decided advance in lunar photography in the plates taken with the equatorial of 0™.32 (12.6 inches) aperture intended for the chart work. The improvement is attributed especially to the process of enlargement employed, which makes the diameter of the moon about 1™ (39 inches). This photographic work is to be continued with the great equatorial coudé, which is soon to be mounted and provided with a photographic objective. Mr. Roberts has devised a machine, which he calls a “ pantograver,” for measuring the magnitudes of the stars depicted upon the photo- graphic plates and transferring them to metallic plates for printing. COMETS. The origin of comets.—Dr. Bredichin, the present director ef the Pul- kowa Observatory, who has devoted much time to the study of comet- ary phenomena, has expressed the opinion that periodic comets owe their origin to the segmentation of ordinary parabolic comets, having been thrown off from the latter by an eruption such as it is generally sup- posed we have witnessed in the great comet of 1882, and earlier in Biela’s comet. Dr. Kreutz’s monograph on this great September comet of 1882 forms one of the most important of recent contributions to com- etary literature. The formidable obstacles to an accurate determination of its orbit presented by the disintegration of the nucleus into several points of condensation seem to have been most skillfully surmounted by the computer. His final value for the period of revolution is 772.2 years. Dr. Holetschek claims that the systematic grouping of cometary peri- helia in certain directions (270° and 90° of heliocentric longitude) has no connection with the general motion of the solar system in space, but is due to the position of the earth at the time that such discoveries are most readily made. An important paper on the capture theory of comets will be found in the Bulletin Astronomique for June, 1889, and in the same journal for December, 1890, M. Tisserand has a further contribution to the same subject. The Observatory for August, 1889, has a useful table of the approxi- mate positions at the time of discovery of all comets seen since 1869, with brief notes on the physical appearance of each. Mr. Denning, who has compiled this table, proposes to supplement it by one with similar data for the comets from 1840 to 1868. Brorsen’s comet.—A careful seareh for Brorsen’s comet, which passed perihelion in 1890, was made by Brooks and Swift, but without effect. This comet was discovered in 1846, and was last seen in 1879; it could not be seen at the return in 1884. Tempel’s second comet, and Bar- nard’s comet 1884 II, were also expected to return to perihelion in ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 139 1890, but were unfavorably situated for observation and escaped de- tection. Comets of 1889 and 1890.—W. R. Brooks reported the discovery, on the morning of January 15, 1889, of a faint comet in Sagittarius, and to it the designation Comet @ 1889 was given, as the first comet discovered during the year. A careful search for the object was made by a num. ber of observers, especially by Barnard and Swift, but without success. As the three observations necessary for determining the orbit were not secured, the comet is not catalogued with those of the year. A comet announced by Swift on July 15, 1889, is also omitted, as it proved to be identical with the comet discovered by Brooks on August 7, 1888. (1888 IIT). A phenomenon reported at Grahamstown, South Africa, on the 27th of October, 1890,should be mentioned in connection with the notes on comets. It was described as a bright band one-fourth of a degree wide and 30° longitude, afterwards increasing to 90°. At one end it looked like the head of a comet, while the other end faded out gradually. Its motion was extraordinary, as it swept over more than 100° in less than 1" 15™, The comets for the years 1889 and 1890, with their final designations, in the order of perihelion passage are as follows: Comet 1889 I: | ‘The first comet of 1889, in the order of perihelion = Comet e¢ 1888. passage, was that discovered by Barnard at the Lick Observatory with a 4-inch comet-seeker on September 2, 1888, or the morning of September 3. It was also independently discovered by Brooks, at Geneva, New York, on the following morning. At the end of November, and as late as January 4, 1889, it was visible to the naked eye. Perihelion was passed on January 31, 1889, and by that time, the comet disappeared in the sun’s rays. The first observations after conjunction were made about May 24, and it was followed till its light Was again overpowered by that of the sun, Jate in October, 1889, its appearance being about the same as before perihelion, small, round, quite bright, and with a short tail. The orbit seems to be hyperbolic. Barnard remarked on June 3 that there was an anomalous tail directly following the comet, about 1° in length and some 2’ or 3’ broad, a phe- nomenon which, according to Bredichin, was probably an effect of per- spective. The comet was observed again at the Lick Observatory by Barnard August 17, 1890, although its distances from the earth and sun were then, respectively, 6.0 and 6.5 in terms of the earth’s mean distance. The later observations confirm the hyperbolic character of the orbit. Comet 1889 Il: | On the evening of March 31, 1889, E. E. Barnard = Comet 61589. | discovered, with the 12-inch equatorial of the Lick Observatory, a very small and slender comet, with a tail 15’ long. By the end of April it was lost in the evening twilight, reappearing again, with extremely slow geocentric motion, about July 25, and remaining visible to November 21. The great perihelion distance of this comet is 140 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1899. especially noteworthy, amounting to 24 times the distance of the eartb from the sun, a distance which seems to have been surpassed in the catalogue of comets only by comet 1885 IT, with a perihelion of 25, and the comet of 1729, with perihelion distance 4. Comet 1889 III: | Mr. Barnard discovered another comet at about = Comet ¢ 1589, 2 o'clock on the morning of June 24, in the cen- stellation Andromeda, At the time of discovery the comet was only three days past perihelion. It was then very faint and rapidly became still fainter, being last observed on August 6. The elements computed by Berberich show considerable ellipticity in the orbit, the period of revolution being 128 years. Comet 1889 IV: | 7s Sa ee. C Sp (@+y") da dy dz and as p may be placed outside the sign of integration, it disappears both from numerator and denominator. As we shall see presently, C\—A;_ 1 at) feat (2), where 0, and a, are the semi-axes of the stratum; and for all other strata of equal density we would have C.—A, 1/7 b,? (03 ie 3 ( ae ay ) Gow GW) Ged 1G, C; Ge, Now if these strata are all similar, and have equal ellipticities, and hence C1 Az A, Gee Oma a ( 1 <3 2) C; . C3 _ A; pares C,, 2 te a ? 214 ON THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH. where 0 and a are the outer semiaxes of the shell composed of all the strata of equal density. But i le 1? )\="— A Cit Oa wee eee (4 ues alveike Set) 2 . ie a, C CEC; eve +C, This is the symbolical form of the proposition just stated. In a homogeneous solid of revolution the general expression for the moment of inertia is a f-yrda and from the ordinary treatises on mechanics it readily appears that from a spheroid, 8 7 4 Ol 7 b, A=B=,~n0°'b (a?+0*), where b is the semi-polar and a the semi-equatorial axis. Hence we have C—A_ 2atb—ath—v Bb? atbh—a’b’ (a’—}?*) 2p Gis Cr — 2a5b = Oh = ah =e 3 l-a)s and 2 oe): In a spheroidal shell for whose inner surface the semi-axes are }, and a, we have the moments of inertia with respect to the axes by taking the moments for the inner spheroid bounded by 0; and a, from those of the outer spheroid. Calling the former C; and A,, we have as before, 4 O1= rea LD pes i 15 ma” b,(a)?+ b,”). Calling C, and A, the moments of inertia of the shell, we have there- fore, 8 O1= 457 (atb—ai' bi), = Ee [a?b(a?+b?) —a?b\(a?+b,’)]; and hence < b, C,—A, a? b(a?—b?)—a? by (a? eo ae a oe aaa b(—qa)) aCe = Car) 2 (a* b—a,"b;) Ife and e, be the outer and inner ellipticities of the shell, b é. b b; e=1-); ro ae 4b —a4h})( l— In this case a5 4 ——= 2 (ab — =a;b) ==) (Es a) One are Cie or G, Sar ee ON THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH. 215 Consequently the precessional motion of such a shell would be the same as that of a homegeneous spheroid of the same ellipticity, Ife = 54,, it appears that the value of precession for such a spheroid would be 57’, while its observed value is 50/-1.* Now, as it is impossible to admit such a difference where the result of observation is so well estab- lished, we must conclude that the solid shell of the Earth, composed of nearly equi-elliptic strata, can not extend to its center —in other words, that the Earth can not be altogether a solid from its surface to its center. On tie other hand, the fluid nucleus contained within the shell can not be devoid of friction and viscidity, but must possess these properties in common with all fluids that have ever been observed on the Earth’s surface. These properties of the liquid may, as I have long since an- nounced, cause the shell and liquid nucleus to rotate together as one solid mass. The same conclusion was afterward put forward by M. De- launey; and experiments made under his direction, and afterward, at the instance of the Royal Irish Academy, by me, show that in rota- ting glass vessels filled with water the amount of friction and viscidity is such as to render any difference of slow motion between the liquid and its containing vessel insensible. With liquids so viscid that water is in comparison limpid, such as piteh, honey, and especially voleanic lava in a fused state, the results would be absolutely decisive. To this class of liquids the fluid matter of the Earth’s interior, so far as it has come under observation, undoubtedly belongs; and hence the overwhelming certainty of our general conclusions as to the connection between the Karth’s structure and its rotation. (8) If the tendency of the solid crust is to become more elliptical at its inner surface as it increases in thickness, some interesting conse- quences appear to follow. If the shell were unaccompanied by the nucleus, or if no friction existed at their surfaces, the changes in the relations of the principal moments of inertia of the shell might be sup- posed to cause its rotation to become unstable, so as to bring about conditions which might result in a change of the axis of rotation. It is easy to show on the most favorable suppositions that this could not occur. The increasing ellipticity of the inner surface of the shell would be due to the increasing oblateness of the surface of the fluid nucleus, and this would be at its maximum if the neucleus approached a state of homogeneity; but the fluid can not approach this state unless the radius of the nucleus is so small that the variation in density due to pressure becomes insensible, whence all its strata would possess the same density. This condition with a certain thickness of the solid shell * A revision of the numerical data from recent astronomical results leads me to con- ‘clude that the precession for the solid spheroid would be a little less, and about 55’ instead of 57’. This I propose to prove in a short paper, entitled ‘‘ Note on the an- nual precession calculated on the hypothesis of the earth’s solidity.” This note [appended to this article] leaves the general conclusions of the present paper un- altered. 4 216 ON THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH. may bring about equality in the two principal moments of inertia of the shell. The most favorable case would be for a homogeneous shell. Hence we have only to solve the very simple problem: Given the thick- ness of a homogeneous spheroidal shell at its pole, required its thick- ness at the equator, so as to make its principal moments of inertia equal. We have from the expressions for CO, and A, in (7), a? b (a? b? wb (v@—b’) =a,’ b, (a’—b/), or a,$—a, b?= ee ) 1 which gives eee (ete otal a = 1 This may be written Ona || ft? ie bo aN GN oy oe ee If we take e= 1, for the outer ellipticity of the shell, and e¢= 54,5 a b a : : i and 53 from whence it appears that in order to have equal moments of L inertia the thickness of the shell should be .047 of its equatorial semi- axis, and the mean radius of the nucleus would thus be reduced from the original value when the whole mass was fluid by a fraction less than one-twentieth. Under these conditions the ellipticity of 53,5, cor- responding to homogeneity, could not exist; and hence it may be con- cluded that, whether the shell is thin or whether the Earth has become almost altogether solid, the moment of the inertia of the shell with respect to its polar axis must be always greater than the moment of inertia for its equatorial axis. The tendency of the fluid nucleus to increase in ellipticity might produce a result worthy of examination by volcanologists, namely, a possible increase in the development of voleanic phenomena in equa- torial as compared to polar regions with the progressive solidification of the Earth up to a certain point. Until the thickness of the shell has become very great, recent periods should exhibit a greater devel- opment of volcanic energy towards the equator than toward the poles as compared to remote epochs. for its maximum inner ellipticity, we can easily find the values of NOTE. On the annual precession calculated on the hypothesis of the Eartl’s solidity. In discussing the influence of the internal structure of the Earth upon precession it has been frequently assumed that with the ellipticity zs, the annual precession of a homogeneous solid shell or completely ON THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH. Pn | solid spheroid would be 57’, ‘This was the result of Mr. Hopkins’s eal- culations; and the difference, amounting to between six and seven sec- onds between it and the observed value, formed the basis of all his conclusions relative to the Earth’s internal condition. Hitherto I have not seen any reason for doubting the above numerical result; but on looking more closely into the question it appears probable that we must reduce the precession for the hypothetical solid spheroid to about 50, If the Earth were a spheroid perfectly rigid, the amount of pre- cession can be calculated from formule given in Airy’s Tracts, Pratt’s Mechanical Philosophy, Pontecoulant’s Théorie Analytique du Systeme du Monde, or Resal’s Traité de Mécanique Celeste. In the two latter works Poisson’s memoir on the rotation of the Karth about its center of grav- ity is very closely followed, and the formule are those which I have generally employed. From these writings we have __ 3m? (2C—A—B) Gare 1 Va ae 0 (l+y) cos I; where J is the inclination of the equator to the ecliptic, 7 the ratio of the Moon’s action on the Earth compared to that of the Sun, m the Earth’s mean motion around the Sun, m the ratio of this mean motion to the Earth’s rotation, and A, B, C ae three principal movements of the inertia of the Earth. When the Earth is supposed to be a spheroid of revolution, A=#, and the above becomes mie) (Le. (1) pom oe (l+y) eos J. 2n Pratt gives the formula (2) pF (“4*) {1 que 1—2 sin? i} 1800: on on Ere 5 ee where 7 is the inclination of the Moon’s orbit to the ecliptic, y the ratio of the Earth’s mass to that of the Moon. In all these formule, or in any others by which the precession can be calculated, the Moon’s mass entérs directly or indirectly. When Mr. Hopkins made his caleulation more than forty years ago, he appears to have taken the value of the Moon’s mass and all his other numerical data from the early editions of Airy’s Tracts. He uses 366.26 for the Earth’s period, 27.32 for the Moon’s. He makes [=23° 28/, i=5° 8’ 50’, and the Moon’s mass =; of the Earth’s mass. All of these values require revision, and it may be Sanh ed that Sir George Airy has more recently eed the opinion that 35 may be taken as the value of the Moon’s mass.* On this question Tf may be permitted to remark *Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, December, 1878, p. 140. 218 ON THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH. that there are three different phenomena from which the Moon’s mass has been determined: (1) The perturbations of the Earth’s motion in its orbit around the Sun by the action of the moon; (2) the tides; and (3) the nutation of the Harth’s axis. The largest mass, or #5 nearly, has been obtained from the first, and the smallest from nutation. But the values obtained from nutation are not very accordant, and more- over the close connection between nutation and precession makes it a doubtfel matter to calculate the amount of one from a quantity depend- ing on the other. The moon’s mass obtained from the tides is that which has been employed by Laplace, Poisson, and other mathemati- cians as the most probable. It appears that a recent discussion of the tides in the United States, made by Mr. Ferrel, has given the same value as that found by Laplace. This circumstance, as well as the fact that the value so obtained lies between the values found by the other methods, gives us reason to place much confidence in the result. If we call P; the precession for a homogeneous spheroid whose ellipticity is EH, then from (1) pe om? =o (1+y) cos I. If we take the value of the Moon’s mass given by the tides, or rather the ratio of the Moon’s action to that of the Sun thus given, we shall use the value of y employed by Poisson, Pontécoulant, and Resal ; if we also employ for # the value which Colonel Clarke shows good ground for deeming the most probable,* that is 55:;; instead of 54, or even smaller fractions hitherto accepted, [ find that P, becomes 56’’-05. By Pratt’s formula and the numerical values he employs, except for FR, I find P,=54'"-879. If we take ,)5 for the Moon’s mass in Poisson’s formula, y becomes 22062, and P\=53'-574. If we change y to 80 in Pratt’s formula with E= Fo aureS P,=52""-95. The value for the observed precession now generally admitted is 50-37. It is therefore manifest that the difference between this and the precession of a homogeneous equi-elliptic spheroid can not be admitted to be as great as Mr. Hopkins has declared it to be. From the values of P,; which I have ecaleulated we should have P,—P=5'"-68 and 4-507, with the Moon’s mass=7;; * See Colonel Clarke’s paper in the Philosophical Magazine for August, 1878, where he maintains that recent geodetical results tend to increase the value of the Earth’s ellipticity and to make the measured value approach to that obtained from pen- dulum observations. ON THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH. 219 3-204 . P—P=3 8G 17) and 2” .58, if we take the Moon’s mass=,). On calculating P with the Moon’s mass=,), Sun’s mass 354936, y is 2-25395. If we take for J its value in 1852, or 23° 27’ 32’, and make m=359°-9931, —— 002% 7303, H=s5bas, the following calculations can be made. log m 2-5562965, log (1+y) ~0-51: 24109, log cos I =9-9625322, m _ —344362104, 108 n =——~" 4674500 37323937 log 5 {60x60} = roggi37 24675459 or P\=54" nearly, P,—P=3"-617. Consequently instead of admitting Mr. Hopkins’s result of 7” for the difference between the precession of a homogeneous spheroid with the Earth’s ellipticity and the precession actually observed, we may affirm that this difference is probably not more than 4” or 5’, With the best values for the numerical elements the difference is, however, too well ascertained to be overlooked, and it leads to the con- clusion that the Earth can not consist of an entirely solid mass composed of equi-elliptic strata, and that it is therefore partly composed of a solid shell bounded by surfaces such as I have elsewhere indicated, with an interior mass of viscid liquid, such as is seen flowing from the volcanic openings of the shell, arranged in strata conforming to the laws of hydrostatics, or in other words, with strata of equal density decreasing in ellipticity toward the Earth’s center. GLACIAL GEOLOGY.* By Prof. JAMES GEIKIE, F. R. S. The results obtained by geologists, who have been studying the pe- ripheral areas of the drift-covered regious of our continent, are such as to satisfy us that the drifts of those regions are not iceberg-droppings, as we used to suppose, but true morainic matter and fluvio-glacial de- tritus. Geologists have not jumped to this conclusion; they have only accepted it after laborious investigations of the evidence. Since Dr. ()tto Torell, in 1875, first stated his belief that the * diluvium” of north Germany was or glacial origin a great literature on the subject has Sprung up, a perusal of which will show that with our German friends glacial geology has passed through much the same succession of phases as with us. At first icebergs are appealed to as explaining everything— next we meet with sundry ingenious attempts at a compromise between floating ice and a continuous ice-sheet. As observations multiply, how- ever, the element of floating ice is gradually eliminated, and all the phenomena are explained by means of land ice and ‘schmelz-wasser” alone. It is a remarkable fact that the iceberg hypothesis has always been most strenuously upheld by geologists whose labors have been largely confined to the peripheral areas of drift-covered countries. In the upland and mountainous tracts, on the other hand, that hypothesis has never been able to survive a moderate amount of accurate observa- HOD. =e = The notion of a general ice-sheet having covered a large part of Europe, which a few years ago was looked upon as a wild dream, has been amply justified by the labors of those who are so assiduously investi- gating the peripheral area of the “ great northerv drift.” And perhaps I may be allowed to express my own belief that the drifts of middle and southern England, which exhibit the same complexity as the “lower diluvium” of the continent, will eventually be generally acknowledged to have had a similar origin. I now pass on to review some of the general results obtained by con- * Presidential address before the Geological Section of the British Association Ady. Sci. at Newcastle, September, 1589. (Report of the British Association, 1839, vol. LUX, pp. 552-564. ) 221 Doe GLACIAL GEOLOGY. tinental geologists as to the extent of area occupied by inland ice dur- ing the last great extension of glacier ice in Europe. It is well known that this latest ice-sheet did not overflow nearly so wide a region as that underneath which the lowest bowlder clay was accumulated. Gerard de Geer has given a summary* of the general results obtained by himself and his fellow-workers in Sweden and Norway; and these have been supplemented by the labors of Berendt, Geinitz, Hunchecone, Klockmann, Keilhack, Schréder, Wahnschaffe, and others in Germany, and by Sederholm in Finland. From them we learn that the end- moraines of the ice-circle round the southern coasts of Norway, from whence they sweep southeast by east across the province of Gottland in Sweden, passing through the lower ends of Lakes Wener and Wet- ter, while similar moraines mark out for us the terminal front of the inland ice in Finland at least two parallel frontal moraines passing inland from Hango head on the Gulf of Finland through the southern part of that province to the north of Lake Ladoga. Further northeast than this they have not been traced; but, from some observations by Helmersen, Sederholm thinks it probable that the terminal ice front extended northeast by the north of Lake Onega to the eastern shores ot the White Sea. Between Sweden and Finland lies the basin of the Baltic, which at the period in question was filled with ice, forming a great Baltic glacier which overflowed the Aland Islands, Gottland and Oland, and which, fanning out as it passed toward the southwest, invaded, on the south side, the Baltic provinces of Germany, while, on the north, it crossed the southern part of Scania in Sweden and the Danisb islands to enter upon Jutland. - - - The general conclusion arrived at by those who are at present inves- tigating the glacial accumulations of northern Europe may be sum- marized as follows : (1) Before the invasion of northern Germany by the inland ice the low grounds bordering on the Baltic were overflowed by a sea which contained a boreal and arctic fauna. These marine conditions are in- dicated by the presence, under the lower bowlder clay of more or less well-bedded fossiliferous deposits. On the same horizon occur also beds of sand, containing fresh-water shells, and now and again mammalian remains, some of which imply cold and other temperate climatic condi- tions. Obviously all these deposits may pertain to one and the same period, or more properly to different stages of the same period—some dating back to a time when the climate was still temperate, while others clearly indicate the prevalence of cold conditions, and are there- fore probably somewhat younger. (2) The next geological horizon in ascending order is that which is marked by the “ Lower Diluvium”—the glacial and fluvioglacial de- tritus of the great ice-sheet which flowed south to the foot of the Harz Mountains. The bowlder clay on this horizon now and again contains * Zeitschrift d. deutsch. geolog. Ges. Bd. XXXVI, p. 177. GLACIAL GEOLOGY. 223 marine, fresh-water, and terrestrial organic remains, derived undoubt- edly from the so-called preglacial beds already referred to. These latter, it would appear, were plowed up and largely incorporated with the old ground moraine. (3) The interglacial beds which next succeed contain remains of a well-marked temperate fauna and flora, which point to something more than a mere partial or local retreat of the inland ice. The geographi- cal distribution of the beds and the presence in these of such forms as Hlephas antiquus, Cervus elephas, C. megaceros, and a flora comparable to that now existing in northern Germany, justify geologists in con- cluding that the inter-glacial epoch was one of long duration, and characterized in Germany by climatic conditions apparently not less temperate than those that now obtain. One of the phases of that inter-glacial epoch, as we have seen, was the overflowing of the Baltic provinces by the waters of the North Sea. (4) To this well-marked inter-glacial epoch succeeded another epoch of arctic conditions, when the Scandinavian inland ice once more invaded Germany, plowing through the inter-glacial deposits, and working these up in its ground moraine. So far as I can learn, the prevalent belief among geologists in north Germany is that there was only one inter-glacial epoch; but, as already stated, doubt has been expressed whether all the facts can be thus accounted for. There must always be great difficulty in the correlation of widely separated inter- glacial deposits, and the time does not seem to me to have yet come when we can definitely assert that all these inter-glacial beds belong to the same geological horizon. Ihave dwelt upon the recent work of geologists in the peripheral areas of the drift-covered regions of northern Hurope, because I think the results obtained are of great interest to glacialists in this country. And for the same reason I wish next to eall attention to what has been done of late years in elucidating the glacial geology of the Alpine lands of central Europe, and more particularly of the low grounds that stretch out from the foot of the mountains. Any observations that tend to throw light upon the history of the complex drifts of our own peripheral areas can not but be of service. The only question concern- ing the ground moraines that has recently given rise to much discussion is the origin of the materials themselves. It is obvious that there are only three possible modes in which those materials could have been introduced to the ground moraine; either they consist of superficial morainic débris which has found its way down to the bottom of the old glaciers by crevasses; or they may be made up of the rock rubbish, shingle, gravel, ete., which doubtless strewed the valleys before these were occupied by ice; or, lastly, they may have been derived in chief measure from the underlying rocks themselves by the action of the ice that overflowed them. The investigations of Penck, Blaas, Bohm, and Briickner appear to me to have demonstrated that the ground moraines 224 GLACIAL GEOLOGY. are composed mostly of materials which bave been detached from the underlying rocks by the erosive action of: the glaciers themselves. Their observations show that the regions studied by them in great detail were almost completely buried under ice, so that the accumula- tion of superficial moraines was, for the most part, impossible; and they advance a number of facts which prove positively that the ground moraines were formed and accumulated under the ice. These geolo- gists do not deny that some of the material may occasionally have come from above, nor do they doubt that preéxisting masses of rock rudbish and alluvial accumulations may have been incorporated with the ground moraines; but the enormous extent of the latter and the direction of transport and distribution of the erratics which they contain can not be thus accounted for, while all the facts are readily explained by the action of the ice itself, which used its subglacial débris as tools with which to carry on the work of erosion. Professor Heim and others have frequently asserted that glaciers have little or no eroding power, since at the lower ends of existing glaciers we find no evidence of such erosion being in operation. But the chief work of a glacier cannot be carried on atits lower end, where motion is reduced to a minimum, and where the ice is perforated by sub-glacial tunnels and arches, underneath which no glacial erosion can possibly take place; and yet it is upon observations made in just such places that the principal arguments against the erosive action of glaciers have been based. - - - If we wish to learn what glacier-ice can accomplish, we must study in detail some wide region from which the ice has completely disappeared. Following this plan, Dr. Blaas has been led by his observations on the glacial formation of the Inn Valley to recant his former views, and to become a formidable advocate of the very theory which he formerly opposed. To his work and the memoirs by Peneck, Briickner, and Bohm, already cited, and especially to the admirable chapter on glacier erosion by the last-named author, I would refer those who may be anxious to know the last word on this much- debated question. The evidence of inter-glacial conditions within the Alpine lands con- tinues to increase. These are represented by alluvial deposits of silt, sand, gravel, conglomerate, breccia, and lignites. Penck, Bohm, and Briickner find evidence of two interglacial epochs, and maintain that there have been three distinct and separate epochs of glaciation in the Alps. No mere temporary retreat and re-advance of the glaciers, ac- cording to them, will account for the phenomena presented by the in. ter-glacial deposits and associated morainic accumulations. During interglacial times the glaciers disappeared from the lower valleys of the Alps; the climate was temperate and probably the snow-fields and glaciers approximated in extent to those of the present day. All the evidence conspires to show that an interglacial epoch was of prolonged duration. Dr. Briickner has observed that the moraines of the last GLACIAL GEOLOGY. 225 glacial epoch rest here and there upon loess, and he confirms Penck’s observations in South Bavaria that this remarkable formation never overlies the morainic accumulations of the latest glacial epoch. Ac- cording to Peneck and Briickner therefore the loess is of interglacial age. There can be little doubt, however, that loess does not belong to any one particular horizon. Wahnschaffe* and others have shown that through- out wide areas in north Germany it is the equivalent in age of the “Upper Diluvium,” while Schumacher? points out that in the Rhine valley it occurs on two separate and distinet horizons. Professor Andre has likewise shown that there is an upper and lower léss in Alsace, each characterized by its own special fauna.t There is still considerable difference of opinion as to the mode of formation of this remarkable accumulation. By many it is considered to be an aqueous deposit; others, following Richthofen, are of opinion that it is a wind-blown accumulation, while some incline to the belief that it is partly the one and partly the other. Nor do the upholders of these various hypotheses agree amongst themselves as to the pre- cise manner in which water or wind has worked to produce the ob- served results. Thus, amongst the supporters of the aqueous origin of the loess, we find this attributed to the action of heavy rains washing over and re-arranging the material of the bowlder clays.§ Many, again, have held it probable that loess is simply the tinest loam distributed over the low grounds by the flood waters that escaped from the northern inland ice and the mers de glace of the Alpine lands of central Europe. Another suggestion is that much of the material of the loess may have been derived from the denudation of the bowlder clays by flood water during the closing stages of the last cold period. It is pointed out that in some regions at least the loess is underlaid by a layer of erratics, which are believed to be the residue of the denuded bowlder clay. Weare re- minded by Klockmann|| and Wahnschaffe] that the inland ice must have acted as a great dam, and that the wide areas in Germany, ete., would be flooded, partly by water derived from the melting inland ice and partly by waters flowing north from the hilly tracts of middle Germany. In the great basins thus formed there would be a commingling of fine silt material derived from north and south, which would necessarily come to form a deposit having much the same character throughout. From what I have myself seen of the loess in various parts of Ger- many, and from all that I have gathered from reading and in conver- sation with those who have worked over loess-covered regions I incline * Abhandl. z. geolog. Specialkarte v. Preussen, etc., Bd. vir, Hett 1: Zeitschr. d. deutsch. geolog. Gesellsch., 1885, p. 904; 1886, p. 367. +t Hygienische Topographic von Strassburg i. E., 1885. t Abhandl. z. geolog. Specialkarte v. Elsass-Lothringen, Bd. vu, Heft 2. § Laspeyres: Lrliuterungen z. geolog. Specialkarte v. Preuessn, etc., Blatt Grobzig, Zorbig und Petersberg. || Klockmann: Jahrb, d. k. preuss. geology. Landesanstalt fiir 1883, p. 262. {/ Wahnschatte: Op. cit. and Zeitschr. d, deutsch. geolog. Ges., 1886, p. 367. H. Mis, 129——15 226 GLACIAL GEOLOGY. to the opinion that loess is for the most part of aqueous origin. In many cases this can be demonstrated, as by the occurrence of bedding and the intercalation of layers of stones, sand, gravel, etc., in the de- posit; again, by the not infrequent appearance of fresh-water shells ; but perhaps chiefly by the remarkable uniformity of character which the loess displays. It seemed to me reasonable also to believe that the flood waters of glacial times must needs have been charged with finely divided sediment, and that such sediment would be spread over wide regions in the low grounds—in the slack waters of the great rivers and in the innumerable temporary lakes which occupied or partly occupied many of the valleys and depressions of the land. There are different kinds of loess or loess-like deposits, however, and all need not have been formed in the same way. Probably some may have been derived, as Wahuschaffe has suggested, from the denudation of bowlder clay. Pos- sibly, also, some loess may owe its origin to the action of rain upon the stony clays, producing what we in this country would call “ rain-wash.” There are other accumulations, however, which no aqueous theory will satisfactorily explain. Under this category comes much of the so- called Bergléss, with its abundant land shells and its generally unstrat- ified character. It seems likely that such loess is simply the result of sub-aerial action, and owes its origin to rain, frost, and wind acting upon the superficial formations and re-arranging their finer-grained con- stituents. And it is quite possible that the upper portion of much of the loess of the lower grounds may have been re-worked in the same way. But I confess I can not yet find in the facts adduced by German geo- logists any evidence of a dry-as-dust epoch having obtained in Europe during any stage of the Pleistocene period. It is obvious, however, that after the flood waters had disappeared from the low grounds of the continent sub-aérial action would come into play over the wide regions covered by glacial and fluvio-glacial deposits. Thus, in the course of time these deposits would become modified, just as similar accumulations in these islands have been top-dressed,as it were, and to some extent even re-arranged. I am strengthened in these views by the conclusion arrived at by M. Falsan, the eminent French glacialist. Covering the plateaux of the Dombs, and widely spread throughout the valleys of the Khone, the Ain, the Isére, ete., in France, there is a deposit of loess, he says, which has been derived from the washing of the ancient moraines. At the foot of the Alps, where black schists are largely developed, the loess is dark gray; but west of the secondary chain the same deposit is yellowish and composed almost entirely of silicious materials, with only a very little carbonate of lime. This limon, or loess, however, is very generally modi- fied towards the top by the chemical action of rain, the yellow loess acquiring a red color. Sometimes it is crowded with calcareous con- cretions; at other times it has been deprived of its calcareous element and converted into a kind of pulverulent silica or quartz. This, the true GLACIAL GEOLOGY. gar loess, is distinguished from another, lehm, which Falsan recognizes as the product of atmospheric action, formed, in fact, in place from the disintegration and decomposition of the subjacent rocks. Even this lehm has been modified by running water, dispersed or accumulated locally, as the case may be.* All that we know of the loess and its fossils compels us to include this accumulation as a product of the Pleistocene period. Itis not of post- glacial age, even much of what one may call the ‘“remodified loess” being of Late Glacial or Pleistocene age. I can not attempt to give here a summary of what has been learned within recent years as to the fauna of the loess. The researches of Nehring and Liebe have familiar- ized us with the fact that at some particular stage in the Pleistocene period a fauna like that of the alpine steppe lands of western Asia was indigenous to middle Europe, and the recent investigations of Woldrich have increased our knowledge of this fauna. At what horizon, then, does this steppe fauna make its appearance? At Thiede Dr. Nehring discovered in so-called loess three successive horizons, each characterized by a special fauna. The lowest of these faunas was decidedly arctic in type; above that came a steppe fauna, which last was succeeded by a fauna comprising such forms as mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, Bos, Cervus, horse, hyena, and lion. Now, if we compare this last fauna with thetorms which have been obtained from true postglacial deposits, those deposits, namely, which overlie the younger bowlder clays and flood accumulations of the latest glacial epoch, we find little in common. The lion, the mammoth, and the rhinoceros are conspicuous by their absence from the postglacial beds of Europe. In place of them we meet with a more or less arctic fauna, and a high alpine and arctic flora, which, as we all know, eventually gave place to the flora and fauna with which Neolithic man was contemporaneous. As this is the case throughout northwestern and central Europe, we feel justi- - fied in assigning the Thiede beds to the Pleistocene period, and to that interglacial stage which preceded and gradually merged into the last glacial epoch. - - - If the student of the Pleistocene fauna has certain advantages in the fact that he has to deal with forms many of which are still living, he labors at the same time under disadvantages which are unknown to his colleagues who are engaged in the study of the life of far older periods. The Pleistocene period was distinguished above all things by its great oscillations of climate, the successive changes being repeated and producing correlative migrations of floras and faunas. We know that arctic and temperate faunas and floras flourished during interglacial times, and a like succession of life forms followed the final disappearance of glacial conditions. A study of the organic remains met with in any particular deposit will not necessarily, there- fore, enable us to assign these to their proper horizon. The geograph- *Falsan: La Période glaciaire, p. 51, 228 GLACIAL GEOLOGY. ical position of the deposit and its relation to Pleistocene accumulations elsewhere must clearly be taken into account. Already, however, much has been done in this direction, and it is probable that ere long we shall be able to arrive at a fair knowledge of the various modifi- cations which the Pleistocene floras and faunas experienced during the protracted period of climatic changes of which I have been speaking. We shall even possibly learn how often the arctic, steppe, prairie, and forest faunas, as they have been defined by Woldrich, replaced each other. Even now some approximation to this better knowledge has been made. Dr. Pohlig,* for example, has compared the remains of the Pleistocene faunas obtained at many different places in Europe, and has presented us with a classification which, although confessedly incomplete, yet serves to show the direction in which we must look for further advances in this department of inquiry. During the last twenty years the evidence of interglacial conditions both in Europe and America has so increased that geologists generally no longer doubt that the Pleistocene period was characterized by great changes of climate. The occurrence at many different localities on the continent of beds of lignite and fresh-water alluvia, containing remains of Pleistocene mammalia, intercalated between separate and Cistinct bowlder clays, has left us no alternative. The interglacial beds of the Alpine lands of Central Europe are paralleled by similar deposits in Britain, Scandinavia, Germany, and France. But opinions differ as to the number of glacial and interglacial epochs, many holding that we have evidence of only two cold stages and one general interglacial stage. This, as I have said, is the view entertained by moss geologists who are at work on the glaciai accumulations of Scandinavia and North Germany. On the other hand, Dr. Penck and others, from a study of the drifts of the German alpine lands, believe that they have met with evidence of three distinet epochs of glaciation and two epochs of inter- glacial conditions. In France, while some observers are of opinion that there have been only two epochs of general glaciation, others, as for example, M. Tardy, find what they consider to be evidence of several such epochs. Others again, as M. Falsan, do not believe in the existence of any interglacial stages, although they readily admit that there were great advances and retreats of the ice during the glacial period. M. Falsan, in short, believes in oscillations, but he is of the opinion that these were not so extensive as others maintained. It is, therefore, simplya question of degree, and whether we speak of oscilla- tions or of epochs we must needs admit the fact that through all the glaciated tracts of Europe fossiliferous deposits occur intercalated among glacial accumulations. The successive advance and retreat of *Pohlig: Sitzwngsb. d. Niederrheinischen Gesellschaft zu Bonn, 1884: Zeitschr. d. deutsch. geolog. Ges., 1887, p. 798. For a very full account of the diluvial European and Northern Asiatic mammalian faunas by Woldrich, see Mém. de V Acad, des Sciences de ~~ we St.-Petersbourg, 1887, 7° sér., tom, XXXY. GLACIAL GEOLOGY. 229 the ice, therefore, was not a local phenomenon, but characterized all the glaciated areas. And the evidence shows that the oscillations referred to were on a gigantic scale. The relation borne to the glacial accumulations by the old river alluvia which contain relics of paleolithic man early attracted atten- tion. From the fact that these alluvia in some places overlie glacial deposits the general opinion (still held by some) was that paleolithic man must needs be of postglacial age. But since we have learned that all bowlder clay does not belong to one and the same geological horizon—that, in short, there have been at least two, and probably more, epochs of glaciation—it is obvious that the mere occurrence of glacial deposits underneath paleolithic gravel does not prove these latter to be postglacial. All that we are entitled in such a case to say is simply that the implement-bearing beds are younger than the glacial accumulations upon which they rest. Their horizon must be deter- mined by first ascertaining the relative position in the glacial series of the underlying deposits. Now, it is a remarkable fact that the bowl- der clays which underlie such old alluvia belong, without exception, to the earlier stages of the glacial period. This has been proved again and again, not only for this country but for Europe generally. I am sorry to reflect that some twenty years have now elapsed since I was led to suspect that the paleolithic gravels and cave deposits were not of post-glacial but of glacial and inter-glacial age. In 187172 I pub- lished a series of papers in the Geological Magazine, in which I set forth the views I had come to form upon this interesting question. In these papers it was maintained that the alluviaand cave deposits could not be of post-glacial age, but must be assigned to pre-glacial and inter- glacial times, and in chief measure to the latter. Evidence was adduced to show that the latest great development of glacier ice in Europe took place after the southern pachyderms and paleolithic man had vacated England; that during this last stage of the glacial period, man lived contemporaneously with a northern and alpine fauna in such regions as southern France; and, lastly, that paleolithic man and the southern mammalia never re-visited northwestern Europe after extreme glacial conditions had disappeared. These conclusions were arrived at after a somewhat detailed examination of all the evidence then available, the remarkable distribution of the paleolithic and ossiferous alluvia having, as I have said, particularly impressed me. I colored a map to show at once the areas covered by the glacial and fluvio- glacial deposits of the last glacial epoch, and the regions in which the implement-bearing and ossiferous alluvia had been met with, when it became apparent that the latter never occurred at the surface within the regions occupied by the former. If ossiferous alluvia did here and there appear within the recently glaciated areas, it was always either in caves or as infra- or inter-glacial deposits. Since the date of these researches our knowledge of the geographical distribution of Pleisto- 230 GLACIAL GEOLOGY. cene deposits has greatly increased, and implements and other relics of paleolithic man have been recorded from many new localities throughout Europe. But none of this fresh evidence contradicts the conclusions I had previously arrived at; on the contrary, it has greatly strengthened my general argument. - - - Thus as years advance the picture of Pleistocene times becomes more and more clearly developed. The conditions under which our old paleolithic predecessors lived—the climatic and geographical changes of which they were the witnesses—are gradually being revealed with a precision that only a few years ago might well have seemed impossi- ble. This of itself is extremely interesting, but I feel sure that I speak the conviction of many workers in this field of labor when I say that the clearing up of the history of Pleistocene times is not the only end which they have in view. One can hardly doubt that when the conditions of that period and the causes which gave rise to these have been more fully and definitely ascertained we shall have advanced some way towards the better understanding of the climatic conditions of still earlier periods. - - - It would almost seem as if all one had to do to ascertain the climatie condition of any particular period was to prepare a map depicting with some approach to accuracy the former relative position of land and sea. With such a map could our meteor- ologists infer what the climatic cenditions must have been? Yes, pro- vided we could assure them that in other respects the physical condi- tions did not differ from the present. Now, there is no period in the past history of our globe the geological conditions of which are better known than the Pleistocene. And yet when we have indicated these upon a map we find that they do not give the results which we might have expected. The climatic conditions which they seem to imply are not such as we know did actually obtain. It is obvious, therefore, that some additional and perhaps exceptional factor was at work to produce the recognized results. What was this disturbing element, and have we any evidence of its interference with the opera. tion of the normal agents of climatic changes in earlier periods of the world’s history? We all know that various answers have been given to such questions. Whether amongst these the correct solution of the enigma is to be found time will show. Meanwhile, as all hypothesis and theory must starve without facts to feed ov, it behooves us as working geologists to do our best to add to the supply. The success with which other problems have been attacked by geologists forbids us to doubt that ere long we shall have done much to dispel some of the mystery which still envelopes the question of geological climates. THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER.* By G. K. GiLBERT. The Niagara River flows from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario. The shore of Erie is more than 300 feet’ higher than the shore of Ontario; but if you pass from the higher shore to the lower, you do not descend at a uniform rate. Starting from Lake Erie and going northward, you travel upon a plain—not level, but with only gentle undulations—until you approach the shore of Lake Ontario, and then suddenly you find yourself on the brink of a high bluff or cliff overlooking the lower lake, and separated from it only by a narrow strip of sloping plain. The bird’s-eye view in Plate Lis constructed to show the relations of these various features, the two lakes, the broad plateau lying a little higher than the shore of Lake Erie, the cliff, which geologists call the Niagara Escarpment, and the narrow plain at its foot. Where the Niagara River leaves Lake Erie at Buffalo and enters the plain, a low ridge of rock crosses its path, and in traversing this its water is troubled; but it soon becomes smooth, spreads out broadly, and indolently loiters on the plain. For three-fourths of the distance it can not be said to have a valley, it rests upon the surface of the plateau; but then its habit suddenly changes. By the short rapid at Goat Island and by the cataract itself the water of the river is dropped 200 feet down into the plain, and thence to the cliff at Lewiston it races headlong through a deep and narrow gorge. From Lewiston to Lake Ontario there are no rapids. The river is again broad, and its channel is scored so deeply in the littoral plain that the current is relatively slow, and the level of its water surface varies but slightly from that of the lake. The narrow gorge that contains the river from the Falls to Lewiston is a most peculiar and noteworthy feature. Its width rarely equals the fourth of a mile, and its depth to the bottom of the river ranges from 200 to 500 feet. Its walls are so steep that opportunities for climbing up and down them are rare, and in these walls one may see the *This essay contains the substance of a lecture read to the American Association for the Advancement of Science at its Toronto meeting, August, 1889. (From the Sixth Annual Report of the Commissioners of the State Reservation at Niagara, 188889. Transmitted to the legislature January 22, 1890. pp. 61-84.) 231 252 THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER. PACE EO ML Uae PLATE I.—BIkD’s-EYE VIEW OF NIAGARA RIVER. THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER. 233 geologic structure of the plateau. They are constituted of bedded rocks—limestone, shale, and sandstone—lying nearly horizontal, and a little examination shows that the same strata occur in the same order on both sides. So evenly are they matched, and so uniform is the general width of the gorge, that one might suspect, after a hasty exain- ination, the two sides had been cleft asunder by some Plutonic agency. But those who have made a study of the subject have reached a dif- ferent and better conclusion—the conclusion that the trench was exca- vated by running water, so that the strata of the two sides are alike because they are parts of continuous sheets, from each of which a narrow strip has here been cut. The contour of the cataract is subject to change. From time to time blocks of rock break away, falling into the pool below, and new shapes are then given to the brink over which the water leaps Many such falls of rock have taken place since the white man occupied the banks of the river, and the breaking away of a very large section is still a recent event. By such observation we are assured that the extent of the gorge is increasing at its end, that it is growing longer, and that the cataract is the cause of its extension. This determination is the first element in the history of the river. A change is in progress before our eyes. The river’s history, like human history, is being enacted, and from that which occurs we can draw inferences concerning what has occurred, and what will occur. We can look forward to the time when the gorge now traversing the fourth part of the width of the plateau will completely divide it, so that the Niagara will drain Lake Erie to the bottom. We can look back to the time when there was no gorge, but when the water flowed on the top of the plain to its edge, and the Falls of Niagara were at Lewiston. We may think of the river as laboring at a task—the task of sawing in two the plateau. The task is partly accomplished. When itis done the river will assume some other task. Before it was begun what did the river do? How can we answer this question? The surplus water discharge from Lake Erie can not have flowed by this course to Lake Ontario without sawing at the plateau. Before it began the cutting of the gorge it did not flow along this line. It may have flowed somewhere else, but if so it did not constitute the Niagara River. The commence- ment of the cutting of the Niagara gorge is the beginning of the his- tory of the Niagara River. We have accomplished somewhat of our purpose if we have discovered that our river had a beginning. We are so accustomed to think of streams, and especially large streams, as permanent, as flowing on forever, that the discovery of a definite beginning to the life of a great river like the Niagara is im- portant and impressive. But that discovery does not stand alone. Indeed, it is but one of a large class of similar facts familiar to students 234 THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER. of geology. Let us consider for a moment the tendency of stream his- tories and the tendency of lake histories. Wherever streams fall over rocky ledges in rapids or in cataracts, t)ieir power of erosion is greatly increased by the rapid descent, and they deepen their channels. If this process continues long enough, the result must be that each stream will degrade its channel through the hard ledges until the descent is no more rapid there than in other parts of its course. It follows that a stream with cascades and water-falls and numerous rapids is laboring at an unfinished task. It is either a young stream, or else nature has recently put obstructions in its path. Again, consider what occurs where a lake interrupts the course of a stream. The lower part of the stream, the outflowing part, by deepen- ing its channel continually tends to drain the lake. The upper course, the inflowing stream, brings mud and sand with it and deposits them in the still water of the lake, thus tending to fill its basin. Thus, by a double process, the streams are laboring to extinguish the lakes that lie in their way, and given sufficient time, they will accomplish this. Now, if you will study a large map of North America, you will find that the region of the Great Lakes is likewise a region of small lakes. A multitude of lakes, lakelets, ponds, and swamps where ponds once were, characterize the surface from the Great Lakes northward to the Arctic Ocean, and for a distance southward into the United States. In the same region waterfalls abound, and many streams consist of mere alternations of rapids and pools. Further south, in the region beyond the Ohio River, lakes and cataracts are rare. The majority of the streams flow from source to mouth with regulated course, their waters descending at first somewhat steeply, and gradually becoming more nearly level as they proceed, At the south the whole drainage system is mature; at the north it is immature. At the south it is old; at the north, young. The explanation of this lies in a great geologic event of somewhat recent date—the event known as the age of ice. Previous to the ice age our streams may have been as tame and orderly as those of the Southern States, and we have no evidence that there were lakes in this region. During the ice age the region of the Great Lakes was some- what in the condition of Greenland. It was covered by an immense sheet of ice and the ice was in motion. In general it moved from north to south. It carried with it whatever lay loose upon the surface. It did more than this, for just as the soft water of a stream, by dragging sand and pebbles over the bottom, wears its channel deeper, so the plastic ice, holding grains of sand and even large stones in its under surface, dragged these across the underlying rock, and in this way not only scoured and scratched it, but even wore it away. In yet other ways the moving ice mass was analogous toa river. Its motion was perpetual, and its form changed little, but that which moved was continually renewed. As a river is supplied by rain, so the THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER 235 glacier was supplied by snow falling upon regions far to the north. To a certain extent the glacier discharged to the ocean like a river, break- ing up into icebergs and floating away; but its chief discharge was upon the land, through melting. The climate at its southern margin was relatively warm, and into this warm climate the sheet of ice steadily pushed and was as steadily dissolved. Whatever stones and earth were picked up or torn up by the ice moved with it to its southern margin and fell to the ground as the ice melted. If the position of the ice margin had been pertectly uniform its continuously deposited load might have built a single high wall; but as the seasons were cold or warm, wet or dry, the ice margin advanced and retreated with endless variation, and this led to the deposition of irregular congeries of hills, constituting what is known as the “drift deposit.”.. Eventually the warm climate of the south pre- vailed over the invader born of a cold climate, compelling it to retreat. The motion of the ice current was not reversed, but the front of the glacier was melted more rapidly than it could be renewed, and thus its area was gradually restricted. During the whole period of retrer ch- ment the deposition of drift proceeded at the margin of the ice, so that the entire area that it formerly occupied is now diversified by irregular sheets and heapings of earth ana stone. The ancient configuration of the country was more or less modified by the erosive action of the ice, and it was further moditied by the deposits of drift. The destructive and constructive agencies together gave to the land an entirely new system of hills and valleys. When the ice was gone the rain that fell on the land could no longer follow the old lines of drainage. Some of the old valleys had perhaps been obliterated; others had been changed so that their descent was ina different direction, and all were obstructed here and there by the heaps of drifts. The waters were held upon the surface in innumerable lakes, each overflowing at the lowest side of its basin, and thus giving birth to a stream that descended to some other lake. Often the new lines of descent—the new water courses—crossed regions that before had had no streams, and then they were compelled to dig their own channels. Thus it was that the whole water system of a vast region was refash- ioned, and thus it has come to pass that the streams of this region are young. Like every other stream of the district of the Great Lakes, the Niagara was born during the melting of the ice, and so we may begin our chronicle with the very beginning of the river. If you will again call to mind the features of a general map of the United States and Canada, and consider the direction in which the streams flow, you will perceive that there is a continuous upland, a sort of main divide, separating the basin of the Great Lakes from the basin of the Mississippi.* It is not a mountain range. In great part it is a * A part of its course uppears as a broken line on the maps in Figs. 3 and 4. 236 THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER. region of hills. In places it is only the highest part of the plain; but it is nevertheless a continuous upland, else the waters would not be parted along its course. When the ice had its greatest extent it passed over this upland, so that the waters produced by its melting fell into the Ohio and other tributaries of the Mississippi, as well as into streams that discharged to Delaware and Chesapeake Bays. Afterward, when the glacier gradually fell back, there came atime when the ice front lay in the main to the north of the great water parting, but had not yet re- ceded from the Adirondack Mountains, so that the water that flowed from the melting glacier could not escape by way of the St. Lawrence River, but gathered as a lake between the upland divide and theice front. In fact, it formed not one but many lakes, each discharging across the divide by some low pass, and as the great retreat progressed these lakes were varied innumber and extent, so that their full history is exceeding complex. The surfaces of these lakes were stirred by the winds, and waves beat upon their shores. In places they washed out the soft drift and carved clifts; elsewhere they fashioned spits and bars. These cliffs and spits and other monuments of wave work survive to the present time. and have made it possible to trace out and map certain of the ancient lakes. The work of surveying them is barely begun, but from what is known we may add a chapter to the history of our river. There was a time when one of these lakes occupied the western por- tion of the basin of Lake Erie, and discharged across the divide at the point where the city of Fort Wayne now stands, running into the Wabash River and thence into the Ohio. The channel of this discharge is so well preserved that its meaning can not be mistaken, and the associated shore lines have been traced for many miles eastward into Ohio and northward into Michigan. Afterward this lake found some other point of discharge, and a new shore line was made 25 feet_ lower. Twice again the point of discharge was shifted and other shore lines were formed. The last and lowest of the series has been traced eastward across the States of Ohio and Pennsylvania and into western New York, where it fades away in the vicinity of the town of Careyville. At each of the stages represented by these four shore lines the site of the Niagara was either buried beneath the ice or else sub- merged under the lake bordering the ice. There was no river. The next change in the history of the lakes was a great one. The ice, which had previously occupied nearly the whole of the Ontario basin, so far withdrew as to enable the accumulated water to flow out by way of the Mohawk Valley. The level of discharge was thus sud- denly lowered 550 feet, and a large district previously submerged be- came dry land. Then for the first time Lake Erie and Lake Ontario were separated, and then tor the first time the Niagara River carried the surplus water of Lake Erie to Lake Ontario. The waves of the new-born Lake Ontario at once began to carve THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER. 237 about its margin a record of its existence. That record is wonderfully clear, and the special training of the geologist has not been necessary to the recognition of its import. The earliest books of travel in west- ern New York describe the Ridge road, and tell us that the ridge of sand and gravel which it follows was even then recognized by all resi- dents as an ancient beach of the lake.* In the Province of Ontario, the beach was examined and described by the great English geologist, Charles Lyell, during his celebrated journey in America,t and it after- ward received more careful study by Mr. Sandford Fleming,t and by the geologists of the Canadian Survey.§ - In western New York it was traced out by the great American geologist, James Hall, during hissurvey of the geology of the fourth district of the State.|| Within afew years more attention has been given to detail. Prof. J. W. Spencer has traced the line continuously from the head of the lake at Hamilton, past Toronto, Windsor, and Grafton, inthe vicinity of Belleville,] beyond which point it is hard to follow. South of the lake, I myself have traced it from Hamilton to Queenstown and Lewiston, thence to Rochester, and all about the eastern end of the basin to Watertown, beyond which point it is again difficult to trace. Southeast of the present margin of Lake Ontario there was a great bay, extending as far south as Cayuga Lake, and including the basin of Oneida Lake, and it was from this bay that the discharge took place, the precise point of overflow being the present site of the city of Rome. For this predecessor of Lake On- tario Professor Spencer has proposed the name of Iroquois. Putting together the results of his survey and of my own, I have been able to prepare a map (Pl. 11) exhibiting with a fair amount of detail the outline of the old lake. It will be observed that the north- eastern portion of the shore is not traced out. In fact it is not trace- able. The water was contained on that side by the margin of the glacier, and with the final melting of the ice all record of its shore vanished. The form and extent of Lake Iroquois, and the form and extent of each other lake that bordered the ice front, were determined partly by the position of the pass over which the discharge took place, and by the contour of the land; but they were also determined to a great extent by the peculiar attitude of the land. *C. Schultz, jr. Travels on an Inland Voyage - - - in the years 1807 and 1808, New York, 1810, p. 85. De Wit Clinton. Discourse before the New York Historical Society, 1811, p. 58. Francis Hall. Travelsin Canada and the United States in 1816 and 1817, Boston, 1818, p. 119. t Travels in North America in the years 1841-42. New York, 1845, vol. 2, pp. 86, 87. ¢ Sandford Fleming. Notes on the Davenport gravel drift. Canadian Journal, new series, vol. 6, pp. 247-253. § Geological Survey of Canada, report to 1863, pp. 914, 915. || Natural History of New York. Geology, Part 1v, pp. 348-354. {] Communicated tothe Philosophical Society of Washington, to be published in yol. 11 of the Bulletin of the Society. JHE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER. 238 ES ts Fy LTRS ‘aUsorz "SLI HOVONOYIOV “paepeys-ssoO19 Joot[s vo] ‘popeys wore oYV] JUVIOUY ‘soul, poyop ur AqdvasoapAy WAapop{ —"NOILVNV1dX qT ‘sIOAvOUT AMWYT AO dVW—'[] ALVTG é aor fe ay gee if OPUINTS. anpal ae ee P07 p DLOODI NO " “UOPS2MI T,, 7, Yy MG Ui Wi THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER. 239 Perhaps a word of general explanation is necessary in speaking of the attitude of the land. Geologists are prone to talk of elevation and subsidence—of the uprising of the earth’s crust at one place or at one time, and of its down-sinking at another place or another time. Their language usually seems to imply the rise or fall of an area all together, without any relative displacement of its parts; but you will readily see that, unless a rising or sinking tract is torn asunder from its surround. ings, there must be ali about it a belt in which the surface assumes an inciined position, or, in other words, where the attitude of the land is changed. If the district whose attitude changes is a lake basin, the change of attitude will cause a change in the position of the line marked about the slopes of the basin by the water margin, and it may even cause the overflow of the basin to take a new direction. The Ontario basin has been subjected to a very notable change of attitude, and the effect of this change has been to throw the ancient shore line out of level. When the shore line was wrought by the waves, all parts of if must have lain in the same horizontal plane, and had there been no change in the attitude of the basin, every point of the shore line would now be found at the level of the old outlet at Rome. Instead of this, we find that the old gravel spit near Toronto—the Davenport ridge—is 40 feet higher than the contemporaneous gravel spit on which Lewiston is built; at Belleville, Ontario, the old shore is 200 feet higher than at Rochester, New York; at Watertown 300 feet higher than at Syracuse; and the lowest point, in Hamilton, at the head of the lake, is 325 feet lower than the highest point near Water- town. From these and other measurements we learn that the Ontario basin with its new attitude inclines more to the south and west than with the oid attitude. The point of discharge remained at Rome as long as the ice was crowded high against the northern side of the Adirondack Mountains, but eventually there came a time when the water escaped eastward between the ice and the mountain slope. The line of the St. Lawrence was not at once opened, so that the subsidence was only partial. The water was held for short times at various intermediate levels, recorded at the east in aseries of faint shore lines. Owing to the attitude of the land, these shores are not traceable all about the basin, but pass be- neath the present water level at various points. Finally the ice blockade was raised in the St. Lawrence Valley, and the present outlet was established. During the period of final retreat the attitude of the land had slowly changed, so that it was not then so greatly depressed at the north as before; but it had not yet acquired its present position, and for a time Lake Ontario was smaller than now, its western margin lying lower down on the slope of the basin. An attempt has been made in Pl. 111 to exhibit diagramatically the relations of ice dams and basin attitudes to one another and to the river. The various elements are projected, with exaggeration of heights, on a THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER. 240 ‘SLATLAO OL GNV AUNVT DHL JO SUGALILIVY OL NISVY OINVINO AHL NI STAAUAT WALV AV AO SNOILVIGH DHL ALVULSATII OL WVNDVIQ—']I] AWLVIg QaOAIT DIS Wa SS ee en} THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER. 241 vertical plane running a little west of south, or parallel to the direction of greatest inclination of old water-planes. At N is represented the Niagara escarpment and the associated slope of the lake basin; at A the Adirondack Mountains. R and T are the passes at Rome and at the Thousand Islands. Suecessive positions of the ice front are marked at I', ?, and . The straight line numbered 1 represents the level of lake water previous to the origin of the Niagara River; 2 gives the first position of the water level after the establishment of the home outlet ; and the level gradually shifted to 3; 4 is the first of the series of tem- porary water levels when the water escaped between the mountain slope and the ice front; 5 represents the first position of the water level after the occupation of the Thousand Island outlet; and 6, the present level of Lake Ontario. It should be added parenthetically that the shore of Lake Iroquois as mapped in Pl. 11 is not quite synchronous. Between 2 and 3 of PI. III there was a continuous series of water levels, but it was not easy to map any one except the highest. The northern part of the map delin- eates the margin of water level 2 and the southern part the margin of water level 3. It is easy to see that these various changes contribute to modify the history of the Niagara River. In the beginning, when the cataract was at Lewiston, the margin of Lake Ontario, instead of being 7 miles away, aS now, was only 1 or 2 miles distant, and the level of its water was about 75 feet higher than at present. The outlet of the lake was at Rome, and while it there continued there was a progressive change in the attitude of the land, causing the lake to rise at the mouth of the Niagara until it was 125 feet higher than now. It fairly washed the foot of the cliff at Queenston and Lewiston. ‘Then came a time when the lake fell suddenly through a vertical distance of 250 feet, and its shore retreated to a position now submerged. Numerous minor oscil- lations were caused by successive shiftings of the point of discharge, and by progressive changes in the attitude of the land, until finally the present outlet was acquired, at which time the Niagara River had its greatest length. It then encroached 5 miles on the modern domain of Lake Ontario, and began a delta where now the lead-line runs out 30 fathoms. While the level of discharge was lower than now, the river had dif- ferent powers as an eroding agent. The rocks underlying the low plain along the margin of the lake are very soft, and where a river flows across yielding rocks the depth to which it erodes is limited chiefly by the level of its point of discharge. So when the point of discharge of the Niagara River—the surface of the lake to which it flowed—was from 100 to 200 feet lower than now, the river carved a channel far deeper than if could now carve. When afterward the rise of land in the vicinity of the outlet carried the water gradually up to its present position in the basin this channel was partly filled by sand and H. Mis. 129——16 242 THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER, other débris brought by the current; but it was not completely filled, and its remarkable present depth is one of the surviving witnesses of the shifting drama of the Ontario. Near Fort Niagara 12 fathoms of water are shown on the charts. Mr. Warren Upham has made a similar discovery in the basin of the Red River of the North. That basin held a large lake, draining south- ward to the Mississippi—a lake whose association with the great glacier Upham appropriately signalized by naming it after the apos'le of ‘ the glacial theory,” Louis Agassiz. The height of the old Agassiz shore has been carefully measured by Mr. Upham, through long distances, and it is found to rise continuously, though not quite uniformly, toward the north. Similar discoveries have been made in the basins of Erie, Huron, and Michigan, and the phenomena all belong approximately to the same epoch. So, while the details remain to be worked out, the general fact is already established that during the epoch of the ice retreat the great plain constituting the Laurentian basin was more inclined to the northward than at present. It was shown, first in the case of Lake Agassiz, and afterward, as already stated, in the case of Lake Ontario, that the change from the old attitude of the land to the present attitude was in progress during the epoch of the ice retreat. The land was gradually rising to the north or northeast. In each lake basin the water either retreated from its northern margin, so as to lay bare more land, or encroached on its southern margin, or else both these changes occurred together ; and in some cases we have reason to believe that the changes were so exten- sive that the outlets of lakes were shifted from northerly passes to more southerly passes. i To illustrate the effect of the earlier system of land slopes upon the distribution of water in the region of the Great Lakes I have con- structed the map in Pl. tv. It does not postulate the system of levels most divergent from the present system, but a system such as may have existed at the point of time when the last glacial ice was melted from the region. The modern system of drainage is drawn in broken lines; the hypothetie system in full lines, with shading for the lake areas; and a heavier broken line toward the bottom of the map marks the position of the present water-parting at the southern edge of the Laurentian basin. : In the ancient system of drainage, Georgian Bay, instead of being a dependency of Lake Huron, is itself the principal lake, and receives the overflow from Huron. It expands toward the northeast so as to include the basin of Lake Nipissing, and its discharge is across a some- what low pass at the east end of Lake Nipissing, and thence down the Ottawa River to the St. Lawrence. Lake Michigan, instead of vom- municating with Lake Huron by a strait, forms a tributary lake, dis- charging its surplus through a river. Lake Superior has the same relations as now, but its overtlow traverses a greater distance before 243 THE NIAGARA RIVER. THE HISTORY OF KF SEX Sees eee peas 5 iJ ’ Qe "Y n 2 e ‘ SiS -— - \. WARE DP)‘ y. S ROH, er eS Y ‘ pect hee “a WY, ‘ Sorte ory % = . Ty Nd HZ ) ea P4 cou 7 sa VAG ae Pak : ps i Oe ee a ea od Ss of ! ) enon! eS i ‘ ° oh ORS GY ‘ pane “= ‘ t home og. re un i Ve H a \ Zaz 52S i ean Nayegie Ma. ~-) ' ‘ ! rg he i eas MSS ncn ee ene = Sop ae \ nee Niagara “Falls. r oor PLATE 1V.—HYPOTHETIC HYDROGRAPHY AT A DATE AFTER THE MELTING OF THE GREAT GLACIER FROM THE ST- LAWRENCE VALLEY. igi HORAN ATION aeereparning in heavy broken line. Modern hydrography in hght broken lines. Ancient rivers in full lines. Ancient a) > a > is z m nH 4 fe) Zz m 253 YSAIY 254 THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER. holes, even in rocks that are hard. These holes are called technically ‘not-holes,” and there is much to commend the suggestion that the excavation within the pool is essentially pot-hole work.* The process which I have described is that which takes place in the central part of the Horseshoe Fall, where the greatest body of water is precipitated. At the margin of the Horseshoe, and also at the American Fall, in which places the body of falling water is much iess, the process is different. There is there no pot-hole action and no pool. The fallen blocks of limestone form a low talus at the foot of the cliff, and upon them the force of the descending water is broken and spent. Such of you as have made the excursion through the Cave of the Winds will recall that though for a few steps you traveled upon an undisturbed rock stratum, one of the layers of the Clinton group, the greater part of the journey lay across large fallen blocks of limestone, irregularly heaped. Where, then, the volume of falling water is relatively small, the great bed of shale below the Clinton ledges plays no part, and the rate at which the limestone breaks away is determined purely by the rate of erosion of the shale bed lying just beneath it. The difference between the two processes is of great importance in the present connection, because the two rates of erosion are very different. I am fully aware that this sketch of the cataract’s work is not a satis- factory explanation of the mode of recession, but it yet serves a present purpose, for it renders it possible to point out that the rate of recession is affected by certain factors which may have varied during the early history of the river. We see that the process of recession is concerned with a heavy bed of hard rock above, with beds of softer rock beneath, with the force of falling water, and possibly, also, with the solvent power of the water. Concerning each of these factors a number of pertinent questions may be asked, questions that should certainly be considered, whether they are answered or not, before any solution of the time problem is regarded as satisfactory. To illustrate their pertinence, a few will be propounded. Question 1, Does the limestone vary in constitution in different parts of the gorge? If its texture or its system of cracks and joints varies, the process of recession may vary in consequence. Question 2. How does the limestone bed vary in thickness in differ- ent parts of the gorge? This question is easily answered, for at all points it is well exposed for measurement. Question 3. How is the thickness of the limestone related to the rate of recession? This is more difficult. The débris froma very thick bed of limestone would oppose great resistance to the cataract and check its work. The débris from a very thin bed would afford small and in- efficient pestles for pot-hole action, and might lead to a slow rate of *T am indebted for this suggestion to Mr, W J McGee, THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER. 255 recession. If the thickness now seen at the cataract were slightly increased or slightly diminished, it is not at once apparent how the rate of recession would be affected, and yet there might be an important dif: erence. We have seen that the pre-glacial stream whose channel is betrayed at the Whirlpool removed the Niagara limestone through a portion of the gorge, and Question 4 asks: Through what portion of the gorge was the Niagara limestone absent when the Niagara River began its work ? Question 5. Does the rock section beneath the limestone—the shale series with its imbedded harder layers—does this vary in different parts of the gorge? Question 6. Through what distance were the several members of the underlying rock series removed by the action of the pre-glacial stream ? Coming now to consider the force of the falling water, a little con- sideration serves to show that the force depends on at least three things: The height through which the water falls, the degree of concentration of the stream, and the volume of the river. The height of the fall is the vertical distance from its crest to the sur- face of the pool below. Question 7 asks: How has the height of the crest of the fall varied during the history of recession? . Question 8. How has the height of the base of the fall varied? And this involves a subsidiary question—to what extent has the excavated gorge, as left by the retreating cataract, been re-filled, either by the falling in of fragments from the eliffs or by contributions of débris brought by the current ? Question 9. What has been the form of the channel at the crest of the fall from point to point during the recession? Wherever the chan- has been broad, and the water of uniform depth from side to side, the force of the falling water has been applied disadvantageously ; wher- ever the channel has been narrow, or has been much deeper in some parts than in others, the force of the water has been applied advanta- geously. There are many ways in which it is possible that the volume of the river was made to differ at early dates from its present volume. Dur- ing the presence of the ice there was a different climate, and there were different drainage systems. Question 10. During the early history of the river was the annual rainfall on which its water supply depended greater or less than now ? (Question 11. Was the evaporation from the basin at that time greater or less than now ? It is believed that at the present time the Niagara River receives less than half the water that falls upon its basin in rain and snow, the remainder being returned to the air by evaporation from the lakes, from the surface of the land, and from vegetation. Question 12, Was the water supply increased by ablation? There 256 THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER. may have been times when the overlapping edge of the glacier dis- charged to the Laurentian Basin large bodies of water furnished by the melting of ice that had congealed from the clouds of regions far away. Question 13. Was the drainage area of the river at any time increased through the agency of ice barriers? Just as the Winnipeg basin was made to sendits water to the Mississippi, So we can imagine that regions north of the Great Lakes and now tributary to Hudson’s Bay had their discharge temporarily turned to Lake Superior and Lake Huron. On the other hand, we have seen that the discharge of the whole dis- trict of the upper lakes was for a time turned away from the Niagara River. Therefore we ask: Question 14. To what extent and for what periods was the volume of the river diminished through the diversion of the discharge of the upper lakes ? Assuming all these questions to be answered one by one, and the variations of different sorts determined, it is still necessary to learn the relations of those variations to each other, and so we ask: Question 15. How have the variations of rock section, the variations of cataract height, the variations of form of channel, and the variations of volume been related to one another in point of time? What have been their actual combinations ? Question 16. How have the various temporary combinations of factors affected the process of retreat and the rate of recession ? The tale of questions is not exhausted, but no more are needed if only it has been shown that the subject is not in reality simple, as many have assumed, but highly complex. Some of the questions are, indeed, easily answered. It may be possible to show that others are of small moment. It may even be that careful study of the local features will enable the investigator to infer the process of cataract work at each point from the existing condition of the gorge, and thus relieve him from the necessity of considering such remote questions as the nature of glacial climate and the history of glacial retreat. But after all paring and pruning, what remains of the problem will be no baga- telle. It is not to be solved by a few figures on a slate, nor yet by the writing of many essays. It is not to be solved by the cunning discussion of our scant, yet too puzzling, knowledge—smoothing away inconvenient doubts with convenient assumptions and cancelling out, as though compensatory, terms of unknown value that happen to stand on oppo- site sides of the equation. It is a problem of nature, and, like other natural problems, demands the patient gathering of many facts, of facts of many kinds, of categories of facts suggested by the tentative theories of to-day, and of new categories of facts to be suggested by new theories. I have said our problem is but the stepping stone to another problem, the discovery of common units for earth history and human history. The Niagara bridges the chasm in another way, or, more strictly, in THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER. 257 another sense, for the term of its life belongs to both histories. The river sprang from a great geologic revolution, the banishment of the dynasty of cold, and so its lifetime is a geologic epoch; but from first to last man has been the witness of its toil, aud so its history is inter- woven with the history of man. The human comrade of the river’s youth was not, alas, a reporter with a notebook, else our present labor would be light. He has even told us little of himself. We only know that on a gravelly beach of Lake Iroquois, now the Ridge road, he rudely gathered stones to make a hearth, and built a fire; and the next storm breakers, forcing back the beach, buried and thus preserved, to gratify yet whet our curiosity, hearth, ashes, and charred sticks.* In these Darwinian days we can not deem primeval the man pos- sessed of the Promethean art of fire, and so his presence on the scene adds zest to the pursuit of the Niagara problem. Whatever the an- tiquity of the great cataract may be found to be, the antiquity of man is greater. * American Anthropologist, vol. 11, pp. 173, 174. H. Mis. 129 AEP THE MEDITERRANEAN, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL * By Sir R. LAMBERT PLAYFAIR. When the unexpected honor was proposed to me of presiding over your deliberations, I felt some embarrassment as to the subject of my address. Geography as a science, and the necessity of encouraging a more systematic study of it, had been treated in an exhaustive manner during previous meetings. - - - In my perplexity I applied for the advice of one of the most experienced geographers of our Society, whose reply brought comfort to my mind. He reminded me that it was generally the custom for presidents of sections to select subjects with which they were best acquainted, and added: “What more instructive and captivating subject could be wished than the Mediterranean, physi- eal and historical ?” For nearly a quarter of a century I have held an official position in Algeria, and it has been my constant delight to make myself acquainted with the islands and shores of the Mediterranean, in the hope of being able to facilitate the travels of my countrymen in that beautiful part of the world. Ican not pretend to throw much new light on the subject, and I have written so often about it already that what I have to say may strike you as a twice-told tale; nevertheless, if you will permit me to descend from the elevated platform occupied by more learned predecessors, I should like to speak to you in a familiar manner of this ‘¢ great sea,” as it is called in sacred Scripture, the Mare internum of the ancients, ‘our sea,” Mare nostrum of Pomponius Mela. Its shores include about 3,000,000 square miles of the richest country on the earth’s surface, enjoying a climate where the extremes of tem- perature are unknown, and with every variety of scenery, but chiefly consisting of mountains and elevated plateaux. It is a well-defined region of many parts, all intimately connected with each other by their geographical character, their geological formation, their flora, fauna, and the physiognomy of the people who inhabit them. ‘To this general * Vice-presidential address before the Geographical Section of the British Associa- tion Ady. Sci. meeting at Leeds, September, 1890, (From Nature, September 11, 1890, vol. XLII, pp. 480-4*5.) 259 260 THE MEDITERRANEAN, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL. statement there are two exceptions ;—namely, Palestine, which belongs rather to the tropical countries lying to the east of it, and so may be dismissed from our subject; and the Sahara, which stretches to the south of the Atlantic region—or region of the Atlas—but approaches the sea at the Syrtis, and again to the eastward of the Cyrenaica, and in which Egypt is merely a long oasis on either side of the Nile. The Mediterranean region is the emblem of fertility and the cradle of civilization, while the Sahara—Heypt, of course, excepted—is the traditional panther’s skin of sand, dotted here and there with oases, but always representing sterility and barbarism. The sea is in no sense, save a political one, the limit between them; it is a mere gulf, which, now bridged by steam, rather unites than separates the two shores. Civilization never could have existed if this inland sea had not formed the junction between the three surrounding continents, rendering the coasts of each easily accessible, whilst modifying the climate of its shores. The Atlas range is a mere continuation of the south of Europe. It is a long strip of mountain land, about 200 miles broad, covered with splendid forests, fertile valleys, and in some places arid steppes, stretch- ing eastward from the ocean to which it bas given its name. The highest point is Morocco, forming a pendant to the Sierra Nevada of Spain; thence it runs, gradually decreasing in height, through Algeria and Tunisia, it becomes interrupted in Tripoli, and it ends in the beauti- ful green hills of the Cyrenaica, which must not be confounded with the oases of the Sahara, but is an island detached from the eastern spurs of the Atlas, in the ocean of the desert. In the eastern part the flora and fauna do not essentially differ from those of Italy; in the west they resemble those of Spain; one of the noblest of the Atlantic conifers, the Abies pinsapo, is found also in the Iberian peninsula and nowhere else in the world, and the valuable alfa grass or esparto (Stipa tenacissima), from which a great part of our paper is made, forms one of the principal articles of export from Spain, Portugal, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Tripoli. On both sides of the sea the former plant is found on the highest and most inaccessible mountains, amongst snows which last during the greater part of the year, and the latter from the sea level to an altitude of 5,000 feet, but in places where the heat and drought would kill any other plant, and in undulating land where water can not lodge. Of the three thousand plants found in Algeria, by far the greater number are natives of southern Hurope, and less than one hundred are peculiar to the Sahara. The macchie or maquis of Algeria in no way differs from that of Corsica, Sardinia, and other places; it consists of lentisk, arbutus, myrtle, cistus, tree-heath, and other Mediterranean shrubs. If we take the commonest plant found on the southern shores of the Mediterranean, the dwarf palm (Chamerops humilis), we see at once how intimately connected is the whole Mediterranean region, with THE MEDITERRANEAN, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL. 261 the exception of the localities I have before indicated This palm still grows spontaneously in the south of Spain, and in scme parts of Prov- ence, in Corsica, Sardinia, and the Tuscan Archipelago, in Calabria and the Ionian Islands, on the continent of Greece, and in several of the islands in the Levant, and it has only disappeared from other countries as the land has been brought under regular cultivation. On the other hand, it occurs neither in Palestine, Egypt, nor in the Sahara. The presence of European birds may not prove much, but there are mammalia, reptiles, fish, and insects common to both sides of the Mediterranean. Some of the larger animals, such as the lion, panther, jackal, ete., have disappeared before the march of civilization in the one continent, but have lingered, owing to Mohammedan barbarism, in the other. There is abundant evidence of the former existence of these and of the other large mammals which now characterize tropical Africa in France, Germany, and Greece. Itis probable that they only migrated to their present babitat after the upheaval of the great sea which, in Hocene times, stretched from the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean, making southern Africa an island continent like Australia. The original fauna of Africa, of which the lemur is the distinctive type, is still preserved in Madagascar, which then formed part of it. The fish fauna is naturally the most conclusive evidence as to the true line of separation between Europe and Africa. We find the trout in the Atlantic region and in all the snow-fed rivers falling into the Mediterranean; in Spain, Italy, Dalmatia; it occurs in Mount Olym- pus, in rivers of Asia Minor, and even in the Lebanon, but nowhere in Palestine south of that range, in Egypt, or in the Sahara. This fresh- water salmonoid is not exactly the same in all these localities, but is subject to considerable variation, sometimes amounting to specific dis- tinction. Nevertheless it is a European type found in the Atlas, and it is not till we advance into the Sahara, at Tuggurt, that we come to a purely African form in the Chromide, which have a wide geographical distribution, being found everywhere between that place, the Nile, and Mozambique. The presence of newts, tailed batrachians, in every country around the Mediterranean, except again in Palestine, Egypt, and the Sahara, is another example of the continuity of the Mediterranean fauna, even though the species are not the same throughout. The Sahara is an immense zone of desert which commences on the Shores of the Atlantic Ocean, between the Canaries and Cape de Verde, and traverses the whole of north Africa, Arabia, and Persia, as far as Central Asia. The Mediterranean portion of it may be said roughly to extend between the fifteenth and thirtieth degrees of north latitude. This was popularly supposed to have been a vast inland sea in very recent times, but the theory was supported by geological facts wrongly 262 § THE MEDITERRANEAN, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL. interpreted. It has been abundantly proved by the researches of travel- lers and geologists that such a sea was neither the cause nor the ori- gin of the Libyan Desert. ‘ Rainless and sterile regions of this nature are not peculiar to north Africa, but occur in two belts which go round the world in either hem- isphere at about similar distances north and south of the equater. These correspond in locality to the great inland drainage areas from which no water can be discharged into the ocean, and which occupy about one-fifth of the total land surface of the globe. The African Sahara is by no means a uniform plain, but forms sev- eral distinct basins containing a considerable extent of what may almost be called mountain land. The Hoggar Mountains, in the center of the Sahara, are 7,000 feet high, and are covered during three months with snow. The general average may be taken at 1,500. The physi- cal character of the region is very varied; in some places, such as at Tiout, Moghrar, Touat, and other oases in or bordering on Morocco, there are well watered valleys, with fine scenery and almost European vegetation, where the fruits of the north flourish side by side with the palm tree. In others there are rivers like the Oued Guir, an affluent of the Niger, which the French soldiers, who saw it in 1870, compare to the Loire. Again, as in the bed of the Oued Rir, there is a subterra- hean river, which gives a sufficient supply of water to make a chain of rich and well-peopled oases equal in fertility to some of the finest por- tions of Algeria. ‘The greater part of the Sahara, however, is hard and undulating, cut up by dry water courses, such as the Igharghar, which descends to the Chott Melghigh, and almost entirely without animal or vegetable life. About one-sixth of its extent consists of dunes of moving sand, a vast accumulation of detritus washed down from more northern and southern regions—perhaps during the glacial epoch—but with no indi- cation of marine formation. ‘These are difficult and even dangerous to traverse; but they are not entirely destitute of vegetation. Water is found at rare but well-known intervals, and there is an abundance of salsolaceous plants which serve as food for the camel. This sand is largely produced by wind action on the underlying rocks, and is not sterile in itself; it is only the want of water which makes it so. Wherever water does exist or artesian wells are sunk oases of great fertility never fail to follow. Some parts of the Sahara are below the level of the sea, and here are formed what are called chotts or sebkhas, open depressions without out: lets, inundated by torrents from the southern slopes of the Atlas in winter, and covered with a saline efflorescence in summer. This salt by no means proves the former existence of an inland sea; it is produced by the concentration of the natural salts, which exist in every variety of soil, washed down by winter rains, with which the unevaporated res- idue of water becomes saturated. THE MEDITERRANEAN, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL. 263 Sometimes the drainage, instead of flooding open spaces and forming chotts, finds its way through the permeable sand till it meets imper- meable strata below it, thus forming vast subterranean reservoirs where the artesian sound daily works as great miracles as did Moses’s rod of yore at Meribah. I have seen a column of water thrown up into the air equal to 1,300 cubie meters per diem, a quantity sufficient to redeem 1,800 acres of land from sterility and to irrigate 60,000 palm trees. This seems to be the true solution of the problem of an inland sea, a sea of verdure and fertility caused by the multiplication of artesian wells, which never fail to bring riches and prosperity in their train. The climate of the Sahara is quite different from that of what I have called the Mediterranean region, where periodical rains divide the year into two seasons. Here, in many places, years elapse without a single shower; there is no refreshing dew at night, and the winds are robbed of their moisture by the immense continental extents over which they blow. There can be no doubt that it is to these meteorological and not to geological causes that the Sahara owes its existence. Reclus divides the Mediterranean into two basins, which, in memory of their history, he calls the Pheenician and the Carthaginian, or the Greek and Roman Seas, more generally known to us as the Eastern and Western Basins, separated by the island of Sicily. If we examine the submarine map of the Mediterranean we see that it must at one time have consisted of two inclosed or inland basins, like the Dead Sea. The western one is separated from the Atlantie by the Straits of Gibraltar, a shallow ridge, the deepest part of which is at its eastern extremity, averaging about 300 fathoms, while on the west, bounded by a line from Cape Spartel to Trafalgar, it varies from 50 to 200 fathoms. Fifty miles to the west of the straits the bottom suddenly sinks down to the depths of the Atlantic, while to the east it descends to the general level of the Mediterranean, from 1,000 to 2,000 fathoms. The Western is separated from the Eastern Basin by the isthmus which extends between Cape Bon, in Tunisia, and Sicily, known as the “Adventure Bank,” on which there is not more than from 30 to 250 fathoms. The depth between Italy and Sicily is insignificant, and Malta is a continuation of the latter, being only separated from it by a shallow patch of from 50 to 100 fathoms, while to the east and west of this bank the depth of the sea is very great. These shallows cut off the two basins from all but superficial communication. The configuration of the bottom shows that the whole of this strait was at one time continuous land, affording free communication for land animals between Africa and Europe. The paleontological evidence of this is quite conclusive. In the caves and fissures of Malta, amongst river detritus, are found three species of fossil elephants, a hippopota- mus, a gigantic dormouse, and other animais which could never have lived in so small an island. In Sicily, remains of the existing elephant 264 THE MEDITERRANEAN. PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL. have been found, as well as the Hlephas antiquus, and two species of hippopotamus, while nearly all these and many other animals of African type have been found in the Pliocene deposits and caverns of the Atlantic region. The rapidity with which such a transformation might have occurred can be judged by the well-known instance of Graham’s Shoal, between Sicily and the island of Pantellaria; this, owing to volcanic agency, actually rose above the water in 1832, and for a few weeks had an area of 3,240 feet in circumference and a heen of 107 feet. The submersion of this isthmus no doubt occurred when the waters of the Atlantic were introduced through the Straits of Gibraitar. The rainfall over the entire area of the Mediterranean is certainly not more than 30 inches, while the evaporation is at least twice as great; there- fore, were the straits to be once more closed and were there no other ageney for making good this deficiency, the level of the Mediterranean would sink again till its basin became restricted to an area no larger than might be necessary to equalize the amount of evaporation and precipitation. Thus not only would the strait between Sicily and Africa be again laid dry, but the Adriatic and gean Seas also, and a great part of the Eastern Basin. The entire area of the Mediterranean and Black Seas has been esti- mated at upwards of a million square miles, and the volume of the rivers which are discharged into them at 226 cubic miles. All this and much more is evaporated annually. There are two constant curreuts passing through the Straits of Gibraltar, super-imposed on each other; the upper and most copious one flows in from the Atlantic at a rate of nearly 3 miles an hour, or 140,000 cubic metres per second, and supplies the difference between the rainfall and evaporation, while the under current of warmer water, which has undergone concentration by evapora- tion, is continually flowing out at about half the above rate of move- ment, getting rid of the excess of salinity; even thus, however, leaving the Mediterranean salter than any other part of the ocean except the Red Sea. A similar phenomenon occurs at the eastern end, where the fresher water of the Black Sea flows as a surface current through the Darda- nelles, and the salter water of the Mediterranean pours in below it. The general temperature of the Mediterranean from a depth of 50 fathoms down to the bottom is almost constantly 56° F., whatever may be its surface rise of temperature. This is a great contrast to that of the Atlantic, which at a similar depth is at least 3° colder, and which at 1,000 fathoms sinks to 40° F. This fact was of the greatest utility to Dr. Carpenter in connection with his investigations regarding currents through the straits, enabling him to distinguish with precision between Atlantic and Mediterranean water. For all practical purposes the Mediterranean may be accepted as being, THE MEDITERRANEAN, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL. 265 what it is popularly supposed to be, a tideless sea; but it is not so in reality. In many places there is a distinct rise and fall, though this is more frequently due to winds and currents than to lunar attraction. At Venice there is a rise of from 1 to 2 feet in spring tides, according to the prevalence of winds up or down the Adriatic; but in that sea itself the tides are so weak that they can hardly be recognized, except during the prevalence of the Bora, our old friend Boreas, which generally raises a surcharge along the coast of Italy. In many straits and narrow aruis of the sea there is a periodical flux and reflux; but the only place where tidal influence, properly so called, is unmistakably observed is in the Lesser Syrtis, or Gulf of Gabes. There the tide runs at the rate of 2 or 3 knots an hour, and the rise and fall varies from 3 to 8 feet. It is most marked and regular at Djerba, the Homeric island of the Lotophagi. One must be careful in landing there in a boat, so as not to be left high and dry a mile or two from the shore. Perhaps the companions of Ulysses were caught by the receding tide, and it was not only a banquet of dates, the “honey-sweet fruit of the Lotus,” or the potent wine which is made from it, which made them “forgetful of their homeward way.” The Gulf of Gabes naturally calls to mind the proposals which were made a few years ago for inundating the Sahara, and so restoring to the Atlantic region the insular condition which it is alleged to have had in pre-historic times. I will not allude to the English project for introdue- ing the waters of the Atlantic from the west coast of Africa. That does not belong to my subject. The French scheme advocated by Com- mandant Roudaire, and supported by M. de Lesseps, was quite as vis- ionary and impracticable. To the south of Algeria and Tunis there exists a great depression, stretching westward from the Gulf of Gabes to a distance of about 235 miles, in which are several chotts or salt lakes, sometimes only marshes, and in many places covered with a saline crust strong enough to bear the passage of camels. Commandant Roudaire proposed to cut through the isthmuses which separated the various chotts, and so prepare their basins to receive the waters of the Mediterranean. This done, he intended to introduce the sea by a canal, which should have a depth of 1 metre below low-water level. This scheme was based on the assumption that the basin of the chotts has been an inland sea within historic times; that, little by little, owing to the difference between the quantity of water which entered and the amount of evaporation and absorption, this interior sea had disappeared, leaving the chotts as an evidence ot the former condition of things; that, in fact, this was none other than the celebrated Lake Triton, the posi- tion of which has always been a puzzle to geographers. This theory however is untenable. The isthmus of Gabes is not a mere sand bank. There is a band of rock between the sea and the basin of the chotts, through which the former never could have penetrated in modern times. It is much more probable that Lake Triton was the 266 THE MEDITERRANEAN, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL. large bight between the island of Djerba and the mainland, on the shores of which are the ruins of the ancient city of Meninx, which, to judge by the abundance of Greek marble found there, must have carried on an important commerce with the Levant. The scheme has now been entirely abandoned. Nothing but the mania for cutting through isthmuses all over the world which followed the brilliant success achieved at Suez can explain its having been started at all. Of course, no mere mechanical operation is impossible in these days; but the mind refuses to rea‘ize the possibility of vessels cireulat- ing in a region which produces nothing, or that so small a sheet of water in the immensity of the Sahara could have any appreciable effect in modifying the climate of its shores. The eastern basin is much more indented and cut up into separate seas than the westernone. It was therefore better adapted for the com- mencement of commerce and navigation. Its high mountains were land- marks for the unpracticed sailor, and its numerous islands and harbors afforded shelter for his frail bark, and so facilitated communication be- tween one point and another. The advance of civilization naturally took place along the axis of this sea, Phoenicia, Greece, and Italy being successively the great nur- series of human knowledge and progress. Phoenicia had the glory of opening out the path of ancient commerce, for its position in the Levant gave it a natural command of the Mediterranean, and its people sought the profits of trade from every nation which had a seaboard on the three continents washed by this sea. Phoenicia was already a nation before the Jews entered the Promised Land; and when they did so, they carried on inland traffic as middlemen to the Pheenicians. Many of the commercial centers on the shores of the Mediterranean were founded before Greece and Rome acquired importance in history. Homer refers to them as daring traders nearly a thousand years before the Christian era. For many centuries the commerce of the world was limited to the Mediterranean, and when it extended in the direction of the East it was the merchants of the Adriatic, of Genoa, and of Pisa who brought the merchandise of India, at an enormous cost, to the Mediterranean by land, and who monopolized the carrying trade by sea. It was thus that the elephant trade of India, the caravan traffie through Babylon and Palmyra, as well as the Arab kajilehs, became united with the Occidental commerce of the Mediterranean. As civilization and commerce extended westward, mariners began to overcome their dread of the vast solitudes of the ocean beyond the Pil- lars of Hercules, and the discovery of America by Columbus and the circum-navigation of Africa by the Portuguese changed entirely the cur- rent of trade as well as increased its magnitude, and so relegated the THE MEDITERRANEAN, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL. 267 Mediterranean, which had hitherto been the central sea of human inter- course, to a position of secondary importance. Time will not permit me to enter into further details regarding the physical geography of this region, and its history is a subject so vast that a few episodes of it are all that I can possibly attempt. It is in- timately connected with that of every other country in the world, and here were successively evolved all the great dramas of the past and some of the most important events of less distant date. As I have already said, long before the rise of Greece and Rome its shores and islands were the seat of an advanced civilization. Phoenicia had sent out her pacific colonies to the remotest parts, and not iusig- nificant vestiges of their handicraft still exist to excite our wonder and admiration. We have the megalithic temples of Malta, sacred to the worship of Baal, the generative god, and Ashtoreth, the conceptive goddess, of the universe. The three thousand nurhagi of Sardinia, round towers of admirable masonry, intended probably for defense in case of sudden attack, and the so-called giant graves, were as great a mystery to classical authors as they are to us at the present day. Minorca has its talayots, tumuli somewhat analogous to but of ruder construction than the nurhagi, more than 200 groups of which exist in various parts of the island. With these are associated subordinate con- structions intended for worship, altars composed of two immense monoliths erected in the form of a T, sacred inclosures and megalithic habitations. One type of talayot is especially remarkable, of better masonry than the others, and exactly resembling inverted boats. One is tempted to believe that the Phenicians had in view the grass hab- itations or mapalia of the Numidians described by Sallust, and had endeavored to reproduce them in stone: Oblonga, incurvis lateribus tecta, quasi navium carine sunt. For a long time the Pheenicians had no rivals in navigation, but subsequently the Greeks—especially the Phocians—established colonies in the western Mediterranean, in Spain, Corsica, Sardinia, Malta, and the south of France, through the means of which they propagated not only their commerce but their arts, literature, and ideas. They iutro- duced many valuable plants, such as the olive, thereby modifying pro- foundly the agriculture of the countries in which they settled. They have even left traces of their blood, and it is no doubt to this that the women of Provence owe the classical beauty of their features. But they were eclipsed by their successors. The empire of Alexander opened out a road to India, in which, indeed, the Phoenicians had pre- ceded him, and introduced the produce of the Kast into the Mediter- ranean; while the Tyrian colony of Carthage became the capital of another vast empire, which, from its situation midway between the Levant and the Atlantic Ocean, enabled it to command the Mediter- ranean traffic. The Carthaginians at one time ruled over territory extending along 268 THE MEDITERRANEAN, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL. the coast from Cyrene to Numidia, besides having a considerable influ- ence over the interior of the continent, so that the name of Africa, given to their own dominions, was gradually applied to a whole quarter of the globe. The ruling passion with the Carthaginians was love of gain, not patriotism, and their wars were largely fought with mercena- ries. It was the excellence of her civil constitution which, according to Aristotle, kept in cohesion for centuries her straggling possessions. A country feebly patriotic, which intrusts her defense to foreigners, has the seeds of inevitable decay, which ripened in her struggle with Rome, despite the warlike genius of Hamilear and the devotion of the magnanimous Hannibal. The gloomy and cruel religion of Carthage, with its human sacrifices to Moloch and its worship of Baal under the name of Melkarth, led to a criminal code of Draconic severity and alienated it from surrounding nations. When the struggle with Rome began, Carthage had no friends. The first Punic war was a contest for the possession of Sicily, whose prosperity is even now attested by the splendor of its Hellenic monuments. When Sicily was lost by the Carthaginians, so also was the dominion of the sea, which hitherto had been uncontested. The second Punic war resulted in the utter prostration of Carthage and the loss of all her possessions out of Africa, and in 201 B. C., when this war was ended, 552 years after the foundation of the city, Rome was mistress of the world. The destruction of Carthage after the third Punic war was a heavy blow to Mediterranean commerce. It was easy for Cato to utter his stern Delenda est Carthago. Destruction is easy, but construction is vastly more difficult. Although Augustus in his might built a new Carthage near the site of the old city, he could never attract again the trade of the Mediterranean, which had been diverted into other chan- nels. oman supremacy was unfavorable to the growth of commerce, because, though she allowed unrestricted trade throughout her vast empire and greatly improved internal communications in the subju- gated countries, Rome itself absorbed the greater part of the weaith and did not produce any commodities in return for its immense con- sumption, therefore Mediterranean commerce did not thrive under the Roman rule. The conquest of Carthage, Greece, Egypt, and the Hast poured in riches to Rome, and dispensed for a time with the needs of productive industry, but formed no enduring basis of prosperity. It is only in relation to the Mediterranean that I can refer to Roman history; but I must allude to the interesting episode in the life of Diocletian, who, after an anxious reign of 21 years in the eastern division of the empire, abdicated at Nicomedia, and retired to his native province of Illyria. He spent the rest of his life in rural pleas- ures and horticulture at Salona, near which he built that splendid pal- ace within the walls of which subsequently arose the modern city of Spalato. Nothing more interesting exists on the shores of the Medi- terranean than this extraordinary edifice, perhaps the largest that THE MEDITERRANEAN, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL. 269 ever arose at the bidding of a single man; not only vast and beautiful, but marking one of the most important epochs in the history of arehi- tecture. Though now obstructed with a mass of narrow, tortuous streets, its salient features are distinctly visible. The great temple, probably the mausoleum of the founder, has become the cathedral, and after the Pantheon at Rome there is no finer specimen of a heathen temple turned into a Christian church. Strange it is that the tomb of him whose reign was marked by such unrelenting persecution of the Chris- tiaus should have been accepted as the model of those baptisteries so commonly constructed in the following centuries. Of Diocletian’s Salona, one of the chief cities of the Roman world, but little now remains save traces of the long, irregular walls. Recent excavations have brought to light much that is interesting, but all of the Christian epoch, such as a large basilica which had been used as a necropolis, and a baptistery, one of those copied from the temple of Spalato, on the mosaic pavement of which can still be read the text, Sicut cervus desiderat fontem aquarum ita anima mea ad te Deus. The final partition of the Roman Empire took place in 365; 40 years later the barbarians of the North began to invade Italy and the south of Europe; and in 429, Genseric, at the head of his Vandal hordes, crossed over into Africa from Andalusia, a province which still bears their name, devastating the country as far as the Cyrenaica. He sub- sequently annexed the Balearic Islands, Corsica, and Sardinia; he ravaged the coasts of Italy and Sicily, and even of Greece and Illyria; but the most memorable of his exploits was the unresisted sack of Rome, whence he returned to Africa laden with treasure and bearing the Empress Kudoxia a captive in his train. The degenerate emperors of the West were powerless to avenge this insult; but Byzantium, though at this time sinking to decay, did make a futile attempt to attack the Vandal monarch in his African stronghold. It was not, however, till 533, in the reign of Justinian, when the successors of Genseric had fallen into luxurious habits and had lost the rough valor of their ancestors, that Belisarius was able to break their power and take their last king a prisoner to Constantinople. The Vandal domination in Africa was destroyed, but that of the Byzantines was never thoroughly consolidated; it rested not on its own strength, but on the weakness of its enemies; and it was quite unable to cope with the next great wave of invasion which swept over the land, perhaps the most extraordinary event in the world’s history, save only the introduction of Christianity. In 647, 27 years after the Hedjira of Mohammed, Abdulla ibn Saad started from Egypt for the conquest of Africa with an army of 40,000 men. The expedition had two determining causes—the hope of plunder and the desire to promulgate the religion of El Islam. The sands and 270 THE MEDITERRANEAN, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL, scorching heat of the desert, which had nearly proved fatal to the army of Cato, were no bar to the bardy Arabians and their enduring camels. The march to Tripoli was a fatiguing one, but it was success- fully accomplished; the invaders did not exhaust their force in a vain effort to reduce its fortifications, but swept on over the Syrtic desert and north to the province of Africa, where, near the splendid city of Suffetula, a great battle was fought between them and the army of the Exarch Gregorius, in which the Christians were signally defeated, their leader killed, and his daughter allotted to Ibn-ez-Zobair, who had slain her father. Not only did the victorious Moslems overrun north Africa, but soon they had powerful fleets at sea, which dominated the entire Mediter- . ranean, and the emperors of the Kast had enough to do to protect their own capital. Egypt, Syria, Spain, Provence, and the islands of the Mediterranean successively fell to their arms, and until they were checked at the Pyrenees by Charles Martel it seemed at one time as if the whole of southern Europe would have been compelled to submit to the disciples of the new religion. Violent, implacable, and irresistible at the moment of conquest, the Arabs were not unjust or hard masters in countries which submitted to their conditions. Every endeavor was, of course, made to proselytize, but Christians were allowed to preserve their re- ligion on payment of a tax,and even Popes were in the habit of entering into friendly relations with the invaders. The Church of St. Cyprian and St. Augustine, with its 500 sees, was indeed expunged, but five cen- turies after the passage of the Mohammedan army from Egypt to the Atlantic a remnant of it still existed. It was not till the twelfth cen- tury that the religion and language of Rome became utterly extin- guished. The Arabs introduced a high state of civilization into the countries where they settled; their architecture is the wonder and admiration of the world at the present day; their irrigational works in Spain have never been improved upon; they fostered literature and the arts of peace, and introduced a system of agriculture far superior to what existed before their arrival. Commerce, discouraged by the Romans, was highly honored by the Arabs, and during their rule the Mediterranean recovered the trade which it possessed in the time of the Phoenicians and Carthaginians; it penetrated into the Indian Archipelago and China; it travelled west- ward to the Niger, and to the east as far as Madagascar, and the great trade route of the Mediterranean was once more developed. The powerand prosperity of the Arabs culminated in the ninth century, when Sicily fell to their arms; it was not, however, very long before their empire began to be undermined by dissensions ; the temporal and spiritual authority of the Ommiade Khalifs, which extended from Sind to Spain and from the Oxus to Yemen, was overthrown by the Abba- THE MEDITERRANEAN, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL. 271 sides in the year 132 of the Hedjira, A. D. 750. Seven years later Spain detached itself from the Abbaside empire; a new caliphate was established at Cordova, and hereditary monarchies began to spring up in other Mohammedan countries. The Carlovingian empire gave an impulse to the maritime power of the south of Europe, and in the Adriatic the fleets of Venice and Ragusa monopolized the traffic of the Levant. The merchants of the latter noble little republic penetrated even to our own shores, and Shake- speare has made the Argosy or Ragusie a household word in our Jan- guage. During the eleventh century the Christian powers were no longer coutent to resist the Mohammedans; they began to turn their arms against them. If the latter ravaged some of the fairest parts of Europe, the Christians began to take brilliant revenge. The Mohammedans were driven out of Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, and the Balearic Islands, but it was not till 1492 that they had finally to abandon HKurope, after the conquest of Granada by Ferdinand and Isabella. About the middle of the eleventh century an event took place which profoundly modified the condition of the Mohammedan world. The Caliph Mostansir let loose a horde of nomad Arabs, who, starting from Egypt, spread over the whole of north Africa, carrying destruction and blood wherever they passed, thus laying the foundation for the subse- quent state of anarchy which rendered possible the interference of the Turks. English commercial intercourse with the Mediterranean was not unknown even from the time of the Crusades, but it does not appear to have been carried on by means of our own vessels till the beginning of the sixteenth century. In 1522 it was so great that Henry VIII appointed a Cretan merchant, Censio de Balthazari, to be “‘ master, gov- ernor, protector, and consul of all and singlar the merchants and others, his lieges and subjects, within the port, island, and country of Crete or Candia.” This is the very first English consul known to history, but the first of English birth was my own predecessor in office, Master John Tipton, who, after having acted at Algiers during several years in an unofficial character, probably elected by the merchants them- selves to protect their interests, was duly appointed consul by Sir William Harebone, ambassador at Constantinople, in 1585, and received just such an exequatur from the Porte as has been issued to every consul since by the Government of the country in which he resides. Piracy has always been the scourge of the Mediterranean, but we are too apt to associate its horrors entirely with the Moors and Turks. The evil had existed from the earliest ages; even before the Roman conquest of Dalmatia the Lllyrians were the generai enemies of the Adriatic. Africa, under the Vandal reign, was a nest of the fiercest pirates. The Venetian chronicles are full of complaints of the ravages rad (Ps THE MEDITERRANEAN, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL. of the Corsairs of Ancona, and there is no other name but piracy for such acts of the Genoese as the unprovoked pillage of Tripoli by Andrea Doria in 1535. To forma just idea of the Corsairs of the past, it is well to remember that commerce and piracy were often synonymous terms, even among the English, up to the reign of Elizabeth. Listen to the description given by the pious Cavendish of his commercial cir- cumnavigation of the globe: ‘It has pleased Almighty God to suffer me to circumpass the whole globe of the world. - - - I navigated along the coast of Chile, Peru, and New Spain, where I made great spoils. All the villages and towns that ever I landed at, I burned and spoiled, and had I not been discovered upon the coast, I had taken a great quantity of treasure,” and so he concludes, ‘‘ The Lord be praised for all his mercies!” Sir William Monson, when called upon by James I to propose a scheme for an attack on Algiers, recommended that all the maritime powers of Europe should contribute towards the expense and partici- pate in the gains by the sale of Moors and Turks as slaves. After the discovery of America and the expulsion of the Moors from Spain, piracy developed to an extraordinary extent. The audacity of the Barbary Corsairs seems incredible at the present day; they landed on the shores and islands of the Mediterranean, and even extended their ravages to Great Britain, carrying off all the inhabitants whom they could seize into the most wretched slavery. The most formidable of these piratical states was Algiers, a military oligarchy, consisting of a body of janissaries, recruited by adventurers from the Levent, the outcasts of the Mohammedan world, criminals and renegades from every nation in Europe. They elected their own ruler or Dey, who exercised despotic sway, tempered by frequent assassination; they oppressed without mercy the natives of the country, accumulated vast riches, had immense numbers of Christian slaves, and kept all Europe in a state bordering on subjection by the terror which they inspired. Nothing is sadder or more inexplicable than the shameful manner in which this state of things was accepted by civilized nations. Many futile attempts were made during successive centuries to humble their arrogance, but it only increased by every manifestation of the power- lessness of Europe to restrain it. It was reserved for our own country- man, Lord Exmouth, by his brilliant victory in 1816, forever to put an end to piracy and Christian slavery in the Mediterranean. His work, however, was left incomplete, for though he destroyed the navy of the Algerines and so rendered them powerless for evil on the seas, they were far trom being humbled; they continued to slight their treaties and to subject even the agents of powerful nations to contumely and injustice. The French took the only means possible to destroy this nest of ruffians by the almost unresisted occupation of Algiers and the deportation of its Tarkish aristocracy. They found the whole country in the possession of a hostile people, THE MEDITERRANEAN, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL. Pa (3 some of whom had never been subdued since the fall of the Roman Empire, and the world owes France no small debt of gratitude for hav- ing transformed what was a savage and almost uncultivated country into one of the richest as well as the most beautiful in the basin of the Mediterranean. What has been accomplished in Algeria is being effected in Tunisia. The treaty of the Kasr-es-Saeed, which established a French protecto- rate there and military occupation of the regency, were about as high-handed and unjustifiable acts as are recorded in history; but there can be no possible doubt regarding the important work of civil- ization and improvement that has resulted from them. European courts of justice have been established all over the country, the exports and imports have increased from twenty-three to fifty-one millions of franes, the revenue from six to nineteen millions, without the imposition of a single new tax, and nearly half a million per annum is being spent on education. Sooner or later the same thing must happen in the rest of north Africa, though at present international jealousies retard this desirable consummation. It seems hard to condemn such fair countries to con- tinued barbarism in the interest of tyrants who mis-govern and oppress their people. The day can not be far off when the whole southern shores of the Mediterranean will enjoy the same prosperity and civil. ization as the northern coast, and when the deserts which are the result of mis-government and neglect will assume the fertility arising from security and industry, and will again blossom as the rose. It cannot be said that any part of the Mediterranean basin is still unknown, if we except the Empire of Morocco. But even that country has been traversed in almost every direction during the past 20 years, and its geography and natural history have been illustrated by men of the greatest eminence, such as Gerhard Rohlfs, Monsieur Tissot, Sir Joseph Hooker, the Vicomte de Foucauld, Joseph Thomson, and numerous other travellers. The least known portion, at least on the Mediterranean coast, is the Riff country, the inhospitality of whose inhabitants has given the word “ruffian” to the English language. Even that has been penetrated by De Foucauld disguised as a Jew, and the record of his exploration is one of the most brilliant con- tributious to the geography of the country which has hitherto been made. Although, therefore, but littie remains to be done in the way of actual exploration, there are many by-ways of travel comparatively little known to that class of the community with which I have so much sympathy,—the ordinary British tourist. These flock every year in hundreds to Algeria and Tunis, but few of them visit the splendid Roman remains in the interior of those countries. The Cyrenaica is not so easily accessible, and I doubt whether any Englishmen have travelled in if since the exploration of Smith and Porcher in 1861. H. Mis. 129-18 274 THE MEDITERRANEAN, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL. Cyrene almost rivalled Carthage in commercial importance. The Hellenic ruins still existing bear witness to the splendor of its five great cities. It was the birth-place of many distinguished people, and amongst its hills and fountains were located some of the most interesting scenes in mythology,such as the Gardens of the Hesperides, and the ‘silent, dull, forgetful waters of Lethe.” This peninsula is only separated by a narrow strait from Greece, whence it was originally colonized. There, and indeed all over the eastern basin of the Mediterranean, are many little-trodden routes, but the subject is too extensive; I am reluctantly compelled to restrict my remarks to the western half. The south of Italy is more frequently traversed, and less travelled in, than any part of that country. Of the thousands who yearly embark or dis-embark at Brindisi few ever visit the land of Manfred. Otranto is only known to them from the fanciful descriptions in Horace Wal- pole’s romance. The general public in this country is quite ignorant of what is going on at Taranto, and of the great arsenal and dockyard which Italy is constructing in the Mare Piccolo, an inland sea contain- ing more than 1,000 acres of anchorage for the largest ironclads afloat, yet with an entrance so narrow that it is spanned by a revolving bridge. Even the Adriatic, though traversed daily by steamers of the Austrian Lloyd’s Company, is not a highway of travel, yet where is it possible to find so many places of interest within the short space of a week’s voy- age, between Corfu and Trieste, as along the Dalmatian and Istrian shores, and among the islands that fringe the former where it is diffi- cult to realize that one is at sea at all, and not on some great inland lake? There is the Bocche di Cattaro, a vast rent made by the Adriatic among the mountains, where the sea flows round their spurs in a series of canals, bays, and lakes of surpassing beauty. The city of Cattaro itself, the gateway of Montenegro, with its picturesque Venetian fort- ress, nestling at the foot of the black mountain, Ragusa, the Roman successor of the Hellenic Epidaurus, queen of the southern Adriatic, battling with the waves on her rock-bound peninsula, the one spot in all that sea which never submitted either to Venice or the Turk, and for centuries resisting the barbarians on every side, absolutely unique as a medieval fortified town, and worthy to have given her name to the argosies she sent forth; Spalato, the grandest of Roman monuments ; Lissa, colonized by Dionysius of Syracuse, and memorable to us as hav- ing been a British naval station from 1812 to 1814, while the French held Dalmatia; Zara, the capital, famous for its siege by the Crusaders, interesting from an ecclesiological point of view, and venerated as the last resting place of St. Simeon, the prophet of the Nwne dimittis ; Parenza, with its great basilica; Pola, with its noble harbor, whence Belisarius sailed forth, now the chief naval port of the Austrian Em- pire, with its Roman amphitheater and graceful triumphal arches, be- THE MEDITERRANEAN, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL. 215 sides many other places of almost equal interest. Still farther west are Corsica, Sardinia, and the Balearic Islands, all easily accessible from the coasts of France, Italy, and Spain. Their ports are constantly vis- ited by mail steamers and private yachts, yet they are but little ex- plored in the interior. - - - I have endeavored to sketch, necessarily in a very imperfect manner, the physical character and history otf the Mediterranean, to show how the commerce of the world originated in a small maritime state at its eastern extremity; how it graduaily advanced westward till it burst through the Straits of Gibraltar and extended over seas and continents until then undreampt of, an event which deprived the Mediterranean ot that commercial prosperity and greatness which for centuries had been limited to its narrow basin. Once more this historic sea has become the highway of nations; the persistent energy and genius of two men have revolutionized naviga- tion, opened out new and boundless fields for commerce, and it is hardly too much to say that if the Mediterranean is to be restored to its old position of importance, if the struggle for Africa is to result in its re- generation, as happened in the New World, if the dark places still re- maining in the farther Kast are to be civilized, it will be in a great measure due to Wagborn and Ferdinand de Lesseps, who developed the overland route and created the Suez Canal. But the Mediterranean can only hope to retain its regenerated posi- tion in time of peace, Nothing is more certainly shown by past history than that war and conquest have changed the route of commerce in spite of favored geographical positions. Babylon was conquered by Assyrians, Persians, Macedonians, and Romans, and though fora time her position on the Huphrates caused her to rise like a Phoenix from her ashes, successive conquests combined with the luxury and effemi- nacy of her rulers, caused her to perish. Tyre, conquered by Nebuchad- nezzar and Alexander, fell as completely as Babylon had done, and her trade passed to Alexandria. Ruined sites of commercial cities rarely again become emporia of commerce; Alexandria is an exception de- pendent on very exceptional circumstances. The old route to the Hast was principally used by sailing vessels, and was abandoned for the shorter and more economical one by the Suez Canal, which now enables a round voyage to be made in 60 days, which formerly required from 6 to 8 months. This, however, can only remain open in time of peace. It is quite possible that in the event of war the old route by the Cape may be again used to the detriment of traffic by the Mediterranean. Modern invention has greatly economized the use of coal, and steamers, by the use of duplex and triplex engines, can run with a comparatively small consumption of fuel, thus leaving a larger space for cargo. England, the great carrying power of the world, may find it more advantageous to trust to her own strength and the secur- 276 THE MEDITERRANEAN, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL. ity of the open seas than to run the gauntlet of the numerous strateg- ical positions of the Mediterranean, such as Port Mahon, Bizerta, and Taranto, each of which is capable of affording impregnable shelter to a hostile fleet, and though the ultimate key to the Indian Ocean is in our own hands, our passage to it may be beset by a thousand dangers. There is no act of my career on which I look back with so much satis- faction as on the share I had in the occupation of Perim, one of the most important links in that chain of coaling stations which extends through the Mediterranean to the farther East, and which is so neces- sary for the maintenance of our naval supremacy. Itis a mere islet, it is true, a barren rock, but one surrounding a noble harbor, and so em- inently in its right place that we can not contemplate with equanimity the possibility of its being in any other hands than our own. It is by no means certain whether exaggerated armaments are best suited for preserving peace or hastening a destructive war; the golden age of disarmament and international arbitration may not be near at hand, but it is even now talked of as a possibility. Should the poet’s prophecy or the patriot’s dream be realized and a universal peace indeed bless the world, then this sea of so many vic- tories may long remain the harvest field of a commerce nobler than conquest. STANLEY AND THE MAP OF AFRICA.* 3y J. SCOTT KELTIE. It is 19 years since Stanley first crossed the threshold of central Africa. He entered if as a newspaper correspondent to find and succor Livingstong, and came out burning with the fever of African exploration. While with Livingstone at Ujiji, he tried his ’prentice hand at a little exploring work, and between them they did something to settle the geography of the north end of Lake Tanganyika. Some three years and a half later he was once more on his way to Zanzibar, this time with the deliberate intention of doing something to fill up the great blank that still occupied the center of the continent. A glance at the first of the maps which accompany this paper will afford some idea of what Central Africa was like when Stanley entered it a second time. The ultimate sources of the Nile had yet to be settled. The contour and extent of Victoria Nyanza were of the most uncertain character. Indeed, so little was known of it beyond what Speke told us, that there was some danger of its being swept off the map alto- gether, not a few geographers believing it to be not one lake, but several. There was much to do in the region lying to the west of the lake, even though it had been traversed by Speke and Grant. Between a line drawn from the north end of Lake Tanganyika to some distance beyond the Albert Nyanza on one side, and the west coast region on the other, the map was almost white, with here and there the conjec- tural course of a river or two. Livingstone’s latest work, it should be remembered, was then almost unknown, and Cameron had not yet returned. Beyond the Yellala Rapids there was no Congo, and Living- stone believed that the Lualaba swept northwards to the Nile. He had often gazed longingly at the broad river during his weary sojourn at Nyangwé, and yearned to follow it, but felt himself too old and exhausted for the task. Stanley was fired with the same ambition as his dead master, and was young and vigorous cnough to indulge it. What, then, did Stanley do to map out the features of this great blank during the 2 years and 9 months which he spent in crossing from Bagamoyo to Boma, at the movth of the Congo? He determined, with an accuracy which has since necessitated but slight modification, *From The Contemporary Review, January, 1890, vol. Lvil, pp. 126-140. 277 278 STANLEY AND THE MAP OF AFRICA. London Stanfords Geog’ Estab* CENTRAL AFRICA, BEFORE STANLEY. a Oo bt = 4 =) oO Ww ° Ve) et I" n He Ro ° [sz ie ] Oo ti ° ais Ww = < 15) eS ° ° 4 \ \ fle \ 5 nit Hin ff UMM HTT IUHI THE Salli Met ‘ad aoK Hitt WANT rpc MAT WT i] Wiig | | A AAA Fv AHTAAAATVHUUTLAHAVUHEH ° °o STANLEY AND THE MAP OF AFRICA. 279 London, Stardords Geog’ Eat CENTRAL AFRICA, AFTER STANLEY. UGS SCALE OF ENGLISH MILES 10° East of Grech 100 VOL. LYII. 280 STANLEY AND THE MAP OF AFRICA. the outline of the Victoria Nyanza; he found it to be one of the great lakes of the world, 21,500 square miles in extent, with an altitude of over 4,000 feet and border soundings of from 330 to 580 feet. Into the south shore of the lake a river flowed, which he traced for some 300 miles, and which he set down as the most southerly feeder of the Nile. With his stay at the court of the clever and cunning Mtesa of Uganda we need not concern ourselves; it has had momentous results. West- wards he came upon what he coneeived to be a part of the Albert Nyanza, which he named Beatrice Gulf, but of which more anon. Coming southwards to Ujiji, Stanley filled in many features in the region he traversed, and saw at a distance a great mountain, which he named Gordon Bennett, of which also more anon. A little lake to the south he named the Alexandra Nyanza; thence he conjectured issued the southwest source of the Nile, but on this point, within the last few months, he has seen cause to change his mind. Lake Tanganyika he circumnuavigated, and gave greater accuracy to its out- line; while through the Lukuga he found it sent its waters by the Lualaba to the Atlantic. Crossing to Nyangwé, where with longing eyes Livingstone beheld the mile-wide Lualaba flowing ‘ north, north, north,” Stanley saw his opportunity, and embraced it. Tippu Tip failed him then, as he did later; but the mystery of that great river he had made up his mind to solve, and solve it he did. The epic of that first recorded journey of a white man down this majestic river, which for ages had been sweeping itS unknown way through the center of Africa, he and his dusky companions running the gauntlet through a thousand miles of hostile savages, is one of the most memorable things in the literature of travel. Leaving Nyangwé on November 5, 1876, in 9 months he traced the many-islanded Congo to the Atlantic, and placed on the map of Africa one of its most striking features; for the Congo ranks among the greatest rivers of the world. From the remote Chambeze, that enters Lake Bangweolo to the sea, it is 3,000 miles. It has many tributaries, themselves affording hundreds of miles of navi- gable drains, waters a basin of a million square miles, and pours into the Atlantic a volume estimated at 1,800,000 cubic feet per second. Thus, then, were the first broad lines drawn towards filling up the great blank. But, as we know, Stanley two years later was once more on his way to the Congo, and shortly after, within the compass of its great basin, he helped to found the Congo Free State. During the years he was officially connected with the river, either directly or through those who served under him, he went on filling up the blank by the exploration of other rivers, north and south, which poured their voluminous tribute into the main stream; and the impulse he gave has continued. The blank has become a network of dark lines, the interspaces cevered with the names of tribes and rivers and lakes. Such, then, briefly, is what Stanley did for the map of Africa during his great and ever-memorable journey across the continent. Once more STANLEY AND THE MAP OF AFRICA. 281 Mr. Stanley has crossed the continent, in the opposite direction, and taken just about the same time in which to do so. Discovery was not his main object this time, and therefore the results in this direction have not been so plentiful. Indeed, they could not be; he had left so com- paratively little to be done. But the additions that he has made to our knowledge of the great blank are considerable, and of high importance in their bearing on the hydrography, the physical geography, the climate, and the people of central Africa. Let us rapidly run over the incidents of this, in some respects, the most remarkable expedition that ever entered Africa. Its first purpose, as we know, was to relieve, and if necessary bring away, Emin Pasha, the governor of the abandoned equatorial province of the Egyptian Sudan, which spread on each side of the Bahr-el-Jebel, the branch of the Nile that issues from the Albert Nyanza. Here it was supposed that he and his Egyptian officers and troops, and their wives and children, were beleagured by the Madhist hordes, and that they were at the end of their supphes. HKmin Pasha, who as Eduard Schnitzer was born in Prussian Silesia, and educated at Breslau and Berlin as a physician, spent 12 years (1864-1876) in the Turkish service, during which he traveled over much of the Asiatic dominions of Turkey, indulging his strong tastes for natural history. In 1876 he entered the service of Egypt, and was sent up to the Sudan as surgeon on the staff of Gordon Pasha, who at that time governed the equatorial provinee. In 1878, two years after Gordon had been appointed governor-general of the whole Sudan, Emin Effendi (he had Moslemized himself) was appointed governor of the equatorial province, which he found com- pletely disorganized and demoralized, the happy hunting-ground of the slave-raider. Withina few months Emin had restored order, swept out the slavers, got rid of the Egyptian scum who pretended to be soldiers, improved the revenue, so that instead of a large deficit there was a considerable surplus, and established industry and legitimate trade. Meantime the Mahdi had appeared, and the movement of con- quest was gathering strength. It was not, however, till 1884 that Emin began to fear danger. It wasin January of that year that Gordon went out to hold Khartoum; just a year later both he and the city fell before the Madhist host. Emin withdrew with his officers and dependents, numbering about 1,500, to Wadelai, in the south of the province, within easy reach of Albert Nyanza. Rumors of the events in the Sudan after the fall of Khartoum reached this country, but no one outside of scientific circles seemed to take much interest in Emin till 1886. Rapidly, however, Kurepe became aware what a noble stand this simple savant, who had been foisted into the position of governor of a half-savage province, was making against the forces of the Mahdi, and how he refused to desert his post and his people. Towards the autumn of 1886 public feeling on the subject rose to such a height that the British Government, which was held to blame 282 STANLEY AND THE MAP OF AFRICA. for the position in the Sudan, was compelled to take action. Our representative at Zanzibar, as early as August of that year, instituted inquiries as to the possibility of a relief expedition, but in the end, in dread of international complications, it was decided that a government expedition was impracticable. In this dilemma, Sir (then Mr.) William Mackinnon, chairman of the British India Steam Navigation Company, whose connection with east Africa is of old standing, came forward and offered to undertake the responsibility of getting up an expe- dition. The Emin Pasha relief committee was formed in December, 1886, and Government did all it could to aid, short of taking the actual responsibility. Mr. H. M. Stanley generously offered his services as leader, without fee or reward, giving up many lucrative engage- ments for the purpose. No time was lost. The sum of £20,000 had been subscribed, including £10,000 from the Egyptian Government. Mr. Stanley returned from America to England in the end of Decem- ber; by the end of January he had made all his preparations, selecting 9 men as his staff, including 3 English officers and 2 surgeons, and was on his way to Zanzibar, which was reached on February 21. On the 25th the expedition was on board the Madura, bound for the mouth of the Congo, by way of the Cape; 9 European officers, 61 Sudanese, 13 Somalis, 3 interpreters, 620 Zanzibaris, the famous Arab slaver and merchant, Tippu Tip, and 407 of his people. The mouth of the Congo was reached on March 18; there the expedition was trans- shipped into small vessels and landed at Matadi, the limit of naviga- tion on the lower river. From Matadi there was a march of 200 miles, past the cataracts, to Stanley Pool, where the navigation was resumed. The troubles of the expedition began on the Congo itself. The ques- tion of routes was much discussed at the time of organizing the expedition, the two that found most favor being that from the east coast through Masai land and round by the north of Uganda, and that by the Congo. Into the comparative merits of these two routes we shall not enter here. For reasons which were satisfactory to himself—and no one knows Africa better—Mr. Stanley selected the Congo route, though had he foreseen all that he and his men would have to undergo he might have hesitated. As it was, the expedition, which it was thought would be back in England by Christmas, 1887, only reached the coast in November, 1889. But the difficulties no one could have foreseen, the region traversed being completely unknown, and the obstacles encountered unprecedented even in Africa. Nor when the goal was reached was it expected that months would be wasted in per- suading Kymin and his people to quit their exile. Not the keenest-eyed of African explorers could have foreseen all this. Want of sufficient boat accommodation and a scarcity of food almost amounting to famine hampered the expedition terribly on its way up the Congo. The mouth of the Aruwimi, the real starting point of the expedition, some 1,500 miles from the mouth of the Congo, was not STANLEY AND THE MAP OF AFRICA. 283 reached by Mr. Stanley and the first contingent, till the beginning of June, 1887. The distance from here in a straight line to the nearest point of the Albert Nyanza is about 450 miles; thence it was believed communication with Emin would be easy, for he had two steamers available. But it was possible that a detour would have to be made towards the north so as to reach Wadelia direct, for no one knew the conditions which prevailed in the country between the Aruwimi mouth and the Albert Nyanza. As it was Mr. Stanley took the course to the lake direct, but with many a circuit and many an obstruction and at a terrible sacrifice of life. An intrenched camp was established on a bluff at Yambuya, about 50 miles up the left bank of the Aruwimi. Major Barttelot was left in charge of this, and with him Dr. Bonny, Mr. Jameson, Mr. Rose Troup, Mr. Ward, and 257 men; the rear column was to follow as soon as Tippu Tip provided the contingent of 500 natives which he had solemnly promised. Although the whole of the men had not come up, yet everything seemed in satisfactory order ; explicit instructions were issued to the officers of the rear column, and on June 28, 18387, Mr. Stanley, with a contingent consisting of 389 offi- cers and men, set out toreach Emin Pasha. The officers with him were Captain Nelson, Lieutenant Stairs, Dr. Parke, and Mr. Jephson. Five miles after leaving camp the difficulties began. The expedition was face to face with a dense forest of immense extent, choked with bushy undergrowth and obstructed by a network of creepers through which a way had often to be cleaved with the axes. Hostile natives harassed them day after day; the paths were studded with concealed spikes of wood; the arrows were poisoned; the natives burned their villages rather than have dealings with the intruders. Happily the river when it was again struck afforded relief, and the steel boat proved of service, though the weakened men found the portages past the cataracts a great trial. It was fondly hoped that here at least the Arab slaver had not penetrated; but on September 16, 200 miles from Yambuaya, making 340 miles of actual travel, the slave camp of Uga- rowwa was reached, and here the treatment was even worse than when fighting the savages of the forest. The brutalities practiced on Stan- ley’s men cost many of them their lives. A month later the camp of another Arab slaver was reached, Kilinga Longa, and there the treat- ment was no better.. These so-called Arabs, whose caravans consist mainly of the merciless Manyuema, from the country between Tagan- yika and Nyangwé, had laid waste a great area of the region to be traversed by the expedition, so that between August 31 and November 12 every man was famished; and when at last the land of devastation was left behind, and the native village of Ibwiri entered, officers and men were reduced to skeletons. Out of the 3889 who started only 174 entered [bwiri, the rest dead, or missing, or left behind, unable to move, at Ugarowwa’s. So weak was everybody that 70 tons of goods 284 STANLEY AND THE MAP OF AFRICA. and the boat had to be left at Kilinga Longa’s with Captain Nelson and Surgeon Parke. A halt of 13 days at Ibwiri, with its plenty of fowls, bananas, corn, yams, beans, restored everybody; and 173 sleek and robust men set out for the Albert Nyanza on November 24. A week later the gloomy and dreaded forest suddenly ended; the open country was reached ; the light of day was unobstructed; it was an emergence from darkness to light. But the difficulties were not over; some little fighting with the natives on the populous plateau was necessary before the lake could be reached. On the 12th, the edge of the long slope from the Congo to Lake Albert was attained, and suddenly the eyes of all were gladdened by the sight of the lake lying some 5,000 feet almost sheer below. The expedition itself stood at an altitude of 5,200 feet above the sea. But the end was not yet. Down the expedition marched to the southwest corner of the lake, where the Kakongo natives were unfriendly. No Emin Pasha had been heard of; there was no sign even that he knew of Stanley’s coming or that the messenger from Zanzibar had reached him. The only boat of the expedition was at Kilinga Longa’s, 190 miles away. Of the men 94 were behind sick at Ugarowwa’s and Ki- linga Longa’s; only 173 were with Stanley ; 74 of the original 341 were dead or missing; and, moreover, there was anxiety about the rear column. Stanley’s resolution was soon taken. Moving to the village of Kavalli, some distance up the steep slope from the lake, the party began a night march on December 15, and by January 7, they were back at Ibwiri. Here Fort Bodo, famous in the records of the expedi- tion, was built. The men were brought up from the rear, and on April 7, Stanley, with Jephson and Parke, once more led the expedition to Lake Albert, this time with the boat and fresh stores. Meantime Stanley himself was on the sick list fora month. This time all the natives along the route were friendly and even generous, and on April 22, the expedition reached the chief Kavalli, who delivered to Stanley a letter wrapped in American cloth. The note was from Emin and stated that he had heard rumors of Stanley’s presence in the district; it begged Stanley to wait until Emin could communicate with him. The boat was launched and Jephson set off to find Emin. On the 29th, the Khedive steamer came down the lake with Emin, the Italian Casati, and Jephson on board. The great object of the expedition seemed at last to be all but fulfilled. But the end was not yet. There was the party at Fort Bodo ; there were the sick further back, with whom Lieutenant Stairs had not re- turned when Stanley left the fort ; and, above all, there was the rear column left at Yambuya with Major Barttelot. It would take some time for Emin to bring down all his people from Wadelai and other stations. So after spending over 3 weeks with the vacillating Emin, Stanley, on May 25, was once more on the march back to Fort Bodo STANLEY AND THE MAP OF AFRICA. 285 to bring up allhands. He left Jephson, 3 Sudanese, and 2 Zanzibaris with Emin, who gave him 102 natives as porters, and 3 irregulars to accompany him back. Fort Bodo was reached on June 8, and was found in a flourishing state, surrounded by acres of cultivated fields. But of the 56 men left at Ugarowwa’s only 16 were alive for Lieut- enant Stairs to bring to Fort Bodo. As there was no sign of the rear column nor of the 20 messengers sent off in March with letters for Major Barttelot, Stanley felt bound to retrace his steps through the terrible forest. This time he was better provisioned, and his people (212) escaped the horrors of the wilderness. Fort Bodo was left on June 16, Stanley letting all his white com- panions remain behind. Ugarowwa’s camp was deserted, and he him- self, with a flotilla of fifty-seven canoes, was overtaken far down the river on August 10, and with him, 17 of the carriers sent off to Major Barttelot in March; 3 of their number had been killed. On the 17th the rear column was met with at Bonalya, 80 miles above Yambuya, and then for the first time Stanley learned of the terrible disaster that had befallen it—Barttelot shot by the Manyuema; Jameson gone down the Congo (only to die); Wardaway: and Troupinvalided home, Noone but Dr. Bonny; of the 257 men only 72 remaining, and of these only 52 fit for service. No wonder Mr. Stanley felt too sick to write the details; and until we have the whole of the evidence it would be unfair to pronounce judgment. One thing we may say: we know, from Mr. Werner’s recently published “ River Life on the Congo,” that before Major Barttelot left Yambuya to follow Stanley it was known to Mr. Werner, to more than one Belgian officer, to several natives, and to the Manyuema people with Barttelot, that instructions had been given by Tippu Tip to these last to shoot Major Barttelot if he did not treat them well. Yet no one cared to warn the Major and he was allowed to depart to his almost certain fate. The thing is too sicken- ing to dwell upon. It was at this stage that Stanley sent home his first letters, which reached England on April 1, 1889, 20 months after hestarted from the Aruwimi, and over 2 years after heleft England. The relief was intense; all sorts of sinister rumors had been floated, and most people had given up the expedition for lost. Once more back through the weary forest, with the expedition re- organized. A new route was taken to the north of the river through a region devasted by the Arab slavers; and here the expedition came near to starvation, but once more Fort Bodo was reached, on Decem- ber 20. Here things were practically as Stanley had left them; there was no sign of Emin, though he had promised to come to the fort. The combined expedition marched onwards, and Mr. Stanley, pushing on with a contingent, reached the lake for the third time, on January 18, only to learn that Emin and Jephson had been made prisoners by Emin’s own men; the Mahdists had attacked the station and created a panic, and all was disorganization and vacillation. At last, however, 286 STANLEY AND THE MAP OF AFRICA. the chief actors in this strange drama were together again; and Mr. Stanley’s account of Emin’s unstable purpose, the long arguments with the Pasha to persuade him to come to a decision; the ingratitude and treachery of the Egyptians, the gathering of the people and their burdensome goods and chattels preparatory to quitting the lake — these and many other details are fresh in our memories from Stanley’s own letters. But the main purpose of the expedition was accomplished, at however terrible a cost, and however disappointing it was to find that after all Emin was reluctant to be “rescued.” When the start was made from Kavalli’s on April 10 last, 1,500 people in all were mustered: An almost mortal illness laid Stanley low for a month shortly after the start, and it was May 8 before the huge caravan was fairly under way. Some fighting had to be done with raiders from Unyoro, but on the whole the homeward march was comparatively free from trouble, and full of interest; and on December 6 Mr. Stanley once more entered Zanzibar, which he had left 2 years and 10 months before. Such briefly are some of the incidents of the rescue expedition; let us now as briefly sum up the geographical results. When Stanley left for Africa, in January, 1887, there remained one of the great problems of African hydrography still unsolved—what is known as the problem of the Wellé. Schweinfurth and Junker had come upon a river at some points which seemed to rise in the neighbor- hood of the Albert Nyanza, and appeared to flow in a northwest direc- tion. The favorite theory at the time was that the river Wellé was really the upper course of the Shari, which runs into Lake Chad far away to the northwest. But as the Congo and its great feeders on the north, and the lie of the land in that direction, became known, it began to be conjectured that after all the Wellé might send its waters to swell the mighty volume of the great river. Stanley, I know, hoped that, among other geographical work, he might be able to throw some light on the course of this puzzling river. But, as we see now, the cares and troubles that fell upon him prevented him going much out of the way to do geographical work. While, however, Stanley was cleaving his way through the tangled forest, Lieutenant Van Géle, one of the Free State officers, proved conclusively that the Wellé was really the upper course of the Mobangi, one of the largest northern tributaries of the Congo. But another kindred problem Stanley was able to solve. Before his journey the mouth of the river Aruwimi was known; the great naval battle which he fought there on his first descent of the river is one of the most striking of the many striking pictures in the narrative of that famous journey. but beyond Yambuya its course was a blank. The river, under various names, ‘ Ituri” being the best known, led him almost to the brink of the Albert Nyanza. One of its upper contribu- tories is only 10 minutes’ walk from the brink of the escarpment that looks down upon the lake. With many rapids, it is for a great part of its course over 500 yards wide, with groups of islands here and there. STANLEY AND THE MAP OF AFRICA. 287 For a considerable stretch it is navigable, and its entire length, taking all its windings into account, from its source to the Congo, is 800 miles. One of its tributaries turns out to be another river which Junker met further north, and whose destination was a puzzle.—The Nepoko. Thus this expedition has enabled us to form clearer notions of the hydrography of this remarkable region of rivers. We see that the sources of the Congo and the Nile lie almost within a few yards of each other. Indeed, so difficult is it to determine to which river the various waters in this region send their tribute that Mr. Stanley himself, in his first letter, was confident that the southern Lake Albert belonged to the Congo and not to the Nile system. It was only actual inspection that convinced him he was mistaken. How it is that the Ituri or the Aruwimi and other rivers in the same region are attracted to the Congo and not to the Nile is easily seen from Mr. Stanley’s graphic deserip- tion of the lay of the country between the Congo and the Albert Nyanza. It is, he says, hke the glacis of a fort, some 350 miles long, sloping gradually up from the margin of the Congo (itself at the Arawimi mouth 1,400 feet above the sea), until ten miles beyond one of the Ituri feeders it reaches a height of 5,200 feet to descend almost per- pendicularly 2,900 feet to the surface of the lake, which forms the great western reservoir of the Nile. But when the term ‘“ glacis” is used, it must not be inferred that the ascent from the Congo to Lake Albert is smooth and unobstructed. The fact is that Mr. Stanley found himself involved in the northern section of what is probably the most extensive and densest forest region in Africa, Livingstone spent many a weary day trudging its gloomy, recesses away south at Nyangwé on the Lualaba. It stretches for many miles north to the Monbuttu country. Stanley entered it at Yambuya, and tunnelled his way through it to within 50 miles of the Albert Nyanza, when it all of a sudden ceased and gave way to grassy plains and the unobstructed light of day. How far west it may extend be- yond the Aruwimi he can not say; but it was probably another section of this same forest region that Mr. Paul du Chaillu struck some 30 years ago, when gorilla hunting in the Gaboon. Mr. Stanley estimates the area of this great forest region at about 300,000 square miles, which is more likely to be under than over the mark. The typical African forest, as Mr. Drummond shows in his charming book on “Tropical Africa,” is not of the kind found on the Aruwimi, which is much more South American than African. Not even in the “great sponge,” from which the Zambesi and the Congo draw their remote supplies, do we meet with such impenetrable density. Trees scattered about as in an English park in small open clumps form, as a rule, the type of “forest” common in Africa. The physical causes which led to the dense packing of trees over the immense area between the Congo and the Nile Lakes will form an interesting investigation. Mr. Stanley’s description of the great forest region, in his letter to Mr. Bruce, is well worth quoting: 288 STANLEY AND THE MAP OF AFRICA. “Take a thick Scottish copse, dripping with rain. Imagine this copse to be a mere undergrowth, nourished under the impenetrable shade of ancient trees, ranging trom 100 to 180 feet high; briars and thorns abundant; lazy creeks, meandering through the depths of the jungle, and sometimes a deep affluent of a great river. imagine this forest and jungle in all stages of decay and growth—old trees falling, leaning perilously over, fallen prostrate; ants and insects of all kinds, sizes, and colors murmuring around; monkeys and chimpanzees above, queer noises of birds and animals, crashes in the jungle as troops of elephants rush away; dwarfs with poisoned arrows securely hidden behind some buttress or in some dark recess; strong brown-bodied aborigines with terribly sharp spears standing poised, still as dead stumps; rain pat- tering down on you every other day in the year; an impure atmosphere with its dread consequences, fever and dysentery; gloom throughout the day, and darkness almost palpable throughout the night, and then if you will imagine such a forest extending the entire distance from Plymouth to Peterhead, you will have a fair idea of some of the incon- venience endured by us from June 28 to December 5, 1887, and from June 1, 1888, to the present date, to continue again from the present date till about December 10, 1888, when I hope to say a last farewell to the Congo forest.” Mr. Stanley tries to account for this great forest region by the abund- ance of moisture carried over the continent from tlfe wide Atlantic by the winds which blow landward through a great part of the year; but it is to be feared the remarkable phenomenon is not to be accounted for in so easy away. Investigation may prove that the rain of the rainiest region in Africa comes not from the Atlantic, but the Indian Ocean, with its moisture laden monsoons; and so we should have here a case analogous to that which oceurs in South America, the forests of which resemble in many features those of the region through which Mr. Stanley has passed. But the forest itself is not more interesting than its human denizens. The banks of the river in many places are studded with large villages, some, at least, of the native tribes being cannibals. Weare here onthe northern border of the true negro peoples, so that when the subject is investigated the Aruwimi savages may be found to be much mixed. But unless Europe promptly intervenes, there will shortly be few people left in these forests to investigate. Mr. Stanley came upon two slave- hunting parties, both of them manned by the merciless people of Man- yuema. Already great tracts have been turned into a wilderness, and thousands of the natives driven from their homes. From the ethnolo- gist’s point of view the most interesting inhabitants of the Aruwimi for- ests are the hostile and cunning dwarfs, or rather pigmies, who caused the expidition so much trouble. No doubt they are the same as the Monbuttu pigmies found farther north, and essentialy similar to the pigmy population found scattered all over Africa, from the Zambesi to STANLEY AND THE MAP OF AFRICA. 289 the Nile, and from the Gaboon to the east coast. Mr. Du Chaillu found them in the forests of the west30 years ago, and away south on the great Sankuru tributary of the Congo Major Wissman and his fellow explo- rers met them within the past few years. They seem to be the rem- nants of a primitive population rather than the stunted examples of the normal negro. Around the villages in the forest wherever clearings had been made the ground was of the richest character, growing crops of all kinds. Mr. Stanley has always maintained that in the high lands around the great lakes will be found the most favorable region for Eu- ropean enterprise ; and ifin time much of the forest is cleared away, the country between the Congo and Lake Albert might become the granary of Africa. To the geographer, however, the second half of the expedition’s work is fuller of interest than the first. Some curious problems had to be solved in the lake region, problems that had given rise to much diseus- sion. When in 1864 Sir Samuel Baker stood on the lofty escarpment that looks down on the east shore of the Albert Nyanza, at Vacovia, the lake seemed to him to stretch illimitably to the south, so that for long it appeared on our maps as extending beyond 1 degree south lat- itude. When Stanley, many years later, on his first great expedition, after crossing from Uganda, came upon a great bay of water, he was naturally inclined to think that it was a part of Baker’s lake, and called it Beatrice Gulf. But Gessi and Mason, members of Gordon Pasha’s staff, cireumnavigated the lake later on and found that it ended more than a degree north of the equator. So when Stanley published his narrative he made his “ Beatrice Gulf” a separate lake lying to the south of the Albert Nyanza. Mr. Stanley saw only a small portion of the southern lake, Muta Nzigé, but in time it expanded and expanded on our maps until there seemed some danger of its being joined on to Lake Tanganyika. Emin himself, during his 12 years’ stay in the Sudan, did something towards exploring the Albert Nyanza, and found that its southern shore was fast advancing northward, partly owing to sediment brought down by ariver, and partly due to the wearing away of the rocky bed of the Upper Nile, by which much water escaped and the level of the lake subsided. Thus, when Baker stood on the shore of the lake in 1864, it may well have extended many miles farther south than it does now. But where did the river come from that Mason and Emin Saw running into the lake from the south? As was pointed out above, Stanley at first thought it could not come from his own lake to the south, which he believed must seud its waters to the Congo. But all controversy has now been ended. During the famous exodus of the 1,500 from Kavilli to the coast, the intensely interesting country lying between the northern lake, Albert, and the southern lake, now named Albert Edward, was traversed. Great white, grassy plains stretch away south from the shores of Lake Albert, which under the glitter of a trop- ical sun might well be mistaken for water; evidently they had been H. Mis. 129-19 ZO) STANLEY AND THE MAP OF AFRICA. under water at quite a recent period. But soon the country begins to rise, and round the base of a great mountain boss the river Semliki winds its way through its valley, receiving through the picturesque glens many streams of water from the snows that clothe the moun- tain tops. Here we have a splendid country, unfortunately harassed by the raids of the Wanyoro, in dread of whom the simple natives of the mountain side often creep up to near the limit of snow. Up the mountain, which Lieutenant Stairs ascended for over 10,000 feet, blackberries, bilberries, violets, heaths, lichens, and trees that might have reminded him of England flourish abundantly. Here evidently we have a region that might well harbor a European population. The mountain itself, Ruwenzori, a great boss with numerous spurs, is quite evidently an extinet voleano, rising to something like 19,000 feet, and reminding one of Kilimanjaro, farther to the east. It is not yet clear whether it is the same mountain as the Gordon Bennett seen by Stan- ley in his former expedition, though the probability is that, if distinet, they belong to the same group or mass. Apart from the mountain the country gradually ascends as the Semliki is traced up to its origin in Lake Albert Edward. Mr. Stanley found that, after ail, the southern Nyanza belongs to the great Nile system, giving origin to the farthest southwest source of Egypt’s wonderful river, which we know receives a tribute from the snows of the equator. The southern lake itself is of comparatively small dimensions, prob- ably not more than 45 miles long, and is 900 feet above the northern Lake Albert. Mr. Stanley only skirted its west, north, and east shores, so that probably he has net been able to obtain complete data as to size and shape. But he has solved one of the few remaining great problems in African geography. The two lakes lie in a trough, the sides of which rise steeply in places 3,000 feet, to the great plateaus that extend away east and west. This trough, from the north end of Lake Albert to the south end of Lake Albert Edward, is some .260 statute miles in length. About 100 miles of this is oceupied by the former lake, 45 by the latter, and the rest by the country between, where the trough, if we may indulge in an Irishism, becomes partly a plain, and partly a great mountain mass. But this trough, or fissure, a glance at a good map will show, is continued more or less south and southeast in Lakes Tanganyika and Nayassa, which are essentially of the same character as Lakes Albert and Albert Edward, and totally different from such lakes as Victoria Nyanza and Bangweolo. Here we have a feature of the greatest geographical interest, which still has to be worked out as to its origin. There is little more to say as to the geographical results of the Emin Pasha relief expedition. There are many minute details of great interest, which the reader may see for himself in Mr. Stanley’s letters, or in his forthcoming detailed narrative. In his own characteristic way he tells of the tribes and peoples around the lakes, and between the STANLEY AND THE MAP OF AFRICA. 291 lakes and the coast; and it was left for him on his way home to dis- cover a great southwest extension of Victoria Nyanza, which brings that lake within 150 miles of Lake Tanganyika. The results which have been achieved have been achieved at a great sacrifice of life and of suffering to all concerned; but no one, I am sure, will wish that the work had been left undone. The few great geographical problems in Africa that Livingstone had to leave untouched, Stanley has solved. Little remains for himself and others in the future beyond the filling in of details; but these are all-important, and will keep the great army of explorers busy for many years, if not for generations. aad ‘ ia wee “4 j eas elie pcx 7 a . aetna? iv ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION.* By G. 8. GRIFFITHS. My experience during the four years which have elapsed since this vroject was first mooted in Melbourne is that any reference to the sub- ject is sure to be met with the query Cui bono? What good can it do? What benefit can come from it? What is the object to be served by such an expedition? In setting myself to the task of answering these questions let me observe that it would indeed be strange if an unexplored region S,000,000 square miles in area—twice the size of Europe—and grouped around the axis of rotation and the magnetic pole could fail to yield to investigators some novel and valuable information. But when we notice that the circle is engirdled without by peculiar physical condi- tions which must be correlated to special physical conditions within, speculation is exchanged for a confident belief that an adequate reward must await the skilled explorer. The expected additions to the geog- raphy of the region are, of all the knowledge that is to be sought for there, the least valuable. Where so many of the physical features of the country—the hills, the valleys, and the drainage lines—have been buried beneath the snow of ages, a naked outline, a bare skeleton of a map, is the utmost that can be delineated. Still, even such knowledge as this has a distinct value, and as it can be acquired by the explorers as they proceed about their more important researches, its relatively small value ought not to be admitted as a complete objection to any enterprise which has other objects of importance. Our present acquaint- ance with the geography of the region is excessively limited. Ross just viewed the coasts of Victoria Land between 163° KE. and 160° W. longitude; he trod its barren strand twice, but on each occasion for a few minutes only. From the adjacent gulf he measured the heights of its voleanoes, and from its offing he sketched the walls of its icy barrier. Wilkes traced on our map ashore line from 97° E. to 167° E. longitude, and he backed it up with a range of mountains, but he landed nowhere. Subsequently Ross sailed over the site assigned to part of this land, * An address on ‘The Objects of Antaretie Exploration,” delivered at the annual meeting of the Bankers’ Institute of Australia, af Melbourne, on Wednesday, August 27. (From Nature, October 16, 1890, vol. xLi1, pp. 601-604. ) 293 294 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION. and hove his lead 600 fathoms deep where Wilkes had drawn a moun- tain. He tells us that the weather was so very clear that had high land been within 70 miles of that position he must have seen it (‘* Ross’s Voyage,” 1278). More recently Nares, in the Challenger, tested another part of Wilkes’s coast line, and with a like result; and these circum- stances throw doubts upon the value of his reported discoveries. D’Urville subsequently followed a bold shore for a distance of about 300 miles from 136° H. to 142° E. longitude; whilst in 67° S. latitude, and between 45° E. and 60° E. longitude, are Enderby’s and Kemp’s lands. Again, there is land to the south of the Horn which trends from 45° to 75° S. latitude. These few discontinuous coast lines com- prise all our scanty knowledge of the Antarctic land. It will be seen from these facts that the principal geographical problem awaiting solu- tion in these regions is the interconnection of these scattered shores. The question is, do they constitute parts of a continent, or are they, hike the coasts of Greenland, portions of an archipelago, smothered under an overload of frozen snow, which conceals their insularity? Ross inclined to the latter view, and he believed that a wide channel leading towards the Pole existed between North Cape and the Balleny Islands (“Ross’s Voyage,” 1221). This view was also held by the late Sir Wyville Thomson. A series of careful observations upon the local cur- rents might throw some light upon these questions. Ross notes several such in his log. Off Possession {sland a current, running southward, took the ships to windward (ibid., 1195). Off Coulman Island another drifted them in the same direction at the rate of 18 miles a day ( HISTORY OF GEODETIC OPERATIONS IN RUSSIA. 313 this purpose in 1874, came to the conclusion that the Aral Sea is higher than the Caspian by 243 feet. In 1871, systematic spirit leveling was begun, and in its prosecution many interesting facts have been brought to light. One of these is the different levels of the water in the Baltic Sea. Taking 0 for the level of water at Cronstadt, the height of the sea level proves to be: Metres. DES TRON Oleaees tec tea hate e ae Bel oe emia acc ects — 0.57 Asi AM AMMO <> <:;, sea sears stato sor ee — 0.88 PSEA Mere Gis ws oo ee en eee en Another is the discrepancy between spirit levelling and geodetic level- ling in obtaining the elevation of the threshold of the Dorpat Observa- tory. This amounts to nearly 4 metres, and is suggestive of a consid- erable local disturbance. The first local attraction observed in Russia was in the neighborhood of Moscow, where, owing to the absence of hills, one might least ex- pect a discrepancy between geodetic and astronomic results. Soon after the completion of the triangulation in the province of Moscow this deflection attracted public attention, and the astronomer Schweizer undertook a special investigation, The result showed that in this province, almost in the direction from east to west, there is a strip along whose northern boundary there is a considerable (5’’) northern deflec- tion, and on the southern border a southerly deflection of 10’. It is supposed that along this belt there must be a vast extent of matter of comparatively small density, or underlying it great cavities. The most elaborate investigation of local deflection of the plumb-line was made in the Caucasus by General Stebnizki and published in the Memoirs of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences for 1870. From the analysis of the astronomic and trigonometric operations executed on both sides of the principal Caucasian ridge it became evident that, in general, to the north of the mountains there exists a deflection to the south and on the south an opposite deflection. The greatest dis- crepancies in the astronomic and geodetic latitudes proved to be in Viadikaukasus, —35”.76; in Alexandrovskaja, —18/.14; in Petrovk, —18”.56; and in Dushet, +18/.29. Availing himself of the surveys already executed furnishing a great number of very accurately deter- mined points, General Stebnizki computed the effect which the attrac- tion of the exterior mountainous mass would have upon the astronomic latitude of the different stations. In these computations no attracting mass was considered which was distant more than 240 versts, while the chief disturbing causes were frequently found to lie within a circle with a radius of 80 versts, the station occupying the central point. It was found that the greater part of the noted discrepancies were sufficiently accounted for by the law of attraction having regard to the exterior mass alone. In the cases just cited the computed differences reduced the station errors to 3”,—1/ .31, +2/.15 and —0”.86, But there are other * $14 HISTORY OF GEODETIC OPERATIONS IN RUSSIA. stations where the computed attraction is either insufficient for the ex- planation of the observed discrepancy or even contradicts it. Among such stations the following are remarkable: | Tiflis. Elisabetpol. | Shemaha. Dhetobservedsdeflection <2 -2.<- essa. ee cease ee eee | 97.56 — 32.75 93.91 ehercompriutedy detection aerecesere cia seers see seit eeeeinciee +2. 41 — 20. 50 +16. 43 Difference.ceas soe ho ae esse ole eee cee EE eR On ee ee eee —9.97 = ON25 —39. 64 As all of these stations lie approximately on the same parallel, and each showed a strong deflection to tha south, there must lie to the south under the surface of the earth an extent of matter of great density, or to the north under the Caucasian ridge a mass of less density. The latter hypothesis has found a parallel in the deflections observed near the foot of the Himalaya Mountains. Besides the latitude deflections, General Stebnizki calculated the deflections of the vertical at longitude stations, but their number so far is insufficient to serve as a basis for generalization. For more than a century, the pendulum has been regarded in Russia as a geodetic instrument of great value, but no very accurate observa- tions were made prior to 1826~29, when Captain Lutke made a cruise around the world on the man-of-war Seniavin. He swung a Kater pendulum at ten stations. The results, published in 1833, gave for the ellipticity 1: 267.8, or 1: 269 if two somewhat doubtful stations are disregarded. Besides the desultory observations of Professor Parrot of Dorpat in 1829, nothing of consequence was attempted until 186568, when the Academy of Sciences of St. Petersburg sent out an expedition in charge of Sawitch, Smyslow, and Lenz. They selected twelve stations along the great Russian meridional are (Tornea, Nicolaistad, St. Petersburg, Reval, Dorpat, Jakobstadt, Vilna, Belin, Kremenetz, Kishener, Kamenetz and Ismail), and employed a reversible Repsold pendulum. The results 1 : 309 for the ellipticity of the earth. Since this time, many observations have been made in various portions of the Russian domain, and with the pendulum work, as with all other branches of geodetic operations, the best methods soon find a place, and results are obtained that are comparable with those of any country. QUARTZ FIBERS* By C. V. Boys, F. BR. 8. ie In almost all investigations which the physicist carries out in the lab- oratory, he has to deal with and to measure with accuracy those subtle and to our senses inappreciable forces to which the so-called laws of nature give rise. Whether he is observing by an electrometer the be- havior of electricity at rest, or by a galvanometer the action of elee- tricity in motion; whether in the tube of Crookes he is investigating the power of radiant matter, or with the famous experiment of Cavendish he is finding the mass of the earth—in these and in a host of other cases he is bound to measure with certainty and accuracy forces so small that in no ordinary way could their existence be detected; while disturbing causes which might seem to be of no particular consequence must be eliminated if his experiments are to have any value. It is not too much to say that the very existence of the physicist depends upon the power which he possesses of producing at will and by artificial means forces against which he balances those that he wishes to measure. I had better perhaps at once indicate in a general way the magnitude of the forces with which we have to deal. The weight of a single grain is not to our senses appreciable, while the weight of a ton is sufficient to crush the life out of anyone ina moment. egecee ° s 4 x a 33% Roe qj Ss tee 58 fe % Se ae See ae ee) AUS hee ee <. one i aur SS ae te a nee ° on : AG ba % 2 ~ Os OwT age A Z 5% 2 ao ze, nolan oon ea —eD G rem Soigs pote hy besMe ek iy Ne CNY is secs) BOS “npn Fic. 3. Fic. 4. the respective intervals 8: 15 and 8: 23. A number of such wave- disks corresponding to other intervals lie upon the table; these two will however suffice. In the first of these the curve is that which would be obtained by setting out around the periphery a series of 120 simple sinusoidal waves, and a second set of 64 waves, and then com- pounding them into one resultant wave. In order to permit of a com- parison being made with the simple component sounds, two concentric rings of holes have been also pierced with 120 and 64 holes respectively. Regarding these two numbers as the frequency of two primary tones, there ought to result beats of frequency 8 (being the negative re- mainder corresponding to the superior beat). An interior set of 8 holes is also pierced, to enable a comparison to be made. To experiment with such wave disks they are mounted upon a smoothly running whirling-table, and wind from a suitable wind-chest is blown against the wave edge from behind through a narrow slit set radially. In this way the air-pressures in front of the wave-edge are varied by the rush of air between the teeth. It isa question not yet decided how 350 DR. KC@NIG’S RESEARCHES ON far these pressures correspond to the values of the ordinates of the curves. This question, which involves the validity of the entire prin- ciple of the wave-siren, can not here be considered in detail. Suffice it to say that for present purposes the results are amply convincing. The wave-disk (Fig. 3) has been clamped upon the whirling-table, which an assistant sets into rotation at a moderate speed. Dr. Kenig biows first through a small pipe through one of the rows of holes, then through the other. The two low notes sound out separately, just a major tone apart. Then he blows through the pipe with a slotted mouth- piece against the waved edge; at once you hear the two low notes inter- fering, and making beats. On increasing the speed of rotation the two notes become shrill, and the beats blend into a beat-tone. Notice the pitch of that beat-tone: it is precisely the same as that which he now produces by blowing through the small pipe against the ring of 8 holes. With the other wave-disk, having 184 and 64 holes in the two primary circles, giving a wave form corresponding to the interval 8: 23, the effects are of the same kind, and when driven at the same speed gives the same beat-tone as the former wave-disk. It will be noted that in each of these two cases the frequency of the beat-tone is neither the difference nor the sum of the frequencies of the two primary tones. A final proof, if such were needed, is afforded by an experiment, which though of a striking character, will not necessarily be heard by all per- sons present, being only well heard by those who sit in certain posi- tions. If a shrill tuning-fork is excited by a blow of the steel mallet, and held opposite a flat wall, part of the waves which it emits strike on the surface, and are reflected. This reflected system of waves, as it passes out into the room, interferes with the direct system. Asa result, if the fork, held in the hand, be moved toward the wall or from it, a series of maxima and minima of sound will successively reach an ear situated in space at any point near the line of motion, and will be heard as a Series of beats; the rapidity with which they succeed one another being proportional to the velocity of the movement of the fork. The fork Dr. Koenig is using is ut,, which gives well marked beats, slow when he moves his arm slowly, quick when he moves it quickly. There are limits to the speed at which the human arm can be moved, and the quickest speed that he can give to his, fails to make the beats blend to atone. But if he will take sol, vibrating 14 times as fast, and strike it, and move it away from the wall with the fastest speed that his arm will permit, the beats blend into a short low growl, a non-uniform tone of low pitch, but still having true continuity. The first portion of my account of Dr. Koenig’s researches may then be summarized by saying that in all circumstances where beats, either natural or artificial, can be produced with sufficient rapidity, they blend to form a beat-tone of a pitch corresponding to their frequency. THE PHYSICAL BASIS OF MUSICAL HARMONY. 351 III. I now pass to the further part of the researches of Dr. Kenig which relates to the timbre of sounds. Prior to the researches of Dr. Kenig it had been supposed that in the reception by the ear of sounds of com- plex timbre the ear took no account of, and indeed was incapable of perceiving, any differences in phase in the constituent partial tones. For example, in the case of a note and its octave sounded together, it was supposed and believed that the sensation in the ear, when the difference in phase of the two components was equivalent to one- half of the more rapid wave, was the same as when that difference of phase was one-quarter, or three-quarters, or zero. I had myself, in the year 1876, when studying some of the phenomena of binaural audi- tion, shown reasons for holding that the ear does nevertheless take cog- nizance of such differences of phase. Moreover, the peculiar rolling or revolving effect to be noticed in slow beats is a proof that the ear per- ceives some difference due to difference of phase. Dr. Keenig is however the first to put this matter on a distinct basis of observations. That such differences of phase occur in the tones of musical instru- ments is certain; they arise inevitably in every case where the sounds of subdivision are such that they do not agree rigidly with the theo- retical harmonics. Fig. 5 depicts a graphic record taken by Dr. Koenig from a vibrating steel wire, in which a note and its octave had been simultaneously excited. The two sounds were scarcely perceptibly different from their true interval, but the higher note was just suffi- ciently sharper than the true harmonic octave to gain about one wave in 180. The graphic trace has in figure 5 been split up into five pieces y MWA Fig. 5. to facilitate insertion in the text. It will be seen that as the phase gradually changes the form of the waves undergoes a slow change from wave to wave. Now, it is usually assumed that in the vibrations of symmetrical systems, such as stretched cords and open columns of air, the sounds of subdivision agree with the theoretical harmonics. For example, it is assumed that when a stretched string breaks up into a nodal vibration of four parts, each of a quarter its length, the 352 DR. KCNIG’S RESEARCHES ON vibration is precisely four times as rapid as the fundamental vibration of the string as a whole. This would be true if the string were abso- lutely uniform, homogeneous, and devoid of rigidity. Strings never are so; and even if uniform and homogeneous, seeing that the rigidity of a string has the effect of making a short piece stiffer in proportion than a long piece, can not emit true harmonies as the sounds of subdi- vision. In horns and open organ pipes the width of the column (which is usually neglected in simple calculations) affects the frequency of the nodal modes of vibration. Wertheim found the partial tones of pipes higher than the supposed harmonics. These things being so, it is manifestly insufficient to assume, as von Helmhboitz does in his great work, that all timbres possess a purely periodic character; with the necessary corollary that all timbres con- sist merely in the presence, with greater or less intensity, of one or more members of a series of higher tones corresponding to the terms of a Fourier series of harmonics. When, therefore, following ideas based on this assumption, von Helmholtz constructs a series of resonators, accurately tuned to correspond to the terms of a Fourier series (the first being tuned to some fundamental tone, the second to one of a fre- quency exactly twice as great, the third to a frequency exactly three times, and so forth), and applies such resonators to analyze the tim- bres of various musical and vocal sounds, he is trying to make his reson- ators pick up things which in many cases do not exist—upper partial tones which are exact harmonics. If they are not exact harmonics, even though they exist, his tuned resonator does not hear them, or only hears them imperfectly, and he is thereby lead into an erroneous appre- ciation of the sound under examination. Further, when in pursuance of this dominant idea he constructs a system of electro-magnetic tuning-forks, accurately tuned to give forth the true mathematical harmonics of a fixed series, thinking therewith to reproduce artificially the timbres not only of the various musical instruments but even of the vowel sounds, he fails to reproduce the supposed effects. The failure is inherent inthe instrument; forit can not reproduce those natural timbres which do not fall within the cir- cumscribed limits of its imposed mathematical principle. Nothing is more certain than that in the tones of instruments, partic- ularly in those of such instruments as the harp and the pianoforte, in which the impulse, once given, is not sustained, the relations between the component partial tones are continually changing, both in relative intensity and in phase. The wavelets, as they follow one another, are ever changing their forms; in other words, the motions are not truly periodic—their main forms may recur, but with modifications ever changing. To estimate the part played in such phenomena by mere differences of phase—to evaluate, in fact, the influence of phase of the constitu- ents upon the integral effect of a compound sound—Dr, Keenig had THE PHYSICAL BASIS OF MUSICAL HARMONY. Soo recourse to the wave-siren, an earlier invention of his own, and of which the wave-disks which have already been shown are examples. In the first place, Dr. Koenig proceeded synthetically to construct the wave-forms for tones consisting of the resultant of a set of pure har- mouies of gradually decreasing intensity. The curves of these, up to the tenth member of the series, were carefully compounded graphically : first with zero difference of phase, then with all the upper members shifted on one quarter. then with a difference of a half-wave, then with a difference of three-quarters. The results are shown in the top line of curves in Fig. 6, wherein it will be noticed that the curve for difference Fic. 6. of phase = 4 is like that for zero difference, but reversed, left for right ; and that the curve for difference of phase = } is like that for difference = 4, but inverted. Now, according to von Helmholtz, the sounds of all these four curves should be precisely alike, in spite of their differ- ences of form and position. To test the matter, these carefully plotted curves were set out upon the circumference of a cylindrical band of thin metal, the edge being then cut away, leaving the unshaded portion, the curve being repeated half a dozen times, and meeting itself after. passing round the circumference. For convenience, the four curves to be compared are set out upon the separate rims of two such metallic cylindrical hoops, which are mounted upon one axis, to which a rapid motion of rotation can be imparted, as shown in Fig. 7. Against the dentilated edges of these rims, wind can be blown through narrow slits connected to the wind chamber of an organ table. In the appara- tus (Fig. 7) the four curves in question are the four lowest of the set of six. It will be obvious that as these curves pass in front of the slits H. Mis. 129 23 354 DR. KG2NIG’S RESEARCHES ON from which wind issues, the maximum displacement of air will result when the slit is least covered, or when the point of greatest depression of the curve crosses the front of the slit. The negative ordinates of the curve correspond therefore approximately to condensations. Air is now being supplied to the slits; and when I open one or other of the valves which control the air passages, you hear one or other of the sounds. It must be audible to everyone present that the sound is louder and more forcible with a difference of phase of + than in any other case, that produced with ? difference being gentle and soft in tone, whilst the curves of phase 0 and 4 yield tones of intermediate quality. Dr. Koenig found that if he merely combined together in various phases a note and its octave (which was indeed the instance examined by me binaurally in 1876), the loudest resultant sound is given when the phase difference of the combination is 4, and the mildest when it is 3. Returning to Fig. 6, in the second line are shown the curves which result from the superposition of the odd members only of a harmonic series of decreasing amplitude. On comparing together the curves of the four separate phases, it is seen that the form is identical for phases 0 and 3, which show rounded waves, whilst for phases 4+ and 3 the forms are also identical, but with sharply angular outline. These two varie- ties of curve are set out on the two edges of the highest metallic cir- cumference in the apparatus depicted in Fig. 7. The angular waves are found to yield a louder and more strident tone than the rounded waves, though, according to yon Helmholtz, their tones should be alike. A much more elaborate form of compound wave siren was constructed by Dr. Koenig for the synthetic study of these phase relations. Upon a Single axis, one behind the other, is mounted a series of 16 brass disks, THE PHYSICAL BASIS OF MUSICAL HARMONY. 35D cut at their edges into sinusoidal wave forms. These represent a har- monic series of 16 members of decreasing amplitnde, there being just 16 times as many small sinuosities on the edge of the largest disk as there are of large sinuosities on that of the smallest disk. A photo- graph of the apparatus is now thrown upon the screen. It is described fully by Dr. Koenig in his volume on ‘‘Quelques Expériences,” and was figured and described in Nature, July 20, 1882, vol. xxvi, p. 277. Against the edge of eack of the 16 wave disks wind ean be separately blown through a slit. This instrument therefore furnishes a funda- mental sound with its first fifteen pure harmonics. It is clear that any desired combiuation can be obtained by opening the appropriate stops on the wind-chest; and there are ingenious arrangements to vary the phases of any of the separate tones by shifting the positions of the slits. The following are the chief results obtained with this instrument. If we first take simply the fundamental tone and its octave together, the total resultant sound has the greatest intensity when the difference of phase o=4 (t. e., When the maximum displacement of air occurs at the same instant for both waves); and at the same time the whole character of the sound becomes somewhat graver, as if the fundamental tone predomi- nated more than in other phases. The intensity is least when 0=%. If, however, attention is concentrated on the octave note while the phase is changed, its intensity seems about the same for 6=} as for 6=3, but weaker in all other positions. The compound tones formed only of odd members of the series have always more power and brilliancy of tone for phase differences of 4 and 3, than for 0 and 4; but the quality for 4 1s always the same as for ?, and the quality for 0 is always the same as for $. ‘This corresponds to the peculiarity of the corresponding wave form, of which the fourth line of curves in Fig. 6 is au example. For compound tones corresponding to the whole series, odd and even, there is in every case minimum intensity, brilliancy, and stridence with 6=3, and maximum with d=}. Inspection of the first and third lines of curves in Fig. 6 shows that in these wave forms that phase which is the most forcible is that in which the maximum displacement and re- sulting condensation is sudden and brief. Observing that wave-forms in which the waves are asymmetrical— steeper on one side than on the other—are produced as the resultant of a whole series of compounded partial tones, it occurred to Dr. Koenig to produce from a perfect and symmetrical sinusoidal wave curve a com- plex sound by the very simple device of turning into an oblique position the slit through which the wind was blown against it. In Fig. 8 is drawn a simple symmetrical wave form, egluprtv. If a series of such wave forms is passed in front of a vertical slit, such as ab, a perfectly simple tone, devoid of upper partials, is heard. But by inclining the slit, as at ab’, the same effect is produced as if the wave form had been changed to the oblique outline é/g/l/n‘p/r't’v’, the slit all the while re. maining upright. But this oblique form is precisely like that obtained 356 DR. KGNIG’S RESEARCHES ON as resultant of a decreasing series of partial tones (Eig. 6, a). If the slit be inclined in the same direction as the forward movement of the waves, the quality produced is the same as if all the partial tones coin- cided at their origin, or with 6 =0; while if inclined in the opposite - direction the quality is that corresponding to d= 4. It is easy to ex- amine whether the change of phase produces any effect on the sound. Before you is rotating a simple wave disk, and air is being blown across its edge through a slit. Dr. Koenig will now tilt the slit alternately backward and forward. On tilting the slit forward to give 6 = 0, you hear a purer and more perfect sound; and on tilting it back, giving 6 = 4, a sound that is more nasal and forcible. All the preceding experiments agree then in showing that differences of phase do produce a distinct effect upon the quality of compound tones; what then must we say as to the effect on the timbre of the presence of upper partial tones or sounds of subdivision that do not agree with any of the true harmonies? A mis-tuned harmonic—if the term is permissi- ble—may be looked upon as a harmonic which is undergoing continual change of phase. The mistuned octave which yielded the graphic curve in Fig. 5, is a case in point. The wavelets are continually changing their form. It iscertain that in a very large number of musical sounds, instrumental and vocal, such is the case. It was whilst experimenting with his large compound wave siren that Dr. Keenig was struek by the circumstance that under no conditions, and by no combination of pure harmonies in any proportion of intensity or phase, could he reproduce any really strident timbres of sound, like those of harmonium reeds, trumpets, and the like; nor could he produce satisfactory vowel qualities of tone. Still less can these be produced satisfactorily by von Helmholtz’s apparatus with electro-magnetic tuning forks, in which there is no control over the phases of the com- ponents. The question was therefore ripe for investigation whether for the production of that which the ear can recognize as a timbre, a definite unitary quality of tone, it was necessary to suppose that all the successive wavelets should be of similarform. Or, if the forms of THE PHYSICAL BASIS OF MUSICAL HARMONY. 357 the successive wavelets are continually changing, is it possible for the ear still to grasp the result as a unitary sensation ? If the ear could always separate impure harmonic or absolutely in- harmonie partials from their fundamental tone, or if it always heard pure harmonics as an indistinguishable part of the unity of the timbre of a fundamental, then we might draw a hard and fast line between mere mixtures of sound and timbres, even as the chemist distinguishes between mere mixtures and true chemical compounds. But this is not SO; Sometimes the ear can not unravel from the integral sensation the inharmonious partial; on the other hand, it can often distinguish the presence of truly harmonious ones. Naturally, something will depend on the training of the ear; as is the case with the conductor of an or- chestra, who will pick out single tones froma mixture of sounds which to less perfectly trained ears may blend into a unitary sensation. Dr. Kenig accordingly determined to make at least an attempt to determine synthetically hov far the ear can so act, by building up spe- cific combinations of perturbed karmonics or inharmonic partials, giv- ing rise to waves that are multiform, as distinguished from the uniform waves of a true periodic motion. The wave siren presented a means of carrying this attempt to aresult. On the table before me lie a number of wave disks constructed with this aim. This will be successively placed upon the whirling table, and sounded; but [ must warn you that the proper effects will ouly be perceived by those who are near the apparatus, and in front of it. Upon the edge of the first of the series there has been cut a curve graphically compounded of 24 waves as a fundamental, together with a set of four perturbed harmonics of equal intensity. The first har- monic consists of 49 waves (2 x 24+ 1), the second of 75 waves (3x 2443), the third of 101 (4x24+45), the fourth of 127 (5x 2447). The resulting curve possesses 24 waves, no two of them alike in form, and some highly irregularin contour. The effect of blowing air through a slit against this disk is to produce a disagreeable sound, quite lacking in unitary character, and indeed suggesting intermittence. The second wave disk is constructed with the same perturbed har- monies, but with their amplitudes diminishing in order. This disk pro- duces similar effects, but with more approach to a unitary character. Inthe third disk there are also 24 fundamental waves, but there are no harmonies of the lower terms, the superposed ripples being perturbed harmonies of the fifth, sixth, and seventh orders. Their numbers are 6x 24+6, 7x 244-7, and 8x24+8, being, in fact, three harmonies of a fundamental 25. This disk gives a distinetly dual sort of sound, for the ear hears the fundamental quite separate from the higher tones, which seem in themselves to blend to a unitary effect. There is also an intermittence corresponding to each revolution of the disk, like a beat. The fourth disk resembles the preceding; but the gap between the 358 DR. K@NIG’S RESEARCHES ON fundamental and the three perturbed harmonies has been filled by the addition of three true harmonics. This disk is the first in this research which gives a real timbre, though it is a peculiar one. It preserves, however, a unitary character, even when the slit is tilted in either direction. The 24 waves in this disk all rake forward like the teeth of a circular saw, but with multiform ripples upon them. The quality of tone becomes more crisp when the slit is tilted so as to slope across the teeth, and more smooth when in the reverse direction. The fifth disk, which is larger, has 40 waves at its edge. These are cut with curves of all sorts, taken hap-hazard from various combinations of pure harmonics in all sorts of proportions and varieties, no two being alike, there maxima and minima of the separate waves being neither isochronous nor of equal amplitude. This disk gives an entirely unmu- sical effect, amid which a fundamental tone is heard, accompanied by a sort of rattling sound made up of intermittent and barely recognizable tones. The sixth disk is derived from the preceding by selecting eight only of the waves, and repeating them five times around the periphery. In this case each set of eight acts as a single long curve, giving beats, with a slow rotation and a low tone (accompanied always by the rattling mixture of higher tones) when the speed is increased. The seventh disk was constructed by taking 24 waves of perfect sin- usoidal form, and superposing upon them a series of small ripples of miscellaneous shapes and irregular sizes, but without essentially depart- ing from the main outline. This disk gives a timbre in which nothing can be separated from the fundamental tone, either with vertical or tilted slit. The eighth and last disk consists of another set of 24 perfect waves, from the sides of which irregular ripples have been carved away by hand, with the file, leaving however the summits and the deepest parts of the hollows untouched, so that the maxima and minima are isochronous and of equal amplitude. This disk gives also a definite timbre of its own, a little raucous in quality, but still distinctly having a musical unity about it. We have every reason therefore to conclude that the ear will recog- nize aS possessing true musical quality, as a timbre, combinations in which the constituents of the sound vary in their relative intensity and phase from wave to wave. What, then, is a timbre? Dr. Koenig would be the first to recognize that these last experiments, though of deepest interest, do not afford a final answer to the question. We may not yet bein a position to frame a new definition as to what constitutes a timbre, but we may at least conclude that, whenever that definition can be framed, it will at least include several varieties, including the non-periodic kinds with multi- form waves, as well as those that are truly periodic with uniform waves. We must not on that account however, rush to the conclusion that the THE PHYSICAL BASIS OF MUSICAL HARMONY. 359 theory of von Helmholtz as to the nature of timbre has been over. thrown. The corrections introduced into lunar theory by Hansen and Newcombe have not overturned the splendid generalizations of New- ton. What we can and must confess is that we now know that the acoustic theory of von Helmholtz is, like the lunar theory of Newton, correct only as a first approximation, It has been the distinctive merit of Dr. Koenig to indicate to us the magnitude of the correcting terms, and to supply us not only with a rich store of experimental faets but with the means of prosecuting the research synthetically, beyond the point to which he himself has attained. In thanking Dr. Koenig for the courtesy which he has shown to this society in bringing over his apparatus and in demonstrating its use to us, we must join in congratulating him on the patience, perspicacity, and skill with which he has carried out his researches. We know that his exceptional abilities as experimentalist and constructor have done more than those of any other investigator to make the science of experi- mental acoustics what it is to-day ; and we must unite in wishing him long life and prosperity to complete the great work on which elready he has advanced so far. THE CHEMICAL PROBLEMS OF TO DAY.* By VictoR MEYER. Translated by L. H. FrimpBura.t When, a short time ago, I was called upon to speak before you, I gladly and zealously approached the work which such an occasion seemed to call forth. It seemed to me that it would be an effort worthy of this assemblage of scientific men to recall the permanent addi- tions that chemistry has made in our day to the treasure of human knowledge and to enumerate the problems which seem to lie nearest us in the future. A science which, as such, is hardly older than the great European revolution, the centennial of which we witnessed a few months ago, and which in this short time has caused changes in our spiritual and material life hardly less than those of the political revolution, such a science, [ have thought, may without temerity boast of its achieve ments. And yet the chemist approaches such a task with a certain hesita- tion from which the astronomer, the physicist, and the mathematician are free. Has it not been in our own day that the most prominent ora- tor amongst German naturalists, one who astonishes us by the compre- hensiveness of his knowledge, has adopted as his own Kant’s judgment on chemistry, namely, that ** chemistry is a science, but not a science in the highest sense of the word; that is, a knowledge of nature reduced to mathematical mechanics.” And this dictum is accepted, not as a blemish upon our science, but with the fullest and most perfect recog- nition of the immense achievements which modern chemistry has regis- tered as its own. But all of the marvellous successes of the atomic theory and of the doctrine of structure, the synthesis of the most complicated organic compounds, the blessings of an enlarged pharmacopcia, the potent revolution in technological processes, the new and systematic methods * An address delivered at Ileidelberg at the first general session of the sixty-sec- ond meeting of the Association of German Naturalists and Physicians, September 18, 1889. . t From the Deutsche Rundschau, November, 1889. (Re-printed from the Journal of the American Chemical Society, September, 1889, vol. xr, pp. 101-120.) 361 362 THE CHEMICAL PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY. of production which have been characterized by an eminent technolo- gist as “the gaining of gold from rubbish ”—all this seems trifling to the mind that looks down from its standpoint of mathematical mechan- ics when compared with the work of a promised Newton of chemistry, who some day wili represent chemical reactions in the thought and in the language of mathematical physics. And if he who looks from a height is justified in the expression that to-day chemistry, in the recognition of ultimate causes, stands yet below astronomy of the time of Kepler and Copernicus, must not the chemist lose courage if he attempts, before an illustrious assemblage, to raise a song of praise to his science, to glorify what she has done and what in the future she seems chosen to do? If in spite of this the attempt be made, it must be with that resignation which rests upon the belief that ‘“‘ we should consider everything, but aim only at that which is possible.” Though we share, with full conviction, the expectations of a New- tonian period in chemistry, we hardly venture to hope that that period is near, and even the most enlightened representatives of the newer physical chemistry seem but precursors of that distant era. Perhaps the chemist, immersed in the daily work of his science, fails to take the comprehensive view of one who from a distant height looks down upon the same. But those who are surrounded by the whirl of hourly renewed work recognize all the more clearly the immense amount that remains still to be achieved before those distant aims can be realized. This epoch, so rich in path-finders in the department of physies, has rarely directed the highest order of research into the ter- ritory of our science, and especially have the more complicated chem- ical phenomena been avoided. If in a period that has witnessed the discoveries of Helmholtz, Robert Mayer, Joule, Clausius, and van’t Hoff, the revolutionizing progress of knowledge has been limited to physics, and if only modest applications of what was gained have been made in related studies, then the epoch seems not yet to be at hand in which chemical processes can be thought of as we think of the movements which we feel as sound, light, or heat. A humiliating statement! But, strange to say, the chemist of to-day has hardly time to complain of this resignation imposed upon him, and this for reasons easily understood. If without question it is the aim of all natural science to under- stand phenomena so fully that they may be described in a mathematical form, and, as far as they are unknown, may be predicted, a science which is so far distant from this aim as to look merely for the path that shall some day lead to it, must be considered as in its infancy. In the present stage our way of thinking and acting has this peculiarity. In every science imagination must stand as another power alongside of knowledge and reasoning. But the influence of imagination upon knowl- edge is all the greater the further this latter is distant from the men- THE CHEMICAL PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY. 363 tioned ideal. And thus it happens that in the chemistry of to-day im- agination and intuition have a larger scope than in other sciences, and that occupation with the same, besides the pure scientific satisfaction that it yields, brings an enjoyment which, in a certain sense, reminds one of the activity of an artist. He however who only knows chemistry as a tradition of perfectly clear facts, or who thinks to see the real soul of chemical study in measuring the physical phenomena which accom- pany chemical transformations, feels no breath of this enjoyment. The feeling is only disclosed to him who ventures into that ocean of the unknown that is spread out before us in the organic chemistry of the day; to him who is not appalled by a wilderness, populated with thousands of indivuals, of which every one shows a peculiar, fully unknown originality, and to him who attempts to become better acquainted with some of them, even if he is ata loss for a means of approaching them. To proceed with success in this direction is only granted to the genius; the method that leads onward can not be learned, and it has only been practiced with success by a small number of chosen ones. Indeed, in the experimental study of organic chemistry, the “ pre- sentiment” of happenings, the actuality of which is not indicated by any law to be expressed in words, has shown surprising results; here the thought is aided by a something, which we may meanwhile term ‘“‘chemical feeling,” a name which will disappear as soon as the pro- gressive approach of chemistry to the mathematical physic. basis shall have disclosed its meaning and shall have tabulated it amongst the methods which lead to the recognition of the new. The effect of this peculiar chemical method of study is not here to be dwelt upon in detail. Let it suffice to say that without it, the most brilliant discov- eries in organic chemistry would not have been made: just as little as a Kekulé would without it, have been able—in contradiction of numerous data in chemical literature never before doubted—to affirm the non-existence of isomeric monochlorbenzol and of such bodies as were said to consist of a benzol ring and but one bi-valent atom. Those significant hypotheses by means of which the knowledge of aromatic substances has been revealed to us, could not have been made solely upon the ground of exact observation; they required at the same time a pronounced chemical instinct. There was no logical reason in declaring the existence of a phenylene oxide as an impossibility, since the ethylene oxide did exist; he who nevertheless ventured to do so, and at the same time ran directly in the face of experience, was surely led by a feeling which the present status of chemistry forbids us to replace by a process of thought. But to return from the field of organic to that of general chemistry. Before we can arrive at a mathematico-physical treatment of chemical phenomena in genera!, two fundamental problems must be solved; an hypothesis which allows a control by experiment (even within the same 364 THE CHEMICAL PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY. limits which to this day are imposed upon physics in regard to the law of gravitation), must answer these questions: What is Chemical Affinity? and What is Valency? By means of laborious detail work, chemistry tries to approach the solution of these enigmas; but he who pursues chemical methods, who stands in the midst of chemical work—which aims only, as at a far distant task, at the discovery of a sure path—still sees such obstacles to be cleared away that he gives up the hope of living to see the new chemicalera. He finds satisfaction in the consciousness of having ex- erted his best abilities in the elucidation of some minor and precursory principles. If now we begin to consider—within the appointed limits—the most important achievements of chemistry, we can not, at this place and at this hour of our meeting, be in doubt as to what is to be mentioned in the first place. The hospitable city which shelters us boasts of an ad- vantage which is envied her by every other alma mater; here, chemis- try for more than a human lifetime has been represented by Robert Bunsen, of glorious name, and the very days which find us here as- sembled, follow immediately the moment in which this hero of science has retired from his academical occupation. Who does not think, at such an hour, of the great teacher around whom ardent pupils from all parts of the globe were accustomed to congregate? But who, being called upon to-day to speak of the results of chemistry within the walls of Heidelberg, would not before all direct an eye upon that one discovery which has lifted chemistry beyond terrestrial research, which has enabled her, like astronomy, to search the universe and to dissect the starry heavens, chemically, by the subtle appliances of analysis? If “old Heidelberg” has become a pearl amongst German cities by its history, by its numerous traditions, by the incomparable beauty of its situation,—if its university is the ideal of the German academical youth, we may well regard as an immortal leaf in its wreath of honor, along with these glorious titles, the union of those two great men who first met in this city in the most courageous enterprise of the penetrating mind; who have pursued with astonishing success the investigation which has made spectral analysis the most potent of scientific weapons, and has rendered their names a charm ealling forth the admiration of the older minds and kindling in the minds of mere school boys the flame of enthusiasm in the study and exploration of nature. The immeas- urable results of that discovery—the consequences of which extend every day over new territories—are known in the widest cireles, and to mention them to-day in detail would be but carrying owls to Athens. It behooves us in this place to mention reverently the names of Bunsen and Kirchhoff, to think of them with gratitude, and to hope that men, their equals, may uot be entirely wanting in the next generation! The vounger one of them—whose scientifie fertility was only equalled by his greatness of soul and the charming modesty of his heart—has THE CHEMICAL PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY. 365 been taken away from us before old age had uaturally limited him. Bunsen we still rejoice to call ours, who now, allowing the tools of his work to drop from his hand, looks forth to the evening of his life in quiet, happy leisure. May be be permitted for a long time to look back upon a life filled with greatest scientific achievements; may his calm, friendly eye rest for many years upon the incomparable picture of his beloved Heidelberg. We have mentioned spectral analysis, though it has been almost for an age the common property of science. Let us also cast a grateful retrospect upon a deeply furrowing revolution—of which chemistry also, for several decades, has boasted as a substantial possession—upon the development of the doctrine of structure, that solid theoretical foun- dation from which the proud edifice of modern organic chemistry rises. A generation has grown up around us which has received as a matter of fact this doctrine which still seems new to us older ones. But those far-seeing men, whose eyes recognized the immensely simple in the seem- ingly impenetrable compleation of the carbon compounds, are still ae- tively alive amongst us, and it is their happy lot to reap in their own activity what once they sowed in juvenile work. Here the eye is di- rected upon the master of chemical research—August Wilhelm von Hofmann; before all upon his researches upon the organic nitrogenous bases,—researches which do not find their equal in organic chemistry and which, even more perfectly than Dumas’ fundamental discovery of trichoracetic acid, allowed the fundamental conception of substitution toexpand into the living consciousness of chemists, at first, curiously, by supporting the theory of types in organic compounds and then by promoting the transition to the structural or constitutional view, which at present embraces, with unparalleled perfection, the whole territory of organic compounds. But the suggestion of this doctrine, which finds its crowning suecess in the recognition of the inner aggregation of the atoms, is associated for all time with the name of a man who, although a master of rare art in experimenting, knew how to surpass what he had achieved at the laboratory table, by the convincing power of his speculative work. We can not here dispute the part which other eminent chemists have taken in the development of the doctrine of structure—there are, Butlerow, Cooper, Erlenmeyer, Frankland, Kolbe, Odling, Williamson—but the glorious guide in this great and victorious movement forward, he, to whose eyes was disclosed not only the tetra-valence of carbon, but also the solution of the problem of the constitution of organic compounds, in the recognition of the property of carbon atoms to be linked to each other by their valencies; he is the philosopher of organic chemistry— August Kekulé. The name of this discoverer, who also started upon his high and soaring flight from Heidelberg, is justly mentioned alone when we want to recall in a word the putting forth and the development of the leading chemical theories. 366 THE CHEMICAL PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY. The researches in this direction are so numerous and so toilsome, and yet the result is so surprisingly simple! The carbon atom is endowed with four, the oxygen atom with two, the hydrogen atom with one point of attack for the chemical affinity. The cause of the aggregation of the atoms within the molecule lies in the mutual saturation of these units of affinity or valencies. It is the number of valencies which decides the possibility of the existence of a compound. Amongst the legion of imaginable combinations of these three elements only those are capable of existence in which every valency is saturated by that of another atom. Through this knowledge a new method of inquiry was opened, in particular for organic chemistry, the immense territory of which for many years seemed totally to absorb the working power of chemists. But then dawned the first signs of a further development. Hardly a decade had elapsed since the general admission of the doctrine of va- lency when a fundamental deepening of the same was announced, which our science owes to two savants, working independently of each other— to Le Bel and van’t Hoff. These chemists, consid: ring those substances which turn the plane of polarization cf light, arrived at views which soon led to a result until then thought to be out of reach, a conception of the aggregation of the atoms within the molecules in space. Thus a field of study was created which van’t Hoff called “la chimie dans Vespace” and which we now ¢all Stereo-chemistry. It was recognized that the carbon atom stretched out its four valen- cies in definite directions, and this in a symmetrical manner. The combination of a carbon atom with four other atoms, for example, methane, CH,, is representable by the picture of a tetrahedron in the stereometric center of which the carbon atom is situated, while the hydrogen atoms occupy its four corners. Numerous cases of isomerism, until then not understood, could be explained in this manner and were regarded as stereo-chemical ones. The cause of optical activity was found to consist in the presence of an a-Ssymmetric carbon atom, that is, one which is combined with four dif- ferent groups. Also the stereometric forms of a few simple molecules were consid- ered; it was recognized, e. g., that a compound of three carbon atoms linked together by one bond respectively could not contain those atoms in @ straight line, but that they must lie in the angles of a triangle the sides of which form an angle equal to that in which the directions of valency of the carbon atom intersect each other. By the applications of these considerations to more complicated molecules, which contain a chain of atoms closed within itself, Adolph von Baeyer has enlarged our theory in a manner full of consequence. Kekulé in times past had recognized that carbon shows a particular disposition to form closed chains of six atoms. The discoveries of Bae- yer and his followers, as well as Fittig’s work on lactones, taught that such closed chains or rings formed of fewer atoms also exist. But THE CHEMICAL PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY. 367 while rings of six or five atoms easily form, it is more difficult to com- bine fewer atoms, four or three, to a closed chain. The cause of this fact Baeyer recognized as lying in the stereometric conditions. The angles which the sides of a regular hexagon and pentagon form with each other very nearly coincide with those in which the directions of the valencies of the carbon atom intersect each other, and thus in linking five or six atoms together the circle, so to speak, closes itself, while if more or less atoms are present this can only be arrived at by strong deviation of the directions of affinity. But still more surprising discoveries were hidden in van’t Hoft’s the- ory. The gifted Dutch thinker had penetrated to the idea that two atoms which are linked together by asingle valency rotate freely around an axis the direction of which coincides with that of the linking valency, but that this rotation is stopped as soon as double linking takes place. This latter is an immediate ¢ nsequence of the tetrahedric conception. IfI stretch out my two fore-fingers and let their points touch each other, then the hands can rotate around them as an axis; butif I stretch both thumbs and both fore-fingers and allow their corresponding points to touch each other, then a system results in which rotation is impossible. These two propositions of van’t Hoff, having remained almost un- noticed for a decade, have lately come into great prominence. Inaseries of important researches Johannes Wislicenus has proved that apply- ing these propositions and at the same time considering the specific affinities of the groups or elements present, the stereometric aggrega- tion of the atoms in certain molecules can be determined with prob- ability. In an ingenious manner he has utilized the addition phenomena shown by carbon atoms trebly linked together for an interpretation of a stereometric aggregation of the atoms in the compounds formed. Wislicenus, applying van’t Hoft’s ideas with courage and strictness, has advanced organic chemistry in an important manner and has opened a ‘field for experimental research, which heretofore had been avoided with a precaution suggestive of timidity. New discoveries came from other sides. An intimate research into the oxims of benzil lead to the surprising result that the validity of the second proposition of van’t Hoff is not without exception. Cases were noticed in which the free rotation of carbon atoms united by a simple bond, which van’t Hoff disclosed, did not obtain. Further inquiry into this subject led to a renewal of the question, ‘* What does chemical valency really mean?” A question to which the mind incessantly de- mands an answer. It had long since been suggested that vaiency had some relation to the electric behavior of the atoms. The chemistry of the day expresses Faraday’s fundamental electrolytic law thus: An electric current which flows through several fused electrolytes severs in each of them the same number of valencies, not of atoms. It was found by von Helmholtz that those quantities of electricity which, during the electrolytic process, move with the ions are dis- 368 THE CHEMICAL PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY. tributed among the valencies. Riecke, in virtue of his pyro-electric re- searches, was led to the view that the atoms are surrounded by certain systems of positive and negative electric poles. Uniting these results with those of purely chemical experimentation, we arrive at the idea that the valencies do not appear as points of attack proper, but as having linear dimensions. The carbon atom represents itself as a sphere, surrounded by an envelope of ether which contains the valencies. The latter seem to be determined by the presence of two opposite electric poles which rest at the ends of a very short straight line. Such a system is calleda di-pole. The attachment of two valencies to each other consists in the attraction of their opposed poles. It is evident that ina radial position of the di-poles they form an axis around which the atoms are able to rotate, but that this rotation is upset in case of a tangential position. In what has been said so far and through further considerations in regard to the electrical charge of the atoms and of the di-poles a reason is found for the repulsion of the four valencies and consequently for the tetrahedric grouping of the same. The fact that the valencies can deviate from this position now becomes intelligible; we perceive why the valencies of one atom can not unite with one another, while those of different atoms can combine; it is clear that there can exist two kinds of simple linking, one of which admits of rotation, while the other does not; finally, that in cases of manifold linking the free rotation must be annulled. Hence this hypoth- esis opens to us an understanding of the most important properties of chemical valency. So much may be said of the problems relating to the theory of valency. But the doctrine of substitution has likewise experienced a peculiar enlargement. Dumas first showed that the properties of organic com- pounds are generally little changed when the hydrogen of the same is replaced by univalent elements or groups. Now it has been learned from later experiments that even much more radical changes in tie composition do not materially influence the properties of the substance, If for example we replace in the hydro-carbon benzol—two carbon and two hydrogen atoms by one atom of sulphur, the resulting product, thiophen, resembles benzol chemically and physically so closely as to be mistaken for it. We learn from this that the sulphur atom is able to take upon itself the functions of four atoms of entirely different nature. Similar facts have been found in regard to oxygen and to the imido group, which is equivalent to it. Turning away from these researches to cast a glance upon general chemical studies which lie some years behind us, we must above all consider one of the most far-reaching discoveries of our epoch, the rev- elation of the natural system of the chemical elements. We owe this to the far-seeing Demetrius Mendelejeff. By the side of the titanic figure of the Russian scholar we see the Englishman, Newlands, and our own countryman, Lothar Meyer, successfully co-operating in the foundation THE CHEMICAL PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY. 369 and the structure of this work. What these men created has since become generally known ; they showed that the properties of the elements are functions of their atomic weights. Mendelejeff taught us to predict the existence and the properties of chemical elements as yet unknown with a certainty that reminds us of Le Verrier’s prediction of the dis- covery of the planet Neptune. We can say with confidence that even to-day numerous elements, the qualities of which, as well as the place which they will occupy in the system, can be minutely foretold, wait merely to be discovered. The natural system has imposed upon us a problem of the greatest significance in the new determination of the atomic weights, the numer- ical values of which are pow of increased interest. But numerous other problems are presented by the new system of the elements. Above all we are at a loss to discern the cause of the inner nexus of the elements as the system offers it. Also by diligent work the less studied elements must be properly brought within the system. Fortunate circumstances may allow us to discover the numerous elements indicated by the peri- odic law. Here let us note a peculiar coincidence. We know to-day about seventy elements, but Mendelejeff’s table indicates so far—two small periods of seven elements each, and five large ones of seventeen elements, respectively. To these must be added hydrogen, forming a ‘‘ croup ” in itself. By addition of these figures, (2 x 7) + (5 x 17) + 1, we obtain exactly the number 100. Itis true that no one can say whether the missing elements will really be discovered, or if further new periods might not be indicated by which this number 100 would be exceeded. But, as far as positive data are at hand, they indicate exactly the number mentioned and nothing points beyond it,—an odd coincidence which seems to ally the number of the existing elements with the number of our fingers. The discovery of the system of the elements leads us back to the question whether the chemical elements are separate worlds in them- selves or whether they represent different forms or conditions under which one ultimate substance exists, a question that has occupied the philosophical mind since very early times. The same question was raised anew by the discovery of spectral analysis. Whosvever regards the numerous lines of the spectrum of a metal will hardly be convinced that the metal from which they emanate should be an eternally un- decomposable element. Ina similar manner the compound nature of the elements is indicated by comparison of the regularities in numbers of the atomic weights with the homologous series of organic chemistry. In the pursuit of this question, which, since Prout’s hypothesis and the surprises offered by Stas’s determinations of atomic weights, has not been allowed to rest, positive results are not to be found. The decom- position of substances called elements into simpler ones has not been accomplished. H. Mis. 129——24 370 THE CHEMICAL PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY. Nevertheless something has been achieved, since an increased interest has been drawn towards pyro-chemical research. To-day new methods of experiment permit of a comparatively easy determination of the vapor density and consequently of the molecular state of the substances at the highest temperatures. Numerous inorganic Compounds, above all the very elements, have been studied in regard to their vapor density at a white heat. While many of them, as oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, and mercury, re- main unchanged under such conditions, the molecules of chlorine, bro- mine, and iodine, respectively, were split into two atoms, in conformity with Avogadro’s surmise of the compound nature of elementary mole- cules. In the same manner, the vapor density, and hence the molecular condition of the less volatile substances, zinc, thallium, antimony, and bismuth, was sucessfully determined at a white heat. Careful research resulted in the exposure of the old fallacy of the existence of a sulphur molecule containing six atoms. But how many of the problems which crowd around us at this “itn are for the time being entirely beyond the reach of the experimenter ! To-day pyro-chemical work is limited to a temperature of 1700° C., because vessels of porcelain and platinum, to the use of which we are limited, fuse above that temperature. The possibility of performing quantitative experiments at these temperatures seemed to us some years ago to be an unexpected progress, but to-day we complain that the trivial cause of a want of proper vessels forbids us to increase the tem- perature up to 2000° or 3000° C. There is no doubt that we should arrive at new unthought-of facts, that the splitting of still other ele- mentary molecules would be possible, that a new chemistry would be revealed to us, if—being provided with vessels of infusible material, we could work at temperatures at which water vapor could not exist and at which detonating gas would be a non-inflammable mixture! Let us now enter other fields of physical chemistry. Golden fruit, daily increasing, has been harvested upon this field during these latter days. Again we see van’t Hoff take the lead. His keen eye has en- abled us to penetrate the nature of solution, which forms the beginning of anew epoch in molecular physics. The quintessence of his discover- ies may be thus expressed: ‘Solutions of different substances in the same liquid, which contain in the same volume an equal number of molecules of the dissolved sub- stance, show the same osmotic pressure, the same vapor pressure, and the same freezing point.” This surprising generalization offers the possibility of determining the true molecular weight of substances by experimenting upon them in solution, while heretofore this has only been possible by transforming them into the gaseous state, hence only for volatile substances, since THE CHEMICAL PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY. oul dilute solutions behave in regard to the molecular state of the dissolved substance like gases. In this manner new methods are given for the determination of molec- ular weights, which we are now able to determine by means of meas- urements relating to the freezing point, the vapor pressure, or the osmotic pressure of a solution of the substance to be tested. These results are of the highest possible practical im portance for chem- istry, since they widen in an unexpected manner the possibility of the determination of molecular weights, and in a still higher degree we are surprised by the elucidation which they offer in regard to the nature of solution. Clausius had already admitted, within narrower limits, that in solutions of electrolytes some of the dissolved molecules were decom- posed into their ions, but now this has been proved in a larger measure, particularly by Arrhenius. What achange our conceptions will have to undergo if we have to accustom ourselves to regard a dilute solution of sodium chloride as one containing, not undecomposed molecules of this salt, but separated atoms of sodium and chlorine! We owe these revolutionizing innovations to the investigations of van’t Hoff, Arrhenius, Ostwald, Planck and de Vrie, but in regard to experimental research especially to the splendid work of Raoult, which during recent years has etfected this mighty theoretical progress. Thus we see physical chemistry moving on in weighty development. Special laboratories are opened for her, and a special journal also has been started which is open alike to the records of experiment and to theoretical discussion. Through the foundation of this organ physical chemistry has been furthered in a most active manner. All the questions of the time and all those in dispute belonging to this depart- ment of science receive in this paper a thorough discussion. Dynamical- chemical questions are successfully studied, a significant impetus is given to the study of structure and affinity (widened as our knowledge of the nature of solutions has made necessary), by means of the study of the relations between chemical nature and electric conduction. The inquiry into the intimate relations that exist between physical and chemical properties, which was inaugurated half a century ago by Hermann Kopp, is now being deepened and widened. It is true that the great hopes which sprang from the study of thermo- chemical questions have so far been only partly fulfilled, but consecutive measurements offer more clearness also in this case. There is no field of our science in which we may expect greater revo- lutions in the time near at hand than in that of physical chemistry ! The value of these for general chemistry will be greater in proportion as the representatives of the same will recognize their task in this: Above all to remain upon the chemical standpoint and to improve chem- istry by the application of physical modes of thought and experiment. Those who tried to further the progress of chemistry by the use of physical methods, but with insufficient consideration for chemical rela- 372 THE CHEMICAL PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY. tions, have been led into serious errors. The respect due to work of the highest merit, continued for years, has thus been lessened. Ap- parently this has even been overdone, and it is much to be deplored if the interest of chemists for physical chemistry should be diminished because some of its representatives are inclined to over-rate the value of their results. He who swims in the midst of high waves is unable at times to see over the crests. Innumerable, also, are the problems which meet us in the domain of organic chemistry. After the astonishing harvest of synthetical results which has been reaped here, hardly any problem of synthesis seems unapproachable. Since the artificial preparation of alizarin by Graebe and Liebermann, of indigo by von Baeyer, of conine by Ladenburg, of uric acid by Hor- baczewski and particularly by Behrend, since Emil Fischer and Kili- ani have elucidated the chemistry of the sugar group and Wallach that of the terpenes, we may well look hopefully for a clearer knowledge of the bodies comprised under the name albumin, and to its synthesis. But even such success tends only to render us more modest, since it shows us at the same time how narrow are the limits within which chemical synthesis moves. Assuming even that the preparation of albumin had been achieved, how infinitely far we should still be from a conception of the nature of organized bodies! Perhaps science is separated by an impassable chasm from the artificial preparation of a simple cell. Such an achievement lies at least beyond the sphere of chemistry. But shall we really never succeed in sounding the process of assim- ilation, which, in spite of its simplicity, presents itself to us so enig- matically ? Will it be found impossible to prepare artificially in our laboratories, from carbon dioxide and water, sugar and starch, a proe- ess which nature performs unceasingly in the green parts of plants? The chemist however should not step prematurely upon the field of biology while so many great problems remain untouched in his own peculiar sphere of investigation. The method of research in organic chemistry, in spite of the brilliant successes already recorded, forces us even to-day to confess that only a very minute proportion of known substances is within its reach. In order to isolate an organic substance we are generally confined to the purely accidental properties of crystallization or volatilization. Have not those thousands of amorphous substances which cannot be char- acterized by any chemical property and which the chemist is forced to lay aside because he is unable either to purify them or to transform them into volatile or crystallizable bodies,—have they not the same claim upon our interest as their more beautiful and more manageable comrades ? The most significant progress of organic chemistry does not consist in single discoveries, nor in further expansion of synthetical success. THE CHEMICAL PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY. So What we want is: new methods for recognizing the individuality of substances. The black substances of earthy nature, the innumerable formless and resinous products in the bodies of plants and animals, the coloring matter which gives beauty to flowers, all of these to-day mock our efforts to know them; they will form a new and inexhaustible field for the prosecution of chemical research, when methods shall have been found with which to begin this research. And as in organic chemistry, so in mineral chemistry every step leads to questions which we have as yet no means of answering. The syn- thesis of minerals and of rocks has made important progress, it is true, and this as well as the application of the doctrine of structure to the study of mineral species gradually leads to the understanding of their constitution; but we are as yet unable to use, in the study of min- erals, the method of analytical decomposition which has been so success- fully used to study the constitution of organic substances, and above all we lack the least knowledge in regard to the true molecular weight of minerals. Quite recently we have been presented with no less than three new and fruitful methods for the @etermination of the molecular weight, but not one of them gives us an indication of the true moiecular weight of the most simple oxides, such as silicic anhydride or calcium oxide. We know to-day very well that silicic anhydride can not have the formula SiO., that this must be multiplied by a very large factor; but of the numerical value of this latter we have no indication. And thus also in mineral chemistry we must aim not exclusively at finding new facts, but new methods of research in the first place, if a period of new discoveries is to be attained in this branch of our science. But how can we conclude this brief review without mentioning also the applications of chemistry to the industrial arts, the progress of which has mainly contributed to spread the splendor of our science most widely? The infinite variety of the tar colors, surpassing the colors of flowers in number and brightness, is daily increased by new discoveries. The technology of these dyes and pigments forms the most brilliant triumph of purely scientific laboratory work applied to manufactures. This industry in the simplest manner and on the largest scale performs the synthesis of compounds the complex nature of which is indicated by the names they bear. The unscientific man is frightened when a beautiful and brilliant dye is referred to as Hevamethylmethoxytriamido- triphenylearbinol; for the initiated there lies in this unpleasant name a full account of the synthesis and the constitution of the dye. Industry has learned to derive not only colors, but healing medicines also from coal tar. Antipyrin, discovered by Knorr, upon the basis of Emil Fischer’s fundamental research upon the hydrazines, brings to thousands suffering from fever, relief at least—if notcure. Let us hope that the time is not far distant when real fever curatives, which like the natural alkaloids of the cinchona bark, not only temporarily sup- 374 THE CHEMICAL PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY. press the disease, but really cure it, may be prepared by synthesis. Until then be patient and do not chide chemistry if, for the time being, she offers only silver instead of gold. Events in this field of the great chemical industries are significant. We are the witnesses of a great combat taking place between the older process of Le Blane for the preparation of soda and the new one of Solvay called the ammonia-soda process. The intelligence and in- ventive genius of manufacturers have added under the pressure of this competition a large number of improvements to the manufacture of sulphurie acid and of soda, and new and valuable methods for the preparation of chlorine. Here, more than in any other branch of chemical industry, the struggle for existence is fierce. The manufacture of iron, that most important chemical industry, is transformed by innovations. The imposing changes wrought by the older process of Bessemer, by the new one of Thomas, are they not based purely upon chemical reactions? The grandest application of a a complicated chemical reaction to a great manufacture is, perhaps, the dephosphorizing of pig-iron by lining the Bessemer converter with basic material, an invention which we owe to Thomas and Gilchrist. From this again, agriculture derives an advantage in the use of the Thomas slag containing the phosphorus which heretofore rendered iron ore less valuable. This then is truly a transformation of stone into bread, similar to the older manufacture of soluble fertilizers from mineral phospbates. Nevertheless, the era of bliss which was prophe- sied three years ago at the Berlin meeting of naturalists by our illus- trious colleague, Ferdinand Cohn, has not yet dawned. He held that all struggles for existence amongst men, arising from want of food, (the bread question,) will be done away with, when chemistry shall have learned to prepare starch from carbon dioxide and water. But since time immemorial the farmer is occupied in this very chemical industry, and it would hardly be great progress if the farm were merely replaced by a chemical factory. But we may reasonably hope that chemistry will teach us to make the fiber of wood a source of human food. Indeed, if we consider how small is the quantity of starch which the grain farnishes us, and further that the wood fiber has exactly the same chemical composition as starch, we see the possibility of increasing the productien of food indefinitely by solving this problem: To transform cellulose into starch. Jf this problem were solved we should find an inexhaustible source of human food in the wood of our forests, in grass, and even in straw and chaff. The beautiful researches of Hellriegel have recently dis- closed the fact, which in former times was disputed, that certain piants transform atmospheric nitrogen into albumin and that this process can be improved by suitable treatment. The increase of albumin in plants, according to a plan, together with the production of starch out of cellulose—this would in reality signify the abolition of the bread question. THE CHEMICAL PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY. 315 May it some day be granted to chemistry through such a discovery to inaugurate a golden age for humanity. I have tried to give a review of the most important problems which are set before chemical science. I have mentioned a goodly number, but the short time of one hour permits me to touch but slightly upon the greater ones. There are so many problems before us, which await an immediate solution as to justify what I said in the beginning; that to-day the chemist has no time to complain because the epoch of a mathematical treatment of his science has not vet arrived. Nevertheless, the brilliant suecesses which have been gained, the wonderful results which are immediately within our reach, have not the power to turn our eyes from this final problem. The Newton prophesied to Chemistry by Emil du Bois Reymond, may he appear at a later period; until he comes, may many a genera- tion honorably plow on in the sweat of its brow! We must remember that nature is not understood by us until we are able to reduce its phe- nomena to simple movements, mathematically traceable. The time will come, even for chemistry, when this highest kind of treatment will prevail. The epoch in which the foremost impulse of its research was a serenely creative imagination will then have passed; the joys, but also the pangs and struggles, peculiar to youth, will have been overcome. Re-united to Physics, her sister science, from whom her ways at present are separated, Chemistry will run her course with firm and unfaltering steps. THE PHOTOGRAPHIC IMAGE.* By Prof. RAPHAEL MELDOLA, F. R.S. The history of a discovery which has been developed to such a remarkable degree of perfection as photography has naturally been a fruitful source of discussion among those who interest themselves in tracing the progress of science. It is only my presence in this lecture theater, in which the first public discourse on photography was given by Thomas Wedgwood at the beginning of the century, that justifies my treading once again a path which has already been so thoroughly well beaten. If any further justification for trespassing upon the ground of the historian is needed, it will be found in the circumstance that in the autumn of last year there was held a celebration of what was generally regarded as the jubilee of the discovery. This celebra- tion was considered by many to have reference to the public disclosure of the Daguerreotype process, made through the mouth of Arago to the French Academy of Sciences on August 10, 1839. There is no doubt that the introduction of this process marked a distinct epoch in the ‘history of the art, and gave a great impetus to its subsequent develop- ment. But while giving full recognition to the value of the discovery of Daguerre, we must not allow the work of his predecessors and con- temporaries in the same field to sink into oblivion. After the lapse of half a century we are in a better position to consider fairly the influ- ence of the work of different investigators upon modern photographic processes. I have not the least desire on the present occasion to raise the ghosts of dead controversies. In fact, the history of the discovery of pho- tography is one of those subjects which can be dealt with in various ways, according to the meaning assigned to the term. There is ample scope for the display of what Mr. Herbert Spencer calls the ‘bias of patriotism.” If the word ‘ photography” be interpreted literally as writing or inscribing by light, without any reference to the subsequent permanence of the inscription, then the person who first intentionally caused a design to be imprinted by light upon a photo-sensitive com- pound must be regarded as the first photographer. According to Dr. Eder, of Vienna, we must place this experiment to the credit of Johann * Friday evening lecture delivered at the Royal Institution, on May 16, 1890. (From Nature July 10, 1890, vol. xu, pp. 246-250. ) 377 378 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC IMAGE. Heinrich Schulze, the son of a German tailor, who was born in the Duchy of Madgeburg, in Prussia, in 1687, and who died in 1744, after a life of extraordinary activity as a linguist, theologian, physician, and philoso- pher. In the year 1727, when experimenting on the subject of phos- phorescence, Schulze observed that by pouring nitrie acid, in which some silver had previously been dissolved, on to chalk, the undissolved earthy residue had acquired the property of darkening on exposure to light. This effect was shown to be due to light, and not to heat. By pasting words cut out in paper on the side of the bo!tle containing his precipitate, Schulze obtained copies of the letters on the silvered chalk. The German philosopher certainly produced what might be called a temporary photogram. Whatever value is attached to this observa- tion in the development of modern photography, it must be conceded that a considerable advance was made by spreading the sensitive com- pound over a surface instead of using it in mass. It is hardly necessary to remind you here that such an advance was made by Wedgwood and Davy in 1802.* The impressions produced by these last experimenters were unfortunately of no more permanence than those obtained by Schulze three quarters of a century before them. It will perhaps be safer for the historian of this art to restrict the term photograph to such impressions as are possessed of permanence. I do not of course mean absolute permanence, but ordinary durability in the common-sense acceptation of the term. From this point of view the first real photographs, 7. €., permanent impressions of the camera picture, were obtained on bitumen films by Joseph Nicéphore Niepce, of Chaélons-sur-Sione, who, after about 20 years’ work at the sub- ject, had perfected his discovery by 1826. Then came the days of silver salts again, when Daguerre, who commenced work in 1824, entered into a partnership with Niepce in 1829, which was brought to a termination by the death of the latter in 1833. The partnership was renewed be- tween Daguerre and Niepce de St. Victor, nephew of the elder Niepce. The method of fixing the camera picture on a film of silver iodide on a silvered copper plate—the process justly associated with the name of Daguerre—was ripe for disclosure by 1838, and was actually made known in 1839. The impartial historian of photography who examines critically into the evidence will find that quite independently of the French pioneers experiments on the use of silver salts had been going on in this coun- try, and photographs, in the true sense, had been produced almost simultaneonsly with the announcement of the Daguerreotype process by two Englishmen whose names are as household words in the ranks of science. I refer to William Henry Fox Talbot and Sir John Herschel. Fox Talbot commenced experimenting with silver salts on paper in * «An Account of a Method of Copying Paintings upon Glass, and of making Pro- files by the Agency of Light upon Nitrate of Silver. Invented by T. Wedgwood, Esq. With Observations by H. Davy.” Journ. Royal Institution, 1802, p. 170. THE PHOTOGRAPHIC IMAGE. 379 1854, and the following year he sueceeded in imprinting the camera picture on paper coated with the chloride. In January, 1839, some of his ** photogenic drawings”—the first ‘silver prints” ever obtained— were exhibited in this Institution by Michael Faraday. In the same month he communicated his first paper on a photographie process to the Royal Society, and in the following month he read a second paper before the same society, giving the method of preparing the sensitive paper and of fixing the prints. The outcome of this work was the “*Calotype” or Talbotype process, which was sufficiently perfected for portraiture by 1840, and which was fully described in a paper commu- nicated to the Royal Society in 1841. The following year Fox Talbot received the Rumford medal for his *‘ discoveries and improvements in photography.”* Herschel’s process consisted in coating a glass plate with silver chlo- ride by subsidence.’ The details of the method, from Herschel’s own notes, have been published by his son, Prof. Alexander Herschel.t By this means, the old 40-foot reflecting telescope at Slough was pho- tographed in 1859. By the kindness of Professor Herschel, and with the sanction of the Science and Art Department, Herschel’s original photographs have been sent here for your inspection. The process of coating a plate by allowing a precipitate to settle on it in a uniform film is however impracticable, and was not further developed by its illustrious discoverer. We must credit him however as being the first to use glass as a sub-stratum. Herschel further discovered the im- portant fact that while the chloride was very insensitive alone, its sen- sitiveness was greatly increased by washing it with a solution of silver nitrate. It is to Herschel also that we are indebted for the use of sodium thiosulphate as a fixing agent, as well as for many other dis- coveries in connection with photography which are common matters of history. Admitting the impracticability of the method of sudsidence for pro- ducing a sensitive film, it is interesting to trace the subsequent devel- opment of the processes inaugurated about the year 1539. The first of photographie methods—the bitumen process of Niepce—survives at the present time, and is the basis of some of the most important of modern photo-mechanical printing processes. [Specimens illustrating photo-etching from Messrs. Waterlow & Sons exhibited.| The Daguer- reotype process is now obsolete. As it left the hands of its inventor it was unsuited for portraiture on account of the long exposure re- quired. It is evident moreover that a picture on an opaque metallic plate is incapable of re-production by printing through, so that in this respect the Talbotype possessed distinct advantages. This is one of the most important points in Fox Talbot’s contributions to photog i * For these me other ane aie Thee to Fox Talcoven Ww ae ne akoacile excluded for want of time, I am indebted to his son, Mr. C. H. Talbot, of Lacock Abbey. t Photog. Journ. and Trans. Photog. Soc. June 15, 1872., 380 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC IMAGE. phy. He was the first to produce a transparent paper negative from which any number of positives could be obtained by printing through. The silver print of modern times is the lineal descendant of the Tal- botype print. After 40 years’ use of glass as a substratum we are going back to Fox Talbot’s plan, and using thin flexible films—not ex- actly of paper, but of an allied substance—celluloid. [Specimens of Talbotypes, lent by Mr. Crookes, exhibited, with celluloid negatives by the Eastman Company. | If L interpret this fragment of history correctly, the founders of mod- ern photography are the three men whose labors have been briefly sketched. The jubilee of last autumn marked a culminating point in the work of Niepee and Daguerre and of Fox Talbot. The names of these three pioneers must go down to posterity as coequal in the annals of scientific discovery. [Portraits by Mr. H. M. Elder shown.| The lecture theater of the Royal Institution offers such tempting opportu- nities to the chronicler of the history of this wonderful art that I must close this treatment of the subject by reminding myself that in select- ing the present topic I had in view a statement of the case of modern photography from its scientific side only. There is hardly any inven- tion associated with the present century which has rendered more splen- did services in every department of science. The physicist and chemist, the astronomer and geographer, the physiologist, pathologist, and an- thropologist will all bear witness to the value of photography. ‘The very first scientific application of Wedgwood’s process was made here by the illustrious Thomas Young, when he impressed Newton’s rings on paper moistened with silver nitrate, as described in his Bakerian lecture to the Royal Society on November 24,1803. Professor Dewar has just placed in my hands the identical slide, with the Newton rings still visi- ble, which he believes Young to have used in this classic experiment. [Shown. | Our modern photographie processes depend upon chemical changes wrought by light on films of certain sensitive compounds. Bitumen under this influence becomes insoluble in hydro-carbon oils, as in the heliographic process of the elder Niepee. Gelatine mixed with potas- sium dichromate becomes insoluble in water on exposure to light, a property utilized in the photo-etching process introduced in 1852 by Fox Talbot, some of whose original etchings have been placed at my disposal by Mr. Crookes. [Shown.] Chromatized gelatine now plays a most important part in the autotype and many photo-mechanical proc- esses. The salts of iron in the ferric condition undergo reduction to the ferrous state under the influence of light in contact with oxidizable or- ganic compounds. The use of these iron salts is another of Sir John Herschel’s contributions to photography (1842), the modern ‘ blue print” and the beautiful platinotype being dependent on the photo- reducibility of these compounds. [Cyanotype print developed with ferricyanide. | THE PHOTOGRAPHIC IMAGE. 381 Of all the substances known to chemistry at the present time, the salts of silver are by far the most important in photography on account of the extraordinary degree of sensitiveness to which they can be raised. The photographic image with which it is my privilege to deal ou this occasion is that invisible impression produced by the action of light on a film of a silver haloid. Many methods of producing such films have been in practical use since the foundation of the art in 1839, All these depend on the double decomposition between a soluable chlo- ride, bromide, or iodide, and silver nitrate, resulting in the formation of the silver haloid in a vehicle of some kind, such as albumen (Niepee de St. Victor, 1848), or collodion on glass, as made practicable by Scott Archer in 1851. For 20 years this collodion process was in universal use; 1ts history and details of manipulation, its development into a dry plate process by Colonel Russell in 1861, and into an emulsion process by Bolton and Sayce in 1864, are facts familiar to every one. The photographic film of the present time is a gelatino-haloid (gen- erally bromide) emulsion. If a solution of silver nitrate is added to a solution of potassium bromide and the mixture well shaken, the silver bromide coagulates and rapidly subsides to the bottom of the liquid as a dense curdy precipitate. [Shown.] If instead of water we use a viscid medium, such as gelatine solution, the bromide does not settle down, but forms an emulsion, which becomes quite homogeneous on agitation. [Shown.] ‘This operation, omitting all details of ripening, washing, etc., as well known to practical photographers, is the basis of all the recent photographic methods of obtaining negatives in the camera. The use of this invaluable vehicle, gelatine, was practically introduced by R. L. Maddox in 1871, previous experiments in the same direction having been made by Gandin (1853-61). Such a gelatino- bromide emulsion can be spread uniformly over any sub-stratum—glass, paper, gelatine, or celluloid—and when dry gives a highly sensitive film. The fundamental problem which 50 years’ experience with silver haloid films has left in the hands of chemists is that of the nature of the chemical change which occurs when a ray of light falls on such a silver salt. Long before the days of photography, far back in the sixteenth century, Fabri- cius, the alchemist, noticed that native horn silver became colored when brought from the mine and exposed. The fact presented itself to Robert Boyle in the seventeenth century, and to Beeccarius, of Turin, in the eighteenth century. The change of color undergone by the chloride was first shown to be associated with chemical decomposition in 1777 by Scheele, who proved that chlorine was given off when this salt dark- ened under water. I can show you this in a form which admits of its being seen by all. |Potassium iodide and starch paper were placed in « glass cell with silver chloride, and the arrangement exposed to the electric light till the paper had become blue.| The gas which is given 382 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC IMAGE. off under these circumstances is either the free halogen or an oxide or acid of the halogen, according to the quantity of moisture present and the intensity of the light. I have found that the bromide affects the iodide and starch paper in the same way, but silver iodide does not give off any gas which colors the test paper. All the silver haloids become colored on exposure to light, the change being most marked in the chloride, less in the bromide, and least of all in the iodide. The latter must be associated with some halogen absorbent to render the change visible. [Strips of paper coated with the pure haloids, the lower halves brushed over with silver nitrate solution, were exposed.| The differ- ent degrees of coloration in the three cases must not be considered as a measure of the relative sensitiveness; it simply means that the prod- ucts of photo-chemical change in the three haloids are inherently pos- sessed of different depths of color. From the fact that halogen in some form is given off, it follows that we are concerned with photo-chemical decomposition, and not with a physical change only. All the evidence is in favor of this view. Halo- gen absorbents, such as silver nitrate on the lower halves of the papers in the last experiment, organic matter, such as the gelatine in an emul- sion, and reducing agents generally, all accelerate the change of color. Oxidizing and halogenizing agents, such as mercuric chloride, potas- sium dichromate, etc., all retard the color change. [Silver chloride paper, painted with stripes of solutions of sodium sulphite, mercuric chloride, and potassium dichromate, was exposed.] It is impossible to account for the action of these chemical agents, except on the view of chemical decomposition. The ray of light falling upon a silver haloid must be regarded as doing chemical work; the vibratory energy is partly spent in doing the work of chemical separation, and the light passes through a film of such haloid partly robbed of its power of doing similar work upon a second film. It is difficult to demonstrate this sat- isfactorily in the lecture room on account of the opacity of the silver haloids, but the work of Sir John Herschel, J. W. Draper, and others has put it beyond doubt that there is a relationship of this kind be- tween absorption and decomposition. It is well known also that the more refrangible rays are the most active in promoting the decomposi- tion in the case of the silver haloids. This was first proved for the chloride by Scheele, and is now known to be true for the other haloids. It would be presumption on my part in the presence of Captain Abney to enlarge upon the effects of the different spectral colors on these ha- loids, as this is a subject upon which he can speak with the authority of an investigator. Itonly remains to add that the old idea of a special “actinic” force at the more refrangible end of the spectrum has long been abandoned. It is only because the silver haloids absorb these par- ticular rays that the blue end of the spectrum is most active in pro- moting their decomposition. Many other instances of photo-chemical decomposition are known in which the less refrangible rays are the most THE PHOTOGRAPHIC IMAGE. 383 active, and it is possible to modify the silver haloids themselves so as to make them sensitive for the red end of the spectrum. The chemical nature of the colored products of photo-chemical decom- position is still enshrouded in mystery. Beyond the fact that they con- tain less halogen than the normal salt, we are not much in advance of the knowledge bequeathed to us by Scheele in the last century. The problem has been attacked by chemists again and again, but its solu- tion presents extraordinary difficulties. These products are never formed—even under the most favorable conditions of division and with prolonged periods of exposure—in quantities beyond what the chemist would eall “a mere trace.” Their existence appears to be determined by the great excess of unaltered haloid with which they are combined. Were [ to give free rein to the imagination I might set up the hypothesis that the element silver is really a compound body invariably containing a minute percentage of some other element which resembles the com- pound which we now call silver in all its chemical reactions, but alone is sensitive to light. I offer this suggestioa for the consideration of the speculative chemist.* For the colored product as a whole, 7%. ¢., the product of photo-decomposition with its combined unchanged haloid, Carey Lea has proposed the convenient term ‘“ photo-salt.” It will avoid circumlocution if we adopt this name. The photo-salts have been thought at various times to contain metallic silver, allotropic silver, a sub-haloid, such as argentous chloride, ete., or an oxy-haloid. The free- metal theory is disposed of by the fact that silver chloride darkens under nitric acid of sufficient strength to dissolve the metal freely. The acid certainly retards the formation of the photo-salt, but does not pre- vent it altogether. When once formed the photo-chloride is but slowly attacked by boiling dilute nitric acid, and from the dry photo-salt mercury extracts no silver. The assumption of the existence of an allotropic form of silver insoluble in nitric acid can not be seriously maintained. The sub-haloid theory of the product may be true, but it has not yet been established with that precision which the chemist has aright todemand. We must have analyses giving not only the per- centage of halogen, but also the percentage of silver, in order that it may be ascertained whether the photo-salt contains anything besides metai and halogen. The same may be said of the oxy-haloid theory ; it may be true, but it has not been demonstrated. The oxy-haloid theory was first suggested by Robert Hunt} for the *T have gone so far as to test this idea experimentally in a preliminary way, the result being, as might have been anticipated, negative. Silver chloride, well dark- ened by long exposure, was extracted with a hot saturated solution of potassium chloride, and the dissolved portion, after precipitation by water, compared with the ordinary chloride by exposure to light. Not the slightest difference was observable either in the rate of coloratiou or in the colors of the products. Perhaps it may be thought worth while to repeat the experiment, using a method analogous to the “method of fractionation” of Crookes. t ‘* Researches on Light,” 2d ed,, 1854, p. 80. 384 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC IMAGE. chloride; it was taken up by Sahler, and has recently been revived by Dr. W. R. Hodgkinson. It has been thought that this theory is dis- posed of by the fact that the chloride darkens under liquids, such as hydro-carbons, which are free from oxygen. I have been repeating some of these experiments with various liquids, using every possible precaution to exclude oxygen and moisture; dry silver chloride heated to incipient fusion has been sealed up in tubes in dry benzene, petroleum, and carbon tetrachloride, and exposed since March. [Tubes shown.] In all cases the chloride has darkened. The salt darkens moreover in a Crookesian vacuum.* By these experiments the oxy-chloride theory may be scotched, but it is not yet killed; the question now presents itself, whether the composition of the photo-salt may not vary according to the medium in which it is generated. Analogy sanctions the sup- position that when the haloid darkens under water or other oxygen- containing liquid, or even in contact with moist or dry air, that an oxychloride may be formed and enter into the composition of the photo- salt. The analogy is supplied by the corresponding salt of copper, viz, cuprous chloride, which darkens rapidly eu exposure. [Design printed on flat cell filled with cuprous chloride by exposure to electric light. ] Wohler conjectured that the darkened product was an oxychloride, and this view receives a certain amount of indirect support from these tubes [shown], in which dry cuprous chloride has been sealed up in benzene and carbon tetrachloride since March; and although exposed in a southern window during the whole of that time the salt is as white as when first prepared. Some cuprous chloride sealed up in water and exposed for the same time is now almost black. [Shown.| When silver is precipitated by reduction in a finely divided state in the presence of the haloid, and the product treated with acids, the ex- cess of silver is removed and colored products are left which are some- what analogous to the photo-salts proper. These colored haloids are also termed by Carey Lea photo-salts because they present many anal- ogies with the colored products of photo-chemical change. Whether they are identical in composition it is not yet possible to decide, as we have no complete analyses. The first observations in this direction were published more than 30 years ago in a report by a British Association Committee,t in which the red and chocolate-colored chlorides are dis- * Some dry silver chloride which Mr. Crookes has been good enough to seal up for me in a high vacuum darkens on exposure quite as rapidly as the dry salt in air. It soon regains its original color when kept in the dark. It behaves, in fact, just as the chloride is known to behave when sealed up in chlorine, although its color is of course much more intense after exposure than is the case with the chloride in chlorine. tThese results were arrived at in three ways. In one case hydrogen was passed through silver citrate suspended in hot water, and the product extracted with citric acid. “The result of treating the residue with chloro-hrydic acid, and then dissolving the silver by dilute nitric acid, was a rose-tinted chloride of silver.” In another ex- periment the dry citrate was heated ina stream of hydrogen at 212° F., and the pro- duct, which was partly soluble in water, gave a brown residue, which furnished ‘‘a THE PHOTOGRAPHIC IMAGE. 385 tinetly described. Carey Lea has since contributed largely to our knowledge of these colored haloids, and has made it appear at least highly probable that they are related to the products formed by the action of light. [Red photo-chloride and purple photo-bromide and iodide shown. | The photographic image is impressed on a modern film in an inap- preciable fraction of a second, whereas the photo-salt requires an ap- preciable time for its production. The image is invisible simply be- cause of the extremely minute quantity of haloid decomposed. In the present state of knowledge it can not be asserted that the material com- posing this image is identical in composition with the photo-salt, for we know the composition of neither the one nor the other. But they are analogous in so far as they are both the result of photo-chemical de- composition, and there is great probability that they are closely related, if notidentical, chemically. Itmay turnout that thereare various kinds of invisible images, according to the vehicle or halogen absorbent—in other words, according to the sensitizer with which the silver haloid is associated. The invisible image is revealed by the action of the de- veloper, into the function of which I do not propose to enter. It will suffice to say that the final result of the developing solntion is to mag- nify the deposit of photo salt by accumulating metallic silver thereon by accretion or reduction. Owing to the circumstance that the image is impressed with such remarkable rapidity, and that it is invisible when formed, it has been maintained, and is still held by many, that the first action of light on the film is molecular or physical, and not chemical. The arguments in favor of the chemical theory appear to me to be tol- erably conclusive, and [ will venture to submit a few of them. The action of reagents upon the photographie film is quite similar to the action of the same reagents upon the silver haloids when ex- posed to the point of visible coloration. Reducing agents and halogen absorbents increase the sensitiveness of the film: oxidizing and halo- genizing agents destroy its sensitiveness. It is difficult to see on the physical theory why it should not be possible to impress an image on a film, say of pure silver bromide, as readily as on a film of the same haloid imbedded in gelatine. Everyone knows that this can not be done. I have myself been surprised at the extreme insensitiveness of films of pure bromide prepared by exposing films of silver deposited on glass to the action of bromine vapor. On the chemical theory we very pale red body on being transformed by chlorhydic and nitricacids.” In another experiment silver arsenite was formed, this being treated with caustic soda, and the black precipitate then treated successively with chlorhydic and nitric acids: ‘ Silver is dissolved, and there is left a substance - - - [of] arich chocolate or maroon, etc.” Thison analysis was found to contain 24 per cent. of chlorine, the normal chloride requiring 24.74 and the subchloride 14.08 per cent. The committee which conducted these experiments consisted of Messrs. Maskelyne, Hadow, Hardwick, and Llewelyn. B.A. Rep., 1859, p. 103. H. Mis. 129-——25 386 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC IMAGE. know that gelatine is a splendid sensitizer—?. e., bromine absorbent. There is another proof which has been in our hands for nearly 30 years but I do not think it has been viewed in this light before. It has been shown by Carey Lea, Eder, and especially by Abney, who has investi- gated the matter most thoroughly, that a shearing stress applied me- chanically to a sensitive film leaves an impression which can be devel- oped in just the same way as though it had been produced by the action of light. [Pressure marks on Hastman bromide paper developed by ferrous oxalate.| Now that result can not be produced ona surface of the pure haloid; some halogen absorbent, such as gelatine, must be associated with the haloid. Weare concerned here with a chemical change of that class so ably investigated by Professor Spring, of Liége, who bas shown that by mere mechanical pressure it is possible to bring about chemical reaction between mixtures of finely divided solids.* Then again, mild reducing agents, too feeble to reduce the silver hal- oids directly to the metallic state, such as alkaline hypophosphites, glu- cose or lactose and aikali, ete., form invisible images which can be de- veloped in precisely the same way as the photographic image. All this looks like chemical change, and not physical modification pure and simple. T have in this discourse stoically resisted the tempting opportunities for pictorial display which the subject affords. My aim has been to sun- marize the position in which we find ourselves with respect to the in- visible image after fifty years’ practice of the art. This image is, I venture to think, the property of the chemist, and by him must the scientific foundation of photography be laid. Wemay not be able to give the formula of the photo-salt, but if the solution of the problem has hitherto eluded our grasp itis because of the intrinsic difficulties of the investigation. The photographic image brings us face to face—not with an ordinary, but with an extraordinary class of chemical changes due entirely to the peculiar character of the silver salts. The material com posing the image is not of that definite nature with which modern chemical methods are in the habit of dealing. The stability of the photosalt is determined by some kind of combination between the sub- haloid or oxy-haloid, or whatever it may be, and the excess of unaltered haloid which enters into its composition. The formation of the colored product presents certain analogies with the formation of a saturated solution; the product of photo-chemical decomposition is formed under the influence of light up to a certain percentage of the whole photo-salt, beyond which it can not be increased,—in other words, the silver haloid is saturated by a very minute percentage of its own product of photo- decomposition. The photo-salt belongs to a domain of chemistry—a no- *The connection between the two phenomena was suggested during a course of lectures delivered by me two years ago (‘‘ Chemistry of Photography,” p. 191). I have sincelearnt that the same conclusion had been arrived at independently by Mr. C. H. Bottamley, of the Yorkshire College, Leeds. THE PHOTOGRAPHIC IMAGE. 387 man’s land—peopled by so-called “ molecular compounds,” into which the pure chemist ventures but timidly. But these compounds are more and more urging their claims for consideration, and sooner or later they will have to be reckoned with, even if they lack that definite- ness which the modern chemist regards as the essential criterion of chemical individuality. The investigation may lead to the recognition of a new order of chemical attraction, or of the old chemical attraction in a different degree. The chemist who discourses here upon this sub- ject at the end of the half century of photography into which we have now entered will no doubt know more about this aspect of chemical affinity ; and if I may invoke the spirit of prophecy in concluding, I should say that a study of the photographic film with its invisibleimage will have contributed materially to its advancement. A TROPICAL BOTANIC GARDEN.* BY M. TREUB. A short time ago botanic gardens were arraigned by the rector of one of the largest universities of Europe in a serious discourse. The orator, a celebrated phyto-physiologist, complained that these gardens no longer keep pace with the botanical science of the day. In the middle ages and until the middle of the sixteenth century botanic gar- deus were collections of officinal plants. Since that period they have become truly scientific institutions. Abandoning pure speculation, attention was given to living things themselves, particularly to plants. Patrons and scientists combined their efforts to bring from the most distant countries rare or unknown specimens. In the gardens, depos. itories of this wealth, the difficult task was attempted of presenting, ona reduced scale, the entire vegetable world, and of bringing together (as far as possible), all existing vascular plants. In spite of the con- stantly increasing number of plants introduced into Europe, this gen- eral plan was for a long time followed, and not until the beginning of the present century, was it felt that the method must be changed. In the first place it should have been recognized that it was impossible to collect in a single garden, however large and well managed, anything like the enormous number of vascular plants distributed on our globe. Besides, (and thisis a more serious argument,) the conditions offered to introduce plants in gardens are so far from natural, that exotic culti- vated plants can not be considered as furnishing a proper basis of com- parison in scientific researches, as these are at present understood. Too many plants in conditions too abnormal is briefly the criticism made by the orator. These institutions, attacked from so high a place, have not failed of defenders. While recognizing that part of the criticismis well founded, it is urged that if the object in view was varied somewhat by insisting —more than has heretofore been done—upon the adoption of a common plan, the botanic gardens of Europe would easily avoid the dangers with which they are menaced. It is not necessary that we take any part in this controversy, for the objections—whether well-founded or not—do not apply to botanic gardens of the tropics, as we will endeavor to show in the following pages. i Translated from the Revue des Deux Mondes. January 1, 1890, vol. XCVH, pp- 162-183. 389 390 A TROPICAL BOTANIC GARDEN. The number of botanic gardens situated in the tropical zone is much greater than might be supposed. According to a recent enumeration there are not less than fifteen in the British possessions, In the French colonies they are found at St. Denis in Reunion Island, at La Point-a- Pitre in Guadeloupe Island, at St. Pierre in Martinique, at Pondicherry, and at Saigon. Spain has one at Havana, and one at Manila; and Hol- land has a single one at Buitenzorg in theisland of Java. There are also tropical botanie gardens in South America, and these bring the total number to a considerable figure. Still it must be admitted that some are not botanic gardens properly so-called, but rather agricultural sta- tions and gardens of acclimation. There are others however, that while not abandoning tropical agriculture, merit the names of great scientific establishments. As the chief of this kind, those of Calcutta, of Buitenzorg in Java, and of Peradeniya in Ceylon (in chronological order) should be cited. The royal garden of Calcutta was founded in 1786 by Col. Robert Hyde, who was its first director. Among his successors are found the celebrated names of Wallich and Griffith, the greatest naturalist of our century in the extreme East. The garden of Calcutta has now been for several years under the wise and able direction of Dr. G. King, to whose care the herbarium of Calcutta owes its great reputation. The royal garden of Peradeniya in the Island of Ceylon was founded in. 1821. Situated near Kandy, at an altitude of nearly 500 metres [1,600 feet], having a moist and hot climate, occupying more than 60 hectares [150 acres], and connected as it is with the post of Colombo by a railway, the garden of Peradeniya possesses conditions most favorable in every respect. For many years it was under the direction of Dr. Thwaites, aman of real merit, but who thought a botanie garden in a tropical country should be in some manner a reduced copy of the virgin forest. This system, more original than meritorious, excludes any methodical arrangement of plants and necessarily restricts the number of speci- mens. Dr. H. Trimen, the successor of Dr. Thwaites, as soon as he arrived in Ceylon, 9 years ago, realized the disadvantages of the plan of his predecessor. To distribute over an area of 60 hectares, without any order, a great number of plants, for the most part not labelled, was to fatally embarrass the scientific use of the rich collections that had been brought together. So Dr. Trimen did not hesitate to adopt a new arrangement of plants according to the natural system and to Jabel them as far as it was possible todo so. With branch establish- ments upon the plain and upon the mountain, the garden of Peradeniya has before it a brilliant future. The third of the gardens mentioned, that of Buitenzorg in the island of Java, was founded in 1817. We will briefly relate its history and show by a study of its present organ- ization that a new era is commencing for large tropical gardens, and that their influence will constantly increase in the future evolution of the science of plants. A TROPICAL BOTANIC GARDEN. 391 ip. On the 29th of October, 1815, a squadron quitting the roadstead of Texel in the north of Holland set sail for the Hast Indies. The passen- gers (for they carried them upon these ships of war), must have rejoiced that they had left the storms and fogs of the North Sea for the sunny coasts of Malaysia. The squadron took to Java the commissioners: general to whom the sovereign of Holland had committed the task of assuming in his name the government of the Dutch East Indies. Being a man of broad views, the new king had attached to the com- mission a distinguished naturalist, Reinwardt, professor in the Athe- neum of Amsterdam, in order that the study of the marvellous natural products which constitute the wealth of the Dutch possessions in the south of Asia might be settled upon a solid basis. The squadron did not enter the straits of Sunda until the last of April in the following year. The high functionaries, sailing after a long voyage between charming’ islets, set like emeralds in thin silver fillets of breakers, breathing the faint odors from the neighboring coasts, must at last land and take up their task. The future indeed reserved for them many disappointments, and it was only after long and tedious diplomatic manceuvers that the English authorities, on the 19th of August, 1816, decided to turn over to the plenipotentiaries of the king of Holland the rule of the Dutch Indies. Baron Van der Capellen the commissioner who was to perform the functions of governor-general shortly installed himself at Buitenzorg, taking Reinwardt with him. Buitenzorg, the residence of the viceroy of the Dutch Indies, is situated 58 kilometres [36 miles] from Batavia, in 106° 53’ 5’ east longitude and 6° 35’ 8” south latitude, upon one of the long ridges that extend to the north of the great mountain of Salak. An enchant- ing site, possessing a beautiful and healthful climate, it is not surpris- ing that the governors-general established themselves there instead of at Batavia, however large and beautiful that “city of villas” might be. This preference, accorded to Buitenzorg by the representatives of the king, was the cause of the creation of a botanical establishment at that point. In fact, upon the request of Reinwardt, the commissioners- general decided —by a decree of April 15, 1817—to found a botanic garden at Buitenzorg upon an uncultivated territory belonging to the domain and ceded by Baron Van der Capellen. On this territory, contiguous to the park and to the palace garden, work was commenced on the 15th of May by some fifty native workmen, under the direction of two chief gardeners, one of whom, brought out by Reinwardt, had been employed in the same capacity in Holland, while the other was a pupil of the royal garden of Kew. It would have been difficult to find in the whole island of Java a place more appropriate for a garden of this kind, for owing to certain conditions, Buitenzorg unites to other advantages that of having no dry season, properly speaking. It is evident that 392 A TROPICAL BOTANIC GARDEN. only a small number of plants could endure a period of almost con- tinuous drought for 4 or 5 months, such as is habitual to the east of Java. Even the climate of Batavia, where 2 or 3 months without heavy rains are not rare, would be Jess suitable for a botanic garden than Buitenzorg, where they complain if in the middle of the dry sea- son, rain is absent for 3 consecutive weeks. These frequent and heavy rains are doubly advantageous for the garden; Buitenzorg owes to them its ever luxuriant vegetation (never ceasing, aS one may Say), and they cause a lowering of the mean temperature which makes it possible to cultivate many plants from the virgin forests of the moun- tains, although the altitude of Buitenzorg is only 280 metres [00 feet]. In order to give an idea of the mass of water which is ordinarily shed upon the “Sans Souci” of Java,* it will be sufficient to say that at Buitenzorg there falls a mean quantity of 4,600 millimetres | 180 inches] of rain per year, while in Holland, one of the most rainy countries of Kurope, there falls per year but 660 millimetres [26 inches]. No set- tled plan was at first adopted, and the archives contain no indication of any kind relative to the earliest management of the garden. We merely know that its founder, Reinwardt, took advantage of many voyages made by him to send plants to Buitenzorg. Yet the first eata- logue of the “ Botanic Garden of the State,” the name officially adopted, published some months after the departure of Reinwardt, enumerates only 912 species of plants. Reinwardt returned to Europe in June, 1822, to occupy a chair in the University of Leyden. Upon his recom- mendation the Government placed at the head of the garden a botanist of exceptional merit, Dr. C. L. Blume, who thus became the first director of the ‘Hortus Bogoriensis,”t and whose scientific renown was cradled in the garden at Buitenzorg. Blume displayed a remarkable activity as director. He commenced in 1825 the publication of a work upon the flora of Dutch India; with a feverish activity he brought out dur- ing 1825 and the early part of 1826, seventeen parts, describing more than 1,200 new species, a great number of genera, and several families of plants entirely unknown up to that time. The garden profited directly from the work of Blume, because the collection of living plants was enriched by a numerous series of species discovered by him. On the other hand, Blume succeeded in attaching to the garden, besides a considerable force and the two chief gardeners, a third European gar- dener, and a draftsman. In short, the young institution came out brilliantly in every respect, and it seemed to promise a remarkable future. A cruel reverse however soon proved the uncertainty of these favorable prognostications. Blume, after having nearly broken down, had to return to Europe in 1826, to re-establish his health. Almost at the same time Baron Van der Capellen was re-placed by the Viscount *( The literal translation of the word Buitenzorg is without (beyond) care. } | Hortus Bogoriensis, the scientific name of the garden, is derived from Bogor, the native name of Buitenzorg. A TROPICAL BOTANIC GARDEN. 393 du Bus de Gisignies. The former had neglected nothing to stimulate the colony, but in doing this, grand seigneur that he was, he had no thought of cost. So Du Bus was sent out as commissioner-general, with an order to diminish the expenses, and to re-establish the balance of the colonial budget. He executed the orders received, and the ex- penses were immediately reduced, but how many useful institutions were nearly or quite suppressed! The botanic garden of Buitenzorg was the first victim of the new measures. It was nearly wiped out. In August, 1526, the posts of director and draftsman were abolished and but one European gardener was left. By a decree of the following year the special appropriation for the garden was discontinned, and it was decided that thereafter the “ Botanic Garden of the State” should be kept up by a part of the sum allowed to the governors-general for the maintenance of their Park of Buitenzorg. Happily there are providential interventions, thanks to which, strug- gling institutions resist the most murderous attacks. Such an inter- vention occurs when there arises a firm and persevering man who is able to demonstrate for yet another time, that will triumphs over the most vigorous decrees due to the necessities of the moment, and destined to disappear with the circumstances which brought them forth. Sueh a man arose and the intervention was effected. General Count van den Bosch, successor to the Viscount Bus de Gisignies, who landed at Ba- tavia in January, 1830, brought with him from Holland an assistant gardener, a young man who had occupied an inferior position in a coun- try house near The Hague. Toward the end of the year the only chief gardener remaining at the garden fell sick, set out for Europe, and died on the voyage. The assistant gardener of the governor general was selected to replace him. His name was J. EK. Teysmann. Half a cen- tury later this simple gardener, who was given no other instruction than that of the primary schools, received a testimonial as brilliant as it was rare of the esteem he had won in the scientific world. Besides diplomas of honor, medals struck with his effigy, felicitations from all parts of the world, there was given him an album, in which more than a hundred botanists, together with Darwin and De Candolle, offered him their greetings, and this album had inseribed upon it, on a plate of gold, the following: *¢ Celeberrimo indefessoque, J.-H. Teysmann cum dimidium per seculum Archipelagi indici thesaurum botanicum exploravit, mirantes college.” To have attained this eminence a man must have possessed extraor- dinary qualities, and Teysmann certainly had them. A man of strong character in every respect, he to the end of his life united with great energy and an active intelligence the ardent desire to seize any occa- sion for self-instruction, for extending his knowledge of his specialty, and particularly for enlarging his views. From 1830 to 1837, nothing is heare of either the Garden of Buiten- zorg or of the chief gardener. The botanic garden existed during that 394 A TROPICAL BOTANIC GARDEN. period only in name, and the chief officer considered that the first ten years he passed in Java was only a term of apprenticeship. Still it was during that period, in 1837, that the colonial government decided on a measure which was finally to bring about most fortunate conse- quences. The executive member of a so-called natural history commission, to whom was assigned the scientific direction of Buitenzorg, was then Diard, of French nationality, and it was he who warmly urged upon the governor the appointment of Mr. Hasskarl, who had recently landed at Batavia and who wished a position. Diard succeeded in obtaining a provisional appointment for Mr. Hasskarl, first as gardener, then as botanist, and in the latter capacity he was charged with the systematic arrangement of the plants of the garden. Tbis idea of Diard, carefully carried out, by Mr. Hasskarl, contributes much more to the scientific value of the garden than does the great number of species cultivated. Extensive arborescent groups, composed of the largest plants, were thus arranged in the natural order, and the botanist during the five years that he was attached to the garden was able to determine a large number of species and to compose the second catalogue of the garden, published in 1844, embracing over 3,000 plants, among which were many entirely new. Diard and Mr. Hasskarl went to Europe on leave, and Teysmann again remained alone and in very difficult circumstances, for after the departure of Diard the control of the botanic garden passed to a mili- tary man, the steward of the governor general’s palace. This extraor- dinary arrangement continued, and for about 30 years soldiers con- trolled the Hortus Bogoriensis. Under such conditions a new period of decline, if not of complete eclipse, of the garden would have been in- evitable had it not been for the presence of the energetic Teysmann. The more difficulties he encountered the more he displayed his rare qualities in the interests of the institution to which he felt himseif at- tached for life. Travelling much throughout the whole archipelago, he coutinually sent plants and seeds to the Buitenzorg. Upon his return he was constantly in the breach, fighting for the interests of his gar- den, not even recoiling from conflicts with his military chief, conflicts that it must be confessed were frequent. The result of this line of conduct was that in 1864, with the aid of Binnendijk, who came to Java in 1850, Teysmann issued the third catalogue of the garden, in which the number of species under permanent culture exceeded 8,000. Finally, in 1868, the long periods of vicissitudes came to a close. The garden again became a scientific institation of the state, with a special director and appropriation, and entirely independent of the stewards of the palace, with whom it was to have, hereafter, only neighborly relations. This return to the primitive organization was due to the influence of Teysmann, who himself maintained continuous rela- tions with the garden by numerous consignments of seeds and plants A TROPICAL BOTANIC GARDEN. 395 gathered during voyages to the remotest parts of the Dutch posses- sions. The government appointed as director Dr. Scheffer, of the Uni- versity of Utrecht, a pupil of Mignel, the author of the Flora of the Dutch East Indies. The new director began his scientific researches as soon as he was installed at Java. A few years later he obtained from the government a subsidy for the publication of a scientific collec- tion entitled Annals of the Botanic Garden at Buitenzorg. During the administration of Dr. Scheffer two changes of great importance took place. The collections belonging to the service of the Mines, contained in a large museum opposite the garden, were transferred to Batavia, and the government gave the building to the botanic garden for its herbarium, its collections, and its library. A second, not less impor- tant, was the founding, in 1876, of a garden and school of agriculture. The latter has since been abandoned. The considerable extension given to the garden ought to have implied an increase in the scientific staff. Unfortunately this was not understood, and Dr. Scheffer remained alone up to the time of his death, which took place in 1880, when he was 32 years old. The period since the death of Dr. Scheffer can not be said to belong to the domain of history, and we will therefore con- tent ourselves with casting a rapid glance over the present organiza- tion of the garden. — The interest attached to the history of any institution depends, above all, upon the importance and extent which that institution presents at the time when it is considered. The reader will judge if that is the case with the establishment of which we are writing. The State Botanic Garden at Buitenzorg comprises three different gardens. There is first, the botanic garden proper, in the center of the city, occupying an area of 36 hectares [89 acres], wedged in between the park of the governor-general, a little river, the Tjiliwong, and the postal road. Itis traversed throughout its width by a large and fine avenue called the Avenue of the Kanaries, after the native name of the trees that border it, beautiful trunks of Canarium Cammune, attain- ing a height of about 30 metres [100 feet]. Upon this avenue, which borders a great pond enlivened by a pretty island, carriages and foot- men freely pass. From it roads practicable for carriages, in part open to the public, pass in all directions and form the arteries to which are attached a perfect maze of foot-paths of different sorts. Plants of one family are, as we have said, found together. They form scattered groups, or rather they occupy one or more divisions bounded by the paths. Each division has at one of the angles a list of the genera it contains. Fach species is represented by two specimens, one of which carries a label bearing the scientific name, the native name if there is one, and usually stating the products of the plant. In consideration of the great number of climbing plants of tropical countries, Teysmann had the happy idea of putting them together in a special part of the garden, where they also are arranged according to their natural affinities. 396 A TROPICAL BOTANIC GARDEN. There is here offered a wide field for interesting observations. Includ- ing herbaceous plants, the total number of species is about 9,000. In the middle of the garden there is a range of nurseries where young plants are cultivated, partly under shelters that protect them from the heat of the sun or from the injurious effect of beating rains. Some plants require special care, notably a certain number of ferns, arums, and orchids. These are placed in two buildings that resemble the hot- houses of Europe, with the difference, however, that at Buitenzorg they serve to keep the plants cool and not.to give them a more elevated tem- perature. The garden has its own carpenters who construct buildings of this sort; asmall detail which will give an idea of the scale upon which everything is organized. The native force is composed of about 100 individuals, among whom are 3 employés having special knowledge of botany, much more than we would expect to find among Malays. This force works under the orders of a chief gardener and a second gardener. ‘The garden is open night and day, an arrangement which is only possible in the East where they are not yet sufficiently advanced to consider that property is robbery. At the two principal entrances there are gate-keepers but no gates. The agricultural garden, the second division of the Hortus Bogori- ensis, is situated about a league from the center of Buitenzorg and cov- ers not less than 70 hectares [173 acres]. The arrangement of the place and the distribution of the plants at once shows that the aim is ex- clusively practical. Everything is regular, the roads and foot-paths intersecting at right angles, the divisions thus formed of almost uniform size, the plants in each division all of the same species and the same age. While in the scientific division each species is represented by but two specimens of each species, here there are a hundred, but only cul- tivated plants that are or may become useful to agriculture or colo- nial industries; the different species and varieties of coffee, of tea, of sugar-cane, of rubber and gutta-percha trees, the Hrythroxylon Coca which furnishes cocaine, trees which produce tannin and oils, forage plants, ete. A special part of the garden is reserved for officinal plants. There is a gardener-in-chief to direct the work, and a force of 70 native workmen. The third garden is found at a considerable distance from Buitenzorg on one of the slopes of the neighboring voleano of Gede. With an area of 30 hectares [74 acres], at an altitude of 1,500 metres [5,000 feet], it possesses a climate marvelously adapted for the cultivation of plants of the indigenous mountain flora, as well as those of Australia and Japan. About 10 natives work there under the orders of a European gardener. The three gardens which together constitute the State Botanic Garden at Buitenzorg havea total area of nearly 140 hectares [346 acres]. The museum, situated opposite the botanic garden proper, is a build- ing 44 metres long [144 feet], specially constructed for the purpose to A TROPICAL BOTANIC GARDEN. 39T which it is now applied, although it was originally used for mineralog- ical collections. It is composed of a hall occupying the body of the principal story, and of two wings. On the floor of the hall are upright closets along the wall, and glass cases in the center containing collec- tions both botanical and technical. Part of the exhibits are dried and part are preserved in spirits. The herbarium occupies the gallery which runs around the entire hall, 4 metres above the floor. The dried plants are not, as in Kurope, placed in portfolios, but in tin boxes in order that they may be better protected against insects and moisture, those great enemies of collections in tropical countries. As a matter of course, corrosive sublimate, naphthaline and carbon bisulphide are con- sidered at Buitenzorg as important allies in this constant fight against insects. The number of tin boxes containing the herbarium exceeds 1,200. Hach box contains, on an average, 100 specimens. One of the wings of the building is set apart for the service of the museum, a divi- sion which has for its chief the adjunct director of the garden assisted by a naturalist. The other wing, a little more than 10 metres long and nearly 11 metres wide, is wholly devoted to the library, which contains more than 5,000 volumes. This is a considerable number when it is remembered that it is a special botanical library, although books of general natural history and transactions of academies of sciences such as those of Paris, Berlin and London, are not wanting. In the matter of descriptive botany an attempt is made to obtain, besides classical and indispensable works, whatever relates to the flora of the extreme Orient. The books on general botany are supplemented by the most recent treatises and publications on morphology, anatomy, physiology, and vegetable paleontology. But the special wealth of the library of the garden at Buitenzorg is the series, generally complete, of all the reports and botanical reviews of the first rank at present published in Dutch, French, English, and Italian. The special isolation of a botan- ical garden situated at equally remote distances from the scientific cen- tres of the Old and the New World makes it necessary to attend care- fully to the maintenance of the library, keeping it well up to the advances of science. There are three laboratories, and there will soon be a fourth, for in accordance with the proposition of the colonial government accepted by the mother country, the force in the garden of Buitenzorg is to be increased by two new functionaries, a botanist and a chemist, whose task it will be to furnish by patient and careful investigations scientific data as to the useful plants of tropical countries and their culture. The laboratory intended for the chemist is not yet opened. Behind the museum in a special building is the pharmacological laboratory where a pharmacal chemist temporarily attached to the garden carries on investigations upon alkaloids and other curious and useful substances which tropical plants contain. Considering the small amount of exact knowledge that we have concerning these substances this happy inno- 398 A TROPICAL BOTANIC GARDEN. vation can not but produce results of great practical utility as well as of great scientific interest. Two botanical laboratories are placed in the main botanic gardens, behind the range of nurseries. One of these, a large hall 6 metres wide and 20 long, is reserved for foreign scientists who come to pass some time at the Hortus Bogoriensis to make investigations and to study the tropical flora in its home. This laboratory is lighted by five windows at each of which there is a work table. Closets placed against the op- posite wall contain the necessary utensils, optical and other apparatus, flasks, vases, etc., and the so-called micro-ehemical reagents. Besides, there is a small collection of working books so that investigators need not have to depend upon the main library. It is also proposed to facil- itate the researches of visitors, by placing in the hall a herbarium con- sisting entirely of specimens of plants cultivated in the garden, so that in cases of doubt the rapid identification of any such plant may be made without having recourse to the herbarium of the museum. This special laboratory herbarium is at present only begun. The arrangement of the hall is simple, offering at once the advantages of good light and plenty of room. This last point is an essential thing in hot countries, where open space is necessary, especially in a laboratory for research. Even at Buitenzorg, where the evenings, nights, and mornings are fresh, the mean temperature in the middle of the day is from 28° to 29° C. [82° to 849 F.]. There are even days during the dry season when for 2 or 3 hours in the latter part of the day the mercury rises to 31° C. (88°F. ]. The second botanical laboratory, about 100 paces distant, backed up against the office of the garden and communicating with it, is reserved for the director and the new functionary, the botanist who is expected from Europe. The fourth laboratory, that of agricultural chemistry will shortly be established in the garden of agriculture. In the near vicinity of the botanical laboratory are the offices and a small photographic and litho- graphic workshop for the draftsman photographer. The offices, formerly badly arranged in two small rooms of the museum, have just been trans- ferred to a special building, given up for that use by the Government, a new proof of the solicitude the government of the Dutch East Indies and of the mother country always feels for the Garden of Buitenzorg. Il. What are the principles of the organization we have just described, and how does it work? What are the advantages peculiar to large botanical gardens in the tropics, and why is there reason to expect them to exercise a great influence over the future development of botany? Before answering these questions an understanding must be reached on an essential point; that is to say, the different way in which A TROPICAL BOTANIC GARDEN. 399 pure and applied science is studied in Hurope on the one hand and in a tropical country on the other. When among European peoples sci- ence took the marvellous flight which characterizes our century, a differ- entiation soon commenced. Purely scientific studies and investigations remained as formerly more or less directly attached to the universities and faculties, ina word, to superior instruction, properly so called. But at the same time the remarkable useful applications which accompanied the progress of science necessitated the creation of special institutions, polytechnic schools, technical laboratories, experimental gardens, agri- cultural stations, etc. Both of these sister branches, pure and applied science, equally demanded indefatigable workers, trained in method and gifted in intelligence. While having a totally different object, they remain in relation and continual coatact. Still the specialization exists and it may be easily foreseen that it will increase. It is the same or will be the same in colonies where the climatic conditions permit the European to fix his permanent habitation, but it is not the case for European colonies in tropical countries. There the colonists do not come with the intention of remaining permanently. On the contrary, from the time of their arrival in the distant country, however beautiful and fertile it may be, they are firmly resolved to return to their native land. The majority of them, having acquired social position or the wished-for fortune, hasten to return home, almost certain to find that the recollections of childhood and youth are deceptive, and that the climate and social organization in Europe are far from reaching the ideal which they had formed during their sojourn at the antipodes. Recently the question has been much discussed whether Europeans can found colonies (in the strict serse of the word) in tropical countries, reside there for several successive generations, and raise there a pure blooded race. The celebrated Professor Virchow is one of those who deny with great authority and energy the possibility of a true acclima- tion of a European race in a tropical country. If a naturalist who has dwelt in the beautiful island of Java for some years, and who is a fervent admirer of it, may be allowed to have an opinion on this mooted ques- tion, I must avow that everything goes to show that M. Virchow is right. But whatever opinion may be held concerning the theoretical possibility of this acclimation, the plain fact is this, that in the Dutch East Indies, and so far as I know in other tropical countries also that have been under European control for some centuries, the pure race has not suc- ceeded in becoming acclimated. This point once understood, it will be clearly seen why (with rare ex- ceptions) universities, faculties of sciences, and similar institutions have hitherto been wanting in tropical colonies. Families send their sons to Europe to study and take their degrees. The teaching body of the uni- versity, with its laboratories, its libraries, its cabinets, and its collections, does not there exist; and yet it is especially in a tropical colony that material interests, so important there, ought to cause great value to be 400 A TROPICAL BOTANIC GARDEN. placed upon applied science. This is a contradiction at once apparent, and which becomes still more obvious if we pass from the general case to the special one of botany, which is of the first importance, because of the great influence it has upon tropical agriculture. The time has passed, and we should be glad of it, when the high price of colonial prod- ucts, the want of co-operation, excessively cheap labor, and sometimes also oppression of the native population, made all special knowledge superfluous to anyone who chose to take the chance of making his for- tune in agriculture. We are already far from the period when the grossest empiricism was usually sufficient, permitting the acquirement of wealth by those destitute of education and often even of intelligence. To insure solid results, tropical agriculture—no lessthan that of tem- perate countries—demands judgment and special knowledge, and the need is felt of establishing it also on a firm scientific basis. It has it is true been said, adopting a practical view of the very narrowest kind, that the contradiction we have just pointed out, did not necessarily exist, since it was only necessary to take fora scientific basis the results of the researches of European scientists, only that the application will be somewnat different in the tropics. This is avery grave error, especially since it relates tothe phenomena of life. It is vain for us to compare as to their effects upon vegetation, the dry season with winter, and the rainy season with spring and summer. ‘The forms and functions in which vegetable life manifests itself in an equatorial country are quite different from those in the temperate zone. The essential laws which rule life are the same, but the manifestations of it are quite different. It is therefore for the immediate interest of tropical colonies to possess scientific establishments for the study of life in its forms and in its functions. As institutions of this kind depending upon universities or faculties do not exist, it is evident that botanic gardens established by the state are indispensable. These gardens serve a double purpose, scientific and practical, but it should not be forgotten that it is in science only that they must have their root. The scientific institution forms the trunk on which the branches are grafted. If the trunk is hampered ever so little in its growth and loses its vigor, the branches will cer- tainly suffer, and in the end may perish. Thus everything which lowers — the scientific tone of a tropical botanic garden is contrary not only to the advancement of science, but also to the direct interests of the colony. It is neccessary to insist upon this truth because there is always among agriculturists a tendency to confound a botanic garden with an agricultural station or with an experimental garden. ‘This error is ex- cusable in persons who not understanding the /festinu lente of science, are continually wishing immediate answers to questions of vegetable pathology and physiology which they ask in the interests of the special culture in which they are engaged. This want of patience and compre- hension of the modus operandi in scientific investigations is the princi- pal reason why agricultural stations founded by agriculturists them- A TROPICAL BOTANIC GARDEN, AQ] selves are liable not to give the results expected and certainly merited by the laudable efforts of those who established them. i. , “Ao at eee f 2 : » } oie : saa te : a = a i ae er MORPHOLOGY OF THE BLOOD CORPUSCLES. 431 term corpuscle (globule, Kérperchen) has no definite morphological meaning. S Sonsino (Arch. Ital. Biol. xt) affirms that the red blood cells trans- form themselves into plastids. I have, however, never been able to find the intermediate forms in my own numerous preparations. I deem it probable that he has seen merely the degenerating stages of the red cells. The present article is an abstract of a communication made in August last to the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Since then Howells’s memoir on the blood corpuscles has appeared (Journal of Morphology, tv, 57). The author describes the ejection of the nucleus from the red cells, and believes that this results in the for- mation of red plastids. The process is, 1 think, really degenerative, and the resemblance between the non-nucleated body of the cell and a true plastid, is not one cf identity. Certainly, until proof is offered that the observations of Schiifer, Kuborn, and myself, upon the intra-cellu- lar origin of the plastids are proved erroneous, the emigration of the nucleus of the red cells can not be held to result in producing plastids, but only to be degenerative. That the red cells degenerate and disap- pear has been known; Howells’s valuable observations indicate the method of their destruction. The above review shows that the vertebrate blood corpuscles are of three kinds: (1) red cells; (2) white cells; (3) plastids. The red and white cells occur in all (2?) vertebrates; the plastids are confined to the mammals. The red cells present three chief modifications; whether the primitive form occurs in any living adult vertebrate I do not know ; the second form is persistent in the Ichthyopsida, the third form in the Sauropsida. According to this we must distinguish : A.—One-celled blood, 7%. ¢., first stage in all vertebrates; the blood contains only red cells, with little protoplasm. B.—Two-celled blood, having red and white cells; the red cells have either a large, coarsely granular nucleus (Ichthyopsida), or a smaller, darkly staining nucleus (Sauropsida, mamma- lian embryos). C.—Plastid blood, without red ceils, but with white cells and red plastids; occurs only in adult mammals. Mammalian blood in its development passes through these stages, as well as through the two phases of stage B, all in their natural sequence ; the ontogenetic order follows the phylogenetic. I pass by the numerous authors whose views conflict with mine, partly because the present is not a suitable oceasion for a detailed dis- cussion, partly because those authors who have asserted the origin of one kind of blood corpusele by metamorphosis from another have failed to find just the intermediate forms; it seems to me therefore that most, at least, of the opposing views collapse of themselves. i aoe dL} b sue « cit be } Wil Ties * poi aan a eSmOOAN LAscycy se" r : ih ihr bh op WEISMANN’S THEORY OF HEREDITY.* By GEORGE J. ROMANES. The recently published translation of Professor Weismann’s essays on heredity and allied topics has aroused the interest of the general public in the system of his biological ideas. But seeing that his system, besides being somewhat elaborate in itself, is presented in a series of disconnected essays, originally published at different times, it is a matter of no small difficulty to gather from the present collection of these essays a complete view of the system as a whole. Therefore I propose to give a brief sketch of his several theories, arranged in a manner calculated to show their logical connection one with another. And in order also to show the relation in which his resulting theory of heredity stands to what has hitherto been the more usual way of regarding the facts, I will begin by furnishing a similarly brief sketch of Mr. Darwin’s theory upon the subject. It will be observed that these two theories constitute the logical antipodes of explanatory thought; and therefore it may be said, in a general way, that all other modern theories of heredity—such as those of Spencer, Haeckel, Elsberg, Galton, Naegeli, Brooks, Hertwig, and Vries—occupy positions more or less intermediate between these two extremes. When closely analyzed, Mr. Darwin’s theory—or “ provisional hy- pothesis of pangenesis”—will be found to embody altogether seven assumptions, viz: (1) That all the component cells of a multi-cellular organism throw off inconceivably minute germs or “ gemmules,” which are then dis- persed throughout the whole system. (2) That these gemmules, when so dispersed and supplied with proper nutriment, multiply by self-division, and under suitable condi- tions, are capable of developing into physiological cells like those from which they were originally and severally derived. (3) That while still in this gemmular condition, these cell seeds have for one another a mutual affinity, which leads to their being collected from all parts of the system by the reproductive glands of the organism ; and that, when so collected, they go to constitute the essential material of the sexual elements, ova and spermatozoa being thus nothing more *From The Contemporary Review, May, 1390, vol. LV, pp. 686-699. H. Mis. 129 28 a 434 WEISMANN’S THEORY OF HEREDITY. than aggregated packets of gemmules which have emanated from all the cells of all the tissues of the organism. (4) That the development of a new organism out of the fusion of two such packets of gemmules is due to a summation of all the develop- ments of some of the gemmules which these two packets contain. (5) That a large proportional number of the gemmules in each packet, however, fail to develop, and are then transmitted in a dormant state to future generations, in any of which they may be developed subse- quently, thus giving rise to the phenomena of reversion or atavism. (6) ‘That in all cases the development of gemmules into the form of their parent cell depends on their suitable union with other partially developed gemmules, which precede them in the regular course of growth. (7) That gemmules are thrown off by all physiological cells, not only during the adult state of the organism, but during all stages of its de- velopment. Or in other words, that the production of these cell seeds depends upon the adult condition of parent cells, not upon that of the multi-cellular organism as a whole. At first sight it may well appear that we have here a very formidable array of assumptions. But Mr. Darwin ably argues in favor of each of them by pointing to well-known aualogies, drawn from the vital proc- esses of living cells, both in the protozoa and metazoa. For exampie, it is already a well-recognized doctrine of physiology that each cell of a metazoon, or multicellular organism, though to a large extent depend- ent on others, is likewise to a certain extent independent or automatous, and has the power of multiplying by self-division. Therefore, as it is certain that the sexual elements (and also buds of all descriptions) in- clude formative matter of some kind, the first assumption—or that which supposes such formative matter to be particulate—is certainly not a gratuitous assumption. Again, the second assumption—namely, that this particulate and formative material is dispersed throughout all the tissues of the organism—is sustained by the fact that both in cer- tain plants and in certain invertebrate animals a severed portion of the organism will develop into an entire organism similar to that from which it was derived, as for example is the case with a leaf of begonia and with portions cut from certain worms, sea-anemones, jelly-fish, ete. This well-known fact in itself seems enough to prove that the formative ma- terial in question must certainly admit (at all events in many cases) of being distributed throughout all the tissues of living organisms. The third assumption—or that which supposes the formative mate- rial to be especially aggregated in the sexual elements—is not so much an assumption as a statement of obvious fact; while the fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh assumptions all follow deductively from their pred- ecessors. In other words, if the first and second assumptions be granted and if the theory is to comprise all the facts of heredity, then the remaining five assumptions are bound to follow, WEISMANN’S THEORY OF HEREDITY. 435 To the probable objection that the supposed gemmules must be of impossibly minute size—seeing that thousands of millions of them would require to be packed into a single ovum or spermatozodn—Mr. Darwin opposes a calculation that a cube of glass or water having only one ten-thousandth of an inch to a side contains somewhere be- tween sixteen and a hundred and thirty-one billions of molecules. Again, as touching the supposed power of multiplication on the part of his gemmules, Mr. Darwin alludes to the fact that infectious mate- rial of all kinds exhibits a ratio of increase quite as great as any that his theory requires to attribute to gemmules. Furthermore, with respect to the elective affinity of gemmules, he remarks that ‘in all ordinary cases of sexual reproduction the male and female elements certainly have an elective affinity for each other ;” of the ten thousand species of Composit, for example, ‘‘ there can be no doubt that if the pollen of all these species could be simultaneously placed on the stigma of any one species, this one would elect, with unerring certainty, its own pollen.” Such then in brief outline, is Mr. Darwin’s theory of pangenesis. Professor Weismann’s theory of germ-plasm is fundamentally based upon the great distiaction that obtains in respect of their transmissi- bility between characters which are congenital and characters which are acquired. By acongenital character is meant any individual pecul- larity, whether structural or mental, with which the individual is born. By an acquired character is meant any peculiarity which the individual may subsequently develop in consequence of its own indi- vidual experience. For example, aman may be born with some mal- formation of one of his fingers or he may subsequently acquire such a malformation as the result of accident or disease. Now in the former case—i. ¢e., in that where the malformation is congenital—it is ex- tremely probable that the peculiarity will be transmitted to his chil- dren; while in the latter case—i. e., where the malformation is subse- quently acquired—it is virtually certain that it will not be transmitted to his children. And this great difference between the transmissibility of characters which are congenital and characters which are acquired extends universally as a general law throughout the vegetable as well as the animal kingdom, and in the province of mental as in that of bodily organization. Of course this general law has always been well known and more or less fully recognized by all modern physiologists and medical men. But before the subject was taken up by Professor Weismann it was generally assumed that the difference in question was one of degree, not one of kind. In other words, it was assumed that acquired characters, although not so fully—and therefore not so certainly—inherited as congenital characters, nevertheless were inher- ited in some lesser degree ; so that, if the same character continued to be developed successively in a number of sequent generations, what was at first only a slight tendency to be inherited would become by 436 WEISMANN’S THEORY OF HEREDITY. summation a more and more pronounced tendency, till eventually the acquired character might be as strongly inherited as any other charac- ter which was ab initio congenital. Now it is the validity of this assumption that is challenged by Professor Weismann. He says there is no evidence at all of any acquired characters being in any degree in- herited, and therefore that in this important respect they may be held to differ from congenital characters in kind. On the supposition that they do thus differ in kind, he furnishes a very attractive theory of heredity, which serves at once to explain the difterence, and to rep- resent it as a matter of physiological impossibility that any acquired character can, under any circumstances whatsoever, be transmitted to progeny. In order fully to comprehend this theory, it is desirable first of all to explain Professor Weismann’s views upon certain other topics which are more or less closely allied to, and indeed logically bound up with the present one. Starting from the fact that uni-cellular organisms multiply by fission and gemmation, he argues that aboriginally and potentially, life is immortal; for, when a protozoén divides into two—more or less equal parts by fission, and each of the two halves thereupon grows into another protozo6n, it is evident that there has been no death on the part of any of the living material involved; and inasmuch as this process of fission goes on continuously from generation to generation, there is never any death on the part of such protoplasmic material, although there is a continuous addition to it as the numbers of individ- uals increase. Similarly, in the case of gemmation, when a protozoén parts with a small portion of its living material in the form of a bud, this portion does not die, but develops into a new individual; and therefore the process is exactly analogous to that of fission, save that only a small instead of a large part of the parent substance is involved. Now if life be thus immortal in the case of uni-cellular organisms, why should it have ceased to be so in the case of multi-cellular organisms ? Weismann’s answer is that all the multi-cellular organisms propagate themselves, not exclusively by fission or gemmation, but by sexual fer- tilization, where the condition to a new organism arising is—that minute and specialized portions of two parent organisms should fuse together. Now it is evident that with this change in the method of propagation, serious disadvantage would accrue to any species if its sexual individ- uals were to continue to be immortal; for in that case every species which multiplies by sexual methods would in time become composed of indivuals broken down and decrepit through the results of accident and disease—always operating and ever accumulating throughout the course of their immortal lives. Consequently as soon as sexual methods of propagation superseded the more primitive a-sexual methods, it became desirable in the interests of the sexually-propagating species that their constituent individuals should cease to be immortal, so that WEISMANN’S THEORY OF HEREDITY. 437 the species should always be recuperated by fresh, young, and well- formed representatives. Consequently also, natural selection would speedily see to it that all sexually-propagating species should become deprived of tie aboriginal endowment of immortality, with the result that death is now a universal destiny among all the individuals of such species, that is to say, among all the metazoa and metaphyta. Never- theless, it is to be remembered that this destiny extends only to the parts of the individual other than the contents of those specialized cells which constitute the reproductive elements, for although in each in- dividual metazoén or metaphyton an innumerable number of these specialized cells are destined to perish during the life and with the death of the organism to which they belong, this is only due to the accident, so to speak, of their contents not having met with their com. plements in the opposite sex; it does not belong to their essential nature that they should perish, seeing that those which do happen to meet with their complements in the opposite sex help to form a new living individual, and so on through successive generations ad infinitum. Therefore the reproductive elements of the metazoa and metaphyta are in this respect precisely analagous to the protozoa: potentially, or in their own nature, they are immortal; and, like the protozoa, if they die, their death is an accident due to unfavorable circumstances. But the case is quite different with all the other parts of a multicellular organ- ism. Here, no matter how favorable the circumstances may be, every cell contains within itself, or in its very nature, the eventual doom of death. Thus, of the metazoa and mtaphyta it is the specialized germ- plasms alone that retain their primitive endowment of everlasting life, passed on continuously through generation after generation of succes- sively perishing organisms. So far, it is contended, we are dealing with matters of fact. It must be taken as true that the protoplasm of the uni-cellular organisms and the germ-plasm of the multicellular organisms have been continuous through the time since life first appeared upon this earth ; and although large quantities of each are perpetually dying through being exposed to conditions unfavorable to life, this, as Weismann presents the matter, is quite a different case from that of all the other constituent parts of multi-cellular organisms, which contain within themselves the doom of death. Furthermore,-it appears extremely probable that this doom of death has been brought about by natural selection for the reasons assigned by Weismann, namely, because it is for the benefit of all species which perpetuate themselves by sexual methods that their con- stituent individuals should not live longer than is necessary for the sake of originating the next generation and fairly starting itin its own struggle for existence. For Weismann has shown, by a somewhat laborious though still largely imperfect research, that there is through- out all the metazoa a general correlation between the natural life-time of individuals composing any given species and the age at which they 438 WEISMANN’S THEORY OF HEREDITY. reach maturity or first become capable of procreation. This general correlation however is somewhat modified by the time during which progeny are dependent upon their parents for support and protection. Nevertheless, it is evident that this modification tends rather to confirm the view that expectation of life on the part of individuals has in all cases been determined with strict reference to the requirements of prop- agation, if under propagation we include the rearing as well as the production of offspring. I may observe in passing that I do not think this general law can be found to apply to plants in nearly so close a manner as Weismann has shown it to apply to animals; but leaving this fact aside, to the best of my judgment it does appear that Weis- mann has made out a good case in favor of such a general law with regard to animals. We have come then to these results. Protoplasm was originally immortal (barring accidents), and it still continues to be immortal in the case of unicellular organisms which propagate a-sexually. Butin the case of all multicellular organisms, which propagate sexually, nat- ural selection has reduced the term of life within the smallest limits that in each given case are compatible with the performance of the sexual act and the subsequent rearing of progeny, reserving however the original endowment of immortality for the germinal elements, whereby a continuum of life has been secured from the earliest appear- ance of life until the present day. Now in view of these results, the question arises, Why should the sexual methods of propagation have become so general if their effect has been that of determining the necessary death of all individuals presenting them? Why, in the course of organic evolution, should these newer methods have been imposed on all the higher organisms, when the consequence is that all these higher organisms must pay for the innovation with their lives? Weismann’s answer to this question is as interesting and ingenious as all that has gone before. Seeing that sexual propagation is so general as to be practically universal among multi-cellular organisms, it is obvious that in some way or other it must have a most important part to play in the general scheme of organic evolution. What then is the part that it does play? What is its raison Wétre? Briefly, according to Weismann, its function is that of furnishing congenital variations to the ever-watchful agency of natural selection, in order that natural selection may always preserve the most favorable and pass them on to the next generation by hered- ity. That sexual propagation is well calculated to furnish congenital variations may easily be rendered apparent. We have only to remem- ber that at each union there is a mixture of two germinal elements ; that each of these was in turn the product of two other germinal ele- ments in the preceding generation, and so backwards ad infinitum in geometrical ratio. Remembering this, it follows that the germinal ele- ment of no one member of a species can ever be the same as that of any WEISMANN’S THEORY OF HEREDITY. 439 other member; on the contrary, while both are enormously complex products, each has had a different ancestral history, such that while one presents the congenital admixtures of thousands of individuals in one line of descent, the other presents similar admixtures of thousands of other individuals in a different line of descent. Consequently, when in any sexual union two of these enormously complex germinal elements fuse together and constitute a new individual out of their joint endow- ments, it is perfectly certain that that individual can not be exactly like any other individual of the same species or even of the same brood ; the chances must be infinity to one against any single mass of germ- plasm being exactly like any other mass of germ-plasm; while any amount of latitude as to difference is allowed, up to the point at which the difference becomes too pronounced to satisfy the conditions of fer- tilization, in which case, of course, no new individual is born. Hence, theoretically, we have here a sufficient cause for all individual varia- tions of a congenital kind that can possibly occur within the limits of fertility, and therefore that can ever become actual in living organ- isms. In point of fact, Weismann believes—or at any rate began by believing—that this is the sole and only cause of variations that are congenital, and therefore (according to his views) transmissible by hered- ity. Now whether or not he is right as regards these latter points, I think there can be no question that sexual propagation is, at all events, one of the main causes of congenital variation; and seeing of what enormous importance congenital variation must always have been in supplying material for the operation of natural selection, we appear to have found a most satisfactory answer to our question,—Why has sex- ual propagation become so universal among all the higher plants and animals? It has become so because it is thus shown to have been the condition to producing congenital variations, which in turn constitute the condition to the working of natural selection. Having got thus far, I should like to make two or three subsidiary remarks. In the first place it ought to be observed that this luminous theory touching the causes of congenital variations was not originally propounded by Professor Weismann, but occurs in the writings of sev- eral previous authors and is expressly alluded to by Darwin. Never- theless, it occupies so prominent a place in Weismann’s system of theo- ries and has by him been wrought up so much more elaborately than by any of his predecessors that we are entitled to regard it as par ex- cellence the Weismannian theory of variation. In the next place it ought to be observed that Weismann is careful to guard against the seductive fallacy of attributing the origin of sexual propagation to the agency of natural selection. Great as the benefit of this newer mode of propagation must have been to the species presenting it, the benefit can not have been conferred by natural selection, seeing that the bene- fit arose from the fact of the new method furnishing material to the operation of natural selection, and therefore insofar as it did this, 440 WEISMANN’S THEORY OF HEREDITY. constituting the condition to the principle of natural selection having been called into play at all. Or in other words, we can not attribute to natural selection the origin of sexual reproduction without involving ourselves in the absurdity of supposing natural selection to have origi- nated the conditions of its own activity.* What the causes may have been which originally led to sexual reproduction is at present a matter that awaits suggestion by way of hypothesis; and therefore it now only remains to add that the general structure of Professor Weismann’s system of hypotheses leads to this curious result, namely, that the otherwise ubiquitous and (as he supposes) exclusive dominion of nat- ural selection stops short at the protozoa, over which it can not exercise any influence at all. For if natural selection depends for its activity on the occurrence of congenital variations, and if congenital variations depend for their occurrence on sexual modes of reproduction, it follows that no organisms which propagate themselves by any other modes can present congenital variations, or thus become subject to the influence of natural selection. And inasmuch as Weismann believes that such is the case with all the protozoa, as well as with all parthenogenetic organisms, he does not hesitate to accept the necessary conclusion that in these cases natural selection is without any jurisdiction. How, then, does he account for individual variations in the protozoa? And still more, how does he account for the origin of their innumerable species ? (February 6, 1890: vol. XLI, pp. 317-323) an elaborate answer to a criticism of his theory by Professor Vines (October 24, 1889: vol. xL, pp. 621-626). In the course of this answer Professor Weismann says that he does attribute the origin of sexual reproduction to natural selection. This directly contradicts what he says in his essays, and for the reasons given in the text, appears to me an illogical departure from his previously logical attitude. I herewith append quotations in order to reveal the contradiction : ‘‘But when I maintain that the meaning of sexual reproduction is to render possi- ble the transformation of the higher organisms by means of natural selection, such a statement is not equivalent to the assertion that sexual reproduction originally came into existence in order to achieve this end. The effects which are now produced by sexual reproduction did not constitute the causes which led to its first appearance. Sexual reproduction came into existence before it could lead to hereditary individual variability (7. e., to the possibility of natural selection). Its first appearance must, therefore, have had some other cause [than natural selection]; but the nature of this cause can hardly be determined with any degree of certainty or precision from the facts with which we are at present acquainted.”—(‘‘ Essay on the Significance of Sex- ual Reproduction in the Theory of Natural Selection : English Translation,” pp. 281- 282.) “Tam still of opinion that the origin of sexual reproduction depends on the adyan- tage which it affords to the operation of naturalselection. - - - Sexual reproduction has arisen by and for natural selection as the sole means by which individual varia- tions can be united and combined in every possible proportion.”—( Nature, Vol. XLt, p. 322.) How such opposite statements can be reconciled I do not myself perceive.—G. J. R., February 17, 1890. WEISMANN’S THEORY OF HEREDITY. 441 ditions of life. In other words, so far as the uni-cellular organisms are concerned, Weismann is rigidly and exelusively an advocate of the theory of Lamarck, just as much as in the case of all the multi-cellular organisms he is rigidly and exclusively an opponent of that theory. Nevertheless, there is here no inconsistency; on the contrary, it is con- sistency with the logical requirements of his theory that leads to this sharp partitioning of the uni-cellular from the multi-cellular organisms with respect to the causes of their evolution. For, as he points out, the conditions of propagation among the uni-cellular organisms are such that parent and offspring are one and the same thing; ‘“ the child is a part, and usually a half, of its parent.” Therefore, if the parent has been in any way modified by the action of external conditions, it is in- evitable that the child should, from the moment of its birth (7. e., fissi- parous separation), be similarly modified; and if the modifying influ- ences continue in the same lines for a sufficient length of time the re- sulting change of type may become sufficiently pronounced to consti- tute a new species, genus, etc. But in the case of the multi-cellular or sexual organisms the child is not thus merely a severed moiety of its parent; it is the result of the fusion of two highly specialized and ex- tremely minute particles of each of two parents. Therefore, whatever may be thought touching the validity of Weismann’s deduction that in no case can any modification induced by external conditions on these parents be transmitted to their progeny, at least we must recognize the validity of the distinction which he draws between the facility with which such transmission must take place in the uni-cellular organisms as compared with the difficulty—or, as he believes, the impossibility— of its doing so in the multi-cellular. We are now in a position to fully understand Professor Weismann’s theory of heredity in all its bearings. Briefly stated, this theory is as follows: The whole organization of any multi-cellular organism is com- posed of two entirely different kinds of cells, namely, the germ cells, or those which have to do with reproduction, and the somatic cells, or those which go to constitute all the other parts of the organism. Now the somatic cells in their aggregations as tissues and organs may be modified in numberless ways by the direct action of the environment as well as by special habits formed during the individual life-time of the organism. But although the modifications thus induced may be and generally are adaptive,—-such as the increased muscularity caused by the use of muscles, “‘ practice making perfect ” in the case of nervous adjustments, and so on,—in no case can these so-called acquired or ‘“‘ somato-genetic” characters exercise any influence upon the germ-cells, such that they should re-appear in their products (progeny) as congen- ital or ‘‘ blasto-genetic” characters. For according to the theory, the germ-cells as to their germinal contents differ in kind from the somatic cells, and have no other connection or dependence upon them than that of deriving from them their food and lodging. So much then for 442 WEISMANN’S THEORY OF HEREDITY. the somatic cells. Turning now more especially to the germ-cells, these are the receptacles of what Weissmann calls the germ-plasm ; and this it is that which he supposes to differ in kind from all the other constituent elements of the organism. T‘or the germ-plasm he believes to have had its origin in the uni cellular organisms, and to have been handed down from them in one continuous stream through all successive generations of multi-celluiar organisms. Thus, for example, suppose we take a cer- tain quantum of germ-plasm as this occurs in any individual organism of to-day. A minute portion of this germ-plasm, when mixed with a similarly minute portion from another individual, goes to form a new individual. But in doing so only a portion of this minute portion is consumed ; the residue is stored up in the germinal cells of this new individual in order to secure that continuity of the germ-plasm which Weismann assumes as the necessary basis of his whole theory. Fur- thermore, he assumes that this overplus portion of germ-plasm which is so handed over to the custody of the new individual is there capable of growth or multiplication at the expense of the nutrient materials which are supplied to it by the new soma in which it finds itself located ; while in thus growing or multiplying it faithfully retains its highly complex character, so that in no one minute particular does any part of a many thousand-fold increase differ as to its ancestral characters from that inconceivably small overplus which was first of all intrusted to the embryo by its parents. Therefore one might represent the germ- plasm by the metaphor of a yeast-plant, a single particle of which may be put into a vat of nutrient fluid ; there it lives and grows upon the nutriment supplied, so that a new particle may next be taken to impreg- nate another vat, and so on ad infinitum. Here the successive vats would represent successive generations of progeny ; but to make the metaphor complete one would require to suppose that in each case the yeast-cell was required to begin by making its own vat of nutrient material, and that it was only the residual portion of the cell which was afterwards able to grow and multiply. But although the meta- phor is necessarily a clumsy one, it may serve to emphasize the all-im- portant feature of Weismann’s theory, viz., the almost absolute inde- pendence of the germ-plasm. For just as the properties of the yeast- plant would be in no way affected by anything that might happen to the vat short of its being broken up or having its malt impaired, so according to Weismann the properties of the germ-plasm cannot be affected by anything that may happen to its containing soma short of the soma being destroyed or having its nutritive functions impaired. Such being the relations that are supposed to obtain between the soma and its germ-plasm, we have next to contemplate what is sup- posed to happen when, in the course of evolution, some modification of the ancestral form of the soma is required in order to adapt it to some change on the part of itsenvironment. In other words, we have to con- sider Weismann’s views on the modus operandi of adaptive develop- ment, with its results in the origination of new species. WEISMANN’S THEORY OF HEREDITY. 443 Seeing that according to the theory, it is only congenital variations which can be inherited, all variations subsequently acquired by the in- tercourse of individuals with their environment, however beneficial such variations may be to these individuals, are ruled out as regards the species. Not falling within the province of heredity, they are blocked off in the first generation, and therefore present no significance at all in the process of organic evolution. No matter how many generations of eagles, for instance, may use their wings for purposes of flight; and no matter how great an increase of muscularity, of endurance, and of skill, may thus be secured to each generation of eagles as the result of individual exercise; all these advantages are entirely lost to progeny, and young eagles have ever to begin their lives with no more benefit bequeathed by the activity of their ancestors than if those ancestors had all been barn-door fowls. Therefore the only material which is of any count as regards the species, or with reference to the process of evolu- tion, are fortuitous variations of the congenital kind. Among all the numberless congenital variations, within narrow limits, which are perpetually occurring in each generation of eagles, some will have reference to the wings; and although these will be fortuitous, or occur- ring indiscriminately in all directions, a few of them will now and then be in the direction of increased muscularity, others in the direction of increased endurance, others in the direction of increased skill, and so on. Now each of these fortuitous variations, which happens also to be a beneficial variation, will be favored by natural selection; and because it likewise happens to be a congenital variatior, will be perpetuated by heredity. In the course of time, other congenital variations will happen to arise in the same directions ; these will be added by natural selection to the advantage already gained, and so on, till after hundreds and thousands of generations the wings of eagles become evolved into the marvelous structures which they now present. Such being the theory of natural selection when stripped of all rem- nants of so-called Lamarckian principles, we have next to consider what the theory means in its relation to germ-plasm. For as before ex- plained, congenital variations are supposed by Weismann to be due to new combinations taking place in the germ-plasm as a result of the union of two complex hereditary histories in every act of fertilization. Well, if congenital variations are thus nothing more than variations of germ-plasm “ writ large ” in the organism which is developed out of the plasm, it follows that natural selection is really at work upon these variations of the germ-plasm. Tor although it is proximately at work on the congenital variations of organisms after birth, it is ultimately, and through them, at work upon the variations of germ-plasm out of which the organisms arise. In other words, natural selection in pick- ing out of each generation those individual organisms which are by their congenital character best suited to their surrounding conditions of life, is thereby picking out those peculiar combinations or variations 444 WEISMANN’S THEORY OF HEREDITY. of germ-plasm, which, when expanded into a resulting organism, give that organism the best chance in its struggle for existence. And inasmuch as a certain overplus of this peculiar combination of germ- plasm is intrusted to that organism for bequeathing to the next gen- eration, this to the next, and so on, it follows that natural selection is all the while conserving that originally peculiar combination of germ- plasm, until it happens to meet with some other mass of germ-plasm by mixing with which it may still further improve upon its original peculiarity when, of course, natural selection will seize upon this im- provement to perpetuate as in the previous case. So that on the whole we may say that natural selection is ever waiting and watching forsuch combinations of germ-plasm as will give the resulting organisms the best possible chance in their struggle for existence; while at the same time it is remorselessly destroying all those combinations of germ-plasm which are handed over to the custody of organisms not so well fitted to their conditions of life. It only remains to add that, according to Weismann’s theory in its strictly logical form, combinations of germ-plasm when once effected are so stable that they would never alter except as a result of entering into new combinations. In other words, no external influences or in- ternal processes can ever change the hereditary nature of any particular mixture of germ-plasm, save and except its admixture with some other germ-plasm, which, being of a nature equally stable, goes to unite with the other in equal proportions as regards hereditary character. So that really it would be more correct to say that any given mass of germ-plasm does not change even when it is mixed with some other mass—any more, for instance, than a handful of sand can be said to change when it is mixed with a handful of clay. Consequently, we arrive at this curious result. No matter how many generations of organisms there may have been, and therefore no matter how many combinations of germ-plasm may have taken place to give rise to an existing population, each existing unit of germ-plasm must have remained of the same essential nature of constitution as when it was first started in its immortal career millions of years ago. Or re verting to our illustration of sand and clay, the particles of each must always remain the same,no matter how many admixtures they may undergo with particles of other materials, such as chalk, slate, ete. Now inasmuch as it is an essential—because a logically necessary— part of Weismann’s theory to assume such absolute stability or un- changeableness on the part of germ-plasm, the question arises, and has to be met,—What was the origin of those differences of character in the different germ-plasms of multi-cellular organisms which first gave rise, and still continue to give rise, to congenital variations by their mixture one with another? ‘This important question Weismann answers by supposing that these differences originally arose out of the differences in the uni-cellular crganisms, which were the ancestors of the primitive WEISMANN’S THEORY OF. HEREDITY. 445 multi-cellular organisms. Nowas before stated, different forms of uni- cellular organisms are supposed to have originated as so many results of differences in the direct action of the environment. Consequently, according to the theory, all congenital variations which now occur in multi cellular organisms are really the distant results of variations that were aboriginally induced in their uni-cellular ancestors by the direct action of surrounding conditions of life. I think it will be well to conclude by briefly summarizing the main features of this elaborate theory. . Living material is essentially, or of its own nature, imperishable, and it still continues to be so in the case of unicellular organisms which propagate by fission or gemmation. But as soon as these primitive methods of propagation became, from whatever cause, superseded by sexual, it ceased to be for the benefit of species that their constituent individuals should be immortal, seeing that, if they continued to be so, all species of sexually-reproducing organisms would sooner or later come to be composed of broken down and decrepit individuals. Con- sequently, in all sexually-reproducing or miulti-cellular organisms, nat- ural selection set to work to reduce the term of individual life-times within the narrowest limits that in the case of each species are com- patible with the procreation and the rearing of progeny. Nevertheless, in all these sexually-reproducing organisms the primitive endowment of immortality has been retained with respect to their germ-plasm, which has thus been continuous, through numberless generations of perishing organisms, from the first origin of sexual reproduction till the present time. Now it is the union of germ-plasms which is required to reproduce new individuals of multi-cellular organisms that determines congenital variations on the part of such organisms, and thus furnishes natural selection with the material for its work in the way of organic evolution,—work therefore which is impossible in the case of uni-cel- lular organisms, where variation can never be congenital, but always determined by the direct action of surroanding conditions of life. Again, as the germ-plasm of multi-cellular organisms is continuous from generation to generation, and at each impregnation gives rise to a more or less novel set of congenital characters which are of most service to the organisms presenting them, is really or fundamentally at work upon those variations of the germ-plasm which in turn give origin to those variations of organisms that we recognize as congenital, there- fore, natural selection has always to wait and to watch for such varia- tions of germ-plasm as will eventually prove beneficial to the individuals developed therefrom, who will then transmit this peculiar quality of germ-plasm to their progeny, and soon. Therefore also—and this is most important to remember—natural selection as thus working be- comes the one and only cause of evolution and the origin of species in all the multi-cellular organisms, just as the direct action of the environ- ment is the one and only cause of evolution and the origin of species 446 WEISMANN’S THEORY OF HEREDITY. in the case of all the uni-cellular organisms. But inasmuch as the mul- ti-cellular organisms were all in the first instance derived from the uni- cellular and inasmuch as their germ-plasm is of so stable a nature that it can never be altered by any agencies internal or external to the organisms presenting it, it follows that all congenital variations are the remote consequences of aboriginal differences on the part of uni- cellular ancestors. And lastly, it follows also that these congenital variations—although now so entirely independent of external conditions of life, and even of activities internal to organisms themselves—were originally and exclusively due to the direct action of such conditions on the lives of their unicellular ancestry; while even at the present day no one congenital variation can arise which is not ultimately due to differences impressed upon the protoplasmic substance of the germinal elements, when the parts of which these are now composed constituted integral parts of the protozoa, which were directly and differentially affected by their converse with their several environments. Such then is Weismann’s theory of heredity in its original and strictly logical form. But it is now necessary to add that in almost every one of its essential features, as just stated, the theory has had to undergo—or is demonstrably destined to undergo—some radical modi- fication. On the present occasion however, my object is merely to state the theory, not to criticise it. Therefore I have sought to present the whole theory in its completely connected shape. Ona future occa- sion—I hope within the present year—it will be my endeavor to dis- conuect the now untenable parts from the parts which still remain for investigation at the hands of biological science. THE ASCENT OF MAN.* By FRANK BAKER, M. D. The science of Anthropology, one of the younger daughters of human knowledge, is so vast in its scope that to master all of its different ram- ifications seems a hopeless task. Having for its object the comprehen- sive study of man, including his origin, his development, and his present condition, its aim is to focus and co-ordinate the general results derived from avast number of subordinate branches. The philologist contrib- utes information concerning the origin and growth of language and its effect upon civilization; the mythologist tells of the psychological side of the human mind and traces the rise and progress of religious ideas; the archeologist, in order to fix their places in the history of mankind, searches for the remains of peoples long since passed away. All these depend for their material upon external records, left by tradition, by writing, by sculpture, or by implements and weapons. With greatest care every ancient habitation of man is searched in order to learn from it the details of the life of its former inhabitants. Within comparatively recent times still another avenue of informa- tion has been found, for we have learned that it is not alone by these external records that man’s history can be traced, but that important facts may be obtained by studying the constitution of his body; that the changes and vicissitudes of his existence are recorded on his very bones, in characters long undeciphered, but to which the clew has at last been found. My labors have led me more particularly to this department of anthropology, and a concise summary of the main heads of this research may be of value and interest. The views propounded by Lamarck in the early part of this century, with reference to the modification of living organisms by use and adap- tation, have been remarkably confirmed in modern times. Hxhaustive researches into the constitution and properties of the cells composing living tissues show that they are subject to continual change, each im- pulse from without being registered by some small alteration in their physical condition. Impulses of a similar kind continuously acting * Address of the Vice-president before the section of Anthropology, of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, at the Indianapolis meeting, August 20, 447 448 THE ASCENT OF MAN. produce greater changes, and long-continued repetition notably alters even the hardest and most enduring of structures. Thus it is that bones are modified in form by muscular pull and the surfaces of teeth are shaped by incessant grinding. These alterations are more readily apparent to us because they affect very hard and easily preserved organs, but the effects are equally potent, though not so clearly recog- nizable, in the softer tissues of the body. Every act of our lives is cer- tainly but surely registered within the marvellous structure of our bodies. Not a muscle can contract without an absolute change sub- stance ; in its not a nerve-cell can discharge with out some self-destruc- tion. Most of these changes being very minute and evanescent are quite beyond our power to accurately estimate, and were the increments of change confined to a single life-time, were each individual to stand only for himself and compelled to earn his experience by the same tedious struggle, use and adaptation would have but little power to mold man- kind into races and varieties. But, by the action of a law as yet im- perfectly understood, the adaptations of each individual are transmitted to its offspring; or, tospeak more accurately, the offspring pass through the changes more easily and quickly than the parent did. While each has always to go back to the beginning and commence from the simple blastema of the primitive egg, the younger has the advantage of being able to adapt itself more quickly to its surroundings, provided these have not too greatly changed, and thus starts a little way ahead of its ancestor in the race for life. In consequence of this law, changes be- come cumulative, and a cause acting for a great length of time upon a series of successive generations finally produces a well-marked and easily observed effect in the structure of individuals; changing colors, modifying organs, shaping whole regions of the body. Again, if after such changes have been effected, these causes cease to operate and the organs they have shaped are no longer of use, the latter become reduced in size, atrophy, and recede, remaining however in a vestigial condition for many, many generations as records of the past history of the race, as dolmens and cromlechs certify to former customs and flint arrow-heads and stone hatchets give evidence of a previous state of civilization. The human body abounds in testimony of this sort,—-indications of the pathway by which humanity has climbed from darkness to light, from bestiality to civilization,—relics of countless ages of struggle, often fierce, bloody, and pitiless. These are found in every organ of the body, and each new investiga- tion adds to their number. To enumerate them all would be impossible within the limits assigned me by your patience. I will therefore touch only upon a few of the more striking ones, especially those connected with the modifications of the limbs, with the erect position, and with the segmentation of the vody, THE ASCENT OF MAN. 449 The limbs, being organs of support and locomotion, show great varia- tions in the zodlogical series, and the hand of man has long been looked upon as especially significant of his high position in the animal king- dom, one of the chief distinctions between him and the nearest brutes. To a certain extent this is correct. No other creature possesses so highly complex and effective an organ for grasping and adjusting objects, and it is pre-eminently this that has made man a tool-using animal. On comparing a human hand with that of the anthropoid apes it may be seen that this efficiency is produced in two ways: first, by increasing the mobility and variety of action of the thumb and fingers; second, by reducing the muscles used mainly to assist prolonged grasp, they being no longer necessary to an organ that is intended for delicate work, and requires constant re-adjustment. Thus some elements are added and some taken away. Now according to the theory I have enunciated, the latest elements ought to show signs of their recent origin, to be somewhat imperfectly differentiated and liable to return to their primi- tive state, while those going out of active use ought to be vestigial, not equal in size or force to muscular organs generally, very liable to varia- tion or disappearance. This is what actually occurs. Among the new elements is a special flexor muscle for the thumb, arising high up on the forearm. A very slight examination shows that this muscle has been split off from the fibers of the deep flexor that bends the terminal joints of the fingers. In most apes the two form a single muscle, and in man the thumb flexor very often shows unmistakable evidence of such origin. In about 10 per cent. of persons, part of its fibers pass over to and become blended with the parent muscle. Not infrequently I have seen the two entirely united, returning absolutely to their primitive condition. The deep and super- ficial flexors of the fingers show signs of a similar relationship, as they frequently blend more or less, tending to revert to the type shown in most lower animals. Indeed, if we go back to embryonic life we find all the muscles of the anterior part of the fore-arm united in what is termed the pronato flecor mass, recalling the original condition of mus- culature in the earliest animals possessing limbs. In the category of disappearing muscles comes the palmarus longus a muscle of the fore-arm which in many animals is an important aid in climbing and grasping. It takes its origin from the upper arm and passes to the hand, where it expands into a large sheet of thick mem- brane called the palmar fascia, which splits into several slips passing to each finger. The pull of the muscle acts upon all the fingers together, keeping them bent without independence of action, Now in man the fingers have each two separate flexor tendons that can act to a certain extent independently. To insure their independence they are at the wrist enclosed in a remarkable tubular conduit or subway formed by soldering the palmar fascia to the wrist-bones. This at once destroys any effective action of the palmaris longus on the fingers and it becomes i Mis. 129 29 450 THE ASCENT OF MAN. a flexor of the wrist. This soldering undoubtedly took place because the muscle was no longer required as a finger-holder. Like other organs that after playing a part of considerable functional importance have come from change of habit to be of but little value, it shows the most astonishing tendency to variation. Not a week passes in a large dis- secting room that some curious anomaly is not found in this muscle. Sometimes it is seen almost in its primitive condition, the palmar fascia being comparatively movable and the palmaris longus having some effect upon the flexion of the fingers ; oftener it unites wholly or partially with some portion of the pronato-flexor mass or disappears altogether. The disappearance is usually only ajparent, however. Regressive struc- tures rarely disappear totally, for on careful search astrip of fascia ean usually be found that represents the atrophied and aborted organ. Since these two examples differ in that the first represents the devel- opment of a new muscle while the second is the atrophy of an old one, we ought to find racial differences corresponding to these two condi- tions. Our studies of racial anatomy are as yet far from sufficient to give us complete information upon these points, and I would especially avoid generalizing upon too meager data. It has however appeared to me that in negroes the palmaris longus is more inclined to assume its primitive type—that is, is less likely to vary—while the long flexor of the thumb is on the contrary more inclined to be partially, if not wholly, united with the deep flexor of the fingers. Connected intimately with the hand are the other portions of the thoracic limb that carry it from place to place. Here again we may note many points indicating a progressive development of the member. When the arm is naturally and easily bent at the elbow it does not carry the hand to the shoulder, as might be expected, but towards the mouth. The reason for this is that the articular surfaces of the elbow- joint are not cut horizontally across the axis of the humerus, but inclined at an angle of about 20°. This obliquity does not occur in the foetus and is less in Bushmen, Australians, and the anthropoid apes. It is associ- ated with another peculiarity ; indeed, may be said to be caused by it. This is a twisting of the humerus on its long axis, which occurs markedly in the higher races. If we hold up endwise the humerus of a European we see that the longest diameters of the upper and lower ends very nearly coincide. In the negro we find the lower diameter turned more towards the body, still more in the anthropoid apes, and again more as we descend the scale. Embryology teaches that the humerus was for- merly set so that the hollow of the elbow looked towards the body rather than forward, and it seems therefore that as the functions of the limb became more various, the lower end of the bone gradually twisted outward around the long axis until its diameter described a considerable are. This turned the hand with the palm to the front, ex- tended its range, and adapted it for a wider usefulness. Greater twist is found in the right humerus than in the left and in the humeri of THE ASCENT OF MAN. 451 modern times than in those of the stone age. As the torsion increased some provision became necessary for carrying the hand easily across the body to the mouth. This was effected by the inclination of the ar- ticular surfaces of the elbow-joint already mentioned. Many moveinents of the arm in man are produced by muscles acting upon the shoulder-blade or scapula. As the hand was turned outward and a wider range given, these increased in extent and im portance, and the scapula accordingly widened out at its vertebral border in order to give a more extensive attachinent for muscles. In order to accurately estimate this change the ratio of the breadth to the length of the scapula is taken. This ratio, called the scapular index, is highest among the white races, less in the infant, in negroes, and in Austra- lians, and still less in anthropoid apes. It is significant also that the vertebral border of the scapula is the last to form in the foetus. We have therefore three modifications—the torsion of the humerus, the inclination of its lower articular surface, and the scapular index—all depending upon each other, all varying together pari passu, and all showing a progressive development both in the individual and the race. Muscle is composed of one of the most highly organized and expen- sive tissues of the body. Unless fed constantly with a great supply of blood to keep up its active metabolic changes, it quickly wastes, func- tional activity being absolutely necessary to its proper maintenance, as any one knows who has seen how rapidly the muscles of an athlete diminish when he goes out of training. If from accident or change of habit its use altogether ceases, its protoplasm is gradually removed, its blood supply diminishes, ard it shrinks to a mere band or sheet of fibrous tissue. Changes of function may therefore affect the form of muscles, one portion becoming tendinous or fascia-like; may even cause them to shift their places, by inducing a development on one side and an atrophy on another, or to disappear altogether, being replaced by fascia orligament. A similar regression may take place in bone and car- tilage a high-grade, actively metabolic tissue, difficult to maintain, being replaced by a low-grade one comparatively slow to change. It is there- fore not unusual to find that muscles, bones, and cartilages performing important functions in some animals are represented by vestigial struc- tures in those higher in the scale. Our conclusions on this subject are confirmed by finding occasional instances where the hereditary ten- dency has been greater than usual and the parent form is re-produced more or less completely in the higher animal. The palmar fascia at the distal end of the palmaris longus, to which allusion has been made, represents a former muscular portion, relics of which probably remain as some of the small thumb muscles. Another interesting instance is the epitrochleo-anconeus, a small muscle at the elbow joint, used in apes to effect a lateral movement of the ulna upon the humerus. In man the ulna has become so shaped that the lateral movement is almost wholly lost, and the muscle has 452 THE ASCENT OF MAN. accordingly degenerated, being represented by a strip of fascia. Very often however, a few muscular fibers are still found in this situation. Several minor peculiarities that remind us of primitive conditions occur in the region of the humerus. Occasionally a supracondyloid process is found, throwing a protecting arch over the brachial artery and median nerve; in this resembling the supracondyloid foramen of marsupials. Struthers found this to be hereditary, occurring in a father and four children. A perforation of the olecranon fossa, the pit at the lower end of the humerus into which the beak-like end of the ulna fits when the arm is fully extended, may probably be regarded as a rever- sion toward the condition of anthropoid apes. This frequently occurs in South African and other low tribes and in the men of the stone age. Recently Dr. D.S. Lamb has found it remarkably frequent in pre-historic Indian humeri from the Salado Valley, Arizona. While the region of the hand and fore-arm indicates increase of specialization, the upper part of the limb generally testifies to a regres- sion from a former more highly developed state. The anatomy of the flying apparatus of a bird shows a series of muscular, ligamentous, and bony structures connected with its upper arm far beyond anything ever seen in man. The coracoid bone, a very important element of the shoulder girdle in birds, has become reduced in man to a little vestigial ossicle that about the sixteenth year becomes soldered to the scapula as the coracoid process. The muscles arising from this,—pectoralis minor, coraco-brachialis, and biceps,—are structures represented in birds by strong, flying muscles. The subclavius, a little slip ending at the clavicle, appears to have formerly passed to the coracoid bone or to the humerus and been employed in arm movement. The pectoralis major appears to represent what was formerly a series of muscles. All these have a tendency to repeat their past history, and the number of variations found among them is legion. The biceps show traces of its former complexity by appearing with three, four, or even five heads, by a great variety of insertions, by sending a tendon outside the joint capsule instead of through it, as is the rule. The pectoralis major may break up into several different muscular integers, inserted from the shoulder capsule down to the elbow. The coraco-brachialis shows the same instability, and by its behavior clearly indicates its derivation from a much larger and more extensive muscular sheet. Not less significant are the ligaments about the shoulder. Many of these appear to be relics of organs found active in animals lower in the scale. Thus the coraco-acromial ligament spanning over the shoulder joint is probably a former extension of the acromion process; the rhom- boid, conoid, trapezoid, and gleno-humeral ligaments represent regres- Sive changes in the subclavius muscle, the coraco-humeral ligament, a former insertion of the pectoralis minor. Bands of the deep cervical fascia alone remain to testify to the former existence of the levator clav- THE ASCENT OF MAN. 453 icule, a muscle present in most mammals and used to pull forward the shoulder girdle when walking in a quadrupedal position. In negroes I have frequently found it more or less complete. A fibrous strip unit- ing the latissimus dorsi to the triceps is all that remains of an impor- tant muscle, the dorso-epitrochlearis, passing from the back to the elbow or forearm, used by gibbons and other arboreal apes in swinging from branch to branch. Testut found this fully developed ina Bushman. I have myself seen various muscular slips that must represent some por- tions of it, and authors generally describe it as occurring in 5 or 6 per cent. of individuals. The hind limbs of apes are popularly thought to be remarkably specialized. The term quadrumana or four-handed is used to charae- terize the class ; yet it is quite true that this term involves a false con- ception. No animal has four exactly similar feet, still less four hands. The feet of the ape differ widely from hands; the great toe is not really opposable like the thumb, but merely separable from the others and differently set, so as to afford a grasp like that of a crampiron. The gibbon alone has a small muscle of the foot that may be compared with the opponens of the thumb. That these peculiarities are also shared by man to some extent is well known. It is quite possible to train the toes to do certain kind of prehensile work, even to write, cut paper, and sew. THE AGE OF BRONZE IN EGYPT. 513 is unreliable, and so much the less probable, inasmuch as the blade in nowise recalls Egyptian poniards, but, on the contrary, resembles many European swords of bronze. The Egyptians, like other nations, made use of lances. On Egyptian monuments these arms are sometimes seen provided with very short handles.* Bronze barbs are also found, but not in large numbers, in the collee- . tion of Egyptian antiquities. One of these is exhibited in Fig. 41; the long socket is fermed by a fold so that a lengthy fissure is seen.t Bronze lances, the sockets of which are formed in this primitive manner, have not only been discovered in Egypt, but also in Cypras and Greece. Some of the lance points of Egyptian bronze have a very narrow barb, others are of greater width.t As innumerable representations demonstrate, the bow played a prominent role among the Egyptians, both in war and in the chase. Consequently, a large quantity of arrow points of bronze have been found. A goodly number of them have a stalk, by means of which they are attached to the staff (Fig. 23). They are often also ornamented with two long projections from the barb (Fig. 24). Others are pro- vided with a socket (Fig. 22). Sometimes the sockets of the arrows (Fig. 21) are formed by folding back the edges of the lower portion ; that is, in the same manner as in the cases of the sockets for the lance barbs. A large proportion of Egyptian arrow points are made with three sharp edges. Such barbs are frequent in western Asia and Greece, where they belong to epochs comparatively recent. Sometimes upon Egyptian monuments the arrow points have a transversal edge (Fig. 25), the red color of which makes us apprehend they were of bronze. Arrow points of silex with a transversal edge have been found in Egypt and in some European countries, such as France and southern Sweden. Amongst the bronze implements it is necessary to remark, besides the axes already mentioned, chisels (Fig. 39), knives (Fig. 42), saws (Fig. 44), drills, awls (Fig. 46), small pincers, hooks (Fig. 45), ete. A large number of them have still retained their handles of wood or horn. Just *Perrot and Chipiez. Ouvr. cit., vol. 1, Fig. 173. Comp. Wilkinson, Manners and Customs, p. 291. The points are often painted red, and consequently were of bronze. (Lepsius, Les Métaux), Pl. 1, Figs. 4 and 12. t The original of Fig. 41 belongs to the museum at Boulaq. The rent is not only to be seen upon the socket part, which is below the commencement of the blade, but also above it. A similar lance point of Theban bronze forms a part of the collection of Mr. Greenwell at Durham. Compare, Mémoires de la Société royale des Antiquaires du Nord. 1873-74, p. 128, Fig. 3. {The Louvre possesses an Egyptian lance point of bronze, the blade of which is not so narrow as that in Fig. 41, nor of an equal width. Still wider is a lance puint which belongs to the Berlin Museum (Wilkinson, Manners and Customs, vol. 1, p. 312, Fig. 34a). A lance point with a blade of unusual length, wide at bottom, but narrow at the top, is represented in the work last cited, vol. 1, p, 406, H, Mis. 129 33 514 THE AGE OF BRONZE IN EGYPT. as upon the axes and poniards, are often seen upon these iniplements— either on the handle or the bronze itself—a legend in hieroglyphies. The majority of the implements which we have just cited are aiso represented on Egyptian monuments, and are there usually painted red* (Figs. 38 and 44). Sickles and needles were also made of bronze; likewise mirrors, strings for musical instruments resembling harps, not to cite other examples.t The mirrors, which are round slabs or plates, with handles, resemble those with which we are acquainted from Kstruscan tombs. We possess as yet very few Egyptian bronzes of a well determined age, and these date almost all from ages immediately bordering on the epoch when they had begun to use iron. Now we can not respond as completely as we would wish to this important question, What forms are characteristic to each period of the Egyptian age of bronze? It is only very seldom—as, for instance, when hilts of poniards (Figs. 9-11), or handles of axes (Figs. 30-33) are referred to—that we can follow the typologic development. Meanwhile that which we know already is very interesting. The discovery of the tomb of Queen A’hhotep proves that poniards of the type of Fig. 11 are a little anterior to the year 1500 B. C. AS a consequence the types (Figs. 9 and 10) belong to a more remote era.t This is confirmed by the fact that the original of Fig. 9 was discovered in the same tomb as the ax represented by Fig. 33. This tomb ought to date from the year 2000 B. Cc. or thereabouts, since the axes similar to Fig. 15, as we have seen, are represented upon the monuments of the twelfth dynasty, reigning at that period. Too few Iieyptian bronzes of the epoch we are examining have been until now chemically investigated. We can, however, discover that the bronze then employed in Egypt, as that used in Europe during the age of bronze, was an alloy of copper and tin, probably without the intentiona- addition of lead, zine, or other metal. § An Egyptian poniard analyzed by Vanquelin, containing 85 parts to 100 of copper, 14 parts to 100 of tin, and 1 part to 100 of iron, or of other metals. || Other arms of Egyptian bronze are composed of 94 parts to 100 of cop- per, 5.9 parts to 100 of tin, and 0.£ part to 100 of iron.4| According to Wilkinson ** the proportion of tin in almost all Egyptian bronzes analyzed up to the present time is about 12 parts to 100. *Lepsius. Les Méteauc, Pl. 11. Fig. 19, of the same plate proves that bronze knives were also used for shaving off the hair. t Lepsius. Les Méteaux, Pl. 11, Fig. 13 (sickle), Fig. 20 (inirror), and Fig. 22 (harp). {D’Athanasi. Account of researches, p. 183. § In more recent Egyptian bronzes we often meet with lead, and perhaps zine. Bibra. Die Bronzen der alten und altesten Volker, , p. 94. || Bibra. Die Bronzen, p. 94. {| Birtish Museum. 4 guide to the Egyptian rooms (Loudon 1879), p. 40. ** Manners and Customs, vol. ut. The special analyses upon which this datum is based are not, however, quoted. . THE AGE OF BRONZE IN EGYPT. 55 1 The Egyptians were forced to import the tin necessary for their in dustries, and this was certainly an enormous quantity. They probably had recourse to Asia, for this precious metal, even more indispensable in antiquity than in our own days.* Copper, on the other hand, was common, if not in their own country, at least in the immediate vicinity. The peninsula of Sinai possesses considerable mines, mining operations in which began at a period very remote. “Erman. anaes ene ieee ia Geography. To determine man’s place in nature and his acquaintance PTO MONON dapooc Sosa on deco UateaoT Aa ade coGoes 6a55ee.s0e .-- Botany and zoélogy. [t will readily be seen that one man may not be profoundly versed in anthropology, but everyone who reads the foregoing syllabus care- fully will at a glance discover that there is some particular branch of the subject for which he is fitted by his daily occupations. The resources already in existence for the student, both general and special, will be noted in the proper order. They may be classified as follows : (1) Those relating to the subject as a whole. (2) The resources of biological studies. (3) Psycho-physical investigations, that is, the study of psychology experimentally. (4) The races of men. Philosophy, folk-lore, and mythology. ) (6) (7) Sociology. (8) (9) The relation of nature to man. PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. eee ay :5) I.—GENERAL ANTHROPOLOGY. {ft must be remembered in this connection that we have not now to lay the foundation for a new science, but to bring together the results of an exceedingly vigorous one. The resources at our command are: (1) General treatises, like Tylor’s “Anthropology,” courses of lec- tures, encyclopedias, and classifications. (2) Societies with their published proceedings and transactions and periodicals devoted entirely to the study of man. (3) Assemblies and congresses, national and international, with their: Comptes-rendus. (4) Museums and collections, public and private, with catalogues and books of instructions. Expositions. (5) Special libraries containing both literature and albums. (6) Laboratories, as in other sciences, for investigation both in struct- ural and functional anthropology. The most noteworthy event in our science for Americans, was the Congres International des Américanistes, at Paris. At this meeting the compte-rendu of the seventh session held in Berlin (1888) was pre- sented. The list of papers there printed is as follows: On the name America, Guido Cora. Basques, Bretons, and Normans on the coast of North America in the beginning of the sixteenth cen- tury, M. Gaffarel. Publication of writings and documents relative to Columbus and his times, on the oceasion of the celebration of the fourth centenary of the discovery of America, Guido Cora. Ensayo hist6rico de lalegislacion primitiva de los estados espanoles de América, M. Fabié. Bemerkungen zur modernen Litteratur fiber die Entdeckung Amerikas, M.Geleich. Onthe Nahuatl version of Sahagun’s Historia de la Nueva Espana, Daniel G. Brinton. Archeology of Mexico and South America, Dr. Heger. Colliers de pierre de Porto Rico, Jimenez dela Espada. An- tiquities of the State of Vera Cruz, Hermann Strebel. Archeological result of a voyage to Mexico, Edward Seler. Origin, working bypoth- esis, and primary researches of the Hemenway Southwestern Archo- logical Exposition, F. H. Cushing. Antiquities of Nicaragua, Charles Boralius. Antiquités céramiques de Vile de Marajo; sur la néphrite et la jadeite, Ladislau Netto. Sur la provenance de la néphrite et la jadeite, R. Virchow. Die Verbreitung der Eskimo Stiimmer, H. Rink. The Aztecs and their probable relations to the Pueblo Indians of New Mexico, 8. B. Evans. De Vemploi de la coca dans les pays septentrio- naux de VAmérique du Sud, A. Ernst. Die Bekleidung eines reichen Guajiro Indianers, C. M. Pleyte. Sur la craniologie américaine, kh. Virchow. An anatomical characteristic of the hyoid bone of the pre- Columbian Pueblo Indians, Arizona, Drs. Wortman and Ten Kate. Die Frage nach der Kinheit oder Vielheit der amerikanischen Hin geborenen- rasse gepriift an der Untersuchung ihres Haarwachses, Gustav Fritsch, Die Chronologie des diluvialen Menschen in Nordamerika, Emil H, Mis. 129—34 . 530 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. Schmidt. Vestiges laissés par les populations pré-Colombiennes de Nicaragua, Désiré Pector. Uber alt-peruanische Hausthiere, Dr. Neh- ring. Die Nutzpflauzen der alteu Peruaner, L. Wittmack. Diritto e morale nel Messico antico, Vincenzo Grossi. La cremazione in Ame- rica prima e dopo Cristoforo Colombo, Grossi. Anthropologie des peu- ples d@Anahuac au temps de Cortez, R. Hartmann. Was America peo. pled from Polynesia? Horatio Hale. Etude sur la langue Mam, le Comte de Charencey. Textes, analyses et vocabulaire de la langue Timucua, Raoul dela Grasserie. De la famille linguistique Pano, id. The histor- ‘ical archives of the Hemenway Southwestern Archeological Expedition, Adolf Bandelier. Sur le débris de cuisine (Sambaquis) du Brésil, H. Miiller. Das Verhiltniss zwischen dem Ketschua und Aimaraid. Sur une ancienne carte de VAmérique, M. Gaffarel. Verwandtschaften und Wanderungen des Tschebtscha, Max Uhle. Trois familles linguistiques des bassins de Amazone et de VOrenoque, Lucien Adam. Bibliographie des récentes conquétes de la linguistique sud-américaine, Lucien Adam. Das Tonalamatl der Aubin’schen Sammlung und die Verwandten Kalenderbiicher, Edward Seler. Die Entzifferuang der Maya Hand- schriften, E. Férstemann. Classification chronologique des monuments architectoniques de Pancien Pérou, Ferdinand Borsari. Contribution & Vaméricanisme du Cauca (Colombie), Léon Douay. Linguistique des peuples qui habitent le centre de PAmérique du Sud, von den Steinem. Figures péruviennes en argent, Liiders. The Section of Anthropology in the American Association for the Advancement of Science had for its presiding officer Dr. Frank Baker, the director of the National Zodlogical Park. His address will be no- ticed in the chapter on Biology. The following are the titles of impor- tant papers read: Indian origin of maple sugar, H. W. Henshaw; Fort Ancient, W. K. Moorehead ; Aboriginal stone implements of the Potomac Valley, W. H. Holmes; Earthwork near Fosters, Little Miami Valley, Ohio, F. W. Putnam; Brains and medisected head of man and chimpanzee, Burt G. Wilder; Gold beads of Indian manufacture from Florida and New Jersey, C. C. Abott; A study in mental statistics, J. Jastrow ; Arts of modern savages for interpreting archeology, O. T. Mason; Relation of mind to its physical basis, KE. D. Cope; Ancient hearth in the Little Miami Valley, F. W. Putnam; Evolution of a sect, Anita N. McGee. The sixtieth meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science was held in Leeds, September 3-13. The vice presidential address of Mr. John Evans was devoted mainly to this question: What is the antiquity of the human race, or, rather, what is the antiquity of the earliest objects hitherto found which can with safety be assigned to the handiwork of man? As regards Tertiary man there are three classes of evidence, to wit: (1) the presumed discovery of parts of the human skeleton ; (2) that of animal bones said to have been cut and worked by the hand of man; and (3) that of Hints thought to be arti- PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 531 ficially fashioned (J. Anthrop. Inst., x11, 565; Tr. Hertsford Nat. Hist. Soc., 1, 545). In summing up the evidence, Dr. Evans says that the present verdict as to Tertiary man must be in the form of “ not proven.” The latter part of the address is devoted to the question of the Aryan language and the Aryan race and to the improved resources of anthro- pological study. Papers were read upon the following topics: Hered- itism, F. O. Morris; Religion of the Australian aborigines, J. W. Faw- cett; The present aspect of the jade question, F. W. Rudler; Is there a break in mental evolution? Lady Welby; Unidentified peoples in Britain in pre-Roman times, Dr. Phéné; Yourouks of Asia Minor, T. Bent; Aryan cradle land, J. Stuart Glennie; Reversions, Nina Layard; Physical development, G. W. Hambleton; Archeological remains bearing on the origin of the Anglo-Saxons in England, Dr. Munro; Dugegleby ‘ Howe,” E. Maure Cole; Romano-British graveyard in Wet- wang-with-Fimber, J. &. Mortimer; Minute neolithic implements, H. C. March; Retrogression in prehistoric civilization in Thames Valley, H. Stopes; Boring of stone hammers, W. Horne; Stethographic trac- ings of male and female respiratory movements, Wilberforce Simith; Human remains at Woodyates, Wittshire, J. G. Garson; Old and modern excavations of the Wandsdyke at Woodyates, Gen. Pitt Rivers. The British Association committees form an active part of the general meetings. Upon anthropological subjects were the Report upon the new edition of the little haudbook for collectors entitled Notes and Queries; Report of the committee on anthropometric laboratory; On prehistoric inhabitants of Britain; On nomad tribes of Asia Minor; On northwestern tribes of Canada; On India. The British Association for the Advancement of Science, codperating with the Anthropological Institute of London, organized a lecture course on anthropology, differing from the Paris course not only in being less technical, but also in the repetition of the lectures before institutions and before the public in various cities throughout the United Kingdom. The series was as follows: (1) Physical anthropology. By Dr. Garson. (2) The geological history of man. By F. W. Rudler. (3) Prehistoric dwellings, tombs, and monuments. By A. L. Lewis. (4) Development of the arts of life. By Henry Balfour. (5) Social institutions. By E. W. Brabrook. (6) Anthropometry. By G. W. Bloxam. During the current year the beneficent results of the Paris Exposition began to appear, especially in the form of reports on the various con- gresses. Of the tenth session of Congrés international @’ Anthropologie et @Archéologie préhistoriques, M. Hamy, Membre de l’Iustitut, and general secretary of the congress, prepared the Compte Rendu, a pamphlet of 43 pages, The French Association for the Advancement 532 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. of Science met during the current year at Limoges, August 7-15. In this association is a section devoted exclusively to anthropological subjects. The twenty-first meeting of the German Anthropological Association was held at Munster, Westphalia, August 11-15. At each one of these annual meetings it is customary to explore thoroughly the anthro- pological resources of the region. Professor Hosius this year read a paper on the geognostic structure of Westphalia, the prehistoric sta- tions and the remains of quaternary animals found there, and Professor Nordhoft followed up this communication with one upon the urns and the weapons found in this state. The German Association of Naturalists and physicians (Versammlung deutscher Naturforscher und Aertzte) must not be confounded with the General Anthropological Society of the empire and Austria. The first named lield its sixty-third meeting in Bremen, 15-20th September. The Russian Association of Naturalists and physicians held its eighth meeting in St. Petersburg, January 8-19. In the 70 sessions 2,200 took part and over 400 communications were made. One of the ten sections was devoted to geography, ethnography, and anthropology. The subjects discussed were, migrations, history of primitive culture, anthropometry, local archeology, and the ethnography of Russia. Upon this last point the opportunities of study are unparalleled and the Russian ethnographers have not failed to make use of them. There is no better illustration of the rapidity with which the science of anthropology has asserted itself than the museo de la Plata, asketeh of which is here given (Plate I). The capital of the province of Buenos Ayres, the city of La Plata, was founded in 1882, to replace as a seat of provincial authority the city of Buenos Ayres declared in 1880 to be the capital of the republic. In the brief space of time intervening, under the energetic management of Signor Francisco P. Moreno, a fully equipped museum is completed. The anthropological portion owes its existence almost entirely to the director. It is especially rich in material illus- trating the aboriginal life of the republic. (Plate Il.—Ground-plan of Museum.) In the summary of last year a brief account was given of the manner in which the science of man is covered in the institutions of Paris. Dr. Sophus Miiller contributes the following list for Copenhagen: (1) Royal Museum of Northern Antiquities. Devoted to early Den- mark, including the stone, the bronze, the iron, and the historic period, until 1660. (2) The Folk Museum, general historic museum, from 1660 to 1800, Will be united with the Museum of Northern Antiquities under one direction in a new building. (3) Rosenburg Castle, the collections to illustrate the life and history of the present dynasty. (4) The Fredericksburg Castle Collection, general Danish history from 1000-1800. . PLATE I. 890, Part I. 1 port Re Smithsonian Radek ee 3h BS a es i ‘VIVId V1 34d OASnIN Smithsonian Report, 1890, Part |. PLATE Il. SOMMYNMALYND |))) Iuarvnd $OL319NOS3 SOLA} VINIHINY A SOV WAY: | | OIMMOSIAOYd JHINVSNG aN wI4vN SOWIDINYVD SONV3dGWVd-1S0d A SONVW3IdWYd A A‘LD3SNI'S3N00304) Sa71ISO3 SO3DV139 4) faMBARAR A Fal PLAN OF THE MUSEUM OF LA PLATA—PRINCIPAL FLOOR. j : i t val 7 Pas Ps ee | PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 533 (5) A new museum for medieval and modern times in other coun- tries of Hurope. (6) Ethnographic Museum, arranged to show the civilizations of the world by tribes. This was probably the first collection in Kurope to be laid out upon a strictly ethnographic basis. (7) Royal Museum of classic antiquities in Prinzens Palais. (8) Royal collection of coins in Prinzens Palais. No mention is made here of the royal galleries of art nor of the col- lection of crania and skeletons in the Zodlogical Museum. ‘The visitor to Copenhagen never fails to spend a day in the Thorwalsden Museum, into which the affectionate esteem of his fellow citizens has gathered the works of the great sculptor and his personal effects and displayed them most attractively. A work of primary importance, which the director of every other authropological museum should imitate with great promptness and care, is Dr. Hamy’s volume entitled Origines du Musée @’Ethnographie du Trocadero, Paris. The first exotic presents known to have come to France were the gifts of Haroun al Raschid to Charlemagne, 801 and 807, A.D. From that moment to the present all sorts of treasures, gotten in many ways, have been in the charge of public keepers. ‘The modern museum is shown by this volume to have been the growth of ages, the beginning or germ being the curiosity of the king or some of the nobility. It would be well if every important museum could have a volume of history like Dr. Hamy’s ‘ Origines.” In addition to a thorough history of each public museum, prepared by its own authorities, the exigencies of intercommunication have led to the founding of a journal for museum workers, entitled, [nterna- tionales Archiv fiir Ethnographie (Leyden), and in February, appeared the first number of the Bulletin des Musées, Paris. It is edited by Mr. Edward Garnier and Léonce Benedite, aud resembles the Berlin ** Year Book of the Royal Prussian Art Collections,” under the heading of ‘‘Mouvement des Musées it gives notes on other national galleries and collections, and a bibliography. The standard list of journals remains the same. No anthropologist can afford to neglect the following list : The American Anthropologist, Washington; Archiv fiir Anthropologie, Braunschweig ;'Archivio per Antropologia, Firenze; Bulletins de la So- ciété @ Anthropologie de Paris; Internationales Archiv fiir Ethnographie, Leyden; Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, London; L’ Anthropologie, Paris; Mittheilungen der Anthropolo- gischen Gesellschaft in Wien ; Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft fiir Anthropologie, etc., Berlin; Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie, by the same society. Journals of a popular character which can not be neglected are: Academy, London; The American Naturalist, New York ; Atheneum, London; Ausland, Stuttgard; Nature, London; Popular Science Monthly, New York; Rérue Scientifique, Paris ; Science, New York. 534 PROGRESS OF ANTIIROPOLOGY IN 1890. Il.—-BIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY. This enormous subject, covering practically the whole of the structural part of anthropology, is amply represented in a few publications. Tor titles alone the Index Medicus and the Index Catalogue of the Surgeon- General’s library are the best guides accessible to Americans. In England this part of the subject is most elaborately worked out in the biological and zoélogical journals. The Paris Bulletins, the German Archiv and Zeitschrift, the Italian Archivio, and the Austrian Mittheilungen, though covering the entire science, are specially rich and full in biological matters. With the original papers, accounts of meetings, reviews of publications and bibliography there is little more to be desired either for the beginner or for the advanced student. Dr. Frank Baker devoted his vice-presidential address before Section H of the American Association to the organs of the human body that point to a past condition much lower than the present ;—indications of the pathway by which humanity has climbed from darkness to light, from bestiality to civilization. These organs are of two kinds, those that added or improved and those that are taken away or atrophied. Those specially mentioned are connected with the modifications of the limbs, with the erect posture, and with the segmentation of the body. In the hand the special flexor muscle of the thumb is a new element, while the palmaris longus is in the category of disappearing muscles. The torsion of the humerus and the incurvation of its trochlear surface and the scapular index all show a progressive development both in the individual and in the race. The palmar fascia, the epitrochles-anconeus, a process resembling the supra-condyloid foramen of marsupials, the perforation of the olecranon fossa remind of primitive conditions. While the region of the hand and fore arm indicates increase of specialization, the upper part of the limb generally testifies to a regression. This principle is illustrated by ex- amples. The hind limbs of apes as compared with the human legs and the acquisition of the erect posture are closely examined. Upon the latter point Dr. Baker summarizes the evidences that the adaptation of man to the erect posture is yet far from complete. These resemblances with anthropoid apes are held to indicate not lineal descent, but common ancestry, and the differences in the races of mankind do not justify our separating them on structural grounds. In his work on races and peoples Dr. Daniel G. Brinton summarizes the physical characteristics used in classification of mankind: SCHEME OF PRINCIPAL PHYSICAL ELEMENTS. , Dolichocephalic-. ..long skulls. Skull ....< Mesocephalic -..... medium skulls, Brachycephalie .... broad skulls. Leptorhine -------- narrow noses. Noses. < Mesorhiine)s 2 o-)- =. medium noses. Platyrnines == 22. flat or broad noses. PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 535 Mecaseme 2-22 5-- =- round eyes. yes) ass-= Mesoseme....-..--- medium eyes. Microseme@sa-. eee narrow eyes. Orthognathie ..-... straight or vertical jaws. Jaws Sane Mesognathie Bene. medium jaws. Proenathic One SRN projecting jaws. Chameprosopic .... low or broad face. Face. ..-. Mesoprosopic ..-.-.. medium face. Letoprosopic..-.-.- narrow or high face. Biatypellic sss. 2: broad pelvis. iRelviseseei w z. 2 i=] : ; aw —— American... —— a Insular and | littoral peo-¢ ples. | t —— yo ———————— — | Color, white, | Hair, wavy and Nose, narrow. Color, black or dark, Hair, frizzly and Nose, broad. Color, yellow or olive; hair, straight and Nose, medium, | Color, coppery, Hair, straight or wavy, and Nose, medium, Color, dark Hair, frizaly, and wavy or | Il. II. Il. 106 IW) Nose, medium or | IIT. harrow. Tanean. North Medi- terrane . Negrillo . Sibiric . Northern Central. . . Southern . Nigritic - Malayic an. Australie ._.. . South Mediter- — 1. me WO Dw 1 SG ats Oo Cor emia C9 TINS eh Cha INO es. ewe © we bp . Nilotie . Soudanese. . Chinese . Thibetan . Indo-Chinese. .... . Tungusic . Mongolic . Mexican . Isthmian ACEI ATTIC). = eta seteist= . Pacific . Negrito . Papuan . Melanesian . Malayan . Australian . Dravidian Stocks. Hamitic . Central African -. . South African. -.. . Senegambian. . Guinean. AM PartaviGrcswennn ct . Polynesian ....... seer ewee Brinton, D, G., Races and Peoples, New York, 1390, Ps YD; Groups or peoples. . Libyan. . Egyptian. . East African. . Arabian. . Abyssinian. . Chaldean. Euskarian. wonde wn Indo-Germanic or Celtindie peoples. Peoples of the Cau- casus. Dwarfs of the Congo. Bushmen, Hotten- tots. Nubian. Caffre and Congo tribes. Chinege. Natives of Thibet. Burmese, Siamese. Manchus, Tungus. Mongols, Kalmucks. Turks, Cossacks. Finns, Magyars. Chukchis, Ainos. Japanese, Koreans. Eskimos. Tinueh, Algonkins, Troquois. Chinooks, Kolosh, etc. Nabuas, Tarascos. Mayas, Chapanecs. Caribs, Tupis. Chibchas, Quichuas. Mincopies, Aetas. Arawaks, New Guineans. Feejeeans, etc. Malays, Tagalas. Pacifie Islanders. Australians. Dravidas, Mundas. atthe ae PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 543 Scheme of the Hurafrican race—North Mediterranean branch. {Tribes in italics are extinct. | I. Euscariec stock.... 1. Euscaric group ....-.Euscaidonac, Basques, Sards, Siculi, Aquitanians, Picts, (?) Ligurians, (?) Cantabrians. (41. Celtic group... ...-.. Gauls, Highland Scotch, Irish, Welsh, Manx, Bretons, Celtiberians, Cymri. 2eltalic LLOUP-. cesses Latins, Umbrians, Oscans, Sabines, Italians, Freuch, Spanish, Portuguese, Roumanians, Wailachians. 3. Lilyric group.......-- Illyrians, Albanians, Thracians, Japyges (2). 4. Hellenic group..-..-- Pelasgi, Phrygians, Lydians, Macedonians, Greeks. II, Aryac stock....... HS laebbiC: OLOUP =] seein aes Letts, Lithuanians, Old Prussians. | 6. Teutonic group ....-- Goths. Vandals, Franks, Angles, Saxons, Suevi, Scan- dinavians,Germans, Danes, Dutch, English, Anglo- | Americans. | 7. Slavonic LOUD ease Russians, Peles, Czechs, Servians,Croatians, Wends, | Bulgarians, Montenegrins. | 8. Indo.Eranic group..-.Armenians, Persians, Bactrians, Hindoos, Kafirs, { Dards, Beluchis, Hunzas, Gypsies. 1. Lesghie group ....... Avars, Laks, Udes, Kurins. Ibi ancasiostocla ee 2. Circassic group .----- Circassians, Abkhasians. | 3. Kistic group.--...--- Tush, Karaboulaks. 4. Georgie group .--...- Georgians, Mingrelians, Lazs. —Brinton, Races and Peoples, New York, 1890, p. 140. Scheme of Aryac migration. [Extinct peoples in italics. | EUROPEAN. ASIAN. ( Letto-Lithuanians. | Teutons. ) Phrygians. Northern Peoples (Blondes). ¢ Slavonians. Cappadocians. ee Thracians. Armenians. Primitive Aryans (West- | Gee ae \ : ern Europe). ( Dacians. Medes. | Hellenes. Iranians. : J Indians. S ay 3 J Southern Peoples (Brunettes) - } Illyrians. Italians. (Celts. —Brinton, D. G., Races and Peoples, New York, 1890, p. 153. Scheme of the European race—South Mediterranean Branch. | Extinet peoples in italics. | Iebibyan Proup....<...-- Numidians, Getulians, Libyans, Mauritanians, Guan- . £ ’ ’ ’ ches, Berbers, Rifians, Zouaves, Kabyles, Tuareks, Tibbus, Ghadumes, Mzabites, Ghanatas, Htruscans, I. Hamitie stock. Amorites, Assyrians, Hittites (?). 4 2. Egyptian group...-.... Copts, Fellaheen. 3. East African group.---Gallas, Somalis, Danakils, Bedjas, Bilins, Afars, Khamirs. { 1. Arabian group.....-.. Himayarites, Sabeans, Nabotheans, Arabs, Bedawin, | Ehkilis. IL. Semitic stock. 2 2. Abyssinian group...- Ambarnis, Tigris, ‘Tigrians, Gheez, Ethiopians, Har- raras. 3. Chaldean group.....-..Israclites, Arameans, Samaritans, Brinton, D, G,, Races and Peoples, New York, 1890, p. 104, 544 I. Negrillo branch... II, Negro branch... PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. Scheme of the Austafrican Race. | 1. Equatorial group...-.. Akkas, Tikkitikkis, Obongas, Dokos, Vonatoans, Kimos of Madagascar. 2. South African group..-Bushmen, Hottentots, Namaquas, Quaquas. (22 Noloticroroupysseec ee Shilluks, Dinkas, Bongos, Kiks, Baris, Nuers. | 2. Sudanese group ..---- Haussas, Battas, Bornus, Kanoris, Ngurus, Akras. 3. Senegambian group-...Serreres, Banyums, Wolofs, Foys. 4. Guinean group..-..-... Ashantis, Dahomis, Fantis, Yorubas, Mandingoes, Veis, Krus. (1. Nubian group.......-- Nubas, Barabras, Dongolowis, Pouls, Tumalis, Nyam Nyams, Monbuttus. 2B anuW enol preereertae Caftres, Zulus, Bechuanas, Sakalavas, Damas, derrcros, ILI. Negroid branch. { | Suahelis, Ovambos, Bassutos, Barolongs, Bengas, Duallas, Wagandas. —Brinton, D. G., Races and Peoples. New York, 1890, p. 174. I. Sinitic Branchb.. - ls, 1 Il. Sibiric Branch.. | 4. Scheme of the Asian Race. : (1. Chinese Group..--...--. Chinese. | [P2eeeninibetameons seecieacesas Thibetans, Ladakis, Nepalese, Bhotanese. | 3. Indo-Chinese Group..-..Birmese, Siamese, Annamese, Cambodians, Cochin- Chinese, Tonkinese. (1. Tungusice Group..-....- Tuugus, Manchus. 2. Mongolic Group ...---- Mongols, Kalmucks. MartariciGrowpieeceseses Turcomans, Yakouts, Vurks (Osmanli), Usbeck, Kirghis, Cosacks, Huns. Binnie Groupee eeeee Finns, Lapps, Esthonians, Ugrians, Magyars, Mordvins, Samoyeds, Ostyaks, Voguls, Livonians, Karelians. De PARCHICH GMOUPLsaceeetlese Chukches, Koraks, Kamschatkans, Namollos, Ghil- | iaks, Ainos. (6. Japanese Group ....... Japanese, Koreaus. —Brinton, D, G., Races and Peoples. New York, 1890, p. 194. | I. Negritic stock .- J { Il. Malayic stuck--: Il. Australic¢ stock. Brinton, D. G. Scheme of Insular and Litoral Peoples. 1. Nigrito Groupie. -=----- Mincopies, Aetas, Schobaengs, Mantras, Semangs, Sakaies. 2. Papuan Group -s------- Papuas, New Guineans. 3. Melanesian Group ...-. Natives of Feejee Islands. New Caledonia, Loyalty Islands, New Hebrides, ete. 1. Malayan Group. ..---- Malays, Sumatrese, Javanese, Battaks, Dayaks, Macassars, Tagalas, Hovas (of Madagascar). 2. Polynesian Group...--. Polynesians, Micronesians, Maoris. 1. Australian Group....-.- Tasmanians, Australians. 2. Dravidian Group. .--.... Dravidas, Tamuls, Telugus, Canarese, Malayalas, Todas, Khonds, Mundas, Santals, Kohls, Bhillas. Races and Peoples, New York, 1890, p. 220. It is not necessary to more than mention the essay at classification made by Dr. Lombard the preceding year and published in the Bulle- tins de la Société @Anthropologie, Paris (xi, 129; 185). The author starts out with the hypothesis that the human species first appeared 2 eet: Se eS PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890 5AD5 in the circumpolar region during the Miocene epoch and that it ex- panded slowly and progressively over all the continents. As soon as the parts of this original group separated, races were formed which set up a movement from north to south, the more recent and better per- fected driving before them the older and more degraded. Three pri- mary races are demanded by this theory, and their modern representa- tives are to be seen in Tierra del Fuego, Cape Colony, and Tasmania or Australia. The best journals on ethnography and ethnology are the organs of the great societies in England, France, and Germany. The geographic magazines and publications of all the societies devoted to geography can not be overlooked. While their ruling motive is the conquest of the world for civilization they do no fail to mention and deseribe the aborigines. The Internationales Archiv fiir Ethnographie, Leyden, edited by J. D. E. Schmeltz, is designed exclusively for museum directors who have in charge ethnographic material. The difficulty still remains of confounding language with blood, in this area of anthropology, to such an extent that lists of tribes contain tongues, and vice versa. Trained ethnologists, however, make the proper distinction, and gradually the error will eliminate itself. General works on Ethnology.—The beech tree in Ethnology, Taylor; Ethnography, Races and Peoples, Brinton; Ethnology in relation to races and peoples, Achelis; Geographic names, Hirrle, also Bulletin 1, United States Board of Geographic names; Numeration in the light of ethnography, Giinther, Reinach; Pygmies, Werner; Race and disease, Hoffmeister, Stokris; Race susceptibilities, Grieve: Teeth of different races, Belty. America.—Age of puberty among Indians, Holder; Americanists, Brinton; Beothuks, Gatschet; Cherokees, Moony; Cherokees and Mound-buildets, Thomas ; Eskimo, Murdoch, Rink; Ilustrated Ameri- cana, Hunnewell; Indians of Puget Sound, Hells; The Mexicans, Gooch, Seler; Northwest Coast tribes, Jacobsen; Omaha and Pones Indians, Dorsey ; Peopling of America, Quatrefages ; South American Culture, Stiibel ; Tribes of Canada, Boas; Ethnography of Venezuela, Marcano; Western Denes, Morice. Europe.—Aryan cradle-land, Glennie, Huxley, Taylor; Basques, Stoll; Ethnography of Europe, Lombard; Ethnography of Turkey, Garnett; Ethnology of British Isles, Rhys; Htruscans, Brinton, Bugge; Finland, Reuter; Germans and Slavs, Virchow; Lapps, Amich, Den- iker, Khabouzine, Rabot; Origin of the English, Freeman; Prehis- toric races of Italy, Taylor; Russia, Stuart; The Slavs, Hellwald; Stat- ure in Russia, Anoutchine; Tartars in the Crimea, Deniker. Asia.—Annametes, Deniker; Anthropology in India, Ibbetson; Ar- menia, Lanin; Asia Minor, Bent; Cambodia, Combette; Caucasus, De Morgan; China, Gordon, Tcheng; Cochin China, Combette, Faure; Ethnography of Western Asia, Lombard; History of Israel, Renan; BH. Mis. 129 35 546 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. India, Tavernier; Indo-China, Rosset; Japanese studies, Remy; Kirghiz, Khabouzine, Kurds and Yesides, Kovalewsky ; Thibet, Delbard, Rock- hill, Sandberg. . Africa.— Angolese, Topinard; Bantu stock, Haarhoff; Congo tribes, Stanley (the Stanley literature in geographic journals and scientific periodicals), Ward; Dahomy, Delbard; Gaboon, Delbard; Madigas- ear, Oliver; South African Ethnology, Macdonald. Oceanica.—Australia, Porter, Howitt, Reclus; Borneo, Woodford ; Indian Archipelago, Baron Hoevell; Flores and Celebes, Weber; New Caledonia, Combette; New Hebrides, Imhaus; Polynesian race, For- nander; Solomon Islanders, Woodford; Tasmania, Roth; Torres Strait, Haddon. Prof. A. H. Keane, of London, prepared for Chambers’ Encyclopedia, new edition, articles on ethnographic titles. V.—GLOSSOLOGY. The resources of linguistic studies in the United States are, on the classical side, represented by the American Journal of Philology, and on the ethnic side by the studies and publications of the American Oriental Society, by Dr. Daniel Brinton’s American series, and by the collections of the Bureau of Ethnology in Washington. Abroad, the list of philological journals is too long to reproduce; furthermore, in most of them language is studied quite apart from man who uses it. Triibners catalogues, not forgetting the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society ; Revue de Linguistique; Zeitschrift der Morgen- landischen Gesellschaft, Lazarus and Steinthal’s Zeitschrift and Fried- lander’s Catalogues must be consulted for works in special lines. The following papers may be consulted: Asiatic affinities of Malay languages, Wake; Blackfeet language, Tims; Category of Moods, Grasserie; Chinook jargon, Hale; Comparative Grammar, Grasserie ; Hskimo Vocabularies, Wells; Ethnographic basis of Language, Leit- ner; Evolution of Language, Murphy; Gothic languages, Balg; indo- European linguistics, Regnaud; Language of the Missisaguas, Cham- berlain; Manual of Comparative Philology, Schrader; New Linguistic Family, Henshaw; Phonograph in the Study of Songs, Fewkes; Poule language, Tautain; Science of Langaage, Sayce; Semitic languages, Wright; Textes Manchu, Bang; Timucuatext, Gatschet; Tupi language, Dom Pedro; Zulu Dictionary, Manner. VI.— TECHNOLOGY. Klemm’s plan of tracing out the lineage and migrations of human inventions, perfected later by General Pitt-Rivers, is really the most productive of scientific results among ethnologic methods. The study of an art in its historic elaboration may be called technography and the tracing of an art through the tribes that practice it ethnotechnics, At any rate, every year some one among thehost of anthropologists gathers the specimens and the evidence to show how one of our well known sat pata alien: erate a ee PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 5AT implements, processes, or art products has come to be what itis. The following is a good example of this: A symposium was held by the Anthropological Society of Washington to study the arrow-maker’s art. Six members made communications and their results are published in the Anthropologist. Hach reader was an expert in his field, so that, practically, there is little more to be said on that subject. Ilus- trations of some of the methods are to be found in the Reports of the Smithsonian Institution, but the perfecting of the point is shown only in the American Anthropologist and is reproduced here to give the subject a wider circulation. The steps are as follows: (1) Fic. 1.—Free hand or direct percussion. Free hand or direct percussion; (2) direct percussion, manner of Fic. 2,—Direct percussion. 548 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. striking when the edge is sharp; (3) indirect percussion, practiced by Fic. 3.—Indirect percussion. the Wintuns and described by B. B. Redding; (4) indirect percussion, Fic. 4.—Indirect perenssion. Two persons engaged. two persons being concerned ; practiced by the Apaches, according to ee PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 5A9 Catlin; (5) flaking by pressure, a bone implement being used, a, bone Fic. 5.—Flaking by pressure ; a bone implement being used. tool, b, the stone, ¢, the flake; (6) flaking by pressure; manner of Fic. 6.—Flakipvg by pressure. holding as observed among many tribes by J. W. Powell and others; ric. 7.—Flaking by pressure. (7) flaking by pressure, a bone point being used, the implement to be 550 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. used resting on a support; (8) flaking by pressure, bone pincers being used. Fic. 8.—Flaking by pressure; bone pincers being used. An excellent example of the study of art genealogically is Henry Bal- four’s description of the old British pibcorn or horn pipe and its affini- ties. (J. Anthrop. Inst., London, xx, 142-154,2 pl.) The family tree would stand thus: Prototype. (Cornstalk or slender reed with vibrating tongue.) \ Single reed pipe with movable reed (e. g. Arab pipe). Double pipes. Double pipes. Single pipe with (Arghool. ) (Zummarah.) reed-cover and horn bell-mouth. Cth se (Pibcorn.) | | Persian bagpipes. Double bagpipes (nei ambanab.) form,with two horn bell-mouths. (Arab zouggarah. ) | (Hindoo Magoodi, Double pipes with &c., types with single bell-mouth. horn bell-moutb. ) (Greek hornpipe. ) Greek bagpipes. In the accompanying plates the relationships are better presented to the eye. They are marked II and Iv. EXPLANATION OF HENRY BALFOUR’S PLATE III. Fig. 1. Double hornpipe, from the village—dio Maria, Tenos, Grecian Archipelago. Fig. 2. Side view of same. 1 2 Fig. 3. Upper portion of same, with gourd mouth-piece removed, showing reeds. Fig. 4. One of the sounding reeds removed. Fig. 5. Bagpipes from the Grecian Archipelago. Fig. 6. One of the sounding reeds removed. Fig. 7. Pibcorn from the island of Anglesea. Fig. 8. Back view of the pipe, with end pieces removed, showing reed in situ. Fig. 9. Sounding reed of same. : Smithsonian Report, 1890, Part PLATE Ill. HORNPIPE AND BaGPIPES, GRECIAN ARCHIPELAGO ; AND PIBCORN FROM ANGLESEA. ‘e AA ku io) ey : : * a ‘ai e Lites PLATE IV. Smithsonian Report, ARAB REED PIPES, DECKHAN PIPES, AND HINDOO HoRnpPIPE. PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 5om EXPLANATION OF PLATE IV. Fig. 10. Double reed pipes, Zummarah, Arab, from Egypt. Fig. 11. Single reed pipe from Egypt. Fig. 12. Double pipes, Toomeri, Deckan, India. Fig. 13. Same, with gourd removed, showing sounding reeds in situ, Fig. 14. Hindoo ‘‘ horn-pipe” with double pipes and large gourd reservoir. Fig. 15. same, with gourd and horn bell mouth removed, front view, showing sound- ing reeds in situ. Mr. Walter Hough, of the U.S. National Museum, in a very elabo- rate manner, worked out the primitive methods of fire-making, so that he is much better acquainted with the art than any savage ever was. The geographie distribution of each form is interesting in the light of ethnography, and the gradual elaboration of this primitive art up to the last century an instructive chapter in the growth of invention. Barr Ferree, of the Leonard Scott Publishing Company, wrote a series of articles on the influence of climate and nature in giving shape and character to primitive architecture. The subject is one of great inter- est. J. E. Watkins, of the U. S. National Museum, follows the historic method in tracing the p rogress of the carrying industry and the elabo- ration of modern engineering. W.H. Holmes publishes in the annual report of the Bureau of Ethnol- ogy apaper on the evolution of ornament, based on the close study of a large series of aboriginal pottery, basketry, and other fabrics. It is shown that many of the patterns which have had the greatest popularity in the world originated among primitive peoples. ~ertain fash- ion—deliberate, intentional, with malice aforethougiut; and he asserted that it was to the latter class and to that alone the investigations of this congress should be confined. To the tw* others it went without say- ing that they might have had predisp«. ‘ ons to crime as they had pre- dispositions to the various maladies which influenced them to crime, some of which they could possibly avoid, others of which they possibly could uot. In these cases it was the malady that caused the crimes, for which it was responsible, and that the crime in these categories was not the deliberate act or intent of the criminal. The distinction between the normal and the pathological State, based on a physiological analysis, is indispensable in the study of this sub- ject. But to do this satisfactorily, how great the difficulty? If this be difficult, how impossible to classify properly the doubtful and inter- mediate cases? Without these doubtful and intermediate cases being fully classified we will have naught but physiological disorder. It is necessary also to distinguish physiologically and anatomically between the normal and the abnormal state (this of the same persons?). Physi- ologically it is abnormal to murder or to rob without motive, or at least without other motive than the mere pleasure, whether it be the gratification to the criminal or the pleasure he may receive to see an- other suffer. But one must be an optimist to believe that it is abnor- mal to covet the property of another, and so coveting to seek to appropriate it. It is idle not to recognize, in addition to the imperfee- tions of human nature, the pernicious influence that is exercised by 628 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. the evil education, the evil examples, the natural or factitious needs, the seductive occasions, the improper liasons, the repugnance to labor, the pleasures of idleness, the apparently natural willingness to cat the bread and enjoy the fruits of another’s labor, or the satisfaction of a former escapade which brought profit, and went unpunished; and, in a word, it is useless to refuse to recognize the thousand different socio- logic conditions which may serve to form a million of combinations, any of which may lead towards crime. With what care is one not obliged to guard the child and the young person from the hardening effect of evil influences or from the corruption of his childish innocence and innate honesty and virtue by the persuasions and example of evil associates. Without doubt theft appears execrable, while murder is horrible, to those young persons who, thanks to a careful education or the precepts of a good mother, or the influences of a Christian family and surround- ings, have acquired the habits and situation of honest people; and, nevertheless, one can easily imagine a combination of circumstances, an acquaintance with vice and crime, by which such an individual has or may become a criminal. Vice is a monster of such hideous mien, That to be hated needs but to be seen ; Yet seen too oft, familiar with her face, We first endure, then pity, then embrace. And there are all sorts . -rimes, and that which might be no tempta- tion in one case might be ove 2owering in another. With all these difficulties is it not impossible any system of classification to draw the line between a normal and au abnormal physiologic state, which will separate the criminal classes from the honest men ? We have still to consider that there are many physiologic pecul- iarities which become good or bad qualities according to the circum- stances, and these circumstances are simply the surroundings, the envi- ronment. An amorous temperament might be highly appreciated and complimented in one case, and yet become extremely dangerous in another. The audacity and courage which might be a source of pride in the soldier, would become execrable on the part of a robber. An excellent salesman, the successful drummer, the best newspaper re- porter, might, with a change of circumstances, a change in his sur- roundings, his environment, become a most dangerous swindler, or the best mechanic may become a most dangerous bank burglar or counter- feiter; and his eminence in crime is attained because of his apparently natural excellencies, which might have made him, and which went so far towards making him, an honest and successful man. Crime is, therefore, not necessarily bound to physiologic peculiarities, nor is it produced by abnormal or disadvantageous anatomic characters. It must be remembered that the man, healthy and normal though he be, is not a man without faults or without tendency to vice. To seek inten ne CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 629 for this is to seek for the impossible. All men, however honest or vir- tuous, will be found to have some defect or some vice, otherwise they would be perfection, which is not to be expected of human nature. A defect or a vice, whether anatomic or physiologic, does not become an anomaly simply because one finds it in a criminal. Anatomically the same remark is to be made; we do not consider as abnormal or in- ferior every man who is not perfect. Dr. Manouvrier proceeded to examine the results of anatomic re- searches made, up to the present time, upon criminals. No one has yet accomplished or discovered an anatomic character by which the criminal can be classified into categories, like robbers, swin- dlers, burglars, etc. The most one can doininvestigating the tendency to crime by the examination of the criminal himself is to seek for the specific characteristics, but even these, if found, do not prove that they are specifically criminal or special to criminals. Aljl that can be done in this direction, and it is quite another question from the former, is to discover if the criminals examined present cer- tain abnormal anatomic characters more frequent and in a higher de- gree than honest men. To answer either affirmatively or negatively as to the whole aggregate, or even to the average, would be a hardy and even dangerous undertaking. There are honest men who are af- fected in ail the unfortunate and much to be regretted ways suggested by Signor Lombroso—epileptics, imbeciles, degenerates, and even the vicious and inferiors of all sorts; while those who have been classed as honest men are capable of becoming criminals ot the darkest dye, and have no more morality or virtue than the most incorrigible robber and thief. Dr. Manouvrier referred again to the saying, ‘All other things being equal,” the abnormal, the inferior, etc., were more likely to become _criminals, etc., “ but” he demanded, ‘‘ is it certain that all things are equal for the criminal?” It is in vain that we have remarked the small number of individuals becoming criminals out of each hundred persons snbjected to these defective sociologic circumstances. The conditions and circumstances which are so difficult to weigh, and above all the infinitely variable combinations, whether taken by themselves or by their complex tendencies, have a different effect upon each individual. Among a hundred individuals thus environed, is it not possible to be- lieve that the ten or twenty who become criminals are those which have been subjected to the combinations, sociologic and physio-sociologic, the most evil, the most powerful, and the most effective in leading them in the wrong path? It is therefore wiser to permit the facts to decide each case for itself. The documents published are numerous, but they are not yet suffi- cient to convince an incredulous anthropologist who finds himself op- posed to either view, and who proposes to examine them critically. Occasionally monstrous criminals have been exhibited, but that does 630 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. not prove that criminals are anatomic monsters, and no more does the fact that some criminals are epileptics prove that all criminals are epileptics, nor that epileptics become criminals. The statistics ob- tained and the averages sought to be established have been based upon insufficient data. The series have not been sufficiently extended, the figures have been obtained by defective processes, the observa- tions have been uncertain and different, and the observers or investi- gators have been novices in many eases, and in others have proceeded upon different lines, if not by different processes, each one of them more uncertain and defective than the other. They have cited insig- nificant differences which they say exist between honest men and criminals, but which differences may be found in equal proportion among honest men, if they were so examined, and might also be found between criminals. They have compared the series of criminals with series of soldiers; that is to say, with men who are chosen for their exemption from infirmities or deformities, and have: calculated the relative frequency of these deformities in the two series, or in the series of the two classes without regard to the difference in their con- dition. They have cited cranial peculiarities observed by different persons operating in different methods and by different rules, with different standards. And from all these discordant and inharmonious elements they have sought to establish averages in the respective classes whether of criminals or of honest men. In spite of all this incoherence and erroneous and defective process, whether of gathering facts and obtaining evidence, or of ratiocination, they have obtained statistics, which, aided slightly by preconceived opinion, have almost persuaded some of our wisest and best men that the criminal classes present in their average a proportion. of abnormal or inferior characters greater than those belonging to the classes of honest men. The number of these abnormal or inferior characters . are multiplying themselves day by day in the estimation of these wise men, and this is being pushed to such extremes as that soon the man who is believed to be honest will find himself possessing a half dozen of these criminal characteristics. Thus the system is in danger of breaking down of its own weight. We might with propriety ask, what constitutes a criminal type? If, in making this examination of criminals, one unites the characters abnormal, pathologic or inferior, taken in an examination of say a thousand criminals, without considering and arranging upon the other side the characters found therein which are incompatible with each other, it will be apparent that the investigation will be without value and the conclusion based thereon erroneous. One criminal is plagio- cephalic, another has long arms, another a vermien fossette, etc. But it is not any one of these that forms a type whether criminal or other- wise. In order to form a type one should unite the common characters, eli- CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 631 minating the anomalous and pathologic manifestations. In order to obtain an abnormal type, it is necessary to choose for each species of anomalies or alteration an individual in which this anomaly or altera- tion is well characterized, and then there will be as many types as there are sorts of anomalies or alterations. We therefore can not have a type criminal any more than we ean have atype of human monsters. In order to characterize criminals in general, it is necessary to ob- tain the averages, which can be compared with the averages of other individuals of the same race, the same sex, the same social class, ete. These latter individuals must themselves be the average of their respec- tive race, sex, or class, and their averages thus taken should become the type or standard. Honest or virtuous men (a category not less vague than that of criminals) will then be without doubt the metatypic. But these have not yet been studied nor their type settled. Nevertheless it is these metatypes that we should compare anatomically with the criminals if we would make comparison between the anatomic characters of the two classes. Who form this class of honest and virtuous men that furnish the standard by which the criminal classes are to be judged? They may be idle, vicious, evil disposed, imbecile, passionate, brutal, and all that, if they have but escaped being declared by the law to be criminals. In this condition of affairs is it possible that any one can determine anatomically, or physiologically, or psycho-sociologically what physical characteristics form a criminal type of man? What are the results? This is a question to be resolved by anatomic anthropology, of which the comparative anatomy of criminals is no more than one chapter. The anatomic study of criminals in order to become of value has need to be extended to a greater area and in greater detail even than has been here indicated. There was, of course, a large discussion among the members of the congress over this question. Nearly every one had a different idea concerning it. Professor Lombroso responded to Dr. Manouvrier. He demanded how he would distinguish the criminals. The criminals of occasion has presented abnormal characters. It was not the occasion that made the criminal, but it was the occasion which was presented to an individual predisposed to commit the crime. It has been objected that the woman criminal had no anatomic characteristics, but they who made that objection forgot that prostitution was the form of the feminine crimi- nality. He believed somewhat in the idea emitted by Madame Clemence-Royer on the relation between crime and hybridity, or mix- ture of races, one being inferior. If the crime is not an anomaly, what is it? Is ita virtue? He agreed with Dr. Manouvrier that the cra- nial capacity is not a characteristic of criminality. Bearing upon the question of atavism he stated that he had found among criminals a great number or proportion of hernia. This was a regressive char- 632 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. acter. The role of ptomaines in criminal manifestations appeared to him certain. M. Tarde responded to Lombreso apropos of the criminal woman. He maintained that an honest woman presented the characteristics ascribed to the criminal woman as described by the Italian school, and nevertheless, woman is less criminal, or takes to crime less than man. Prostitution is the occasion and not the offense. He declared there were no anatomic characters proper or peculiar to the criminal, and, nevertheless, there were organic and physiologic predispositions to crime. The function made the organ, and the nerve would model the bone; as the river determines the valley, so the crime makes the crimi- nal. If in criminal anthropology one can come to show the localization of criminal characteristics, as has done Broca for the articulate language, the base of the scientific edifice might be considered established. M. Moleschott and Dr. Brouardel complimented these gentlemen upon the profoundness of their studies. The latter considered the search for the criminal anomaly in physical or anatomical character- istics as illusory. He could admit the malformations of the pavillion of the ear reported by Morel, the occipital fossette and the characters of the same kind, but these were no cause of criminality in themselves, but only simple indexes of an abnormal development of which the con- sequences could be many. The epileptics, the insane, show the presence of ptomaines in their urine. He recalled the observations of an epilep- tic woman in bis service. Her urine contained a convulsive ptomaine, which injected into a frog produced the same physiologic effects as strychnine. The ptomanie products or the leucomanic toxique found in the veins of the insane and the melancholy result from troubles in general nutrition. Are they cause or are they effect? The question demands to be studied. Dr. Brouardel responded to M. Tarde that if the function made the organ, it could only do so in the presence of muscular fiber. A woman without any calf to her leg could never become a dancer. ’M. Bajenoff, director of the Asylum of Riazanne, Russia, could not accept everything he had found in the works of Lombroso and his col- leagues, but his and their methods seemed to be scientific. His own studies cephalometric had shown to him that honest men had a larger frontal development, while the criminals were better developed in the parietal and occipital portions of their brain or skull. Baron Garofalo said that crime might be considered always the result of an organic anomaly. In speaking of crimes we should con- sider only those which were declared so by the public conscience and not always those declared so by the law. Those, for instance, of great cruelty or extraordinary improbity. But one could perceive that criminals always manifested moral anomalies and physical anomalies that were found less frequently in honest men. Lombroso insisted upon his fundamental distinction between the _ CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 633 criminal born and the criminal of occasion. But he conceded that the existence of criminal anatomic characteristics might be limited or even absent in the latter class. He declares woman to be a criminal of occasion, except with prostitution, wherein she represented the born criminal. But in the criminal born he insisted upon the existence of physical signs which he declared to be undeniable, and that while their number and importance vary from one individual to another, yet when considered together, had a value and signification ‘‘ absolument incon- testable.” While he would not deny the influences sociologic, mesologic, geographic, and orographic, yet the effect of these influences was only to intensify the criminal characteristics which existed anatomically and fundamentally. Thus it will be seen that in the discussion between these two representatives of the different schools, in spite of the appar- ent diversity of their opinion they came nearly together by an exchange of partial and reciprocal concession. Yet this harmony was more ap- parent than real, for in the subsequent discussions of the Congress, whenever anything was said favoring the existence of a criminal type, it immediately precipitated a return to the former discussion. In the discussion of the seventh question the whole argument was gone over again. The skull of Charlotte Corday, which belonged, with all guaranty of authenticity, to the collection of Prince Roland Bona- parte, was presented as an illustration of a born criminal because of the depth of the occipital fossettes. This immediately brought out Lombroso, who returned to the attack with all his ardor and power, and after him Benedikt, of Vienna, Garofalo, Ferri, Brouardel, and at last, M. Herbette. The latter, with Dr. Brouardel, seemed to be the most conservative. They presented, each of them, in calm and consid- erate but elegant language, the necessity for carefui study and profound investigation. Festina lenta was their motto. While they recom- mended the investigation and study to be made with ardor, and pushed to the extreme, they counseled that the conclusions should not be made hastily, changes should not be made brusquely, opinions not be an- nounced dogmatically, or by going too rapidly, this science might com- promise its force, its authority, or its prestige. The importance of this question or the value of its discussions in this congress can not be overestimated, for while the substance may have been argued pro and con in years past, yet here for almost the first time the scientific men of the world were assembled in an international congress for its discussion, with full opportunity for preparation, and with the knowledge that they were here to be brought face to face with their opponents or those who held different opinions from themselves, and here they were to appear with what arguments, reasons, statistics they might have in defense of the position which they claimed to be right. Accordingly as this question shall be decided, so should there be a change in the fabric of our criminal jurisprudence. If men are born criminals then they are not to be punished as they would be if 634 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. otherwise. If, on the other hand, they are educated to be criminals, then ought our system of education to be seriously and radically changed. J repeat my impression of the profound importance of this science, Question ITI.—Establishment of. regular rules for investigating the occupants of our prisons and insane asylums by means of anthropom- etry, or of psychology, by Dr. Sciammana of Rome, reporter. The study of the criminal had its origin in the purest love for science and the greatest desire to obtain the truth. Perhaps those who com- mence to gather the history of celebrated criminals, to trace their organ- isms, to study their special physical conditions, the environments in which they have lived, or to search for the idea or theory that possessed them at the moment of their crime, or the cause which pushed them to it, did it for naught but scientific curiosity. But in the study of erim- inal anthropology in these latter days these things have changed, and now, thanks to the civilization of our epoch, its truth is sought for its own sake as well as for the practical benefits which may follow. Every one has recognized the practical importance of the study of criminal an- thropology. There are, nevertheless, scientists who deny the fecundity of the researches and who believe that crimes are nothing but the re- sult of the free will of the criminal, and that the influence which pushes him to commit the crime had its origin in the same free but evil and wicked will. But we are not obliged to occupy ourselves with these scientists, however wise they may be, because they have confined their investigations only to the field of theory and have never come down to test of investigation by means of experiments. Our scientific academies, our medical congress, the administration of the prisons, are all now occupying themselves over the questions, what are the individual characteristics of criminals, whether anatomic, psy- chologic, physiologic or sociologic? And in studying these questions they are moved by the highest order of both charity and pride. They are moved to discover the most rational and satisfactory method for the prevention of crime and the reformation of criminals. Various scientific societies and bodies have taken steps in this direction. The Society of Anthropology of Brussels organized a commission charged to study the characters of professional criminals, and in the bulletins of that society the members published their investigations on the criminals confined at the prisons at Louvain. In 1885 the Medical Congress at Antwerp following a communication made by Dr. Semal on the relations of criminality and insanity, voted unanimously to continue these studies, to extend the commission to in- clude the magistrates who tried the criminals, the administrators of the penitentiary and the medical profession. The International Medical Congress of Barcelona recognized the im- portance of criminal anthropology and declared that the scientific CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 635 inquests were now sufliciently advanced to demand their practical ap- plication. The scientist who desires seriously to study the psychology of a crim- inal is fairly well received by the prison authorities in all civilized coun- tries, and a good opportunity is given him for study, whether it shall be during the life of the criminals or upon their bodies after death. In these conditions it is our duty, as we find ourselves representing one of the principal sciences in the world, to report, each one, to this Congress of Criminal Anthropology, what he has done, what he can do in his own country, and thus to gather and unite the largest possible number of discovered and verified facts. This congress, representing all countries, may thus agree upon certain facts as the result of a once separate but now united series, and a law be thus established. That law it is our duty to formulate and proclaim. In 1884, in Italy, when the general direction of prisons was con- fided to M. Beltrani-Scalia, one of our most illustrious savants, the Government ordained the autopsy of all criminals who die in the prison of the kingdom. It was thus intended to gather from the cadavers of criminals, a series of anatomic and physiologic facts, by which their history relative to crime, aided by the documents of the prison, could be made known. Dr. Sciammana said he had been charged to formulate a series of questions, to which all the doctors of the prisons of the kingdoms would respond, relative to the exterior examination of the cadavers, but not including anthropometric researches. To respond conscientiously to the questions by doctors who were entirely unused to them and whose time was already engaged, required much labor and the consumption of much time, and it was concluded by them that the work was too heavy. Therefore, the scheme has not succeeded as well as was ex- pected, and we have to renounce hope for the present of obtaining this scientific material for studies in criminology. ‘To obviate the difficulty, a new formula of questions has been prepared, which while it has reduced somewhat our scientific information, has also so far reduced the labor of answering them, as that the result is even more satisfactory than before. But there is something to which, in relation to the statistics of crime, the attention of the congress is particularly called. It is not difficult to report all the information concerning the crimes found in the records made by the magistrates or courts who tried the prisoners and the attorney-general who prosecuted them. Also such notes as have been made while the criminals were in prison. But these things are of small utility if there is not also gathered the more precious ma- terial concerning the personality of the criminal, the material psycho- logic, anthropologic, teratologic and anatomo-pathologic, which should be studied by competent medical arthorities. To accomplish this it is necessary to follow a single method of study and investigation by which the facts gathered can be compared as though they were done by the 636 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. same person. Following this system, those who study the materials of criminology will be able to note the most valuable observations and pursue researches which they believe to be the most profitable. It is one of the important works of this congress, or of its successors, to form- ulate a code of observation and to establish the common means of record- ing the results. These researches, made for the purpose of establishing a system of comparative international statistics, ought to be made both upon the criminal while living and upon his cadaver when dead. The first should be an investigation as to the intellectual capacity of the individual, the modes and manifestations of his affections and moral sense, and the de- gree of his vital energy and will power. This psychologic investiga- tion ought to be preceded by an anamnestic interrogation of the individ- ual or by an examination of the criminal process against him. Every investigation should include the study of his heredity and neuro-pathol- ogy. These anthropologic and clinical researches should be made be- fore the criminal has suffered a prolonged imprisonment; if not, his peculiarities or characteristics may be effected thereby. The second of the researches should be upon the cadaver, as to its conditions anthropologic and pathologic, so that it can be determined whether the alterations are due to the pre-eminence of morbid tenden- cies or whether they are the result of an abnormal development due to some other cause. These researches should be made both upon the criminal and the insane, and one can thus see the links which form the psycho-pathologic chain of human life, at one end of which we may find insanity and at the other criminality. Many insane asylums are confided to the care of zealous savants who make these studies and note the results. Attention is called to the exceptional importance of these researches that can be made in the houses of correction, not alone in the interest of science, but that they can serve as a complement to the observations which one may make later upon the same individual if found in the prison. They also may serve as a guide for the treatment and reformation of those who are in the house of correction. But it is necessary to have a special accord among the savants and the medical authorities of the prisons, insane asylums, and houses of correction so that one can obtain the same researches and results throughout this, whether among the living or upon the cadavers. It is therefore proposed that a commission should be charged to formulate the questions and to establish what might be called a national code of researches, to which it is hoped all nations will accord their favor and adopt. Question IV.—The conditions determinative of crime and their rela- tive value. M. Ferri, professor of penal law in the university at Rome and deputy of the Italian Parliament, was the reporter. CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 637 The natural genesis of crime obeys a fundamental law by which all crime is only the result of the simultaneous or indivisible concurrence of the conditions of the individual, whether they be biologic or of the surroundings where the individual was born, lived, and acted. Every crime, no matter who its author, no matter under what cir- cumstances committed, can be explained in one of two ways—either as the act or fiat of the individual’s free will or as the natural effect of natural causes. The first of these explanations being without scientific value, it is impossible to explain scientifically a crime (like every other action, human or animal) if it is not considered as the product of an or- ganic constitution or psychic personality which is called upon to act under certain conditions, either of physical or social surroundings. It is therefore inexact to affirm that the school of criminal positivists can reduce crime to a phenomenon purely and exclusively anthropologic, for, on the contrary, that school has always maintained from its be- ginning that crime is the effect of multifarious conditions, anthro- pological, physical, and social, and that these operate together and may determine the crime by an action simultaneous and inseparable; and if the researches into the biologic conditions are more abundant or more apparent because of their novelty, that does not contradict the influence of the sociologic condition upon crime. We are to consider on this occasion the relative value of these three orders of condition in the natural determination to the commission of © crime. A response can not be given absolutely or categorically. Be- sides, the question is frequently misunderstood and misstated. Those who think that crime is nothing but a phenomenon, purely and exelu- sively social, without the concurrence in its determination by the criminal of his organic and psychic anomalies, misunderstand the uni- versal union of natural forces and forget that one can not limit in an absolute fashion the infinity of causes, which far or near, direct or indirect, may combine or conspire to produce every phenomenon. This position is as erroneous as to say that the life of a mammal is the effect of the action of a single organ, whether lungs, heart, or stomach, or to say that it is maintained alone by food or drink or the oxygen of the atmosphere, and that each of these produces the entire effect without the aid of the other. If crime be the exclusive product of the social surrounding, how is one to explain the fact known to us every day of our lives, that in the same social status and under equal circumstances of misery, poverty, and ignorance, out of each one hundred individvals sixty are not criminal, commit no crime, and out of the remaining forty, five prefer suicide to crime, five become insane, five become beggars or vagabonds, and only twenty-five out of the hundred become criminals; and among the latter the crimes com- mitted differ in variety,—from those the most bloodthirsty, frightful, and inexcusable, to those which are the mildest misdemeanor, and for which the prisoner may be discharged with only a reprimand. The 638 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. secondary differences in social conditions which may be found even among the members of the same family are evidently not sufficient in themselves to explain the enormous differences of these resulting actions. Itis necessary, therefore, to consider this question in a relative sense and to discover which of the three orders of natural causes of crime has the greatest influence in the determination to the commission thereof. A general or categorie answer can not be given, for the relative influ- ence of the anthropological, physical, and social conditions, vary with each criminal action according to the psychologic and social characters of the individual. When we consider, for example, the three classes of crimes, those against persons, those against property, those against morality and virtue, if is evident that each order of the determining conditions, and, above all, the biologic conditions and the social conditions, have an in- fluence altogether different in the determination to the crimes of mur- der, robbery, or violation. And this can be repeated for all categories of crime. The undeniable influence of social condition, and above all—economie condition in the determination to rob or steal, has much less effect in the determination to murder or violation. And in each category of crimes the influence of the determining conditions is much accord- ing to the special forms of criminality. Certain classes of murders (those of occasion) are evidently the effect of social conditions, as, for instance, alcoholism, gambling, public opinion, ete., while cer- tain other murders are the effect of the ferocity or the moral insensi- bility of the criminal, or else arising from the psycho-pathologic con- dition which corresponds to organic abnormal conditions. And it is the same with certain offenses against good morals which are in a great part the effect of a social condition which condemns some communities to live together in habitations more as herds of wild beasts than as human beings, with a brutal promiscuity of sexes and ages, parents, chiidren, strangers, boys, girls, ete., which will have the effect to pre- vent every normal sentiment of virtue or modesty and to efface any such sentiment already formed. Other crimes of the same nature, but more brutal, are derived from the biologic conditions of the criminal, whether they be the result of a sexual psychopathy or a biologic anomaly. While simple theft or larceny may be somewhat the effect of social or economic conditions, yet these influences have but slight effect in comparison with the im- pulsion given by the individual constitution, whether organic or psychic, in higher crimes, as robbery with violence, or in murder with intent to rob or steal, or other crimes committed in cold blood. The same observation can be applied to the conditions of the phys- ical surroundings, for example, the augmentation in the number of crimes against property committed during the cold or winter months, > * ee. CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 639 while on the other hand the augmentation of cimes against the person, whether those of blood or against morality, during the warm or summer months. The reason for these things is that we find the individuals affected, to be in that biologic condition wherein they have the least resistance against these evil influences. The limits of this paper do not permit the proofs, whether anthro- pologic, psychologic, or statistic, of these conclusions, but these are only the synthesis of numerous studies and positive investigation made upon the tendency or inducement to crime, by observing the crimi- nals and the causes which affect them. It has been said that for certain crimes and criminals the largest influence ought to be recog- nized or accorded to the physio-psychie conditions of the individual, which may go from the anthropologic anomaly, scarcely recognizable, to the pathologic state, the most accentuated, yet this does not exclude the possible fact that crime may be a consequence of social con- dition; that the physio-psychic anomalies of the individual are nothing but the effect of a deleterious social environment which condemns those which it surrounds to an organic and psychic degeneration. This ob- jection might be good when taken in a relative sense, but is without foundation if one seeks to give it an absolute value. First, it is necessary toremember that cause and effect are them- selves only relative, for each effect isin its turn a cause and vice versa ; so that if misery, poverty, degradation, etc., whether material or moral, is a cause of degeneration, the degeneration becomes in its turn a cause of the misery, poverty, and degradation. And so the discussion be- comes metaphysical. Investigators into the relations of crime in difter- ent countries (criminal geographers) have claimed a great value for their statistics when they have given the quality of the crime and the number of the criminals in various countries or provinces, and sought to compare one with the other. Instead of these being the differences in biologic condition, as of race; or of physical conditions, as of climate, etc.; they may be governed largely by social or economic conditions ; that is, those arising from the differences in agriculture, industry, labor, wages, homes, schools, service in the army, ete. In the absence of any positive verification, the student of this ques- tion may with propriety ask if the social conditions of a given province or country have any real effect upon or relation to its criminality, and whether the social conditions may not be themselves only the effect of the ethnic characters of intelligence, energy, etc., of its inhabitants and the conditions of its climate, soil, ete. But with more precision one can also aver, even outside the conditions profoundly pathologic, that there are a great number of cases in which the bio-psychic anomalies of the criminals may be the effect of an envi- ronment which is physically and morally mephitie. In each family of several children, in spite of the same surroundings and like favorable conditions, with the same methods of instruction and 640 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. education, there will be individuals of different intellectuality, to be remarked from the cradle, as well in the quantity or in the quality of their talent as in their moral and physiologic constitutions. And this phenomenon, although it be evident only in a small number of cases of the most accentuated characteristics, whether normal or ab- normal, does not cease to be true also in the more numerous class of cases of mediocre characteristics. The physical and social conditions may have an influence less patent according as the physio-psychic eon- stitution of the individual is stronger and healthier. The practical conclusion of these general observations upon the nat- ural genesis of crime is this: That each crime is the result of indi- vidual physical and social conditions; and because these conditions have an influence preponderating more or less in different crimes or in different forms of criminality, the most sure and certain means that society has or should employ in its defense against or for the preven- tion of crime, is twofold ; and both ought to be employed and developed simultaneously. On the one hand, the amelioration of social condi- tions, which will serve as a natural prevention of crime; on the other hand, the elimination of those biologic conditions which determine crime; these measures of elimination should be perpetual or temporary, according as their influence on the biologic conditions are permanent and radical, or as they are temporary and changeable. There are, said Ferri, five kinds of criminals, which should be dis- tinguished each from the other and treated accordingly; the born crimi- nal, the insane criminal, the criminal of occasion, of passion, of habitude. To prevent crime the government or society should, on the one hand, ameliorate the social conditions, and, on the other, eliminate from society either partially or entirely those with defective characters, according to the degree of danger and the possibility of cure. M. Alimena declared the essential causes of crime to be the social condition and hereditary transmission. According to him the crim- inal was produced by the same processes as were employed by stock- raisers to rear new races as an improvement of the present races, and adopting the words of Dr. Lacassagne at Rome, “soclety has no erimi- nals except such as it merits.” Dr. Manouvrier took up the battle. He said they had reduced the importance of the surroundings. If their theory be true that the occa- sion makes the criminal, then society will make a criminal of the man who is the most inoffensive, and an inoffensive man of him who is most disposed to crime: and he argued his side of the question at length, and with vigor and eloquence. M. Tarde said we have the agricultural type of man, the military type, the sailor type, and why should we not have the criminal type? Lom- broso took it up by saying that it was undoubted that we had among the criminals the type of the assassin, the type of the robber and bur- glar, and the type of the thief and swindler, lM. Moleschott, senator CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 641 of Italy, mentioned an influence towards crime that had not been no- ticed, to wit, the heredity social influence; that is, the tradition which is instilled into the mind of every child, before he knows the difference between right and wrong, that by which he obtains the rudiments of his knowledge of right and wrong. Whether it be correct or not, it is the child’s standard. He gets it not from any knowledge or theory of justice, but from the tradition of his own neighborhood, as it is taught by his parents and associates, by the people, and as it is believed by them. Dr. Manouvrier responded: The argument of M. Ferri on the pre-dis- posing importance of the anatomic characters proves nothing, because he has taken account of only the general sociologie influences, and not enough of the daily events of infinite details which happen to every man continually from his birth, and while each one of them was of the minimum in itself, yet aggregated made a sociologic surrounding in the life of the man to such extent as to change its form, and make him be- come what he is. The study of criminality among animals proves that education can change him to be contrary to all his hereditary in- stincts, even contrary to his essential anatomic organization. M. Ra- bourdin succeeded in rendering bis wolf an honest and respectable animal, so that it would not attack or devour sheep, but would content himself with his regular meals duly served. The regular meal to the wolf played the same role that the daily income does to man, by the grace of which many persons who might easily become criminais pass their days with high heads in society and enjoy the confidence of their neighborhoods with a reputation all their lives of being honest men. He elaborated the necessity of consideration in this matter, not only of the number of the conditions and circumstances which had an influence upon us, but still further the arrangement and position relative to these conditions. The possible combinations became infinite and not to be measured, and the realization of two cases apparently alike, theoretic- ally alike, night be practically unlike, and what became in one indi- vidual entirely possible became in the other entirely impossible. As to his illustration of the wolf, he said that this was introduced to show how difficult it was to educate any animal to disobey his instinets, but still the illustration proved that it could be done. Question V.—The infancy of children in its relation to a predisposi- tion to crime. Dr. Romeo Taverni, professor of the University of Catania, Italy, and Dr. Magnan, director of the insane asylum at Sainte Anne, Paris, reporters. First part by Dr. Romeo Taverni. The science of anatomy can not alone tell us the genesis of crime in an individual man, and it never will, because the moral lite of humanity, the most simple phenomenon, will carry us to many causes for its explanation, and must be searched for among many sciences, and will never be found in a single cause nor by a single method. The problem is to search the brain of the H. Mis, 129 41 642 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. criminal, and find if there be any anomalies which would authorize the idea of a degradation or physical degeneration predominating among that class of men. This problem remains yet an object of study. The results which have come to us up to the present are not ecnelusive. Among those who make these studies, some have observed too small a number of cases, and others have occupied themselves solely upon the cranial anomalies without interesting themselves with the anomalies of the brain, or vice versa, and the researches have not always been exempt from influence or conception a priort. They have supposed their task to be to establish imaginary relations between pat- ticular dispositions, altogether accidental, of the cerebral convolutions of criminals, and certain normal dispositions of the same convolu- tions among other persons. The observers have been rare who have sought among criminals for the peculiarities which the surface of the cerebral hemispheres present, and their relation with the type of skull corresponding, avd whether these things are or not the same which the anatomist has already found to exist among individuals not criminals. Nevertheless, the observation of several scientific anatomists appear to affirm that there does not exist any special type of skull or of brain in criminals, and this invites us to consider whether there exists any nor- mal type of skull or brain of non-criminals, honest men. In the skull and brain of criminals the degenerate characters appear with greater frequency than in those not criminals. But the precise value of this comparative frequency is yet insufficiently determined as well as the manner in which these degenerative characters are proven, so that their full power to cause crime or to create a pre-disposition to crime, does not appear as yet established by any law that can be called invariable. No order of somatic anomaly encountered among crimi- nals possesses by itself any signification of a material cause of the delin- quency nor a physical pre-disposition to delinquency. Taken together they indicate only the existence of, (1) a degeneration, (2) an organism by which their development has been arrested, or (3) the return of a regressive atavism. But the physical degradation which is recognized by every fact can not, according to our experience, be found separated from a moral deg- radation. Observation has taught us that the brain sous-micro-cephalic is perhaps not apt in its function to conceive principles of which the presence in the understanding is a force necessary to the existence of moral life. So that we have learned that a human skull which recalls by its strueture the animal form which it resembles, approaches more to the ancestral form than another in which the archaic forms have been effaced. The moral degradation which physical degradation teaches, belongs exclusively to the general operation of the moral life. We do not pos- sess sufficient experimental knowledge of the anatomic structure of any individual to enable us to say, from this, that he had any determin- ing tendency towards crime, nor thatit had inany way a bearing upon CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 643 his moral sense. There is no scientific method by which the relation- ship between his physical structure and his moral sense can be deter- mined, whether the study be made during his life or by autopsy. (2) The first principle.ot the science of criminal anthropology, as taught in modern times, is to study the criminal rather than the crime. We have lived among criminals in the prisons of several of the cities as much of the time as was possible. During several years we have kept anamnestic observations and have recorded everything which had relation to the past life of the criminal; but we are not occupied solely in determining, according to the physiogrnomy of their crime, whether there is any such thing as criminals by instinct. We have never omit- ted an occasion to interrogate the criminal concerning his parents, his tutors, his friends, his master, his nurses, doctor, all that could give testimony concerning the infancy and youth of our criminals. One hundred and twenty-three of these numerous anamnestic tables have been recorded and give an abundance, an exactitude, a minutia of historic information of such nature as to cause us truly to believe that future researches upon this point can do no more. The tables are of persons condemned for those grave crimes which have been effected by destruetive means, whether against the person or of property, or one or both. The sex, age, origin, etat civil, profession, the economic condition, religion, intellectual culture of criminals have all been investigated and recorded. There is much variation according to our observation, but we have considered all descriptions and classes of these criminals and have formulated this interesting scientific conclusion: That there is an inaptitude for education in infancy that is evidence of a natural pre-disposition to crime. We have met with cases and occasions where we could base a veritable scientific prognosis which has confirmed the truth of this experimental doctrine. A methodical investigation has shown to us seventeen children hay- ing this inaptitude for education, that we have foreseen with assur- ance they would become criminals. And they became criminals con- trary to the expectation and belief of a number of savants who were obstinate in their opinion that these infants were only backward in their education, and who prophesied that they would succeed if their pedagogy was appropriate. In order to resolve the grand question as to the natural predisposition to crime, the science of criminology ought to demand critical experience of the pedagogic biology. We deeply regret that the general bureau of criminal statistics can not give official information in answer to the two questions: How many children and young people already gathered in the houses of correction become criminal adults? Andits complement: How many condemned adults had in their youth been placed in houses of correction ? (3) Our modern civilization has so improved, that it exceeds the nat- ural capacity of many individuals who live in our midst. Modern civ- ilization represents the last and final effort of the individuals who are 644 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. the best equipped. Many persons who now might be regarded as more or less criminal would have been esteemed honest if they had been destined to live in the primitive condition of man at the origin of civil- ization, or, at least, in the civilization of ancient times when our ances- tors formed the barbaric races of Europe. Each political government is a vast organism for the social education of all its citizens. Never- theless there are persons who, by virtue of an instinctive and invin- cible opposition, reject the possibility of modification by the adapting efficacy of political government. Out of this opposition grows instinet ive criminality. Because of it, criminals perform their actions without being conscious of evil. Giving free course to their instinets, they have only the consciousness of the good of their own individuality. Their selfishness seeks only their own good, and if they are not to be charged with the evil which their acts cause, no more are they entitled to credit for the good. The family is a small copy of society. The historic evolution of the family is that of society in general. There is a law which gives the highest importance to the good order of gen- eral society. There is also another law, only second to this, the good order of the family. The law of general society is the same in a greater sense as is the law of the family. The law of good. order in the family is intended for the adaptation of the individual to the social law. It is easy to recognize by observation and experiment that there are some individuals, however small the number, who present an insensible, instinctive, and obstinate resistance to the law of the family. This repugnance to family government is sometimes revealed during their infancy. These are the individuals who rebel against edu- cation and good order, whether of the family or of the State. The ini- tial adaptation of these individuals to the social law, on which are to be found all ulterior adaptations to law and order, are in a great part achieved by these individuals during their infancy. We ask, in what consists this opposition of the individual, the student, the infant, to the good order, whether of the family or society? How is it explained ? It appears to consist in the physical impossibility of the individual to bring into subjection certain of his nervous centers, and his inability to require them to accommodate themselves in their structure so that they can execute with facility all those molecular movements on which depend the acts of obedience to the domestic law, whether of the family or of society. These should be repeated and executed with so little friction as to become habitual, and they can be taught by-the ordi- nary pedagogic process. This want of power in the nervous center brings about in the young person a default in the impressions neces- sary, by which the moral life of the individual is made to correspond to that of society. As a consequence of this default all idealization which leads to this end, is absent in the student without possible substitu- tion, nor can he effect it by any spontaneous appreciation of his intel- ligence. CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 645 The sentiments of these individuals not only are closed against every civilizing action which educative objects commonly exercise, but the presence of these civilizing influences in the world, and in society or in the family, excites their opposition. They repulse with great efforts their educators and teachers when they would direct them toward their moral teaching, the object of the educators being to prevent this development of antagonism to the laws of society. The efforts even of the educators and teachers to prevent this opposition itself begets an opposition and increases the antagonism of the scholar. The inaptitude for education on the part of the individual arises because of a natural and irremediable defect or a physiologic inaptitude to the social laws of the family that one observes among some children, sometimes without regard to their life or surroundings, education, or example. This constitutes their pre- disposition to crime, and thus has grown up the saying used by many people without knowing that it is true science, sometimes expressed concerning an incorrigible infant, “Ce fils est né pour la guillotine,” * He was born to be hung.” Dr. Magnan, the head of the insane asylum at Sainte-Anne, Paris, was a joint reporter with Monsieur Taverni upon the foregoing ques- tion. Dr. Magnan differed largely from Taverni. He said the question as thus presented seems to admit as an accepted fact an infantile pre- disposition to crime. That, he said, is an assertion maintained by many criminalists, but one to which he refused his adhesion. He said that the opinion that attributes to the most of the criminals an ancestral origin, which considers the criminal born and raised as a savage sur- viving our present actual civilization, which contends that the infant criminality is only a prolonged example of savagery ;—this opinion, he says, has always broughtforth contradictions, and he cites certain recent publications : Tarde, “La criminalité comparée,” Paris, 1886. Topinard, “ L’an- thropologie criminelle—Revue d’anthropologie, No. 6,” November, 1887. Ch. Féré, ‘‘ Dégenérescence et criminalite,” Paris, 1888. H. Joly, ‘Le crime, Etude sociale,” Paris, 1888. Continuing his discussion concerning this supposed pre-disposition to crime, he asked, ‘‘Can any one dare to say that there are primordial forms of crime and that they, with the germs of crime, are natural attri- butes; in other terms, that the infant is naturally disposed to crime and that the criminal is a man deprived of moral sense?” We think this to be an erroneous determination of observed phenomena. At the moment of birth and for some days after, the infant has noth- ing more than a vegetative life. It cama into the world where it has to live finding itself surrounded by elements which conflict with its organ- ism and provoke re-action. These are only the instinctive expressions ofits emotions. All acts of the respiratory, circulatory, digestive, and other organs are a reflex order and do not demand the intervention of either mind or brain; mere life is sufficient for their accomplishment 646 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. But soon the acquisitions of the new being begin, and the functions of the brain increase. The door opens to an exterior world; the sight, the hearing, the taste, the smell, the sensations within the periphery of the body permits relations more intimate and complete with the outside world. These new operations bring into play that region in which experimental physiology and pathological anatomy have demonstrated reside the brain centers perceptive and sensitive. This is the organic substratum of our remembrances. In these differences are deposited the lingering images of all our sensorial impressions and itis thence that the centers of ideality draw the necessary material for intellectual elaboration in the formation of ideas. The images passing first to the frontal region, become the representative signs of thought and furnish the elements of our determinations. The excellent work of Meynert on the structure of the brain has taught us the system of the fibers of association and of projection which are the evidence of this functional evolution. If nothing abnormal in- tervenes, if none of the wheels of the cerebral mechanism are broken and nothing interferes with the activity of the sensori-motrice of infancy then the intervention of the center moderators substitute the active ideo-motrice which, under the influence of the attention, based on ex- perience, gives place to, or is followed by, the volitional act of reason. At avery early day in its life the infant begins to obtain or assume control of itself, say of its hands first, which produce the phenomenon of attention and of those conflicting motives, agreeable, or the reverse, which preside over the acts of volition. A chart given in the psychiatry of Meynert shows the succession of phenomona in one of these simple mental operations; the image of the flame of the candle thrown by the apparatus of vision on the center cortical posterior, transmits its repre- sentation into the frontal region and provokes immediately an involun- tary movement of the arms and hands towards the brilliant object. A painful impression, such as a burnt finger however, following an analo- gous act, acts in an inverse sense upon the psycho-motrice region, and a movement of shrinking is apparent. The two sensations, the one pleasurable, the other painful, are compared, the attention is attracted, the education of the moderate center is affected, recognition and memory are called into play, and in what before was only an act of impulse be- comes in fact, or at least has the aspect of, deliberation. From the simple vegetative life of the first few days of the infant (simple reflex) it soon passes to the instinctive life (activité sensori-motrice) thence to the intellectual life (activité ideo-motrice). These three different estates are but three stages of the evolution of one and the same function. The dif- ferent modes of cerebral activity, the sentiments, will, attention, memory, judgment, reason, ete., that constitute the psychologic faculty develop themselves and become perfected successively by the harmonious action of all parts of the brain. There is a progressive evolution of the mental faculties, until they arrive at that state of conscience which enables us to a er ie, Oe ae CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 647 discern the true from the false, and the good from the evil; that secret testimony of the soul which gives approbation for good actions, which makes reproaches for evil actions, and is a characteristic of moral Sense. The normal individual is not naturally disposed to crime. If he becomes a criminal (criminal of occasion as well as a criminal of habit), he does so under the influence of passion, or of vicious education. The influence of education is well marked in the infant and it takes an exceptional importance in the categories of these unhappy little ones of whom Monsieur Theophile Roussel has taught us so much in his re- markable report made to the Senate on the subjects of abandoned or mal-treated infants, and his project of a law for their protection. Many of these unfortunate criminals fall under the influence of de- plorable surroundings and examples because they are the subjects ofa heredity, which may be only nervous or may be the result of alcoholism of their ancestors. This is not a natural pre-disposition for crime, but is a pathologic tare, adegeneration that troubles the cerebral function. Sometimes the center moderators of the brain are not sufficiently strong to repress the unhealthy appetite and curb the improper instinet. Some- times the center moderators are too feeble to repress the appetites and refuse the unholy demands of these other centers which are in a state of erethism; sometimes, on the contrary, the center moderators are out of equilibrium with themselves and have not that ponderation which, in their normal state will regulate these instinctive phenomona. But this is a pathologic state, and this study of the degenerates of these sick people belongs exclusively to the medical profession and should be sub- mitted to a clinical investigation. With this-preliminary discussion the question is separated from theory and gains in precision and in certainty. Itis now reduced toa question of diagnosis. The examination still belongs to the dector. That these individuals will commit offenses and crimes is of small consequence. The investigation of the doctor goes beyond the commission of the act which is charged as a crime and the inquest should embrace the life of the subject, his atavisms, his physical troubles, as well as the intellec- tual, moral, and affective modification which they have produced. This detailed analysis and attentive research into the past life of the sub- ject will serve to clear the question and will furnish the best of elements of appreciation upon which the doctor can have his judgment. We now pass to the discussion proper of the question. The degen- erate hereditaries are born with the mark of their origin. Their phys- ical stamps are well known and we do not stop to investigate them. They are here questions of but secondary importance. We pursue at present the study of the anomalies of cerebral development. According to the seat and generalization of the lesions, according to the locality of the functional troubles, the elinical types will be variable, but in spite of their diversity the insensible transitions conduct from one 648 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. extremity of the scale to the other, from the degraded idiot to the degenerated superior, intelligent though out of equilibrium. We have but little here to say of the idiot who lives after a fashion purely vegetative, occasionally even only by instinct. The peripheric or surrounding excitation provoke the cerebral or medullary reflexes ; but they are naught but simple reflexes and the center moderators do notintervene. Irom the time the frontal regions become free the sub- ject commences to penetrate the dominion of realization and of control. He ceases then to be an idigt and is elevated to the dignity of an im- becile. The localization of the lesions in such and such a perceptive center, or of more or less extent in the anterior region, explains to us that such and sach faculties have survived the general destruction and thus there exists the partial genius, the learued idiot. The study of the dis-equilibriums, which as a class furnish the delinquents, belongs to mental pathology; and there is in them no great anatomic lesions, but rather the functional troubles on which depend the modification of the activity of the cerebro-spinal axis. The predominating trouble in this class is the want of harmony, the failure of equilibrium, not solely between the mental and intellectual faculties upon one part, and the sentiments and desires upon the other part, but there is a want of har- mony of the intellectual faculties between themselves. The want of equilibrium extends to the moral character. A degenerate hereditaire may possibly become a savant, a distinguished magistrate, an eminent mathematician, a sagacious politician, an efficient administrator, and yet he may present from the moral point of view those profound defects, those strange and unaccountable actions; and as on our moral side our sentiments and desires are the basis of our determination, it, follows that the brilliant faculties of this individual may be put at the service of an evil cause, that is, at the service of instinct, appetite, unhealthy senti- ments, etc., which, owing to the feebleness of the will, pusk him to acts the most extravagant and sometimes the most dangerous. The abnormal action of the cerebral and spinal centers gives rise to curious functional troubles which are of the psychic kind. The syn- dromic episodes, the extreme manifestations of dis-equilibrium, bring to light by their exaggeration, the false psychic mechanism which is found, though in less degree, among these degenerates. [or example: The illustrations of the effect of the dis-equilibrium are many, and in their manifestations are different, yet they are all referable and trace- able to the one cause—disturbance of mental and moral equilibrium. An individual affected with some malady or just recovered from a spell of sickness, who becomes haunted, tormented till he shall have recalled the desired word, or fixed in its proper place the face of a passing stranger he has somewhere seen before, is conscious that it is only a phantom, yet is unable to throw off the spell, to banish the image which possesses his cortical center; or another case a person is driven as by power, uncontrollable as it is unexplainable, to make an attack upon an CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 649 inoffensive and possibly unknown person whom he may find within reach of his fist or weapon; or one torn with a desire for drink; all these are phenomona of the same features and are illustrations of disturbed equilibriums. In these cases a conflict is engendered between the posterior brain (of which this particular center is in a state of erethism), and the moderat- ing centers. The facts which show these unhealthy impulsions of syn- dromatic degenerates are analogous to those of other degenerates whose acts are criminal, while in the preceding similar cases the center moderators, in spite of their decreased energy, can, for a time at least, interpose and hold a check or counterbalance on this impulsion. Upon the contrary, among degenerace criminals these centers are scarcely represented. They have small energy, are content to remain idle, will not carry on the contest, and their feeble compulsion leaves the indi- vidual without any protest from the anterior region. He is then ruled by his instinct alone, and this without any counterbalance or govern- ment. Conclusion: The infinite changes under which are presented the mental differences of those who are hereditarily degenerate, though they may appear much varied, can be definitely classed as follows: A. Predominance of intellectual faculty, but moral state defective,— degenerate criminals. B. Moral state preponderate, but intellectual faculties and aptitudes inactive or wanting. C. Apparent equilibrium of the faculties, but prominent defect in bringing them into usage, as in application, effort, emotion, ete. Having gotten this conception of the degenerates, it is not astonish- ing that cerebral anomalies should manifest themselves in their infancy. These are the original tares which manifest themselves in the psychic life. From the age of 4 or 5 years, even before avicious education has had time to influence or modify them, these young subjects will present characters of impulsiveness, phenomena of mental arrest, intellectual and moral anomalies, their strange decisions and uncertain actions as though possessed of an evil spirit and by which they can be segregated from their fellows and established into a separate class. These are ex- amples of perverse instinct, cruel impulses, cruelty to animals. Usually these strange anomalies belong only to a special part of the brain which may have been gravely affected by cerebral lesions, or thrown com- pletely out of equilibrium by functional troubles which may provoke in certain centers a great excitement and in others a diminution of their activity. In these children one sometimes encounters a hereditary _pathology which may explain the troubles of their cerebral develop- ment. The individual cases which serve as illustrations of these propo- Sitions are to be found in great number. They are set forth in medical journals and are given by the standard medical authors. In each of these cases and in all others known, it is remarkable that in spite of 650 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. these moral monstrosities one does not find any physical modification, or, if so, they are almost imperceptible. Neither is there to be found any physical brand of hereditary or ancestral degeneracy. But a serutiny of their pathologic life will reveal that from their infancy they have been marked by the breaking out of anomalies of character, of in- stinetive perversion, by affective sentiments which show themselves in numberless ways. From the very beginning of their psychic life they have been subject to cerebral anomalies. The history of the infancy of a degenerate adult will show the evident defective side of a mental organization from its earliest years and in the case of degenerate infants we know well what signification to attach to the precocious manifesta- tions of a morbid heredity. Dr. Mangan presented several cases and showed the photographs of many, many more which he said were the hereditary degenerates. Curious enough the most of them were girls, mainly infants from 7 or 9 years old, to 12 and 14. Their conduct as depicted by him was most vileand abominable. It was unnecessarily and unprofitably wicked. Only a few can be given as samples of the best, the worst can not be presented : Marguerite V., of 12 years, of good physique, and without any apparent mark of physical degeneration, rather good looking, intelligent, but full of vanity, of turbulent and variable humor, subject to violent fits of anger when she broke anything, beat her mother, stole what she could lay her hands upon, and excited her brother to steal. She would bite ~ her little brother without motive and without cause, would take a pin within ber mouth and then invite him to kiss her that she might wound him. Her memory was fairly good, but it was sexual troubles which dominated her. - - - Emile M. would laugh and ery easily and without reason. She had frequent and violent bursts of temper, stole upon every occasion, stole the money from the pockets of her father, took whatever lay about of personal property, would hide in the ashes and cinders the bread, sugar, etc., destroyed the tools and merchandise in her father’s shop, declaring she would like to ruin him; she tried to poison him, and on her starting for school in a gay and laughing manner, left a cup of coffee for her father in which she had deposited phosphorus. She tried to kill her twin brother, declaring she would like to kill herseif. Then followed the sexual troubles. - - - Louise C., 9 years old, was the daughter of an insane father. She lived in a state of continual excitement. Her intelligence was debili- tated, the evil instincts were highly developed, but nevertheless there was no evidence of malformation, no physical stigma. She was inca- pable of attention, turbulent, was discharged from several schools. The tendency to steal manifested itself at the age of 3 years, and she in- dulged it upon every occasion and against the property of every per- son. At 5 years she was arrested after a most violent resistance. She aren CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. ; 651 was a vagabond, would cry without reason, her memory was feeble, she could read and write, but did not understand arithmetic. She seemed to have no moral sense, was without modesty and knew not virtue. Her actions and conduct was such as not to be described. Augustine L. was 14 years old. She entered St. Anne at 10 years. Her family back to her grandparents had been seriously affected with epilepsy, alcoholism, delirium, ete. Her physiognomy was agreeable and there were no signs of physical degeneration. She had an excita- ble disposition, her humors were unequal, sometimes she worked with facility, other times she was incapable of attention. She had alterna- tions of excitement and depression, was unstable, passionate, idle, liar to an extreme degree, was tormented by sexual pre-occupation, was without any moral sense, without modesty, pity, or affection. Never- theless was not un-intelligent, although her memory had been neglected. Upon occasions she was a good worker, but usually she engaged in all sorts of vagabond, idle, evil life and conduct. - - - Gorgette J. was 12 years of age. Her physiognomy was agreea- ble, without any physical stain or stigma that would give the idea that she was a degenerate. The contrast between her physical appearance and her moral state presented a series of deformities unbelievable. She was undisciplined and so could scarcely read or write. Evil practices commenced at 5 years of age and were frightful. Their relations are shocking and impossible to relate. And so there were others: Jeanne D., Lizzie X., and others again and again quoted by Dr. Magnan, many of whose photographs he ex- hibited tome. He said those were cited simply as illustrations. The numbers which had come within his observation were many, but even this frequency does not cause us only to accord a secondary impor- tance to these physical signs which are inconstant, and even with the aid of all they seem very difficult to form or constitute a type. It is not the general contestable characters as yet undetermined, that can be used to clear the conscience of the magistrate. Medical juris- prudence demands from the medical faculty greater certainty. The medical expert can not attain to that necessary degree of precision without complete clinical examination in each particular case. Each case, he said, requires a positive diagnosis in order to respond to the enigmas of the case or the demands of medico-legal inquest. Dr. Motet presented some statistics and with them general consider- ations in order to complete the communication of Dr. Magnan. Of the cbildren brought to the house of correction during the 10 years from 1874 to 1884, there were 2,524 children admitted; 680 were illiterate ; 1,119 had been abandoned. He was in favor of a strong organization which would give to these unfortunates an education which was at once physical, intellectual, and moral. The agricultural penitentiary colonies were not his ideal when it concerned a child of the large cities. He declared that the State alone ought to have charge and direction 652 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. of the education of these unfortunates, and to organize a school of in- dustry where they would be taught proper trades, which trades, he said, could easily be arranged for what is known in commerce as the “ articles de Paris,” and the needed knowledge taught to the abandoned and illiterate child. He gave as his opinion that this was the duty of the State to provide and care for these children and to so rear them as they should become honest, respectable, and industrious men and women instead of the ignorant, illiterate, degenerate criminals, to be- come which they were now on the high road. This report gave rise to a great discussion. MM. Motet, Dalifol, Rous- sel, and Herbette deplored the condition of the law that placed in the houses of correction—children at an age from 10 to 15 years. If not already criminals, they soon become perverted and ready to become criminals. A more humanitarian law would have sent them to school and to church. Lombroso said that the perverse instinct of human nature appears even in the first years of the life of the infant. The infant in his first months is likely to be vain, proud, selfish, cruel, without moral sense, without honesty or truth, without knowledge or care for the rights of others, and without affection; and this, said he, is a criminal embry- onnaire. He thanked Dr. Magnan for having explained many ob- secure things found in Meynert. Lombroso explained the origin of his studies upon the criminality of infants, and said he had done nothing else than to copy the observers Perez, Spencer, and Tain. In the cases submitted by Dr. Magnan which he had described and many more of which he had exhibited the photographs, Lombroso declared that he could recognize in them the physical characteristics of true criminals. Those which Dr. Magnan declared to be the evidences of a general paralysis, were to his (Lombroso’s) mind naught but those of the criminal born. He could see in the degenerates the criminal epi- leptic, the imbecile, with their stigmas each peculiar to itself. Of the seventy-eight photographs in Dr. Bronardel’s album he had found but two who had not the criminal traits. MM. Moleschott and Van Hamel came to the defense of the infant and invoked its inability of discernment. They declared there were no such things as innate ideas, nor yet was there either criminality or virtue innate. The infant was born unconscious of either. In its early infancy it is not chaste because it is unconscious of shame. It has no respect for the truth, because it does not know the difference between the truth and a lie. The instinct of destruction is very strong, and it destroys with pleasure aud satisfaction. M. Moleschott called to mind a trick of Goethe, recounted by himself, in which he described his de- light in a scene ia his infancy when in the absence of his mother he committed an absolute carnage among the glass and pottery ware. But the sentiment of honesty and virtue and truth developed with age. It is the law of evolution, but it is necessary that we do not confound this phase of evolution with physiologic malady or with criminality. CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 6535 This view was emphasized by M. Roulet, who said he depended largely upon the physiognomy of the child, to which was added the reports of its conduct. But he declared that during the early infancy there was almost always an absence of discernment. He pleaded for precise detail, close and accurate investigation, and report among the doctors in order to determine the exact nature and degree of capability; and this, he said, was the mission of the anthropologist, who was destined to establish the differential diagnosis of the infant and determine whether it was a natural-born criminal or not, so as to apply the proper measures, whether it be the house of correction, or a simple education. M. Roulet was a lawyer before the court of appeals of Paris, was secretary of the French union for the defense and the tutelage cf infants in moral danger. He said that he had defended during the month of October more than four hundred infants before the tribunal of Seine; infants who were arrested in Paris for insignificant offenses, as vaga- bondage, begging, and little thefts. He had always pleaded that they were without discernment; that they should be acquitted of the crime, but that the state should have charge of their education. If the infant was acquitted, he demanded that it should be confided to the French Union for the Saving of Infants. Under the operation of this society, the infant was placed in the country and watched over by charitable ladies. If the infant was still evilly disposed, he demanded of the tribunal that he should be sent to the house of correction until he was 20 years of age, where he became the veritable ward of the state- The society of the French Union for the Saving of Infants had been organized in 1887. It was in close relation with the police and with the magistrates and courts: it had sought and obtained their confidence, and there were now remitted into its care a great many children who otherwise must be sent to prison, there to be swallowed up for all time in the everlasting whirlpool of crime. He asked the aid of some anthropologist, who was at the same time an anthropometrician, to visit the Palais de Justice each morning, and go with him through the crowd of arrested children and make the necessary scientific examination that could be perpetuated in the form of statistics ; and to this response Dr. Manouvrier promised his assistance by making that appointment for each morning. Their rendezvous would be at the anthropometric laboratory of M. Bertillon. M. Eschaneur, a Protestant pastor, declared the problem of saving and regeneration of the infant could be brought about only by love. Dr. Brouardel gave an interesting description of the physical and mental state of the gamins of Paris, so bright and intelligent during their infancy, but which, as has been observed by Lorraine and Tarde, early present the phenomena of a singular degradation. Near their fifteenth year their development was arrested, and a sort of physical decay was produced which led to sexual debasement and perversion, although it did not exclude certain intellectual aptitudes. Some 654 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. became musicians, poets, and painters. These indicated troubles of development, which in certain cases produced subjects degraded and debauched, and who, under favoring circumstances, were disposed to the genesis of crime. M. Theophile Roussel, senator, declared that to properly discuss this question it was necessary to occupy an entire conference. The legis- lation, however incomplete it might be, had already done much for the protection of infants. The state, which was the head of the grand family, assumes more and more of guardianship over the abandoned or neglected. And he quoted a proposed law which corresponded exactly to the present preoccupation of this congress. M. Herbette pursued the same course. How should the infant be treated by the state? If it is deprived of the care and protection of its family, the state should become its guardian, its protector, its educator, its father. The state is now largely the protector of infants, whether they be deprived of family or not. It protects the infants in the family against the stupidity, immorality, or crime of the parents; it protects the unfortunate, whether criminal or not, in the house of correction ; it protects him before the tribunal and it protects him against himself, because it refuses to give up its guardianship until he shall have arrived at majority. The state endeavors to preserve the infant from ignorance, vice, or crime. While man lives physically, no one has a right to say that he is morally dead. M. Herbette exhibited a chart of the penitentiaries of the country. He insisted that the role of education was prevention of the evil in its course, and, without rejecting the inter- vention of the societies of charity and protection, he demanded above all the surveillance and control of the state. Question VI.—The organs and functions of sense among criminals. Dr. Frigerio and Dr. Ottelinghi, of Turin, were the reporters. First part by Dr. Frigerio. I.—The eye of criminals.—(1) The color of the iris: I have examined the color of the iris of 700 persons normal and 1,500 criminals. I have encountered a predominance of the chestnut-colored iris among the criminals, a considerable proportion of blue among the violators, offenders against public morals. (2) The chromatic sense: This has been examined in 460 criminals with the method of Holingren. I have encountered but 0.86 per cent. of daltonism, a proportion which is feeble compared with the obser- rations made upon Italians, which has usually given from 1 to 3 per cent. of dischromatopsy. (3) Visual acuteness: Observations were made upon 100 criminals with the method of Smellen. For refraction we have met with an ap- parent predominant emmetropie. This visual acuteness is much more developed than among other Italians in the corresponding conditions of life though not criminal. CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 655 IT.—The skeletons and the form of the nose among criminals.—My ob- servations upon the skeletons have been based upon 609 skulls, among which 397 belong to the normal man, 129 to criminals (75 women and 54 men), 50 were insane, 13 epilepties, and 20 idiots. The nose of the living person has been studied in 830 persons normal and 392 criminals, of which latter 193 were thieves, 37 swindlers, 28 robbers, 40 murderers, 22 violators. We also examined 60 insane, 40 epileptics, and 10 idiots. For the observations made upon the skeleton I have encountered the anomaly of the nasai echancrure, that furnishes a new abnormal char- acter of the criminal man, and which I believe to be atavic. To this must be added frequent irregularity of the nasal overture, osynchie, and deviation of the nasal bone. Among the living the larger number of criminals show a nose square or wavy, of average length, but rather large and often twisted. The robber has often the broken nose; not large, short, wide, mashed, and twisted: the assassin straight, long, excessively large, wide, nearly always protuberant and twisted. ITI.—The sense of smell among criminals.—I have examined 80 crim- inals (50 men and 30 women) and 50 normal persons, 30 men, the most part the guards at the prisons, and 20 women of average culture. I com- pesed for that purpose an osmometre made by twelve aqueous solutions of the essence of giroflée in order of increasing concentration from = 35> to ,4,, of which 50 cubic centimetres were each placed in a glass bottle with ground stopper. The following were my conclusions: (1) An inferior sense of smell among criminals as compared with nor- mal persons. (2) The sense of smell more feeble among women than among men. (3) The sense of smell more feeble among criminal women than among normal women. IV.—The sense of taste among criminals.—I examined 60 habitual erim- inals, born criminals, 20 criminals of occasion, those which yielded to passion, sudden impulse, ete., 20 normal men of the inferior classes, 50 professors and students, 20 women of average intellectual culture, 20 criminal women. All were between 20 and 50 years of age. Observations were made of the taste bitter, taste sweet, and the taste salty. It was accomplished by a delicate solution of strychnine goto503 of sugar ;oo500, and salt, =+,. The tables are omitted but the conelu- sions are given as follows: (1) The taste is less developed among criminals than among normal persons of the same class. (2) The taste is less developed among those who are criminals born than among the criminals of occasion. (3) The sense of taste is slightly less among women than among men. 656 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. (4) The sense of taste among criminal women is inferior to that of normal women, but is more delicate than among criminal men. (5) Several cases of partial failure of taste among criminal men. V.—The sense of hearing among criminals.—Second part by Dr. Otte- linghi, of Turin. No organ of sense comes to such perfection in criminals as that of hearing. We have come to this conclusion both from our direct exam- ination and from the information received from the prison guards. It is without doubt true that the disuse of one sense wil] serve to sharpen another. As is the sense of touch among the blind, so is the sense of hearing among those prisoners who are condemned to silence. In our prisons where silence is required the prisoners have succeeded in es- tablishing means of communication which might rival the telegraphic apparatus. The cells are divided by a corridor along which constantly passes one of the guards, so that the prisoners have no opportunity of communication with each other. It has come to be known definitely and certainly that they communicate with each other by means of a tapping or striking upon the wall or other substance. This sort of tel- egraphic communication may be likened unto the old Morse alphabet ; one stroke for a, two for b, aud other changes and variations for the other letters. They did not use the letter h: no reason was given for the omission. Thus it happens that a prisoner will continue his work even in the presence of the guard who is watching him, yet by the strokes which he may make in his work he can communicate with the other prisoners who may be within earshot, and it does not seem to make much difference to them whether the surroundings are in silence or amidst a deafening noise. In case of the latter they seem to be able by their fineness of hearing to pick out the taps or strokes which form the letters, as one would read a book or paper silently, while around him was such a noise as that if he spoke aloud he could scarcely hear his own voice. Although the guardians wore slippers shod with cloth or felt, in- tended to enable them to walk noiselessly, yet every criminal detects the difference in the step of the various guards so as to tell which one was approaching. These examinations were made upon 280 criminals in the prisons, For the most part the sense of hearing was in excellent condition. With their eyes bandaged, standing at a distance of 1 or 2 metres, they could hear the ticktack of a watch. We attempted an experience with the transmission of sound by the aid of the os craniens, but without any conclusion. Our examination of insane criminals was also without conclusion. In the number of autopsies which we made upon insane criminals we have always found the convolution temporo-sphenoidal in a proportionate normal state, and have never found that among the criminals condemned to silence, there seemed to be any difference in CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 657 the convolution of that portion of the brain, which would tend to show any other than a normal condition or normal activity. If the sharp- ness of hearing among criminals is engendered by the inertia or disuse of the other senses we were unable to find any physiological or anatom- ical evidence of it in the brains of those whose autopsies we made. Question VII.—Vhe determination by means of criminal anthropol- ogy of the class of delinquents to which a given criminal may belong. Baron Garofalo, vice-president of the civil tribunal of Naples, reporter. For the determination of this question a psychological study of the criminal is indispensable, and this is possibly the principal branch of criminal anthropology. The anatomic characters can ouly furnish in- dication, and itis necessary to complete the moral figure of the criminal by the investigation of his psychic anomaly. (1) In order to recognize this psychic anomaly the kind of offense will suffice sometimes. But it is necessary that the phrase “ kind of offense” should be employed distinct from the language of the penal code or the judicial theory. Thus, for example, in the case of murder the word pre- meditation may be insufficient to authorize us to class the offender along with murderers, for one can kill,even with premeditation, the murderer of his father or the seducer of his sister without being thereby classed among the criminals born. All the vengeances of blood, the vendettas, are of the same kind, because there is not a seeking for that egotistic satisfaction which compels the man to murder or makes him criminal born. These offenses are oftener the effect of an altruism, such as amour propre or case of honor. On the other hand a man may have the most monstrous criminal nature and yet be a simple murderer without being an assassin; nor is if any better to determine the assas- sination from the motive, for either murder or assassination may take place without any of the motives which influence the average man. Men in all the enjoyment of their psychic faculties will kill sometimes as though they were savages; sometimes from vanity, sometimes to show their force, their address; sometimes to acquire notoriety. And again, the murder with an apparently sufficient motive, may be nothing more after all than the work of a maniac, epileptic, hysteric, ete. Even in the case of brigandage one can not be sure of the nature of the crim- inal without having examined him physically and morally. Where brigandage is endemic a son follows his father or his older brother on an expedition which has no other end than to rob the passing travellers and to kill them if they should resist, still he is not to be classed by anthropologists among the born criminals. It may happen that the brig- and who, if investigated anthropologically, ethnologically, or morally, would pass the whole examination with high credit marks, would yet in the cases cited follow his father or older brother in his trade or profes- sion and be a brigand. H, Mis, 129-——-42 658 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. A classification of the penal code might make no differences between these offenses, while anthropologic and psychologic investigations would have to také account of them. In order to place a criminal in the degenerate classes of monstrous criminals it is necessary that he should exhibit an innate or instinctive cruelty, such as is found in certain savage peoples. In that case the murder is committed with a purely egotistic aim, that is to say, that the criminal has been moved by a desire of some individual satisfac- tion; when there has been on the part of the victim an absence of what would constitute provocation on the part of a normal man; when the murder has been accompanied by brutality made with intent to prolong the agony, that it may give pleasure to the fiendish character of the eriminal. It is in these terrible crimes, by which the monstroas nature of the criminal is to be recognized. After this be once established there is still to distinguish between the born assassin and the insane or epileptic individual, who is either impelled by an imaginary superior force or else from want of perception of the nature of crime is held to be not responsible. : (2) The cases cited are confessed to be of extreme anomaly. Some- times the circumstances themselves in which the crime has been com- mitted are sufficient to show the nature of the criminal. In cases where this is in doubt and it is desired to determine to which class he belongs, there should be the examination psychologic and anthropo- logic. The anthropologic characters are of an importance and often- times decisive when taken from the diagnosis of infants or young crim- inals. There are those who are recognized as having this taint of born criminality by their light offenses, their fighting, lying, cruelty, wan- tonness, truancy, theft, ete., and those bad boys, incorrigible young- sters, always doing things not simply mischievous, but things which they know to be wrong, though they may not be high crimes. But these individuals, being examined by anthropology, may present at the same time the characters of moral insanity and of innate criminality. The sanguinary instinct manifests itself frequently from the first in- fancy by a series of acts just described as slight offenses, but which are unjustifiable, frequently repeated, yet of which the parent or teacher in authority takes no notice, because of the youth or feebleness of the child. Arrived at manhoed, when he has finished his evil career by assassination, murder, and the higher crimes, then is remembered these minor offenses in his infaney which were the fore-runners of graver and more hideous crimes. In these and similar cases one can find the typ- ical physiognomy of the assassin, the cold regard, the fixed eye, the marked cranial deformation, an excessive length of the lower part of the face, the forehead narrow and retreating, and other regressive signs ; or, perhaps, such atypic anomalies as plagiocephaly and scaphocephaly ‘and among those who commit rape the thickness and grossness of the — CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 659 lips. And as for the moral sentiment, there may be shown a complete indifference for the victim. Apathy and egotism may be shown by the preoccupation of the criminal as to the possible duration of his punish- ment and the pleasures of which it will deprive him. If the anthropo- logic student will charge up against the delinquent the kind and the frequency of these small offenses in his extreme infancy, will note his psychologic and anthropologic characters, and take into account the heredity of vice, of insanity, or of crime, he can prophesy that the infant or young person with these mental and moral characteristics will, if the provocation or opportunity arise, become an assassin. It is not rare for the psychopathie form to manifest itself in subsequent time, and then one may fairly conclude it to be a case of either insanity, epilepsy, or a born criminal. (3) The physical observation of the delinquent should be continued, to the end that one may distinguish the impulsive characters; that is to say, those characters which impede or prevent moral resistance to the passions which excite to crime, principally anger, vengeance, alco- holism, insanity, epilepsy, and certain other characteristics which de- scend by heredity. This class of delinquents are midway between the malefactors by instinct and those of occasion. Although this tendency to crime is a germ in their individual organisms, which becomes semi- pathologie, yet the germ will rest latent and unproductive, if there is not added to it an impulsion from the exterior world. This impulsion is required in order to cause them to commit crime which leads us to class them as criminals of occasion. As soon as this exterior impulsion is found to be not necessary, or, if the crime is immoderate as compared with the impulsion, thea the delinquent is to be classed as a criminal born. The regressive anomalies of the skull and of the physiognomic type of inferior races that has been so frequently remarked in the criminal born are nearly always absent from the impulsive criminal. But on the other hand these latter are characterized by nervous anomalies, and by other striking maladies. It follows as a result of this theory that in murders or assaults arising from a quarrel or riot, one can easily under- stand how there can be two classes of criminals—the criminal impul- sive, and the criminal by chance. The first, which are partially crim- inals born, are much more dangerous to society than the latter. They mnmay commit crime from disease as much as from instinct and ought to be made objects of particular treatment, as much by the medical man in the hospital as the policeman in the prison. (4) The terms used in jurisprudence for the description of a great number of crimes signifies nearly nothing for the anthropologist. In the science of criminal anthropology the author of a given crime may be ranged under different classes of criminals. He may be a criminal born; he may be a criminal impulsive, or only a criminal of occasion. 660 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. According to the penal law there are but two terms: the criminal and the punishment, while criminal anthropology, the new science, has three terms: (1) the crime, (2) the criminal, and (3) the punishment or the adapted repressive measures. These repressive measures are to be again divided according as they are applied to the different classes of criminals. | (5) In classing as criminals those who commit offenses against prop- erty, such as robbers, thieves, swindlers, forgers, etc., psychology plays a réle even more important than anthropology. The sentiment of probity is less instinctive than that of charity or pity and is not de- pendent upon the organism because it is more recent and less trans- missible by heredity. It happens that exterior causes, such as the surroundings, conditions, examples, education, and economie conditions may have a greater effect upon this species of criminality. In the case of the robber or thief, along with the morbid form, kleptomania, there is an instinct to steal caused by heredity or atavism, which is often manifested by anthropologic signs and above all by special physiognomy. The most striking characters are those mentioned by Lombroso of the extreme mobility of the face and hands, small and bright eye, heavy and continuous eyebrows, the camus nose, small and retreating fore- head, ete. When these characteristics are found upon the recidivist, that is, the incorrigible criminal, one can be sure that he has to do with acrim- inal born. It is frequent that among vagabonds, robbers, thieves, and other criminals against property there is a physical and moral neurastheny, a term coined by Benedikt, of Vienna; that is to say, an aversion to labor and to every moral combat for the right, derived from a hervous constitution, and which is combined with, or perhaps has produced a desire to enjoy the pleasures of life and to indulge in its luxuries quite beyond his means. When the circumstances of life are hard upon such an individual, and he is subjected to an economic or social crisis, he is more likely to become a criminal, because crime may aid him in the satisfaction of his desires. To this neurasthenic class belong the vagabonds, thieves, and swindlers, whose improbity may have commenced by unfortunate circumstances, such as being out of work, loss of place, evil company, bad example, and improper moral education, and which ends in his becoming an instinctive criminal. The neurasthenic and the habitual or instinctive criminai ought there- fore to be grouped together, because they are equally incorrigible, until at least the social and economie situation of the former shall be- come so changed as to offer them the enjoyment of all pleasures and luxuries which they desire without the need to work. It is necessary, however, to make exceptions for young persons who are driven into vagabondage and are thieves by bad examples, and evil surroundings and associations. Although they may have become habitual criminals, CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 661 yet they may not be incorrigible, certainly not until they shall have arrived at the age when the character is fixed. (6) It follows as a necessary conclusion that as each of these classes of delinquents may be determined with anything approaching pre. cision an enlightened legislature should adopt a special treatment. It is not astonishing that the legislators and magistrates who make and ’ deal with the criminal laws should repulse the services and the aid of psychology and anthropology, and should persist in their @ priori per- ceptions and in uniform precepts, without giving consideration to the infinite variety in criminals produced by so many different causes and infiuenced so differently by surroundings, all of which goin such supreme degree to form the guilty and reprehensible intent with which the crime was committed, or which on the other hand may take away that in- tent and form either a justification or excuse. M. Puglia gave his unqualified assent and support to the propositions advanced by Baron Garofalo. M. Alimena, on the contrary, assailed the entire classification. Ac- cording to him the examination, whether anthropological, physical, or psychological, was insufficient to more than raise presumptions and invent theories, while certainty was required in dealing with judicial questions and eases. If exterior and physical anomalies are appreci- ated, why not apply the same rule to internal anomalies? What, he demanded, did it signify as to the depth or size, more or less, of the occipital fossette in the skull of Charlotte Corday which we now saw in the collection of Prince Roland Bonaparte? If it indicates, as is claimed, that she was a born criminal, then instead of being a heroine who rid the world of a monster, she was naught but a common, vulgar, impulsive murderess. The difference should be recognized between a purely scientific treat- ment of criminals and the practical treatment which they must receive under the law. If science advances so does the law. But they go at different rates. Science flies on wings of the mind, while the law marches along in stately and dignified tread with leaden sandals. Scientific errors are easily corrected. They do no harm. They come down upon us and envelop us as does the fog the earth, but like the mists of the morning which fade away before the sunlight of heaven, so do they under the light of investigation ; while the jurisprudence of the country, solid and enduring, and, more like the earth which has been hidden, remains after the fog has been dissolved into a few drops of dew. He expressed his opinion that of al) these sciences, psychology would be most productive in results, and he much regretted that the schools of law and of medicine did not teach this science. Lombroso responded that his works or his opinions were not opposed to nor contradicted by any psychologic diagnosis. He returned to the skull of Charlotte Corday, which he said demonstrated anatomic char- 662 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. acters of the criminal born, such as platycephalic, the occipital fossette, and other characters of the viril skull. Dr. Topinard responded to him by affirming that the skull of Char- lotte Corday was normal, and that it presents all the proper characters of the skull of a woman. The platycephalic was a normal character and the vermicular fossette was not an anomaly, and there was nothing irregular in the skull unless it should be its platycephalic, and he said it was rare or never that a skull was the same in all its parts and on beth its sides. Nearly all skulls showed a difference or distinction on the one side or the other. M. Benedikt opposed this theory of the craniometrie methods and also the psychologic characteristics enumerated by Baron Garofalo, which, he said, would belong equally to the dyspepties and the neural- itics. It was easy to make hypotheses, and according to his belief one had as much right to say that the occipital fossette was an indication of a pre-disposition to hemorrhoids as much as it was to crime. Ferri and Lombroso replied vigorously to Dr. Benedikt, while Sen- ator Moleschott came to his aid. Dr. Brouardel recalled the speakers to the discussion of the report of Baron Garofalo. The problem proposed by him was a classification of criminals. ‘The crime itself is insufficient to class the criminal. The decision must be upon all the evidence. One insane act is not suffi- cient to characterize an insane person. It must be established by the antecedents of the subject, his former life, his peculiarities, and his physical signs. This was the only true system to be pursued, and any purely physical or purely psychologic examination wouid be insuffi- cient and was to be repulsed entirely. Suppose the theories of Baron Garofalo to prevail, then a criminal born, according to his views, should be arrested at once and confined in some special establishment. M. Herbette took up the discussion and enumerated the results ob- tained by the administration of the penitentiaries. We have, said he, at one time the prisoners and the sick people. The prison is not a hos- pital. The hospital is an association for the good of the sick and where they may furnish a subject of study and experience. In the most of them the entry is free, and in all the departure equally free. In the prison the situation is entirely different. The prisoner is imprisoned as a result of the penal right of society to protect itself. M. Lacassagne protested that for the sake of science, for the sake of society, for the sake of investigation into crime and its causes, the law should give to the prison authorities the right to investigate the biology of the criminal and the sole control of the cadaver of the criminal, whether his death was inflicted by the law or came from other causes. But M. Herbette declared he would not go so far, and he counseled patience, study, careful investigation, great conservatism, regard for the feelings of the public, so to the end there should be no revulsion on their part, for the reforms which were forced might bring great risks to science and compromise its success. : CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 663 Question VITT.—The conditional liberation of criminals. Dr. Semal, director of the insane asylum of the state at Mons, Belgium, reporter. (1) In studying the right of society to punish a criminal, one is struck with the insistance of the law upon the characters and circum- stances of the offense, without the slightest examination into the per- sonalities or conditions of the delinquent. Dr. Semal advocated a psycho-nmoral examination of the delinquent in order to determine his condition, whether he was a confirmed criminal or only a criminal on oceasion; and whether he might not in the one case be given a condi- tional liberation, and in the other be continued indefinitely in confine- ment. One of the theories of the penal code which forms a foundation for the right to punish, is the possible reformation of the delinquent; but the idea of a fixed term of imprisonment as a punishment for one class, and another term for another class of offenders, is opposed to the theory of possible reformation. To give this idea of reformation full effect, there should be a conditional liberation which should take effect sooner in one proper case, and later, or not at all, in an improper case. He declared a scheme of conditional liberation could be provided which would be more rational, more humane, and more successful in the reformation of criminals. The jurist, in writing on this subject, contents himself to remain within the limits of the written law, and declares himself satisfied by the uniform and inflexible application of formulas which have been erys- tallized in the codes. The decay of these doctrines will appear where to the safety of the public or society is added the desire to reform the criminal. But their destruction will not be complete until crime is re- garded as a natural phenomenon which ean be prevented by a study of the social and individual causes which lead up to it. From this there are to be made two deductions: (1) If the punishment is the principal object of the repressive system, why should it be prolonged when it has contributed all it can to the reformation of the condemned? This is the foundation of conditional liberation. (2) If the penal condemnation is sufficient to awaken in the heart of the delinquent his heretofore smoth- ered sentiments of right and justice, and if the moral effect of his offense is complete by the fact of his condemnation, why should he be com- pelled to serve, or even enter upon, a term of imprisonment? And from this has sprung the theory of conditional sentence. These two propositions contain the germs of the radical reform of the repressive system. They tend to give to the convicted criminal the opportunity to determine by his conduct if he will have his sentence postponed indefi- nitely, and his liberation made at once, even though it be on probation and under surveillance, he to be returned to prison on his first move- ment towards a return to his former criminal life. (2) The proposed law of conditional liberation would operate upon the sentimeuts of the condemned person, of which we can suppose the 664 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. existence; and in order to establish with certainty this proposition, it is proposed to give him a scientific psychologic examination. Man ean be judged only by his acts. There may be a sort of latent criminality always ready to explode under the shock of propitious eir- cumstances, as an expression of a diathesic stage dominated by hered- ity, and of which biologie science can enumerate the signs. A psycho- logic analysis is indispensable in order to determine these questions. The necessity of a psychologic examination of the delinquent is imposed because it is the only method by which one can determine the existence of such sentiments as will authorize the conditional liberation or ought to postpone the punishment. (3) As to the practicability of this we have to remark that the pres- ent theory and past experience has only resulted in a multiplication of punishment without having reduced the extent of criminality; and this, whether in the number of the crimes, their frequency, or their grades. Bythe old system neither the genesis or evolution of crime has been studied; neither the legislator nor the jurist seem to have ever considered why an evil-minded minority should persevere in the commission of crime while the majority of people are honest, well dis- posed, and of good repute. It is therefore towards the modern school of positivists that we must turn for a solution of this matter, because it alone seems to have studied crime as a natural phenomenon arising from multiple causes. (4) The principle of the reformation of the criminal by the opera- tion of the penal system is in contradiction with the fixation in ad- vance of the duration of the cure to which the delinquent has to sub- mit. The new theory of jurisprudence will permit whoever or what- ever criminal shall show himself to be repentant and inoffensive to be conditionally liberated, and this offer should be made or the opportu- nity given even to those who refuse or those who find themselves in the impossibility to reform. The reformation of the delinquent, or at least his resignation to and respect for social laws, is the essence ot this theory of conditional liberation. But, as one can count to a cer- tain extent upon the vitality of the criminal instinct, and with the per- sistence of the social conditions which nourished it, it is necessary to prepare for the eventuality of a prolonged incarceration which may be regarded as the result of incurability on the part of the criminal. The idea is to proportion the length of the imprisonment according to the nature of the delinquent, to the degree of his perversity, and the dan- ger of his return to society before his evil tendencies shall have become enfeebled or neutralized, It is evident that this is more rational than to fix a time certain for his imprisonment according to the condition of his offense, which may furnish only an isolated system of the moral malady with which he has been attacked and which was the cause of the commission of his crime. The proposed law of conditional libera- CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 665 tion can correct any erroneous verdict or judgment or work any redue- tion of the term of imprisonment. (5) The proposed law of conditional condemnation is upon the same principle as that of conditional liberation. It corresponds somewhat to the practice prevailing in some States of the United States of sus-. pension of sentence during the indefinite period of good behavior. It is a measure generous and wise, is addressed to delinquents of tender years,—those who have been arrested for the first time, who may be the victims of circumstances, who are without criminal intent, and who, if the sentence be suspended, would probably never be guilty of the offense again, while, if their sentence should now be carried into execution, it would almost certainly result in the loss to society of one who might become an honest and respected member thereof, and gain in his place he who might easily become a hardened criminal. But the application of this principle is or will be surrounded by researches ex- tremely delicate, which ought to be highly scientific and so length- ened as to include the antecedents of the delinquent, his life, his raising, his surroundings, and to get if possible into the interior of his soul. The word “delicate” has been used, and truly this is necessary, for the responsibility is great, for as the judge may by refusal to sus- pend sentence lose a member of good society, so also he may by a sus- pension of sentence grant indulgence to unworthy subjects and be deceived by hypocritical pretenses and promises, crocodile tears manu- factured for the occasion and practiced upon him by a hardened and instinctive criminal. (6) The instinctive delinquency of the young criminal is not abso- lutely in relation with the enormity of the crime. This imposes upon the jurist the necessity of @ proper selection from among the arrested as well as among those imprisoned as to whom, in justice, to apply the different systems of treatment. The operation of these two systems, the one of which operates upon those subjects which can possibly be reformed, the other with the prolonged and continued punishment and incarceration, even in solitary confinement, of incorrigible subjects, who, if allowed their liberty in the least degree, will use it only for the con- tamination of their fellow-prisoners and the preparation and arrange- ment for themselves to enter into a wider sphere of crime upon their release. These are the foundations of the two systems. (7) Individualization is necessary in order to recognize and class the delinquents, and to determine whether the medicine to be administered to him for his cure should be of inearceration or liberation. SSometimes it might be better to adopt the plan of solitary confinement in order to conduct properly this individualization. An antbropologic examina- tion or a psychologic analysis may not be sufficient to determine to which class he should belong, and therefore he should be tried under different conditions, always bringing out his real and heartfelt senti- ment, thus enabling one to determine to which class he belongs and 666 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. whether he should be conditionaliy liberated or continued in solitary confinement. To this end an opportunity must be given both by re- straining his liberty until he shall bein solitary confinement or extend- ing it until he shall be conditionally liberated. His actions and the psychologie effect which this has upon him must determine the future course to be pursued with him. In doubtful cases the conditional liber- ation is the most rational, as it is the most humane. It gives the delinquent an opportunity to reclaim himself, and gives him a guaranty that his attempts at reformation will be well seconded. (8) After having returned to society those of whom we have nothing more to fear in the way of criminal offenses, after having taken all necessary precautions for those who are to remain under surveillance and possible return, it is necessary to take steps for those individuals who are by nature rebels and refractory, who reject all ordinary means of reformation, who are delinquents by habitude, and: are instinctive criminals. For these individuals their detention, even to solitary con- finement, with severe and hard labor, should be kept up until they give proof of their repentance. If this is refused then we in France and on the continent can only relegate them to a penal colony in a distant ocean or else to solitary confinement in one of our home penitentiaries. The relegation of a recidivist or an incorrigible to a penal colony, soli- tary confinement, or some other form of severe punishment, or else treating him as sick or insane and sending of him to a prison asylum; these are the logical corollaries of the propositions for conditional lib- eration. The criminal, conditionally liberated, should be required to report for examination whenever needed, and thus the prisoners who are under condemnation of the law would become physical subjects for the study of crime in its psychologic as well as anthropologic phases, and the prison become as well an asylum and a hospital, affording a elinie for the lawyer, for the doctor, the judge, and the lawmaker. M. Alimena called the attention of the congress to the fact that this question had been discussed for a long time and in many places by legislators and jurists, and he referred to the first congress of the Inter- national Union of Criminal Law, held at Brussels, in 1889, where the discussion took place upon the thesis presented by Senator Michaud on the lawof pardon. He said three methods had been proposed—the conditional sentence, which was enforced in Belgium; the suspension of judgment, which was practiced in England, America, and Australia; and finally that of blame, set forth in the German code, the Russian, Spanish, Portugese, and in some of the cantons of Switzerland and provinees of Italy. M. Drill remarked that the system of conditional liberation required the exercise of two functions—that of the judgment of the court passing upon the guilt of the criminal, and the ulterior or subsequent treatment of the criminal, and that these were functions entirely different and ought _—. CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 667 to be separated. The first belonged to the judge and the court, and the second belonged to the administration of the penitentiary. He thought these ought to be kept separate, and it was clearly his opinion that the judge or the courf alone should decide upon the culpability of the in- dividual and the application of the penal law. The administration of the penitentiary should be composed of, or should eall to its aid, the most competent scientific gentlemen, who would be able to pass upon any question concerning the physical, physiological, or psychological characteristics of the individual, and this, taking in consideration his antecedents, his social condition and surroundings, his education, com- panions, ete., together with his conduct while in prison, would enable them to decide upon the application of the conditional liberation.* M. Bertillon, while giving all credit to the scientific investigations mentioned, begged the congress not to forget that the final end was primarily for the safety and well-being of society, and the reformation or well-being of the criminal only secondary. Question 1X.—Crime in its relation with ethnography. Dr. Alvarez Taladriz, of Valladalid, reporter. M. Ferri had already described the ethnic influence upon crime, so Dr. Taladriz sought to establish a tendency towards crime on the part of a whole people; the criminality of a nation or of races. He sought to show how the crimes in the Northern, Middle, and Southern Spain, were different, and also the difference in criminals. He declared this difference to be due to the advent of Charles I and Philip I, as Kings, and that it was but an exposition of the ferocious instinet of the primi- tive inhabitants of the forests of Germany. The mesologic influences are confirmed by history in such manner as that it ought to recall to the student of sociologie influence the statis- tics of offenses committed in the cold and warm countries, those be- tween the region of the North and the region of the South. These ques- tions have not been studied from a geographic or ethnice point of view. It is proper that they should be. There probably is no place in which this ethnic influence upon crime could be studied with greater success and accuracy than in Spain, where there are such ethnic differences between the people of the different parts of that country, and where one will find a corresponding difference in the crimes committed. In the north of Spain offenses are of a character distinet from those of the center and south, Crimes against person and property are rare. Those which exist are the result of inherited, primitive usages and cus- toms like in the vast mountainous Basque provinces of Catalonia, the kingdoms of Galicia, the Asturias, and Leon, where assassination and homicide show the terrible characters of the sediment of population *The legislatures of Massachusetts and New Jersey have lately adopted a system of conditional liberation. : 668 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. deposited by the preceding races of Germany during the grand period of invasion of the tribes of the north who occupied these regions more than any ether part of the peninsula. The miners of the center of Spain do not present those characters of ferocity, because their elements are a concourse of varied and multiplied antecedents of the successive dominations which have come to pass in the peninsula. In the kingdoms of Valencia and the Andulasian provinces, the crimi- nal customs of the Arab race were handed down as a souvenir of the Kabyles, where the inhabitants organized themselves into a band of malefactors. The crimes of homicide, assassination, in the majority of cases were only the result of the passion of jealousy coupled with a hate truly African and which considerably augments the number of offenses against persons and property. Nevertheless, we recall certain acts of nobility, the Arab hospitality, ete. True, there may be excep- tions found, as there will always be, to general rules, but the conclu- sions are: (1) The physiologic characters of the criminal type manifest them- selves in a constant and uniform manner in all epochs and in all races, and without other variations than those imposed by accidental and external circumstances from these epochs and races. (2) The conditions of race, climate, geography have their influences upon the senses and passions of mankind and upon the development of crime, as well as upon sociology, religion, economics, or politics. (3) The grand offenses committed by races and nations ought to be an object of an international penal code by which they could be pun- ished with a certainty and uniformity that would bring them to an end ; while in the same code could be declared the sacred right of nations and of individuals, which should be recognized by all the world. Question (37).—Medico-psychologic observations upon Russian crimi- nals. M. J. Orchanski, of Charkow, Russia, reporter. ; M. Orchanski is professor of the university at Charkow. He was not present to read his paper, and it was presented by Dr. Brouardel in connection with Question IX. Only the conclusions were read and they were in opposition to the Italian school. The paper consisted of arguments and deductions, and did not deal in testimony or statistics. Dr. Topinard took the opportunity to present his opposition to the title “Criminal Anthropology” and thought it should be replaced by that of ‘‘Criminology,” as being shorter, easier, better understood, having a clearer meaning, and with everything to recommend the change. Dr. Manouvrier preferred the the term “Anthropologie Juridique.” Question X.—The ancient and new theories of moral responsibility. M. Tarde, juge @instruction at Sarlet, Dordogne, reporter. This was a long and learned disquisition upon moral responsibility. CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 669 The opening paragraph declared that moral responsibility depended upon free will, which, at least, in its relation to crime, was a hypothesis without foundation in truth or justification in law. The discussion became more philosophical and metaphysical than practical. The most careful report would fail to do it justice or render satisfaction to its author, and it is therefore deemed wise to omit it. Question XI.—The criminal process considered from a point of view of sociology. M. A. Pugliese, of Trani, reporter. The moment appears opportune to make the criminal process an ob- ject of the study of penal sociology. (1) The criminal process is an institution of State established in the social interest, having for its end the search for and repression of crime. The general rules of its formation provide for the discovery and appre- ciation of crime, the punishment of the author, and the conciliation of the social and individual interest. To do this properly requires a magistrate who has technical as well as general knowledge. It is not sufficient in these times of the discovery and investigations of anthro- pology that he should be simply a judge or even a jurist. it is necessary that he should be acquainted with the studies of anthropology and sociology ; that he should understand the social surroundings in which the crime is committed as well as the men who commit it. Whether the State should found the necessary institutions of learning for the training of these magistrates was a question for discussion, but it is indisputable that they should have a special training. Prosecutors are charged with the trial of criminal offenses. In western Europe these things are not satisfactory ; a juge d’instruction, or prosecuting officer, scarcely possesses any special training or had any special qualification to fit him for his position. Perhaps he has never written a criminal process, never seen a cadaver, or attended an autopsy. He knows nothing of anthropology nor of penal sociology, and yet he is called upon to exer- cise tunctions the most delicate, most difficult, on which depends the safety of the citizens and their social surety. He obtains his experience in corpore vivo; he learns at the expense of society. In doing black- smith’s work he becomes a blacksmith, and when he shall have become habituated to his position, and qualified in even a mediocre manner, he will be changed to another place with another duty, and another person will replace him to begin again this new life of study and _ practice. This is not a system but is only education. The faults, and the scandal are enormous. Sixty per cent. of criminal processes fail. The real culpables have a good chance of escape, while the innocent run the danger of losing their honor, their liberty, and, possibly, their life. It is evident that the criminal process should not, as at present, be limited to the gathering of the proofs pell mell. On the contrary, the prosecutor ought to study the evil and secret causes of the criminal actions, and from them deduce the true reason of punishment. They 670 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. ought to seek also for the precedents somatic, psychic, and social, and discover the conditions, surroundings, environments, not only of this particular criminal but of all that have gone to produce such criminal phenomena. It is now time to search for such indications as can be furnished by anthropology and by criminal statistics, not only for iden- tity, as given by the works of Bertillon, Voisin, and Herbette, but also the biology of crime as has been investigated by Ferri, Garofalo, and Righini. (2) The investigation and trial should be confided to those who have been technically educated, experts of special training, one for the prosecution and another chosen by the defense. The defense ought to be admitted to take measures, to ask questions of medical juris- prudence, such as he may need in the interest of his client, and upon these questions the debate should take piace and the judgment rendered. This would not be a mere opinion, but would be a true de- cision of a technical commission, which would settle at once and for- ever all debate upon that question. It would be a trial before a tech- nical jury as to the questions of medicine or medical jurisprudence or psychiatyy. It would also raise the professional dignity of the medical jury, and would assure the world that, cost what it might, the research would be in the interest of truth. The right of the judge to demand the decision of science, and along with it the right and the power to trample the decision under his feet is a manifest contradiction. We who have always maintained that itis not reasonable to submit to a common jury questions of medical jurisprudence, think it time to over- turn the ancient maxim that the judge is the expert of experts. The maxim may flatter the vanity of the judge, but itis not true. Each one to his place is the truth, When a question of medical jurisprudence arises the medical jurist ought to be the judge. This question was brought up at the session of the congress at Rome. Drs. Tamassia and Laccasagne presented it. There was an important debate thereon, and the principle here laid down was ap- proved with a single exception We propose that questions of medical jurisprudence, of psychiatry, should be tried before a technical jury, and that they should be authorized not simply to make a suggestion and give an opinion, but to render that which is a real decision and a final judgment. We believe the proposition laid down in the Holy Seriptures to be the true one, to give to Christ that which belongs to Christ and to Cesar that which belongs to Cesar. (3) There should be established a system of preventive detention, that is to say, there should be a detention for the purpose of preventing crime by means of imprisonment of the individual before he has com- mitted it, rather than to imprison him after as a punishment for having committed it. The penal process or code in the Latin countries consists of the two steps, one of instruction and the other accusation. In the first the presumption of innocence prevails, and there the preventive CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 671 detention should be the exception, but in the second it ought to be the rule. But these things are to be determined by the psychic condition of the delinquent and the nature of the causes which impelled him to erime. If the psychic conditions have been verified there should be no further hesitation, but the imprisonment or detention should be en- forced with rigor. (4) The judge gives his jadgment in three forms: Condemnation,— acquittal for inexistence of the crime or of his innocence ;—acquittal for insufficiency of proof. This corresponds to the ancient formula: Condemno, absolvo, non liquet. The jury, on the contrary, except in Scotland, have only two formulas: Yes, no; guilty or not guilty. If they are in doubt as to his guilt, they respond not guilty. This does not appear just. The jury should have a formula of non liquet—not proven; the laws would then be equal for all. (5) There should be an appeal in criminal cases as well in acquittals as in convictions. This question was treated by Garofalo, Ferri, Maino, and by Pugliese in the Revue de Jurisprudence in 1885. It has been argued in the affirmative by Mittermaier in his Die Gesetzgebung und Rechisbildung. In this principle it has received its first legislative recognition in paragraph 3838 of the Austrian code and paragraph 399 of the Ger- manic code. But in these cases it is confined only to corruption or false testimony. It is time, however, that the principle of appeal in the social interest should be recognized without restriction and ap- peals be taken as easily by the prosecution as by the defense. The law ought to be equal for all. The interest for the one and of the other are the same. No reason in justice can be given why one should have an appeal and the other not. It would serve to correct many erroneous, not to say corrupt, judgments and prevent many scandals upon the law. Dr. Brouardel accepted much said by M. Pugliese, but he combatted some positions. He denied the propriety of making an expert to be a judge or making judges only of experts. The responsibility was too great and the result would be unsatisfactory. M. Benedikt agreed with Dr. Brouardel and said that while the edu- cation of the magistrature should include certain prescribed medical studies, they should be always auxiliary to jurisprudence and never above or beyond it. This was in accordance with the opinion of M. Lacassagne. Question X VI.—Instruction in medical jurisprudence in the Jaw schools. Professor Lacassagne, of Lyous, reporter. In the presentation of this paper M. Lacassagne repeated largely the ideas which he had put before the congress at Rome upon the necessity of instruction in medical jurisprudence in the law school. There was ¢ large discussion over this question, but it was confined to the details, 672 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOI.OGY. all the speakers, Brouardel, Moleschott, Van Hainel, Ploix, Féré, Tarde, Soutzo, Ferri, and Madame Clemence-Royer, were in accord with the proposition. It was finally agreed to recommend the examples of the universities of Holland and Belgium, to which might have been added Trinity College, Dublin, all of which have a special course of medicine in their law schools. It was reeemmended that even in these courses should be extended to include a large proportion of anthropology, for Madame Clemence-Royer recalled that according to Socrates the first study of man should be man himself. M. Soutzo insisted that to teach criminal anthropology was to teach medical jurisprudence, and he cited examples among the insane. A paralytic by virtue of his delirium becomes a robber or a thief. In his perverted senses he falls into dipsomania. Another, which, attacked by the mania of persecution, becomes a murderer or a suicide. Another category of individuals who are on the frontiers of insanity may be found in the degenerates, the morally perverted, the drunkards, and all that train of individuals capable of committing crime according to their conditions and surroundings, and among which are to be found the stigmas, physical, moral, and intellectual, that have been taught to us by the professors of criminal anthropology before us. These indi- viduals are not, like the first, absolutely irresponsible, but they are partially or conditionally so. Therefore, said he, the great necessity for the teaching of criminal anthropology, not by the side of, but in- cluding medical jurisprudence, and that this should be earried on in all the schools of law, and taught to all those who would become lawyers or judges, or who would have dealings with criminals or insane before the courts or under the law. ANTHROPOMETRY. There were two papers before the congress on this subject: No. XVI, ‘Anthropometry as applied to persons from 15 to 20 years of age,” Alphonse Bertillon, reporter; and No. xviit, “The employment of the methods of criminal anthropology in aid of the police and for the arrest of criminals,” MM. Avocat Anfosso, of Turin, and Professor Romiti, reporters. Anthropometry is a branch of the science of anthropology by which the physical characteristics of man are studied, the investigation being made by measurement. The application of anthropometry is twofold. One, the more exten- sive and more scientific, was largely the result of the investigations of Broca, though there were others who practised the science independent of and even before him. Quetelet of Belgium, Vircbow of Germany, Roberts, Francis, Galton, and Dr. John Beddoe of England, and our own doctors Morton and Baxter have all practised anthropometry in- dependently of Broca. In Franee Drs. Topinard and Manouvrier have taken up the science where Broca left it at his death. The former has CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 673 been pursuing his investigations into the races of men found in France as determined by color, and he investigates and studies that of the eyes and hair as well as that of the skin. The latter succeeded Broca in the Labratoire d’Anthropologie, and is professor and lecturer upon this subject before the School of Anthropology. The second use of anthropometry has been more practical, for, while it is conducted scientifically, it is employed in Europe, principally in France, as a means of identification of individuals, whether required in the army, by the law, by the police, or for private and scientific uses. It was with regard to the second application of anthropometry that the congress of criminal anthropology occupied itself in the two papers set forth at the head of this chapter. The discovery of the use of anthropometry for identification is due to Dr. Adolph Bertillon, himself a professor in the school of anthropol- ogy, who died in 1883 at the age of 62 years, leaving his two sons to follow in his footsteps, with prospects of becoming equally as eminent. as their father. It was the son, Alphonse, who presented question XVII, in which he was assisted by MM. Anfosso and Romiti, the report- ers of question XVIII, both of whom were aided in the discussion by M. Cantilo, advocat from the Argentine Republic. M. Herbette, chief of the penitentiary system of France, early per- ceived the benefits of this system and adopted it. It is now in use throughout France, thanks to his initiation. He was its ardent advo- cate at the congress in Rome, and there made it the subject of an address, which was translated by Mr. Edward R. Spearman, a portion of which was adapted and published in the Fortnightly Review of March, 1890. M. Alphonse Bertillon is attached to the department of justice and assigned to duty with M. Herbette at police headquarters in Paris, there to use his talent and knowledge in the identification of such per- sons as may be brought before him. ‘his, of course, means the identi- fication of criminals, or persons arrested. The morning of Friday, August 16, was devoted to a visit by the congress to tlie establishment in charge of M. Bertillon to witness the operations of his methods and to hear his explanations. We, how- ever, were favored with a private view on the day before, by the means of which we were better enabled to understand the operations. The establishment to which we were introduced would correspond to and probably be known in most cities of the United States as the rogue’s gallery. In our country a criminal once arrested, whom they may desire to recognize at some future time, is marched down toa photographic establishment and has his photograph taken by a single negative, carte de visite size, of more or less front view, from which a print is made, which in due time is delivered to the detective corps at police headquarters, where it is placed in a rack for public inspection. It is by comparison with this photograph, and the recognition of wit- H, Mis, 129 43 674 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. nesses, that the individual criminal will be identified in future, if he should be again arrested. It goes without saying that these methods are extremely unreliable—unreliable at best, but in Paris impracticable and valueless, for there they have no less than 100,000 photographs of criminals who have passed through the police headquarters within the past 10 years. It will be recognized as practically impossible to search through a pile of 100,000 photographs to find one which shall bear a likeness to the individual under investigation. It would be impracti- cable, if the photograph, when found, should prove te be the picture of the identical criminal whose case was being investigated, but when we consider the differences of appearance of the same individual, and the similarity of different individuals, as shown by the photograph, the im- possibility of successful identification becomes indisputable. To be of any value as means of identification, there should be two photographs taken of each person, one full face, the other a profile. If this be done with the small size, 2? by 35 inches, it would require 10,600 square feet surface measure for 100,000 photographs. These dis- played on a wall in a strip 5 feet in height would require a space 2,120 feet in length. A search through such a dreary extent of pho- tographs in order to find the particular one to compare with the crim- inal, whom the officer leads around, and thus be able to identify him, would be like a search among the sands upon the seashore, or the leaves in the forest, and its impossibility, or, at least, impracticability is dem- onstrated. M. Bertillon has so arranged his system of anthropometry, and classi- fied it—together with the photographs—as that his usual search does not extend beyond twenty, and rarely above ten, and can easily be re- duced as occasion demands, and be accomplished in a few minutes. Upon the occasion of my visit he gave to Professor Mason and myself a descriptive card of a given criminal, who was brought and measured in our presence—upon the visit of the congress M. Moleschott, senateur from Italy, was given a like chart; and we were instructed to make the search for ourselves and so understand the classification and find and identify the criminal. The system proved so perfect that we three, strangers, making our first visit to the establishment, hearing the de- scription for the first time, were enabled to understand the classifica- tion and find the box in which his description belonged, with no more than ten cards in it, and so identify the man in question, and this we did within two minutes time. I will describe the method of procedure and the system of classification : The instruments.—These are few and simple. Their cost is about $25. A series of them were displayed by their maker, M. Colas, at the Expo- sition in the department of anthropology, and I have described them in the chapter on Anthropology at the Exposition. A wooden right-angle for taking the measure of the height. Calipers for measuring length and breadth of head; two sliding measures of CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. . 675 different lengths for other parts of the body, and the necessary stands, stools, etc. These will all be understood as the operation proceeds. The batch of “arrests” have been brought in for measurement and identification ; under the necessary guard they are conducted toa room divided around its walls into open lockers after the fashion of public bath houses. The individual is stripped to his shirt and pantaloons and these lockers are provided with hooks on which to hang the cloth- ing, and a bench with a drawer. Thence he is marched into the meas- uring room. The services of two men are required; one to take the measurements, the other to write them on the’ appropriate card. The subject may have already been examined, or he may be exainined here as to his name, residence, place of birth, and former convictions, if any. If he be a hardened criminal, an incorrigible, called in French, @ recidi- vist, he will probably give a false name and declare this is his first arrest. The report of the bureau at Paris shows the following list of persons who did this and were recognized by this system and their descriptive eards found in the boxes as hereafter explained : Persons, elsB Mee So ShSson Acad BUEC CODE HOO nH oCOO POG OUO CoOnOOCsSoer 49 ABSA See elec eseeec ess fais storie sete oincioe aiainicin eretaiolaeiccmietste 241 Bee eae es ato tas laiavats Sal naan hivta she Ba wicisuice eee 450 NSBG AS pee oes slela Ja sasle Sere Es ptoile wise Se seb aiceieee 352 NSBR eee aries mace iein'aiele tere le wiass Saintes Disisisiwiee elelslejsuic eeiereleee 615 The report for 1886 in full was as follows: French. | Foreigners. Total. Subjects measured for first time..-....-....-.--. eisisminlslelalem ale siciatel= 9, 517 1, 140 10, 657 Same returned! under same mames. <6. sc once cccccscaencicee sa < 4, 521 | 173 | 4, 694 Same returned under false name and identified. .-....-..........- 303 49 352 otalMeaAsHredyacecce|jeseree re ciastesc nce cssccccecoctsctesecs [eters seece locos teens 15, 703 All measures of anthropometry should be taken by the metric system and reported in millimetres. By common consent among the principal nations the metric system has been adopted for anthropometry. Com- parisons are made much easier and more correctly from a single and universal standard, and therefore it becomes the duty of the United States to fall into line with her sister nations. To measure the height of the individuwal.—By a simple mechanical con- trivance the operation can be done rapidly, accurately, and without risk of deception. The subject is barefoot and placed with his back against the wall; a strip of wood has been fastened upon the wall so as to fur- nish a perpendicular edge ; a door or window jamb may serve the pur- pose equally well. The wooden right angle spoken of can be placed against this edge and moved up and down, the broad bottom of which can rest lightly upon the head of the individual. Lines painted upon the wall, or stripes with the necessary measures of height marked upon them, will show with accuracy the height of the individual, 676 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. Maximum length of the head (skull),—The subject being seated, for convenience, one point of the calipers is placed in the hollow above the bridge of the nose, together while the other point is used to find the greatest length at the back of the head. This should be done with accuracy, and so that the length will be given exactly. If done with care the true length can be obtained within 1 millimetre, which is about one twenty-fifth part of aninch. It is admitted that the skull of man developes but little, if any, after his maturity, 21 years of age. No one possesses any power to alter or in any way change the size or con- formation of his skull. The same thing is true with regard to the length of bones in the human body, and this had afforded the key to the sys- tem of anthropometry adopted by M. Bertillon, as he has chosen for his identification those portions of the body over which the individual has no control, and in which it is impossible for him to make any change in their size or length. The length of the head thus taken isa | measurement at once accurate, unchangeable, and beyond the control of the individual or the possibility of deception. Maximum breadth of head.—This is measured from one parietal bone to the other in the same manner as the length of the head is measured. Maximum length of arms, extended.—This is a measurement which is popularly supposed to be always equal to the height, but in reality it may vary from 5 to 20 centimetres. It assists therefore in classifying even after the height. Length of middle finger of left hand.—This is the best of our indications, for it can be measured to a millimetre, provided care is taken that the finger is bent at an exact right angle with the back of the hand; there can be no cheating with this and it undergoes no alteration from adult to old age. Notice must, however, be taken of any unusual length of nail in the person being measured. Maximum length of left foot.—In taking this measurement the subject must, of course, be barefoot, and in order to avoid any chance of cheat- jug the subject should stand on the left foot only, with the left knee bent. This is not quite so good a measurement for our purposes as that of the middle finger, and can only be measured to within 2 millimetres. Color of the eyes.—A special table has been framed for the color of tle eyes, which gives seven categories. These are based on the intensity of the pigmentation of the iris. Firstly, we note the exact shade of ee ee ee ee ee —— ~~ Oe ee eee eee the pigment when it exists, and secondly, the approximate shade of « the deep stratum of the periphery of the iris. Hence the seven divisions: (1) Iris azure blue and slaty blue with aureole concentric pupillary aureole more or less pale but destitute of yellowish pigment. (2) Iris inclining more or less to blue or slate color, but with a light yellowish aureole. (3) Same shade but with a further aureole, approaching orange. . CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 677 (4) Iris reflection more or less greenish and with a chestnut aureole. (5) Same shade with brown aureole. (6) In this class the chestnut is no longer clustered in an aureole around the pupil, but spread on the whole surface of the iris and only | shows some greenish yellow irisations. (7) Eye entirely brown. This grouping enables us to pass by almost imperceptible transitions from the light blue eye to the pure brown eye. To examine the eyes the operator should place himself in the angle of a window, his back to the light,—avoid using tbe word gray. For further details read the Revue Scientifique of July 18, 1885; also, Annales de Démographie, 1881—82, *“* La couleur de V Iris en lanthropologie,” by Alphonse Bertillon. This procedure gives six measures of each individual, but upon neces- sity they can be increased indefinitely. The effect is twofold. One is to procure areliable means of identification of the individual by means of an accurate measurement of certain portions, the bony structure of his body, which in the case of the adults does not change. Fatness or leanness, well or ill condition, has no effect upon these measurements. They are and always will be (except the height) the same, and neither by will or trick can any one make them different. The other effect is to provide an arrangement by which the cards may be segregated and classified so that the individual can easily be found. The cards on which these measurements are recorded are of a regular size and pattern, with printed forms, so as to always give the same indi- cation. The size used by M. Bertillon is 53 inches square. Both sides are utilized for description, and on the one are placed the two photo- graphs—front and profile view-—the full face on the right, profile on the left. } These cards are then arranged in boxes or drawers after the manner of cali cards in the U.S. National Museum; that is, on edge, the face to the front, the depth of the box being not more than half the height of the card so that it can easily be seen and read during examination without being taken out. The classification of these cards and photographs in their boxes is such that the descriptive card of any individual will fall into a subdi- vision of not more than ten or twenty other cards, and can be found, as was done by Signor Moleschott, Professor Mason, and myself within a space of 2 minutes. M. Bertillon has at Paris 100,000 photographs of criminals and arrested persons, and these are increasing at a wonderfully rapid rate. The proportion of 40.000 may be excluded from our present consider- ation, being those of women and children. Sixty thousand are of men of mature age, and as we have already seen the measurements were made of those portions of the body of the bony structures, the size of which or length of which can not be changed. 678 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. The principle of the classification of M. Bertillon is to divide each one of these measurements into three classes: the large, the small, and the medium. This classification, beginning with the length of the head, then toits width, extends through all the measurements indicated, and ends in a division containing about ten cards, but which must not ex- ceed twenty. The lines of demarcation between these divisions are made arbitrarily and with the sole intent to make each division ap- proximately equal in point of numbers. So he has found the numbers for line of division for the length of skull to be at 184 and 189 millime- tres. All heads the length of which fell between these two numbers inclusive, constituted the middle division; all of 183 and less formed the division of short heads, while all of 190 and more constituted the division of long heads. For the breadth of the skull the two dividing figures were 153 to 156, and these formed the middle division. Those 152 and less formed the shortest, and those 159 and over formed the broadest division; and this system was continued throughout all other measurements. It was found in practice that this slight difference of 5 millimetres, being only about one-fifth part of an inch, taken, as it were, out of the middle of head measurements, would contain about an equal number with those in the other two divisions. The divisions made by the measurement of the middle finger of the left hand established for the medium class from 110 to 115; all middle fingers from 109 and under are classed with the short; from 110 to 115 with the medium, and 116 and over with the long fingers. So also with the length of the foot, the spread of the arms, and, as I have said, by the color of the eyes. In practice the 60,000 photographs would be first divided according to the length of the head, large, medium, and small; and this would separate them into three divisions of 20,000 each, in the case of drawers. The width of the head would again divide each one of these 20,000 into large, small, and medium, which would give practically 6,000. The three divisions arising from the spread of the arms and the length of the middle finger will reduce it to 600. The length of the foot will again reduce it to 63, and the further reduction by the color of the eyes of seven classes to 9 photographs in each division. The prin- cipal divisions are made in the cases of drawers, while the smaller are made within the drawers themselves. The anthropometric establishment under M. Bertillon does not abolish the use of photography. The photographs are taken in double, a full face and a profile, and this should always be done. The change of face arising either from accident or intention on the part of the subject is much less easily controlled by him in profile view than of the full face. He can at best only change the lower part of his face, and in making comparisons by photographs, where such a change is suspected, it is well to cover the lower part of the face on the photograph by a spot of CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 679 paper and make comparisons of the contour of the head, the shape of the face, the position of the ear and its appearance, and thus one is enabled to make much better and more satisfactory investigation. If one would rely upon the photograph there should also be added the other position of a full-length standing portrait. At Paris the studio for taking the photograpls of criminals is at- tached to the establishment of M. Bertillon and is over his office of measuring. Another suggestion which he makes concerning photo- graphs and their benefit and advantage concerning identification is the necessity of having them the same proportion, the same relative size, and so he insists that the instruments and the subjects shall always be at the same distance. Therefore he has the chair in which the sub- ject sits, and also the stand for the camera fastened firmly to the floor so that they give the same proportionate size of the subject. M. Bertillon also remarked the importance of including in the pho- tograph a view of the bust. Ifthe head only be shown it gives it an enlarged appearance and so is deceiving, and besides the setting of the head upon the shoulders is as much a means of identification as is the head itself. He said also to throw back the hair off the ears of the subject when taking the profile view, for it is an organ unchangeable upon its owner and with its characteristics may serve aS a means for identification. But with all this M. Bertillon uses the photograph more as an auxiliary, and depends principally upon the measurements. How to make a search.—Our man, whose photograph and measure- ment is given on the card, is supposed to have just arrived, the meas- urement made, and his photograph taken. We desire to know if he has ever before passed through the depot and whether his card of measurement is here to be found. The length of his head is 191, there- fore we find it in the highest division; that is, with the longest heads, and we know it will be in this row of drawers. The width of his head is 157. That falls within the medium class, and we therefore know it will fall within this row of drawers. We have now, by exclusion, reduced the number of cards to be examined from 60,000 to 6,000. The length of his middle finger is 127, which throws it into the highest of that division, and that has reduced it to 2,000. The like investigations with regard to his foot, which is 278, and the spread of his arms, which are 151, reduces it, as we have said, to an average division of 63 cards. These are divided among the seven distinctive colors of the eyes, and so the package of cards within which his description will be found, if at all, is reduced to an average of 9, and in practice is never to exceed 20. And this by depending solely upon the measurement and without con- sulting the photograph. As a precaution additional to the normal sizes of the various portions of the body which were selected for measurement, there would be natur- ally employed any abnormal marks which might be found. If these were agreed in the two descriptions we would declare the identification com- 680 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. plete. Every person has on his body some particular marks, such as moles, scars from cuts, boils, etc. Three or four of these corresponding would be quite enough to identify a man out of a million provided always that the nature, etc., of the marks has been accurately recorded. It is very seldom that one finds on an individual identically the same mark and in the same place that has been previously noticed on another, but that two persons should be found bearing three or four sears pre- cisely similar would be a co incidence which appears impossible, and we have certainly never met with such a case. These marks and cicatrice are set forth under the appropriate head on the back on the card of Feillier. I will not attempt to translate that description. It is too intricate and with too many abbreviations and private marks for me to do so with certainty. But as an illustration | may quote those which were presented by M. Bertillon to the congress at Rome, and which had been translated by Mr. Spearman : (1) Oblique outward scar between second and third joint middle of first finger left hand. (2) Sear oblique inward of 5 centimetres, left palm, 3 centimetres above third finger. (3) Mole 8 centimetres below left nipple, and at 10 centimetres from center of body. (4) Mole 4 centimetres left of spinal column, 20 below prominent vertebra of neck. If this series of private marks be found to correspond on the two eards, one would say they were both made from the same individual and that the identification was perfect. It is not to be expected that an inexperienced person will be able to do this work of anthropometry without error. In the beginnings of the system there were fewer identifications of former criminals and more failures, but as time has progressed and a certain expertness with regard to measuring and accuracy in making and keeping the records, these errors and failures have been so far eliminated as that Monsieur Bertillon claims it to be practically perfect. The anthropometric service in the penitentiary and police system of France was established in 1882. The annual examinations were as follows: In 1882, 225; 1883, 7,336; 1884, 10,398; 1885, 14,965; 1886, 15,703 ; 1887, 19,150. Up to this time the service was considered more or less experimental, and only certain classes were subject to measure- ment. In the year 1888 the application of the system was extended to in- clude all persons arrested for any except the lower grades of offenses, and the number in this year who passed through the depot at Paris was increased to 51,849. This gives an average of about 100 measurements per day. M. Bertillon told me that in practice it took the two men, one to measure the other to record, about 7 minutes to each prisoner, or 8 se se ——- CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 681i prisoners per hour. As it is important that prisoners should be exam- ined in court without delay the entire day is not at their disposal, and so they have four squads of operators, who endeavor to conclude their measurements each day before breakfast, as they call it; that is, before 12 m., the afternoon being devoted to the routine business at the office. Of tne 31,849 offenders or suspects measured in 1888 615 were recog- nized as having been measured before, but who sought to conceal their identity by giving false names and reporting falsely the number of their arrests. There were only four failures of identification. Four failures out of 31,849 measurements was considered by M. Bertillon to be prac- tically perfection. This system of M. Bertillon for identification of individuals by means of anthropometry is having much success. The most superficial exam- ination seems to convince every one of its efficacy and superiority. M. Cantilo, Procureur General at Buenos Ayres, the delegate from the Argentine Republic, bore his testimony before the congress of the mar- velous results obtained in the determination of individual identity. He said that the method had been adopted by several of the States of the United States of North America, and also by his own country, the Ar- gentine Republic, the capital, Buenos Ayres, already possessing an in- stallation of the anthropometric system of Bertillon. He spoke of the necessity for its adoption by all civilized countries, and he proposed to the congress a resolution inviting all governments to adopt it whenever they might have need for the identification of any considerable number of their citizens, which resolution was unanimously adopted. M. Bertillon stated that after France the Argentine Republic was the first government to adopt the anthropometric system by law or official decree. He complimented the admirable application made in the State of Illinois, principally at the penitentiary of Joliet, by the private efforts of MM. Mac-Claughry, Gallas, Muller, Porteous, of Chicago, ete. Monsieur Herbette, in his presentation of this matter at the congress of Rome, following the communication of M. Bertillon,* pointed out how this verifying of the physical personality and the indisputable identity of people of adult age should in modern society fulfill real requirements and under the most varied services. If-it were a ques- tion, for instance, of identifying the soldiers of an army, or travellers going to distant lands, they could have personal cards having recog- nizable signs enabling them always to prove who they are; if it were a question of completing the records of the etat civil by sure indica- tions to prevent error or substitution of persons; if it were a question of recording the distinctive marks of an individual in documents, titles, contracts so that his identity could be established either for his own interest, for the interest of third parties, or for that of the state, the fuli benefit of the anthropometric system would be realized. If there should arise a question of identity in a life certificate, a life insurance = = - ae = —_—— * Translation by Mr. Spearman. 682 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. contract or proof of death, or to certify the identity of a dead person, or one badly wounded or disfigured, the body having been partially destroyed or had become difficult to recognize in case of a sudden or violent death, the result of a crime, an accident, a shipwreck, a battle, how great would be the advantage of being able to trace these charac- ters, unchangeable in each individual, infinitely variably as between one individual and another, indelible, in great part, even in death. There is still more cause to occupy oneself with it if it is a question of identifying distant persons or after the lapse of a considerable time when the general appearance, the look, the features, and the physical habits have changed naturally or artificially, and that without moving or expense, by the simple exchange of a few notes or figures sent from one country to another, from one continent to another, to be able to know in America what sort of a man it is who has just arrived from France, and to show clearly whether a certain traveler one finds in Rome is the same person that one measured in Stockholm 10 years before. In one word to fix the human personality, give to each human being an identity, an individuality lasting, unchangeable, always recogniz- able, easily proved, this appears to be the extended aim of the new method. It may consequently be said that the extent of the problem, as well as the importance of its solution, far exceeds the limits of penitentiary work, and the interest, not inconsiderable, which final action has exer- cised amongst various nations. These are the motives for giving to the | labors of M. Bertillon and their practical utilization, the publicity they merit. Question XI X.—Correctional education—-reforms in accordance with our knowledge of biology and of sociology and their relations to crime. Dr. Motet, reporter. Dr. Motet, in accordance with M. Dalifol, presented the necessity for a considerable development in moral education as well as professional. Especially should this be so in the agricultural schools, and M. Van Hamel came to their aid in showing the success which had attended the moral education in his country of Holland. Question X XI.—The relation between mental degeneration and sim- ulation of insanity. Dr. Paul Garnier, reporter. The boundary between crime and insanity is very narrow and one which gives to the medical jurist sometimes the greatest difficulty. It is here that the real criminal will simulate insanity before the courts in order to escape the responsibility of his acts, and here is to be found the greatest number of the simulators. The degenerate individual, he who has come to be of a lower scale, whether mentally or psychologic- ally, is closely related to and liable to become either epileptic or hys- teric. If he shall simulate either one of these or the insanity growing Ae ns CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 683 out of them, he may be his own dupe, and finish by becoming the insane person that he at first only pretended to be. The simulation, even when successful, dves not necessarily give evidence of intellectual ability. It does not in these cases require a high order of intellectual ability to deceive; deceit is not intelligence. It is many times difficult to detect insanity in a given individual, but it is much more difficult to detect the simulation of insanity. To do this with certainty requires the most skillful and best trained scientist. A moment’s consideration of the proposition will serve to confirm the opinions so many times expressed by members of this Congress as to the necessity for an anthropological education and training on the part of the judges and law officers deal- ing with criminals. : Question X XII.—The influence of professional life upon criminality. Dr. Henri Coutagne, of Lyon, reporter. The object of this memoir was to present the importance of those studies which had for their object a research into what the reporter called “professional psychology,” or the psychology of professional life. He said the psychic functions of the individual were greatly influenced by the profession he chose to exercise among his fellows. That the vo- cation or profession showed the tendency of races or of individuals. He spoke of the special aptitude of the Hebrew race for financial affairs, His memoir was as much graphic as written, and showed nine classes of professions, and the criminals which had belonged to each. This had been continued and kept up by him and his predecessor since the year 1829, and was devoted largely to statistics as well as enforcing their value and importance. These statistics showed that much the larger proportion of criminals is to be found among the agricultural and indus- trial population. He enlarged upon the necessity for statistics, and invoked the various societies, as the bar associations, the medical soci- eties, and those representing other trades and professions, to gather with thoroughness and detail the number of criminals, the habit of life of the various individuals, and especially this with regard to their course in crime. The congress drifted into a discussion as to the im- portance of statistics, those to be gathered as well by the state as by the different societies and organizations mentioned. M. Herbette enlarged upon the necessity for complete and accurate statistics gathered by the penitentiaries and prisons, and spoke of the necessity of what he called ‘a bulletin official individual,” which should show every act in crime and in life and in the surroundings of the indi- vidual, his temptations, opportunities, his first tendencies to crime, and his criminal life both in and out of prison, so far as possible, and to this should be added the anthropologic and pschologic investigations. Dr. Wilson, from the United States of America, after noticing the necessity for a general plan of gathering statistics with accuracy and detail, and making a collation and classification of reports for purposes of comparison, and the fact that thus defined there were scarcely any 684 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. statistics in the United States in relation to crime and criminals, went on to say that only in some of the States were records kept so that statistics could be obtained. New York and Massachusetts are the most prominent. But their records are kept, each on its own plan and without relation to the plan of the other, and therefore they lose the benefit of comparison with each other. in most of the States of the Union there has been only a slight attempt to keep vital statistics. Marriages, births, deaths, con- viction for crime, are intended to be made a matter of record, but the penalty provided by law for the neglect is so slight and so rarely en- forced as to be ineffectual. Ours is a new country; our people have never been accustomed to strictness in making or keeping such rece- ords. The population in many localities is sparse, the people change their residence often, they go and come at will, there is no military service demanded of them, and it is exceedingly rare for a pauper to be returned to the place of his original domicil that he.may be supported at public expense. So the needs which exist in Europe for such records fail in the United States. The only necessity for such statistics is be- lieved by our people to be for historic or sociologie purposes. This has not yet been sufficiently appreciated by them to overcome the diffi- culties. There are also more difficulties than exist in European coun- tries. Our country is large; compared with European countriesit has a vast extent. It was also as compared with these countries, dis- covered only a few yearsago. It has had only about 100 years of life. One hundred years ago it had but 3,000,000 souls ; it extends from the Atlantic to the Pacific; a distance of nigh 5,000 miles, and its center of - population remained, until within 50 years, practically on the Atlantic coast, and even now has not gone beyond 600 miles to the westward. Our country had to be rescued from the possession of the barbarian, and a people thus engaged have but little time and less inclination to keep records and statistics which in their opinion have only a senti mental utility. So it has as yet been scarcely attempted. We may accomplish it after a time; not at present. The difficulties are in- creased by our form of government. We have that anomaly of two sovereignties within one country, two governments over one people; and I explained the difference between our State and national govern- ments, each of which has its ewn jurisdiction over crime, and yet each is independent of the other. So I said the United States Census is de- pendent largely for its statistics of crime upon information obtained from the State authorities. If, on the other hand, it be a State census, each will be separate and distinct, and may be different from any other. So it was that in the State of Pennsylvania the statistics of crime showed the number of convictions to be 2,930, while the State of New York, with but a slightly increased population returned 58,670 convic- tions; twenty times more than that of Pennsylvania. The explana- tion given was, that in the former State convictions only in the courts of CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 685 record were reported, while in the latter the convictions were of every kind, whether for small or great offenses. The meager statistics of crime in the United States, taken from the census of 1880, and reported by Mr. A. Rk. Spofford in his American Almanac, are given in the following table: Sears, ame NSS arya [it ose rome js core acta To Je Adabamaltecesees:: | Unknown.| 1, 262, 344 || 20. Missouri .....--.-.--. | 1,294 | 2, 169, 091 De PATKANSAS Hs acisnlacicn.cle | Unknown. | 802, 562 | A NIGIUP REE ese codsoasalseecococeecc 452, 432 3. California............ 615 864,686 || 22. Nevada :-:.....-.:... | i44 62, 265 4. Connecticut...-..-..-.. 251 | 622, 683 | 23. New Hampshire... -- 180 | 347, 784 Dee Molawareeetesctecess| (ose. sea cee 146, 654 || 24. New Jersey.......... 823 | 1, 180, 892 GiPlorida-k.soks cso. ee Tl 266; 566) |) (25. New: York -..22.-.--. 3, 576 5, 083, 173 (sa GRCOTENG ec stelae fail aie 590N) 1o88498an|) 26. North Carolinasses.ss|-ce. eae = — 1, 400, 000 Soplllingisse oases ae ce ee 1,900: |)’ 35078,.636:)|| 27. Ohio; <-26 Secbana. 12 1,362 | 3,197,794 Qrelndiana’s-20252.2..502 1, 231 | 1,798, 358 || 28. Oregon........-...--- 104 174, 767 WONT OWaeecee meee ale tate 353 | 1,624,463 | 29. Pennsylvania ........ 1,861 | 4, 282,738 PUSS Kansas: ieseccces -cte os 406 | 995, 33h Sled hode, Lslandisecee oe sencse seer 276, 528 Al? wen tnhekyiemasact-escee 983 | 1, 648,599 || 31. South Carolina. ...... 625: | 995, 706 TS GOUISIANG see = cscs se 625 940; 263: || 32. Tennessee ...-....... | 1,153 | 1,542,463 (aeoM anon eet eee 221 648, 945i1'935 Loxas-o-s-5..cesese- 02 | see Chasen | 1,598, 509 Tone Marvlandeessce cose 170 QBoNT SOR oe NVOLIMONG = vise cietei eer 175 | 332, 286 16. Massachusetts ....... 757 | 1,783,086 || 35. Virginia ......--..--. 1,105 1,312,203 eo Michiganis seen se 809 | 1,634,096 | 36. West Virginia ....... 218 618, 193 18. Minnesota ........... 235 780, 807 | Sie WW ISCODSIN = mcr riers 309 | 1, 315, 386 19. Mississippi ....-..--. 997 | 1,131, 899 | | | Question X X VI.— Political offenses from the point of view of anthro- pology. This study, written by M. Laschi, an avocat from Verona, was made with the assistance of M, Lombroso. It dealt with race, genius, and the density of the population in the older and better settled countries. The author distinguished revolution from revolt. The first he called psy cho- logic manifestations, and the latter pathologic. Hespoke of the influ- ences of climate and orography, not to mention those social and polit- ical, upon the race which might belong to or inhabit a country. He gave as his opinion, derived from his investigation and the statisties, that the short-headed races, brachycephalics, were conservative, while the long- headed, dolicocephalics, were revolutionists ; that the mixture of these races could modify their character and so change them as a nation, but that occasionally, by reason of atavism, or something similar, peculiar circumstances, changes in social conditions as well as in political, the dolicocephalie individual of modern times and in modern countries might break out in revolution, which was naught else on his part than the return, through heredity, to the original revolutionary characters of some remote ancestor. He said the most revolutionary cities of Ku- rope, like Paris, Florence, Geneva, were those which manifested the greatest genius and the most vivacity of thought. Drs. Brouardel and Motet believed, on the contrary, that the influ- ence of political crimes was to show the inferiority of intelligence, the 686 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. fanatism, the impressionability, and the exaltation of the individual These, said they, were particular factors in political crimes. Professor Lombroso cited M. Taine, and said that these political crimes were what the anthropological historian might well call political epilepsy. Question XX VII.—Jurisprudence applied to criminal sociology. M. Pierre Sarraute, judge of the tribunal at Perigueux, Dordogne, reporter. The punishment for crime ought to be against the individual. The particular individual criminal should be made to feel that he received the punishment for his offense. To accomplish this with satisfaction the juge @instruction should be able to investigate the anthropologic and social factors which have entered into or operated upon the mind of the criminal in causing him to commit the offense. The juge d’in- struction must himself be educated, and it must be remitted into his hands entirely to judge of the utility, and extent of the examination, and to control the results. To do this successfully it will be necessary to open a course of lectures upon criminal anthropology and medical jurisprudence in the various schools of law, and to educate the students in these sciences. The reporter proposed as a remedy for some of the lapses in the law, and the miscarriages of justice, an indeterminate sentence by the judge; he proposed profound modifications in the jury system, requiring of them in particular cases, special aptitude, special preparations or educations, enabling them to deal properly with the subject in hand. He would reduce the number of the jurors and would require them to give their answers to the questions submitted to them by the court, which answers should establish the facts in the case with which they as jurors alone had to deal, leaving the questions of law to the judge of the court; leaving the anthropologic questions, those of psychology and physiology, to the trained scientist, who should be a criminal anthropologist. With a training of the lawyers and judges in these various sciences, and then a division of their various duties and responsibilities, with higher courts which shouid combine in them these various branches of scientific knowledge, the right of the criminal would be guarded, while crime would be lessened and society protected. Question XX X.—The moral and criminal responsibility of deaf-mutes in their relations to legislation. M. Giampietro, of Naples, reporter. He argued the defective physical organization of deaf mutes, and seemed to say that there was a corresponding want of responsibility which should be recognized by the law and the court. The important part of his paper, which can not be here followed, was the scientific portion, the physiologic investigations into the conditions of deaf-mutes and the formation of articulate language. He described certain brain centers which were possessed of such functions in this regard. He called them the centers auditif, phonique, volitif, mnemonique, ideosym- bolique, and moteur. COLOR-VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNESS,.* By R. BRUDENELL CARTER. It is a matter of familiar knowledge that the sense of vision is called into activity by the formation, on the retina or internal nervous expan- sion of the eye, of an inverted optical image of external objects—an image precisely analogous to that of the photographic camera. The retina jines the interior of the eyeball over somewhat more than its posterior hemisphere. It is a very delicate transparent membrane, about one-fifth of a millimetre in thickness at its thickest part, near the entrance of the optic nerve, and it gradually diminishes to less than half that thickness at its periphery. It isresolvable by the microscope into ten layers, which are united together by a web of connective tissue, which also carries blood vessels to minister to the maintenance of the structure. I need only refer to two of these layers: the anterior or fiber-layer, mainly composed of the fibers of the optic nerve, which spread out radially from their point of entrance in every direction, except where they curve around the central portion of the membrane; and the perceptive layer, which—as viewed from the interior of the eye- ball, may be likened to an extremely fine mosaic, each individual piece of which is in communication with a nerve fiber, by which the impres- sions made upon it are conducted to the brain. The terminals of the perceptive layer are of two kinds, called respectively rods and cones; the former, as the name implies, being cylindrical in shape, and the latter conical. The bases of the cones are directed towards the interior of the eye, so as to receive the light; and itis probable that each cone may be regarded as a collecting a} paratus, calculated to gather together the light which it receives, and to concentrate this light upon its deeper and more slender portion, or posterior limb, which is believed to be the portion of the whole structure which is really sensitive to luminous impressions. The distribution of the two elements differs greatly in different animals; and the differences point to corresponding differ- ences in function. The cones are more sensitive than the rods, and minister toa higher acuteness of vision. In the human eye there is a small central region in which the perceptive layer consists of cones *Lecture delivered at the Loyal Institution on Friday, May 9, 1890. (From Nature, May 15, 1590, vol, XLU, pp. 55-61.) 687 688 COLOR-VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNEES. only, a region which the fibers avoid by curving round it, and in which the other layers of the retina are much thinner than elsewhere, so as to leave a depression, and are stained of a lemon-yellow color. In a zoue immediately around this yellow spot each cone is surrounded by a single circle of rods; and as we proceed outwards towards the periphery of the retina, the circle of rods around each cone becomes successively double, triple, quadruple, or even more numerous. The yellow spot receives the image of the object to which the eye is actually directed, while the images of surrounding objects fall upon zones which surround the yellow spot; and the result of this arrangement is that generally speaking, the distinctness of vision diminishes in proportion to the distance of the image of the object from the retinal center. The consequent effect has been well described by saying that what we see resembles a picture, the central part of which is exquisitely finished, while the parts around the center are only roughly sketched in. We are conscious that these outer parts are there; but if we desire to see them accurateiy, they must be made the objects of direct vision in their turn, The indistinctness with which we see lateral objects is so completely neutralized by the quick mobility of the eyes, and by the manner in which they range almost unconsciously over the whole field of vision, that it seldom or never forces itself upon the attention. It may be conveniently displayed by means of an instrument called a perimeter, which enables the observer to look steadily at a central spot, while a second spot, or other object, is moved along an arc, in any meridian, from the circumference of the field of view towards the center, or vice versa. Slight differences will be found between individuals; but, speak- ing generally, a capital letter one-third of an inch high, which is legi- ble by direct vision at a distance of 16 feet, and is recognizable as a dark object at 40° or 50° from the fixing point, will net become legible at a distance of 1 foot, until it arrives within about 109. The image formed upon the retina is rendered visible by two differeut conditions,—that is to say, by differences in the amount of light which enters into the formation of its different parts, and by differences in the quality of this light, that is, in its color. The former conditions are fulfilled by an engraving, the latter by apainting. Itis with the latter conditions only, and with the power of perceiving them, that we are concerned this evening. Before such an audience as that which I have the henor to address, it is unnecessary to say more about color than that it depends upon the power possessed by the objects which we describe as colored, to absorb and retain certain portions of white or other mixed light, and to reflect or transmit other portions. The resulting effect of color is the impres- sion produced upon the eye or upon the brain by the waves of light which are left, after the process of selective absorption has been accom- plished, Some substances absorb two of the three fundamental colors COLOR-VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNESS. 689 of the solar spectrum, others absorb one only, others absorb portions of one or more. Whatever remains is transmitted through the media of the eye, and in the great majority of tbe human race, suffices to excite the retina to a characteristic kind of activity. Few things are more curious than the multitude of different color sensations which may be produced by the varying combinations of the three simple elements, red, green, and violet; but this is a part of the subject into which it would be impossible for me now to enter, and with which most of those who hear me must already be perfectly familiar. Apart from the effect of color as one of the chief sources of beauty in the world, it is manifest that the power of distinguishing it adds greatly to the acuteness of vision. Objects which differ from their sur- roundings by differences of color are far more conspicuous than those which differ only by differences of light and shade. Flowers are much indebted to their brilliant coloring for the visits of the insects by which they are fertilized ; and creatures which are the prey of others find their best protection in a resemblance to the colors of their envi- roument. It is probably a universal truth that the organs of color perception are more highly specialized and that the sense of color is more developed in all animals in precise proportion to the general acuteness of vision of each. From a variety of considerations, into which time will not allow me to enter, it has been concluded that the sense of color is an endowment of the retinal cones, and that the rods are sensitive only to differences in the quantity of the incident light, without regard to its quality. Nocturnal mammals, such as mice, bats, and hedgehogs, have no cones ; and cones are less developed in nocturnal birds than in diurnal ones. Certain limitations of the human color sense may almost be inferred from the anatomy of the retina. It is found, as that anatomy would lead us to suppose, that complete color sense exists only in the retinal center, or in and immediately around the yellow spot region, and that it diminishes as we pass away from this center towards the periphery. The precise facts are more difficult to ascertain than might be supposed ; for although it is easy to bring colored objects from the circumference to the center of the field of vision on the perimeter, it is by no means easy to be quite sure of the point at which the true color of the ad- vancing object can first be said to be distinctly seen. Much depends, moreover, on the size of this advancing object, because the larger it is the sooner will its image fall upon some of the more sparsely distrib- uted cones of the peripheral portion of the retina. Testing the mat- ter upon myself with colored cards of the size of a man’s visiting card I find that [ am conscious of red or blue at about 40° from the fixing point, but not of green until it comes within about 30°; while, if I take three spots, respectively of bright red, bright green, and bright blue, each half a centimetre in diameter and separated from its neighbor on either side by an interval of half a centimetre, spots which would be H. Mis, 129 44 690 COLOR-VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNESS. visible as distinct and separate objects at 8 metres, I can not fairly and distinctly see all three colors until they come within 10° of the center. Beyond 40°, albeit with slight differences between individuals and on different meridians for the same individual, colors are only seen by the degree of their luminosity ; that is, they appear as light spots if upon a dark ground and as dark spots if upon a light ground. Speaking generally therefore, it may be said that human vision is only tri-chro- matic, or complete fer the three fundamental colors of the solar spec- trum, over a small central area, which certainly does not cover more than 30° of the field; that it is bi-chromatiec, or limited to red and vio- let, over an annulus outside this central area; and that it is limited to light and shade from thence to the outermost limits of the field. The nature and imitations of the color sense in man long ago sug- gested to Thomas Young that the retina might contain three sets of fibers, each set capable of responding to only one of the fundamental colors; or in other words, that there are special nerve fibers for red, special nerve fibers for green, and special nerve fibers for violet. It has also been assumed that the differences between these fibers might essen- tially consist in the ability of each set to respond only to light vibra- tions of a certain wave length, much as a tuned string will only respond to a note with which it is in unison. In the human subject, so far as has yet been ascertained, no optical differences between the cones are discoverable ; but the analogy of the ear and the facts which have been supplied by comparative anatomy combine to render Young’s hypothesis exceedingly probable, and it is generally accepted, at least provision- ally, as the only one which furnishes an explanation of the facts. It implies that elements of all three varieties are present in the central portion of the retina; that elements sensitive to green are absent from an annulus around the center; and that the peripheral portions are destitute of any elements by which color sense can be called into ac. tivity. According to the observation already made, that the highest degree of acuteness of vision is necessarily attended by a corresponding acute- ness of color sense, we should naturally expect to find such a highly devcloped color sense in birds, many of which appear, as regards visual power, to surpass all other creatures. I need not dwell upon the often- described acuteness of vision of vultures or upon the vision of fishing birds, but may pass on to remark that the acuteness of their vision ap- pears not only to be unquestionable, but also to be much more widely diffused over the retina than is the case with man. If we watch domes- tic poultry or pigeons feeding we shall frequently see a bird, when busily picking up food immediately in front of its beak, suddenly make a lateral dart to some grain lying sidewise to its line of sight, which would have been practically invisible to a human eye looking in the same direction as that of the fowl. When we examine the retina the explanation both of the acuteness of vision and of its distribution be- ae COLOR-VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNESS. 691 comes at once apparent. In birds, in some reptiles, and in fishes not only are cones distributed over the retina much more abundantly and more evenly than in man, but the cones are provided with colored globules, droplets of colored oil, at their apices, through which the light entering them must pass before it can excite sensation and which are practically impervious to any color but their own. Each globule is so placed as to intervene between what is regarded as the collecting por- tion of the cone and what is regarded as its perceptive portion in such a way that the latter can only receive color which is capable of passing through the globule. The retin of many birds, especially of the fineh, the pigeon, and the domestic fowl, have been carefully examined by Dr. Waelchli, who finds that near the center, green is the predominant color of the cones, while among the green cones, red and orange ones are somewhat sparingly interspersed and are nearly always arranged alternately, a red cone between two orange ones, and vice versa. In a surrounding portion, called by Dr. Waelchli the red zone, the red and orange cones are arranged in chains and are larger and more numerous than near the yellow spot. The green ones are of smaller size and fill up the inter-spaces. Near the periphery the cones are scattered, the three colors about equally numerous and of equal size, while a few colorless cones are also seen. Dr. Waelchli examined the optical prop- erties of the colored cones by means of the micro-spectroscope and found, as the colors would lead us to suppose, that they transmitted only the corresponding portions of the spectrum, and it would almost seem, ex- cepting for the few colorless cones at the peripheral part of the retina, that the birds examined must have: been unable to see blue, the whole of which would be absorbed by their color globuies. It would be neces- sary to be thoroughly acquainted with their food in order to understand any advantage which the birds in question may derivo from the pre- dominance of green, red, and orange globules over others, but it is im- possible to consider the structure thus described without coming to the conclusion that the birds in which it exists must have a very acute sense of the colors corresponding to the globules with which they are so abundantly provided and that this color sense, instead of being localized in the center, as in the human eye, must be diffused over a very largo portion of the retina. Dr. Waelchli points out that the coloration of the yellow spot in man must, to a certain extent, exclude blue from the central and most sensitive portion of his retina. It is hardly necessary to mention how completely the high differen- tiation of the cones in the creatures referred to-—tends to support the hypothesis of Young, that a similar differentiation, although not equally manifest, exists also in man. If this be so, we must conclude that the region of the yellow spot contains cones, some of which are capable of being called into activity by red, others by green, and others by violet ; that a surrounding annulus contains no cones sensitive to green, but such as are sensitive to red or to violet only ; and that, beyond and around 692 COLOR-VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNESS. this latter region, such cones as may exist are not sensitive to any color, but, like the rods, only to differences in the amount of light. When cones of only one kind are called into activity the sensation produced is named red, green, or violet, and when all three varieties are stimu- lated in about an equal degree the sensation produced is called white. In the same way the innumerable intermediate color sensations, of which the normal eye is susceptible, must be ascribed to stimulation of the three varieties of cones in unequal degrees. The conditions of color-sense which in the human race (or at least in civilized man) exist normally in outer zones of the retina, are found in a few individuals, to exist alsoin the center. There are persons in whom the region of the yellow spot is absolutely insensitive to color, and recognizes only differences in the amount or quantity of light. To such persons the term ‘color-bdlind” ought perhaps in strictness to be limited; but the individuals in question are so rare that they are hardly entitled to a monopoly of an appellation which is conveniently applied also to others. The totally color-blind would see a colored picture as if it were an engraving, or a drawing in black and white, and would perceive dif- ferences between its parts only in the degree in which they differed in brightness. A more common condition is the existence, in the center of the retina, of a kind of vision like that which normally exists in the zone next sur- rounding it; that is, a blindness to green. Persons who are blind to green appear to see violet and yellow much as these are seen by the normal-sighted, and they can see red, but they can not distinguish it from green. Others, and this form is more common than the preceding, are blind to red, and a very small number of persons are blind to violet. Such blindness to one of the fundamental colors may be either coin- plete or incomplete ; that is to say, the power of the color in question to excite its proper sensation may be either absent or feeble. In some cases the defect is so moderate in degree as to be adequately described by the phrase ‘“ defective color-sense.” The experiments of Helmholtz upon color led him tosuppiement the original hypothesis of Young by the supposition that the special nerve elements excited by any one color are also excited in some degree by each of the other two, but that they respond by the sensation appropri- ate to themselves, and not by that appropriate to the color by which they are thus feebly excited. This, which is often called the Young- Helmholtz hypothesis, assumes that the pure red of the spectrum, while it mainly stimulates the fibers sensitive to red, stimulates in a less degree those which are sensitive to green, and in a still less degree those which are sensitive to violet, the resulting sensation being red. Pure green stimulates strongly the green-perceptive fibers, and stimu- lates slightly both the red-perceptive and the violet-perceptive—result- ing sensation, green. Pure violet stimulates strongly the violet-percep- tive fibers, less strongly the green-perceptive, least strongly the red- COLOR-VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNESS. 693 perceptive—resulting sensation, violet. When all three sets of fibers are stimulated at once the resulting sensation is white, and when a normal eye is directed to the spectrum the region of greatest luminos- ity is in the middle of the yellow; because, while here both the green- perceptive and the red-perceptive fibers are stimulated in a high degree, the violet-perceptive are also stimulated in some degree. According to this view of the case the person who is red-blind, or in whom the red-preceptive fibers are wanting or paralyzed, has only two fundamental colors in the spectrum instead of three. Spectral red nevertheless is not invisible to him, because it feebly excites his green- preceptive fibers, and hence appears as a saturated green of feeble luminosity ; saturated, because it scarcely at all excites the violet- preceptive fibers. The brightest part of the spectrum instead of being in the yellow is in the blue-green, because here both sets of sensitive fibers are stimulated. In the case of the green-blind, in whom the fibers preceptive of green are supposed to be wanting or paralyzed, the only stimulation produced by spectral green is that of the red-precep- tive and of the violet-perceptive fibers; and where these are equally stim- ulated we obtain the white of the green-blind, which, to ordinary eyes, is a sort of rose color, a mixture of red and violet. In like manner the white of the red-blind is a mixture of green and violet, and if we con- sider the facts we shali see that spectral red, which somewhat feebly stimulates the green-perceptive fibers of the normal eye, and spectral green, which somewhat feebly stimulates the red-perceptive fibers of the normal and also of the green-blind eye, must appear to the green- blind to be one and the same color, differing only in luminosity, and that in an opposite sense to the preception of the red-blind. In other words, red and green are undistinguishable from each other as colors alike to the red-blind and to the green-blind ; but to the former the red and to the latter the green appears, as compared with the other, to be of feeble luminosity. In either case the two are only lighter and darker shades of the same color. The conditions of violet-blindness are analo- gous, but the defect itself is very rare; and as it is of small industrial importance it has attracted but a small degree of attention. Very extensive investigations, conducted during the last few years both in Europe and in America, have shown that those which may be called the common forms of color-blindness, the blindness to red and to green, exist in about 4 per cent. of the male population and in perhaps 1 per thousand of females. Among the rest there are slight differences of color-sense, partly due to differences of habit and training, but of little or no practical importance. One such difference, to which Lord Rayleigh was the first to direct attention, has reference to yellow. The pure yellow of the spectrum may, as is generally known, be precisely matched by a mixture of spectral red with spectral green; but the pro- portions in which the mixture should be made differ within certain limits for different people. The difference must, I think, depend upon 694 COLOR-VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNESS. differences in the pigmentation of the yellow spot rather than upon any defectin the nervous apparatus of the color-sense. There is a very ingenious instrument, invented by Mr. Lovibond and called by him the ‘‘tintometer,” which allows the color of any object to be accurately matched by combinations of colored glass, and to be expressed in terms of the combination. In using this instrument we not only find slight differences in the combinations required by different people, but also in the combinations required by the two eyes of the same person. Here again, I think the differences must be due either to differences in the pigmentation of the yellow spot, or possibly also to differences in the color of the internal lenses of the several eyes, the lens, as it is well known, being usually somewhat yellow after middle age. The differ- ences are plainly manifest in comparing persons all of whom possess tri-chromatic vision, and are not sufficient in degree to be of any prac- tical importance. Taking the ordinary case of a red-blind or of a green-blind person, it is interesting to speculate upon the appearance which the world must present to him. Being insensible to one of the fundamental colors of the spectrum, he must lose (roughly speaking) one-third of the luminosity of nature; unless, as is possible, the deficiency is made good to him by increased acuteness of perception to the colors which he sees. Whether he sees white as we see it, or aS we see the mix- tures of red and violet, or of green and violet, which they make to match with it, we can only conjecture, on account of the inadequacy of language to convey an accurate idea of sensation. We have all heard of the blind man who concluded, from the attempts made to describe scarlet to him, that it was like the sound of a trumpet. If we take a heap of colored wools, and look at them first through a glass of pea- cock blue, by which the red rays are filtered out, and next through a purple glass, by which a large proportion of the green will be filtered out, we may presume that, under the first condition, the wools will ap- pear much as they would do to the red blind; and under the second, much as they would do to the green blind. It will be observed that the appearances differ in the two conditions, but that in both, red and green are practically undistinguishable from each other, and appear as the same color, but of different luminosity. Prior to reflection, and still more, prior to experience, we should be apt to conjecture that the existence of color-blindness in any individual could not remain concealed, either from himself or from those around him; but such a conjecture would be directly at variance with the truth. Just as it was reserved for Mariotte, in the reign of Charles I, to discover that there is, in the field of vision of every eye, a lacuna or blind spot, corresponding with the entrance of the optic nerve, so it was reserved for a still later generation to discover the existence of so common a defect as color-blindness. The first recorded case was de- scribed to Dr. Priestley by Mr. Huddart, in 1777, and was that of a man COLOR-VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNESS. 695 named Harris, a shoemaker at Maryport, Cumberland, who had also a color-blind brother, a mariner. Soon afterwards, the case of Dalton, the chemist, was fully deseribed, and led to the discovery of other ex- amples of a similar kind. The condition was still however looked upon asavery exceptional one; insomuch that the name of “ Daltonism” was proposed for it, and is still generally used tn France as a synonym for color-blindness. Such use is objectionable, not only because it is undesirable thus to perpetuate the memory of the physical infirmity of an eminent philosopher, but also because Dalton was red-blind, so that the name could only be correctly applied to his particular form of detect. Color-blindness often escapes detection on account of the use of color names by the color-blind in the same manner as that in which they hear them used by other people. Children learn from the talk of those around them, that it is proper to describe grass as green, and bricks or cherries as red; and they follow this usage, although the difference may appear to them so slight that their interpretation of either color- name may be simply as a lighter or darker shade of the other. When they make mistakes, they are laughed at, and thought careless, or to be merely using color names incorrectly ; and a common result is that they rather avoid such names, and shrink from committing themselves to statements about color. Dr. Joy Jefferies gives an interesting descrip- tion of the almost unconscious devices practiced by the color-blind in this way. He says: ‘The color-blind, who are quick-witted enough to discover early that something is wrong with their vision by the smiles of their listeners when they mention this or that object by color, are equally quick-witted in avoiding so doing. They have found that there are names of certain attributes they can not comprehend, and hence must let alone. They learn also what we forget, that so many objects of every-day life always have the same color, as red tiles or bricks, and the color names of these they use with freedom ; whilst they often, even unconsciously, are cautious not to name the color of a new object till they have heard it applied, after which it is a mere matter of memory stimulated by a consciousness of defect. I have often recalled to the color-blind their own acts and words, and surprised them by an exposure of the mental jugglery they employed to escape detection, and of which they were almost unaware, so much had it become matter of habit. Another im- portant point is, that as violet blindness is very rare, the vast majority of defective eyes are red or green blind. These persons see violet and yellow as the normal-eyed, and they naturally apply these color names correctly. When therefore they fail in red or green, a casual observer attributes it to simple carelessness,—hence a very ready avoidance of detection. It does not seem possible that any one who sees so much correctly, and whose ideas of color so correspond with our own, can not be equally correct throughout, if they will but take the pains to notice and learn.” 696 COLOR-VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNESS, When the color-blind are placed in positions which compel them to select colors for themselves and others, or when as sometimes happens, they are not sensitive with regard to their defect, but rather find amusement in the astonishment which it produces among the color- seeing, the results which occasionally follow are apt to be curious. They have often been rendered still more curious, by having been the unconscious work of members of the Society of Friends. Color-blind- nessisa structural peculiarity, constituting what may be called a variety of the human race; and like other varieties, it is liable to be handed down to posterity. Hence, if the variety occurs in a person belonging to a community which is small by comparison with the nation, and among whose members there is frequent inter-marriage, it has an in- creased probability of being reproduced; and thus, while many of the best known of the early examples of color bindness, including that of Dalton himself, were furnished by the Society of Friends, the examina- tions of large pumbers of scholars and others, conducted during the last few years have shown that in this country, color blindness is more com- mon among Jews than among the genera! population. The Jews have no peculiarities of costume; but the spectacle, which has more than once been witnessed, of a venerable Quaker who had clothed him- selfin bright green or vivid scarlet, could scarcely fail to excite the de- rision of the unreflecting. Time does not allow me to relate the many errors of the color-blind which have been recorded ; but there is an in- stance of a clerk in a Government office, whose duty it was to cbeck cer- tain entries, in relation to their subject-matter, with ink of one or of an- other color, and whose accuracy was dependent upon the order in which his ink bottles were ranged in front of him. This order having been accidentally disturbed, great confusion was produced by his mistakes, and it was a long time before these were satisfactorily accounted for. An official of the Prussian post-office, again, who was accustomed to sell stamps of different values and colors, was frequently wrong in his cash, his errors being as often against himself as in his favor, so as to exvlude any suspicion of dishonesty. His seeming carelessness was at last explained by the discovery of his color-blindness, and he was re- lieved of a duty which it was impossible for him to discharge without falling into error. The color mistakes of former years were however of little moment when compared with those now liable to be committed by engine driv- ers and mariners. The avoidance of collisions at sea and on railways depends largely on the power promptly to recognize the colors of sig- hails; and the colors most available for signaling purposes are red and green, or precisely those between which the sufferers from the two most common forms of color-blindness are unable with any certainty to discriminate. About 13 years ago there was a serious railway acei- dent in Sweden, and in the investigation subsequent to this accident, there were some remarkable discrepancies in the evidence given with —— ss ee ee eee ee COLOR-VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNESS. 697 regard to the color of the signals which had been displayed. Professor Holmgren, of the University of Upsala, had his attention called to this discrepancy, and he found, on further examination, that the wit- ness whose assertions about the signals differed from those of other people was actually color-blind. From this ineident arose Professor Holmgren’s great interest in the subject, and he did not rest until he had obtained the enactment of a law under which no one ean be taken into the employment of a Swedish railway until his color-vision has been tested, and has been found to be sufficient for the duties he will be called upon to perform. The example thus set by Sweden has been followed, more or less, by other countries, and especially, thanks to the untiring labors of Dr. Joy Jeffries, of Boston, by several of the United States; while at the same time much evidence has been col- lected to show the connection between railway and marine accidents and the defect. It has been found, by very extensive and carefully conducted exam- inations of large bodies of men, soldiers, policemen, the workers in great industrial establishments, and so forth, as well as of children in many schools, that color-blindness exists in a noticeable degree, as I have already said, in about 4 per cent. of the male industrial population in civilized countries, and in about one per thousand of females. Among the males of the more highly educated classes, taking Eton boys as an example, the color-blind are only between 2 and 3 per cent., and per- haps nearer to2 than to3. Whether asimilar difference exists between females of different classes, we have no statistics to establish. The condition of color-blindness is absolutely incurable, absolutely incapa- ble of modification by training or exercise, in the case of the individual; although the comparative immunity of the female sex justifies the sug- gestion that it may possibly be due to training throughout successive generations, on account of the more habitual occupation of the female eyes about color in relation to costume. However this may be, in the individual, as I have said, the defect is unalterable; and if the difference between red and green is uncertain at 8 years of age, it will be equally uncertain at 80. Hence the existence of color-blindness among those who have to control the movements of ships or of railway trains con- stitutes the real danger to the public; and it is highly important that the color-blind, in their own interests as well as in those of others, should be excluded from employments the duties of which they are unfit to discharge. : The attempts hitherto made in this country to exclude the color- blind from railway and marine employment have not been by any means successful. As far as the merchant navy is concerned, so-called exami- nations have been conducted by the board of trade, with results which can only be described as ludicrous. Candidates have been “ plucked ” in color at one examination, aud permitted to pass at a subsequent one; as if correct color-vision were something which could be acquired. 698 COLOR-VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNESS. Such candidates were either improperly rejected on the first occasion, or improperly accepted on the second. On English railways there has been no uniformity in the methods of testing ; except (in so far as I am acquainted with them) that they have been almost uniformly misleading, caleulated to give rise to the imputation of color-blindness where it did not exist, and to leave it undiscovered where it did. In these circum- stances it is not surprising that great discontent should have arisen among railway men in relation to the subject; and this discontent has led, indirectly, to the appointment of a committee by the Royal Society, with the sanction of the board of trade, for the purpose of investigating the whole question as completely as may be possible. It is perhaps worth while, before proceeding to describe the manner in which the color sense of large bodies of men should be tested for indus- trial purposes, to say something as to the amount of danger which color-blindness produces. A locomotive, as we all know, is under the charge of two men, the driver and the fireman. In a staff of 1,000 of each, allotted to 1,000 locomotives, we should expect, in the absence of any efficient method of examination, to find 40 color-blind drivers and 40 color-blind firemen. The chances would be 1 in 25 that either the driver or the fireman on any particular engine would be color blind ; they would be 1 in 625 that both would be color-blind. These figures appear to show a greater risk of accident than we find realized in actual working, and it is manifest that there are compensations to be taken into account. In the first place, the term “ color-blind ” is itself in some degree misleading ; for it must be remembered that the signals to which the color-blind person is said to be “ blind” are not invisible to him. To the red-blind, the red light is a lessluminous green; to the green- blind, the green light is a less luminous red. ‘The danger arises because the apparent differences are not sufficiently characteristic to lead to cer- tain and prompt identification in all states of illumination and of atmos- phere. It must be admitted therefore that a color-blind driver may be at work for a long time without mistakes; and it is probable, knowing, as he must, that the differences between different sigual lights appear to him to be only trivial, that he will exercise extreme caution. Then it must be remembered that lights never appear to an engine driver in unexpected places. Before being intrusted with a train he is taken over the line, and is shown the precise position of every light. If a light did not appear where it was due, he would naturally ask his fireman to aid in the lookout. It must be also remembered that to over-run a danger signal does not of necessity imply a collision. A driver may over-run the signal, and after doing so may see a train or other obstruc- tion on the line, and may stop in time to avoid an accident. In sucha case he would probably be reported and fined for over-running the sig- nal; and if the same thing occurred again, he would be dismissed for his assumed carelessness, probably with no suspicion of his defect. Color-blind firemen are unquestionably thus driven out of the service — ee - +4 ‘ SI hares —_—- COLOR-VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNESS. 699 by the complaints of their drivers; and none but railway officials know how many cases of over-running signals, followed by disputes as to what the signals actually were, occur in the course of a year’s work. I have never heard of an instance in this country, in which, after a rail- way accident, the color vision of the driver concerned or of his fireman has been tested by an expert on the part either of the board of trade or of the company, but a fireman in the United States has recently recov- ered heavy damages from the company for the loss of one of his legs in a collision which was proved to have been occasioned by the color- blindness of the driver. Looking at the whole question, I feel that the danger on railways is a real one, but that it is minimized by the several considerations to which I have referred, and that it is much smaller than the frequency of the defect migbt lead us to think likely. At sea, the danger is much more formidable. The lights appear at all sorts of times and places, and there may be only one responsible person on the lookout. Mr. Bickerton, of Liverpool, has lately pub- lished accounts of three cases in which the color-blindness of officers of the mercantile marine, all of whom had passed the board of trade ex- amination, was accidentally discovered by the captain being on deck when the officers in question gave wrong orders consequent upon mis- taking the light shown by an approaching vessel. The loss of the Ville du Havre was almost certainly due to color-blindness; and a very fatal collision in American waters, some years ago, between the Jsaac Bell and the Lumberman, was traced, long after the event, to the color- blindness of a pilot, who had been unjustly accused of being drunk at the time of the occurrence. In how many instances color-blindness has been the unsuspected cause of wrecks and other calamities at sea, it is impossible to do more than conjecture. It is necessary then, alike in the public interest and in the interest of the color-blind, wio have doubtiess often suffered in the misfortunes which their defects have produced, to detect them in time to prevent them from entering into the marine and railway services; and the next question is, how this detection should be accomplished. We have to distinguish the color-blind from the color-sighted ; but we must be care- ful not to confound color-blindness with the much more common con- dition of color-ignorance. It would surprise many people, more especially many ladies, to dis- cover the extent to which sheer ignorance of color prevails among boys and men of the laboring classes. Many who can see colors perfectly, and who would never be in the least danger of mistaking a railway signal, are quite unable to naine colors or to describe them, and they are sometimes unable to perceive for want of education of a faculty which they notwithstanding possess, anything like fine shades of difference. Mr. Gladstone once published a paper on the scanty and uncertain color-nomenclature of the Homeric poems, and he might have found very similar examples among his own contemporaries and in his own WOO COLOR-VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNESS. country. I have lately seen a pattern card of colored silks issued by a Lyons manufacturer, which contains samples of two thousand different colors, each with its more or less appropriate name. There is here a larger color vocabulary than the entire vocabulary for the expression of all his knowledge and of all his ideas, which is possessed by an aver- age engine driver or fireman, and just as most of us would be igno- rant of the names of the immense majority of the colors displayed on that card, so hundreds of men and boys among the laboring classes, especially in large towns where the opportunities of education by the colors of flowers and insects are very limited, are ignorant of the names of colors which persons of ordinary cultivation mention constantly in their daily talk and expect their children to pick up and to understand unconsciously. It is among people thus ignorant that the officials of the board of trade and of railways have been most successful in find- ing their supposed color-blind persons, and these persons who would never have been pronounced color-blind by an expert have been able, as soon as they have paid a little attention to the observation and naming of color, to pass an official examination triumphantly. The sense of color presents many analogies to that of hearing. Some peo- ple can hear a higher or a lower note than others, the difference de- pending upon structure, and being incapable of alteration. No one who cannot hear a note of a certain pitch can ever be trained to do so; but within the original auditory limits of each individual the sense of hearing may be greatly improved by cultivation. In like manner a person who is blind to red or green must remain so, but one whose color sense is merely undeveloped by want of cultivation may have its acuteness for fine differences very considerably increased. — In order to test color-vision for railway and marine purposes, the first suggestion which would occur to many people would be to employ as objects the fags and signal lanterns which are used in actual working. I have heard apparently sensible people use, with reference to such a procedure, the phrase upon which Faraday was wont to pour ridicule, and to say that the fitness of the suggested method * stands to reason.” To be effectual, such a test must be applied in different states of atmos- phere, with colored glasses of various tints, with various degrees of illumination, and with the objects at various distances; so that much time would be required in order to exhaust all the conditions under which railway signals may present themselves. his being done, the examinee must be either right or wrong each time. He has always an even chance of being right; and it would be an insoluble problem to discover how many correct answers were due to accident, or how many incorrect ones might be attributed to nervousness or to confusion of names. We must remember that what is required is to detect a color-blind person against his will; and to ascertain, not whether he describes a given signal rightly or wrongly on a particular occasion, but whether COLOR- VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNESS. 701 he can safely be trusted to distinguish correctly between signals on all oceasions. We want, in short, to ascertain the state of bis color-vision generally; and hence to infer his fitness or unfitness to discharge the duties of a particular occupation. For the accomplishment of this object, we do not in the least want to know what the examinee calls colors, but only how he sees them, what colors appear to him to be alike and what appear to be unlike; and the only way of attaining this knowledge with certainty is to cause him to make matches between colored objects, to put those together which appear to him to be essentially the same, and to separate those which appear to him to be essentially different. This principle of test- ing was first laid down by Seebeck, who required from examinees a complete arrangement of a large number of colored objects; but it has been greatly simplified and improved by Professor Holmgren, who pointed out that such a complete arrangement was superfluous, and that the only thing required was to cause the examinee to make matches to certain test colors, and, for this purpose, to select from a heap which contained not only such matches but also the colors which the color- biind were liable to confuse with them. After many trials, Holmgren finally selected skeins of Berlin wool as the material best suited for this purpose; and his set of wools com- prises about 150 skeins. The advantages of his method over every other are that the wool is very cheap, very portable, and always to be obtained in every conceivable color and shade. The skeins are not lustrous, so that light reflected from the surfaces does not interfere with the accuracy of the observation, and they are very easily picked up and manipulated, much more easily than colored paper or colored glass. The person to be tested is placed before a table in good day- light, the table is covered by a white coth, and the skeins are thrown upon it in a loosely arranged heap. The examiner then selects a skein of pale green, much diluted with white, and throws it down by itself to the left of the heap. The examinee is directed to look at this pat- tern skein and at the heap, and to pick out from the latter and to place beside the pattern as many skeins as he can find which are of the same color. He is not to be particular about lighter or darker shades, and is not to compare narrowly, or to rummage much amongst the heap, but to select by his eyes, and to use his hands chiefly to change the po- sition of the selected material. In such circumstances a person with normal color sight will select the greens rapidly and without hesitation, will select nothing else, and will select with a certain readiness and confidence easily recognized by an experienced examiner, and which may even be carried to the extent of neglecting the minute accuracy which a person who distrusts his own color sight will frequently endeavor to display. Some normal sighted people will complete their seletions by taking greens which incline to yellow, and greens which incline to blue, while others will 702 COLOR-VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNESS. reject both; but this is a difference depending sometimes upon imper- tect color education, sometimes upon the interpretation placed upon the directions of the examiner, but the person who so selects sees the green element in the yellow greens and in the blue greens, and is not color-blind. The completely color-blind, whether to red or to green, will proceed with almost as much speed and confidence as the color sighted; and will rapidly pick out a number of drabs, fawns, stone colors, pinks, or yellows. Between the foregoing classes we meet with a few people who declare the imperfection of their color sense by the extreme care with which they select, by their slowness, by their hesi- tation, and by their desire to compare this or that skein with the pat- tern more narrowly than the conditions of the trial permit. They may or may not ultimately add one or two more of the confusion colors to the green, but they have a manifest tendency to do so, and a general uncertainty in their choice. One of the great advantages of Holmgren’s method over every other is the way in which the examiner is able to judge, not only by the final choice of matches, but also by the manner in which the choice is made, by the action of the hands, and by the ges- tures and general deportment of the examinee. When confusion colors have been selected, or when an unnatural slowness and hesitation have been shown in selecting, the examinee must be regarded as either completely or incompletely color-blind. In order to determine which, and also to which color he is defective, he is subjected to the second test. For this, the wool is mixed again, and the pattern this time is a skein of light purple—that is, of a mixture of red and violet, much diluted with white. To match this, the color-blind always selects deeper colors, If he puts only deeper purples, he is in- completely color-blind. If he takes blue or violet, either with or with- out purple, he is completely red blind. If he takes green or gray, or one alone, with or without purple, he is completely green blind. If he takes red or orange, with or without purple, be is violet blind. If there be any doubt, the examinee may be subjected to a third test, which is not necessary for the satisfaction of an expert, but which sometimes strengthens the proof in the eyes of a bystander. ‘The pattern for this third test is a skein of bright red, to be used in the same way as the green and the purple. The red blind selects for this dark greens and browns, which are much darker than the pattern; while the green blind selects greens and browns which are lighter than the pattern. The method of examination thus described is, I believe, absolutely trust-worthy. Itrequires no apparatns beyond the bundle of skeins of wool, no arrangements beyond a room with a good window, and a table with a white cloth. In examining large numbers of men, they may be ad- mitted into the room fifty or so ata time, may all receive theirinstructions together, and may then make their selections one by one, all not yet examined watching the actions of those who come up in their turn, and thus learning how to proceed. The time required for large numbers COLOR-VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNESS. 703 averages about a minute a person. I[ have heard and read of instances of color-blind people who had passed the wool test satisfactorily, and had afterwards been detected by other methods, but I confess that I do not believe in them. I do not believe that in such cases the wool test was applied properly, or in accordance with Holmgren’s very precise in- structions; and I know that it is often applied in a way which can lead to nothing but erroneous results. Railway foremen, for example, re- ceive out of a store a small collectiou of colored wools selected on no principle, and they use it by pulling outa single thread, and by asking the examinee, ‘‘ What color do you call that?” Men of greater scien- tific pretensions than railway foremen have not always selected their pattern colors accurately, and have allowed those whom they examined and passed to make narrow comparisons between the skeins in all sorts of lights in a way which should of itself have afforded sufficient evi- dence of defect. Although however the expert may be fully satisfied by the wool test that the examinee is not capable of distinguishing with certainty between red and green flags or lights in all the circumstances in which they can be displayed, it may still remain for him to satisfy the employer who is not an expert, the railway manager, or the shipowner, and to convince him that the color-blind person is unfit for certain kinds of employment. It may be equally necessary to convince other workmen that the examinee has been fairly and rightly dealt with. Both these objects may be easily attained by the use of slight modifications of the lights which are employed. Lanterns for this special purpose were contrived sume years ago by Holmgren himself and by the late Pro- fessor Donders, of Utrecht, and what are substantially their contriv- ances have been brought forward within the last few months as novel- ties by gentlemen in this country who have re-invented them. The prin- ciple of all is the same, namely, that light of varying intensity may be displayed through apertures of varying magnitude and through colored glass of varying tints, so as to imitate the appearances of signal lamps at different distances and under different conditions of illumination, of weather, and of atmosphere. To the color-blind the difference between a red light and a green one is not a difference of color, but of luminos- ity, the color to which he is blind appearing the less luminous of the two. He may therefore be correct in his guess as to which of the two is exhibited on any given occasion, and he is by no means certain to mistake one for the other when they are exhibited in immediate suc- cession. His liability to error is chiefly conspicuous when he sees one light only and when the conditions which govern its luminosity depart in any degree from those to which he is most accustomed. With the lanterns of which I have spoken it is always possible to deceive a color- blind person by altering the luminosity of a light without altering its color. This may be done by diminishing the light behind the glass, by ncreasing the thickness of the red or green glass, or by placing a piece 704 COLOR-VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNESS. of neutral tint, more or less dark, in front of either. The most incred- ulous employer may be convinced by expedients of this kind that the color-blind are not to be relied upon for the safe control of ships or of locomotives. With regard to the whole questionthere are many points of great interest, both physical and physiological, which are still more or less uncertain, but the practical elements have, I think, been well- nigh exhausted, and the means of securing safety are fully in the hands of those who choose to master and to employ them. The lanterns in their various forms are useful for the purpose of thoroughly exposing the color-blind and for bringing home the character of their incapacity to unskilled spectators ; but they are both cumbrous and superfluous for the detection of the defect, which may be accomplished with far greater ease and with equal certainty by the wool test alone. I have already mentioned that the examinations which have been conducted in the United States, thanks to the indefatigable labors of Dr. Joy Jeffries, have led to the discovery of an enormous and pre- viously quite unsuspected amount of color ignorance, the condition which is frequently mistaken for eolor-blindness by the methods of examination which are in favor with railway companies and with the board of trade; and this color ignorance has been justly regarded as a blot on the American system of national education. It has therefore, in some of the States, led to the adoption of systematic color-teaching in the schools; and for this purpose Dr. Joy Jeffries bas introduced a wall chart and colored cards. The children are taught, in the first instance, to match the colors in the chart with those of the cards dis- tributed to them, and when they are tolerably expert at matching they are further taught the names of the colors. It must nevertheless always be remembered that a knowledge of names does not necessarily imply a knowledge of the things designated, and that color vision stands in no definite relation to color nomenclature. Even this system of teaching may leave a color-blind pupil undetected. ‘ a ee —— TECHNOLOGY AND CIVILIZATION.* By F. REULEAUX. From the present status of the world’s culture, one can not fail to discern thesignificant influence of our scientific technology in qualifying us for greater achievements than the past centuries have yet witnessed, whether in connection with rapid transit by land or sea, tunneling mountains, piercing the air, making the lightning our message-bearer from pole to pole or sending our voices across the land; or whether, indeéd, from another point of view we bring into our service the mighty mechanical powers, or adapt and make use of those intangible contriv- ances usually unnoticed by the world at large. Everywhere in modern life, about us, in us, with us, beside us, is felt the influence of scientific art acting as an agent and as companion, whose ceaseless service we never realize until for a moment it fails us. Commonplace though this be, still it seems to me that in the cultured world and perhaps in the narrower circles of scientific men, this truth is too slightly valued. The value of scientific technology in its true character as producer and promoter of civilization, is too little recog- nized. This may result from a confusion of the so-called technical with the unscientific; or on the other hand, from concealment of its results under a preponderating mass of idealism, its development being cramped by ambition for gain and trammeled by social evils, which go hand in hand with industrial labor. But I will not here consider this side of the question. I would attempt a nearer approach to the inner sanctuary of technology to certain weighty questions, which appear especially deserving of present notice, as: What place, particularly in associate working, the technology of our day takes in civilization? A place not so well defined, it appears to me, as is chat we assign to less important social, political, and scientific events. Again, @ question oceurs as to the chief features of the method fol- lowed by technology to attain its ends, and concerning the plan which H, Mis. 129——45 705 706 TECHNOLOGY AND CIVILIZATION. must more or less underlie device and invention; a question which (especially for patent legislation) has long employed and must long continue to employ the scientist as well as the administrative practi- tioner. If we will compare our civilization with that of other nations we must understandingly glance at the people and their pursuits, which we find upon the lowest stratum; for example, those who, lacking a knowl- edge of writing, that wondrous thought transmitter, have, of course, no care for science. In this comparison one will soon encounter peoples whom a high culture has for centuries, yes, thousands of centuries, been a part. These are the peoples of eastern and southern Asia, the Chinese, Japanese, people of India, the Persians, and Arabians. Noting without prejudice their culture, we must concede them to be in a state of high development, indeed to have been highly developed, when mid- dle Europe still remained deep in barbarism. Even then science and art flourished among them, and is still advancing. For 3,000 years the Indian Vedas have devoutly proclaimed the Deity ; 2,000 years ago the Indian poets produced their odyssey the ‘“ Mahabharata”—the great Bharata, the forerunner of many dramas, among them the tender “Sakuntala,” the charm ef which is still potent since its sentiments found their origin in the heart of man. Philosophy flourished likewise, and the science of language in so great degree that the Indian grammarians of to-day can look back upon an unbroken line of predecessors, the vista terminating in Panini, whom they reverence like a god. Mathematics, too, were fostered, and to-day we write our numbers in Indian characters. In parts of India and in eastern Asia the commercial arts progressed then as now. Persia, too, was laurel- crowned among the world’s poets. Following the great Firdousi came the ‘*‘ Horaz” of Schiras, and in his footsteps Hafis sung his immortal songs, all of which have become a part of our literary treasure through the sesame of translation. And the Arabian literature, to which we have not yet had access in its entirety, how has it laid under tribute the Grecian inheritance, and so perfected astronomy that at the pres- ent time we name half the heavens after them. How, under the patient and studious princes of the time of Charles, did they foster the growth of arithmetical and still deeper science! How too have they surpassed our knowledge of chemistry in various substances and essences! What is then the spiritual difference which sunders their path from ours? Are we in certain arts still behind them? They are brave sol- diers, gentle and industrious citizens, wise statesmen and scholars ; honor and justice hold high rank among them. Where then, considered as men, lie the points of difference ? Or, on the other hand, do we question whether the spiritual bounda- ries lead to the good, and would we fain know whence springs our superiority over them ? How is it possible, for example, that England with a few thousand of TECHNOLOGY AND CIVILIZATION. 407 her own troops, rules the two hundred millions of India; how was it possible for her to remain victor in opposition to their terrific and fanat- ical revolt in 1857? How does it happen that we, Europeans or (not particularly to mention the European-settled America,) that the At- lantic nations alone compass the earth with railroads, surround it with telegraph lines, traverse its water girdle with mighty ships, and that to all this the other five-sixths of the earth’s inhabitants have not added a span—the same five-sixths which still, for the greater part, are grandly organized and highly cultivated ? There are different ways of explaining this astonishing fact, or rather, of at least attempting to determine it comprehensively. Klemm, the industrious Leipsie collector, who was a pre-historian long before the discovery of pile habitations, has propounded the distinction between “active” and “ passive” peoples; and many to-day follow him therein. To him the Atlantic nations are the active; all others, down tothe utterly uncultivated, the passive. According to this theory we make history, they suffer it. Although this discrimination appears to have so much in its favor it does not hold. Nations can (as history teaches) be a long time active, then passive, and later again active. Activity and passivity are not to nations indwelling characteristics, but cireum- stances into which and out of which they can fall without changing their spiritual, essential position. One proof of reality the Klemm theory does not stand. Europe could, to-morrow, unyoked from Asia, be made passive without losing the character which- makes railroads, steamships and telegraphs belong to her as her spiritual possession. The Arabian, on the contrary, could destroy the products of scientific technology as the pretended Omar the books, but would not be able to re-produce them, aS has many times been done in case of the books. Others have supposed, and still believe, that it is Christianity that establishes the distinction. This however does not stand the test. Of course a considerable part ot the thinking which resulted in metamorphosed inventions and discoveries was done in the Christian empire, but by no means all. What an innovation was made by the art of printing, and yet we know that 1,000 years earlier the Chinese had found a way to this art. Gunpowder, too, that marks so decisive a step in the progress of our civilization, was used by the Arabians long before the time of the Freiburg monks. Then in mechanics we find those important power machines, the water wheels, are very old and of Asiatic origin. But passing from these examples to a genuine offspring of Europe, the steam-engine, watching its gradual development up to its actual use—the time of the Renaissance—in Italy, Germany, France, and England, but never outside of Christendom, even this, we find, does not encounter progress, but on the contrary, its adherents often oppose’ it up to the last. We look further and do we not find to-day Christians living in the 708 TECHNOLOGY AND CIVILIZATION. East, for example, in Armenia and in Abyssinia, entirely outside the contemplation of our victorious modern technology? In the past they have added naught thereto and to-day they are not its contributors. It cannot be the things themselves, the inventions, but the engen- dering thought which must have produced the change, the innovation. In fact we can but ascribe this to a peculiar progress in thought precedence, a difficult, dangerous ascent to a higher, freer comprehen- sion of nature. The spell which bound us was broken by our understanding when we found the forces of nature following in their operations no capricious will—a Godly will—but working according to steadfast, unchangeable laws—the laws of nature; never otherwise. According to laws mighty, fixed, eternal, Must we complete our being’s circle breathe Goethe’s words from out the terrors of nature’s inexorable power. But according to “laws mighty, fixed, eternal” roll the worlds, the stars pursue their course, a tile falls from the roof or a drop from its cloud height. Suns wander up and down, Worlds go and come again, And this no wish can alter. In this grand poetical form is seized the same uplifting knowledge that not the bodily but the spiritual force incloses within itself the pre- sentiment of God, that even the world’s creation consists in the immu- tability of itslaws. That it might win the knowledge, thought broke through the oid barriers, but immediately drew from real life con- clusions such as these, if we may utter them quite free from secondary considerations. If we bring lifeless bodies into such circumstances that their working of natural laws answers our purposes, we may permit them instead of this labor to work for living beings. This began to be carried out with intelligence, and thereby was created our present technology. Scientific technology I must name it. When the spirit entertained the idea which sought to make natural laws a con- scious power, scarcely anything was known of these laws and they must — first be wooed. Through hard battle indeed must they be won, for — the learned world believed itself to have them in its possession. The — reformer had therefore not simply to make the discovery, but to — accomplish the zigantic task of overcoming antagonistic convictions — and at the same time to support a spiritual campaign up to the heights of freer knowledge, for this march found weighty opposition in the decrees of the church, which had demanded its sacrifice. The victory was won, and therewith our present technology gained the command. — The opposing current of the time had spent itself, comprehending, per- — haps, its injustice, for do not its first representatives travel as gaily — upon the railroad, telephone, and telegraph as do ethers? Only small TECHNOLOGY AND CIVILIZATION. TO9 skirmishers exist aS a reserve, and this more from stubbornness than conviction. At all events they do not in the least retard the chief move- ment. What had happened had the reaction of that time prevailed—for it was a reaction begun in Germany more than 100 years before, Coper- nicus having lain more than 90 years in the grave when Galileo was unwillingly compelled to witness against him—what had happened in such an event is difficult to conceive; and yet not so, for we may see it exemplified in the great Arabian nation. Among this people the reac- tion had, in truth, conquered. Their Galileos, their Averrhoés, and numberless others, were defeated, together with their free convictions ; with them their entire sect, and therewith the Arabian culture, which already had lifted the hand to grasp the palm of victory of free knowl- edge, was paralyzed by the fanatical victors, and paralyzed they still lie low, already half a thousand years. Allah aalam! ‘“‘God alone knows,” therefore shalt thou not desire to know! So sounds it since then for the pure Mohammedan ; all investigation is cut off from him, forbidden and declared sinful. A noble and refined disciple of the Prophet has given expression tothe hope that the Moslem may yet be called to take up the lost leadership. Who may believe him? However, it appears certain that the overthrow of free thought in the Arabian language has become decisive for the remaining Asiatic culture. Like adam lies the spiritual-slain mass between them and us, and so has it come that we alone have entered into the development to which the pictured progress of thought led the way. The powers of nature which she has taught us to make useful are the mechanical, physical, and chemical ; to permit them to work for us requires a great outfit of mathematical and natural science. From this entire equipment we exercise a portion as a privilege. It seems necessary, in order to briefly distinguish the two directions of development, to call them by particular names. The Greeks named an artistic mechanism, an arrangement through which the unusual could be conducted, a manganon, which word goes back, according to some, to the name of the eminent race of magicians. Al! kinds of definite tangi- ble things which were considered skillfully and wisely thought out were so titled ; among others, a catapult for projectiles for purposes of war, With this the word comes into the Middle Ages. Then, early in the sev- enteenth century, a great machine was invented for rolling and smooth- ing the washing, and since this contrivance bore a remarkable outward resemblance to the catapult, it was also given its name, whereupon the word wandered further into the remaining European tongues, as every house-wife knows, or perhaps does not know, if she send her washing to a “mangle.” Again, for our purpose, I would generalize that old word and name, on the one hand, that something by means of which the forces of na- ture are known in her laws, manganism, and on the other, that which 710 TECHNOLOGY AND CIVILIZATION. seems to stand as nature’s defender, mysteriously guarding her ways, naturism. Employing for the present these terms, we shall see the peoples of the earth divided into manganistical and naturistical, and shall notice that, on account of their full understanding of their material equipment, the former have a powerful advantage over the latter. Indeed, we dare go much further and hesitate not to assert that to the manganistical nations belongs the domination of the earth, although now, as ever, it must be battled for. Still the observer may confidently predict the vic- tory of the manganists and that resistance can but mean either gradual overthrow or destruction. That unyielding determination makes possible the unprecedented step from naturism to manganism is shown in our time, a time so rich in culture, by the example of Japan. The chief men of this nation, having recognized the necessity, have’ also gained the political power for the purpose, and so transpires before our eyes the intelligent effort, towards which all their strength is directed, of systematically changing their scheme of instruction. Diffi- cult as is the attempt its beginning promises success, consisting as it does in nothing else than learning, learning, learning. Very gently in India the English have commenced to work towards manganistical education, and although all is yet in the beginning, ereat results are possible. It is unnecessary however to stray into distant lands to find natur- ism; in Europe itis at hand, and indeed in every human being lurks a portion of naturism. The first touch with manganism must be through education, the surrender of the uncultured mass of intellect to kind na- ture, but subject to a firm control which shall so hold her in check as to prevent the ruin which would otherwise threaten in the full contact with fate. In Spain manganism has developed but slightly. The Iberian Penin- sula has not contributed to the great metamorphosing inventions ; naturally the repression of thought advancement would occur more readily there, as at that period the new-discovered world held attention. The loss to Spain is, however, incalculable. Greece, once leading the world in arts and sciences, was at the time of the blossoming of scientific technology, so entangled in the result of her fall that the movement did not seize her. Now as a nation she seeks to raise herself out of naturism in order to resume the transmis- sion of the old spiritual activity, and we may watch with interest the experiment made upon the classical soil of this beautiful land. With- out manganism the effort must fail. Italy furnishes us with a striking illustration. For a long time de- voted thoroughly to naturism, and also desiring her share in the great scientific discoveries of the Renaissance, this highly-gifted people more or less neglected manganism, but preserved her flowers of art, and has TECHNOLOGY AND CIVILIZATION. 711 therein sought and found her glory; this neglect her new form of gov- ernment has caused her to recognize, as well as the necessity for its avoidance; consequently we see the Italians exerting themselves with astonishing energy to spread among themselves manganistical indus- tries and qualities. That their rapid and significant progress in useful industries weakens their achievements in art industry can not be doubted. Like a shadow this fact flits over us, until it seems as if between the two directions must exist an opposition to which one will fall a sacrifice. But not so; art and scientific technology are not at variance; it only requires great effort for both to be developed; great firmness and spiritual insight into esthetical laws to counterbalance the disturbing grasp of the machine. That both may develop side by side is shown by the present move- ment in Austria and Germany. Turning now to the consideration of the inner method of manganism, J pass over an entire line of preparatory grades, but desire to note that which is common to different actions, but which seems to the outside world contradictory. Such generalizing shortens, but is necessary in order to make clearer the influx of new appearances in the technical kingdom. For the purpose of making these certain, efficient and intel- ligent, it may be permitted to employ a few simple examples: Fig. 1. The cog-wheel a, Fig. 1, catching in the usual manner in the cogs of the bar at 2, is rotated at 1 in the stationary frame c, in which also at 3, the cog-bar b slides, this bar, a very long one, being pulled down by a weight B. Imagining the wheel a so turned as to raise the weight B, or in such manner as to lower it, we have before us an efficient machine of a defi- nite kind, viz, one of continuous direction of motion whether forward or backward. We will call it, because of this continuous motion, a running work (Laufwerke). As is well known, there are many running works; among them friction wheels, cog-wheels, beltings, turbines, wae TECHNOLOGY AND CIVILIZATION. ete., in many different combinations. Opposed to this mechanism is another of a different motion; of this Fig. 2 furnishes an example. The wheel a turns 1, in a fixed frame and has saw or similar shaped teeth in which, at 2,a ratchet catches. This ratchet hinders the wheel from following the pulling of the weight A at the margin of the wheel a. But if the wheel be turned as we wind a cord, 4, on which hangs the weight, the ratchet permits the wheel to go forward but retards it again as soon as the compelling force subsides. This arrangement is known as “ obstruction” (Gesperre.) In the use just described we would call it obstructing work (Sperrwerk); its backward and forward motion varying, thus requiring it to be com- pletely discriminated from running work (Laufwerke). From the given groups of mechanisms, five others are possible. If we next imagine the ratchet to be raised, through pressure upon the button at 5, the obstruction being released, the weight A falls down, taking or drawing with it the wheel a. The resulting motion can be utilized in many ways: quickly, as through a push with a ram, slowly, gradually, as by a clock; also m the running work of the telegraph, changing always according to supply. Through winding on spokes, the mechanical labor can always be use- fully changed. Instead of lifting a weight A, one can also place an elastic body, @. ¢., a spring in a condition of tension. We will there- fore name the produced mechanism tension work (Spannwerk). The crossbow was a spring tension work; there are.millions of spring tension works in practical use in flint-locks. We procure a third mechanism through a slight change of the man- agement, namely, by allowing the ratchet that was previously released to be again caught. This then catches up the wheel @ and with it the fallen weight A. ==) s8 . ie eee eee yas 21 Assistant Secretary, report of, bilbiography of Museum publications in___ 30 BASSES feUllCOtbONS DUCE Miser ee ee as Sek oe ee ee Slap aa Bah Ree 30 ssociation of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiments Stations metin lecture halliokMuseume == 55s ao ee es ee ee 31 AStRONOMeETS; ane Cr olO Lie Olas ae ee bs pen se fe Se eee Vegi Astronomical appartus, standard of screw threads er ne oe 13 bibliography, by W.C. Winlock _.--_________- era liTilew laces instruments, report on ------_---~- see Sa erp Ss Ze GI Journal, subseription to ------.----- Be eS See $22 21 SOCISbIES PE POP tONss = eae eae eer Cee eee 169 Astronomy, progress in, in 1886, by Gyralleam C: Winlock Seta Pan emak canes, 79, 81 progress of, for 1889, 1890, by William C. Winloeck__________- 12 astronomers, necrology of -------___- Si eS ae 172 astronomical constants -- ---- ST as case et ee, ee 123 bibliographive ss. eater ene 2 are es Tezeleeter instruments. ------- he =f Soe eee. ALOT SOCICHIOS*S= ter eis eee Re aie tee Med 169 photograpliyates. eee oan : a views Me oe 135 COMCUSE Sasa se sae oa. 2S eee eee oS ns ee ea 138 CCMPSES sass. ses ee eee eA AS Sw ah Se eS 156 MCUCORS See SS ae i oF Pee a pears as 143 motion of the stars _-----.---- Se ee n> Ne 135 ME DU ce tene ee eres ee eee on actep er Ws) osha A pe 12. 778 INDEX. Page Asinanomy, progress iof, observatories!=_ 922-22 =. se eee eee 159 photography, astronomical, “===. 7p 2e- =e eee eee 135 photometry 2534s. 23 S552. Fee ee eee 130 planetss sae % Bes ee fe ee ee 144, 150 solar parallax..o2.3 4: 0293. See ee ee ee 159 solar specthumt: 2). esas. eee ee eee eee ee 154 Solar. system, 225.2255 Sake a Cee ee ee ee eee 151 staricatalocues j352- Ske sae eee ee Ss aie P22 (2 aan Eas ae 124 stellar parallames\ ysis Ose 52558 ee ee ea. et eoee 128 stellar specttas 233 5- Sh5e 2s 4 ee ee eee eee 133 transit.of Venuse 5252525255522. 3 ee eee 159 Vatiableandscoloredistarss: = eee ee eee ee 131 Astro-physical investigations, building for apparatus ----------_--------- 10 observatory, establishment Of 22202 23°22 =a sess xii, 10 scope Of work explained=-2222¢__21-24_5 2-2 == 12 Atlas Steamship Company, acknowledgments due ------------------------ 61 Austria, exchange transmissions to---.----.---------------------------59, 62, 68 ‘‘ A vifauna Italica,” presented by author ------.-- Ra Seat aie ae See ene 78 B. Baden, exchange transmissions to --------------------------------------- 59. 63 Bailey, H. B., & Co., acknowledgments ducé2—--o. 4222. = eee ee 61 Baird, Pr wees statuevOhs2 2. s22asecme. oe oe ee ee ee eee 20 Baker, Dr. Frank, appointed acting manager of National Zodlogical Parks ]-% 2. ah ee a eee sea ary ee se eagle ed 32, 41, 74 appointed honorary curator, Department of Compara- hive -Anatomaye. i 2 Ss on ee ee 32 The Ascent of Manz. 022° o- 2 hss ese ety Baltazzi, X., Consul-General, acknowledgments due-_-------------------- 61 Barber & Co., acknowledgementsidue —.--~----2-=22==----- Wet eros 61 Barker, George F., report on progress in physics for 1886 --_----- ree SS 80, 81 iBarnowieinyZoolosical Parke ao 2-2 So ee ee 64 Bascanion constrictor in Zodlogical Park --.-.---------2-=---=--- ated eee 64 Basel, University of, sends complete sets of publications --------.-------- Gina Basement under National Museum, cost Of 22-5222 — 22) See oe 9 Basket work of North American aborigines, by Otis T. Mason -_-_-------- 81 Batrachia of North America, paper on, by Prof. E. D. Cope-------------- 29 iBatrachians, Stabisbics:Of accessions==— > 2-2-5. ee eee 27 Bats studied by Dr. Harrison Allen__-_--------_------ =22-=2==2---—--_-_-- 30 Bavaria, exchange transmissions to---------------------+---------------- 59, 63 Bean, Dr. Tarleton H., Dr. G. Brown Goode and, paper by--------------- 30 Bearsin)Zoolopical Park: 2: 222-225 Soe = ee ee 64 Beck, Senator, death of, a loss to the Institution------------------------- 41 Belgium, a party to Brussels Convention -------------------------------- 58 exchange transmissions-to .222-0.2-- 22. 22 gee ee ey Gee Bell, Dr. Alexander Graham, donation to astro-physical observatory -_--- 3, 12 Bequest of James Hamilton, amount of----------------------------------- 2 Dr. Jerome He Kidder... 2.22 220 eee oe ee ee ee resolutions by Board of Regents---- ---- xiii Simeon Habel amount Of -.252-s2- 4 eee ae ee eee 2 Smithson, amount.Of-_. 25.5. 2c2 02 Se. eo eae eae eee 2 INDEX. 779 Page. Berber manuscript obtained by Talcott Williams --_-_-.------.---------- 13 Bern, University of, sends complete set of publications __-__.-_-----__---- 77 Bernadou, Ensign J. B., lecture in Museum lecture hall_____.___--_____-- 31 Bibliographical catalogue of the described transformations of North America’s Lepidoptera, by Henry Edwards --.---.--2.-2---s-+--1-+: Res 20s 30 Bibliography of Anthropology, by Otis T. Mason -_---........._--.--_..- 558 Museum publications in, report of assistant secretary —-_- 30 Musichogean’ lancuages <= —* . = ae Sere ee 52 the National Museum, its officers, and others ___._______- 82 Biographical memoir of Arnold Guyot, by James D. Dana ___---________- 80 Dirdumnr7OOlOciCca Park: 32-2 oe Se eb eh on Hed 64 Statistics Of ACCESSIONS: 6 aac = eS Dee ya alesis aU gees 27 eges and nests, statistics of accessions_--_-____-- Erne Ties paki ST 27 skeletonsistudied joy, Dr. = W... Shuteldt= = <2) s3-eeee ese 30 Bison Americanus: in ZOodlogical. Park: wasn 5 32 seine 355 iret 20 64 LIMOTICAN, @Xvermuima tion. Obi) 252 so pa eh er eye eh epee 34, 35 paper on, by William T. Hornaday ---- 30, 81 Bixby, Thomas E., & Co., acknowledgments due -__-_----.-_-_---___- a S34 61 Blacktatledkdeer-nyZoolopicaltizar: kee Sats aee sees a 2 ne es ee eee 64 Blaine, Hon. James G., member ex officio of the establishment ____________ ix Blood corpuscles, morphology of the, by Charles Sedgwick Minot —------- 429 Board of Regents, action of, relation to death of Hon. Samuel S. Cox__-__- 2 annualimectinovoly =e = aes aera ei nena ey) eae 2 report fortes pean, hrssek Se tS Skee ea alee 81 Rani iis Sr eese se. en) ee a 2 ANNUAL TSOpPOr LAO SH ese ape ese ae es ee ee i,iv Journalot se roceed insolent eee See ae xi recommended additional Museum building ----________ } resoluitionssby == 328 Re eR AETV, XV OX VA on) 1G. lS ae (See, also, Executive Committee and Regents.) vacancies in, filled by Congressional resolution ___-___- xli Board on geographical names, Smithsonian represented at__-..___--____- 25 Boas, Franz, paper on the Central Eskimo-_----_---_---- de Bee ae mes ee 54, 82 ipesleian Library; books senbrby:s-a22- 32) te: tetas wea 4 eee Jue ea Te Boehmer, George H. Report on exchanges for 1887__.-.._..._.--_______- 79 Bolivia, consul-general for, acknowledgments due __........_--_.-_-..-.-- 61 exchanve- transmissions 105202. 2/2522 see pape Aa we ee eee 59, 62 Bolometer in astro-physical observatory --------- soy AAS geo AES hh 11 Bolton, H. Carrington, report on progress in chemistry for 1886_________- 80, 81 represented Institution at installation of Dr. Low, of Columbia College see") seas sete eee 25 Bonds, proceeds of sale, deposited in United States Treasury___-._______- 2 Bonn, University of, sends complete set of publications ___._..___._______- 77 borland) pve wackMOw Led omenits Cie je == see sees el eee 61 Bors, C., Consul-General, acknowledgments due___-_______.__-__-__._____- 61 Botanical collections made by Telcott Williams __.-..........__.________.- 13 Garden7exchantesyOis2 <= =: aaa 5 See AS Yee 60 tropical Win: NES Drentes = arene et beet! Re 389 Botany of- National Zodlogical Park). 252 S202 9 ee See lee 68 Botassi, D. W., Consul-General, acknowledgments due__________._-______- 61 Boulton, Bliss & Dallett, acknowledgments due _....._-....-------_------ 61 Boxes of specimens received by Museum.-.-_-----___. _.- = ee 28 ays. One fen US DAE DOLR eer mse on 55 sae Aw hace o so wd eee ae 315 780 INDEX. Page. Brady, J. H., collections received from) =< ==" ee oe ee eee 32 Brain clinical study/of the, lechureion! = = eee Bpeeyete eye Sb) 21 BrantarcanadensisnneZ,00lo mac ails ys kaa eee ees peer re eelneeeee een er eee 64 Brazil vanparhy tons russelsiConvemtlOmes sss sae eae ene eee 58 exchange transmissions to_------------------ Bes. ees see aetyeye 21) 63 British Government, publications presented iy 25 = === sae =e 78 IBVAOMVAS) Bee) mal IBA RoNH) Joe Oltere Milovannelhnbisy = ka nee sas Sas soe 499 SLONZES AStabISblGSO le ACCESSU OMS Sse ear ee tee 27 Brown, Vernon H., & Co., acknowledgments dus ------------_-=--- cau Sethe 61 Brown, William Harvey, collections received from: 2_.-.-+-.-22-----222. 14, 32 Brusselsiexchanee treaty 222 2228s Ss sas a soe ee ee ee eee 18, 57 IBulbo! var oimanusamyZ00] oo; Callie re kee es eee eee eee Bae 64 BuenosPAyresvexchange transmissions | tOss see ae ers 63 Buttalosextermination) Olj= 352-2 sol et as ee ee eee eee 34, 35 Building, additional required for Museum: 222232 2b ae as 2s ee 4, 26 Sketch plans: presented) »:225224 2 ssp AoC a ee eee 4 Senateactiona- 22-2) eye he Sele aed Aa a ee ee eee 4 Letter of Secretary to chairman Senate Committee on Public Buildings - 5 Building-stone, hand-book on, by George P. Merrill______----_----------- 30. 80 IB EH, ISLS diay eel oavoyn ikerolenaavevanrs) Che) | Bk ee kes 61 BulletimsofsNa biome] @Viwse urieee ene eee ee eee ogg ey ee 15, 29 Bullfrog stineZoolopuGale Parse see Sees SNe ee eee ees ee eee ee eee 64 Bureau Om duca lon excl aoe SiO kee see eee ee er 60 Hugineers,, WU. S..ArmMy,jexchangesvol ewer. een as. sae 60 Ethnology, accounts examined by executive committee —__----_- Lx Congressional appropriation for, disbursed by Smith- sonian Institutionts {ses 2s ee eee xli, 3 estimates for, 22.5 Wier iy ete Se ee ee 4 exchan@esiofiey 222.225 22 = 5) Se ee OL) explorationsimade Dye s= =) =e =a sas eee 14 reportiol director 2. els) se eee ee 43, 47, 82 Secretanyon = ot. c seo ee 42 sixthiannual reportiofse- 22. J22=- 1a Soke eee 15, 54, 82 Fine Arts, Congressional bill for the establishment of---------- 22 International Exchanges. (See International Exchanges.) the Minthexchanpesio fiir asso ae ees ae eee a ee 60 Statishies, exchanges 0 fee secs ey ae ee 60 Bureowlineatus any Zo0Lo pac alle air Key ee ee ee See 64 Butterworth, Hon; Benjamin, a resent 22252 s522 sess ee ee 2G etl letter to, relative to money advanced on ac- Count olexchancesseee eee eae ee eee 18 Cc. Cabinet officers forming the “‘establishment”_.---.-_----..--.----- 8. -.- 1 members ex officio of the establishment --_--------------- ix Cacatua galerita:in-Zoological Park: 2-22-52 S222 53-225 -22 32 eer eee 64 Calderon, Consul-General C., acknowledgments due ------ Se Se eee ee 61 Caldo, Consul-General A. G., acknowledgments due-.--...--.-.---------- 61 California, Indian vocapularies collected nme ==- es =ase een =a 49 linguistic: workin.” 223-2: 22422 ee eee 49 Call, Hon. Wilkinson, introduced bill For the establishment of a Bureau of«Fine-Arts 2.2.25 22 ep asi e ee SoS AE ee ee ee er 22 INDEX. | 781i Page Cameron; R: W. & Co., acknowledgments! due: )22222:2.2c22.s2 222422528 61 Wanada, exchange transmissions tO:20 2-2. osee Sacer set ee oe Bee nb2. 6S Cape Flattery, Indians of, paper on, by J. G. Swan ___.-----_--------.---- 15 Capra hircus angorensis in Zoélogical Park ._.......--..-------.- SEALS Sp. 2 64 Capron collection of Japanese works of art, proposed purchase of —______- 23 Capuchin monkeys in:Zoological Park 90 ok Soeess os ease eae see eee 64 Caruicusicolumbiianus i-ZoolosicaliPark 29-25-22 en eee ee 64 TLACTOUSHZOOLODIGAIS Par kisi es eg ae ee ee Le Seer. 64 DiLoRnaanusvin AOOLOCICal, Parkg ssa so semen en es aes Ee Eee 64 Carter, R. Burdenell, color vision and color blindness__-.=2_-._.__.-__-- ae OR Casalanco modellor, made: byaC.;Muindeleti 3 562 te- =) wee 53 Grande, Arizona, report on;,by, V. Mindeleti 222° bel sie Ee 53 Ari Zonas VASIbC Ct eecce tay aie es seen mete eer eee ey ee oH aR 43,48 Casexishipped by M:xchange surcatls 92-2 ae tee ae ee Oe Be 55, 56 Casey, Capt. b:. studied'\ Coleoptera 2--- i220 ete ub ee ee) See 30 Cataloguerentries:of National Museums: 222: < 2522 2e=e_ sae 2 ee ee ee 28, 80, 8 Catlin Indian Gallery, by Thomas Donaldson -.--------- ae oe Sle et 81 BLavIStiCs OlMaACCesS ONS ete eae ee ee 27 Cavvonapercaim Zoolorical Parkes == 225: = Pe eee ae oir 8. Seppe) Se 64 CCDUSH MIUELLUS 1m ZOO lOCICalMe ark aes es oe Se Sp SS ee ple I oy pa oes 64 REPO CHS IME ZOOlOSI Cal Wal hes: ann saa ee ete Se Se Tes See 64 (fegiha, English dictionary prepared by Dr. Dorsey ___--- _.------------- 50, 51 Cenozoic fossils, statistics of accessions --_--=-25- £222 2-42-88 aero ea aS 28 @ensuswisuce ate xchan'g.eSi@ fees epee yee ea a ip erg) eee ees 60 Ceniraliiskimo, paper: by lM ranz) 08s 2-2 9s— Sens oe eee Boon soph UE 54, 82, 82 Cercopithecus callibrichus in, Zoblogical Park: 52-522) soe 82) ee ee 64 Cervus canadensis in Zoblogical Park ------ ER PASS Sa pers) 40) Ta ee emer 64 Cetaceans, Natural History of, contributions to, by F. W. True ------__-- 30 Chaco ruins, model of, made by C. Mindeleff -_----_- Sa ECS Vero ee ints S32 53 Challenger Reports presented to Institution _22--2-_ 2222-225 7 BebherG@heapest Horm of lilo Mt se sn oe ere eee en Oe ee ee 11 Checkdishoe Smubhnsonvany pw liCa TOT sis ee see ee ee 81 Chemical Problems of To-day, by Victor Meyer .9252 2.225.225.4208. 361 Chemistry, Progress report for 1886, by H. Carrington Bolton _____-_ ___- 80, 81 Cherokee country, aboriginal map of the, preparation of -__-------__----- 49 WOLKS Gxaminediccc. 2 a8 2. fess seas ate ee a eee ee 47, 48, 49 Chickens in Zoélogical Park------ soe 2 hee Eis SSeS eee 64 Chilevexchance oransmiSS1OnS) bossa ee eee a ee ee ee 59, 62, 63 China yexchance transmission sito mse ese ee oe ee ee 59, 62 Chiriqui, Colombia, ancient art of. Paper by W. H. Holmes_---._------ 54, 82 Cibola, architecture of, report on, by V. Mindeleff_..-.-...---.--.-=..--- 53 Clark; MisseMiens-.pilives tea tions mad CM yee a een ee ee 50 Clarke, F. W., report on Prof. Morley’s researches___-.-.-_--.-.-.------ 83 the meteorite collection in National Museum__----. __---- 80 Clarke simuit-crackeriiny ZOOL 9 Callie kay: kage ere ea 64 Clinical study of the brain, lecture on_----- PA eine = 2: See ee 2h skull, paper) on, by Drs Harrison Allen 222522--2-2— 15, 80 Cluss & Schulze, claims of, for plans for new Museum building __---___--- xiv @oashiand GeodeticiSurvey, cooperation Of masse san ee eee D exchanloestOheen ae sss aes oe oe ee 60 pendulum experiments by....+2.---.-.---.=- 21 WON WStaAlIShiCSs 1Of ACCESSIONS # ass = seo ee eee eh eS 2) ee 27 Coleppters studied: by Capt: (D.1u. Casey << 22.655 sccc- wn gsees on seca e 30 aye INDEX. Page. Collections of American Historical Association to be deposited in Smith- sonian’ building’? 342-2422. 552208 Se eee ee eerie 22 Museum, increase cf! 221221) ee ee ee eee eee 26 Color-blindness, color-vision and. By R. Burdenell Carter-------------- 687 Color-vision and color-blindness. By R. Burdenell Carter --------------- 687 Colombia, consul-general for, acknowle. » nents due---------------------- 61 exchange! travisiaisslONS) GOn ee ees eee eee eee 59, 62, 63 Commissioners for establishment of “odlogical Park, report of------------ 38, 39 Committee on the International Standards for Iron and Steel, rooms Gectpled (by oo. 22 62) es eee eee eee ees eee ee 21 resolutions relative to services of Hon. S. S. Cox._-..-__------ 43, 44 Compagnie Générale Transatlantique, acknowledgments due------------- 61 Comparative anatomy, statistics of accessions --------------------------- 27 Comptroller of the Currency, exchanges of-.------------------------<--- 60 Condition of the Smithsonian fund: = --- 22222222 == 92s ee 2, 3, XVii Congress, action of, desired for printing annual reports ------------------ 16 relative to new Museum building ---_----.------.... 4 Congress, acts by— Organization of Zodlogical Park-----.------------------------------- 39 Purchase of Capromicoll CGtiOM se see. seater =e ee ee ee 23 World’s Columbian Exposition 222 -._- 2522. See cece se aeeeeee eee 23 (See also, Congress, appropriations by.) Congress, appropriations by, for— Claims allowed by First Comptroller of Treasury -..------:---------- xli Deficiency claims. -----2------- -2- = soe Se ee ee xli Exchanges for Geological Survey 2226s se= =o ae xli Furniture and fixtures, National Museum. 222225225222" == 22 eee xl Pisbursemenh Oboe oe eee ee eee ee lee 3 Fireproofing Smithsonian building ---.------------------------------ 10 Heating and lighting Museum building -------------- EXVill, KXix) Seed xl international exChanees =o -ceeer oer ee ee XIN, Re, ole oe National Museums. 22 === asses sos" oe eren ee LOADS O Gly SOQ nblly .Odd<, SSO-0 il, ol National Zoological Park 222555" S226. 2222. neers eee XSW], KL eS, North American ethnolosy2:_---- 5222-22 Soe eee XIX; KECK, xl Postage for National Museum -==2-- "2222-5 ee = cee XXviii, xxxii, xl Preservation of collections -------------- Se ec ee KA, RK ye KR eed Printing for Museum 2222-22255 ee oe ee a Purchase of collection of prehistoric copper implements ---_---------- xli Reimbursement to Institution on account of Fish Commission_------- xli Smithsonian building, repairs! to2s2-* 2 ==> 23s See eee ee xl Congress asked to refund money advanced for exchanges. ----------~----- 16, 18 bills for establishment of bureau of fine arts --_----------------- 22 for extending hours for visiting Museum-.------.----------- ries 32 to provide electric plant for buildings------.--.----------#----- 32 resolutions: by, appointing regents-2- 222 2oee: Se eee xli, 2 to print extra copies of report-__----- Mee aE Se eS eee ae ij of Orientalists; P. Haupt’sireéportion 2282" 2222 = 222s ee 85 Consuls of foreign powers, acknowledgments due------------------------- 61 Contents of annual repert:-for 1800 _°. S22 seers Se eee ee eee ELL aBES v Contributions to: Knowledge: == =2. 20 22a Ne Sees eee ee eee ee 14,79 Museum;collections #2510 ee ee 26 INortheAmerican -Hithnology 2: sess ae eee 50, 51 the natural history of the Cetacean, a review of the family Delphinide, by Frederick W, True..--.--- oe INDEX. 783 Page. Contribution toward a monograph on Noctuids, by John B. Smith------- 30 Co-operation of departments of Government------------------------------ 28 Cope; Prof. HE: D., the Batrachia of "NorthiAmerieae:e2° 22-22 5 22st 22 29 Cope, Erol. Paward D-, paperon Reptilia s-< 328 sek. seu See 15 GoppeesDritenrya regent. 22. 22 fe See a a ee se eRe oi she NE xxi member of the executive committee ___________---- 3:6 5:0.0.0 0b resolution of, relative to resignation of Dr. Noah Por- tere see SSS ee ee ed ae Sere Stee lah xi Corea slectureronsiny Ninseuime le ei) hells ee ee ee ee eae ak SorgelU miversity.,.books' sent by.-- 5: 2 yates s a eater a see se Soot 78 CORO E), HEC NTE Oi lave, lone ID Eyal 1245 ANVIL os ee ee cee 79 Correspondence, how: Conducted) = ss 22 s2 2 ==) eee eee eee 25 oLexchancerburcaurecOrdin ca @ ite ames =e eee = ae 62 Correspondentsror exclian oer urea ue = are epee ae ae ere ere 57 Cortisuks J: sacknowledomemtsidiess ssn em sees ee ee eee ree eee 61 Cost of exchanges to Smithsonian Institution ____---_.--------=--=------- 17,18 IMprovwine.eround stor Zoological Parka=s2e— 2 se= o> see ee oe aes 40 HMpPLroOvemenitisioh Mouse wma UM dim; 2 ses ae ae eee ee ee meres 10 Costanoan vocabularies collected by J. Curtin_-._-.--_-----_--+_-.---_-_- 49 Costasica exchansetransmissionS-10)-=-=42-4- == - ease] 2 ee ee 59, 62 Conurusicarolumensishnt’ZoolocicallPRarks= = = ae eee eee 64 Cox, Hon, Samuel S., death of, action of Board of Regents respecting ---- xv, 2 Gesce mtrO hese s ois ie Sue Sete ee Eee fe a eee 44 Obibuarymovice Ok aleE ee te eee ee es ee 43 Cox, Mrs:, presented. portrait of her husband _ 22522223522) 2 uae 2 Cradles of the American aborigines, by Otis T. Mason _---_225-22_-_--=2- 80 Crain, Hon. W. H., introduced bill for extending hours for visiting the Muse tna Se a Dee eee Sa toh eee 32 to provide electric plant for Museum and Smithsonian buildings --------- 32 Criminal-anthropology.,; by Thomas Wilson! 2. 252222252 222 5 ee Se See 617 Cuba,exchaneeyiransmissiOnsstO= sss asses ee oe ee oe ree ee ee 59, 62 Cullom)sElonss Sle liove Memes: © Oe Tat yeeee eran rr pene ell motion of, proposing change in time of meeting OmBo0ardromhegentses=2=— === == aaa Bee ee XV Cunard Steamship Line, acknowledgments due -.____-.--_--------------- 61 Curatorotexchanges ere pontiOle =.= er =o ae a ee eee 50, 62 Couratorsiot Nationals Museum) reports Olas en te ees es ee eee 82 Papers: ye 25 sae ee eae ee ee SPE a 2 ke ee 30 Curtin; Jeremiah, explorations by -2.---=-.----=-=== Bh ene 3 ee ee 49 fieldikstudiesol eas se es eae ees ie fo See ete a 14 Cyanocitta Stelleri macrolopha in Zoélogical Park -_:-.----.------------- 64 Cynomys ludovicianussim. Zobvlogical Park: . 222-22. 25- 2202 jaan se 2228s 64 iD: Dakota, account of sun-dance, paper by J. Owen Dorsey _----- ee ERs 50 mound, explorations im =-2 22 4-5: =<52- Re ee ods eee eee 47 deAimeirin: Baron acknowledoments demas. e oss) 228 aes 61 Dana, Edward S., report on progress in mineralogy for 1886...---._..-.-- 80,81 Dana, James D., bibliographical memoir of Arnold Guyot ---------------- 80 Darton, Nelson H., progress in North American geology in 1886____.__--- 79, 81 De Varigny, Henry, temperature and life ----_- ot Se) ye a pe Se 407 Dean, Bashford, received fishes for study -.......-------------------e--e 30 784 INDEX. Page. Deer in. Zodlopical Park. so05 we =e Se an Mele eee Re eee eee ee 64 Delphinidz, review of the family, a paper by F. W. True_---------------- 30 Denmark, consul-general for, acknowledgments due________.--_-_-------- 61 exchange transmissions toms =-aso= = aa er ee eee eee 59, 62, 63 Dennison, ‘Thomas, acknowledgments)duc--2_—-=25242 so. aspen ae 61 Department.of Agriculture, exchanges of__--_-_.-----___- Aig pete een G8 Fe 60 Labor exchanges! Of 22262) oS ae ee ee eee 60 living animals merged with Zoélogical Park _____- Rs 33 State, exchammesiol Ss sees es Me eee ea ee ee eee 60 thesimteniorvexchan ees Ole. == aae == see 60 Departmentsol Government, co-operation Ofe—ss = e= sae — a ae eee , 2 Deposits fromysayvine's -amountyo les: = sa se ee eee ae ee ree 2 Deseriptive papers published ibyeMuseum ==2-2 2! 3! sas see eee 30, 81 Determination of standard of length, investigations for__---_--.---------- al Devens, Judzei@harles, appointed recent, -see ese aces ease n ee eee 2, xli prevented from accepting appointment as regent 2 Dewey. Ered: P; paper by.i === 2625 5 tesee es eee ae ene eae eee 30 + mesignation‘of)...\2 22228 = hs ae Ree eee eee ee 32 Dha-du-ghe Society of the Ponca Tribe, by J. Owen Dorsey -------------- 50 Diameter, standards tebe adopted -.-- -- 20. sastve lee ee ee 13 Picoliyle tajaciin Zoolomical Park 2. 222 Ses. ee ee eee ee 64 Dictionary/of indian “tribal ;names,2 24 b= 5a Se ee 8 a ee ee 50 imdelphys virgiuandaan Zovlomeal Park=--- Ue = queso a 2 eee 64 Diplomatic officers of the United States co-operation of -__----_----------- 28 Disbursement of Congressional appropriations ___-----_----------------- 3 Disbursements byexchanee bure aviesee eee ae eee eye ee eee eee 57 Distinct characters of work of astro-physical obser antes Vee 2 SEN Oe Sees ae 12 DIS Urb UMOnTOLsdUplicate!s pe Clie 11S mees seats as aa eee eg oe ee ea 29 exchancessi3 Sos hese ae ee ee ee eee 59 District; Commissioners, ;exchanges\Ofseseese- 22-5. See oo ee 60 Domestic entries made by exchange bureau -.:.-.----=--2222-2--22225525 5), 56 individuals corresponding with exchange bureau —------------- 5), 56 packaces sentubyexchanoejbureaulses =e sees ae 55, 56 socities corresponding with exchange bureau ---- S22 ae ee DD, 56 Donaldson, Thomas. the George Catlin Indian Gallery -----. ---.------------ 81 Dorpat, University of, sends the complete set of publications —__------------- 7 Dersey, Rev. J,,Owen, articles"written’ by,..--- Ss Peee= =: {ee ee 50 the Cevihalanguage. #-. eu =12 2 ee ee See 50, 51 ethnological researches (Ol 65. 4 = 5— see »0 paperion Osage: traditions = sss === ee d4, 82 Douglas, Hon. J. W., Commissioner forestablishment of Pooler: ic cal Parke NEVOLrwOl.s2.2552as202 84s 5 ee soe NS eee ae ee 39 Dove-in: Zoblogical Park «..02. 22. Saas ee ee eee 64 Duplicate specimens, distribution of. --_______- Paya I RS 9 Pie eves are iri oe : 29 Dutch Guiana, transmissions of exchanges to_-__ __----__--- Sacco 09 Oe EK. Baciésin Zoblosicalebark .<. 22.1222 j2n5 So ee ee ee 64 arth, mathematical theories of the, by Robert S. Woodward ------------ 183 physical structure of the, by Henry Hennessy .-+--.-- --.----- 2. Seek Earthworks in Iowa, by Clement L. Webster ---------------------- 2. 7=2}80781 Economie scolosy.statisticsoimaccesslons | sess === a= es = eee om 2 Ecuador, consul-general for, acknowledgments due .----- -----.----.s---- 61 INDEX. 785 Page Beuador, exchange transmissions: tO’. 22.2--5--2-=---+--2- 52220225 ree TOGO, Edwards, Henry, bibliographical catalogue on the transformations of the North American Lepidoptera ----- See ee abe eae ASE cee ke 29, 30 Eells, Myron, the Twana, Chemakun, and Klallam Indians of Washing- (UCT BST hea nye ae A 80, 81 Min CleNeyOMeX CHAN MC SCLVICO maa. =. a eee acne es Lec e Soe 58 MACS IS tAIS TI CSIOMACCCSSIONS aaa em an eis Seen eee Ss te ee ve 27 Egypt, exchange transmissions to _--_- SSE OS oe SSeS sae ee oe Eso, Soh ar the age of bronze in, by Oscar Montelias -__..--.-......_._.____-_- 499 wamikan) vocabularies: collected by J. Curtin. -2-- 62... co ee ee 49 Electric plant for Smithsonian and Museum buildings. ___-----__________. 32 Elephant mound, model of, made by C. Mindeleff --.-..-.--........_.___- 53 BSE ZOO pCa al komen sense laee a ch eee ee SOE OE TN Bare ea 64 mihott, Henry W., collections undertaken by 2.222. --22- 2:22.52. 2) je25-5 14 Facilities aiOrd ed metic ss aise ae 28 eee ae ee eae 28 offered to make collections for Museum______________- 33 Endowments to Smithsonian Institution -_--.._---_-.._-......_-.-..--- 3 Boies burean. U.S. Army vexchanges Of 25.225) 02 5-2) ee 60 PNPIneering, Statistics Of accessions 222.0522 2522-262 28 eek 27 Entries made by exchange bureau ------ Fla ie en See eee REE See 55, 56 iBireinvzon aorsavus in Zoolotical Park, 22 *= 202. ee ee aire 64 MGs Col Ob. WU. so. AtimMye thanks) TUVEM tO = 256 9 = feo oe ee 11 Eskimo bows, a study, by John Murdoch---------__-- RS ears ee ee 81 the central, paper by Franz Boes -_--- eS eee 235 DLR Espriella, Consul-General Justo R. de la, acknowledgments due_________- 61 Establishment of the Smithsonian Institution explained _________________ siimaie 1OTmex Chang esr ae ss =e lon. ous AF 4 oe Ale ese) een ae Se UN) eee 18 ISCAS SPlOre LS Ol) Mat Olea ae eee ee ge ae oe Sa SS, Se ens See yes ue 4 Ethno-Conchology, by Robert H.C. Stearns.. se siete ee 2 oe eee 81 Ethnographic collections made by Talcott Williams_-_._-_-..___________- 13 Ethnologic researches among the North American Indians_____________._ 42,47 Ethnological research, Congressional appropriation for, disbursed by Smighsonian INstiiwtion:—. - = ea = ee ee 3 estimates: for aaa: sea pe eee ee 4 Ethnological specimens from Tulalip Reservation_-_.--___________- Sots 29 Pulnolopy)(see,bures of Mthnology) - 2-222 22222. ees ek Shy es 15 Etowah mound, model of, made by C. Mindeleff____________. if. tite 53 HVvahsns ee AN bi tiples ObeVexiCO.2..325./ af... 2.22 eee Tee Ae ed 80, 81 BiganS din ang uit yeOremian sats bh! 2 SAUER ul. bwlvee ss see lees eee 467 Examination of accounts by Executive Sommmnne bial 2S eRe Roe dene. = Sqiat Hxcavanons anche olocical oss s=) saan o ns aoe eee Te ee Sag tY NS Bags eed DAT Exchange accounts examined by Exec:tive Committee ___-...-_..-_.---._- xix bureaux ham coc Ofs stesso eit. oo cia eee ee oe 60 Hishiaiy torarvea work Onmedses: o5 kei e lf. oe ote i eR : : 20 progress of work.--_.-__--- Fees oes lee ee ree Oe 19 OLOMeIame nee nt Sens] aren Seco ove vn eee 16 TV OAT VEO RAS EU SHO LS ese mete ae ee Pere re ety Ay 5 57 Exchanges, Congressional appropriation for, disbursed by Smithsonian In- FS) WIN OEGYCTT oh Ne Sea oe) 2, a es oe ne ee 8 eee 3 Congressional appropriation for _____- Se peter SP De Epes eae xix COstoOf tolsiminhsonianelnstititlonee seas soe so. 22) sel eee 17,18 CYST HITTEEY PeUTitO YS he Siena pean OER neo ads sec ee oe 4,18 H, Mis, 129-50 786 INDEX. Page. Exchanges, moneys advanced for, by Institution ------------------------ 16, 17, 18 paid for, by Congressional appropriations _----------- 17 of the Geological Survey, Congressional appropriation for __-_ xi Outline: history Ofc. = at eae ae ee 16 FEpayMents Oy WUTC AUS sea ae ee eee 17 report on, for 1887, by George H- Boehmer! —— 22 22-e-- > -=—- 79 Secretary’ re pOrtiOMe 22.2 ea ae ee ee re 16 (See also International Exchanges.) HWxecutive Committee of Oard Ol Eve °C MGS ga ee Xe Examined ACCOUNTSs =o. ~ 28 ae a= Bees ae oem ore eer ae Examine VOUCHELS oases oe ee ee ee ne eee ee 3,4 TED OTE OL Se Sis 2m ee te eee ear xvii Exhibition space in National Museum, table of _---_-----___----.-----<--- 9 Expenditures of Smithsonian ImStituhiONe. eo = sae ee ee xXvili Expenditures for international exchanges-_-_------------------ Sep fief omee Sb North American: Bthnol ogy = 552 oe eee on eK eRe National Museum 22-22) -- 222-5 == X X10, Ke, XLV, KV mE furniture-and fixtureso 22. 6s oee a ae hee Vill Rena eg eneONs heating, lighting, etc ------.-_---.--.----XXVIil, XxXIx, xxx POR LAGC ate ee NS oe meee oe ee ee ee Xxix preservation OfCoOllectiOnS]--2e= n= = ee = aoe xxix MOV Ub a ge oe SS ac ee ee Xxix National ZoologicaliPark-: 2= Sones as-is e e eee pO.o.4l Gri Shamiie ateyovanke yall barsjmiogmOyay, 1teio\0)) = ee ee 3} Expenses of exchange bureau ---_-.---_--------------------------------.-- 56 HR OLOT AGIOS eas ee Se eee ie en ee 13 promoted by National Museum --.--------------------------- 32 of mounds by Bureau of Ethnology --.--_----=22-~=--="=-=-= 42, 47 IDpqraruoauuakeyacoparOye wakes Jgooerakernol |S Os = Boo ee eS aee sae Set See seosia= a5 34, 35 paper on, by William T. Hornaday - 30, 81 dixtension of library contemplated: esa ase eee * eh epee 20 hours for visitine’ the WMISeUni soca ses a= ee ae eee 31 F. Facilities for study in the Museum ---..-.------------.+---5----------==-- 21 Falco sparvorius in Zoélogical Park-------------------------------------- 64 Herret an Zoological Park _- ies 252 S22. Sees ree ae ee ee eee 64 Fez, pottery collections made by Talcott Williams----------------------- 13 Helis concolor in Zoological Park 4.82 S22 282 ie Se ee ee ee ee 64 Rield work of Bureau of Ethnology 2222222 +2 - 222- ee eee 47 BinancesvoL the lnstipublonysee eee ee ee eee ee eee ee 2 Fine arts, Bureau of, proposed establishment of —------------------- Bd 22 Fire-proofing of Smithsonian building continued ------------------------- 10 First Mesa, model of, made by C Mindeleff ----.-------------------=---- 53 ish Commission, exchanges Of-2252555—5= 5] ee = see ee eee ee 60 Misheries, statisties!OL ACCESSIONS =) eae eee ea eee ae eee 27 Fishes, statistics of accessions ---_-_-------------------------------------- 27 studied by Mr. Bashford Dean--_-_------- r= ate SEES Rae See eee 30 Fisk, Rev. G. H. R., collections received from ----------=----+----------- 32 “‘Plora of British India,” presented to the Institution -------------------- 78 Florio-Rubattino Line, acknowledgments due-.--------------------------- 61 Fliigel, D. Felix, acknowledgments due-_-.-----.------------------------- 60 INDEX. 787 Page hv -pquInrels.1n) ZOOLOP iCal atkK= 2224 ee secs soe ose eens eee ce 64 MOOUe TS LAtIStIGS Of GCCESIONS 2! se oe eee eae ks aes ee el 27 Horcisnrentries made by exchange bureaus: -=22 22". Sele 2 2 Lees 55, 56 individuals corersponding with exchange bureau_--__-_--------- 50, 56 societies corresponding with exchange bureau _._-______.._..--- 55, 56 Roresubreesin National’ Zoological Parks 2252 90 Sunaina | eee 65 BOrCoreA vacknowledoments due: S25" Peete Te ee ee ee 61 Formulas; medical, of Indians; collected*!:22u5 22 (a2 te 2 =. Fe eee 42 48,51 Fossil plants, statistics of accessions --___.___--_-_--- 0 20 kee eee 2 MOssilsystatistics-OMaccesslons=— == se > ee ee ee ER ot eee a1, 28 RoOxeshmeAQOlOS iCall Rar lcs so = Soe = Foe ae ee ae ee ee ee ee 64 Brance re xChane CuuLansmlSSlONSitO ma ae eras eaten meee eee eye Cee ee Rese 59, 62, 63 Bree entries granted*by Treasury Department! 222: > 7 222__-__=-_. 22 ps 28 freight granted-Smithsonian’ Institution! _-------_1_.-___...__--.-4- 60 Freiburg, University of, sends complete set of publications. _____________- 77 Hreigbitpaidebysexchangerburcalla= == 555 es ans Acesh ew nee = ee ee wees 57 repayments for, receipts from =: -.s) 2222 2.2 sass 2 eS ie BS XViil French Government, publications presented by --__.-._.:-.--7__-2._.!_L- 78 Kaye, Nir collections reccivedurom/]s_ tenant i! PL Seee A St te: lee 32 Fuller, Melville W., chancellor of the Board of Regents ____-___________- xp Beil member ex officio of the establishment______________- ix Puneh, Hdyerc Co-.,, acknowledaments duces. 22.75 se oe se 6 Funds of Smithsonian Institution, condition of _.-..._-._._.____..._..--_- 2,3 Furniture and fixtures, U.S. National Museum: Congressional-appropriation for 222 Set eee xxvii KXLx, XKKI ERY Pspenditures ts seen: ee 2 Se ie ee et nee ano ee 2-64 Ip O1D.6h.9.0.9.85 5.4 Ge Golusvonewovin: ZOOS ical: Parkes 22035 a 50s | aaa eien eel chy few nee ie cere 64 Galvanometer in astro-physical observatory ----_----_------__.__--_-_-_-- 11 Gatschet,-Arpert Ss. Klamath orammars 3150-20 82a ee ees 50, 51 CE CESenInE OO OPC aim ey at Ka ees = see ees eee eee Re were ne SUee ee SS EAE ee 64 Geilkiend amesen: Glactal Geology 222555 2-2 ee a. een fe Seen 221 Gem collection of National Museum. By George F. Kunz_______________- 80 General Appendix-to heport tor sg) cs 2 ee be eee eee 93 Held studiesion Burcaw ome phnolomys = 40s) ot 2 ee ee 47 Genesis of the Arietida, paper on, by Prof. Alpheus Hyatt _____________- 14,79 Gentes in Siouan camping circles. Paper by J. Owen Dorsey__-_----___- 50 Gentile system of Siletz tribes. Paper by J. Owen Dorsey_---_----_----- 50 Geodetic operations in Russia, history of. By Col. B. Witkowski and Prof. Doo WArOGGOrene2 2 ors 252 o ee een aa oe wee Beg = are Se Reem ~ 305 Geographical names, board of, Smithsonian represented at.____________.- 25 Geography, Progress report for 1886. By William Libbey, jr_--..-__---- 80, 81 Geological Congress committee met in lecture hall of Museum_______---- 31 Survey, collections! made bys252--- 2-2-5 SE eee 29 CxXCHAN SCS OLs+ seers aes errs ect ee a Pe See. 60 Congressional appropriation for___________- xli Geology, North American, Progress reportfor 1886. By Nelson H. Darton_ 79, 81 ofp National Zoolosical (eankaessea = 2 acs Jt eee 72 statistics of accessions___________- PE eS n= ES bo ao 28 Georgia, explorations in, by Bureau of Ethnology.__.__________-._______- 49 mounds in, explored.__<--2--2-_..-.- Ee a te ee : 47 Germany, excCuanee transmisslous tO. 22-8. pa oe eee ba = bene Seek 59, 62, 63 788 INDEX. Page Germany, parliamentary publications of, presented to Institution __-_-___- 78 steps towards joining Brussels Convention --_----.-------------- 58 Gibson, Hon. Randalline a regente=--e--ssees= ace eee se ae Sa Ae PS eas | Giessen, University of, sends complete set of publications-----__._-_____- aid Giltioo- Museum library --sossssso= see eee bie SEE Me tench ie aN ete 31 Giclioli; Prof.,-books presented) by=—= = sees sae e= aoe ee ee 78 Gilbert, G.K. History of the Niagara River---...--~-+-<--.-------- 2 Sain 23 Gill,.deiLancey W., in charge of illustrations:.e: ~~ #3982 1. Hs. lpatee see 54 Gill, Theodore. Reporton progress in Zoédlogy for 1886_-_---_--_-------- 80, 81 Glacial Geology. By Prof. James Geikie----...--..--.-- ibys See eee 221 Golden eagle in Zoédlogical Park ---------- Ee ey Se eee ee ee ee, 64 Goode, Dr. G. Brown. Annual report of National Museum for 1881 _----- 82 appointed member of government board for World’s Columbian wh xposiilones2ee= ae eee ee 23 assistant secretary of the Institution..--.--------- ix, 82 and Dr: Tarleton H. Bean, paper. by. -=-=222<-=-s-=- 30 Gopheriin’ Zoological Park 225. . 108s aga ee ee ae eee 64 Gore, Prof. G., collection of books presented: by 222-4220 262 ee Se 78 Gore, Prof. J. Howard, Col. B. Witkowski and. History of Geodetic Opera- tionss ini GRUSSia saat e= | =o ee Na ee ee ee ee A eee eee 305 Gottingen, University of, sends complete set of publications. __-------_--- vu Government board for World’s Columbian Expositions: ¢cee sas ee 23 Departments, ‘co-operation Of 222-24 ess es 2a ee 28 repayment t0!2 i 22 eis net eee et eae eee eee 57 should pay for Smithsonian building? =: 35 2222-2 eases eee xii Governmental exchanges, statement of ------------ GB Lt 2 Bs HE are ag oh AES 60 publications: exchanve Of -2 322-5 sae = 22" See se ee eee 16 Grace, W. R.,.& Co., acknowledgments dues 2-4-- = 22552522 eee a eee 61 Grants:in- aid of physical science. 2952222. > eat Sate Sean eee tee 20 Graphiciarts) statistics of accessions: <2 4522222 oe. toe nae an ee 27 Graves in Iowa. By Clement L. Webster -.--22.-.¢222--22-- 2-222 Ws eke. oe 80. 81 Great Britain, exchange of official documents -___--_+-.-.------------=--+ 58 transmissiOnStO:-e= 2c a= - ete eee se eee 59, 62, 68 hydrographic reports presented, by 322 2-==*2-5-=-----=--= 7 Great Elephant mound, model of, made by C. Mindeleff -__..------------- 53 Great Etowah mound, model of, made by C. Mindeleff-_------------------- 53 Greece, consul-general for, acknowledgments due --_--------- Fy Sa ae See 61 exchanve transmissions to. 25. sasee--- 32 eae eee ee ee 59, 62, 63 Greifswald, University of, sends complete set of publications __-__-_------ 77 Grint henG. Se PAM tare hie cexolOE a il OUMS Sesser see ee eee 293 Grubb siderostat in astro-physical observatory --------------------------- ll Guatemala, consul-general for, acknowledgements due _------------------ 61 exchange transmissions0..o-- soe 5. ae ee eae ee 59, 62 Guinea pig in zodlogical Parl: .<. 5 - So ssa A ee ee 64 Guyot, Arnold, Biographical Memoir of. By James D. Dana -------- ee 80 Guyot’s Meteorological and Physical Tables, new edition of -------------- 14 Hi: Higbel“bequiest,“amount-0f 222-226 oe soe) se ee ee ee 2 Haiti. exchange transmissions'to-—- "ec 2a ee eee ee 59, 62, 63 Halicectus leucocephalus in Zoblogical Park -----------------s----z:--s:-=-- 64 INDEX. 789 Page. Halle, University of, send complete set of publications ___.--...-...------ 2 Hamburg-American Packet Company, acknowledgments due.--.--------- 61 Eval tonsheqmest samo unib, Of pes ae eee ee re ee es eee ee 2 Hand-book of building and ornamental stones, by George P. Merrill------ 30, 80 geological collections, by George P. Merrill ---------. Sass altel) Hannover Royal Library, presentation to Institution ---..------- ee ey 78 Harrison, Benjamin, member ev officio of the establishment_-_._---------- ix Haupt, P., report on International Congress of Orientalists --.._..------- 85, 92 EawilcspineZOGlO ST Calls are kes = heme Ais eh eg eed a 64 Heating, lighting, etc., National Museum Congressional appropriation LOTS aoe 6 EX Vill KONE KEG exe expenditures -_... XXvili, xxix, xxx Helsingfors, University of, sends complete set of publications -_--._------ 77 Henderson & Brother, acknowledgments due -.-.--...-.----------=------- 61 Hennessy, Henry, on the physical structure of the earth --.._------------ 201 Hensel, Bruckmann & Lorbacher, acknowledgments due----------------- 61 Elenshaw a Els Wie, OllcCe- Works Ola ae yee ae ee oe ee ips eee fay 50 Heredity, Weismann’s theory of, by George J. Romanes ----.------------- 433 iexonsiiZOGlOmiCal har kes 22 6 See ace os ee at esos ke as Se 64 Hdelerodon, platyrhinus ini Zoological Park: 2.2.22 s2h oh ge Se oe 64 Hewitt, J. N. B., engaged in collating Iroquoian proper names__---------- 52 Neldestidwesso fesse sss Sse sae eens oct Sees a oy yea 14, 49 Lino mastie work Ofee. cee a ie aes ay a oe alk 52 Hillers, J. K., in charge of photographie work of Bureau of Ethnology --- 54 Eistoricalarelics statishicsiofsaccesslom seems ae = ae sey ee 27 History of geodetic operations in Russia, by Col. B. Witkowski and Prof. iy LO WATS GO a sys pe petal re as a 305 (Hovey INlevermeyIgahiere, lane (Ely IC Eallloeien = Sanka e 5. se- tone ee ae 231 Hitchcock, Romyn, paper on Japanese religion and burials_-_-_----_---- ee 30 LOM MAI ce De VWs is AOLGcStM GULCH: OL naan i2 = ran eee ee ey 14, 48 OMI Cesworks Of oe ses seek ope Ree ae ei pene ee 51 Hégre Allminna Liroverk, Vesteras, books sent by --.------------------ 78 ETOlMES AW Heel Gist udiess 0 fees eens = een see ee ee cero pe a 14, 47 paperon ancientartomehiriguia.: A=. 9-2 hy ses ee 54, 82 papers on arts of the mound builders .---_.----.---_- me 51 WAP SLTOTUS HULC yao fe be Ket lle) ea rei eae ee ear 54, 82 Eohub; wDrckmal: “books presented Dy a9 225222 se oe, 2 Be ee Ae 78 LOOKER ZOLT J. De OOO KSiPROSON LOG presi boas rh a8 eo 78 Hornaday, William T., appointed honorary curator, department of living animal ste ee ie. Sees ee eae ee 32 how; toxcollectimammialliskins= 9222525 922 ee = 80 LESION AGIOM Olea ha ae em Be ees Be i 32, 41 the extermination of the American bison __--- Bae il)teill ihrornedow luinyZob logical Parkygs 32 se Si epee aye Se he 64 Horny sponges, Lendenfeldt’s monograph on, presented to Institution _- -- 78 Ts loyersterhay Clove) iecvavs} what YAayo kaysn vor! IEW ee ee ee eee eee eo ee ese 64 House of Representatives, action of, with regard to fireproofing of part of Smithsonian building, ——.=2-2-=2.22)_s2e242- 10 Cx changestolee nee ese a2 os So See ee ee 60 How to collect mammal skins, by William T. Hornaday--------.--------- 80 Human beast of burden, by Otis TaMason.---5-..-2.- =... 2.2222 25-5. 81 Humming birds; paper’on, by Robert Ridgway--.:...---s22+--2222-ss42. 30 Hungarian/Academy, books presented by..-.-..-i---2--<--+-ecessecevocs 78 790 INDEX. Page Hungary, exchange transmissions tO» sae 2255 ia at ine, eee ees Reena ee 59, 63 Hurgonje, C. S., presented photographs from Makka _.._-____..__.__=-_- ts Huxley, Thomas H., advance of science in the last half century __-_______ 79, 81 Hyatt, Alpheus, paper on the genesis of the Arietidee _____._.___________- 14, 79 Hydrographic Office, exchangeswmliae2 2 4-22 eee PERS te ee 60 publications presented to Institution. ----- ___.-_----___--- 78 aK **Teonographie des Coquilles Vivantes,” presented to Museum library ___- 31 Iddings, J. P., acknowledgments due for specimens _____-__:_-_-_________- 14 offered to make collections for Museum ~___--_- Ee et eee 33 Liustrations imannual report tor W890, list of. S222 23.) oa. = a viii Immediate exchange, Congressional aid requested _______________________- 58 of parliamentary documents, money required for___ 19 IMcomevOrs Smithsonian insti Guhl Ors 0 aes ate eye ened enna 3 imereaseior the: library Sesion eee Ee aa pak epee © Seep ne ar el oe 75 inbrany,, plan iors 22 G2 sek=8 saue Sian eee ele A areoane shee eae ees 20 Museum coliecrions «428 eo tte CLhgN eeS Ee eee aaah Tee eee 26 Index to the literature of thermodynamics, by Alfred Tuckerman_______-_ 14, 81 india, exchange transmissions to seas 22 ssl eee ee ee ne eee 59, 62, 63 indian. Bureau, ,exehanoes-otes 222s Nico tA a2 eee A A eae eee 60 gallery, the George Catlin, by Thomas Donaldson---_---_________- 81 government, publications presented by_-_-.__..___.._---.--.--_--- 78 graves in Floyd and Chickasaw Counties, Iowa, by Clement L. Webster, $s aceite ss San a» SEERA tees eee ene ee 80, 81 materia medica, collection of plants used in--___-____---_-______- 42, 48, 51 Medicine pPracticerstudied asa ses waa ae ee ee ee 42, 47, 48, 50, 51 mummy, by James Lisle --_-_-_-_-- eR AE SE pecroe PS setae PM go 80, 81 mythology. COlleCtIOn Of 2 are = Mens ee. ee Oe eee em 42, 48, 50, 51 personal names, monograph on, by J. Owen Dorsey ------ ma eae area 50 tribalimames, dictionary Ol se 42 = 22s) Ae ee eee Sea eee 50 vocabularies collected byad> Cumbine 2 = eae eee eee 49 Indians of Cape Flattery, by J. G. Swan, new edition of_________________- 15 Washington Territory, by Niyron Hells: 2) eee. eee 80, 81 Individuals corresponding with exchange bureau ___~_-_________________- 55, 56 Inman Steamship Company, acknowledgments due_-_-_---_------_----____ 61 Instruments invastrophysicalobsegwatory 22) 8252 2-5 i2 eee eee 11 instructions in/taxidermy and photocraphy 252") 20 8 on) SS aes 21, 30 Ihanenckore IDreycreyenoovsvan Coole haverersy Ove MN ae yt 60 International conference at ancient Troy, Smithsonian representative ap- POLD EM LO aa ce ae cree EN 25 Congress of Orientalists, P. Haupt’s report on____ -----_-_- 85 exchanges, bureau of, report on, by Curator_-_-----.---__-- 55 Exchange accounts examined by executive committee ____- Fepeiesp ili Congressional appropriation for _________- Xx, NOK) x exchanges, Congressional appropriation for, disbursed by Tnstitution soo sae ene ae ee ee een 33 COLTESPONG MUS are see eee rae a ee 57 MISOTUOULION (22 2 eee eee ee ees ee 59 SMicncy ol service = see ee eee pencil i 58 estinratos forts is Set See ee oe ee ne nee oa oPoficral documents: 2. a ae Eee eee eee 57 Cxpend itunes fOr fo: oe aoe. eee eee eee eee xix INDEX. 191 ; Page. internationalexchanges, expense 9:2 -+2222.-2229.-/2206icl ee: 56 TECOUDES es es ae eee en ra) kA Amante aenge Mytas aL a) 56 disbursements) 2---=25.2s55- BETAS SA 0g AR eee ae es 57 governmental see ee ee Se ns ot Pe lee 60 of official’documents —_=--2-.--_ 2 57 report of Secretary on__---._____- 16 CRATISACTLON SO lee eee ee eee 55, 56 CLAN SMOUISSTONS ye eee ee ee 62, 65 transportation companies________- 61 Winlock, William C., curator __-_- 62 (SeeyEi xchanies) ess a= == ans 16 standards for iron and steel, committee on, met in Smith= sonian: buildimge 422-522 +. es ee 21 imvertebrates, marine, statistics of accessions -.22-- 225220222... 22-222 2- 27 Investigations begun by the Seeretary.... =. 2. 2--- =... 052. Lesa ee Hg ofmounds results Of 2. S23 oe ee Wee ae ote ea 42,47 Invoreesawritten by.exchanse.pureait: 32s o 4. oss oe nk eee 5d, 06 Iron, standard for committee on, used in Smithsonian building --________- 21 firoquoian proper: mames collected and)recorded —_=--..2 22 -=22--4_ 2 =e 52 PPOGuUGIS we lNoTOUSTOOCHRIMeSTOL ere corde Gigs yaa eee 49,50 ihialyraypanoytOnBrussels Convention: -2222 22.0 es sees ne tee = ee 58 exchange transmissions tos. > 2-22-22 2 te Seo tebe name ey Oy OBS the primitive races of, by Cannon Isaac Taylor -_.....-........--_- 489 J. Japan, exchange transmissions 022s! Ghow se Bala e ee eas) eee 59, 62, 63 Japanese religion and burials, paper by Romyn Hitchcock ______________- 30 works of art, Capron collection of, proposed purchase of ________ 23 SRY AUT ZOOL ORV CAE Tene he Ors a Soe tae hs cl ee ad AS 4 HET oat eee Sys 64 ASN EA (He XS) FTES KELL LODE SHER ENNS OV: 2 eee eee eee 54 Jena, University of, sends'complete set of publications _______.-____--___- 77 Joint resolutions of Congress appointing regents _--_--_-----___---______- 2 Journal of Proceedings of Board ol Recents a4 sas 24: eek ee Bee a oe xi 1G Kansa genealogical tables prepared by J. Owen Dorsey ------_---___-___- 50 Keltie, J. Scott, Stanley and the map of Atriea._ == 2202" "oe ee 27 aislokere, IDR Aeros: Jaleo eS Ole s6 seed faa se ee Cee eee ed bees Soa 3 to astro-physical observatory ------------ 11,12 of, resolutions by board of regents______- xiii Kiel, University of, sends complete set of publications _____.____________- 7 Kiener’s ‘** lconographie des Coquilles Vivantes” presented to Museum USAC ¢ 2k ep cw os Ar ts a gS 2 AY LY A PREEER LS OEe ) 31 Klamath grammar, prepared by A.S. Gatschet _..._. _.__________..-___- 51 Kolliker, Prof. Albert, books presented by ----.-.-...221-.. 2122-22222. 78 Koenig’s Researches on Musical Harmony, by Sylvanus P Thompsons 335 K6énigsberg, University of, sends complete set of publications _-_________- 77 Kunz, George F. The gem collection of National Muscum_____________-- 80 | L. Labels for Museum collection _--_----2--.2_-----..- Be pn ceo 31 Laboratories space in National Museum, fable Ofer. s+ BB OE aR Pa ¢ 192 INDEX. Page and ‘Office, exchanges 0f2. 5522 = 22.24" eae eee ae eae Saat a ae eeeren 60 selected for Zoological a re kee ee ee ee eee BY Bancley, Ss. Py, report tor S89 = eee Loe AEE Ee eee oe Re ph pe 82 annual-report tor S902. SBae: ae eee eee Ue Seer ees 1 appointed one of the commissioners of Rock Creek Park _- 41 commissioner for establishment of Zodlogical Park, report (0 again ee te ee ee el nS Se ees, SN ere cre 39 letter to Congress submitting annual report._--_______.. e iii Hon. Leland Stanford, relative to new Museum utente Re oe soo Se BR ese ee AT ae eee Ys oe 5,7 a member of committee on resolutions relative to S.S.Cox- 43 Secretary Of the aMstioubiOn. 2aee- 2e skeen ee eee eee ix Lectures in lecture hall of National Museum _----- See Woe ee een Peete eee 31 Saturdaylecturess 2 -— ays o n-ne ee eee eee eee Oa ee er ees eee: 31 Anthropological lectures, by: ‘Thomas Wilson): _22°222 22-2 ee 31 INwtional Geographic: SOClety S2 ase... Sane eee area See eas eee 31 Lecture on clinical study of the brain, by Dr. Harrison Allen_____________ 21 hall of Musuem used for meetings of scientific bodies ____________ 21 Ledger accounts kept by exchange bureau _--_----_-- Oe ee ee a 55, 56 Lee & Shepard requested use of stereotype plates-__--..-.----------:_-__- 24 imeech, Hon BO. 7ac knowl ede emits) Cie aaa ae ee eee ee 26 Legations of foreign powers, acknowledgments due ____--________________ 61 Legislation required for Smithsonian Institution _____-___..._______-___.- Weexay: Leipzig, University of, sends complete set of publications _-.____________- 77 Lendenfeldt’s monograph of horny sponges presented to library _-_______- 78 Length, standard of, investigations for determining __-_..:...______.._._- 21 Lepidoptera, North American, bibliographical catalogue of the transfor- mations of, by Henry Hdwards:220- hice eee Bie 2 eee eee ee 29, 30 Letter of Secretary transmitting annual report for 1890 _-_.------__-____- il from Secretary submitting annual report-.--------------------__--- iii of Secretary to Hon. Leland Stanford relative to new Museum build- ANB Se Sa ces base 2 Ss ble Se ee ee eee 2 eee Eee 5 Hetvers,creeeived by exchange bureaus. 24. leas! Ue ae ee eo 55, 56 written by, oxchanwe (urea: 2.2 sea e eee ae ee eee ee ee 55, 56 Libbey, Prof. William, prepares new edition of Guyot’s tables .________- 15 progress in: eeography. for 1886" 2a se eee 80, 81 ieiberia, exchange transmissioms tO. 6-22 2s. ee fee Nee eee 59, 62 mabrary.of-Congress, exchanges (Ol: => 2) ec. ne te ee ee Sees 60 transfer of books from __-_--- ioe ote a se a eee ees 19 National Museum 427 2. a 0 Se ee 2 ene eee ees 31 Library of Smithsonian Institution .---....___- RRR E SSS Ame ee a ARS SS 2 75 Acecessions to, statement of -----2__-__-__- En een 2 a eta ee ee 19 Wontemplated extension: Of 22222 245 24 eee se ee ere 20 Bxchanee vist iOf. WOK OMe ee eee See ae fees ee ae 20 imporbanbiadditlons = <> ak= A eee eae ee eae PY ee hes 15, U1 Te reaserOhmee ss = oe «eee ee ee eee ee a rn a eee 75 plan fOr a :228) 5 ad - oe tee Se ge BS a eS ee ee ee 20 Reorcanizatlonvolscarrie dion see se ee see ee ee ee eee 20 Reportioidiibranianiee.: =e. 2c = — = ee eee ee bcp et ete, 75, 78 Secretary's report OMes-= = = 228 5 = ee ee we eee oe ee 19 Serials added .- 4.3 ee hoe eae Dass ot Sk SO ee ee eg ee eee 75 Universities sending complete sets of their publications__-._.-.------ 77 Lick observatory, grant to, for photographic apparatus ___--_------------ 21 photographs of the moon to be made by --------------- 21 INDEX. 193 Page. Life-Saving Service, co-operation of _---_.------------------ PS Eek 28 Light-House Board, co-operation of_-_-_-2—-=.222--3- 27 32.4. -24.522225-- 28 EXCMAN OCS Of ee coe ae are arta eee ere Net 60 ine Mishic map oleNorth Americas. sos et mee ne an sere ce ae hearers meee 50 studies by Bureau of Ethnology -------------------- 42, 47, 50, 51, 52, 53 work of director of Bureau of Ethnology--------------------- 50 MErformedybVidiscNa bb. sELOWLUL 2) 8 Uae ee nase eee 52 isles James paper ON slic lan mm Um Mya a eee ae nese ee 80, 81 istior accessions te the National Museum 2:25 62" 25 one 2s Sl eee 80 illustrations in annual report for 1890 __..-------- beeps. BP Se Segoe viii Smithsonian publications, by William J. Rhees _--.-------------- 15 Literature of thermodynamics, index to, by Alfred Tuckerman ____-_-_-- 14, 81 TEU OLO oi yAES ta lISiTCSTOMACCESSTONS ee eee aes ame eee are eee ee 28 ivan ov animals ss tabistics Of aCCeSSlONS so a= 2.20 Sasser eee 28 transferred to Zodlogical Par k Ee See eee eee aeran 33 Lodge, Hon. Henry Cabot, appointed a regent _--...__--.-_-_-.--_----__.-X, xi, 2 member of committee ¢ on resolutions relative to services Of the Honeys. COR =) ose ss oe] =e 43 ondonvBoardvofyirade, book sent) Dyess te > 2 eeeaeeeae 78 oom S Has wNeMOMlSs OlnDVeblr Ne WLONS a= S26 = een ae an eee 741 Low. Dr., installation of. Smithsonian represented at ---------- Seas 2e M. MeCormick, J.C., paper on mounds in Jefferson County. Tennessee -__--. 80, 81 MaclOwen... collections recelvedehrom—= = s— saa ees ase ee eee 32 Mac Ritchie; -David,, books: presented: by- =t22<2 22 2k. = 29s. 2 eee eee 78 Miucacus.cyunomolius-in Zoological Parks 22/2322 #2 oe eee 64 Mia ans iine AOOLOg:1 Calls ay Kar eee ee eee esa Sete ee a 64 Mallery, Garrick, study-of sion language 2.222. 22' ices Uo 8) ee eee 50 Mammal skins, how to collect, by Wm. T. Hor naday Rep Ais wii § ito. sith a Ope 80 Wiemann 21 Stine 20010 al Call gk us ke eee eee ee ere eet ese ee ee Ad 64 Mammals statisticsiof@accessions esata ae se ae ae oa eee eae eee eee ae 20 Man, ascent of, by Dr. Frank Baker <.-22---2220_-=2_-- aa Sate O21 Se ese 447 aN GUILVAOl bye OhnVE Vans] ee eee ees ae aes SOL Pare eae 467 Manitoba smoundiexplorationsmine sarees see oe ee eee ee re Be 47 Manners and customs of the Mohawks, by George A. Allen_.------.--__-- 615 Mantez, Consul-General José, acknowledgments due__-__--------_------_- 61 Map, aboriginal, of old Cherokee country, preparation of ._..-.----..----- 49 Lima wistic.oF North America mssss sas ae aes ae eae eee 50 of Zoblocical Parks. - 2. s-o ss. Sees See eee ee 38 Marburg, University of, sends complete set of publications ___--___------- 77 Marcou, Jules Belknap, report on Paleontology for 1886_-....--..---.---- 79, 81 Marine Hospital, exchanges of----------------- Ree eI Tea Wes Ce Cg es 60 Marine invertebrates, statistics of accessions_-----..----.---------------- 27 Mariposan vocabularies collected by J. Curtin_-_...---------------------- 49 Mason, Otis T., Basket-work of North American aborigines _-----.-___-- 81 Bibliooraphy of Anthropology. 2252 hss... 920. = eee ack 558 Cradles of the American aborigines -.-. -.----------- eee 80 Progress. of Anthropologyimilso0 2: 2 sso eee eee 527 Report on progress in anthropology for 1886 ____._..___.- 80,81 represents Institution at Board on Geographical Names_- 25 The humantbeast ofburdenis +9122 pee eee as 2 eee 81 194 INDEX. Page. Materia medica, Indian, plants used in, collection of ---.--------------- 42, 48, 51 statistics Of accesSlOns= = seas sas sae ee eae Se eae 27 Mathematical theories of the earth, by Robert 5. Woodard-_-------_------ 183 Maya codices, aid to study of, paper by Prof. Cyrus Thomas --_-___-__-_- 54, 82 Measures;and valuing, by J..Owen Dorsey =.202 222 2--- ee ee 50 Medals: statistics of aecessions=. = 5a0 == bee tee eS eee eee 27 Medical formulasiof indians, collected =ets= saan eae = ae eee 42, 48, 51 Medicine man, practiceOl eee eae ae aes eee ree ee ee ee oe 42, 43, 48, 51 practice’ of Indian studies 2.22.5 52 44 -. eae 42, 47, 48, 50, 51 Zumisistudie dibs Mist Stevenson pss =n ae 50 Mediterranean, the, physical and historical, by Sir R. Lambert Playfair. 259 Meeting, annual of oardiole gents) see ae eae eee eee xi, 2 changenn time Of 3 s2 ees Ss ae a es a at a renee XV Meetings held in lecture hall of National Museum --.-.------------------- 31 iN cademiyzOl iSGlenGes Sas se Ns se ae ye ee 31 American:Historical Association == 222-2. s2- 5. saee eee ee 22 American Institute of Mining) ne ineers! == ==5=25 "2 ass 22s 31 Association of AmericaneAcriculitural Colle mess esse e== === ane 31 Geological: Coneress ‘Committee: 2-2 3622 2 sean ee ee 31 NationaliGeorvrahic:Societys: = 225 - e eeee 31 Meigs, Gen. Montgomery C.,aresenmt, -- 2-2 222) ee re ee ee BXapXel member of the executive committee -_----- Sap ROXGRGIIUT resolution relative to compensation for plans for new Museum building -----.---------- xiv Mecca, photographs from, presented to Institution --_-.----------------- 78 Meldola, Prof. Raphael. The photographic image ---.--.--------------- 3717 Weleugwsgallopave-in Zovlogicall Park 22222222. 2e2e ee see eee eee 64 Members ex officio of the establishment =e. 2225242725 34 ee eee ix Memoir of Arnold Guyot,-by James D: Dana =-2222- 50525: 22epee 80 Elias Loomis, by H. A. Newton--------- es fe ee ee Ee © 741 William: Kitchen?Parker —--\@ (1.34 aa ee et eee 771 Memoirs relating to the solar'corona 22622222. 22 2.24 Je422 =e ae eee 14, 79 withdrawn from Library of Congress). 2-2-2262) 4s25- ae 19 Memorial meeting of National Academy of Sciences in Museum ---------- 31 Menomoni delegation, assistance given by 2252255 522 ae ee ee 51 Merchant S. lL. Company, acknowledgments due -2-2 22222. 22-222222- 2255 61 Merrill, George P., appointed curator, Department of Geology----------- 32 hand-book on building and ornamental stones in National Mu- Set “22s oe ce a ae ed ae OD ee eee 30, 80 hand-book of ceologicalicollectionss2a6as= == ee ee 30, 80 Mesozoic fossils, statistics ofaccessions .-._.-_ _-. -_ See: See ee ee 27 Metallurgy, statisties:ofiaceessions_ is. sf sle22o5_ 2 ee =) se ee 28 Meteorite collection in National Museum, by F. W. Clarke_-------------- 80 Meteorological and ieee. Tables, Guyot’s, new edition of-__-.---..---- 14 Mexico, antiquities of, by S: B. Evams-2s2 = 22 2-2 -fehee 2 ee 80, 81 consul-general for, acknowledgments due__----. ---------------- 61 exchan@el transmissions si@) aaa. 4. se) ee nee ee ee a 59, 62, 63 Meyer, Victor. The chemical problems of to-day_---.-...--------------- 361 Michelson, Prof. Albert A., aid to, in investigations --...-....----------- 21 Michigan, ancient worms in, examinedsi 221226 5 J. 22SL R084 = == 47 Middleton, James D., explored ancient works----------.-----1----------- 47 explorationsimade iby 2o2si28 | eeeeeupe? 22 ot 14 Midé’wiwin, the Grand Medicine Society of the Ojibwas --.--.----------- 48 INDEX. 795 Page Miller, George, an Omaha, assistance given by... ------------.--.-.-2---- 51 Miller, Hon. W. H. H., member ex officio of the establishment___________- fix: Mindeleti. Cosmos) modelinic of ruins 2-2 ss ee ae ee athe elie 53 Naindelett aVctor ameld: studies Of 0 225 ease ene ee ey A gh 14 report on architecture of Tusayan and Cibola_-----_-_- 53 VSM OM OR SEY CagneraKe Wola ee to ce Ee ee 48 Minerology, progress report for 1886, by Edward S. Dana ___-..--_.___--. 80, 81 Minerals statisulcs Of ACCCSSIONS .3 442% ate aS. Ae atti > 28 Minot, Charles Sedgwick. Morphology of the blood corpuscles_____-___- 429 NEL UEOAN PORCH AN OOS Of. 22.26. t sas) te ewe eos ar te onl Ne ea 60 Mrccelaneous;COUGciiONS:.< 5-05. - jeep A See ol ei eae 14 papers on anthropology 2 =. 2. ssa. oon ease ae sr es 80, 81 Missouri River, examination of ancient remains-_-____-.._-_--_-_----____-- 47 Mitchell, Hon. Charles G., member ex officio of the establishment_________ ibe Mitchell, S. Weir, and T. Reichert, researches upon the venoms of poison- OUSISCIS PC TUGS 2 eer ae, CaM piph epee dare Ae YU ee eps aes ee arp ah ea ww Modelling of ruins,:by Bureau of Ethnology -__.-.-.-.-....-------------- 53,54 Modern pottery, statistics of BCCESSION Seen eee he ee a ees ee eo 21 Mohawks, manners and customs of the, by George A. Allen ____________- 615 Moksary’s monographic chrysididarum presented to Institution _________- 78 Molitiskes statistics ofaccessions,- 22%.) fe n58) pie ei gt seek fete 27 Money paid by Congressional appropriations for exchanges _____________- 17 FOMMANGS Of ZOOlOPICaIT Ean ko oe oe chee cae | ee ese rt ee 37 INTONIKG VESIIE ZOOlO SICAL babies on: Se ene Nos oo ars Ser eae phe Sh aaee eee 64 Monograph on Indian personal names, by i Owe Dorseyes-ceesfee-e=s2 50 of noctuidz, contributions to, by John B. Smith _____________- 30 Montelias, Oscar. ‘The age of bronze in Moypt 2.2.2. -- 2. ee 499 Moon, photographs of, to be made by Lick Observatory -_--_____..__- =< poem 21 Mooney, James, explorations made by --_---- eet Be See 14, 47, 48, 49 investigations of Cherokee tribes... .....__...-.-2.--.-u.- 51 Morlews dxesearches, i": W.- Clarke’s report. one 7-4: h- eee ee 83 Morocco, ethnographic collections made in, by Talcott Willems sine 13 Morphology of the blood corpuscles, by Charles Sedgwick Minot________- 429 Morr oma Justin S-yame gm enib es =o ete nee 2 See es ge 3G sal introduced bill for fireproofing of portions of Smi¢hsonian buildin gy: ) 2.22 ona Ne ee 10 resolution relative to bequest of Dr. Kidder ____- xiii MigietOn eELOn.cle Vili. wa LECOM bse Se Soe. a hee ee x member ex officio of the establishment 225 =-ssssse= ix Mound explorations of Bureau of Ethnology - 2... .- 2.225222 24222522 4222 42, 47 investigations, results: Of 22 2-22-25 = 2. = - ee eee ee ee ae 42, 47 Moundsinlowaby, Clement i. Webster: 922 9=-- = 2 eee 80, 81 Jefferson County, Tennessee, by J. C. McCormick _-_-_---- semae lh (ill Waiseonsin, by, Clement Tu. Websters-—--- =) sesso 58 AS ae BO! SI of the Western Praries, by Clement L. Webster ._-...___-.-....- 80, 81 MOUS Olnmao py, ©, VIMO lei sap ae 2 ee aero 53 Mount Kilemanjaro, collections made in region of_---___-_- ER 4 oa 14 MiulerdecrkinvZGlogicaloarlc s.= ase ae eeepc ee ee aie oy jt ee en 64 Mummy cave,-model of, made by C. Mindeleff _-___.-.___- ie, he ee 53 Muniozy Espriella, acknowledgments due --_-__-_-_-___-__- sf kta ne 61 IN GRA OCinc I OHH y IDEATION ee the 2 ere ee a So afujs seme 20 study on Eskimo bows -.------------------- fe Se ee eee 81 Murray, Ferris & Co., acknowledgments due........-.-.---.------------- 61 196 INDEX. Page. Museum building, compensation for, resolution by Board of Regents----- xiv plans for exhibited to Board of Regents_-_------------ xiii (See National Museum.) Musical harmony, Koenig's researches on, by Sylvanus P. Thompson_-.--- 335 Instruments; Statistics Of ACCESSIONS sss. ase as ee a a a 27 Ninskhosean lavcuages, Diblosraplyi Oli a2 aaa a ese ae 52 Niythology. indian, collection.Oft 2 Si. io. 2s) eee e ee ee nee 42, 48, 50, 51 of Zuiis:studied: by Mrs: Stevenson.) 2222282022. ae eee 50 Myths of the Onondagas collected by S. N. B. Hewitt ----.--.----------_- 49 N. National Academy,.exchanges of 22. 2. 2524) 302 See: Ce eee 60 met in lecture: hall of Museum 2. ..2222222.2. 2522-2222 21 Civil Service Reform Association, books presented by ._--------- ard Geographic Society, lectures in Museum lecture hall ______- ee 31 met in lecture hall of Museum ------------- 31 National Museum: accounts examined by executive committee ------_--- ee Ee A ne DXEXINBRERGI additionalsbuildingrequinedtioree= = 95 sees ee Fee ee 4, 26 annual anereasevin the collections... =.= -=2 = 4-2-2890. 3. ee 8,9 assistance tovstudents:os24 22 he Se ee eee eee eee 30 easement required =. 2225. 52t. cost ees See Se Ot Be eee 9 catalogue entries: 222 ls. act Se oe ee te ee ee eee 28 Congressional appropriations for_--.-------- XXi, KXVi, XX VE, Xxix, Kooi Songressional appropriation for, disbursed by Smithsonian Institu- GLOW. oe See Se I AS ee EE Sree eee 3 cooperation of Government Departments-—=-=*=_-"---2_ == 2 ee 28 department,.of living: animals =~ 3522.2. 60 >) ane eee eee eee 33 display at World’s Columbian Exposition, difficulties attending —-_--- 23 distribution of duplicate specimens -__-___- mrt A Wake RZ Sao ky ee 29 estimatesfon: S22 322 ie Bore ee ER TEER ES NED AES MALS EBB ee 5 4 exchanoes) oft. 2 ses ee st he in|. Seu she ee Ue ek ee ee 60 expenditures: = 222-25. -t 2.2.2 RXD, RH, MRIV, KV RV, Vy Roe ee explorations 99525 =o eS 2 Aiea Sake Lebo 3 eee 32 SXfENSl ONO MO UES MOT VASO CS eee ee ee ee ee ere ae aan 31 increase of collections! 42 2- =) ss 2.2 ee PRR ER Sk RAP il Ne el 03 26, 27, 28 labels (23s oo tee 2 sed es bese asot iad scene one eee ee 31 iba yeses= ee OF ene Ee Gata Saye ae Shar 5 eee ea tees AL 31 meetings and everson wie: 3 LSE eT NE Ss ei Re SE eee ae 31 personnel .s225) 55s eee eee Seeds coe wd ene ern een ee meee mere 32 publications: .4425-- 226 fe 5: = oa SLE ee ete eee Jee e ee 15, 29 FE POR TOL 8S (eae (it ROE IE Senn Seco Ree Ree 82 LepOLtOn Secretanye= = ==see= Salata S/N ike REET Uae oe SU So ae 26 specialiresearches 2-023. 2. ee oS BEATA SLC Td Meee 30 VISIbOPS Ca rence Sos. a ae ale morn io EARS CE oes oe BA Or ee et 31 National Zoélogical Park, accounts examined by executive committee._.. xxxi animals ine 22 eases Sa) 2 See ieee eee eee ere 64 Congressional act relative to organization, Cte 2252 Se a en eee eee Xxxix, 39 Dr. Frank Baker, acting manager ------------- 41,74 INDEX. 197 Page. National Zoélogical Park, Congressional appropriation _________. XXX XX MbK. oe disbursed by Smithsonian Institution--_.___- 3 expenditures =<. - s+ ese: ee ee eee eee ee 0: 6.0.4! forest trees tna | ee ee ele Fe 65 geology of SPE lSe lt Rae a seg et ee 72 laying: outofigrounds--4ee4) ie hee eyes 40 map Of parkiiest2 os. Mn Seles eee ear biter See 38 MONEYS) paldeiorslan Gees see eee ee S37 ornithology: of 22024 sane eee 3S aes 66 report.of acting: manager ---=- 222 222 9. 22 ee . 64, 74 coOMmmissionersms $4.02 -ae eso Sh abehs 38, 39 Mecretary OMe se ble She ee 34 resignation of Mr. W. T. Hornaday -_-_--____.- 41 selection of land 2& ie A a al tee 37 transfer to Regents of Institution. __-___________ 39 Natural history of the Cetaceans, contributions to, by F. W. True_______- 30 Nautical Almanac, exchanges, Of s...- 2°. 2822 2 see ed wos Be S 60 Naval architecture, statistics of accessions-_--_.--.__-...--..-.---__.1...-- 27 Observatory, exchangesrof-2sss5. =e sue se ae en 60 ofticers; collechionsimadesbDy2: 25-54 28222 See ts Fee sees 29 Navarro, Consul-General J. N., acknowledgments due____-______________- 61 Navigazione Generale Italiano, acknowledgments due____.-_-.._________- 61 Navy Department, exchanges Ofeis 722 elas. So ee eee oti dm ber pty 60 INGELOLO SV HONG S35. COX) .22 5 soso Ses SEs ert eect, Dae Sa ee 43 Of astronomers) £2252 2s 225 58 oe ans aS es hee cee 172 Nests Statistics OlAaccesslonsy ss 242 sess see le eee aie wee ee eee 27 Netherlands, exchange transmissions'to-2. 25222 -= 2-22-2228 ee 59563 Netherlands-American Steam Navigation Company, acknowledgments due 61 New Jersey State reports presented to Institution--_----.......-.-_-._____- 78 New South Wales, exchange transmissions to___.-.___.-___..____-.-_____. 59,63 Newton we PACE Memon Of Milas IZOomis==s2- ae. Sanna ee Bolen aay Teena 741 New York and Brazil Mail Steamship Company, acknowledgments due _- 61 Mexico Steamship Company, acknowledgments due _____. 61 New Zealand, exchange transmissions to___-..-...-__._..--..--.--...-.__ { 59, 63 Niagara River, history of. By G. K. Gilbert --_-___- Sa eee: Sus Ralet 231 Nicaragua, exchange transmissions to .2..---1<--225)2221.:25552 2s 1535 59168 Wishtiheron.in Zo0lopical Park 0-2-2250 os ae oe See oe Dig 64 Noble, Hon. John W., commissioner for establishment of Zoblogical Park, ROPOMUO Re =o 55 aie Deis yh es Siete ee a I a se ales See 39 Noctuidz, contributions to monograph on, by John B. Smith _________- ¥ 30 North america, linguistic map Of 222. 4 ass tee oe ae ee 50 North American ethnology accounts examined by executive committee... xix Congressional appropriation for _____- MIX, KK xd expendibires’ 282-5322 tsa te teh eo sa ER estimates for 25 sos 055 Ses Ses ee 4 geology, progress report for 1886. By Nelson H. Darton. 79, 81 lepidoptera, bibliographical catalogue of the transforma- tions’ of; by, Henry Mdwards === os) 22 55 lsceeece see 29, 30 paleontology, progress report for 1886. By J.B.Marcou_ 79, 81 North Carolina, ancient works in, examined __-_._.___..---_--__---.--- 47, 48, 49 North German Lloyd, acknowledgments due.-------_..------------------ 61 Norway, consul-general for, acknowledgments due_____--___-_-_---__.__- 61 exchange transmissions to. . sa. o- sae ee acy edie nese eeics+;-s-- 09,68 798 INDEX. Page. Number of packages received by bureau of international exchanges______ 55, 56- iINut-crackerin’ Zoological Parks eo to. em seer a) eee 64 Nychocoras nenius in Zoological Parkes.) 2) semen oan) ee eae 64 O. Obarrio, Consul-General Melchor, acknowledgments due ________________ 61 Observatory, astro-physical, establishment of____-__.-_______.______.____- oan Qglrichs: &'Co.; acknowledgmentsiduce 242) :s)aiaiaes ee ee 61 @tfiee of Indian Affairs, exchangessoft le) ie 2 Seaeee ee 60 work. of Bureau of Mihnolosyeaiavens. 227.) a eee 50 @ificers forming. the.establishiven a4 tna nek 22o2 ney 47 aa i a ae ee ee 27 Papers written by curators’of Museum! .2Ui20_23) S855) Sa eases 30 Paraguay, consul-general for, acknowledgments due _____-___-_--_--___-- 61 exchange transmission to----- Js TEE PAO aa ba ee ee eae 59, 63 a party to. Brussels ‘convention. =: 222 220s. sae See oe 58 INDEX. TW9 Page Parkor avvaithiameitene, Memoir Of pe ree ee eee es Ti1 Parliamentary documents, immediate exchange of ____------------------- 19 publications presented to institution --_------------------- 78 Paroguetan Zoolopical Parkees< 2224 > sie. 22222 i22ss-2 eae sees 5 BP eis Aad Se 64 Patents, Commissioner of, member ew officio of the S aieanicens COE ie ix Patent @nice, exchanres/ Of fe 0 ke St ee ae See 60 iPeccsinyeim) A00lopdCal ear kis Ya oe aes ees Sh Se eee eee ee ee ee 64 Pefiasco Blanco, ruin of, modelled by Cosmos Mindeleff__--_---_---------- 53 Pendulum experiments carried on by Coast Survey---_-----------+--------- 21 Perkins, Frederick S., collection of, Congressional act for purchase of--__ xi Permanent funds of the Institution in the U.S. Treasury ----------------- 2 Perry, Hd..,.& Co., acknowledgments due_--22=-- 22. 2=---- he ee By ee Oe 61 Eersonnelot-Museunrs- se. eV ee Sih ieee SI Ss Se ee es Rae ee a ara 32 iPeruvexchanee, transmissions tools 02 Beater 2S) tse rs SU eee 59, 63 Phelps Brothers & Co., acknowledgments duce = 22222 E vise eee 61 Physical apparatus in astro-physical observatory ----_---------------- nia Bt standardsttor 22 oe Sees see es eee eee 13 StavisticsiOh acCeSsiOns se se sees ee es See See 27 seology.statistics'of accessions= "45 222 22. Pie eS ee 28 BEscarchebecwml bytSeCre vals ya= seme ee eee ape eee ee ee See i SCienCe wera isermital CO fe says a ees a eee eee 20 structure of the earth, by Henry Hennessy 22222-2522 225---2-- === 201 Physics, progress report for 1886, by George F. Barker -_----------------- 80, 81 Photographic image, by Prof. Raphael Meldola---_----.--.----2-=--+--2= 377 Photographs from Mekka presented to Institution _____-_--------------- 78 made by Bureaw ob Mthnologys- 2-222) eee ee 538, 54 of the moon to be made by Lick Observatory --------------- 21 Photography, conditional instruction im ---~----_---------- a5 ae ET 21, 30 r2ecorvus covumbianus in Zodlogical Park 22s eus as ee See 64 Pictography, investigations in -_----_- DP CAE PE RS ARLE Lo PE EEE TES 2 42. 47, 50 Pilling, James C., bibliographical work of _..---------- GEN wie EE see 52 Pim, Forwood & Co., acknowledgments due ------- EA NA ROL TEL ae 61 Piney Branch of Rock Creek, archeological examination of _------------- 47 Pioneer Line of steamers, acknowledgments due-_-__---__---.-------=----- 61 ian ior inercasine: themlibraryts--- see eas see tee eee ae eee eee neae 20 iPlans-for new Museum buildimg presented - =. 2") -W sesh see ee ee ee 4 Plants, statistics of accessions ==. 22.228. -422=2--2- ADS BL Pee CAVES cer See 28 used in Indian materia medica, collection of --.-...---- -.------ 42, 48, 51 Playfair, Sir R. Lambert, the Mediterranean, physical and historical ____ 259 Poisonous serpents, venoms of, researches upon, by Sir Weir Mitchell and eeReichertwem see ea Se ee ee eee eo ae ee eee et ea 8 79 Polynesia, exehance transmissions: to. Settee oe ee ee = 22850, 8 Pomares, Consul-General Mariano, acknowledgments due___-----------_- 61 Ponka ‘and: Omahajsonss;:by J; Owen Dorsey 2S) 722s ee ae eee 50 genealogical tables revised by J. Owen Dorsey ------ SESS eee 50 Porcelain statistics of aCCGsSlONSta= = = oes as eee eee eee 27 Eorcupinemn’Z00lopicalikark:s= 2 = 5-225 ==) Sa ae ae Ses sa Se eee 64 Porter, Dr. J. HL... artificial deformation of children) 22-222 5-2hs25 22 estou" 80 Porter, Dr. Noah, resignation of, as regent ___------------- Seri xi resolution of Board of Rege ee respe erm 2 Portuguese consul-general, New York, acknowledgments due_-_------__- 61 Portugal, a party to Brussels convention --------------------+--- ea et 58 exchance:transmissions-tO. 259 235! 255.3 - sss. 8 eee SSE 59.63, 800 INDEX. Page. Postage for exchange bUreall- - 2-2. ae = se ee eee 5T for National Museum: Congressional appropriation for ---.--.------------- Ee tnd See XXVI1i, XXXil, x] Mxpendituresis. =.=. 328 5.7 uncws Ue = oo eee ie ee es Se 0.0.4 D.< Pottery collections made in Africa by Talcott Williams -----------.------ 13 statisties of accessions: =<. 82.2250 - oe ee es 27 Powell, J. W., director, Bureau of Ethnology --------- ents, oF uct ae eee 42 report of Bureau of Ethnology -.-....-.-------.+---- 43, 47, 54, 82 Prairie dog: in: Zodélogical ‘Parks -222222452 5-6 10 eee Lee Sepak e 2 64 Prehistoric anthropology, statistics of accessions -_____..---_------------ 27 copper implements, Congressional appropriation for purchase OES EM oes eA Palate Fe Be Re Se Eee Ee ae cee Oe Be xli races of Italy, by Canon Isaac Taylor -------- sen ia See otk Be 489 Preservation of collections, U. S. National Museum: Congressional appropriations for --.._--.----------------XXi, xxix, xxxii, xl Expendituresifor. 2.22222 isc 54s siete lec ke XXil, Xxili, XXIV. KV, & RVI, oe Preservation of Museum specimens from insects, ete__----------- Sa ee 81 President of the United States, member ex officio of the petablishme: nt _ bce Primitive home of the Aryans, by A. H. Sayce ---.------+-----=--------- 475 urn burial, by Dr. J. F. Snyder------ PL oe ieee pier et es ae ee 609 Rrintinesorexchanvel bureaus. se ares see ea = see ae ee eee 57 Printing for National Museum: Congressional appropriation -_-_------------------- Pe aaee Snes Re Ree Inxpendituresse. = i= 558 a ae ee ee ee eee xxix Printing of annual reports, Congressional action desired ___--~------------ 16 extra copies of report ordered by Congress ------------------ ii Proceedings of American Historical Association printed __---_----------- 22 Boardof Resents,; journalioles = ees sae eee Xj the: National (Museum = 3528 45.382 oe ee ee eee 15, 29 Proctor. Hon. Redfield, member ex officio of the establishment___-_-__--_- ix Rrocyon lotor ine Zodlogical Park <2-52 5-2 o2 =e tee ee Se eee 64 Progress of Anthropology in 1890, by Otis T. Mason --------------------- O27 ini 1886, by Otis. Mason =: o* oe se) ee 81 Progress of Astronomy for 1889, 1890, by William C. Winlock ------------ 121 for 1886, by William ©: Winlock. 22-25. .2-- 925 79, 81 Chemistry in 1886, by H. Carrington Bolton-.----------------- 80, 8L Geography in 1886, by William Libbey, jr ------------- aUae 80, 81 North American geology in 1886, by Nelson H. Darton__----- 79, 81 Mineralogy in 1886, by Edward S. Dana__--------------------- 80, 81 North American paleontology in 1886, by J. B. Marcou------- 79, 81 Physics im 1886, by George . barker™ 22.2 ses e eee 80, 81 Vuleanology and Seismology in 1886, by C. G. Rockwood, jr-_ 79, 81 Zoblogy in.1886sby Theodore; Gillvces--** -.- eee Se 80, 81 Protection.ofianimals by Government._—22- 4 2e--£ 9 =- 2. ee te ee 35, 36 Prussia, exchange ‘transmissions t0.@822.2---- 2225 5-2) ee: ae ee 59 Bublicierinterexchang es Of sass ne se ae eee ene sip ae eee 60 Bublicationsiss == 2.822 s.2o2 - Sos ee a ee ee ee ee eee 14 American, Eustoricaly Association esse. ssa aes =e ee eee 15 Bureauiot Ethnology .s=2. 226 e< > sea eee ee eee 15 Cope; Reptilia 2:2 ea 2 <2 se bats pee ee ee eee 15 Publicationstinireadin go:0O mi sae ne a eee 19 Publications, sales of, receipts from 2222222 5222- == Bi bec ee eee xviii National Museumnzc¢ 222s 2285.05) = eee eee Pie OAs Soe 15, 29, 82 INDEX. 801 Page Publications of Smithsonian Institution, list of_..-..--...-------.-_------ 81 SHithsonianannual reports.) 2s-s-.= = geno ayaa oe ee 15 Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge-_-_--=<-.--------------------- 14,79 Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections_._.-....-.--..-.-.------------ 14 Publications, Smithsonian, list of, by William J. Rhees__---------------- 15 uch O archi pecnire,.PeportsON 2 s= 2255. so. ah eee es 53 indians Stud yoOl. 20 Ses ee oe ere ae Done ce ete ee pas 43, 48, 50 Pueblos, models of, made by C. Mindeleff_-_--------- ESS fie es eee aes 2 53, 54 Purchase of archaeological objects, grant for ___._---__2._--222-_-_- 2222. 21 Orsi urO. in Zo0logical Park 655525.) eet ce ay ee a ee 64 Q. Quarry sites, excavations into- ------ (Re te Metatarsal e e 42,48 Quartermaster Department, assistance rendered by ---------------------- 29 Quai pers. Ys C.. Vs BOYS) oe -hok ssa ai Ba a ee 315 Queensland, exchangextransmissionSs tO = === ssee sae eee eee 59, 63 R. Raccoonsin’Zoolocicalearke 2 seas ee eee Se ee 64 Ramsden dividing engine, by J. Elfreth Watkins -__-_-___-.---.__-_----- 721 MEN CHICS OCA OOlOPICAISE AL Ky Sea 2 il poe pee eee oe eas Soe se ee ae 64 Reading room Of library: periodicalsmin 22-2520 38. shee. eee tes 19 eecEpesOio xchange DURGA, < A528) 22. Se ee ee oe) a ee 56 Simi nse ya A baste qRUn ONY 28 = 250 soe ee ease noe eae se xvii Recent plants, statistics of accessions -...--------_---.-.-----.- eae 28 Recording exchange correspondence, new system of____---....----------- 62 Red Star Line, acknowledgments due---..--.........-.---- ee ees ae 61 RegenueOrthe inst itwblo Nee =n Ssh hoes eet cae ee ee 1X ex appointed by Speaker of House of Representatives ___..-..------ xiee GHANCCS NE = ea a he eens ces eS ae el ee Sy pt ee x journal of proceedings of -the board .-----= = 2255-3. Sane nase Kal THOS LINO OL | setae s er oe os eat fa Ran ahs ogy Fo eS xi TREVSCOIMENCOS) JOII=ee! Jon over nae! Soko eS pals brcilth, Senha, allay, 3:47 (See, also, Board of Regents.) Reichert, T., S. Weir Mitchell and, researches upon the venoms of poison- BIMBO POMS <8 25 te setae Sa Sneha eae eee 79 Religious practices of North American Indians studied _--.--.----------- 47, 50 Recor CaniZ ations OL UW praryeCarricd) Ole. == =e ee ae ee ee 20 Repayments from bureaus on account of exchanges_._.....-.-.----------- 7 OYE HRSA MH THeOeMy OMS a eR ee xvili tnexchange: DuLcates cen a ee Pe ee 57 Report, Annual of the American Historical Association _....-.-.-----_--- 15 BoardiotRegents for 1890 aes. aoe ee oe ae Hyak pie Bureaw.of Mihnologys =e e- 2 eee eee 15, 54, 82 CXIRAICODIOSION 5220 Saas aes 2 ae nen ee ety sir le td BR i of acting manager of National Zoélogical Park _____._.__---___--- 64 assistant secretary in charge of National Museum. ____--_----- 29, 82 assistant secretary, bibliography of Museum, publications in__- 30 commissioners on Zodlogicall Parke = 2-88 oo oe gee eee 38, 39 CULATOLIOMER CHAN OCS ie eee ee eae co ae Se eae 55, 62 Curators Of wanional WMuseWiM-s- eos.) «Sek ae 82 executive committee of Board of Regents -.....-..----:-----.- xvii ADT Ae ee Se pe a ee ee £e cue ten cla 75 H. Mis. 129 51 802 ; INDEX. Page. Report of Maj. J. W. Powell on Bureau of Ethnology -.-.-.. ---------- 43, 47, 82 Secretary for 1889 22 See ee eS A eee ee eee 82 1890 too0ard of Reventstt 22625220 * Ra eee 1 appendix“fo ease Poy lee eee 47 Bureau-of Wthnologyss22 224 42 International exchanges_-___.-_-__-- 16 fuibrary)--2 s2cesi0 soos 5 Daa 19 Wational .Museum’ = i= 22 22 aes ae 26 National Zoélogical Park__-..----.- 34 on International Congress of Orientalists_____.._-_____-__.2_1_22- 85 progress in anthropology for 1886, by Otis T. Mason __-_------- 80, 81 of anthropology for 1890, by O. T. Mason-_-_----...---_ astronomy for 1886, by William C. Winlock __-_-__- 79, 81 1889, 1890, by William C. Winlock.-. 121 chemistry for 1886, by H. Carrington Bolton _---_. 80, 81 geology for 1886, by Nelson H. Darton_------------ 79, 81 geography for 1886, by William Libbey, jr -----_--- 80, 81 mineralogy for 1886, by Edward S. Dana-_-_-_-------- 80, 81 physics for 1886, by George F. Barker------------- 80, 81 seismology for 1886, by C. G. Rockwood, jr -------- 79, 81 paleontology for 1886, by Jules Belknap Marcou___- 79, 81 vuleanology for 1886, by C. G. Rockwood, jr------- 79, 81 zoology for 1886, by Theodore Gill 222 ---- 222-2222 80, 81 Professor: Morley’s'researches== 16" 222s ae a eae 83 Smithsonian exchanges for 1887, by George H. Boehmer ------ 79 steam transportation, by J. Elfreth Watkins -_----_--------.-- 80 Representative relations of Institution__----- 225-522 22 22 2 2 eee 25 Representatives of foreign governments, acknowledgments due -_-------- 61 Reptilia, paper on, by Prof. Mdward Ds Cope 22-2222. asa a ee eae eee 15 Reptiles. in Zoological Park... 2 2222252555225 Se ee eee 64 Statisties of accessions)-2. 20-2242 2s 2b ee eee! ees 27 Researches 22 a ete sus See ees ae eed a ee aaa a eee ee 10 by curators of NMiisewm sss soa one ee oe ee ee 30 ethnologic, among the North American Indians__----_------- 42,47 upon the venoms of poisonous serpents, by S. Weir Mitchell and T="Reichert:42 2-2 2e2- = $3) - see ee eee 79 Residuary lesacy Ol omithsony amount On sae s= a) ease ee 2 Resionation of Dr. ‘Noah Porter 22522922225 2. eee A ntee oA Cone ee eA CE xi Resistance box ordered for astro-physical observatory -------------------- 11 Resolutions by Congress. (See Congress, resolutions by.) Resolutions by Board of Regents: AP PEOpLiatine ania lem COM Cm se ae ee ee ee xii Bequest of Dr Jerome ve ake Gl cle ree aa ee ee xiii Compensation stoi @lussié; Schultze mee eee ne Xiv DeathiofMEon.| Samuel! SrCoxemeene see snes eee ae eee ee ee Xv, Xvi, 2, 44 Meoetine siofBoard > 22. 28s hae eee ee ee ee ee XV Repayment of money advanced for exchanges -_-_-----------------xii, 16,18 Resivnation‘of prNoah Porter! sa0 se eee ee ee es ba Reuleaux, lh. techuolopy and civilization -<-s2s25 sesso sees eee 705 Review of the Family Delphinide, by F. W. True---.--------------------- 30 Revenue Marine + COOMETA OM Olas === 5 nae ee ee ee 28 Reynolds, Henry L., assisted in work on mound explorations ------ ------ 52 explorations: made ‘by: *.2¢-24- 23s eee 14 mound explorations by ------ ee cL See oe 47 —— INDEX. 803 Page Ethees, William J., chief clerk of the Institution -_.-2.222..222-<5 =--.- ie list of Smithsonian publications _.-......-..-.--.._=_- 15 Ridgway, Robert, paper on humming birds -____...----2__-_.-_-.-.2-_2 2 ean!) Rio Salado, ruins on, report on, by Victor Mindeleff ____.._._____.________ 53 iock Creek ,archcolopical examination Of. 223522. -e2e 85-222 a eos 47 selectedsior:Zoo0logicalibarkess == 26 see a eee ene enn. 37 Reco. OxplOorations in. Mhibet, +322. s222 sss 5 452 see a ee ee 13 Rockwood, C. G., jr., report on progress in vuleanology and seismology in RSS OBNE rm sei ee A ta sae es ek an eens Sask ett Se ate ae ce ea eRe 7%, 81 Romanes, George J., Weismann’s theory of heredity --__.. _._-_--____.____ 433 Rocky, Mountain sheep-in Zoological Park -~..-- 2.22522 2 42.2 Stee 64 fooms for scientific work, assignment of ---2--2222 2-2 ---222 2-0 ee eee 21 Royal Academy of Budapest presented publications_---_..______.________ 78 SOCIOby. Of London, books: presented: by --" 25-22-92. = 22 ee 78 BRuimsymoedelled by Cosmos Mind elefi 22222222225. 225 2 255" 2.. 5 teas 53, 54 EGVOGUON apy VAClOm NiNdeleinnns= ses seeneot os ate on Ree 53 Ruiz, Consul-General D. L., acknowledgments due~-__--. _-_______.____-- 61 Rush, Dr. W. H., U.S. Navy, acknowledgments due for specimens ______ 14 offered to make collections _-__.-_.....___- 33 USsid ~exchange transmissions. tO. 2022-62 kee oo eee nee 59, 63 history of geodetic operations in, by Col. B. Witkowski and Prof. \etOward:GOLO SY = 2262-52 en peo oe ee ae ea Ye ee 305 hydrographic publications presented by Government of __________ 78 Sal gmiesipald.by exchange DUrCAl tos s72.s2sce es. a sean ee coe epee 57 Sales On DUpLcatons, receipts {rom <2 5 = eo eee eee xviii San Salvador, consul-general for, acknowledgments due_______-__________ 61 CxChanee transMmiSSiOns) bles: sseeee a= oa eee a eee Ie 59 Sacurday, Jectures.in Museum lecture hall=*- = 2.2 us So ees oe ee 31 Savannah River, Georgia, mound on the, explored_-----_------_.--___-__- 47 SALONVA-OxXChange (rAnSMISSLONS UO. ---2 26-22 5=— nese ate says hee eee 59 sayce, Prof. A. H., the primitive home of the Aryans_-.-----__.___.______ 475 Schliemann, Dr. Henry, requested representation at international con- HERO COsa Ure GtON GLO Yrs sees aa (te sare oe ene aera | i 25 Bochumacher pA... cy CO, acknowledgments Gueus=.—. 22ers ee. ee 61 clenthe Work, assignment Of rOOMs fOr == -f-a2 2 eae eos ees oe eee 21 BaUunus carolnenss 1m Zoological Parks. 2222) 22 22 sas set ee ee 64 [HSOMmuUs in ZGGLOPICAL Park caps G2 oe. ent eee ae oe ee ee 64 Sciuropterus volucelia in Zodlogical Park ..----.-.----.--.-.---1---2+---2-8 64 scrow-unreads, Standards to be adopted <--- 22-2 S2-- 252-2 a oe eee 13 Secretary communicated to National Academy investigations upon the cheapest foumuyon Light 222. oo ae ee eee en aae See ee 11 Secretary’s letter submitting annual report _--_--._---------------.-.-__.- iii Secretary of Smithsonian Institution a member of committee on resolutions EOLMULVO: CO PHM AUC Su SCO sae ae nee eee ener eee ae 43 VOPOLU MOM SOO a5 Seales. Ss aes ane a a ee ee Se eer 82 SECrOLAary, 5 FEPONt, AppOnGIX Os ooo san ee eee ea ee 47 On Bureau On MthnOlogy sess eeee earn nc ee ee 42 international éxchangesic--2----.-=---------cl.n228 16 WUD UAT os os serene eaten ae cee ee 19 IN ADLON a WOU C UUM cet eee oe ct te eae ee 26 National ZHOlLOCICa ear Ke sone 2-8 soe cele see 34 SECrolaly OllnLeriOPUCOUnLeRy Oleh a. a. cene" ooo ahah ome aae ee eee ee 29 Seely, F. A., grant for purchase of archeological objects-.-..-.---------- 21 804 INDEX. Page Seismology, progress report for 1886, by C. G. Rockwood, jr ------------- 79, 81 Senate, action of, with regard to appropriation for fireproofing of part of Smithsonians buildin yess ce sae a ee ee 10° bilfrelative to new, Museum buildings: 2222225225223 4 Serials/added to the library :.2- 2-4. =.2-- 6-8 6 eee eee eae 15 Serpents, poisonous, venoms of, researches upon, by S. Weir Mitchell and 4 MOR ei Kel se) ie Meee ee ne aera as Bue ees Coma ee pee SSEedeeEs = esos 79 Serva, exchanre) tranSMissiOns tO\s--2ses= == a= ee ee eee 63 a, party. tOMSrusselS COMVeMbION a2 se ae are eee eae 58 Shipaulovi pueblo, model of, made by C. Mindeleff_--..-..--.------------ 53 Shufeldt. Drak. Ws Shudied bird skeletons: 2-2-2 = 2-5-5 seen es. eee 30 Sia tribeiof Pueblo Indians, study (of 22. 20-222 aoe eee eee 43, 54 Siderostat in astro-physical observatory --.--.---------2---------=----22.- 11 Sisnlanguage, investigations Inls-2- 25-62 S25 2 enone ene ae Sicnal Office, exchanges Of =2-iss-25- Ssete see denoe ee See ee eee eee 60 Siletz tribes, gentile system of. Paper by J. Owen Dorsey--------------- 50 Sixth annual report of the Bureau of Ethnology -----------------------15, 54, 82 Sketch of plans for new Museum building presented -.-.-_--------------- 4 Skull, clinical study of the, paper on, by Dr. Harrison Allen__-.--------- 15, 80 Smith, John B., contribution toward a monograph of the insects of the lepidopterous family Noctuidee of temperate North America -----~----- 30 Simithsonsbequest,amountioh == oes sc= aaa see ae ee eee eee 2 Smihhsonlanstunds COM dit Om Obese. ae ee ee ee ee xvii accounts examined by executive committee _-___.___-_____-_- xvii annual reports for 188i-and 1888 == eee ee eee 15, 79 building, continuation of fireproofing -----.---.------------- 10 should be paid for by Government. --~--.2.2--s.2-- xii Contributions to Knowledge:2- == - ee bene eae eee eee 14,79 VORURRVE 2 oleae Mee ge eee ones 79 exchanges, reports on, for 1887, by George H. Boehmer ----- 79 Institution, exchanves Of -.2— se nes—ae oe ee 60 Secretary’s report for s890e 2222 - en ae i Miscellaneous’ Collections = -- =. = ose 22225 2 ee ee eee 14 publications, checklist of, 22- =e sess = = se eee ree 81 list of, by: William), J). Ethees == 220 ses see oo seeee 15 Snakes'in.Zodlopical:Park<: 2-2 5. oot Soe ee aero eee ee 64 Sian bhetas 1By Tbs rorabe oleh vopetsisS) 12) \u-s ye le a ee Sere eee SSS Ss Se 80, 81 Snyder eDroJ, f., a primitive wnn DUG 20-8 2 esse ee eee 609 Societies corresponding with exchange bureau_--_-..--------------------- 55, 56 SolaricoronamemoirsirelatingstOs sss === ee ee eee 14,79 South Australia, exchange. transmissions to_-.-.-------------------------- 59, 63 South Carolina, explorationsim= 222296. — 22 == == —se eee ee Be eee 47 Spain, consul-general for, acknowledgments due-_--.---------------------- 61 exchange transmissions tOs2=225-- sen ene = eee eee 59, 63 a party toBrussels. convenbiowt. = 2-22-22. e eee ee eee eee 58 Sparrow hawicaniZoological Park<2: 2222222 286 eee ee eee ere 64 Special researches, by.curators of Museum 2-.222=-2-_ <-.- 22-2 emcee 30 Specimens, packages of received. by Museum=-2-=“22- =" = See ae eee 28 preservationyol, from insects) CtC=a— sae e eae ea ae 81 Spectro-bolometer in astro-physical observatory ------------------------- 11 Spermophilus tredecimlineatus in Zodlogical Park ------------------------- 64 Sponges, horny, Lendenfeldt’s monograph on, presented to Institution ---- 78 Squirrels in Zoological Park. 22. -sc--cessss-2---mm neces sae aoe sigeroese 64 a INDEX. 805 Page. Standard diameters of tubing to be adopted_--------252.-2-2e hse 1B of leno th, investications! for determining 2_ 222222552222 e le 21 BELOW. LAreads CO, De AC OPUCC esata =e ae ae oo nee ee Sanremo 13 to be, ordered for Smithsonian’ Institution_222-2--222_ a2 13 (See Committee on the international standards for iron and steel). Stanford, Hon. Leland, letter to, relative to new Museum building_______- 4,5 Stanley and the map of Africa. By J. Scott Keltie__..-..--_--_.__.____. 17 States Department, co-operatiom.Of =. 02222 h eee e es. eee eee 28 CxChAanges/Obs=o— so seca ee seen oe ee Wale ae ee 60 statement of governmental exchanges. -__.-.-..2_-------------. Loads. 220s. ee Taye ee eee 79 Supseripiion to,Astronomical Journal: 2 22225 s2.- 22s oe 21 SUIsuD vocabularies collected: by. J. Curtin'= 58) 9. - = te 49 Sun-dance, Dakota account of. Paper by J. Owen Dorsey __--.._-________- 50 SuLPoon-General, CXCHANngOS OF =i= = oo- = Sona See al oe ee ee eee 60 SHEVeyOuland for Zoological bankas: —- esse toe aoe ee eee eee 40 Swan, J. G., paper on the Indians of Cape Flattery, new edition __________ 15 Sweden, consul-general for, acknowledgments due ___-_______-___________ 61 Gxchange transmissiqne (Olss—o.Jes- steno ks ee ees 59, 63 parliamentary publications of, presented to Institution__________ 78 Swiezerlund, exchange transmissions) t0s-o2- 2 8-52. a- sh eee eee 59, 63 a party, to Brussels ConVventiOn=. —- 33-9. ese e ss re eee 58 Synmnun nevurosuman ZO0lOfical Park .cosecesscscecosern eo ece seen 64 Ake Tables, Guyot’s meteorological and physical, new edition of ___.---.______ 14 showing annual increase in Museum collections _--_---___________- 8.9 Tasmania, exchange transmissions to -....-.-.----------.---------------. 59, 63 Paxidermy icondsional, INStrucwon in = 2 s202 =o ee Sees kos see 21, 30 Taylor, Canon Isaac. The primitive races in Italy -.--.-..-.....__.___.- 489 Technology and civilization. By F. Reuleaux_-_-_-._...:....-_._..-._.-_- 705 Temperature and life.. By Henry de. Varigny -222--.--.-- 22.8 407 Tennessee, explorations in, by Bureau of Ethnology_-.-.--._._-_.._-_____- 49 Lestudo elephantopus-in Zodlogical Park: -.....=-<2-- ~~. --20-22s225-sceeen 64 sigma in, Zoolosical Parks) 28 28 teens son ase Se a oe 64 weton. folklore; (‘Paper by J. Owen Dorseyesa_oaas 2 Jd ase ee 50 Tetuan, pottery collections made in, by Talcott Williams ___.-___.______- 13 Tewa, pueblo of, model of, made by C. Mindeleff_......_..-.......-.._-_- 53 Dextile,artsstudy of.) (Paper by. W.. EL. Holmes <5 2.252 22+) 2. 2s osan sous. 54, 82 Pextilesatatisties of accessions....--...2.--s~-s62ceco--5.05% Ee er 27 806 INDEX. Page Thaw collection of physical apparatus in astro-physical observatory ------ 11 Thermodynamics, index to literature of, by Alfred Tuckerman. -______-__ 14, 81 Thibet, explorations in,by ‘W:. W..Evockdhilly- 222s. ee eee eee 13 Thomas, Cyrus, explorations by -------- aioe cen Ree be ee Mire oi Bee haere 14 paper on aid to study of Maya Codices -_-----.----------- 54, 82 superintendence of mound explorations -________--------- 47 work on mound explorations=— 22225222 =see- es. ee ee 52 Thompson, Sylvanus P. Koenig’s researches on musical harmony ------- 335 Throwing-sticks in National Museum. By Otis T. Mason_------_-------- 81 Roddy Davidsls = Ont thestruchire ofthelcoronal === === === =e ae 79 “Poner lecture,’ by Dr. Harrison Allen - -2 2-26 oe ee eee 15, 80 fund; lecture printed by = {2c - fs per eee ae ee 21 Toriello, Consul-General Enrique, acknowledgments due -__-------------- 61 fortoise in Zodlopical Park. -2—-- Jo2. = ee ee She ee eee ee eee ae 64 Tracy, Hon. Benjamin F., member ex officio of the establishment-----___- ix Transactions of bureau of international exchanges-_-----_--------_------- 55, 56 withdrawn from Library of Congress.-_.-----..--.----------- 19 Transfer of transactions from Library of Congress-_-___- it eS ae See eee 19 Transformations of North American Lepidoptera, bibliographical cata- logue Of, jby -cuenry Wd wardses 23) 02222 6s _ sre sain ee eee 29, 30 Transparencies made by Bureau of Ethnology -----.---.----------=--._-_- 53, 54 Transportation bills exchian@e DUnea 222-2 ea ee ee ee 57 companies, acknowledgments due------------------------ 60 statisties:Of SCCesSIONS 2 145-25 <5 — eee eee 27 ieeasury Department, exchanees Of —.- 2-25.) a ae oe eee 60 freejentriesicranted! by soe esse ese" eee 28 Treaty Of sbrussels) 22222-05262 2 tee ee eee am ee eens ie ae eee ee 57 reubs Min AS tropical botanical @ardense ssa == ss see ee eee ee 389 ®ropical botanical carden. By M. Treubs2 2222252. 60s ee eee 389 True, F. W., continues as acting curator, department of comparative BNBLOM Ye ot fo eee =e Soe Pee en See ee eee ne ae 32 contribution to the natural history of the Cetaceans, a review of the family Welphinides 2222622222 22 Se ens ee. ee ee eee 30 Tiibingen, University of, sends complete set of publications--..-..-.----- U Tubing for apparatus, standard diameters for _--_-_---------------------- 13 Tuckerman, Alfred, index to literature of thermodynamics -------------- 14, 81 Tulalip Reservation, Washington, ethnological specimens from --------- 29 Turkey, consul-general for, acknowledgments due------------------------ 61 exchange transmissions. vO): = 22-eooe sao ee ee ee 59, 63 Durkeysin' Zodlopical’ (Park: oe oo ase elas olson ee ee 64 turtle dove in Zoolopical Mark 2-2 22: 22 es2 = eee = ee ee ee ee 64 Tusayan, architecture of, report on, by V. Mindeleff -_.-----.-.-..----.- 53 Twana, Chemakum, and Klallam Indians of Washington. By Myron We Soeur e ec ce sere se ncecehere neces cass as seneee esc a cee oem etaaee 80, 81 Lufs United States of America a party to Brussels convention -_-------- ------ 58 consuls co-operation’ of2222 23240 ee ee eee | 28 ministers; co-operation’ ols ose sone eo ee a oe ee 28 U.S. S. Pensacola, officers and sailors of, acknowledgments due ---------- 33 Universities sending complete sets to library -------_-------------------- 77 Wpsala, University of,‘ bookssent by=.2esesc-e- eee tees se eee ener eee iid INDEX. | 807 Page. Menspurial, primitive, Dy Ors J. lb. SUV OCR= anata ase ae ee 609 Urocyon virguuanus in Zodlogical Park—_ 2-2 --- _—-- = 52-252 senna 64 OP SUS INET CONUSHING ZOO lO STC all ole aT Kee ee 64 ROVTtOtS, 11 AO OLO PTCA gram te ety ee ere eee ee renner el a oe 64 Uruguay, consul-general for, acknowledgments due -.--------.----------- 61 Gxchanee traAnsSMIsslOus. tOs.- < soe see se ee ee = Be ei ee 59, 63 a party to, Brussels convention: 22.5. 20-6 =) 52 = asa ceeee eae eee 58 Utrecht, University of, sends complete set of publications - - -- , Sees 77 Ve Vacancies in Board of Regents, Congressional resolutions respecting -- -- - xt Wandennhoorn, VWi..El., acknowledpimentssdWes ==-= = a= == oe— = eee 61 Vateple, fi. A\., & Co., acknowledgments due 22 -_ 2222222) sen -- ener eae 61 Wene7lela.exchance transmissions (Oe. 22s 5- 9= sa ee ee = ee ee 59, 63 Venoms of poisonous serpents, researchesupon. By S. Weir Mitchell and UME OWE Uses ae ae ni a ase es ee eae re rege eat ee 79 Vermont State reports presented to Institution -------------------------- 78 Vertebrate fossils, statistics of accessions ----=--------=2e2-- 25 seen ease ee 21 Vesteras Hogre Allmiinna Liroverk, book sent by ----------------------- 78 Victorias exchance transmissions to: 2..=.=)-------2-=5--52--cess =a esee eee 59, 63 Vice-President of the United States member ez officio of the establisment- ix Vincent, Frank, jr., collection of books presented by ---------- ---------- 78 Wircintadéerin ZOOlOoICal Parke a. a2 een sna saceea eae ae a eee 64 WASILOUSELOMNatOnal Museum: =) 5-2-2525 -5 = =) =e ene ee = eee 31 Mocapularics,collected by J; Cuntin= = 222-2. ---acccseasee ease eee 49 Mis Stevensone 222 men seen ee ee eee 50 Voorhees, Hon. Daniel W., proposed bill for purchase of Capron collection - 23 Vouchers examined by Executive Committee ---.-.....-_-_-.-+.---=-=---- 3, 4 Vulecanology, progress report for 1886, by C. G. Rockwood, jr ------------ 79, 81 Tanipesdulus Zo0logical Parke: 22a. =. soa te aos ee ae eee eee 64 VelODin ZOO lOpICAl VaR Ke asa ee ete «See eee eee eee oe eee 64 Ww. Wagner Free Institute of Science presented Kiener’s ‘‘Iconographie des WoquilleseVivan tesi) 2 222. S22 sok noe nag sae eee ene el ea 31 Waldstein, Dr. Charles, represented Institution at International Confer- ence latranClent WLOy, 2222 = 22 san et ae eee See ee 25 Nalpie modell, made by C: Mindeleit?<- 2222-255. cen eee eae 53 Wanamaker, Hon. John, member ez officio of the establishment --_---_---- ix Wide Deparment, OXChanves Of 2. ssa .kn anne ene eee eee aeeee 60 Washington, Territory, ethnological specimens from --_----....---------- 29 Indiansiof; iby-Myronciells) S222 52 22as2 soe 80, 81 Wateree River, South Carolina, mounds on the, explored ---------------- 47 Watkins, J. Elfreth, report on steam transportation --.------------------ 80 the Ramsden dividine engine 2-2-2 2------5-2eee= 721 Webster, Clement L., Mounds of the Western Prairies --_.-------------- 80, 81 on ancient mounds/inslowa-22-2- 2__- 2222S 2s 2-2 80, 81 Johnson County, Iowa------- 80, 81 Indian graves in Floyd and Chickasaw counties, TOW en ses a et ee ee nO ee eee 80, 81 West Indies, exchanrce transmissions to =2c--2_-_ 2 222 2 eee ee eee 59 Weight of packages received by bureau of exchanges_----- en eee 5d, 56 Weismann’s theory of heredity, by George J. Romanes ------------------ 433 Weitspekan vocabularies collected by J. Curtin_....-..------------------ 49 808 INDEX. Page. Welling, Dr. James C., member of committee on resolutions relative to Serviees tof they Hons Sis. COX eee ee ee 43 SB TOSCNY eos a sae ee ee ne ee ne K, xy Ks member of the executive committee___________- X, XK resolution on appropriation of annual income ---- xii resolution on money advanced for exchanges- ---- xii Wesley, William, & Son, acknowledgements due _------------------------ 60 Wikeeler, Hon. Joseph, appointed regent. = eee eee xi, 2 a@-TOQeNb. - acs asst tee oe eee eee eee eee X, Xj member of committee on resolutions relative to the Hon. So. COX. ss ae ee eee 43 motion relative death of Hon. S.S. Cox __----_--- XV, Xvi MVnGe. ELON. Andrew D...a regent: 22.2. se nse eee a ee eee ep.ak Wihite(Cross Mine, acknowledoment diel= 225-22.) eee eee 61 White-headed.eacle in, Zodlogical Park==-2=- 22-22 eae ee eee 64 Walliams aleott.explorablOn sem AIC ase es ere eee le 13 Wall Sonuac pA Sian US 7a kar © wal OG oar © ra bse eee ae 61 Walson, Lomas, criminal anthropology 2-3-5 2-2 =a anne eee ee 617 lectures in Museum lecture svelte a ae ee 31 Windom, Hon. William, member ez officio of the establishment__________- ix Winlock, William C., appointed honorary curator of section of physical apparatus {225 22s o eet ee eee eee eee 32 progress in:astronomy in 188622 2-3 see ee 79, 81 report on progress of astronomy for 1889, 1890_-_-__- 121 report on international exchanges__.-....-_------- 55, 62 Winnebago folk-lore notes, paper by J. Owen Dorsey----..--------------- 50 Wisconsin, ancient mounds in, by Clement L. Webster-_-_..-------------- 80, 81 Wishoshkan vocabularies collected by J. Curtin -_---------- Te Do Be tee ee 49 Withowski, Col. B., and Prof. J. Howard Gore, history of geodetic opera- Hons 1D. RUSSIA: - 2225-5 so oles cees ise ae stan e oe ae ee ee 305 Moogchuckan Zoolomicall Parkin 222222 20 ees eee 64 Woodward, Robert S., mathematical theories of the earth __---._----.--- 143 Work of astro-physical observatory explained _._------------------------ 12 periormed-in ‘the library 3. -2-Uo2 2.23 co .3 oe eee eee 75 Wiork-shops; excavations Into. 522 [5.22 22822 oo es ee eee eee 42, 48 Work-shop space in National Museum, table of-.__.....------------------- 9 World’s Columbian Exposition, Congressional act relative to_------_----- 23 Hair,Coneressional actirespecting, = ens. s-3 a ee eee KRY Wright, Peter, & Sons, acknowledgments due ___.._-_----.----=--__=___- 61 Wairtembere, exchange transmissions) t0 2222 2-2 os eee ee 59, 63 Wirzburg, University of, sends complete set of publications ---------.--- 17 BY A Vear-books, collection of, inexcharnge buréau_2 222-5" == (22a ee eee 62 Yuki vocabularies collected by J. Curtin ------------ SE re Te a eee 49 Z. Zecnmoura macroura, invZo0logical Park: = 222 eee ee ee 64 Zodlogical Park, condition of, explained by Secretary to Regents -------- xiv (See National Zoédlogical Park.) Commlpsion, rooms occupied by_..-..-..22 === === 2-22 21 Zoblogy, progress report for 1886, by Theodore Gill -_---- ------ --------- 80, 81 Zuni Indians studied by Mrs. Stevenson=..-..- = 2-2 Sn. eee eee 50 Zurich, University of, sends complete set of publications ----.--.--------- 77 ‘ ° . : a , i cs at . a a ibe 78 46 a an ef s : - oe 7 See 2 ct eae Seo een et, err aes ss 2 Gee SAD EA RADDA AT nrg oT eas Paes