ante Lye é oe nETSOR y ~*~ Mh SAISON Seen Ws Pr, OM Sat fe ee * : < 4 er ne. Wg, ee ee MN ae ae hy DES een e : oe oe Pi, La i. ia xh v ANNUAL REPORT BOARD OF REGENTS SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, THE OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND CONDITION OF THE INSTITUTION TO se Ye ae WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1893. FIFTY-SECOND CONGRESS, FIRST SESSION. Concurrent resolution adopted by the Senate, July 22, 1892, and by the House of Repre- sentatives, August 5, 1892. Resolved by the Senate (the House of Representatives concurring), That there be printed of the Reports of the Smithsonian Institution and of the National Museum for the year ending June 30, 1891, in two octavo volumes, 10,000 extra copies; of which 1,000 copies shall be for the use of the Senate, 2,000 copies for the use of the House of Representatives, 5,000 copies for the use of the Smithsonian Institution, and 2,000 copies for the use of the National Museum. II LETTER FROM THE SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, ACCOMPANYING The annual report of the Board of Regents of the Institution to the end of June, 1891, SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, Washington, D. O., July 1, 1891. To the Congress of the United States : In accordance with section 5593 of the Revised Statutes of the United States, I have the honor, in behalf of the Board of Regents, to submit to Congress the annual report of the operations, expenditures, and con- dition of the Smithsonian Institution for the year ending June 30, 1891. I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant, S. P. LANGLEY, Secretary of Smithsonian Institution, Hon. LEvi P. MorTon, President of the Senate. Hon. THOMAS B. REED, Speaker of the House of Representatives. ~ t- ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION TO THE END OF JUNE, 1891. SUBJECTS. 1. Proceedings of the Board of Regents for the ~ession of January, 1891. 2. Report of the Executive Committee, exhibiting the financial affairs of the Institution, including a statement of the Smithson fund, and re- ceipts and expenditures for the year 1890-91. 3. Annual report of the Secretary, giving an account of the opera- tions and condition of the Institution for the year 189091, with statis- tics of exchanges, ete. 4, General appendix, comprising a selection of miscellaneous memoirs of interest to collaborators and correspondents of the Institution, teachers, and others engaged in the promotion of knowledge. TV; CONTE NTS: Page Resolution to Congress to print extra copies of the Report...--.-----....---- rat Letter from the Secretary, submitting the Annual Report of the Regents to ae RS ee eterna eee emis ese Ue sate Se Set Lae SSE tee Lope ke ee IIr SederansUpiects; Oncne-Aumual Meport, ..- 2 2 2522.4.s2c- 2g- 22 cdjecdes qe esee- IV BeLCH IN ehuneROpORps esse one St nc afete es sata fort Se Passe Seawese Vv LALOR STING TS) Te COs: (pe Ra ee eee eee a VIL Mem bers’ex officio of the Establishment =-4- —- --2-2-.-.50<---2- - 222-2 sSncs soe IDs Repents of the, Smithsonian Institution........-...2...-.-.5--- 22-22-2200. -- Xi JOURNAL OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS ....----------- a Sanur INCOM PI ANUALY 20, LOO coos, cio cn aa eee asc on cele noc ce noo tees XI REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE for the year ending June 30, 1891... xxr Chmtobiinamn Gi? Heya bail hab beh tee ee orerere Secke See eSoeeee Seu aEmaee XXI GECUITUS MOMMU NG eV OLl see = hoe a as ae na le nie Svs ea soins ote ee ee Xow PXPeMU MURS OM UNOry CALs aaa) ae sys aoe oiaies Sieece wincineae ce -seee essen ee XXII aes an Gere p ayn CDUS Hemet aia.s ere Sea cas Sees Seta n cacnaatieciownc sXeXHT MBpPLOpriawons for imternal exchanges :~2 56225)... 2f22 ec. cece Bf 422e 3. KRU Weta OMmexpenaLuures: Of GAMNO-4- - 2 seas ese see en ee oe ee ROayat Appropriations for North American Ethnology .......-..........-------- LOTHY Dials OL OxXpenadibUred OL Same —22. 3.22 F 2 coh a-nc coe el eee See eee eee XXIV Appropriations for the National Museum ......--..............------2--- LOR BL WetavlsionexpendiiunesosamMe =saeee se ss. = Mees ee ee OV NaMOnaEACOLOP ICR ib alone a as sae ee oat ee oes See eh Ok XXXV Appropriation for Smithsonian Building Repairs, and expenditures......xXXvI Crone rales urinary peeest tise ee a ee eee foh eee a pes oh PO RONNIE Incoming avallable for ensuing year. =22 2222.50.22. 2.) terse XXXIX Acts AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS relative to the Smithsonian Institution, NanonweMuUsenM Toler fOr USOlee ae scares see ese Soe het comaeee | eXObn REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. PR SRULEMOONDAN, IN SMEDETRON GS corse) ste keel ee Ae ee vk Lear el has 1 ipRerestablishm emigre: sae ete. ee Be ae eh het in tat il Pe CREO OL Mee Coiba Seat ee ae a oa: he ede cts Pty ve dea 1 ENCUUT OTE CTT EOS Negi ton ER a ge a ge ee ne eT oe eee ee 2 PUTEALE CON ete ttal nee Crea ene a AE at SE ee el te ae rs SLT ES ISR. Te 2 [EEE Tbe Rett 2s Oa RRR Te Se ee eee See, ee ee ee ee Ce 5 deesearol: Asire-physical Observatory. 26.24 2262s 2 to5n Sis ewan ncn nes 6 EES LOL GD ILO US eee te eee Bo tae ts cotta Se Sen es Sue eek ES one 8 ECHL C ALT ONS 5 — eter tee i gS Sip cB hy Ue Negros Ye ae eldiahs- wi ahs 8 SNe HON TENS Olay COme ns ee ee eS aoe SN ee Oe heats 9 TEA BY PPT 5 RE SRSS ek SUOSS SaRSSE a 11 VI CONTENTS. THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION—Continued. Page. Miscellaneoustes-sceneseeeeoae es Ven nnn eee ee eee eee ee eee eee eee 13 Portratts:ofRevents <2. 52.240 222 2s eee cae cts oe eese 2 See renee eee 13 Statuteo Prot Baird... 23 csc. cesemsacccesae cece ae Seo ee Cee 13 Statmbevotobert) aleiOnene sees ae sae eee ae ee eee 13 Capron collectionz. -oc26-.0 cscs cere ee ee et ae eee eee 13 Meteorological records 2. 2scin-c- slo eee Cee eeon oe oem eee cere 13 ASSIoMMeEnb Of TOOMS fOr SClemtinie hwOrk seers ss= sere sais eee 14 Bequest:of Dr. Ji. kt. Batleyeeececsts assem eee ce eee eee ee eee ee 14 Stereotype: plates. ca... eeae cece cece ete eee eee 14 UNTRED I STATES NATTONAT, MUSH UMeeeee acer once one ee coer eee eerce see 14 Mhe World’s Columbian hxposition) 5-22-2222 sca ssse - 2 fee ee - eee eee 20 BUREAULOR MW THNOLOG MS Aat sche tele eae eee ere re ee eee 20 UNITED STATES: ZOOLOGICAL, SPARK c=. osc csece conc eee eee cee eee =e ae 21 INECROLOGS c-clecuscee cece bee e ener ee eons See eee ee eek eee eee eee eee 25 APPENDIXES: Appendix I. Report of the Director of the Bureau of Ethnology....---- 29 I Report of the Curator of Pxchanieesiesssas-4 2542s eee 38 Ill. Report of the Acting Manager of the National Zodlogical Parks seis ye sed, fe he eh Sneek eee eng ee eee 48 DVesiveport of che ruilbranianees = sseeene eee eee ee eee anes 53 Vi. Reportion publicationsiforithenyeanesseseessseee ee ese eee 60 GENERAL APPENDIX. AA VerbiSOMeMnbis j-cemsnce oes ee See oti eae cee ae a Ree ee eae eee eee 67 Celestial Spectroscopy, by William Huggins... -5--e 05 -sees-e Saoee C= Soe 69 Stellar Numbers and Distances, by A. M. Clerke.....-.--...-....---2------- . 103 Rh eiS Uns AO LOneANUS pace. moiyp Atm vin ©) ems cere ee eee ee 109 AGSoutherneObservatony, byeA. MM. Clerket sees nee e ene eee ee 115 Applications of Physics and Mathematics to Geology, by C. Chree..---..---- 127 Origin of the Rock-pressure of Natural Gas, by Edward Orton.-...---..------ 155 Geysers, "by WialltersrlarveynWieeda- 22... 25:5. 55a eee pen eee ee eee 163 The General Circulation of the Atmosphere, by Werner von Siemens - -.--.. ---- 179 hei Guilt-streamy byealexandensAtmassiz eres -m oes. eee eee eee eee 189 Absolute Measurement of Hardness, by F. Auerbach .................-.------ 207 The Flow of Solids, by William Hallock.._--. WS ocd 1i Re ee en eee 237 ihe Scientific WiorkiofiGa.s.Ohm bya Ee Wommels--4- 5 sseeeeeeee se sees 247 Autobiographical: Sketch\otedenvon lie biome ss 25225522 eee eee 257 Divergent Kvolution Through Cumulative Segregation, by J. T. Gulick....-. 269 The Struggle for Life in the Forest, by James Rodway..-.......-----.-------- 337 Dithiculiresror Aquatienims eebaysiyalaen © ay in alll epee apes ee 349 Geographic Distribution of Mammals, by C. Hart Merriam ...._....-....---- 365 Phe orbimiGameve ark bya One les S10 Cases se seen 417 Phe Home of the Troglodytes, by EB. 0. Hamyi 2-22-22. 22 5.2.-2 e ee 425 Summary of Progress in Anthropology in 1891, by O. T. Mason........------- 433 The Mounds of the Mississippi Valley, by Lucien Carr................--.---- 505 The Use of Flint Blades to work Pine Wood, by G. V. Smith ............---- 601 Time-keeping among the Chinese, by D. J. Magowan .......-..-...---.------ 607 Navajo Dye-stuits; by Washington Matthewsssseoseeseseoses -2 ool eae eeeeeeee 613 Some Possibilities of Economic Botany, by George L. Goodale......---..----- 617 CONTENTS. Vil GENERAL APPENDIX—Continued. Page the Byvolttion of Commerce, by Gardner Hubbard :.:.....2..-22-22.-22-. 2c. ie The Relation of Natural Science to Art, by E. du Bois-Reymond ............. 661 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. STELLAR NUMBLRS AND DISTANCES: BT epee AMON AMCs 2 < ota aa uerelnrs joie e's te uiles 8S. sis SSeS elslwrS a's ale siaistevesice) sc ae mele 107 GEYSERS: Fig. 1. Geyser and Strokr.........-... IME Soe aa lees Seauleui A Sire eee ae 174 GULF STREAM: ies Clhallenver Observations ..2- Sects eee ae eac oe cas sivele S ieee =e ates 201 ABSOLUTE MEASUREMENT OF HARDNESS: Hol, eosin mvApPAataAtus! saeacccsos.. sce sweecicie ease esacti-seceece | AS Big.) Markings Of (Results) sos... soses 2 sss ices nots ==> o> s- 28 sG fs cee 222 Tue FLOW or SoLipDs: Fig. 1. Longitudinal section of apparatus. -..........--:..---.---.-.s-.- 240 higa2acbransverse sechion.of apparatus’). -< 22 s2-jf6-6cs-5 22 5- - sense aae 240 Bigesy Has Oh Testi MACHINGss6 aoa i- miele x eleRele ates ete'< eee oicio snot ees 241 Fig. 4. Diagram showing experiment....--:.----.--2.2---.2--5-5 +--+ --ee 243 THE CORBIN GAME PARK: Fig. 1. View of Buffalo in the Corbin Game Park........-.-. 22.0.0. --5 422 TESPDISSS TOAD QO) hibit els eh RS BOOB SEE US SIGS E EAN T OG OUR OD BOS ODBEo Hee DGanrneps Bales THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. MEMBERS EX OFFICIO OF THE “ESTABLISHMENT.” (January, 1891.) BENJAMIN HARRISON, President of the United States. LEVI P. MORTON, Vice-President of the United States. MELVILLE W. FULLER, Chief-Justice of the United States. JAMES G. BLAINE, Secretary of State. WILLIAM WINDOM, Secretary of the Treasury. REDFIELD PROCTOR, Secretary of War. BENJAMIN F. TRACY, Secretary of the Navy. JOHN WANAMAKER, Postmaster-General. WILLIAM H. H. MILLER, Attorney-General. CHARLES E, MITCHELL, Commissioner of Patents. REGENTS OF THE INSTITUTION. (List given on the following page. ) OFFICERS OF THE INSTITUTION. SAMUEL P. LANGLEY, Secretary. Director of the Institution and of the U. S. National Museum. G. BROWN Goopr, Assistant Secretary. Ix REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. By the organizing act approved August 10, 1846 (Revised Statutes, Title LXX111, section 5580), ‘The business of the Institution shall be conducted at the city of Washington by a Board of Regents, named the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, to be composed of the Vice- President, the Chief-Justice of the United States [and the Governor of the District of Columbia], three members of the Senate, and three mem- bers of the House of Representatives, together with six other persons, other than members of Congress, two of whom shall be resident in the city of Washington, and the other four shall be inhabitants of some State, but no two of the same State.” REGENTS FOR THE YEAR 1891. The Chief-Justice of the United States: MELVILLE W. FULLER, elected Chancellor, and President of the Board Jan- uary 9, 1889. The Vice-President of the United States: LEVI P. MORTON. United States Senators: Term oxpires. JUSTIN S. MORRILL (appointed February 21, 1883)........--...- Mar. 3, 1891. SHELBY M. CULLOM (appointed March 23, 1885, and Mar. 28, 1889) .Mar. 3, 1895. RANDALL L. GIBSON (appointed Dec. 19, 1887, and Mar. 28, 1889) ..Mar. 3, 1895. Members of the House of Representatives: JOSEPH WHEELER (appointed Jan. 5, 1888, and Jan. 6, 1890).. Dec. 23, 1891. BENJAMIN BUTTERWORTH (appointed January 6, 1890) ..---- Dec. 23, 1891. HENRY CABOT LODGE (appointed January 6, 1890)........--.. Dec. 23, 1891. Citizens of a State: HENRY COPPEE, of Pennsylvania (first appointed Jan. 19, 1874). Dec. 26, 1891. JAMES B. ANGELL, of Michigan (first appointed Jan. 19, 1887).-Jan. 19, 1893. ANDREW D. WHITE, of New York (first appointed Feb. 15, 1888).Feb. 15, 1894. [ Vacancy. ] Citizens of Washineton: JAMES C. WELLING (first appointed May 138, 1884)..........--.- May 22, 2896. MONTGOMERY C. MEIGS (first appointed December 26, 1885) ....Dec. 26, 1891. Executive Committee of the Board of Regents. JAMES C. WELLING, Chairman. HENRY CoPpPpkE. MONTGOMERY C. MEIGS. x JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITH- SONTAN INSTITUTION. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, Washington, January 28, 1891. In accordance with aresolution of the Board of Regents of the Smith- sonian Institution, fixing the time of the beginning of the annual ses- sion on the fourth* Wednesday of January in each year, the Board met to-day at 10 o’clock A. M. Present, Chief-Justice FULLER, Chancellor of the Institution, Hon. J.S. MORRILL, Hon. S. M. CULLom, Hon. R. L. Grsson, Hon. H. C. LopGE. Hon. JOSEPH WHEELER, Dr. HENRY CoPPEE, Dr. JAMES C. WELLING, Gen. M.C. Meigs, Dr. ANDREW D. WHITE, and the Secretary. The minutes of the last meeting (January 8, 1890) were read and approved. A letter from Dr. J. B. ANGELL was read, stating the reasons for his absence from the meeting. The Secretary informed the Board that the following resolution had been passed by Congress and approved May 22, 1890: No, 23. Joint resolution to fill vacancies in the Board of Regents of the Smith- sonian Institution. Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That the vacancies in the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, of the class other than mem- bers of Congress, shall be filled by the appointment of Charles Devens, of Massachusetts, in place of Noah Porter, of Connecticut, resigned ; and by the appointment of James C. Welling, of Washington City, whose term of office has expired. Approved, May 22, 1890. The Secretary read a letter from Judge Devens, September 20, 1890, declining the honor of the position of one of the Regents of the Smith- sonian Institution, on account of a provision in the constitution of the State of Massachusetts, that ‘ Justices of the supreme judicial court “Resolution of the Board, January 8, 1890. xi JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. of the Commonweaith shall not hold any other place or office, or receive any pension or salary from any other State, government, or power whatever.” Judge Devens stated that were it not for this provision of law ‘ it would have afforded ” him “sincere pleasure to have been associated with the Regents and the Secretary in the administration of this great national trust for the diffusion of knowledge among men.” The Secretary stated to theBoard that since the receipt of this decli- nation he regretted to announce the death of Judge Devens very sud- denly on the 7th of the present month. Dr. Welling, chairman, presented the annual report of the executive committee for the year ending 30th June, 1890. On motion the report was accepted. On motion the following resolution was adopted: hesolved, That the income of the Institution for the fiscal year end- ing June 30, 1892, be appropriated for the service of the Instituticn, to be expended by the Secretary, with the advice of the executive com- mittee, upon the basis of the operations described in the last annual report of said committee, with full discretion on the part of the Secre- tary as to items of expenditures properly falling under each of the heads embraced in the established conduct of the Institution. Doctor Welling, on the part of the Executive Committee, stated that he had a resolution to introduce, which he desired to preface by a few remarks. The resolution of the committee, after certain verbal alterations, was adopted and is as follows: Resolved, That the action of the Executive Committee, during the recess of the Board, in authorizing the Secretary of the Institution to act for and in the name of the Regents in all matters pertaining to the National Zodlogical Park is hereby approved, and that the Regents authorize and direct the Secretary of the Institution to sign in their name all requisitions on the United States Treasury for the money ap- propriated by Congress for the National Zodlogical Park, and to approve for payment by the disbursing officer of the Smithsonian In- stitution all bills for services and supplies for said Park. On motion, the following resolution was adopted: Whereas Congress in the sundry civil act, approved August 30, 1890, made the following provision: “ Repairs, Smithsonian Building: For fire-proofing the so-called chapel of the west wing of the Smith- sonian Building, and for repairing the roof of the main building and the ceiling and plastering of the main hall of the building, $25,000, said work to be done under the supervision of the Architect of the Capitol with the approval of the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, and no portion of the appropriation to be used for skylights in the roof*nor for wellhole in the floor of the main building:” Therefore, Resolved, That the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution hereby authorize the Secretary of the Institution to sign all requisitions on the United States Treasury for the money appropriated by Congress (sundry civil appropriation act, approved August 30, 1890) for repairs, JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. XIII Smithsonian Building, to approve of plans submitted by the Architect of the Capitol, and to certify to all vouchers for payments by the Treasury Department for work done or materials furnished for said repairs. The Secretary called attention to an estimate he had submitted to Congress at the beginning of the session in relation to an astro-physical observatory as follows: Astro-physical Observatory, Smithsonian Institution.—Maintenance of astro-physical observatory, under the direction of the Smithsonian In- stitution, within the limits of the National Zodlogical Park, including salaries of assistants and the purchase of additional apparatus (Sub- mitted), $10,000. Novre.—An astro-physical observatory and laboratory exists now under every considerable civilized government but that of the United States which has none, except that the Institution commenced one on the most modest scale in 1888, which now occupies a temporary struc- ture on the grounds south of the Smithsonian building. Private citi- zens have subscribed $10,000 for an astro-physical observatory under the charge of the Regents, in the hope that Congress would maintain it, and the Smithsonian Institution proposes, in this case, to contribute the most recent apparatus to the value of $5,000 more. The sum now asked is to be applied to the completion of the plant and to pay the current expenses, including the salaries of three assist- ants, to be engaged in researches of great scientific and economic value, wholly distinct in apparatus, methods, and objects from the quite otherwise important ones of those of the U. S. Naval Observatory. It seems proper to state that the present appropriation is not asked for as an introduction to a larger one later, but that owing to the scale on which it is proposed to found and maintain this small establish- ment, no larger appropriation is contemplated as necessary for many years at least. He stated that if Congress saw fit to make the appropriation asked for, even if it did not set apart a site in the Zodlogical Park for the observatory, it would be desirable for the Board of Regents to take action in accordance with the suggestions made in his estimates and annual report. On motion, it was— Resolved, That if an appropriation should be made by Congress for the maintenance of an astro-physical observatory under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, the Regents will expend for this pur- pose from money already donated to them $10,000 for the construction of buildings for said observatory whenever a suitable site shall be desig- nated by Congress and obtained for the purpose, and will present to it suitable apparatus of the most recent construction, now in their charge, to the value of not less than $5,000. The secretary stated that the following bill had been passed in the Senate of the United States on the 5th of April, 1890: AN ACT to provide for the erection of an additional fireproof building for the National Museum. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That for an additional fire- proof building for the use of the National Museum, three hundred feet XIV JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. square, with two stories and a basement, to be erected by the Super- vising Architect of the Treasury, under the direction of the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, in general accordance with plans now on file with the Committee on Public Buildings and Grounds, on the southwestern portion of the grounds of the Smithsonian Institution, there shall be appropriated, out of any moneys in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, the sum of five hundred thousand dollars; said building to be placed west of the Smithsonian Institution, with its north front on a line with the north front of the present Museum building, and constructed as far as practicable, after proper advertise- ment, by contract or contracts, awarded to the lowest responsible bid- der, and all expenditures for the purposes herein mentioned shall be audited by the proper officers of the Treasury Department. The Committee on Public Buildings in the House of Representatives had made on the 9th of January, 1891, a favorable report on this bill, and it had been submitted to the House as follows: The Committee on Public Buildings and Grounds, to whom was re- ferred the bill (S. 2740) for the erection of an additional fireproof build- ing for the National Museum, submit the following report: To demonstrate the pressing necessity for additional accommodations for the vast amount of materials which has been accumulated for ex- hibition in the National Museum it will, perhaps, be sufficient to pre- sent the communication of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. It may also be stated that in view of acquiring a large quantity of the exhibit of the World’s Fair of 1892, as was the case in the exhibi- tion of 1876, such material being presented by various foreign countries, the pressing necessities are clearly demonstrated. Your committee therefore recommend the passage of the bill as amended. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, U.S. NATIONAL MUSEUM, Washington, April 29, 1290. Sir: I have the honor to lay before you certain considerations set- ting forth the necessity of an additional building for the National Museum and respectfully request your attention to them and your recommendation to Congress that the money necessary for this purpose be appropriated. A set of provisional plans for the proposed new building has already been prepared, and I understand that these are in the possession of your committee. They have been prepared with the utmost care and represent the results of exhaustive study, which has extended over several years, of the plans of the best modern museum buildings in Europe and America, nearly all of which have been personally inspected by officers of the Smithsonian Institution. The proposed building will contain about 220,000 square feet and the net area available for exhibition space and for storage and _ office room would be between five and six acres. The exhibition space would thus be nearly three times as great as in the present buildings, in which only 80,000 square feet are available both for exhibition and storage purposes. The total cost of the present building was $315,400, including expen- ditures for steam-heating apparatus, marble floors, water and gas fixtures, and electrical apparatus. JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. DW The proposed building can, I believe, be constructed at a propor- tionately smaller cost. Lam not prepared to state the exact sum which would be necessary for its completion; but, from estimates already fur- nished by responsible contractors, I feel sure that $500,000, if not suffi- cient to complete it, would be all that would be required to be expended during the present year, and I would earnestly urge the desirability of appropriating this amount for the purpose in question. The necessity for anew Museum building is caused by the large in- crease in the accessions to the collections. In 1882, the first year of active work in the present building, the Museum contained less than 195,000 specimens. This number has now been increased to nearly 3,000,000 specimens, and the increase during the past eight years has been more than half as large again as during the previous twenty -one years. The collections of the Smithsonian Institution and of the Govern- ment are especially rich in representations of the natural history of this country. =. se fee nee ee ene coe eens 410. 42 ———— $2, 840. 54 Total expenditures international exchanges .....-------------- 17,000.00 NORTH AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY. Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1891, ‘“ for continuing ethnological researches among the American Indians, under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, including salaries or com- pensation of all necessary employés” (sundry civil act, August 30, 1890). $40, 000. 00 Balance July 1, 1890, as per last annual report .................------.-- 12, 033. 08 52, 033. 08 The actual conduct of these investigations has been continued by the Secretary in the hands of Maj. J. W. Powell, Director of the Geological Survey. Ethnology:—Expenditures July 1, 1890, to June 30, 1891, Salaries or compensation : 2 ethnologists, at $3,000 per annum........-...--.-------- $6, 000. 00 1 archeologist, at $2,500 per annum, 10 months.......--.-- 2, 166. 60 1 ethnologist, at $2,400 per annum -................-..---- 2, 400. 00 1 ethnologist, at $2,400 per annum, 2 months .........--.- 400. 00 1 archeologist, at $2,400 per annum, 2 months.......--... 400. 00 1 ethnologist, at $2,000 per annum, 10 months ....-.-..--.-- 1, 666. 60 1 ethnologist, at $1,800 per annum, 2 months ...-......... 300. 00 1 ethnologist, at $1,800 per annum....................-..- 1, 800. 00 1 ethnologist, at $1,800 per annum, 11 months ...--...---- 1, 650. 00 1 assistant ethnologist, at $1,800 per annum, 5 months. ---. 750. 00 1 assistant archeologist, at $1,500 per annum, 2 months... 250. 00 1 assistant ethnologist, at $1,500 per annum, 10 months -.. 1, 250. 00 1 assistant ethnologist, at $1,400 per annum, 2 months -.-- 233. 32 1 assistant ethnologist, at $1,400 per annum, 10 months ... 1, 166. 60 1 assistant ethnologist, at $1,400 per annum, 10 months ... 1, 166. 60 1 assistant ethnologist, at $1,200 per annum, 2 months -.-- 200. 00 1 assistant ethnologist, at $1,200 per annum.-..----.......- 1, 200. 00 1 assistant ethnologist, at $1,200 per annum, 9 months ---. 950. 00 1 assistant ethnologist, at $1,200 per annum, 2 months -..-. 200. 00 1 stenographer, at $1,200 per annum, 10 months...--.-.-.. 1, 000. 00 1 stenographer, at $1,000 per annum, 2 months....-..----- 166. 66 1 assistant ethnologist, at $1,200 per annum, 2 months --.- 200. 00 1 assistant ethnologist, at $1,000 per annum, 8 months --.- 666. 64 1 assistant ethnologist, at $900 per annum, 2 months .-.---. 150. 00 1 assistant ethnologist, at $900 per annum .----.----.----- 900. 00 1 ethnologic aid, at $900 per annum, 2 months ...-...----- 150. 00 acopy ish, ab So00 permits. eee eerie 900. 00 1 copyistat $900 per annum, 10 monthss.22552-----4- ----- 750. 00 1 copyist, at’$720 per annum, 2 months202 222-222 ----- 120. 00 Lcopyastaatie720) per animus 2202. see nome aera aetna 720. 00 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. XXV Salaries or compensation—Continued. lemodekerrat 1 (20 per aM UM aio ne css a2 cS 52 <)oee since $720. 00 1 modeller, at $720 per annum, 10 months..........-....... 600. 00 1 modeller, at $600 per annum, 2 months ...-..---.--...... 100. 00 NiGglonks ain sOUOMPeL ANMUM sr coc oce~ cess cenyecee ce a eee oki 600. 00 1 clerk, at $600 per annum, 11 months 24 days..........-..- 590. 00 1 messenger, at $600 per annum, 8 months 7 days......---- 411. 29 1 modeller, at $480 per annum, 10 months.-... ........----- 400. 00 1 messenger, at $480 per annum, 3 months 8 days.....----- 134. 51 Unclassified or special jobs or contracts .........--..----- 271. 41 Moussa aries! OL COMPENsAblON ys sents 5-5-5 ees seis ee ee Heese $33, 710. 23 Miscellaneous: Dinsive LIN OTEXPONSES: 3. 20. <<22 2) cents 6 5 ee na < cicicle Se 2, 304. 76 MANS PONbATLOMNOL PLOPELbyi- saa os sate «== 5.0 ein eee ei= «nile 290. 20 MUO LOESWOSISUON CO nan tora Ueto a iae wcret ee ee acl secre nie 115. 16 EGLOWS UD DINGS ES = racer oem sieracle sade cn cecin saan aeenieeseccis 310. 71 Field supplies for distribution to Indians. ....-...-------- 93. 54 He untae GOnlalte mr Leases shies seat i= sence ein cscs cesiein's . 30 Hea HOMA LOR ye ahONball nn. 4 scie = «7s e) ae Sele ease cee teae SS sie araye 32. 26 OGLE ator UNA Bed AC AGE ONe BEBE EEE E tad Bese Sacer ese 352. 16 Stationery and drawing material ..................--.-.-. 309. 00 DU ErAONSOL TOPOS ses waeis can Lem oe kin acs acces oem 840. 35 OREN DE) eri wk eS SS Se a Sees ae en A ie ego 439. 96 OIUCeSUp PUGH aNd LEPAITAlc s. seaceeeia ne suyaces asic sc. -/s2 193. 41 RSG CIE CTA Fete fomrs crite ai cy dic a(asie = siaisiais lace a dyaalaiee Qucieee 174. 10 5, 505. 91 ANG en Gg aloe Wah ene Bae ein Reon Beary AHS b tet seiac bonne SAP INDO Cooe 39, 216. 14 Bonded railroad accounts settled by United States Treasury .........---- 42. 70 Total expenditure North American ethnology....-................-- 39, 258. 84 Sy Te yay eed had ven lee eye) Lee a es ey gee a AAS a ere Aro 12, 774, 24 Expenditures reclassified by subject-matter. Sign language and picture writing ...-......--.f-5-)----..0.: 4, 654. 40 ixplorations of mounds, eastern portion of United States. .... 4, 978.58 Researches in archxology, southwestern portion of the United RLGS eee ne etre ete ce Ee eee cee SUS ea oe NLS 8, 497. 82 Researches, languages of North American Indians --.----..---- 12, 412. 73 Malanes COL COOteDIneCbOle ne 9imonths and 20 days, atG40s6 so. = ee aes fe cena 386. 67 1 aided months; at $40 a0 oho ee oe oe eee Seta ln ere 160. 00 Lcollectors Symionitliss sabi G2 (Oe terse epee eter meee ee ectaye ot ees tara rete 600. 00 Preollector: M2 srvomt hie: peat sill OO 2 eee el eer 1, 300. 00 I) collector; 9: months nat $802 <2. 2 sees eee es | eee ee 720. 00 32, 410. 04 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Clerical staff: 1 chief clerk, 12 months, at $175 1 corresponding clerk, 12 months, at $158.33 1 registrar, 12 months, at $158.33 1 disbursing clerk, 12 months, at $100 ArdmanisMmanLAMOnths Auipea-dosocs acs co ececes- cose cece es sees 1 assistant draftsman, 12 months, at $40 1 clerk, 10 months, at $125; 2 months, at $100 1 clerk, 12 months, at $115 1 clerk, 12 months, at $115 1 clerk, 12 months, at $100 1 clerk, 12 months, at $90 1 clerk, 12 months, at $90 1 clerk, 12 months, at $83.33 1 clerk, 8 months, at $85; 4 months, at $75 1 clerk, 12 months, at $75 1 clerk, 12 months, at $70 1 clerk, 11 months and 18 days, at $60 1 clerk, 15 days, at $60 1 clerk, 12 months, at $60 1 clerk, 12 months, at $60 1 clerk, 8 months, at $55; 4 months, at $50 1 clerk, 12 months, at $55 1 clerk, 11 months and 29 days, at $55 1 clerk, 12 months, at $50 Glonke LArmonuliss anhoO mee ene ako Sones Stones Sinsae «55 cee se eee 1 stenographer, 10 months and 25 days, at $50 1 typewriter, 12 months, at $50 1 typewriter, 11 days, at $60 1 copyist, 10 months, at $60; 2 months, at $40 1 copyist, 12 months, at $55 1 copyist, 12 months, at $50 1 copyist, 12 months, at $50 1 copyist, 12 months, at $50 1 copyist, 12 months, at $50 INCOMING OMENS Ab 45 = ao. so Sano loc = nes oe aioe ae = ais Jas ale nis meio = 1 copyist, 12 months, at $40 1 copyist, 12 months, at $40 ‘copyIst, 1. months and. 16 days; at $40). - 0.2 ..5-53-s2-2-+5-.-25-- 1 copyist, 27 days, at $40 1 copyist, 8 months and 2 days, at $40 HRUOMVISbsMNONUUN: ubihio pai ot o- Ben a cae coe Santee ne Soe 1 copyist, 12 months, at $35 1 copyist, 1 month and 33 days, at $30 1 copyist, 12 months, at $30 1 copyist, 12 months, at $30 1 copyist, 1 month, at #30 we en ee eee eee ee ee ee ee Preparators : 1 artist, 12 months, at $110 1 photographer, 12 months, at $158.33 1 taxidermist, 12 months, at $125 1 taxidermist, 12 months, at $120 1 taxidermist, 12 months, at $80 Oe ee ee ee es ee ee Se ee ee Tere rere eee eee ee eee ee XXVii $2, 100. 00 1, 899. 96 1, 899. 96 1, 200. 00 999. 96 480. 00 1, 450. 00 1, 380. 00 1, 380. 00 1, 200. 00 1, 080. 00 1, 080. 00 999. 96 980. 00 900. 00 840. 00 696. 00 29. 03 720. 00 720. 00 640. 00 660. 00 658. 17 600. 00 600. 00 540. 32 600. 00 21 29 680. 00 660. 00 600. 00 600. 00 600. 00 600. 00 540. 00 480. 00 480. 00 460. 65 33. 55 322. 58 420. 00 420. 00 62.52 360. 00 360. 00 30, 00 34, 063. 95 1, 320. 00 1, 899. 96 1, 500. 00 1, 440. 00 960. 00 XXVIII REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Preparators—Continued. i taxidermist, 12 mouths,-at S60! sess seco as eee oe ee eee eee $720. 00 1 assistant taxidermist, 12 months, at $60 ..-:..-.-------------22--- 720. 00 1 assistant taxidermist, 3 months, at $40----2--22---2-------------- 120. 00 IpRepaveavores lem oxat brs evi C0) say ere te ee ee ane 1, 100. 00 Lepreparavol <2 mM ON tN tebe ho0 seer Meena eet ae ane eae ane 960. 00 Lp Repar aor ol3 orm ombhys yet cde eae eee ee ee 900. 00 iipreparator, l2imonbhs. abyh60 Sassen ess es ee eee 720. 00 li preparatorjo2 days, minto0sss 0 pee eee ae ee eee eee 51. 62 ispreparator, l90 days; ab poses. see c ses ene ae eee eee eee 570. 00 I spreparator, 1b days ab: $a-30 k= se see eee eee nee eee eee 48. 00 1 assistant preparator, 1 month, at $66; 1 month, at $59; 1 month, at $57.50; 1 month, at $57; 1 month, at $56.50; 1 month, at $55.50; 1 month, at $55; 1 month, at $52; 1 month, at $49; 1 month, at $47.50; iamonth at e451 montubattld on essere ene ener serra ee eee 644. 00 13, 673. 58 Buildings and labor: 1 superintendent of buildings, 12 months, at $187.50 ...........---.- 1, 650. 00 1 assistant superintendent of buildings, 12 months, at $90.......--- 1, 080. 00 Welmekorawaichs I 2hmontnsabisoUls soe ee seen eee ene eee eee 720. 00 icchiehof watchs w2pmonths.ab-S60)se.sescees -eeeeee eeoeer aero 720. 00 Lwabehman2emonbhs, atta 0e eee ere oe eee eee eee 600. 00 IL evi, WAKO MI Cys Sl) oak ens Kodo cesd cancel Sas Daca oolue 600. 00 iewatchman, 2 months, atiho0lsa-. as secs ace eer eee eee eee ee 600. 00 lewatchmean sla amnonthsabidio0s-2eee se eee sees eee ea neee ere ee 600. 00 awa rehiman el 2amomt his tabi m= eres eee see ete eee 600. 00 IDM eitelcuenenal 2 sou hi ae eee soe Sen oad oa ae Soadd osomasuoee 600. 00 il rratelamian el nmomiuiis: abiboseees eae mera rise e eee eee 780. 00 A Wehol cuore JOLIN CHE hI ee 684 Seas Wooton Gosbod UtSsoonaona sess 600. 00 dewabehmanel 2 momnthenattso0l === ne ee aes ee cere ceee nee oreo Seen 600. 00 watchman 2 nvonbhsratibois: = .-- erence eae ee eee ee eee 600. 00 IA Weioline ha evo Ents Ul eee eee ot ooece soos beosessa cence 600. 00 IeTyaelobansh eyed) wee, Chee Uae ee eiatoas on oenieadece SoYSaececsscce 600. 00 watchman Sumonths sabi hoOS see 255. -\2 2 ee ee ee oe eee re 400. 00 Le xvatchman: ddmonthsramd!27 days. jat po0 sees see eee eae ee eee 593. 55 watchman, 10) monthsand/47 days, at $45-- Sheena eee 518. 23 1 watchman, 11 months and 28 days, at $45_---222 2222222 e aa ae 537. 00 1 watchiman, 4 months, at $50; 5 months and 90 days, at $45 ...---- 555. 65 IAM ovaneha G)oranornvae eA eA oe 88 oS aseeoa ees coo scaoaseeoo esse 360. 00 islkalledJaborer d2imonthsat ho seseeseeess.- -- eee eee eee eee 600. 00 1 skilled laborer, 7 months, at $50; 3 months and 52 days, at $40; 10 Gays; BbiG2 A. 3.0 eee es see t eee ee ee eset es cosce eee ee eee 208. 26 liskalled laborer wWemonbhs abino 0 ees eeer ser eee ee ee ee ee eee 350. 00 i skilled laborer; M06 days atip2ess-c seer se aac Pies e eae eee 212. 00 1 skilled laborer, 5 months, at $45; 27 days, at $1.50 ......-...------ 265. 50 1 skilled laborer, 4 months, at $45; 2 months, at $46.50; 1 month, iskalledJlaborer/52 daysvab $22.2. ese eee a eee ache e eee 104. 00 Wakwied Na borer .2smonulis ab ad yee eee eee eee 90. 00 1 Jaborer, 6 months, at $46; 3 months, at $47.50; 3 months, at $43. -- 547. 50 i Taiboreryol days: atbile50)ss2 90-05 hats 5 meee re eee ee etal ee 472.50 laborer 2amonths vat G45) saps.) oe eee eee Mok ps ot ete. ene es 540. 00 1laiborer: 12imonbhs at $4025.22 5. see ee eee © ee 480. 00 1'laborer, J14 days, at $1.50). 262,30 ee cee pee eae eee ee ee eee 17. 25 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. XXIX Buildings and labor—Continued. 1 laborer, 3 months, at $44.50; 2 months, at $46; 3 months, at $43; SMONHS ah sel.oOs months abet /.00.~ 55. ose 5 o-oo se on $526. 50 IBID ONGInctaelAVeNU piso cae see Ace me seca as ono Se see e ace ee 36. 00 1 laborer, 2 months, at $43; 6 months, at $40; 2 months, at $41.50. _. 409. 00 1 laborer, 10 months, at $40; 2 months, at $41.50 ---..----- 22.22... 483. 00 HEL AVOLEL e esINOULHAs Ub) PLO! soso een ocle sa co cices cnceasesocs cous coce 480, 00 HLA OLER Ml OKClAaVS wr, cancels econ oo. nclscineicem sence. sasc.cmee 474. 00 1 laborer, 11 months, at $40; 1 month, at $41.50--..-.............-- 481.50 1 laborer, 276 days, at $1.50; 1 month, at $47.50; 1 month, at $48_.- 509. 50 1 laborer, 6 months, at $39; 1 month, at $37.50; 2 months, at $40.50; 2 months, at $36; 1 month, at $43.50. .......-..-...-.-.+.--.----- 468. 00 JM ADOLORs olOray ss: whips. Sincere ee octoicne. Se Se ewes oe Ses 474. 00 1 laborer, 9 months, at $40; 3 months, at $41.50.-..........-....... 484.50 Hiaporer, Jismonths 16 days, at $40. -. --- 226. cede cesta econ 460. 64 debs eneny pada Semel OO) 2. Saar aces: oialaisierieai-- see seceSiesae es 484. 50 1 laborer, 8 months, at $40; 2 months, at $41.50; 1 month, at $38.39. 401. 39 PE ORGE, Hen nGNV A Rb tb. OO! = cmicta te on wre ny wees oe as ass aa 391. 50 PAD OLSL ea (NGay Ss dosh le DO) ae ais <2) owe Jaea\= erecta = ayclas spina wii Sree 40. 50 IDOL On AUTO AY Se aul OO mmcrstewe Se Soo ciel ss sel='a so eesnc eee eee 31.13 TL VEY ovo RET RC LG NFOEC T pat LL Oe re 6. 00 MOLD OLEH LAVA cals lO () wemcto tn eaera cleat ya tase ates ee, to ha i ee 6.00 MEER eters hea Abiola) once on ceca ate oe cane emus Seine se oe eae 6. 00 HELA OLGE OAV Ss Aun hl 20's meta lec isjs asso wcee seas voce Sune emeeae 6. 00 2 UCL SETET GIG EN PRC UE SUG ee ee ere en eS 4.50 iatvendant,sLaanonuhs, at P40 =. ens cc ce sec esos se cance ces mace 480. 00 PCO ANY GL MONS sent P40). ot 2 a2 So oe teciyoce Hee teeccee oes seees 480. 00 SRM TE UIA GUS: 2b POU aa ca eicicesceis~ ete lee Sanwa s oe eee 360. 00 Pemnaior | ONUAS, Wh DOO ~ 22 ons. 05S sae asa aia oss co ss sda tse 360. 00 CGA eRe AnNONUNG Ul TOU). oma e aia ous 5 o=cieaio ee See oe semi ei ee ae 360. 00 Pe LGADOm eo NONURS ib Pos a2 on noice asco s esl oeeeiecatings cane sists 360. 00 Mesh wai ONYS, Bl Pl. on o- Sch ss eerane wees saSese seein case 313. 00 MER MMU MAYS, i ples oaths Sse USS be Aes cd Sate Ee leeed Saleen ce 300. 00 1 messenger, 4 months, at $25; 8 months, at $35 -_.....-...-.-.-... 380. 00 ihmesseurer, i month) sodays, at $20! 55.5.5 0..c5sss-e 2 oo- os ecmecns 43. 65 HEHOSREN PEL ele MONUNS, auiGso =. \yes eee os, cess oes seme ease tees 540. 00 An eSReM Oe ch WONLAS. Bh ilO 220 oo sce locos ech eee ose eas 300. 00 PRIESR OTC eL Lop MVONUNSs Abi nAO enc cae, oo ee eae ae come ne ceeret sec 300. 00 I messenger, 3 months 20 days, at $20 .-.--..-----.-----. ---- --scc 72. 90 PmrenseH peers MONTNS, Bb Gao tc ces Sap tse Sasa ewe ae oe see a cms 420. 00 imepsoapar: 12 menths, sinh... -6s5en% sone toe ee oes ee tse 540. 00 1 messenger, 4 months, at $20; 7 months 304 days, at $30.........-.- 319. 52 ISESSON CRE OL. GAYS au 82 sean cues foe oOo cee ese cee Deceeeeeods 41.70 HsMeEseNer ss Months lOldavs abig2y2 a2 255252. co occ woes ees sscece 208. 06 TAINESHON SOLO MONUNS ay TAO roe Gis swiosinie oe Cin niece sor ees ce aoeynecis 160. 00 HENGERONESE. 14 QUye Lu PaO) - coemeince ve Coane ciecoeo ee ee adeno seater 9. 08 HRINESSETI CEI eG) Uy Sey uuepL. aor seen cw es miems ase Se eiomcs wens nce 98. 75 31, 837. 91 Special Senmicesi by, jOb Or contract: -.--.-)-s--0.st<-s5< 505. SU ssa 1, 315. 28 Total services........ ge a a Bie eR a Se oe oe a 117, 300. 52 XXX REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. SUMMARY. Salaries, preservation of collections, 1891: DirechlOneenass] ac. cce cen esee cose Sone eee eere eee ose $3, 999. 96 S(O MUMOMUENIE Sooo 5S 5cd5 Shen moos eameadastess scan aocses be 32, 410. 04 @lericallistati ie sersee are == ener eee eee ee ae een te OG aoes PAE GE SOS ae eee ole ee 13, 673. 58 Buildings.and lahor- icon secns eee oa acon ieee 31, 837. 71 Special or contrach wOlk soe see seer ose aren ere eee 1, 315. 28 Total salariesor compensation = 22. 222455 22 Sere Sete eee ee $117, 300. 52 Miscellaneous: SiO MINS $46 6550 sooo cesses ca ones 65890505 ses SoU seage0CE 3, 052. 32 SHENDUOMWEIAY a S66 oaccos coon Sono bene Does eoES coconaceoesaoS 1, 653. 02 Specimen steesen sees sete Crees eer eee eee ease = aes 6, 211. 40 Books and periodicalsss2 725-2 5-jasnasa eee eee eee seine 825. 40 Travelisises.s ska aos soe cdescaosese ce so aet es sees ee eee 1, 114. 78 Hreivhtiandecartaeemeen tees eee eiees Seema ece 1, 862. 57 ———— 14,719.49 Total expenditure to June 30, 1891, for preservation of collections, foils hee one Rae Sas Se ne Seen Rae ABU LO nme oouOrS Sac 132, 020. 01 Balance, July 1, 1891, to meet outstanding liabilities ...... .....- 1 Bs) Se FURNITURE AND FIXTURES, JULY 1, 1890, TO JUNE 30, 1891. _ Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1891, ‘‘for cases, furniture, fixtures, and appliances required for the exhibition and safe keeping of the collections of the National Museum, including salaries or compensation of all necessary employés” (sundry civil act, August 30, 1890)........--..-..- $25, 000. 00 Salaries or compensation : 1 engineer of property, 6 months, at $175; 6 months, at $150. $1, 950. 00 isclorks l2hmonithis;saiti Sloe. = r= iereeee = eieeeee eeia 900. 00 1 copyist, 8 months, at $60; 4 months, at $55............... 700. 00 iecabinehmaker 209 days jaibito: o-- = -)- ee eeeee 897. 00 tL carpenter, 1 month 10 days, ab/g9l .... 5522-2 --- ee oer 120. 35 [carpenter yolo Gays wav, posse ea is eee a - See ee eee 939. 00 jicarpenter, O13 days, ahipo se -c-. sae -- - < = eee eee ieee 939. 00 Carpenter, slays, AG) bale ee ee eae eee 939. 00 dscanpenter, 807? days, abips 2. mace eee> — 5 on'- <2 ake 923. 25 I earpenter 1564 days, Atipooseec =a seer — em]. = =e eee ee 469. 50 {carpenter loot Gays ah) bore eee eemeee ree. = oe eee 550. 50 i carpenter (Os 0 AyS, duitone a-ak ee eae a ieee 211.50 ikcarpentter 28 Ways, Abi por sea alee erastsiesiele eens cl = yee 84. 00 (carpenter odayie yal pone maa eee eee SSG eG HEEOOSSC 57. 00 AICATPCNbLEL OO Cay Sialul pores eeare eee reser eer 108. 00 painter, d2tmonths; at) $65) S222 eee esas ee ee 780. 00 Liskilled laborer, 313 days, at $2 -2sscs-o 2s. see ee =e 626. 00 i skilled laborer, 2564 days, at\$22- 2225 52.-- o-s2-- 2 o5---- 513. 00 iskulleddaboren, 209Pidars) atip2iescs sess eee eee eae 418. 50 skilled laborer, 4: months; at ¢5052-5-2- see eee aoe eee - 200. 00 iskilledMaborer.> months, atito0leeces nese eee ee eeree sere. 250. 00 1 skilled laborer, 3 months, at $45; 1 month, at $46.50; 1 month at $4950) ses. eae Seek eee Eee ee ree aetna 231. 00 1 skilled laborer, 8 months, at $45; 1 month, at $48; 1 month, abigiG OO Rests aes ie iielos Insite ee mise sie eee wells heeeciace eine 454, 50 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE, XXXI Salaries or compensation—Continued. iWlaborers 2MOntas apiesO cee eco toc qscsicess specs o35 ces pes bse ae sh tic tae sees ee ee 448, 08 AMES ALAN SOC a —. o- aig es © cle eale viele eRe ewe = ie oe 330. 52 CHIE Se SOc oa ARR BE Se 6 HOS TERE RO ESE iat ae eee Been aaa 954. 56 Hardware and fittings forcases'-..- ..--..-:2----- 2-22 -<<-- 707. 13 WROD ence ila seen oS ne yas cnsmiaes sac ume eo memerse cies 73. 67 Clots COTTON MOU eo 1-0 5.01) oes erat o yscleaicide sea pad eet 108. 03 AGL AA STAI Sere ee lene Pes S nis'ae as cone aa Sonn atte de ew eee sess 5. 00 PREETI STN OS see eter ere ee ev apt AE eyo een AIS ote etnies ole g5i0' 14, 24 —— 7,096.94 Total expenditure, July 1, 1890, to June 30, 1891, for furniture and PESPUTOR USO Rae ao os lace le ew See Sac ec ee see leans Salse se toe 21, 309. 46 Balance, July 1, 1891, to meet outstanding liabilities........-..--... 3, 690. 54 HEATING, LIGHTING, ELECTRIC AND TELEPHONIC SERVICE, JULY 1, 1890, TO JUNE 30, 1891. Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1891, ‘ for expense of heating, lighting, electrical, telegraphic, and telephonic serv- ice for the National Museum” (sundry civil act, August 30, 1890) .... $12, 000. 00 Salaries or compensation: RPM ON SL ns MON UNS cul pl Lome a tasa sarasyaio semi a'a afte clers sis'n $805. 00 Iireman iA mMonuhs watipoasecsece ese te sce coee ce Sees 600. 00 Jenrenianol month srat POO =e oe snjec hola Se ctes ste cecsetsens 600. CO 1 fireman, 10 months, 594 days, at $50 -.....-.....---....-- 597. 56 i fireman, 9 monthsio days; ab: $50)... 2... 22-23. sce eee 458. 33 i firemaneo months 15 days) atepo0) 5-52-22 5-22 cea 424.19 1 nremnan. Month 1! dayswat pa0! oo. 2 oes es See BSS 72.58 1 telephone clerk, 12 months, at $60...........-....--+--- 720. 00 1 assistant telephone clerk, 12 months, at $35....-.....--- 420. 00 IMA DOLED SeOOaysy Ab Gl O00) os socn ose aos eee ace wee se 339. 00 Special-servicecOntraGtors = os .0o..5 sete Fae oee ee ee 48. 25 PrePenareULe tol SAlamles) a= Sew See we as Sse esc asc 5, 084. 91 \) XXXII REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE, General expenses: Coal amdiswood: se. aya2 10 cio na one Sasson ysaasy siete aioe $2, 766. 96 Gass) sessiaescncs Se soot aee Sade oaenee ee aes 1, 233. 84 Mele phon ese cam. soe ae ee ene eee eee 604. 40 WlectricAwOnk . Jao feston coe oe ates eee eee 7.50 Blectric supplies. ss.4225.2 eae sae eee 905. 68 Rental o£ call boxes <2 522. s- esac ee ee eee 100. 00 Heating repairs and work, heating supplies. ---- 448. 95 TLAVOL Se oie jo oie se nemeiep.ec mic ee io acieciee eee sse= 5. 42 = $6, 072. 75 Total expenditures, July 1, 1890, to June 30, 1891, for Ihe@amumlp;, Michio GUC eestor ls ee oer $11, 157. 66 Balance, July 1, 1891, to meet outstanding liabilities.....-.....--- 842. 34 POSTAGE, JULY 1, 1890, 10 JUNE 30, 1891. Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1891, “ for postage stamps and foreign postal cards for the National Museum” (Sundry, ‘civil ach, Auenst OO) 1800) nso 2s ees oes =e ee eee $500. 00 City post-office, for postage and postal cards..........-.-...-------...--- 500. 00 Appropriation all expended July 1, 1891. PRINTING, JULY 1, 1890, TO JUNE 30, 1891. Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1891, ‘for printing labels and blanks for the use of the National Museum, and for ‘Bulletins’ and annual volumes of the ‘ Proceedings’ of the National IMMS@ une e Sear issnie Sans selec Stee cee cise pee ee ee ee 10, 000. 00 Bulletins Nos. 36, 38, 39; Special Bulletin No.1 -...........--..- $1, 100.27 Proceeding syn ViOlSsexaNy XT, CMV ecto em eeeele a eee eT ene 3, 398. 56 Eaciras et romerepOnusecee: ec tees see semiteciee ete tee ioor nee ats 783. 46 Circullarsjs=.2ececcetccscscs DSSS dois Sas apeweieee cee See cwee eee 3. 93 Mabelssforispecimensen. «cc «ole sso oslo silo pee as Se ere ee 2, 438. 81 Letter heads, memorandum pads, and envelopes..-.-.-..--..--- 170. 21 Blamiks ieee sorton cin sence cis niclesiclns <5 ts ote nie ciateineysiomte ere zee 682. 26 OR eramG yon gO) 3 35 08 Sabo codioos pe eeEe aes Soteknaseinas soo" 337. 85 ConeressionaliReconrds) seer reese seen soe ee eee 20. 00 Total expenditure, July 1, 1890, to June 30, 1891, for print- ing, National Museuimeaceer seccere-oe-o co eeeeeeee sees ae eee 8, 935. 35 Balances duly 15 1SOUy | eevee atten tein <== = > eee ae ee ee 1, 064. 65 PERKINS COLLECTION OF PREHISTORIC COPPER IMPLEMENTS. Appropriation by Congress ‘‘to enable the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution to purchase from Frederic 8, Perkins, of Wisconsin, his col- lection of prehistoric copper implements” (deficiency act, September SOA S90) sese eke te sesiseie ceases aoe eee ee ee ieciae ec 2 7, 000. 00 F. S. Perkins, collection of prehistoric copper implements.--.-..-------.- 7, 000.00 (Paid direct by Treasury Department to F. 8. Perkins.) PAYMENT TO DAUGHTERS OF THE LATE JOSEPH HENRY, SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. Appropriation by Congress ‘‘ for payments to the daughters of the late Joseph Henry, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, for valuable public services rendered by him” (sundry civil act, March 3, 1891) ----- 10, 000. 00, Payment of above direct by Treasury Department to Mary, Helen, and Caroline Henry, daughters of Prof, Joseph Henry.--.---.--------------- 10,000, 00 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. XXXII PURCHASE OF THE CAPRON COLLECTION OF JAPANESE WORKS OF ART. Appropriation by Congress ‘for the purchase of ‘the Capron collection of Japanese works of art,’ now on temporary deposit in the National Mu- seum, at Washington, District of Columbia” (sundry civil act, March 0 LETT. S13 Re es a rege or gn #10, 000. 00 Payment of above direct to the heirs of Horace Capron by the Treasury [DROWN te case 22.556 shoD ese oc SerHeooes Can. 465 Soon nUSacUBESn as Sroe 10, 000, 00 OTHER MUSEUM APPROPRIATIONS, PRESERVATION OF COLLECTIONS, 1888-’89. Ealance, July 1, 1890; ad per last annual report: ----: 2... -2---5-- -=-+---- $15.18 Expenditures from July 1, 1890, to July 1, 1891: SOU OR see sone alec oe Sos e Se SoS So Saw cleas sess seek $13. 00 Bree Mr tans Ste haere nao. ann clente a aists) = OME el iria sated ae 2.15 ——— 15.15 Py AATEC Or UUM ON ese hee ee rs A er prs Sean ei See les fey capa Sheed . 03 Carried, under the action of Revised Statutes, section 3090, by the Treasury De- partment, to the credit of the surplus fund, June 30,1891: PRESERVATION OF COLLECTIONS, 1890. Balance, July 1, 1890, as per last annual report............2..2.:..:------ $3, 848. 76 Expenditures from July 1, 1890, to July 1, 1891: MCIUGUOLM SOM eae os aaa ei anies Ue $100. 00 Tuovlector, 4:months, aAbo200.. 2000.22.50. 1222422 800. 00 ICOM YIRGTS AVS, iainplesO sooo. oe heeds one ee 12. 00 Special-contract work .-..--.-- SGl wet Se te Cee bo sete 634. 78 $1, 546. 78 SHO aL fS; he 2 eet eg Ota hs i eee en I me ee See 317. 90 SSE TTICO) ONG IS\ i ee aa Ns Bi re Sag 75. 19 PSG GTi see fy na Ser tA SNe Sete ta See el cave cis scot 1, 132. 50 CRW alae i RR ea Pe 326. 39 LOST 08 Tye a A ai gee cea ee eae le Ree 244, 27 TCI See eee cre ee Re re IS NRE Na a a ae ee cece eae 190. 21 PS MOUCIEEhO sy UNV tls ols cape 28. Sei cate Crem eee. Sena a Mere er eae 3, 833, 84 BalaMoe alive sols secant ace See eens eae esis ees ae eee ees 14. 92 Statement of total expenditures of the appropriation for preservation of collections, 1890. Expenditures. From July 1, | From July 1, 1889, to June 1890, to June Lotal'tod une 30. 1890. 30, 1891. 30; 1800. UE ELSES Giga age a Fe ee $118, 378. 99 $1.546 78 UTD COR SA See eo et RE ee I ie arte aie ee 4, 952. 67 317. 90 ULC CY Se See a eae =e pal aR ee a eR 2, 307. 60 15.79 SPRPACIII ONIN trOetetc cnt eee eines ie ceca oo Jatin 5, 141. 48 ~ 32-50 (SURES cp es a a es Se. Sa ee eee *1. 646. 42 326.39 RI ENR ee og ata, | er ATI Sec SR asc cae aten ute 2, 416. 92 244527 Rai OS rete er Sine oe nig See ec Sea a wie Sa ee ese ome 1, 307. 61 190. 21 MRT ai ek SS adc Setar tee oP es tes es och 136, 151. 69 3, 833. 84 139, 985. 08 * Disallowance, 45 cents. H, Mis. 334, pt. 1—u11 XXXIV REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Furniture and fixtures, 1889. Balancers per lasteanmuall r6pOLb as. ser as cele eee ee ee $0. 40 Carried under the action of Revised Statutes, section 3090, by the Treasury De- partment, to the credit of the surplus fund, June 30, i891. Furniture and fixtures, 1890. Balance July 1, 1890; as per last annual report-2-- -25-<-2- 2 s2es-e eases $1, 192. 41 Expenditures from July 1, 1890, to June 30, 1891: Spectaliservilcesy 3 0 So ae oe aera eal tee ener ee Taam Seer aes $10. 00 Destens and drawings foricases):--'.. 255.2 = ss es ee ee 40. 75 Tnanres stands; @uC) 22222 veeec 2c sar sete ees oe ee eee 11. 60 (CHENS ake Ret ates Aa. oep cee Genoa Seas Oho ameree eens sae 105. 32 Hard Ware (7.2 ote se se sae oo nse se ees area eee eee 333. 22 MOOISH He Aa Nacrhoe ke es esis Sans to eae eee A area 4.70 IDLUIN ROR ee sete ee Co OMe nase suadasos a ado cEtomon BEET aaaae 183. 21 PAIMGS S22 Sa soe meee ee ss Sinai eee See et yea 43. 55 Officettumrn turers 2. 2ee 3. Sen eer oes cae meee 63.17 Lamy Gael GC See aad eae Stata ae erat ini te ete cata eee 12.50 Rubber eg O00 Siae erase sae eee acl eee ee ee re eee arte 19. 41 AYDEN Caen 6 Oa Soa scok shes solbegowcomeod> coan asses cocesease 339. 75 ravellinpiexpensesmscer ey terri oe renee ere rea ree pee 4.95 Motaltexpenditureis isi ssc saeco See a eee See ee eee eee 1, 192513) Balance Jallysl USO os Asiee Sb sae eeri eee eee eee .28 Statement of total expenditures of appropriation for furniture and fixtures, 1890. From July 1, From July 1, | Total to June 1889,to June | 1890.to June |~”: ‘ 30, 1890. 30,1891. | 30; 189T. SalATiOS cose + none sce oe a ete eise sles seeseaa = alors rede Sse | $15, 926. 21 | $10.00 | $15 936. 21 Exhibition cases ---.- Renee set eel ee eerie Sa ee | 4366s tcl eeeae ates neo eee 4, 366577 Designs and drawings for cases .-.-.------- socshoseosdas 57. 00 | 40. 75 | 97.75 Drawers PLANS, «VED ONES yaya apse estes ease estaba naar 2 i= 93)/948))| 2 Soseeas eee 931. 48 Mrames= stands: OtCisc=. .cee- cn eteeerecee woe ee etree est 158. 84 11. 6O 170.44 (MASK Hee eet aesays seein. = see SecA aQS aOR NS SSE 2, 325. 30 nee) J MTR a UH 8 a tee Roe Roh nap Ga aOBL Ores se Sb eo. cn sos OmaOneeoe 1.85 Statement of total expenditures of appropriation for heating, lighting, etc., 1890. a ap ea From July 1, | From July 1, E 1889, to June | 1890, to June Dome aunts 30. 1890. 30, 1891. z : See es ca wat i se - So RIAAG RT ene ee ee | $5, 114. 87 MPN EO OU eet ee ane a aioe acne oie wa ces ee es a mcnlas Dao eete Onl seein series 2, 058. 26 UPS -- 2-5. un. } om Octavo or| Quarto o1 Total. | smaller. | larger. | | is WGI) a Se Se ae ie eee er ea | 1, 844 | 837 2, 681 ATA OLSVOULINGS seeteeecens ane ce Soe sisson ce eee | 9,439 | 11,086 | 20,525 en esa. eet ee Sl ee oh ad 3 eit 3, 130. | 639 3, 769 NETO ioe 6 SON IBE RC GOCOnS Geee Seine sae IEE Sete Bea eenets eee gee [eae eee Soe o19 ANGI ES 75 eee 22s Ok i eee ee ee Cee [ee a [Sais ers Seer 27, 294 12 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Of these ACCESSIONS, 7,720 (namely 424 volumes, 6,413 parts of volumes, and 883 pamphlets) were retained for use at the National Museum Li- brary, and 754 medical dissertations were deposited in the Library of the Surgeon-General, U.S. Army; the remainder were promptly sent to the Library of Congress on the Monday following their receipt. The reading room continues to be well used by those who have ocea- sion to consult the current scientific literature. As the number of boxes available for holding periodicals is strictly limited by the size of the room the only way to make room for the installation of new and desirable journals is to remove those which are found to be least consulted or which have ceased publication during the year. This was done by the librarian. during the spring of 1891. Four hundred and fifty-six boxes are now occupied, leaving sixteen to be filled by new accessions during the next fiscal year. Of the journals removed from the reading room, such as would be of perma- nent use in the scientific work of the Institution were transferred to the Library of the National Museum; the remainder were forwarded to the Library of Congress. It will be remembered that when I first became connected with the Institution as assistant secretary I formulated a plan, the details of which will be found in my report for 188788, for enlarging the acces- sions to the library so as to cover more completely the field of scientific knowledge, and also for completing the series of scientific journals already in the possession of the Institution which for any reason are imperfect. As stated in my report for 1889, the work of executing the plan was commenced on June 1 of that year and has been assiduously carried on ever since. It is nowrapidly approaching completion, and it is esti- mated that if will require but a few months of the next fiscal year to bring the work as originally planned to a termination. So rapid, how- ever, has been the advance of scientific thought in the interval since the preparation of the list that, although the utmost vigilance has been ex- ercised in watching for the appearance of new scientific journals, it is probable that very many such have newly appeared which have escaped notice. A certain amount of supplementary work will, therefore, be re- quired to make the exchange lists conform with the present status of the periodical literature of science and in a very minor degree of art. A list of the new exchanges will be found in the Appendix (Report of the Librarian), which also includes a list of important accessions outside of the regular serials. It may be remembered that in my report for 1887~88, I spoke of a certain limited number of books, not forming part of the Smithsonian deposit in the Library of Congress, obtained by purchase from the Smithsonian fund and retained at the Institution under the name of the ‘“‘Secretary’s Library.” These books are mostly, but not exclusively, books of scientific refer- t REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. £3 ence, certain art serials being included among them, and though all are kept in the Secretary’s office they are at the service, under certain neces- sary restrictions, of all connected with the Institution. This collection numbers at present nearly 300 volumes, and while it would be highly desirable to enlarge it still further, this is rendered almost impracticable, because the Secretary’s office is already filled nearly to its utmost capacity. It is not possible either to place the collection of works of reference under the immediate charge of the librarian, as the rooms which he oecupies are already over-crowded, while the room on the same floor, which would naturally be the one to which the library would be extended, is occupied as a shipping office by the Bureau of International Exchanges. It is to be hoped in the interest of the library, then, as well as of the Bureau itself, that Congress will provide the additional quarters which have been asked for the latter. MISCELLANEOUS. Portraits of Regents.—The Institution is under obligation to the Chief of the Bureau of Engraving and Printing fer copies of engraved por- traits of several former Regents of the Institution, which had been pre- pared for official purposes. Statue of Robert Dale Owen.—A bill appropriating $20,000 for a statue of Hon. Robert Dale Owen, of Indiana, who was among the first and most actively interested Regents of the Institution, was introduced in the Senate on December 9, 1890, by the Hon. Daniel W. Voorhees, and yas passed on the same day by the Senate, but failed to secure favor- able action in the House of Representatives. Statue of Prof. Baird.—\ have the honor again to call the attention of the Regents to the bill which was passed by the Senate in February, 1888, providing for a bronze statue of Prof. Baird in recognition of the distinguished services rendered his country, and I venture to express the hope that this subject may receive the earnest consideration of lis many warm friends in both Houses of Congress. Capron collection of Japanese works of art.—An appropriation of $10,000 for the purchase of the Capron collection, which has been for several years on deposit in the Museum, was included in the sundry civil act for the year 189192, thereby securing this valuable collection of Japanese works of art to the Government. Perkins collection of prehistoric implements.—The deficiency bill ap- proved October 1, 1890, contained an appropriation of $7,000 to enable the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution to purchase of Mr. Fred- erick S. Perkins his collection of prehistoric implements. This sum was duly paid to Mr. Perkins and the collection received and deposited in the National Museum. Meteorological records.—In accordance with arrangements made with the Chief Signal Officer, U. S. Army, Gen, A. W. Greely, the meteoro- 14 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY: logical records, forming a portion of the archives of the Smithsonian Institution, and representing a considerable amount of work accom- plished by it in earlier days, have been temporarily transferred to the Signal Office, and deposited there in a fireproof vault for custody and storage. These records serve to carry back the meteorological obser- vations of the Signal Service as far as the year 1840. They consist of: 346 bound volumes of monthly reports by observers from 1840 to 1873, inclusive. 6 volumes of records made at the Smithsonian Institution. 47 pasteboard boxes of miscellaneous records by locality. 64 paper packages of miscellaneous records, scraps, ete. 15 miscellaneous note-books. 1 large package of manuscript folio sheets, observations, survey northwestern lakes. 7 royal octavo bound volumes, printed reports. Bequest of Dr. J. Rk. Bailey—Information has been received that Dr. J. R. Bailey, late of Olmstead, Ky., has devised his library to the Smithsonian Institution, and the necessary steps will be taken to acquire possession. Assignment of rooms for scientific work.—A. basement room especially suited for delicate physical measurements on account of its freedom from tremor has been used by the officers of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey for making pendulum observations. Stereotype plates.—Owing to the more urgent demands of current work, but little progress has been made in examining and re-arranging the stereotype plates of the publications of the Institution. I hope to make arrangements during the coming year to push this work to an early completion. The stereotype plates and engravers’ blocks are cheerfully placed at the disposal of publishers for supplementing or illustrating scientific works privately issued. U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM. In my representations to Congress during recent years I have felt called upon to insist upon two points: First, that the collections have increased so rapidly that additional space is required for their proper administration, and that unless more space be provided, the growth of the national collections must, to a large extent, be interfered with; and secondly, that the collections, although growing rapidly in certain directions, are not developing in such a symmetrical and consistent manner as is essential to the necessities of the work. I feel justified in assuming that it is the intention of Congress that the National Museum of the United States shall be, as far as a museum can be, a worthy exponent of the natural resources and scientific achievements of the nation, that it shall be worthy of the attention of visitors to the capital, and that it shall perform its proper functions as one of the scientific departments of the Government, and shall also REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 15 promote the scientific and educational interests of the country at large. This being granted, it is essential not only that the collections should grow, and grow rapidly, in order to keep pace with the material and intellectual development of the country, but also that a competent staft of curators should be constantly at work, developing by scientific study and publishing under the auspices of the Government the facts which are essential to the correct understanding of the material under their charge, preserving the collections from destruction, and arranging and classifying them in such a manner that they shall be immediately ac- cessible to the students of science from all parts of this country and from abroad, who are constantly visiting Washington for the purpose of consulting the collections of the Government in connection with their own scientific studies. On this account it is a critical time in the history of the Museum. Such is the competition for material that the National Museum of the United States is unable to hold its own not only with foreign govern- ments and with local museums in other American cities, but is even at a disadvantage when its collections are compared with those of many private collectors. For instance, there are in this country several pri- vate collections of minerals, archeological objects, as well as of speci- mens reijating to the various departments of zodlogy, the promoters of which can seemingly afford to pay more for any choice objects needed to complete their collections than can the Government of the United States. It is somewhat mortifying to see collections of American ob- jects, which a few years hence will undoubtedly be recognized by every- one as essential to be preserved in the National Museum of this country, taken away to foreign countries because their value is more highiy appreciated there than at home. Whatever may be considered the proper functions of the National Museum of the United States in regard to other matters, it will always be expected that in the national capi- tal the collections illustrating ethnology and the natural resources of this continent will be fully as imposing as in other similar establish- ments, and that the national collections should compare favorably with those in other American cities, and will in respect to American material surpass those in any foreign capital. It is not my wish to depreciate the importance of what has already been done by the Government for the advancement of scientific research, for in most of the fields in which really serious work has been accom- plished, the National Museum is at least equal, and often superior to, any other in the United States, but the effort to maintain the collections on this footing will be much more difficult hereafter than in the past. 1t would be unfortunate if students of American natural history and ethnol- ogy, who have hitherto been obliged to come to Washington in connec- tion with their studies, should hereafter find it more advantageous to consult private collections in other parts of this country. Growth of the collections—The growth of the national collections 16 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. since 1881, when the new building was completed, has been probably unprecedented in the history of museums; and this has rendered it nec- essary to employ a force of men proportionately larger than is found in most museums, in order to utilize the material to the best advantage. Notwithstanding this fact, the aggregate appropriation made by the United States for museum purposes is smaller than that of many foreign governments. The Museum building has now been occupied one decade, and during this time the total number of specimens of all kinds catalogued and ready for exhibition or study has increased from about 193,000 to more than 3,000,000. Curatorships.—The scientific departments of the Museum are not yet all supplied with curators. The number of separate departments and sections is now 33, and less than one-third of this number is under the charge of curators paid from the Museum fund and able therefore to devote all their time to Museum work. By far the larger number of the scientific departments is under the charge of officers of other depart- ments of the Government service (for instance, the Geological Survey, the Department of Agriculture, the Bureau of Ethnology, and the Fish Commission), who, although they render most important services in the way of supervision and general direction of the work, are necessarily so occupied with their own peculiar administrative duties, that they can not devote very much of their time to the development of the collec- tions under their charge. Three important zodlogical departments have for a great many years been under the charge of officers of the Fish Commission. Under the administration of Professor Baird, who was at once Commissioner and head of the Museum, it was considered proper that they should give a considerable portion of their time to Museum work, which was directly tributary to the results which Professor Baird was desirous of producing in connection with the service under his charge. Soon after the death of Professor Baird it became necessary for these men, although still retaining their positions as honorary cura- tors in the Museum, to devote nearly all of their time and attention to matters relating to the Fish Commission. If it were possible to employ experienced men as assistants in these departments, as well as under the other honorary curators, important advantages would manifestly result. At all events, it is absolutely necessary to have a curator. or assistant curator appointed to take charge of the work in each depart- ment, in order that the material collected at considerable expense by the Government shall be properly arranged and identified, and that the results of the work shalll be published for the advancement of science. This, however, can not be done until Congress shall see fit to make more liberal appropriations for the maintenance of the Museum. Increase in correspondence.—Within the past three years there has been an astonishingly large increase in the number of calls upon the REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 17 Museum, very largely by Members of Congress and through them by their constituents, for scientific information of all kinds, for collections in various departments of natural history (scientifically arranged and named, for the use of schools and colleges), for books and services of many kinds, including the examination and identification of minerals, ores, animals, plants, etc. It is quite safe to say that during the last three or four years the correspondence of the Museum has quadrupled. Special pains have been taken not only to reply to all communica- tions in full and with great care, but to reply promptly, in accordance with the constantly increasing demands for rapid action on the part of the public officers in Washington. Salaries.—The salaries paid to employes, especially clerks, copyists,and skilled mechanics, are much less than those which are paid for similar services in the Executive Departments. Many of our most useful assist- ants have been drawn away from the staff and called to places in the Executive Departments, where, although the responsibilities are no greater, they receive much larger rates of pay. It is quite essential for the efficiency of the service that the stipend of persons of this class should be increased—not necessarily to the amounts current in the Execu- tive Departments, but to such figures as will render it possible to retain useful employés after they have been laboriously trained and prepared for their work. Within a year or two, three stenographers and type- writers have been drawn away from the office of the Assistant Secretary in charge of the Museum. Need of additional assistance.—It is absolutely necessary to have the collections taken care of as fast as they are received, and although they san not all be prepared for exhibition, owing to lack of assistance as well as want of exhibition space, yet the mere preservation of the specimens from destruction implies very great labor, especially in the case of zoological objects. Taking into consideration the fact that there are now about thirty-three distinct scientific departments in the Museum, to each of which, on an average, three persons at least are attached, it will be readily understood that, after all the expenses have been met for the preservation, care, and exhibition of the specimens, very little remains for maintaining the administrative force. The need of additional intel- ligent clerical assistance is felt in every branch of the administrative work. For instance, to the regwar duties of the chief clerk’s office has been necessarily added the management of the financial matters con- nected with the preparation of the exhibit for the World’s Columbian Exposition. In the division of correspondence the increase of work has been very great, and no less than 10,000 letters are now required to be written where 2,500 sufficed only a very few years ago. A similar in- crease of work might be cited in all the other administrative offices, but the means for providing adequate assistance are not at hand. In this way it has happened that the appropriations have been largely used in the maintenance of the scientific departments to the great disadvantage and. H. Mis. 334, pt. 1——2. 18 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. impairment of the administrative work of the Museum. These matters have already been represented in strong terms in previous reports, and the Secretary has taken every available means of calling attention to the dangers which beset the National Museum owing to the insuffi- ciency of the appropriations made by Congress for its maintenance. It is only necessary to add in this place that the sum mentioned in the statement accompanying the report for 1889 (pp. 35-38), as then required for services, was prepared in response to a Senate resolution asking for a “schedule of the classified service of the officers and employés of the National Museum,” and represented the needs of the Museum at that time. Since then there have been large increases in almost every de- partment of the Museum work, and if I were now preparing a similar statement, I should find it necessary to make a corresponding increase in the totals of the several divisions of the schedule referred to. The operations of the Museum in all of its departments for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1891, are fully discussed in the report of the Assist- ant Secretary in charge of the Museum, and therefore reference to the work of the Museum will here be restricted to some of the most impor- tant general features. Accessions.—Ten years ago the National Museum moved into a new building, and the present year thus marks the close of a very important decade in its history. The increase in the collections during this period has been unexpectedly large, the accessions from all sources now num- bering 3,028,714 specimens. In 1882, when the first census of the col- ections was made, the total number of specimens was estimated at less than 195,000. The totally inadequate space provided for this vast accu- mulation of material has been so frequently commented upon in pre- vious reports, that it is not necessary to reiterate the urgent recom- mendafions which have been made to Congress for another building. Name of department. 1882. | 1883. | 1884. |11885-’86.| 1886-’87. | 1887-88. 1888-’89. |21889-"90.| 1890-91. Arts and industries: | Materia medica....|.-...-. 4, 000 4, 442 4, 850 5, 516) 5, 762 5,942) 35,915 6, 088 IMM est sooseceooalodaence 1, 244 1, 580 822 877 877 911 apa tlal ip aol SEIMES Gheosaosecc|sposnedisacssec 2, 000 3, 063 3, 144 3, 144 8, 222 3, 288 3, 288 INV NES) Soe ooonaddllocae co ollesessee 5, 000 9, 870 10,078; 10, 078 10, 078 10,080} 10, 080 Animal products-..|--.----|.------ | 1, 000 2, 792 2, 822 2, 822 2, 948 2,949 2, 994 Graphic arts... S92) saeco bso eA 8 eS oetacs sal eeeoet agate 4600 974 Transportation and) CNP INGeLIN Ge see | 2 eel eee Seeabs >. Saseeeeee sconsoane baesceced| (= s-coonc 41, 250 1, 472 Naval architecture-|....---|------- (ht) aeeodesse Boseaceesl aera 600 5 600 5 600 Historical relics ...|.......]------- Peeieat 1, 002 Coins, medals, pa- | 18, 634 14, 640 14, 990 20, 890 23, 890 DEW IMONGY, GtC =| see |e inarereeee 1, 005 | Musicalinstruments|.....--|-.-.--- [ake as See 400 417 427! 427 447 542 1 No census of collection taken. 2 The actual increase in the collections during the year 1889-’90 is much greater than appears from acomparison of the totals for 1889 and for 1890. This is explained by the apparent absence of any increase in the Departments of Lithology and Metallurgy, the total for 1890 in both of these depart- ments combined showing a decrease of 46,314 specimens, owing to the rejection of worthless material. 3 Although about 200 specimens have been received during the year, the total number of specimens in the collection is now less than that estimated for 1889, owing to the rejection of worthless material. 4 The collection now contains between 3,000 and 4,000 specimens. 5 No estimate of increase made in 1890 or 1891. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 19 Name of department.) 1882. | 1883. 1884. | 11885-'86.| 1886-"87.| 1887—’88.] 1888-'89./21889-’90.| 1890-’91. a al es Pe ae S : Arts and industries— | Continued. Modern pottery, por- | celain,and bronzes --.----..-- ee ones 2, 278| 2, 238} 3, 011 3, O11 3, 132 3, 144 PANES AMO MLY CS semen == <2) eee on clean oes == | 77 100 100 109 197 197 wiheCatlinGallery:)|-------|.......|s2s-s%- 500, 500 500 500; = (3) (3) Physical apparatus |.-.---.-- Lomaireg ae ae 250 251 251 251 263 273 Oils and gums... --. ees eel Sees 2 ee eee 197 198 198 213 3 aeae ae Chemical products |.------|...-... [Naeemerce 659 661 661 688) ; : Domestic animals..|..-----.|...-... |-=-222nce|eee eee ee| oe ee seen eee eens fe eeee eee 66) 97 OREO LOL We oxen ale = ral emivin cinia | sn.c ate ss 200,000) 500,000, 503,764) 505,464) 506,324) 508,830 510, 630 American aboriginal | | | BOULGRVia ena annia| mine === |. ani 12,000 25, 000! 26,022) 27,122] 28, 229 29, 269 30, 488 Oriental antiquities..|..-..-.|.......|......... es ye La freee 850] 3,485] «3, 487 Prehistoric anthro- |. | | OUP anaes ee on 3 35, 512) 40, 491, 45, 252 65,314) 101, 659 108, 631} 116,472) 123,677) 127, 761 Mammals (skins and | | alcoholics) -..--.-.... , 4,660) 4,920 5, 694) 7,451 te 811) 8, 058 8, 275 8, 836 9, 801 inate: Jot F 22. | 44,354! 47,246] 50,350| 55,945] 54,987| 56, i 57,974| 60,219] 62, 601 Birds’ eggs and nests | oa sivas sb = = | 40,072) 44,163) 48,173) 50,055) 50,173) 51,241) 52, 166 Reptiles and batra- | . | Him oe ee ee ees 23,495} 25,344) 27,542| 27,664) 28,405; 29,050) 29, 935 nHeSe ees el: | 50,000, 65,000} 68,000} 75, 000/ 100,000) 101, al 107, 350| 122,575] 127,312 MELA DUALOTOSSIG =.=.) 24-— soos ese eth le eke ele ek Soe Babee cee 4512 521 MoUUSKS:--..--.--5-= 33, 375) GE rae 400, 000) 460,000) 425,000) 455, . 468,000 471,500) 476,500 [NISEGUA =<. -~--=-- 1 OOO} saree | 151,000) 500, 000) 585,000) 595,000) 603, 000, 618,000, 630, 000 Marine invertebrates 11,781 14,825] 200,000] 350,000) 450, 000 515,000) 515,300 520,000) 526, 750 Comparative anatomy: | | | ae eee | 3, a4 3; al fe } 10,210, 11, 022 11,558} 11, 783 12,326, 12, 981 Palwozoic fossils... .. hoes 20,000] 73,000} 80,482) 84, 491 84,649] 91,126 92,355] 92, 970 Mesozoic fossils .....|...__.- joe eset | 100,000; 69,742) 70,775) 70,925) 71,236) 71,305) 79,754 Cenozoic fossils. - -..- (ineluded with mollusks.) | Fossil plants .......-. eesoor 4, 624) 7, 291 ts 429 8, 462 10, 000 10, 178 10, 507 10, 685 Recent plants® ...... yadda eee 30,000) 32,000, 38,000; 38,459) 39, 654 80, 617 LUUITG EE Ree teed eee | 14, 550 16, 610 18,401; 18, 601 21,896) 27,690) 37,101; 44,236 Lithology and physi- | | cal geology ....---- 9,075} 12,500/ 18,000] 20,647 21,500 22,500} +27, 000, Metallurgy and eco- | | 632,762) 64, 162 nomic geology..-.-..)....... 30,000) 40,000) 48,000, 49,000) 51,412) 52, 076 Living animals ......).......]. ena e Joco cess eefeeeeeseee[e ee east 220 PAO Poae oc toca toss cares Rotal 25-48 193, 362/263, 143/1, 472, 600)2, 420, 944)2, 666, 335/2, 803, ait 864, 244 2, 895, 104.3, 028, 714 1 No census of collection taken. * The actual increase in the collections during the year 1889-90 is much greater than appears from a comparison of the totals for 1889 and for 1890. This is explained by the apparent absence of any increase in the Departments of Lithology and Metallurgy, the total for 1890 in both of these depart- ments combined showing a decrease of 46,314 specimens, owing to the rejection of worthless material. $ Included in the historical collection. *Only a small portion of the collection represented by this number was received during the year 1889-’90. 5 Up to 1890 the numbers have reference only to specimens received throngh the Museum, and do notinclude specimens received for the National Herbarium through the Department of Agriculture. The figures given for 1890-'91 include for the first time the total number of specimens received both at the National Museum and at the Department of Agricultmre for the National Herbarium. ® Collections combined in October, 1889, under Department of Geology. The apparent decrease of more than 50 per cent of the estimated total for 1889 is accounted for (1) by the rejection of several thousands of specimens from the collection, and (2) by the fact that no estimate of the specimens in the reserve and duplicate series is included. Of the total for 1890, about 16,000 specimens cousist chietly of petrographical material stored away for study and comparison in the drawers of table cases. 7 Transferred to the National Zoological Park. Nore.—tThe fact that the figures for two snecessive years relating to the same collection are un- changed does not necessarily imply that there has been no increase in the collection, but that for some special reason it has not been possible to obtain the figures showing the increase. 20 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. The World’s Columbian Exposition—Mention was made in the last report of the provision made by Congress for holding an exposition in the city of Chicago in 1893 for the purpose of celebrating the four hun- dredth anniversary of the discovery of America by Christopher Colum- bus. Dr. G. Brown Goode was upon my nomination appointed by the President the representative of the Smithsonian Institution and the National Museum upon the Government Board of Managers and Con- trol. During the latter part of the year the Treasury Department de- cided that between $30,000 and $40,000 were available for expendi- ture in connection with the preparation of the Government exhibits. This sum was apportioned by the Board among the executive depart- ments, including the Smithsonian Institution, the National Museum and the Fish Commission: the Smithsonian Institution, including the National Museum and the Bureau of Ethnology, receiving about $6,000. This amount is of course entirely inadequate, except as aftord- ing the means of making a commencement, and would hardly suf- fice for the preparation of a satisfactory exhibit from any one depart- ment in the Museum. As soon as this money became available, how- ever, several of the curators in the National Museum commenced to prepare plans for the exhibits of their departments, and a small force of taxidermists and mechanics was engaged. Mr. R. Edward Earll was appointed chief special agent in April, and will act as the executive officer under the direction of the representative of the Smithsonian In- stitution. BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY. Ethnological researches among the North American Indians has been continued by the Smithsonian Institution in compliance with acts of Congress, during the year 189091, under the direction of Maj. J. W. Powell, who is also the Director of the U. 8. Geological Survey. The work of the Bureau of Ethnology has been conducted during the year in accordance with the system before reported upon and explained. A noteworthy feature of it is that the officers who as authors prepare the publications of the Bureau personally gather the material for them in the field, supplementing it by study of all the connected literature and by the consequent comparison of all ascertained facts. The contin- uance of the work for a number of years by the same zealous observers and students, who freely interchange their information and-opinions, has resulted in their training with the acuteness of specialists, corrected and generalized by the factors of other correlative specialties. At the close of the last fiseal year specific exploration of the mound areaby the United States ceased, except so far as it was found necessary to correct errors and supply omissions. A large part of the results of the work of several past years is in print, though not yet issued. em Cr bo bo 20 | alps raerstaekainis ots ate aerate oe ns 11 1 Wil] Yes 0 Wee ee eae ee ee eee oR 1 Wel @sxallG GIN t reese esta, ops acer cesta 3 ING We SOlunVValeg seen eee ae 9 Nethenlandste.. 255-8 = Saas eee 13 INGWeZie wl andes soon ee ete ene 2 DC ONAM UA fe. sh as Seek hee te UL FeSO eh See ao See eee tae ee See 8 PGi Uae ah eee eee se a or ee 6 Polivalesia: sae sss os secu seer rae 1 BOLtU Calls xtec057 ci sae oe ee ee 9 IRPUSS alcte-tss eee ele ee = ee SN eet PS c 3 Ghineens adh se arsat ee ANS rie stress ee 10 OMT OE pe eee ee eres ees oe ne WRG UISST Ain fon See. horcee ess acsisys ty epelonns sie eerie 18 Maks Ee cays 7s eyes eae ee a er 3 SG Laval Qilesee ene aS a cre arn ere ae SAN OMA OT acne ete eee ron orice 1 SomphneAtshrali aes sae 7 SCE RRS ig Cea hc DEC SSPE Oka ee Ree 8 SW GUL OT eae ee ee are eee yee 11 SiWlbZeL amt as eee oo eae ae eee 15) Wea aha. atte kw Sern ce 7 UUICOV Ge jets eels tes bose teeter 5 WRI Eh CUE Sais © BOR eane Sm Arse 2 WENO 710Cl Dice eet te oete a Ss ec Sse 5 Nie GrnOion a1) ps oe oe es ee ee 10 Wiurtem Dero sce cris scccreetns cms 3 3 Very respectfully, your obedient servant, Mr. S. P. LANGLEY, W. C. WINLOCK, Curator of Exchanges. Secretary Smithsonian Institution. + Miscellaneous exchanges included in transmissions to German, t Miscellaneous exchanges included in transmissions to Great Britain § In addition to a large number sent by mail. APPENDIX III. REPORT OF THE ACTING MANAGER OF THE NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK. Smr: I have the honor to submit the following report of the operations of the National Zoological Park for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1891. At the opening of the year the land for the park was not yet all acquired. Steps were taken to expedite the final acquisition as much as possible, yet it was not until November 4, 1890, that possession was finally obtained of the entire tract. In the mean time arrangements were made to repair the old Holt mansion, situated upon the left bank of the creek, in such a manner as to fit it for occupation as an office for the park. The old building was found to require much more extensive re- pairs than were anticipated. It is a long, low structure, built rather for coolness and country retirement than for purposes of business activity; and the walls, al- though thick, were found to be cracked and crumbling, and the foundations to be highly insecure. Before anything else could be done several of the walls had to be replaced and new foundations laid. This consumed the greater part of the appro- priation and it was only possible to finish two rooms to be occupied as an office. A small barn with stable was built near the house for the accommodation of the horses required for the park service. An inclosure of the park being found imperatively necessary, a design for a fence was made by Mr. W. R. Emerson and this was erected as fast as the land was finally acquired by the United States. It is of stout, unpainted, oak palings, intended not so much to regulate the movements of the public as to keep out dogs and animals injurious to the creatures in the inclosure. As a preliminary to the laying out of roads and selecting sites for buildings, Mr. D. J. Howell was employed to make an accurate topographical survey of the park. The topographical work of the Coast Survey was used as a basis for this, the contours being carefully corrected and the highest levels reached by the water in Rock Creek being noted wherever it was possible to ascertain them, For reasons of economy it was thought best to lay out for the present but a single road, which should cross Rock Creek on a continuation of the so-called Quarry road, which lies mainly outside the gates. This main road within the park was staked out to a width of 30 feet, and has been carefully graded and macadamized for a distance of some 3,000 feet from the entrance. Beyond this a road, formerly a cart track, leads through the park to the western boundary, and has been somewhat improved for its entire length to afford some partial access for carriages in this direction. The ‘‘creek,” so called( which it will be remembered is really a quick-running stream), is ordinarily fordable at a point near that where the road crosses, but this ford is im- passable in times of flood, and extraordinary precautions had to be taken to secure a crossing above high-water mark, the narrowness of the stream and the precipitous character of the surrounding hills which it drains making it necessary to provide for arise of at least 15 feet. Thusa “fill” of considerable extent was required on both approaches to the bridge, a condition that greatly increased the expense and labor of making the road. Measures were at once taken to erect a bridge suitable for foot passengers and carriages. Several plans for such astructure were submitted, examined and rejected, 48 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 49 mainly because of the great cost which their execution would entail. A plan pre- pared by Mr. D. J. Howell was finally selected as being effective for the purpose required at a minimum of expense. It is a combined iron and wooden structure, 128 feet in length, resting upon two granite piers and two abutments. The plans were carefully examined, and criticised by skilled experts, and were believed by compe- tent engineers to be sufficient to withstand any flood likely to occur. At the close of the fiscal year the piers and abutments had been completed, but the superstruc- ture was not yet in place. The quarry near the entrance to the park seemed admirably fitted for the construe- tion of dens and yards for bears. In order to ascertain its condition, it was cleared of a great quantity of loose earth and rock which had fallen from the clifts above. The quarry face was found to be inmost places sufficiently steep to prevent the bears from climbing it, and where this was not the case the necessary steepness was ob- tained by blasting. To afford shelter for the bears spacious dens in which shelves were fashioned were hollowed out from the face of the rock, and in front of these there was built a strong iron fence 10 feet in height inclosing yards of considerable extent. The upper ends of the vertical bars of the fence were pointed and turned inward to prevent the escape of the bears, the floor of the yards was smoothly cemented, and a large basin,supplied with running water, builtin each. Work upon these yards has been frequently interrupted by the falling from the slopes of large quantities of earth and rock. To obviate this Mr, Olmsted, the landscape gardener, has advised that a retaining wall be built at the top of the cliffs. But, as else- where stated, the park boundary runs at the upper edge of these cliffs and only a partial control of the difficulties can be obtained unless the park property is ex- tended here some yards further back. The system of yards as projected includes three principal inclosures and a smaller one to be used as a shifting pen. Atan early day this system will have to be enlarged, as the park has now four species of bears and one subspecies. The brow of the first hill overlooking the bridge was selected as a site for a house for animals requiring heat. The design for this house, furnished by Mr. Emerson, was somewhat modified to suit the exigencies of the appropriation available, it being found impracticable to erect more than a portion of the structure. The house is of stone, 2 handsome gneiss, quarried upon Broad Branch some 24 miles from the park. Its plan shows a long corridor upon one side of which are arranged the cages for large animals. Exterior yards and an extension for the accommodation of smaller animals will be added if funds are appropriated for that purpose. At present the house is much overcrowded and the animals are not suitably accommodated. Accommodations for the small herd of bison were early considered. It seemed desirable to place these animals where they could have considerable range. When confined even in large yards they cut up the ground so much that they soon destroy every vestige of grass or other green thing. Still, if the inclosures are too large the animals keep so far away as not to be seen at all by the public. A site was selected in a protected locality on a hillside where small paddocks could be made along the main road and larger yards for grazing grounds could be carried from these down into the rich bottomland along Rock Creek, where abundance of grass is naturally produced. Here there was constructed a barn for the buffalo, which is a novel and picturesque structure of black-oak logs admirably harmonizing with the location. The appro- priation was so limited that if was found necessary to place the elk also in this barn, and paddocks for them were accordingly built adjoining it. Inexpensive but strong fences for these paddocks were made of iron rods running horizontally through rough cedar posts and coupled together at the ends. Some difficulty has been found with the elk fence which has not stood the continuous battering given it by the males during the rutting season as well as was expected. The original plan of ex- tending the paddocks to the bottom land of the creek will shortly be carried out. Paddocks for the deer and antelope have been constructed on the left bank of the H. Mis. 334, pt. 14 50 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. ereek along the eastern boundary of the park. This situation is admirably adapted by nature for the animals, but has the disadvantage of exposing them to the sight of dogs both on the outside of the park and within it, Three animals have been so frightened as to lose their lives from this cause, and it will be necessary to make the fence so tight as to entirely prevent the sight of dogs and probably it will be advisa- ble to exclude them from this part of the park altogether. The unexpected gift of an Asiatic elephant by Mr. James E. Cooper made it neces- sary to hastily prepare a barn. This is a temporary structure, but will be so fitted as to serve for shelter during the winter. It was prepared for but one animal, but by Mr, Cooper’s generosity a second elephant was lent to the park, and the two have been made comfortable within it. The situation of this barn is not wholly sat- isfactory. Atthe time it was built it was thought desirable to place it at aconsidera- ble distance from the boundaries of the park in view of the possibility of the ani- mals becoming unmanageable, ‘These apprehensions were fortunately not well- founded, and it would be much more convenient to have the elephants nearer the stream so that they could frequently have immediate access to the water. If funds for the erection of a permanent elephant house should become available this matter will no doubt be considered, The expense of the maintenance of the elephants is very ereat, and it should be remembered that the estimate for the last year’s expenditure ras made without the knowledge that it would be necessary to meet so heavy an item as the cost of erecting a special building and providing keepers and provisions for these two animals. As acolony of prairie dogs had been for some time a feature of the collection, it became necessary to provide suitable accommodations for them. Although a broad open meadow would best resemble their natural habitat it was thought best to place them in a little thicket of trees to the west of the main drive. Here there was built an inclosing wall 34 feet high, and from the footing of this, galvanized iron mesh-work was placed in a trench 8 feet deep. This has been found sufficient to completely confine them. It is believed that this iron net will not corrode when buried so deeply in the ground. If this proves successful for a series of years it will be a great advantage, as it has usually been thought in Zoological Gardens necessary to excayate completely the inclosures for burrowing animals and to ce- ment the bottom. This is very expensive, and the result is that but few colonies of burrowing animals are seen. It is hoped to add several colonies of this nature, in- eluding some of the most characteristic American rodents. A list of the accessions to the park during the year is given herewith. (Exhibit A.) Many of them could not be accommodated in the houses already erected and have been assigned to quarters more or less temporary or to small cages scattered along the main road. Many more animals could have been procured had it been possible to suitably accommodate them. The most important accession is the Asiatic elephant “Dunk,” which was presented to the park on April 30, 1891, by Mr. James E. Cooper, the proprietor of the Adam Forepaugh shows. The elephant is a fine animal, about 25 years of age, very docile and tractable, and a very valuable addition to the collection. Mr. Cooper not only gave this elephant, but in order to insure success in keeping him loaned another, “ Golddust,” to serves a a com- panion, it being well known that solitary elephants suffer greatly from loneliness. When commissioners were sent to South America to collect material forthe World’s Columbian Exposition of 1893 it was thoughtfully suggested by Mr. W. E. Curtis, chief of the Latin-American Bureau of the State Department, that they might be also willing to collect animals for the park. Authority was therefore given them to incur expenditures not to exceed $300 for each person, and several accessions have been made by this means. The experiment has not, however, proved as satisfactory as could be wished, as the animals sent are usually badly cared for on shipboard. Several animals have been born in the park during the year, the most noteworthy being a young female bison. It is believed that these animals will breed freely in confinement and that by this means the species may be keptindefinitely perpetuated. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Bat The mortality during the year has been considerable. A great proportion of the animals that have died have succumbed immediately after arrival, either being in bad condition from injury or otherwise, when shipped, or being too delicate to stand transportation. ‘Those who send specimens to the park should always take care to keep the animals in confinement for some time before shipping and should ask for directions as to the proper method of boxing. Many animals are killed by being sent in an improper manner and by being either starved or provided with improper food. The animals received from South America have been very frequently mori- bund when received. Thisis partly due to the customs regulations at New York City, which cause considerable delay in the reshipment of animals to this city. The beautiful specimen of the big horn sheep (Ovis montana) succumbed to an at- tack of apoplexy, while the animals were still confined in the contracted yards in the rear of the Smithsonian Institution. A post-mortem examination showed the animal to be in an excellent physical condition, and it is believed that lack of exercise was the principal cause of the disorder that terminated its existence. As far as can be judged from this case there appears to be no reason whatever why this sheep, so rare in zoological collections, should not thrive in captivity if a suitable range of rocks and cliffs such as is found in the National Zoological Park is given to it. The close of the year finds the work of the park progressing steadily and as rap- idly as the funds appropriated by Congress will admit. The interest of the public is found to be very great, much more in fact than had been anticipated. There can be no doubt that in the course of a few years the park will become one of the chief attractions of a city already famous for its sights, offering as it does a combination entirely unique, exquisitely beautiful natural scenery with the charming aspects of varied animal life. It has already been noticed that the one roadway is too narrow for the accommoda- ion of the large number of carriages that frequent the park on Sundays, the throngs between the hours of 3 and 5 p. m. being so great as to endanger visitors, and it it earnestly desired to extend the system of roads in accordance with a plan already laid ont. The bridge, from necessary economy, was restricted to a width just suffi- cient to allow carriages to pass, no footway being provided. In view of the throng already referred to, this offers another source of danger, and it is contemplated build- ing footways on projecting brackets along either side of the bridge should funds be appropriated for the purpose, Either this or a bridge for foot passengers alone will be absolutely essential, : 52 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. EXHIBIT A. _ List of accessions. Name. Speci- mens. Black-faced Coaita (Ateles ater) ....-.---- Parma (evs | CONCOLON) lew cere cee ee eel Ocelot (Reltsipandalts) a eteace eee IWaildicaitl (yr ANftrs) ane tte ett sleet i= = Black Wolf (Canis occidentalis var.) ..--. Coyote: Prairie Wolf (Canis latrans) .-.-. Red Hox (Vulpes yx iulwws)) ae. - eee = BMS CELLO MILE OUSO ID) ieee aera iene = Black-footed Ferret (Putorius nigripes) -. Bridled Weasel (Putorius frenatus) ....-- Cacomistle: American Civet Cat (Bas- SATUS CSLULD) hae seein sees Seen ace eee American Badger (Taxidea americana) -. Raccoon (Procyon lotor).........-.------- Harbor Seal (Phoca vitulina)......-..---. Asiatic Elephant (Hlephas indicus) ...--. Peceary (Dicotyles tajacu).-.-....-------- Virginia Deer (Cariacus virginianus )..-- South American Red Deer (Coassus rufus) European Hedgehog (Hrinaceus euro- PGT os 5iacige Sonoccrseconaotonsecospos Red Squirrel (Seiwrus hudsonius) .-..---- Gray Squirrel (Sciwrus carolinensis) ...-. Flying Squirrel (Sciwropterus volucella) -. Chipmunk (Tamias striatus) ......---.--. Prairie Dog (Cynomys ludovicianus) ...-- Woodchuck (Arctomys monad).....------ Muskrat (Fiber zibethicus) -..........---. Beaver (Castor fiber) 2-22-05 sees cle Canada Porcupine (Prethizon dorsatus) - - - Crested Poreupine (Hystria cristata). --- English Rabbit (Lepus cunieulus) ..-.-.--- White Rabbit (Lepus ewniculus) ...-...-. Angora Rabbit (Lepus ewniculus) ..-..--- Gray Rabbit (Lepus sylwaticus) .....-..--- White-tailed Jack Rabbit (Lepus cam- POSUNIS) swe oe sesso see aserfoeie see e Senses Black-tailed Jack-rabbit (Lepus callotis) - - Agouti (Dasyprocta agouti) Guinea Pig (Cavia aperea) -.-.-..--- eR Sa Re Oe eR be bP ee oO KBP woanwrnsn Dw a ~J won| —_— ek eke WOR Re eS mm wo Ww Ww HR wo Ww | King Snake (Ophibolus getulus) .-..------ Name. Small Anteater (Tamandua tetradactyla) . Small Armadillo (Tatusia novemeineta) -- Opossum (Didelphys virginiana) ...-.---- | Pied-billed Grebe (Podilymbus podiceps) - Night Heron NOOVUUS) a5 Saws sae ne sate eae ee eee | (Nycticorax nyecticorax Cariama (Cariama cristata) .....--..----- Woodcock (Philohela aninor)......-.-.--- Quail: Bob White (Colinus virginianus) - Scaled Partridge (Callipepla squamata) . - - Leghorn Chicken (Gallus bankiva) ....--. Pea Howl (Pavolertstata)a- = 2-2 eee eee Marsh Hawk (Circus hudsonius ).......-. Red-shouldered Hawk (Buteo lineatus) -- Bald Eagle (Haliwetus leucocephalus) ....- Sparrow Hawk (Falco sparverius) -....--- Barn Owl (Strix pratincola).....-.. ena: Long-eared Owl (Asio wilsonianus) ------ Short-eared Owl (Asio accipitrinus) .-.--- Acadian Owl (Nyctala acadica)......-.--- Screech Owl (Megascops asio)..----.------ Great Horned Owl (Bubo virginianus) --. Horned Lark (Otocoris alpestris) ...-...--.- Crow (Corvus americanus) ....----....--- Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) ...-- | Green Iguana (Iguana Sp.?)....-- ------ Chuck-molly (Sauwromalus ater) .......--- Horned Toad (Phrynosoma douglassi). -- Gila Monster (Heloderma suspectwm) -... Glass Snake (Opheosaurus ventralis) ..... Galapagos Tortoise (Testudo ephippiwm) . Ground Rattlesnake (Caudisona miliaria). Water Moccasin (Ancistrodon piscivorus) - Copperhead (Aneistrodon contortria) - ..-- | Hog-nosed Adder (Heterodon platyrhinus) Black Snake (Bascanion constrictor)... .-. Bull Snake (Pityophis sayi)-....--------- Green Snake (Cyclophis vernatlis) -.....--.- Milk Snake (Ophibolus doliatus)........-. Very respectfully, Mr. 8S. P. LANGLEY, FRANK BAKER, Acting Manager. Secretary Smithsonian Institution. Speci- mens. Cs rg APPENDIX IV. REPORT OF THE LIBRARIAN FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1891. Sir: I have the honor respectfully to submit my report on the work of the library during the year from July 1, 1890, to June 30, 1891. _ The work of recording and caring for the accessions has been carried on as during the preceding year, the entry numbers on the accession book running from 207,176 to 225,585. The following condensed statement shows the character and number of these acces- sions: Publications received between July 1, 1890, and June 30, 1891. | Octavo or Quarto | | smaller. | or larger. | Poca “MUN S ey, ps Sete Re Se rips A Sag SSR i re er Ee inc 1, 844 837 2, 681 SPL THEN DAVY TT es SS Se CS re ee ee 9, 439 11, 086 | 20, 525 LAAT AES SE SES SUE Ae Os Oe eae Cb SS aoa SE eee ei eee es arr | 3, 130 | 639 3, 769 MOM ELIEGN Sra terse eetete Nata seein cain cia ajatee Ae sie Ae SA seals wie c'uinrorninncoecniere P32 kat wasoe- Sh gece sees 319 | SUCHE ae Be AS 8 ot ae ee » SE eo ee ok os See eae eee Nr n tas aieareed (Sears 5 27, 294 Of these publications, 7,720 (namely, 424 volumes, 6,415 parts of volumes, and 883 pamphlets) were retained for use in the National Museum, and 754 medical dis- sertations were deposited in the library of the Surgeon-General, U.S. Army. The remainder were promptly sent to the Library of Congress on the Monday following their receipt. In carrying out the Secretary’s plan of increasing the library by exchanges, 1,327 letters asking for new exchanges, or calling attention to deficiencies in series already in the library, were written; and im response 475 new exchanges were acquired by the Institution, and 248 defective series were completed, either wholly or as far as the publishers were able to supply the missing parts. The value of this under- taking is well shown by the large increase of the actual accessions in comparison with those of the last fiscal year. In 1889-’90 the total number of accessions was 20,187; in 1890-91 it was 27,294, showing a gain of 7,107 over 1889-’90. The following publications have been added to the list of regular serials: A. A. Bulletin. Actes de la Société Sinico-Japonaise, Aarbog, Norske Geografiske Selskab. Paris. Aarbog, Norske Geologiske Undersdégelse. | Adams’ Magazine. Aarsberetning, Danske Slojdforening. | African. Abhandlungen des Botanischen Vereins der Proving Brandenburg. Abhandlungen zur Geographischen Spe- cialkarte von Elsass-Lothringen. Abhandlungen der Kéniglichen Meteoro- logischen Gesellschaft, Preussen. American Apiculturist. Abhandlungen des Kéniglichen Preussi- | American Catholic Quarterly Review. schen Meteorologischen Instituts. American Journal of Education. Academy, Boston. | Am Urquell. Agricultural Gazette, Sydney, N.S. W. Agricultural Record, Trinidad. Album der Natuur. Allgemeine Lutherische Kirchenzeitung. Alpine Journal [Alpine Club, London]. Ke Oe 5A Analostan Magazine. Analyst. Ancre de Saint-Dizier. Annales Agronomiques. Annales de V’Keole des Sciences Poli- tiques. Annales de la Société Agronomique, Nancy. Annales de Observatoire de Nice. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Bibliotheque des Travaux Historiques et Archéologiques. _ Boletin de la Comision del Mapa Geold- Annales du Conservatoire de Art, Paris. | Bollettino del Museo Patrio di Archeolo- Annales de la Propagation de la Foi. Annales des Sciences Géologiques. Annali del Reale Istituto Tecnico, Udine. | Annals of the American Academy of Po- litical and Social Science. Année Scientifique et Industrielle. Annuaire de ’Economie Politique. Annuaire de la Société d’Emulation de la Vendée. Annuaire de l’Association pour l’Encou- ragement des Etudes Grecques. Annuaire Statistique de la Boheme. Annuario della R. Universita, Torino. Annuario della Universita di Modena. Annual, Geologists’ Association, London. Annual Report of the Forestry Division, Department of Agriculture. Annual Report of the Manchester Steam Users’ Association. Antiquary. Anzeiger fiir Berg-, Hiitten- und Ma- schinenwesen. Arbeiten aus dem Zoologisch-Zootomi- schen Institut, Graz. Archeologica Scotica. Architecture, L’, et la Construction dans le Nord, Lille. Archiy fiir Christliche Kunst. Archiv fiir Mathematik. Archives Botaniques du Nord dela France. Archives de Physiologie Normale et Pa- thologique. Archivio de la Societi Romana di Storia Patria. Archivio di Litteratura Biblia ed Orien- tale. Army and Navy Gazette. Art (L’) dans les Deux Mondes. Artesano, El. Atti della Accademia Pontaniana. Atti del Museo Civico di Storia Naturale di Trieste. Atti della Societa Italiana di Naturali. Atti e Memorie della Deputazione di Storia Patria, Bologna. Aufzeichnungen des Architecten- und Ingenieur-Vereins fiir Niederrhein und Westphalen. Aus Allen Welttheilen. Australian Ironmonger. Beitriige zur Kunde Ehst-, Liv-, und Kur- lands. Bergmannsfreund, Berichte des Mirkischen Forstvereins, Berichte der Schweizerischen Botani- schen Gesellschaft. Berliner Missionsberichte. Biblia. Bibliographie de la Suisse. Scienze | Bollettino Officiale gico de Espana. Boletin del Instituto Geografico Argen tino. Boletin del Instituto Libre de Ensenanza, Madrid. soletin del Observatorio Astronémico Nacional de Tacubaya. gia, Milano. Bollettino della R. Accademia Medica di Genova. Bollettino della Societa di Naturalisti di Napoli. Bollettino Statistico Mensile, Municipio di Milano. del Ministero del Tesoro, Roma. Boston Budget. Botaniste, Le. Brassey’s Naval Annual. Brick Roadways. Buffalo Christian Advocate. Builder, London. Building Register. Bulletin of the Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn, Ala. | Bulletin of the American Chemical Soci- ety. Bulletin Annueldes Finances des Grandes Villes. Bulletin de l Association des Ingénieurs, Liége. Bulletin du Comité de V’Afrique Fran- caise. Bulletin de la Commission Archéologique et Littéraire de Arrondissement, Nar- bonne. Bulletin dela Commission Départementale des Monuments Historiques, Arras. Bulletin of the Department of Agricul- ture (of Queensland). Bulletin of the North Carolina Experi- ment Station. Bulletin of the Ontario Agricultural Ex- periment Station. Bulletin de la Société Académique Indo- Chinoise. Bulletin de la Société Archéologique de Touraine. Bulletin de la Société Centrale d’Agri- culture, Paris. Bulletin de la Société Départementale d Horticulture de la Seine. Bulletin de la Société @’Emulation @Ab- beyville. Bulletin de la Société d’ Encouragement pour l’Industrie Nationale, Paris. Bulletin de la Société des Etudes Mari- times et Coloniales. Bulletin de la Société d’Etudes des Sci- ences Naturelles, Reims. Bulletin de la Société de Géographie de Lille. Bulletin de la Société de Géographie de Toulouse. Bulletin de la Société de Géographie Commerciale du Havre. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Bulletin dela Société Historique et Ar- | chéologique de ’Orne. Bulletion de la Société de l'Industrie Mi- nérale, Saint-Etienne. Bulletin de la Société Languedocienne de Géographie. Bulletin Mensuel Nationale, Paris. Bulletin Mensuel de la Société Linnéenne de Normandie. Bulletin de la Société Mathématique, Paris. Bulletin de la Société Neuchateloise de Géographie. Bulletin de la Société Royale de Bota- nique, Bruxelles. Bulletin de la Société de Topographie. Paris. Bulletin of the South Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station. Bulletin of the State College, Pennsylya- nia. Bulletion of the United States Board on Geographic Names. Bulletin of Recent Changes in Aids to Navigation, U. S. Light-House Board. Bulletin Mensuel de la Commission Mété- orologique du Calvados. Bulletin Météorologique—Central Phys- | ical Observatory, St. Petersburg. Bulletin Scientifique de la France et de la Belgique. Bullettino della Societa di Scienze Natu- rali ed Economiche, Palermo. Caermarthenshire Notes and Queries. Canadian Horticulturist. de la Bibliotheque Casopis pro péstovdni mathematiky a fisiky, Prag. Census Bulletin [Eleventh Census]. Chemiker-Kalender. Chemisch-technischer Anzeiger. Chemist and Druggist of Australasia. China, Glass and Lamps. Chinese Recorder. Chinese Scientific Magazine. Christian Union. Chronicle of the London Missionary So- ciety. Churehman. | Church News. Church Review. Ciel et Terre. Cobden Club Publications. Colliery Guardian. Colliery Engineer. Colman’s Rural World. Colorado College Studies. Communications et Procés-Verbanx de la Société Mathématique de Kharkow. Comptes Rendus Mensuels de la Société de Industrie minérale. Comptes Rendus des Séances de la Société Archéologique de Bordeaux. Congregationalist. Correo de Sotavento. Costa Riea Tustrada. | Crop Bulletin, Ithaca, N. Y. Cultura, La. Curio Informant. Cyclist. Gr On Dania. Delphian Record. | Deutsche Bauzeitung. Deutsche Chemikerzeitung. Deutsche Gerberzeitung. Deutsche Heereszeitung. Deutsche Zeitung fiir die Franzésische Jugend. Dingler’s Polytechnisches Journal. | Dneyvnik Antropologitsheskago Otdjela Imperatorskago Obshtshestva Lubi- telei Estestvoznanija, Antropologii i Etnogratii. Dnevnik Zodlogitsheskago Otdjelenija— of the same. Ecole, L’. Kconomiste, L’. Edueateur, L’. Edueation, L’. Educational Journal. Educational Record. Educational Times. Electricien, L’. Electrotechniker. Ellettricita, L’. Engineering. Engineering Magazine. Engineering and Mining Journal, New York. Entomologiste Génévois. Export. “ancier and Farm Herald. Far and Near. Farben-Industrie. Farm, Field, and Stockman, Farm and Inplement News. Farm News. Fauna. Financial Reform. Iish-trades Gazette. Forstwirthschaftliches Centralblatt. Fotograt. France Aérienne. Fur Trade Review. Gaceta Médica Catalana. Galalée, Le. Gas World. Gazette de Portugal. Genealogist. Geografiska Féreningens Tidskrift, Hel- singfors. Géographie, La. Geographisches Jahrbuch. Geologiska Féreningens Férhandlingar, . Stockholn. Giornale ed Atti dellaSocieta di Acclima- tazione, Palermo. Giornale della Societa LW : ni ; F J GENERAL APPENDIX TO THE SMITHSONTAN REPORT FOR 1891. H, Mis, 334, pt. 1——5 65 7 7 a3 ir ta . * 7 } , Sater 10k Tae ae ADVERTISEMENT, ‘ The object of the GENERAL APPENDIX to the Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution is to furnish brief accounts of scientific discov- ery in particular directions; occasional reports of the investigations made by collaborators of the Institution; memoirs of a general charac- ter or on special topics, whether original and prepared expressly for the purpose, or selected from foreign journals and proceedings; and briefly to present (as fully as space will permit) such papers not published in the Smithsonian Contributions or in the Miscellaneous Collections as may be supposed to be of interest or value to the numerous correspond- ents of the Institution. It has been a prominent object of the Board of Regents of the Smith- sonian Institution, from a very early date, to enrich the annual report required of them by law with memoirs illustrating the more remarka- ble and important developments in physical and biological discovery, as well as showing the general character of the operations of the Insti- tution; and this purpose has, during the greater part of its history, been carried out largely by the publication of such papers as would possess an interest to all attracted by scientific progress. In 1880, the Secretary, induced in part by the discontinuance of an annual summary of progress which for thirty years previous had been issued by well-known private publishing firms, had prepared by com- petent collaborators a series of abstracts, showing concisely the promi- nent features of recent scientific progress in astronomy, geology, meteor- ology, physics, chemistry, mineralogy, botany, zodlogy, and anthropol- ogy. This latter plan was continued, though not altogether satisfac- torily, down to and including the year 1888. In the report for 1889, a return was made to the earlier method of presenting a miscellaneous selection of papers (some of them original) embracing a considerable range of scientific investigation and discus- sion. This method has been continued in the present report, for 1591. 67 i ny my . : ; Hate VY CELESTIAL SPECTROSCOPY.* By WILLIAM HUGGINS, F. R. 8. In 1866, I had the honor of bringing before this Association, at one of the evening lectures, an account of the first fruits of the novel and un- expected advances in our knowledge of the celestial bodies which fol- lowed rapidly upon Kirchhoff’s original work on the solar spectrum and the interpretation of its lines. Since that time a great harvest has been gathered in the same field by many reapers. Spectroscopic astronomy has become a distinct and acknowledged branch of the science, possessing a large literature of its own, and observatories specially devoted toit. The more recent dis- covery of the gelatine dry plate has given a further greatimpetus to this modern side of astronomy and has opened a pathway into the unknown of which even an enthusiast thirty years ago would scarcely have dared to dream. In no science, perhaps, does the sober statement of the results which have been achieved appeal so strongly to the imagination and make so evident the almost boundless powers of the mind of man. By means of its light alone to analyze the chemical nature of a far-distant body; to be able to reason about its present state in relation to the past and future; to measure within an English mile or less per second the otherwise invisible motion which it may have towards or from us; to do more, to make even that which is darkness to our eyes light, and from vibrations which our organs of sight are powerless to perceive to evolve a revelation in which we see mirrored some of the stages through which the stars may pass in their slow evolutional progress— surely the record of such achievements, however poor the form of words in which they may be described, is worthy to be regarded as the scientific epic of the present century. Spectroscopic methods.—I do not purpose to attempt a survey of the progress of spectroscopic astronomy from its birth at Heidelberg in 1859, but to point out what we do know at present, as distinguished from what “*Presidential address to the British Association for the Advancement of Science, tat Cardiff, August, 1891. (Report of Brit. Assoc, 1891, vol. LXI, pp. 3-37.) 69 70 CELESTIAL SPECTROSCOPY. we do not know, of a few only of its more important problems, giving a prominent place, in accordance with the traditions of this chair, to the work of the last year or two. In the spectroscope itself advances have been made by Lord Ray- leigh by his discussion of the theory of the instrument and by Prof. Rowland in the construction of concave gratings. Lord Rayleigh has shown that there is not the necessary connection, sometimes supposed, between dispersion and resolving power, as be- sides the prism or grating other details of construction and of adjust- ment of a spectroscope must be taken into account. The resolving power of the prismatic spectroscope is proportional to the length of path in the dispersive medium. For the heavy flint glass used in Lord Rayleigh’s experiments, the thickness necessary to resolve the sodium lines came out 1-02 centimeters. If this be taken as a unit, the resolving power of a prism of similar glass will be (in the neighbor- hood of the sodium lines) equal to the number of centimeters of its thickness. In other parts of the spectrum the resolving power will vary inversely as the third power of the wave length, so that it will be eight times as great in the violet as in the red. The resolving power of a spectroscope is therefore proportional to the total thickness of the dispersive material in use, irrespective of the number, the angles, or the setting of the separate prisms into which, for the sake of conven- ience, it may be distributed. The resolving power of a grating depends upon the total number of lines on its surface and the order of spectrum in use, about 1,000 lines being necessary to resolve the sodium lines in the first spectrum. As it is often of importance in the record of observations to state the efficiency of the spectroscope with which they were made, Prof. Schuster has proposed the use of a unit of purity as well as of resolv- ing power, for the full resolving power of a spectroscope is realized in practice only when a sufficiently narrow slit is used. The unit of purity also is to stand for the separation of two lines differing by one- thousandth of their own wave length, about the separation of the sodium pair at D. A further limitation may come in from the physiological fact that, as Lord Rayleigh has pointed out, the eye, when its full aperture is used, is not a perfect instrument. If we wish to realize the full resolv- ing power of a spectroscope, therefore, the emergent beam must not be larger than about one-third of the opening of the pupil. Up to the present time the standard of reference for nearly all spec- troscopic work continues to be Angstrém’s map of the solar spectrum and his scale based upon his original determinations of absolute wave length. It is well known, as was pointed out by Thalén in his work on the spectrum of iron, in 1884, that Angstrém’s figures are slightly too small, in consequence of an error existing in a standard meter used by him. The corrections for this have been introduced into the tables of the wave lengths of terrestrial spectra collected and revised by a CELESTIAL SPECTROSCOPY. rail committee of this Association from 1885 to 1887. Last year the com- mittee added a table of corrections to Rowland’s scale. The inconvenience caused by a change of standard scale is, for a time at least, considerable; but there is little doubt that in the near future Rowland’s photographie map of the solar spectrum and his scale based on the determinations of absolute wave length by Pierce and Bell, or the Potsdam scale, based on original determinations by Miiller and Kempf, which differs very slightly from it, will come to be excltisively adopted. The great accuracy of Rowland’s photographic map is due chiefly to the introduction by him of concave gratings and of a method for their use by which the problem of the determination of relative wave lengths is simplified to measures of coincidences of the lines in different spectra by a micrometer. The concave grating and its peculiar mounting, in which no lenses or telescope are needed, and in which all the spectra are in focus together, formed a new departure of great importance in the measure: ment of spectral lines. The valuable method of photographie sensi- tizers for different parts of the spectrum has enabled Prof. Rowland to include in his map the whole visible solar spectrum, as well as the ultra-violet portion as far as it can get through our atmosphere. Some recent photographs of the solar spectrum, which include A, by Mr. George Higgs, are of great technical beauty. During the past year the results of three independent researches have appeared, in which the special object of the observers has been to distinguish the lines which are due to our atmosphere from those which are truly solar—the maps of M. Thollon, which, owing to his lamented death just before their final completion, have assumed the character of a memorial of him; maps by Dr. Becker; and sets of pho- tographs of a high and a low sun by Mr. McClean. At the meeting of this association in Bath, M. Janssen gave an ac- count of his own researches on the terrestrial lines of the solar spec: trum which owe their origin to the oxygen of our atmosphere. He discovered the remarkable fact that, while one class of bands varies as the density of the gas, other diffuse bands vary as the square of the density. These observations are in accordance with the work of Ego- roft and of Olszewski, and of Liveing and Dewar on condensed oxy- gen. In some recent experiments Olszewski, with a layer of liquid oxygen 30 millimeters thick, saw, as well as four other bands, the band coincident with Fraunhofer’s A; a remarkable instance of the persist- ence of absorption through a great range of temperature. The light which passed through the liquid oxygen had a light blue color resem- bling that of the sky. : Of not less interest are the experiments of Knut Angstrém, which show that the carbonic acid and aqueous vapour of the atmosphere reveal their presence by dark bands in the invisible infra-red region, at the positions of bands of emission of these substances. ( CELESTIAL SPECTROSCOPY. Spectroscopic conditions.—It is now some thirty years since the spec- troscope gave us for the first time certain knowledge of the nature of the heavenly bodies, and revealed the fundamental fact that terrestrial matter is not peculiar to the solar system, but is common to all the stars which are visible to us. In the case of a star such as Capella, which has a spectrum almost identical with that of the sun, we feel justified in concluding that the matter of which it is built up is similar, and that its temperature is also high, and not very different from the solar temperature. The task of analyzing the stars and nebulie becomes however one of very great difficulty when we have to do with spectra differing from the solar type. We are thrown back upon the laboratory for the information necessary to enable us to interpret the indications of the spectroscope as to the chemical nature, the density and pressure, and the temperature of the celestial masses. What the spectroscope immediately reveals to us are the waves which were set up in the ether filling all inter-stellar space, years or hundreds of years ago, by the motions of the molecules of the celestial substances. As a rule,it is only when a body is gaseous and sufficiently hot that the motions within its molecules can produce bright lines and a corresponding absorption. The spectra of the heavenly bodies are indeed, to a great extent absorption spectra, but we have usually to study them through the corresponding emission spectra of bodies brought into the gaseous form and rendered luminous by means of flames or of electric discharges. In both cases, unfortunately, as has peen shown recently by Profs. Liveing and Dewar, Wiillner, E. Wiede- mann and others, there appears to be no certain direct relation be- tween the luminous radiation as shown in the spectroscope and the temperature of the flame, or of the gaseous contents of the vacuum tube—that is, in the usual sense of the term as applied to the mean motion of all the molecules. In both cases, the vibratory motions with- in the molecules to which their luminosity is due are almost always much greater than would be produced by encounters of molecules hav- ing motions of translation no greater than the average motions which characterize the temperature of the gases as a whole. The tempera- ture of a vacuum tube through which an electric discharge is taking place may be low, as shown by a thermometer, quite apart from the consideration of the extreme smallness of the mass of gas, but the vibrations of the luminous molecules must be violent in whatever way we suppose them to be set up by the discharge; if we take Schuster’s view that comparatively few molecules are carrying the discharge, and that it is to the fierce encounters of these alone that the luminosity is due, then if all the molecules had similar motions, the temperature of the gas would be very high. Soin flames where chemical changes are in progress, the vibratory motions of the molecules which are luminous may be, in connection with CELESTIAL SPECTROSCOPY. 73 the energy set free in these changes, very different from those corre- sponding to the mean temperature of the tlame. Under the ordinary conditions of terrestrial experiments, therefore, the temperature or the mean vis viva of the molecules may have no di- rect relation to the total radiation, which, on the other hand, is the sum of the radiation due to each Iuminous molecule. These phenomena have recently been discussed by Ebert from the standpoint of the electro-magnetic theory of light. Very great caution is therefore called for when we attempt to reason by the aid of laboratory experiments tothe temperature of the heavenly bodies from their radiation, especially on the reasonable assumption that in them the luminosity isnot ordinarily associated with chemical changes or with electrical discharges; but is due to a simple glowing from the ultimate conversion of the gravitational energy of shrinkage into molecular motion. In a recent paper Stas maintains that electric spectra are to be re- garded as distinct from flame spectra; and from researches of his own, that the pairs of lines of the sodium spectrum other than D are pro- duced only by disruptive electric discharges. As these pairs of lines are found reversed in the solar spectrum, he concludes that the sun’s radiation is due mainly to electric discharges. But Wolf and Diacon, and later, Watts, observed the other pairs of lines of the sodium spec- trum when the vapor was raised above the ordinary temperature of the Bunsen flame. Recently, Liveing and Dewar saw easily, besides D, the citron and green pairs, and sometimes the blue pair and the orange pair, when hydrogen charged with sodium vapor was burning at different pressures inoxygen. In the case of sodium vapor, there- fore, and presumably in all other vapors and gases, it is a matter of indifference whether the necessary vibratory motion of the molecules is produced by electric discharges or by flames. The presence of lines in the solar spectrum which we can only produce electrically, is an indica- tion, however, as Stas points out, of the high temperature of the sun. We must not forget that the light from the heavenly bodies may con- sist of the combined radiations of differentlayers of gas at different tem- peratures, and possibly be further complicated to an unknown extent by the absorption of cooler portions of gas outside. Not less caution is needed if we endeavor to argue from the broaden- ing of lines and the coming in of a continuous spectrum as to the rela- tive pressure of the gas ia the celestial atmospheres. On the one hand, it can not be gainsaid that in the laboratory the widening of the lines in a Pliicker’s tube follows upon increasing the density of the residue of hydrogen in the tube, when the vibrations are more frequently dis- turbed by fresh encounters, and that a broadening of the sodium lines in a flame at ordinary pressure is produced by an increase of the quan- tity of sodium in the flame; but it is doubtful if pressure, as distin- guished from quantity, does produce an increase of the breadth of the 74. CELESTIAL SPECTROSCOPY. lines. An individual molecule of sodium will be sensibly in the same condition, considering the relatively enormous number of the molecules of the other gases, whether the flame is scantily or copiously fed with the sodium salt. With a small quantity of sodium vapor the intensity will be feeble except near the maximum of the lines; when, however, the quantity is increased, the comparative transparency on the sides of the maximum will allow the light from the additional molecules met with in the path of the visual ray to strengthen the radiation of the molecules farther back, and so increase the breadth of the lines. In a gaseous mixture it is found, as a rule, that at the same presstire or temperature, as the encounters with similar molecules become fewer, the spectral lines will be affected as if the body were observed under conditions of reduced quantity or temperature. In their recent investigation of the spectroscopic behavior of flames under various pressures up to forty atmospheres, Profs. Living and Dewar have come to the conclusion that though the prominent feature of the light emitted by flames at high pressure appears to be a strong continuous spectrum, there is not the slightest indication that this con- tinuous spectrum is produced by the broadening of the lines of the same gases at low pressure. On the contrary, photometric observations of the brightness of the continuous spectrum, as the pressure is varied, show that it is mainly produced by the mutual action of the molecules of a gas. Experiments on the sodium spectrum were carried up to a pressure of forty atmospheres without producing any definite effect on the width of the lines which could be ascribed to the pressure. In a similar way the lines of the spectrum of water showed no signs of ex- pansion up to twelve atmospheres; though more intense than at ordi- nary pressure, they remained narrow and clearly defined. It follows therefore that a continuous spectrum can not be considered, when taken alone, as a sure indication of matter in the liquid or the solid state. Not only, as in the experiments already mentioned, such a spectrum may be due to gas when under pressure, but, as Maxwell pointed out, if the thickness of a medium, such as sodium yapor, which radiates and absorbs different kinds of light, be very great, and the temperature high, the light emitted will be of exactly the same composi- tion as that emitted by lamp-black at the same temperature, for the radiations which are feebly emitted will be also feebly absorbed and can reach the surface from immense depths. Schuster has shown that oxygen, even in a partially exhausted tube, can give a continuous spec- trum when excited by a feeble electric discharge. Compound bodies are usually distinguished by a banded spectrum; but, on the other hand, such a spectrum does not necessarily show the’ presence of compounds—thatis, of molecules containing different kinds of atoms—but simply of a more complex molecule, which may be made | up of similar atoms, and be, therefore, an allotropic condition of the same body. In some cases—for example, in the diffuse bands of the, CELESTIAL SPECTROSCOPY. 5 absorption spectrum of oxygen—the bands may have an intensity pro- portional to the square of the density of the gas, and may be due either to the formation of more complex molecules of the gas with increase of pressure or, it may be, to the constraint to which the molecules are sub- ject during their encounter with one another. It may be thought that atleast in the coincidences of bright lines we are on the selid ground of certainty, since the length of the waves set up in the «ther by a molecule, say of hydrogen, is the most fixed and absolutely permanent quantity in nature, and is so of physical necessity, for with any alteration the molecule would cease to be hydrogen. Such would be the case if the coincidence were certain; but an abso- lute coincidence can be only a matter of greater or less probability, depending on the resolving power employed, on the number of the lines which correspond, and on their characters. When the coincidences are very numerous, as in the case of iron and the solar spectrum, or the lines are characteristically grouped, as in the case of hydrogen and the solar spectrum, we may regard the coincidence as certain; but the progress of science has been greatly retarded by resting important con- clusions upon the apparent coincidence of single lines in spectroscopes of very small resolving power. In such cases, unless other reasons supporting the coincidence are present, the probability of areal coinci- dence is almost too small to be of any importance, especially in the case of a heavenly body which may havea motion of approach or of recession of unknown amount. But even here we are met by the confusion introduced by multiple spectra, corresponding to different molecular groupings of the same substance and, further, to the influence of substances in vapor upon each other; for when several gases are present together the phenomena of radiation and reversal by absorption are by no means the same as if the gases were free from each other’s influence, and especially is this the case when they are illuminated by an electric discharge. I have said as much as time will permit and I think indeed suffi- cient to show that it is only by the laborious and slow process of most cautious observation that the foundations of the science of celestial physics can be surely laid. We are at present in a time of transition, when the earlier and, in the nature of things, less precise observations are giving place to work of an order of accuracy much greater than yas formerly considered attainable with objects of such small bright- ness as the stars. The aceuracy of the earlier determinations of the spectra of the ter- restrial elements is in most cases insufficient for modern work on the stars as well as on the sun. It falls much below the scale adopted in Rowland’s map of the sun, as wellas below the degree of accuracy at- tained at Potsdam by photography in a part of the spectrum for the brighter stars. Increase of resolving power very frequently breaks up into groups, in the spectra of the sun and stars, the lines which had 76 CELESTIAL SPECTROSCOPY. been regarded as single, and their supposed coincidence with terrestrial lines falls to the ground. For this reason many of the early conclusions based on observation as good as it was possible to make at the time with the less powerful spectroscopes then in use, may not be found to be maintained under the much greater resolving power of modern instru- ments. Spectroscopic Problems.—The spectroscope has failed as yet to inter- pret for us the remarkable spectrum of the aurora borealis. Undoubt- edly in this phenomenon portions of our atmosphere are lighted up by electric discharges; we should expect, therefore, to recognize the spectra of the gases known to be present in it. As yet we have not been able to obtain similar spectra from these gases artificially, and especially we do not know the origin of the principal line in the green, which often appears alone, and may have, therefore, an origin independent of that of the other lines. Recently the suggestion has been made that the aurora is a phenomenon produced by the dust of meteors and falling stars, and that near positions of certain auroral lines or flutings of manganese, lead, barium, thallium, iron, etc., are sufficient to justify us in regarding meteoric dust in the atmosphere as the origin of the auroral spectrum. Liveing and Dewar have made a conclusive research on this point, by availing themselves of the dust of excessive minuteness thrown off from the surface of the electrodes of various metals and meteorites by a disruptive discharge, and carried forward into the tube of observa- tion by a more or less rapid current of air or other gas. These experi- ments prove that metallic dust, however fine, suspended in a gas will not act like gaseous matter in becoming luminous with its character- istic spectrum in an electric discharge similar to that of the aurora. Prof. Schuster has suggested that the principal line may be due to some very light gas which is present in too small a proportion to be detected by chemical analysis or even by the spectroscope in the presence of the other gases near the earth, but which, at the height of the auroral discharges is in a sufficiently greater relative proportion to give a spectrum. Lemstrém, indeed, states that he saw this line in the silent discharge of a Holtz machine on a mountain in Lapland. The lines may not have been obtained in our laboratories from the atmospheric gases on account of the difficulty of re-producing in tubes with sufficient nearness the conditions under which the auroral discharges take place. Tn the spectra of comets the spectroscope has shown the presence of earbon presumably in combination with hydrogen, and also sometimes with nitrogen; and in the case of comets approaching very near the sun, the lines of sodium, and other lines which have been supposed to belong to iron. Though the researches of Prof. H. A. Newton and of Prof. Schiaparelli leave no doubt of the close connection of comets with corresponding periodic meteor swarms, and therefore of the probable identity of cometary matter with that of meteorites, with which the spec- CELESTIAL SPECTROSCOPY. U7 troscopic evidence agrees, it would be perhaps unwise at present to at- tempt to define too precisely the exact condition of the matter which forms the nucleus of the comet. In any ease the part of the light of the comet which is not reflected solar light can scarcely be attributed toa high temperature produced by the clashing of separate meteoric stones set up within the nucleus by the sun’s disturbing force. We must look rather to disruptive electric discharges, produced probably by processes of evaporation due to increased solar heat, which would be amply sufficient to set free portions of the occluded gases into the vacuum of space. May it be that these discharges are assisted, and indeed possibly increased, by the recently-discovered action of the ultra-violet part of the sun’s light? Lenard and Wolfe have shown that ultra-violet light can produce a discharge from a negatively elec- trified piece of metal, while Hallwachs and Righi have shown further that ultra-violet light can even charge positively an unelectrified piece of metal. Similar actions on cometary matter, unscreened as it is by an absorptive atmosphere, at least of any noticeable extent, may well be powerful when a comet approaches the sun, and help to explain an electrified condition of the evaporated matter which would possibly bring it under the sun’s repulsive action. We shall have to return to this point in speaking of the solar corona. A very great advance has been made in our knowledge of the con- stitution of the sun by the recent work at the Johns Hopkins University by means of photography and concave gratings, in comparing the solar spectrum, under great resolving power, directly with the spectra of the terrestrial elements. Prof. Rowland has shown that the lines of thirty- six terrestrial elements at least are certainly present in the solar spec- trum, while eight others are doubtful, Fifteen elements, including ni- trogen, as it shows itself under an electric discharge in a vacuum tube, have not been found in the solar spectrum. Some ten other elements, inclusive of oxygen, have not yet been compared with the sun’s spec- trum. Rowland remarks that of the fifteen elements named as not found in the sun, many are so classed because they have few strong lines, or none at all, in the limit of the solar spectrum as compared by him with the are. Boron has only two strong lines. The lines of bismuth are compound and too diffuse. Therefore even in the case of these fifteen elements there is little evidence that they are really absent from the sun. It follows that if the whole earth were heated to the temperature of the sun, its spectrum would resemble very closely the solar spectrum. Rowland has not found any lines common to several elements, and in the case of some accidental coincidences, more accurate investiga- tion reveals some slight difference of wave-length or a common im- purity. Further, the relative strength of the lines in the solar spec- trum is generally, with a few exceptions, the same as that in the elec- 18 CELESTIAL SPECTROSCOPY. tric arc, so that Rowland considers that his experiments show ‘“ very little evidence” of the breaking up of the terrestrial elements in the sun. Stas in a recent paper gives the final results of eleven years of re- search on the chemical elements in a state of purity, and on the possi- bility of decomposing them by the physical and chemical forces at our disposal. His experiments on calcium, strontium, lithium, magnesiun, silver, sodium, and thallium, show that these substances retain their individuality under all conditions, and are unalterable by any forces that we can bring to bear upon them. Prof. Rowland looks to the solar lines which are unaccounted for as a means of enabling him to discover such new terrestrial elements as Still lurk in rare minerals and earths, by confronting their spectra directly with that of the sun. He has already resolved yttrium spee- troscopically into three components, and actually into two. The com- parison of the results of this independent analytical method with the remarkable but different conclusions to which M. Lecog de Boisbaudran and Mr. Crookes have been led respectively, from spectroscopic obser vation of these bodies when glowing under molecular bombardment in a vacuum tube, will be awaited with much interest. It is worthy of remark that, as our knowledge of the spectrum of hydrogen in its com- plete form came to us from the stars, it is now from the sun that chem- istry is probably about to be enriched by the discovery of new elements. In a discussion in the Bakerian Lecture for 1885, of what we knew up to that time of the sun’s corona, [ was led to the conclusion that the corona is essentially a phenomenon similar in the cause of its formation to the tails of comets—namely, that it consists for the most part prob- ably of matter going from the sun under the action of a force, possibly electrical, which varies as the surface, and can therefore in the case of highly attenuated matter easily master the force of gravity even near the sun. Though many of the coronal particles may return to the sun, those which form the long rays or streamers do not return; they sepa- rate and soon become too diffused to be any longer visible, and may well go to furnish the matter of the zodiacal light, which otherwise has not received a satisfactory explanation. And further, if such a force exist at the sun, the changes of terrestrial magnetism may be due to direct electric action, as the earth moves ‘through lines of inductive force. These conclusions appear to be in accordance broadly with the lines along which thought has been directed by the results of subsequent eclipses. Prof. Schuster takes an essentially similar view, and suggests that there may be a direct electric connection between the sun and the planets. He asks further whether the sun may not act like a magnet in consequence of its revolution about its axis. Prof. Bigelow has re- cently treated the coronal forms by the theory of spherical harmonics, on the supposition that we see phenomena similar to those of free elec- CELESTIAL SPECTROSCOPY, 79 tricity, the rays being lines of force, and the coronal matter discharged from the sun, or at least arranged or controlled by these forces. At the extremities of the streams for some reasons the repulsive power may be lost, and gravitation set in, bringing the matter back to the sun. The matter which does leave the sun is persistently transported to the equatorial plane of the corona; in fact, the zodiacal light may be the accumulation at great distances from the sun along this equator of such like material. Photographs on a larger scale will be desirable for the full development of the conclusions which may follow from this study of the curved forms of the coronal structure. Prof. Schaeberle, how- ever, considers that the coronal phenomena may be satisfactorily ac- counted for on the supposition that the corona is formed of streams of matter ejected mainly from the spot zones with great initial velocities, but smaller than 382 miles per second. Further, that the different types of the corona are due to the effects of perspective on the streams, from the earth’s place at the time relatively to the plane of the solar equator. Of the physical and the chemical nature of the coronal matter we know very little. Schuster concludes, from an examination of the eclipses of 1582, 1883, and 1886, that the continuous spectrum of the corona has the maximum of actinic intensity displaced considerably towards the red when compared with the spectrum of the sun, which shows that it can only be due in small part to solar light scattered by small particles. The lines of calcium and of hydrogen do not appear to form part of the normal spectrum of the corona. The green coronal line has no known representative in terrestrial substances, nor has Schuster been able to recognize any of our elements in the other lines of the corona. Stellar evolution.—The spectra of the stars are almost infinitely (liversified, yet they can be arranged with some exceptions in a series in which the adjacent spectra, especially in the photographic region, are scarcely distinguishable, passing from the bluish-white stars like Sirius, through stars more or less solar in character, to stars with banded spectra, which divide themselves into two apparently inde- pendent groups, according as the stronger edge of the bands is towards the red or the blue. Insuch an arrangement the sun’s place is towards the middle of the series. At present a difference of opinion exists as to the direction in the series in which evolution is proceeding, whether by further condensa- tion white stars pass into the orange and red stages, or whether these more colored stars are younger and will become white by increasing age. The latter view was suggested by Johnstone Stoney in 1867. About ten years ago Ritter in a series of papers discussed the behav- lor of gaseous masses during condensation, and the probable resulting constitution of the heavenly bodies. According to him, a star passes through the orange and red stages twice, first during a comparatively 80 CELESTIAL SPECTROSCOPY. short period of increasing temperature, which culminates in the white stage, and a second time during a more prolonged stage of gradual cooling. He suggested that the two groups of banded stars may cor- respond to these different periods, the young stars being those in which the stronger edge of the dark band is towards the blue, the other banded stars, which are relatively less luminous and few in number, being those which are approaching extinction through age. Recently a similar evolutional order has been suggested, which is based upon the hypothesis that the nebule and stars consist of collid- ing meteoric stones in different stages of condensation. More recently the view has been put forward that the diversified spectra of the stars do not represent the stages of an evolutional progress, but are due for the most part to differences of original con- stitution. The few minutes which can be given to this part of the address are insufficient for a discussion of these different views. I purpose, there- fore, to state briefly, and with reserve, as the subject is obscure, some of the considerations from the characters of their spectra which appeared to me to be in favor of the evolutional order in which I arranged the stars from their photographie spectra in 1879. This order is essentially the same as Vogel had previously proposed in his classification of the stars in 1874, in which the white stars, which are most numerous, represent the early adult and most persistent stage of stellar life; the solar condition that of full maturity and of commencing age; while in the orange and red stars with banded spectra we see the setting in and advance of old age. But this statement must be taken broadly, and not as asserting that all stars, however different in mass and possibly to some small extent in original constitution, exhibit one invariable suc- cession of spectra. In the spectra of the white stars the dark metallic lines are relatively inconspicuous, and occasionally absent, at the same time that the dark lines of hydrogen are usually strong, and more or less broad, upon a continuous spectrum, which is remarkable for its brilliancy at the blue end. In some of these stars the hydrogen and some other lines are bright, and sometimes variable. As the greater or less prominence of the hydrogen lines, dark or bright, is characteristic of the white stars as a class, and diminishes gradually with the incoming and increase in strength of the other lines, we are probably justified in regarding it as due to some condi- tions which occur naturally during the progress of stellar life, and not to a peculiarity of original constitution. To produce a strong absorption-spectrum a substance must be at the particular temperature at which it is notably absorptive; and further, this temperature must be sufficiently below that of the region behind from which the light comes for the gas to appear, so far as its special rays are concerned, as darkness upon it. Considering the high tem- CELESTIAL SPECTROSCOPY. 81 perature to which hydrogen must be raised before it can show its char- acteristic emission and absorption, we shall probably be right inattribu- ting the relative feebleness or absence of the other lines, not to the paucity of the metallic vapors, but rather to their being so hot relatively to the substances behind them as to show feebly, if at all, by reversion. Such a state of things would more probably be found, it seems to me, in conditions anterior to the solar stage. A considerable cooling of the sun would probably give rise to banded spectra due to compounds, or to more complex molecules, which might form near the condensing points of the vapors. The sun and stars are generally regarded as consisting of glowing vapors surrounded by a photosphere where condensation is taking place, the temperature of the photospheric layer from which the greater part of the radiation comes being constantly renewed from the hotter matter within. At the surface the convection currents would be strong, producing a considerable commotion, by which the different gases would be mixed and tot allowed to retain the inequality of proportions at different levels due to their vapor densities. Now the conditions of the radiating photosphere and those of the gases above it, on which the character of the spectrum of a star depends, will be determined, not alone by temperature, but also by the force of gravity in these regions; this force will be fixed by the star’s mass and its stage of condensation, and will become greater as the star continues to condense. In the case of the sun the force of gravity has already become so great at the surface that the decrease of the density of the gases must be extremely rapid, passing in the space of a few miles from atmos- pherie pressure to a density infinitesimally small; consequently the temperature-gradient at the surface, if determined solely by expansion, must be extremely rapid. The gases here however are exposed to the fierce radiation of the sun, and unless wholly transparent would take up heat, especially if any solid or liquid particles were present from condensation or convection currents. From these causes, within a very small extent of space at the surface of the sun, all bodies with which we are acquainted should fall to a con- dition in which the extremely tenuous gas could no longer give a vis- ible spectrum. The insignificance of the angle subtended by this space as seen from the earth should cause the boundary of the solar atmos- phere to appear defined. If the boundary which we see be that of the sun proper, the matter above it will have to be regarded as in an essen- tially dynamical condition—an assemblage, so to speak, of gaseous pro- jectiles, for the most part falling back upon the sun after a greater or less range of flight. But in any case it is within a space of’ relatively small extent in the sun, and probably in the other solar stars, that the H, Mis, 334, pt. 1——6 82 CELESTIAL SPECTROSCOPY. reversion which is manifested by dark lines is to beregarded as taking place. Passing backward in the stav’s life, we should find a gradual weak- ening of gravity at the surface, a reduction of the temperature-gradi- et so far as it was determined by expansion, and convection currents of less violence producing less interference with the proportional quan- tities of gases due to their vapor densities, while the effects of erup- tions would be more extensive. At last we might come to a state of things in which, if the star were hot enough, only hydrogen might be sufficiently cool relatively to the radiation behind to produce a strong absorption. The lower vapors would be protected, and might continue to be relatively too hot for their lines to appear very dark upon the continuous spectrum; besides, their lines might be possibly to some extent effaced by the coming in under such conditions in tho vapors themselves of a continuous spec- trum. In such a star the light radiated towards the upper part ef the atmos- phere may have come from portions lower down of the atmosphere itself, or at least from parts not greatly hotter. There may be no such great difference of temperature of the low and less low portions of the star’s atmosphere as to make the darkening effect of absorption of the protected metallic vapors to prevail over the illuminating effect of their emission. It is only by a vibratory motion corresponding to a very high tem- perature that the bright lines of the first spectrum of hydrogen can be brought out, and by the equivalence of absorbing and emitting power that the corresponding spectrum of absorption should be produced; yet for a strong absorption to show itself, the hydrogen must be cool relatively to the source of radiation behind it, whether this be con- densed particles or gas. Such conditions, it seems to me, should oc- cur in the earlier rather than in the more advanced stages of conden- sation. The subject is obscure, and we may go wrong in our mode of con- ceiving of the probable progress of events, but there can be no doubt that in one remarkable instance the white-star spectrum is associated with an early stage of condensation. Sirius is one of the most conspicuous examples of one type of this class of stars. Photometric observations combined with its ascertained parallax show that this star emits from forty to sixty times the light of our sun, even to the eye, which is insensible to ultra-violet light, in which Sirius is very rich, while we learn from the motion of its com- panion that its mass is not much more than double that of our sun. It follows that, unless we attribute to this star an improbably great emissive power, if must be of immense size, and in a much more diffuse and therefore an earlier condition than our sun; though probably at a later stage than those white stars in which the hydrogen lines are bright, CELESTIAL SPECTROSCOPY. 83 A direct determination of the relative temperature of the photo- spheres of the stars might possibly be obtained in some cases from the relative position of maximum radiation of their continuous spectra. Langley has shown that through the whole range of temperature on which we can experiment, and presumably at temperatures beyond, the maximum of radiation power in solid bodies gradually shifts upwards in the spectrum from the infra-red through the red and orange, and that in the sun it has reached the blue. The defined character, as a rule, of the stellar lines of absorption suggests that the vapors producing them do not at the same time exert any strong power of general absorption. Consequently, we should probably not go far wrong, when the photosphere consists of liquid or solid particles, if we could compare select parts of the con- tinuous spectrum between the stronger lines, or where they are fewest. It is obvious that, if extended portions of different stellar spectra were compared, their true relation would be obscured by the line- absorption. The increase of temperature, as shown by the rise in the spectrum of the maximum of radiation, may not always be accompanied by a cor- responding greater brightness of a star as estimated by the eye, which isan extremely imperfect photometric instrument. Not only is the eye blind to large regions of radiation, but even for the small range of light that we can see the visual effect varies enormously with its color. Ac- cording to Prof. Langley, the same amount of energy which just enables us to perceive light in the crimson at A would in the green produce a visual effect 100,000 times greater. In the violet the proportional effect would be 1,600, in the blue 62,000, in the yellow 28,000, in the orange 14,000, and in the red 1,200. Capt. Abney’s recent experiments make the sensitiveness of the eye for the green near F to be 750 times greater than for thered about C. Itis for this reason, at least in part, that I suggested in 1864, and have since shown by direct observation, that the spectrum of the nebula in Andromeda, and presumably of similar nebule, is in ap- pearance only wanting in the red. The stage at which the maximum radiation is in the green, correspond- ing to the eye’s greatest sensitiveness, would be that in which it could be most favorably measured by eye photometry. As the maximum rose into the violet and beyond, the star would increase in visual brightness, but not in proportion to the increase of energy radiated by it. The brightness of a star would be affected by the nature of the sub- Stance by which the light was chiefly emitted. In the laboratory solid carbon exhibits the highest emissive power. A stellar stage in which radiation comes, to a large extent, from a photosphere of the solid par- ticles of this substance would be favorable for great brilliancy. Though the stars are built up of matter essentially similar to that of the sun, it does not follow that the proportion of the different elements is every- where the same, It may be that the substances condensed in the pho- 84 CELESTIAL SPECTROSCOPY. tospheres of different stars may differ in their emissive powers, but prob- ably not to a great extent. All the heavenly bodies are seen by us through the tinted medium of our atmosphere. According to Langley the solar stage of stars is not really yellow, but, even as gauged by our imperfect eyes, would appear bluish-white if we could free ourselves from the deceptive influences of our surroundings. From these considerations it follows that we can scarcely infer the evolutional stages of the stars from a simple comparison of their eye magnitudes. We should expect the white stars to be, as a class, less dense than the stars in the solar stage. As great mass might bring in the solar type of spectrum at a relatively earlier time, some of the brightest of these stars may be very massive, and brighter than the sun—for example, the brilliant star Arcturus. For these reasons the solar stars should not only be denser than the white stars, but per- haps, as a Class, Surpass them in mass and eye brightness. It has been shown by Lane that, so long as a condensing gaseous mass remains subject to the laws of a purely gaseous body its tempera- ture will continue to rise. The greater or less breadth of the lines of absorption of hydrogen in the white stars may be due to variations of the depth of the hydrogen in the line of sight, arising from the causes which have been discussed. At the sides of the lines the absorption and emission are feebler than in the middle, and would come out more strongly with a greater thick- ness of gas. The diversities among the white stars are nearly as numerous as the individuals of the class. Time does not permit me to do more than to record that, in addition to the three sub-classes into which they have been divided by Vogel, Scheiner has recently investigated minor differ- ences aS suggested by the character of the third line of hydrogen near G. He has pointed out, too, that so far as his observations go the white stars in the constellation of Orion stand alone, with the exception of Algol, in possessing a dark line in the blue which has apparently the same position as a bright line in the great nebula of the same con- stellation; and Pickering finds in his photographs of the spectra of these stars dark lines corresponding to the principal lines of the bright- line stars, and the planetary nebule with the exception of the chief nebular line. The association of white stars with nebular matter in Orion, in the Pleiades, in the region of the Milky Way, and in other parts of the heavens, may be regarded as falling in with the view that I have taken. In the stars possibly farther removed from the white class than our sun, belonging to the first division of Vogel’s third class, which are distinguished by absorption bands with their stronger edge toward the blue, the hydrogen tines are narrower than in the solar spectrum, In these stars the density gradient is probably still more rapid, the CELESTIAL SPECTROSCOPY. 85 depth of hydrogen may be less, and possibly the hydrogen molecules may be affected by a larger number of encounters with dissimilar mole- cules. In some red stars with dark hydro-carbon bands, the hydrogen lines have not been certainly observed; if they are really absent it may be because the temperature has fallen below the point at which hydrogen can exert its characteristic absorption; besides, some hydrogen will have united with the carbon. The coming in of the hydro-carbon bands may indicate a later evolutional stage, but the temperature may still be high, as acetylene can exist in the electric are. A number of small stars more or less similar to those which are known by the names of their discoverers, Wolf and Rayet, have been found by Pickering in his photographs. These are remarkable for sev- eral brilliant groups of bright lines, including frequently the hydrogen lines and the line D;, upon a continuous spectrum strong in blue and violet rays, in which are also dark lines of absorption. As some of the bright groups appear in his photographs to agree in position with cor- responding bright lines in the planetary nebule, Pickering suggests that these stars should be placed in one class with them, but the bright- est nebular line is absent from these stars. The simplest conception of their nature would be that each star is surrounded by a nebula, the bright groups being due to the gaseous matter outside the star. Mr. Roberts however has not heen able to bring out any indication of nebulosity by prolonged exposure. The remarkable star 7 Argiis may belong to this class of the heavenly bodies. Gaseous Nebule.—M the nebule the elder Herschel saw portions of the fiery mist or “ shining fluid ” out of which the heavens and the earth had been slowly fashioned. For a time this view of the nebule gave place to that which regarded them as external galaxies, cosmical “ sand heaps,” too remote to be resolved into separate stars; though indeed, in 1858, Mr. Herbert Spencer showed that the observations of nebulze up to that time were really in favor of an evolutional progress. In 1864, I brought the spectroscope to bear upon them; the bright lines which flashed upon the eye showed the source of the light to be glowing gas, and so restored these bodies to what is probably their true place, as an early stage of sidereal life. At that early time our knowledge of stellar spectra was small. For this reason partly, and probably also under the undue influence of the- ological opinions then widely prevalent, I unwisely wrote in my orig- inal paper in 1864, ‘“‘ that in these objects we no longer have to do with a special modification of our own type of sun, but find ourselves in presence of objects possessing a distinct and peculiar plan of structure.” Two years later, however, in a lecture before this Association, I took a truer position. ‘Our views of the universe,” I said, ‘“ are undergoing important changes; let us wait for more facts, with minds unfettered by any dogmatic theory, and therefore free to receive the teaching, whatever it may be, of new observations.” 86 CELESTIAL SPECTROSCOPY. Let us turn aside for a moment from the nebule in the sky to the conclusions to which philosophers had been irresistibly led by a con- sideration of the features of the solar system. We have before us in the sun and planets obviously not a haphazard aggregation of bodies, but a system resting upon a multitude of relations pointing to a com- mon physical cause. From these considerations Kant and Laplace formulated the nebular hypothesis, resting it on gravitation alone, for at that time the science of the conservation of energy was practically unknown. These philosophers showed how, on the supposition that the space now occupied by the solar system was once filled by a vapor- ous mass, the formation of the sun and planets could be reasonably ac- counted tor. By a totally different method of reasoning, modern science traces the solar system backward step by step to a simlar state of things at the beginning. According to Helmholtz, the sun’s heat is maintained by the contraction of his mass, at the rate of about 220 feet a year. Whether at the present time the sun is getting hotter or colder we do not certainly know. We can reason back to the time the sun was suffi- ciently expanded to fill the whole space occupied by the solar system, and was reduced to a great glowing nebula. Though man’s life, the life of the race perhaps, is too short to give us direct evidence of any distinct stages of so august a process, still the probability is great that the nebular hypothesis, especially in the more precise form given to it by Roche, does represent broadly, notwithstanding some difficulties, the succession of events through which thesun and planets have passed. The nebular hypothesis of Laplace requires a rotating mass of fluid which at successive epochs became unstable from excess of motion, and left behind rings, or more probably perhaps lumps, of matter from the equatorial regions. The difficulties to which I have referred have suggested to some thinkers a different view of things, according to which it is not neces- sary to suppose that one part of the system gravitationally supports another. The whole may consist of a congeries of discrete bodies even if these bodies be the ultimate molecules of matter. The planets may have been formed by the gradual accretion of such discrete bodies. On the view that the material of the condensing solar system consisted of Separate particles or masses, we have no longer the fluid pressure which is an essential part of Laplace’s theory. Faye, in his theory of evolution from meteorites, has to throw over this fundamental idea of the nebular hypothesis, and he formulates instead a different succes- sion of events, in which the outer planets were formed last ; a theory which has difficulties of its own. Prof. George Darwin has recently shown, from an investigation of the mechanical conditions of a swarm of meteorites, that on certain assumptions a meteoric swarm might behave as a coarse gas, and in this way bring back the fluid pressure exercised by one part of the CELESTIAL SPECTROSCOPY, 87 system on thé other, which is required by Laplace’s theory. One chief assumption consists in supposing that such inelastic bodies as meteoric stones might attain the effective elasticity of a high order which is necessary to the theory through the sudden volatilization of a part of their mass at an encounter, by which what is virtually a violent explo- sive is introduced between the two colliding stones. Prof. Darwin is careful to point oat that it must necessarily be obscure as to how a sinall mass of solid matter can take up a very largé amount of energy i a small fraction of a second. Any direct indications from the heavens themselves, however slight, are of so great value that I should, perhaps, in this connection call at- tention to a recent remarkable photograph, by Mr. Roberts, of the great nebula in Andromeda. On this plate we seem to have presented to us some stage of cosinical evolution on a gigantic scale. The photo- graph shows a sort of whirlpool disturbance of the luminous matter which is distributed in a plane inclined to the line of sight, in which a series of rings of bright matter separated by dark spaces, greatly fore- shortened by perspective, surround a large, undefined central mass. We are ignorant of the parallax of this nebula, but there can be little doubt that we are looking upona system very remote, and therefore of a magnitude great beyond our power of adequate comprehension. The matter of this nebula, in whatever state it may be, appears to be dis- tributed, as in so many other nebulie, in rings or spiral streams, and to suggest a stage in a succession of evolutional events not inconsistent with that which the nebular hypothesis requires. To liken this object more directly to any particular stage in the formation of the solar sys- tem would be “to compare things great with small,” and might be in- deed to introduce a false analogy; but, on the other hand, we should err through an excess of caution if we did not accept the remarkable features brought to light by this photograph as a presumptive indica- tion of a progress of events in cosmical history following broadly upon the lines of Laplace’s theory. The old view of the original matter of the nebulw, that it consisted of a “fiery mist,” a tumultuous cloud Instinct with fire and niter. fell at once with the rise of the science of thermodynamics. In 1854 Helmholtz showed that the supposition of an original fiery condition of the nebulous stuff was unnecessary, since in the mutual gravitation of widely separated matter we have a store of potential energy sufii- cient to generate the high temperature of the sun and stars. We can scarcely go wrong in attributing the light of the nebulz to the conver- sion of the gravitational energy of shrinkage into molecular motion. The idea that the light of comets and of nebula may be due to a suc- cession of ignited flashes of gas from the encounters of meteoric stones 88 CELESTIAL SPECTROSCOPY. was suggested by Prof. Tait, and was brought to the notice of this As- sociation in 1871 by Sir William Thomson in his presidential address, The spectrum of the bright-line nebul is certainly not such a spee- trum as we should expect from the flashing by collisions of meteorites similar to those which have been analyzed in our laboratories. The strongest lines of the substances which in the case of such meteorites would first show themselves, iron, sodium, magnesium, nickel, ete., are not those which distinguish the nebular spectrum. On the contrary, this spectrum is chiefly remarkable for a few brilliant lines, very nar- row and defined, upon a background of a faint continuous spectrum, which contains numerous bright lines, and probably some lines of ab- sorption. The two most conspicuous lines have not been interpreted; for though the second line falls near, it is not coincident with a strong double line of iron. It is hardly necessary to say that though the near position of the brightest line to the bright double line of nitrogen, as seen in a small spectroscope in 1864, naturally suggested at that early time the possibility of the presence of this element in the nebule, I have been careful to point out, to prevent misapprehension, that in more recent years the nitrogen line and subsequently a lead line have been employed by me solely as fiducial points of reference in the spec- trum. The third line we know to be the second line of the first spectrum of hydrogen. Mr. Keeler has seen the first hydrogen line in the red, and photographs show that this hydrogen spectrum is probably present in its complete form, or nearly so, as we first learnt to know it in the ab- sorption spectrum of the white stars. We are not surprised to find associated with it the line D,, near the position of the absent sodium lines, probably due to the atom of some unknown gas, which in the sun can only show itself in the outbursts of highest temperature, and for this reason does not reveal itself by absorption in the solar spectrum. It is not unreasonable to assume that the two brightest lines, which are of the same order, are produced by substances of a similar nature, in which a vibratory motion corresponding to a very high temperature is also necessary. These substances, as well as that represented by the line D3, may be possibly some of the unknown elements which are wanting in our terrestrial chemistry between hydrogen and lithium, unless indeed D, be on the lighter side of hydrogen. In the laboratory we must have recourse to the electric discharge to bring out the spectrum of hydrogen; but in a vacuum tube, though the radiation may be great, from the relative fewness of the luminous atoms or molecules or from some other cause, the temperature of the gas as a whole may be low. On account of the large extent of the nebule, a comparatively smal number of luminous molecules or atoms would probably be sufficient CELESTIAL SPECTROSCOPY. 89 to make the nebulae as bright as they appear to us. On such an assumption the average temperature may be low, but the individual particles, which by their encounters are luminous, must have motions corresponding to a very high temperature, and in this sense be extremely hot. In such diffuse masses, from the great mean length of free path, the encounters would be rare but correspondingly violent, and tend to bring about vibrations of comparatively short period, as appears to be the case if we may judge by the great relative brightness of the more refran- gible lines of the nebular spectrum. Such a view may, perhaps, reconcile the high temperature, which the nebular spectrum undoubtedly suggests, with the much lower mean temperature of the gaseous mass which we should expect at so early a stage of condensation, unless we assume a very enormous mass, or that the matter coming together had previously considerable motion or con- siderable molecular agitation. The inquisitiveness of the human mind does not allow us to remain content with the interpretation of the present state of the cosmical masses, but suggests the question— What see’st thou else In the dark backward and abysm of time? What was the original state of things? how has it come about that by the side of aging worlds we have nebule in a relatively younger stage? Have any of them received their birth from dark suns, which have col- lided into new life, and so belong to a second or later generation of the heavenly bodies? During the short historic period, indeed, there is no record of such an event; still it would seem to be only through the collision of dark suns, of which the number must be increasing, that a temporary rejuve- nescence of the heavens is possible, and by such ebbings and flowings of stellar life that the inevitable end to which evolution in its appar- ently uncompensated progress is carrying us can, even for a little, be delayed. We can not refuse to admit as possible such an origin for nebule. In considering, however, the formation of the existing nebulwe we must bear in mind that, in the part of the heavens within our ken, the stars still in the early and middle stages of evolution exceed greatly in number those which appear to be in an advanced condition of condens- ation. Indeed, we find some stars which may be regarded as not far advanced beyond the nebular condition. It may be that the cosmical bodies which are still nebulous owe their later development to some conditions of the part of space where they occur, such as, conceivably, a greater original homogeneity, in conse- quence of which condensation began lessearly. In other parts of space condensation may have been still further delayed, or even havenot yet 9() CELESTIAL SPECTROSCOPY. begun. It is worthy of remark that these nebule group themselves about the Milky Way, where we find a preponderance of the white-star type of stars, and almost exclusively the bright-line stars which Pick- ering associates with the planetary nebule. Further, Dr. Gill con- cludes, from the rapidity with which they impress themselves upon the plate, that the fainter stars of the Milky Way also, to a large extent, belong to this early type of stars. At the same time other types of stars occur also over this region, and the red hydrocarbon stars are found in certain parts; but possibly these stars may be before or behind the Milky Way, and not physically connected with it. If light matter be suggested by the spectrum of these nebul, it may be asked further, as a pure specwation, whether in them we are witnessing possibly a later condensation of the light matter which had been left behind, at least in a relatively greater proportion, after the first growth of worlds into which the heavier matter condensed, though not without some entanglement of the lighter substances. The wide extent and great diffuseness of this bright-line nebulosity over a large part of the constellation of Orion may be regarded perhaps as _ point- ing in this direction. The diffuse nebulous matter streaming round the Pleiades may possibly be another instance, though the character of its spectrum has not yet been ascertained. In the planetary nebulie, as a rule, there is a sensible increase of the faint continuous spectrum, as well as a slight thickening of the bright lines toward the center of the nebula, appearances which are in favor of the view that these bodies are condensing gaseous masses. Prof. G. Darwin, in his investigation of the equilibrium of a rotating mass of fluid, found, in accordance with the independent researches of Poincaré, that when a portion of the central body becomes detached through increasing angular velocity, the portion should bear a far larger ratio to the remainder than is observed in the planets and satellites of the solar system, even taking into account heterogeneity from the con- densation of the parent mass. Now this state of things, in which the masses though not equal are of the same order, does seem to prevail in many nebule, and to have given birth to a large class of binary stars. Mr. See has recently in- vestigated the evolution of bodies of this class, and points out their radical differences from the solar system in the relatively large mass- ratios of the component bodies, as well as in the high eccentricities of their orbits, brought about by tidal friction, which would play a more important part in the evolution of such systems. Considering the large number of these bodies, he suggests that the solar system should perhaps no longer be regarded as representing celestial evolution in its normal form— A goodly Paterne to whose perfect mould He fashioned them - - - — but rather as modified by conditions which are exceptional. j CELESTIAL SPECTROSCOPY. 91 It may well be that in the very early stages condensing masses are subject to very different conditions, and that condensation may not al- - ways begin at one or two centers, but sometimes set in at a large num- ber of points, and proceed in the different cases along very different lines of evolution. Invisible Motions revealed by the Spectroscope.—Besides its more direct use in the chemical analysis of the heavenly bodies, the spectroscope has given to us a great and unexpected power of advance along the lines of the older astronomy. In the future a higher value may indeed be placed upon this indirect use of the spectroscope than upon its chemical revelations. By no direct astronomical methods could motions of approach or of recession of the stars be even detected, much less could they be meas- ured. A body coming directly toward us or going directly from us ap- pears to stand still. In the case of the stars we can receive no assist- ance from change of size or of brightness. The stars show no true disks in our instruments, and the nearest of them is so far off that if it were approaching us at the rate of a hundred miles in a second of time, a whole century of such rapid approach would not do more than increase its brightness by the one-fortieth part. Still it was only too clear that so long as we were unable to ascer- tain directly those components of the stars’ motions which lie in the line of sight, the speed and direction of the solar motion in space, and many of the great problems of the constitution of the heavens, must remain more or less imperfectly known. Now the spectroscope has placed in our hands this power, which, though so essential, appeared almost in the nature of things to lie forever beyond our grasp; it enables us to measure directly, and under favorable circumstances to within a mile per second, or even less, the speed of approach or of re- cession of a heavenly body. This method of observation has the great advantage for the astronomer of being independent of the distance of the moving body, and is therefore as applicable and as certain in the case of a body on the extreme confines of the visible universe (so long as it is bright enough), as in the case of a neighboring planet. Doppler had suggested as far back as 1841, that the same principle on which he had shown that a sound should become sharper or flatter if there were an approach or a recession between the ear and the source of the sound, would apply equally to light; and he went on to say that the difference of color of some of the binary stars might be produced in this way by their motions. Doppler was right in that the principle is true in the case of light, but he was wrong in the particular con- clusion which he drew from it. Even if we suppose a star to be mov- ing with a sufficiently enormous velocity to alter sensibly its color to the eye, no such change would actually be seen, for the reason that the store of invisible light beyond both limits of the visible spectruim, 92 CELESTIAL SPECTROSCOPY. the blue and the red, would be drawn upon, and light-waves invisible to us would be exalted or degraded so as to take the place of those raised or lowered in the visible region, and the color of the star would remain unchanged. About eight years later, Fizeau pointed out the importance of considering the individual wave-lengths of which white light is composed. As soon however as we had learned to recognize the lines of known substances in the spectra of the heavenly bodies, Doppler’s principle became applicable as the basis of a new and most fruitful method of investigation. The measurement of the small shift of the celestial lines from their true positions, as shown by the same lines in the spectrum of a terrestrial substance, gives to us the means of ascertaining directly in miles per second the speed of approach or of recession of the heavenly body from which the light has come. An account of the first application of this method of research to the stars, which was made in my observatory in 1868, was given by Sir Gabriel Stokes from this chair at the meeting at Exeter in 1869. The stellar motions determined by me were shortly after-confirmed by Prof. Vogel in the case of Sirius, and in the case of other stars by Mr. Christie, now astronomer-royal, at Greenwich; but, necessarily, in consequence of the inadequacy of the instruments then in use for so delicate an inquiry, the amounts of these motions were but approximate. The method was shortly afterwards taken up systematically at Green- wich and at the Rugby Observatory. It 1s to be greatly regretted that, for some reasons, the results have not been sufficiently accordant and accurate for a research of such exceptional delicacy. On this account probably, as well as that the spectroscope at that early time had scarcely become a familiar instrument in the observatory, astronomers were slow in availing themselves of this new and remarkable power of investigation. That this comparative neglect of so truly wonderful a method of ascertaining what was otherwise outside our powers of ob- servation has greatly retarded the progress of astronomy during the last fifteen years, is but too clearly shown by the brilliant results which within the last couple of years have followed fast upon the recent mas- terly application of this method by photography at Potsdam, and by eye with the needful accuracy at the Lick Observatory. At last this use of the spectroscope has taken its true place as one of the most potent methods of astronomical research. It gives us the motions of approach and of recession, not in angular measures, which depend for their translation into actual velocities upon separate determinations of parallactic displacements, but at once in terrestrial units of distance. This method of work will doubtless be very prominent in the astron- omy of the near future, and to it probably we shall have to look for the more important discoveries in sideral astronomy which will be made during the coming century. In his recent application of photography to this method of determin- ing celestial motions, Prof. Vogel, assisted by Dr. Scheiner, consider- CELESTIAL SPECTROSCOPY. 93 ing the importance of obtaining the spectrum of as many stars as pos- sible on an extended scale without an exposure inconveniently long, wisely determined to limit the part of the spectrum on the plate to the region for which the ordinary silver-bromide gelatine plates are most sensitive,—namely, to a small distance on each side of G,—and to em- ploy as the line of comparison the hydrogen line near G, and recently also certain lines of iron. The most minute and complete mechanical arrangements were provided for the purpose of securing the absolute rigidity of the comparison spectrum relatively to that of the star, and for permitting temperature adjustments and other necessary ones to be made. The perfection of these spectra is shown by the large number of lines, no fewer that two hundred and fifty in the case of Capella, within the small region of the spectrum on the plate. Already the motions of about fifty stars have been measured with an accuracy, in the case of the larger number of them, of about an English mile per second. At the Lick Observatory it has been shown that observations can be made directly by eye with an accuracy equally great. Mr. Keeler’s brilliant success has followed in great measure from the use of the third and fourth spectra of a grating 14,438 lines to the inch. The marvel- lous accuracy attainable in his hands on a suitable star is shown by observations on three nights of the star Arcturus, the largest diverg- ence of his measures being not greater than six-tenths of a mile per second, while the mean of the three nights’ work agreed with the mean of five photographic determinations of the same star at Potsdam to within one-tenth of an English mile. These are determinations of the motions of a sun so stupendously remote that even the method of parallax practically fails to fathom the depth of intervening space, and by means of light-waves which have been, according to Elkin’s nominal parallax, nearly two hundred years upon their journey. Mr. Keeler, with his magnificent means, has accomplished a task which J attempted in vain in 1874, with the comparatively poor appli- ances at my disposal, of measuring the motions in the line of sight of some of the planetary nebule. As the stars have considerable motions in space, it was to be expected that nebulie should possess similar motions, for the stellar motions must have belonged to the nebul out of which they have been evolved. My instrumental means, limiting my power of detection to motions greater than 25 miles per second, were insufti- cient. Mr. Keeler has found in the examination of ten nebule motions varying from 2 miles to 27 miles, with one exceptional motion of nearly 40 miles. For the nebula of Orion, Mr. Keeler finds a motion of recession of about 10 miles a second. Now, this motion agrees closely with what it should appear to have from the drift of the solar system itself, so far as it has been possible at present to ascertain the probable velocity of the sun in space, This grand nebula, of vast extent and of extreme 94 CELESTIAL SPECTROSCOPY. tenuity, is pobably more nearly at rest relatively to the stars of our system than any other celestial object we know; still it would seem more likely that even here we have some motion, small though it may he, than that the motions of the matter of which it is formed were so absolutely balanced as to leave this nebula in the unique position of absolute immobility in the midst of whirling and drifting suns and sys- tems of suns. The spectroscopic method of determining celestial motions in the line of sight has recently become fruitful in a new but not altogether unfore- seen direction, for it has, so to speak, given us a separating power far beyond that of any telescope the glassmaker and the optician could construct, and so enabled us to penetrate into mysteries hidden in stars apparently single, and altogether unsuspected of being binary systems. The spectroscope has not simply added to the list of the known binary stars, but has given to us for the first time a knowledge of a new class of stellar systems, in which the components are in some cases of nearly equal magnitude, and in close proximity, and are revolving with veloci- ties greatly exceeding the planetary velocities of our system. The K line in the photographs of Mizar, taken at the Harvard Col- lege Observatory, was found to be double at intervals of fifty-two days. The spectrum was therefore not due to a single source of light, but to the combined effect of two stars moving periodically in opposite diree- tions in the lineof sight. It is obvious that if two stars revolve round their common centre of gravity in a plane not perpendicular to the line of sight, all the lines in a spectrum common to the two stars will appear alternately single or double. In the case of Mizar and the other stars to be mentioned, the spec- troscopic observations are not as yet extended enough to furnish more than an approximate determination of the elements of their orbits. Mizar especially, on account of its relatively long period—about ove hundred and five days—needs further observations. The two stars are moving each with a velocity of about 50 miles a second, probably in elliptical orbits, and are about 143,000,000 miles apart. The stars, of about equal brightness, have together a mass about forty times as great as that of our sun. A similar doubling of the lines showed itself in the Harvard photo- graphs of 6 Aurige at the remarkably close interval of almost exactly two days, indicating a period of revolution of about four days. Accord- ing to Vogel’s later observations, each star has a velocity of nearly 70 miles a second, the distance between the stars being little more than 7,900,000 miles, and the mass of the system 4.7 times that of the sun. The system is approaching us at the speed of about 16 miles a second. The telescope could never have revealed to us double stars of this order. In the case of 6 Aurige, combining Vogel’s distance with Pritchard’s recent determination of the star’s parallax, the greatest angular separation of the stars as seen from the earth would be one Ss CELESTIAL SPECTROSCOPY. 95 two-hundredth part of a second of arc, and therefore very far too small for the highest powers of the largest telescopes. If we take the rela- tion of aperture to separating power usually accepted, an object glass of about 80 feet in diameter would be needed to resolve this binary star. The spectroscope, which takes no note of distance, magnifies, so to speak, this minute angular separation 4,000 times; in other words, the doubling of the lines, which is the phenomenon that we have to observe, amounts to the easily measurable quantity of 20 seconds of are. There were known, indeed, variable stars of short period, which it had been suggested might be explained on the hypothesis of a dark body revolving about a bright sun in a few days, but this theory was met by the objection that no such systems of closely revolving suns were known to exist. The Harvard photographs of which we have been speaking were taken with a slitless form of spectroscope, the prisms being placed, as originally by Fraunhofer, before the object glass of the telescope. This method, though it possesses some advantages, has the serious draw- back of not permitting a direct comparison of the star’s spectrum with terrestrial spectra. It is obviously unsuited to a variable star like Algol, where one star only is bright, for in such a case there would be no doubling of the lines, but-only a small shift to and fro of the lines of the bright star as it moved in its orbit alternately toward and from our system, which would need for its detection the fiducial positions of terrestrial lines compared directly with them. For such observations the Potsdam spectograph was well adapted. Prof. Vogel found that the bright star of Algol did pulsate backwards and forwards in the visual direction in a period corresponding to the known variation of its light. The explanation which had been sug- gested for the star’s variability, that it was partially eclipsed at regu- lar intervals of 68.8 hours by a dark companion large enough to cut off nearly five-sixths of its light, was therefore the true one. The dark companion, no longer able to hide itself by its obscureness, was brought out into the light of direct observations by means of its gravitational effects. Seventeen hours before minimum, Algol is receding at the rate of about 244 miles a second, while seventeen hours after minimum it is found to be approaching with a speed of about 284 miles. From these data, together with those of the variation of its light, Vogel found, on the assumption that both stars have the same density, that the com- panion, nearly as large as the sun, but with about one-fourth his mass, revolves with a velocity of about 55 miles a second. The bright star, of about twice the size and mass, moves about the common center of gravity with the speed of about 26 miles a second. The system of the two stars, which are about 5,250,000 of miles apart, considered as a whole, is approaching us with a velocity of 2.4 miles a second. The great difference in luminosity of the two stars, not less than fifty times, 96 CELESTIAL SPECTROSCOPY. suggests rather that they are in different stages of condensation, and dissimilar in density. It is obvious that if the orbit of a star with an obscure companion is inclined to the line of sight, the companion will pass above or below the bright star, and produce no variation of its light. Such systems may be numerous in the heavens. In Vogel’s photographs, Spica, which is not variable, by a small shifting of its lines reveals a backward and forward periodical pulsation due to orbital motion. As the pair whirl round their common center of gravity, the bright star is sometimes ad- vancing, at others receding. They revolve in about four days, each star moving with a velocity of about 56 miles a second in an orbit prob- ably nearly circular, and possess a combined mass of rather more than two and a half times that of the sun. Taking the most probable value for the star’s parallax, the greatest angular separation of the stars would be far too small to be detected with the most powerful telescopes. If in a close double star the fainter companion is of the white-star type, while the bright star is solar in character, the composite spectrum would be solar with the hydrogen lines unusually strong. Such aspec- trum would in itself afford some probability of a double origin, and suggest the existence of a companion star. In the case of a true binary star the orbital motions of the pair would reveal themselves in a small periodical swaying of the hydrogen lines relatively to the solar ones. Prof. Pickering considers that his photographs show ten stars with composite spectra; of these, five are known to be double. The others are: 7 Persei, € Aurigw, dO Sagittarii, 31 Ceti, and @Capricorni. Per- haps (6 Lyre should be added to this list. In his recent classical work on the rotation of the sun, Dunér has not only determined the solar rotation for the equator but for different par- allels of latitude up to 75°. The close accordance of his results shows that these observations are sufficiently accurate to be discussed with the variation of the solar rotation for different latitudes which had been determined by the older astronomical methods from the observa- tions of the solar spots. Spectroscopic Photography.—Though I have already spoken. inci- dentally of the invaluable aid which is furnished by photography in some of the applications of the spectroscope to the heavenly bodies, the new power which modern photography has put into the hands of the astronomer is so great, and has led already, within the last few years, to new acquisitions of knowledge of such vast importance, that it is fitting that a few sentences should be specially devoted to this subject. Photography is no new discovery, being about half a century old; it may excite surprise, and indeed possibly suggest some apathy on the part of astronomers, though the suggestion of the application of pho- tography to the heavenly bodies dates from the memorable occasion CELESTIAL SPECTROSCOPY. if when, in 1839, Arago, announcing to the Académiede Sciences the great discovery of Niepce and Daguerre, spoke of the possibility of taking pictures of the sun and moon by the new process, yet that it is only within a few years that notable advances in astronomical methods and discovery have been made by its aid. The explanation is to be found in the comparative unsuitability of the earlier photographic methods for use in the observatory. In jus- tice to the earlier workers in astronomical photography, among whom 3ond, De la Rue, J. W. Draper, Rutherfurd, Gould, hold a foremost place, it is needful to state clearly that the recent great successes in astronomical photography are not due to greater skill, nor, to any great extent, to superior instruments, but to the very great advantages which the modern gelatin dry plate possesses for use in the observatory over the methods of Daguerre, and even over the wet collodion film on glass, which, though a great advance on the silver plate, went but a little way towards putting into the hands of the astronomer a photograhie surtace adapted fully to his wants. The modern silver-bromide gelatine plate, except for its grained tex- ture, meets theneeds of theastronomer atall points. Itpossessesextreme sensitiveness; it is always ready for use; it can be placed in any posi- tion; it can be exposed for hours; lastly, it does not need immediate development, and for this reason can be exposed again to the same object on succeeding nights, so as to make up by several installments, as the weather may permit, the total time of exposure which is deemed necessary. Without the assistance of photography, however greatly the resources of genius might overcome the optical and mechanical difficulties of constructing large telescopes, the astronomer would have to depend in the last resource upon his eye. Now we can not by the force of con- tinued looking bring into view an object too feebly luminous to be seen at the first and keenest moment of vision. But the feeblest light which falls wpon the plate is not lost, but is taken in and stored up continuously. Each hour the plate gathers up 3,600 times the light- energy which it received during the first second. “It is by this power of accumulation that the photographic plate may be said to increase, almost without limit, though not in separating power, the optical means at the disposal of the astronomer for the discovery or the obser- vation of faint objects. Two principal directions may be pointed out in which photography is of great service to the astronomer. It enables him within the com- paratively short time of a single exposure to secure permanently with great exactness the relative positions of hundreds or even of thousands of stars, or the minute features of nebulie or other objects, or the phe- nomena of a passing eclipse, a task which by means of the eye and hand could only be accomplished, if done at all, after a very great ex- penditure of time and labor. Photography puts it in the power of the H. Mis. 334, pt. 1 f 98 CELESTIAL SPECTROSCOPY. astronomer to accomplish in the short span of his own life, and so enter into their fruition, great works which otherwise must have been passed on by him as a heritage of labor to succeeding generations. The second great service which photography renders is not simply an aid to the powers the astronomer already possesses. On the con- trary, the plate, by recording light-waves which are both too small and too large to excite vision in the eye, brings him into a new region of knowledge, such as the infra-red and the ultra-violet parts of the spectrum, which must have remained forever unknown but for artificial help. The present year will be memorable in astronomical history for the practical beginning of the Photographie Chart and Catalogue of the Heavens, which took their origin in an international conference which met in Paris in 1887, by the invitation of M. ?Amiral Mouchez, director of the Paris Observatory. The richness in stars down to the ninth magnitude of the photo- graphs of the comet of 1882 taken at the Cape Observatory under the superintendence of Dr. Gill, and the remarkable star charts of the Brothers Henry which followed two years later, astonished the astro- nomical world. The great excellence of these photographs, which was due mainly to the superiority of the gelatine plate, suggested to these astronomers a complete map of the sky, and a little later gave birth in the minds of the Paris astronomers to the grand enterprise of an International Chart of the Heavens. The actual beginning of the work this year is in no small degree due to the great energy and tact with which the director of the Paris Observatory has conducted the initial steps, through the many delicate and difficult questions which have unavoidably presented themselves in an undertaking which de- pends upon the harmonious working in common of many nationalities, and of no fewer than eighteen observatories in all parts of the world. The three years since 1887 have not been too long for the detailed or- ganization of this work, which has called for several elaborate prelim- inary investigations on special points in which our knowledge was in- sufficient, and which have been ably carried out by Profs. Vogel and Bakhuyzen, Dr. Trépied, Dr. Scheiner, Dr. Gill, the astronomer-royal, and others. Time also was required for the construction of the new and special instruments. The decisions of the conference in their final form provide for the construction of a great photographie chart of the heavens with expo- sures corresponding to forty minutes’ exposure at Paris, which it is exp. cted will reach down to stars of about the fourteenth magnitude. As each plate is to be limited to 4 square degrees, and as each star, to avoid possible errors, is to appear on two plates, over 22,000 photo- graphs will be required. For the more accurate determination of the positions of the stars, a réseau with lines at distances of 5 millimeters apart is to be previously impressed by a faint light upon the plate, so CELESTIAL SPECTROSCOPY. 99 that the image of the réseau will appear together with the images of the stars when the plate is developed. This great work will be divided according to their latitudes among eighteen observatories provided with similar instruments, though not necessarily constructed by the same maker. Those in the British dominions and at Tacubaya have been constructed by Sir Howard Grubb. Besides the plates to form the great chart, a second set of plates for a catalogue is to be taken with a shorter exposure, which will give stars to the eleventh magnitude only. These plates, by a recent de- cision of the permanent committee, are to be pushed on as accurately as possible, though as far as may be practicable plates for the chart are to be taken concurrently. Photographing the plates for the cata- logue is but the first step in this work, and only supplies the data for the elaborate measurements which have to be made, which are how- ever less laborious than would be required for a similar catalogue with- out the aid of photography. Already Dr. Gill has nearly brought to conclusion, with the assist- ance of Prof. Kapteyn, a preliminary photograhic survey of the south- ern heavens. With an exposure sufficiently long for the faintest stars to impress themselves upon the plate, the accumulating action still goes on for the brighter stars, producing a great enlargement of their images from optical and photographic causes. The question has occupied the atten- tion of many astronomers, whether it is possible to find a law connect- ing the diameters of these more or less over-exposed images with the relative brightness of the stars themselves. The answer will come out undoubted in the affirmative, though at present the empirical formule which have been suggested for this purpose differ from each other. Capt. Abney proposes to measure the total photographic action, in- cluding density as well as size, by the obstruction which the stellar image offers to light. A further question follows as to the relation which the photographic magnitudes of stars bear to those determined by eye. Visual magni- tudes are the physiological expression of the eye’s integration of that part of the star’s light which extends from the red to the blue. Photo- graphic magnitudes represent the plate’s integration of another part of the star’s light, namely, from a little below where the power of the eye leaves off in the blue to where the light is cut off by the glass, or is greatly reduced by want of proper corrections when a refracting tele- scope is used. It is obvious that the two records are taken by different methods in dissimilar units of different parts of the star’s light. In the case of certain colored stars the photographic brightness is very differ- ent from the visual brightness; but in all stars, changes, especially of a temporary character, may occur in the photographic or the visual region, unaccompanied by a similar change in the other part of the spectrum, For these reasons it would seem desirable that the two sets 100 CELESTIAL SPECTROSCOPY. of magnitudes should be tabulated independently, and be regarded as supplementary of each other. The determination of the distances of the fixed stars from the small apparent shift of their positions, when viewed from widely separated positions of the earth in its orbit, is one of the most refined operations of the observatory. The great precision with which this minute angu- lar quantity—a fraction of a second only—has to be measured, is so delicate an operation with the ordinary micrometer, though, indeed, it was with this instrument that the classical observations of Sir Robert Ball were made, that a special instrument, in which the measures are made by moving the two halves of a divided object glass, known as a heliometer, has been pressed into this service, and quite recently, in the skillful hands of Dr. Gill and Dr. Elkin, has largely increased our knowledge in this direction. It is obvious that photography might be here of great service, if we could rely upon measurements of photographs of the same stars taken at suitable intervals of time. Prof. Pritchard, to whom is due the honor of having opened this new path, aided by his assistants, has proved by elaborate investigations that measures for parallax may be safely made upon photographie plates, with, of course, the advantages of leisure and repetition; and he has already by this method determined the parallax for twenty-one stars with an accuracy not inferior to that of values previously obtained by purely astronomical methods. The remarkable successes of astronomical photography, which de- pend upon the plate’s power of accumulation of a very feeble light act- ing continuously through an exposure of several hours, are worthy to be regarded as a new revelation. The first chapter opened when, in 1880, Dr. Henry Draper obtained a picture of the nebula of Orion; but a more important advance was made in 1883, when Dr. Common, by his photographs, brought to our knowledge details and extensions of this nebula, hitherto unknown. 148 SOME APPLICATIONS OF : It may thus be not wholly unprofitable to glance briefly at some of the arguments which some of the advocates of the several theories base on their ideas of the properties of solid bodies. Mr. Taylor’s object is to get an equatorial circumference some 10 per cent in excess of its present value, so as to account for the lateral com- pression at the surface observed in mountain chains. Thus, following Prof. Darwin,* he supposes the earth to have once possessed a much greater angular velocity than at present, and speaks of a“ consistent crust (of some few miles thickness) ” as having formed ‘ when the rota- tion of our planet was at four times its present rate” (l.¢., p. 257). The equatorial radius would then have been, he says, some 4,359 miles, and the polar some 3,291. The change of shape, as the rotation fell off, would account, he thinks, for observed phenomena. He considers his conclusions opposed by Sir W. Thomson’s theory that the earth solidi- fied throughout and retains at least approximately its original eccen- tricity. Itis on this point that he refers to the data supplied by Mr. Herbert Spencer’s “juster physical insight;” and he adds, apparently as his own contribution to the argument, ‘“ the supposition that a granite mountain or equatorial protuberance 400 miles high or 100 miles high could for a moment support itself, would hardly be entertained by a practical engineer ;” and in a foot-note, “the limiting modulus of height of a granite pyramid (equalling one side of its square base) is somewhat less than 11 miles” (I. ¢., p. 258). I am quite ready to agree with Mr. Taylor that if solidification occurred under the conditions he supposes the eccentricity must have altered enormously and that in a non-elastic way, and I hardly suppose that Sir W. Thompson would oppose this view. No one however so far as I know, has propounded the theory of an elastic solid spheroidal earth of eccentricity 0.65 rotating com- pletely in six hours, so that the investigation of the strains and stresses required by such a theory is unnecessary. I can quite imagine that on any probable theory of density the magnitude of the strains is hardly likely to be consistent with the application of the mathematical theory of elasticity. The force of Mr. Taylor’s remarks as to the pyramid I, however, fail to see. Such an isolated mass exists under totally differ- ent conditions from any portion of a solid sphere or spheroid, and one might as well argue as to the impossibility of a liquid interior from the fact that an isolated liquid column 100 miles high has not yet been observed on the earth’s surface. If Mr. Taylor were however to cal- culate the strains and stresses in such a thin shell as he supposes, of material showing anything resembling the structure of ordinary rock, with arate of rotation such as he mentions, I very much doubt whether he would find it in an essentially better position than his imaginary pyramid, After this criticism Mr. Taylor considers the question of the probable degree of rigidity of our planet quite irrelevant, but the “temptation is * Phil. Trans. (1879), p. 532. PHYSICS AND MATHEMATICS TO GEOLOGY. 149 strong to waste upon it a collateral glance” (l. ¢, p. 259). Accordingly he crushes Sir W. Thomson’s arguinent* from the tides by the remark, “that a siliceous crust of 20 miles average thickness and an overlying aqueous ocean of 5 miles average depth, should have (as required by the argument) so equal a coefficient of mobility that sea and land could thus together ‘rise and fall,’ might well be pronounced incredible” (7. ¢., p. 260). He regards Sir W. Thomson as very seriously damaging his own ar- gument by the admission that tides comparable in magnitude with those observed would occur even in a solid earth of steel. It does not seem to have occurred to him that the existence of a difference between the motions of the land and water may constitute an argument for solidity.t Mr. Taylor admits one difficulty in his theory, viz, the nature and local characteristics of the plications actually observed, and remarks: “While the force at the command of the rotating planet is abundantly Sufficient - - - evidently some supplementary considerations are requisite to give the observed direction to this force,” - - - “The mere mechanical difficulty however of transmitting stresses through comparatively undisturbed areas of hundreds of miles of a flexible, fri- able, and practically plastic crust—with a large coefficient of viscous friction beneath—is not so formidable as might at first appear. It must be borne in mind that the pressures derived from an action so slow as from century to century to be scarcely sensible, are of an or- der of very great intensity, but of very small quantity” (l. ¢., p. 265). Mr. Taylor also infers from “ various considerations ” that “in all ages mountain building has been at amaximum; thatis, the uplifted heights have been the greatest which the average thickness of the crust at the time was capable of supporting; so that the former has been a constant function of the latter, the ratio being probably not far from one-fifth” (l. ¢., p. 265). Mr. Taylor does not state that this law of the uplifted heights is true of all lands as wellas of all time, but the possibility that such may be the case is rather alarming. He enters in fact into no un- necessary details as to how he reached his conclusions, so that all one can say is that, measured by his own standard, he is certainly not in- ferior in physical insight even to Mr. Herbert Spencer. Perhaps when he comes to deal with the ** supplementary considerations” he may sup- ply sufficient data for the mathematician to follow him. Prof. Prestwich, in his Geology, vol. U, regards the “ present very great rigidity of the earth” as being proved by mathematical and physical investigations; but complains of a “want of elasticity” in the methods of the mathematicians (p. 538). According to him, “ the hypothesis most compatible with the geological phenomena is that of a central solid nucleus with a molten yielding envelope—not fluid, but escit or a astic; nor is if necessary that this magma should be of any - Natural Philosophy, Vol. 1, See Il, 1, § 833. t See his remarks, /. c., p. 260, and foot-note. 150 SOME APPLICATIONS OF great thickness; but a thin crust is, it seems to me, an essential condi- tion” (p. 543). Prof. Prestwich adduces in support of his views various arguments from geological phenomena which seem of much weight. He has also various arguments of a more or less physical character, but they seem to take a good deal for granted. Thus, on p. 540, refer- ring to plications in the surface rocks, he says, “if the earth were solid throughout, the tangential pressure would result not in distorting or crumpling, but in crushing and breaking. As a rule, no such results are to be seen, and the strata have - - - yielded, as only a free surface plate could, to the deformation caused by lateral pressure - - - a yield- ing bed, on which the crust could move as a separate body, was neces- sary.” It seems to me that as the phenomena of rupture are as yet very imperfectly ascertained, except perhaps for a few simple standard conditions, Prof. Prestwich has very little to go on but @ priori ideas. I fail to see, for instance, why pressures at or near the surface of a solid sphere should necessarily produce fracture and not flow. Also it seems improbable that there would be a sharp line of demarcation so as to enable a crust—which seems clearly to mean a solid superficial layer— to move as a separate body on a “yielding bed.” Would not this im- ply a liquid substratum with no appreciable viscosity? And supposing there were a substratum of this kind, is there any sufficient experi- mental evidence that a solid crust of even a few miles thickness would, on the falling away of the liquid underneath, go into folds instead of being crushed and broken? Further, can plications to the extent shown, say by the Alps, be reconciled with the retention of contempo- raneous solidity? Supposing the earth to be essentially solid through- out, is there any reason why the strain at some miles below the surface should not locally at intervals exceed the elastic limit, with the result for a time of a state of flow or plasticity throughout a volume of greater or less extent? During such an epoch there would exist locally condi- tions somewhat resembling those which Prof. Prestwich believes exist- ent everywhere. It is true that one argument adduced by Prof. Prest- wich and others against the existence of separate reservoirs of molten material, viz, the similarity in the character of voleanie products all over the earth, applies equally against such an hypothesis. If how- ever volcanic products be supposed to come from several miles below the surface, I see no obvious reason why they should not present sim- ilar characteristics everywhere. No conclusive argument can well be based on the differences observed in the sedimentary strata, because the conditions under which such strata are deposited are obviously of a varied character. In various passages of Prof. Prestwich’s discussion of the state of the earth one is apt to be puzzled by his falling into the practice, by no means uncommon in geological writings, of employing physical terms with a view to oratory rather than to exposition. For instance, he speaks of contraction ‘‘due to the yielding of the weaker lines in the PHYSICS AND MATHEMATICS TO GEOLOGY. 151 crust, when the tension caused by the excessive strain (and of which the first order of movement is an index) overcomes the resistance, and fractures and doubles up the strata;” and he adds: ‘‘ Mountain ranges are in fact the concluding term of the stress which caused the deforma- tion of the crust, and the movements which at those times took place must have been influenced by the greater energy of the strains then at work” (p. 546). It is difficult to see here what is intended to be cause and what effect. In fact, while a number of terms are employed which in mathematics and physics have a fairly definite meaning, I must con- fess my inability to form an adequate conception of what is meant by the passage as a whole. Prof. Prestwich refers (pp. 545, 544) to the hypothesis of the late Prof. KE. Roche (in the reference to which a misprint gives the year 1861 for 1881) as supplying something of the kind of earth he wants. Thus an examination of Prof. Roche’s work* may be of some service. He supposes the earth to consist of a central nucleus or “ bloe,” homogeneous but for a possible accumulation of matter of greater density at the center, and of a superficial layer of lighter material. Of the nucleus, with the possible exception of a small core of heavier mat- ter, he says, ‘Sa densité caleulée, de 7 a 7:5, indique qwelle est mé- tallique, sans doute formée de fer - - -” The specific gravity of the heavier matter which may possibly exist at the center is, he says, ‘ cer- tainement bien inférieur {to 15], probablement 10 ou 12 (argent, plomb),” p. 235. The outer layer or crust he supposes to have a specific gravity about 3, and a thickness of about one-sixth the earth’s radius. Be- tween the crust and the nucleus there exists, it may be everywhere or only locally, molten matter such as appears at the surface in voleanie outbursts, but the total volume occupied by this must be small. Prof. Roche takes three results as given, viz, the earth’s total mass, the eecen- tricity of its surface, and the ratio of the principal moments of inertia, the last quantity being deduced from astronomical data. He satisfies all the conditions he recognizes by the aid of the following hypothesis regarding his nucleus: ‘“‘Ce bloe a pris sa forme définitive sous Vinflu- ence dune rotation moins rapide quelle West aujourd’hui, et il a con- servé laplatissement correspondant, malgré les accroissements sue- cessifs de vitesse du systeme résultants de sa contraction progressive ” (p. 232). In other words, he assumes the nucleus to have solidified before the crust and that it retains its shape unaltered. Thus as he regards the angular velocity as increasing in consequence of the dimi- nution in the moment of inertia through contraction in cooling, the nu- cleus possesses a smaller eccentricity than the erust. He supposes only a small difference in the length of the day at the dates of the two solidifications, so that the difference between the eccentricities of the nucleus and crust is also small. This however in no way justifies his “Académie - - - de Montpellier Mémoires de la Section des Sciences, 1880-1884, tome dixiéme, pp. 221-264. 152 SOME APPLICATIONS OF hypothesis that the nucleus retains its form unaltered. If its material possessed the properties of an elastic solid the eccentricity would cer- tainly alter, and to an extent probably quite comparable with the alter- ation that would have occurred if it had remained fluid. Prof. Roche seems in fact to treat his nucleus as possessed of the properties of the wholly imaginary perfectly rigid body. He certainly introduces no equations such as ought to hold over the surface of an elastic solid spheroid. The exact view he adopted as to the properties of solids it is, however, difficult to decide. On his page 241 a brief statement would imply that he did not regard each elementary layer of a solid sphere as of necessity totally self-supporting; but on pages 223, 224, where the discussion is fuller, he says, ‘‘Si l’on rejette la complete fluidité de la terre,il west plus possible Wattribuer 4 la compressibilité de ses couches la méme influence.” - - - ‘Dans un solide, les tensions latérales sont variables et acquierent parfois une valeur énorme. C’est ainsi qwune couche pourrait se soutenir d’elle méme comme une espece de voiite, sans peser sur celle qui est au-dessous.” "i > ORIGIN OF ROCK PRESSURE OF NATURAL GAS. 157 lished in the American Manufacturer, May 27, 1887, | threw out a few suggestions as to the cause of rock pressure, and these suggestions I afterwards expanded into a more extended statement, in the sixth vol- ume of the Geology of Ohio, p. 96. Prot. I. C. White reminds me that he suggested an explanation in the journal named above at an earlier date than either of those given. The men who are engaged in the practical development of gas and oil fields make great account of rock pressure. It is the first fact that they inquire after in a new gas field. They appreciate its importance in whatever utilization of the gas they may propose, knowing that the distance of the markets that they can reach and the size of the pipes that they can employ are entirely dependent upon this element. These practical men, so called, are as is well known, among the most ven- turesome of theorists, and a question like this would not be likely to be left unanswered by them. A certain rough correspondence that exists between the depth and the rock pressure of wells is made of great account in explanations that they offer. In other words, the pressure is supposed to be due to the weight of the overlying rocks; and next to this we find among them the expansive force of gas the favorite ex- planation of the phenomenon. In the paper of Prof. Lesley, already referred to, the learned author suggests the two possible explanations of rock pressure already named, and to this he adds a third, viz, hydraulic pressure; but he adds this explanation only to reject it as a true cause of the phenomenon under discussion. The absurdity of the more commonly received explanation of rock pressure, as due to the depth of the well—in other words to the weight of the overlying country—he sets in such clear light in his dis- cussion that no further consideration of this is required on the part of those who are open to reason. Until we can prove, or at least render it probable, that the gas rocks have lost their cohesion and that they exist at the depths of storage in a crushed or comminuted state, no explana- tion can be based upon the weight of the overlying rock in aceount- ing for the force with which the gas escapes from its reservoirs when they are penetrated by the drill. Prof. Lesley throws the whole weight of his authority in favor of the view that the gas “ produces its own pressure like gas generated by chemical reaction in a closed vessel.” This explanation certainly leaves something to be desired, for it fails to account for the most significant and important facts in this connection, viz, the difference of rock pressure in different localities and at differ- ent depths. To accept it, brings us no advantage whatever beyond the satisfaction that we may feel in having an answer at hand that can be promptly given to a troublesome inquiry. For my own part, I have felt certain for more than two years that the rock pressure of gas in the Trenton limestone of Ohio and Indiana is hydrostatic in origin, and I have published a number of facts that seem to me to give support to this view. I find that some sagacious 158 ORIGIN OF ROCK PRESSURE OF NATURAL GAS. operators in the new gas and oil fields are coming to the same ground. They have become thoroughly satisfied by their own experiences that the root of rock pressure is to be found in the water column that stands connected with the porous rock in which the gas and oil are contained. In the present paper I desire to present to the Geological Society a few facts and conclusions bearing upon the subject. THE DATA FOR THE HYDROSTATIC THEORY. The first question is, What are the facts as to the rock pressures of the gas rock in question and what relations do they bear to the depth of wells and other conditions in the Trenton limestone? The answer is not as full and definite as may be expected, certainly not as may be desired. There is but one datum in the development of a gas field in which the normal gas pressure can be ascertained, and that is when the first well reaches the reservoir and releases the long-imprisoned and greatly compressed gas. But often this favorable opportunity is lost, and gauges are not applied to wells until the energy of the first flow is somewhat abated. Again, different wells in the same field, as Findlay, for example, give different results. The wells vary with the depth at which the gas rock is found. This factor is found to be an essential one, as will presently be shown, in connection with rock pres- sure. Moreover, gauges are sometimes inaccurate and their errors come in to confuse the study of the subject. Furthermore, the exact depth of the wells and the exact altitude of the surface where they are located can not be ascertained in all cases. Small errors of this sort must be provided for, and there also enters into the discussion a ques- tion as to the specific gravity of the water which is to be made the moy- ing force of gas and oil. The water found in association with these substances is never fresh. It is always saline and often highly miner- alized. The weight of fresh water to the square ineh is 0.43285 pound for 1 foot in height (I use Professor Lesley’s tables). The average weight of sea water is 0.445 pound to the square inch for 1 foot; but the mineral waters with which we find the Trenton limestone saturated often reach a much higher figure. An examination of several speci- mens Shows that a column 1 foot high would weigh to the square inch 0.476 pound. In fact, some of these waters are more like bitterns, and their columns would equal or exceed 0.5 pound per foot. Bearing these several sources of ambiguity or uncertainty in mind, we can consider the records of pressure, depth, and the other factors that are accessible. The figures as to pressure have already been summa- rized in a preceding paragraph, but they will be repeated in an accom- panying tabular statement. Before coming to this, however, let me in the briefest terms review the conditions under which gas, oil, and salt water exist in the Trenton limestone. The uppermost beds of the great Trenton formation in northwestern Ohio, central and northern Indiana, Michigan, Illinois, and Wisconsin consist of a porous dolomite 5, 50, 100, ORIGIN OF ROCK PRESSURE OF NATURAL GAS. 159 or even 150 feet in thickness. Sometimes the dolomite is found in a continuous body, but oftener in interrupted beds. This part of the for- mation has outcrops in the Manitoulin islands of Lake Superior and in the Galena limestone of Hlinois and Wisconsin. In the gas and oil fields, it is found lying in terraces and monoclines, or flat arches, 800 to 1,500 feet below the surface; and these several features effect the separation of the varied contents of the porous rock. The boundaries of gas, oil, and salt water are easily determinable and are scrupulously maintained in the rock, except that as soon as development begins the salt water is always the aggressive and advancing element. When the drill de- scends into the gas rock proper dry gas escapes; when into the contig- uous and lower-lying terrace, oil accompanied with gas appears, as al- ready described; but at a little lower level salt water is struck, and this rises promptly in the well, sometimes to the point of overflow. Far out from the narrow ridges or restricted terraces where gas and oil are found the salt water reigns undisturbed, and wherever reached by the drill it rises in the wells as in those already described. It would be in the high- est degree absurd to count the little pockets of gas that are found in the arches the cause of the ascent of this ocean of salt water a score or a hundred miles away. The rise of the salt water is unmistakably artesian. It depends on hydrostatic pressure, as does the flow of all artesian wells, and its head must be sought, as in other like flows, in the higher portions of the stratum that are contiguous. The nearest outcrops of this porous Trenton have been already named, They are found in the shores of Lake Superior at an altitude of about 600 feet above tide. It is certainly significant that when an abundant flow of salt water is struck in a boring in northern Ohio or in Indiana, no matter at what depth, it rises generally about to the level of Lake Superior; or, in other words, about 600 feet above tide. If the mouth of the well is below this level, as is the case in the Wabash Val- ley, the salt water overflows. On the shore of Lake Erie the water rises to within 20 feet of the surface; in Findlay, to within 200 feet. The height to which the salt water rises in any portion of the field is one of the elements to be used in measuring the force which can be exerted on the gas and oil that are caught in the traps of the terraces and arches of the porous Trenton limestone. Why, then, is not the rock pressure of the gas the same in all por- tions of the new horizon? For the obvious reason, I reply, that there is a varying element involved, viz., the depth of the rock below sea level. The surface elevations at the wells vary greatly, and the wells of the same depth consequently find the gas rock in very different relations to sea level. THE TEST OF THE HYDROSTATIC THEORY. It is obvious that if an explanation of the rock pressure of the Tren- ton limestone gas is attempted on this basis, there are facts enough now at command to substantiate or overthrow it. By the facts it must 160 ORIGIN OF ROCK PRESSURE OF NATURAL GAS. stand or fall. In the accompanying table I have indicated the follow- ing lines of facts as to strictly representative wells in the leading dis- tricts of the new gas fields, viz, (1) location, (2) depth at which gas is found, (3) relation of this depth to sea level, (4) the initial rock pres- sure of the gas. In regard to the last line of facts I have taken, in almost all cases, figures that I have myself verified. (5) A fifth column I add, in which the pressure due in the particular well is calculated from the two following elements, viz, an assumed elevation of the salt water to the Lake Superior level, or 600 feet above tide; and, secondly, an assumed specific gravity of the salt water of the Trenton of 1.1, which gives a weight of 0.476 pound to the foot. Relation of wos Calculated Original or Gc Depih to} gasrock to =} 3 ressure Locations. gas. sea lawell Beatiobapi ed) 1 foot—0.476 (below tide).| Pressure: pound. on. Feet. Feet. Pounds. Pounds. Tiffin, Loomis & Nyman well .....-...........-- 1, 500 747 650? 641 Upper Sandusky, well No. 1.-..-...-...-...-.... 1, 280 478 515 5138 Bloom Township, Wood County, Godsend well.. 1, 145 395 465 473.6 Jabal hy, Les eay Gla Seo pessescer secsnnocessc=c 1, 120 336 450 445.7 Sits Mibiay sy Beall Aanosacosondseasecs0cocusse 1, 159 238 390 398. 8 St. Henry’s, Dwyer well, No.1.................- 1, 156 200 375 385 INDIANA. TEGO yell Ws feos oascbeapassecdoucosaagasdes 936 98 320 332 WeyeGye, Wel IMs Bo con dconcsanHsoossscoonsncoeeds 870 78 323 322. 7 MRIMICIOS Sey. Saeed ceicinine eRe ecmie tase eciee Sees 900? (*) 300? 286. 6 * At tide level. These figures seem to me to settle the question as to the origin of the rock pressure of the gas in this formation. I feel sure that nicer de- terminations of the facts involved as to altitude and depth would bring a still closer agreement between columns four and five. I will ask you to note in particular the facts as to the St. Mary’s and the St. Henry’s wells. They have practically the same depth, 1,159 and 1,156 feet; but there is a difference of 38 feet in the depth of the gas rock with reference to sea level. There is a corresponding difference in the rock pressure of 15 pounds, as recorded. The difference in rock pressure due to this 388 feet by calculation is 13.8 pounds, or, practically, 15 pounds. I presume that column five is as near the truth in this par- ticular as column four. The gauge would quite certainly be reported 385 pounds if it lacked but 1 or 2 pounds of that number. THE LAWS OF GAS PRODUCTION. The laws of gas and oil production and accumulation are coming to light more clearly in the flat country of Ohio and Indiana than they have ever done among the hills and valleys of the older Alleghany fields, As it seems to me, no more important deduction from the new ORIGIN OF ROCK PRESSURE OF NATURAL GAS. 161 districts has been reached than the law now stated, viz: The rock pres- sure of Trenton limestone gas is due to a salt-water column, measured from about 600 feet above tide to the level of the stratum which yields the gas. The column can be conveniently counted as made up of two parts, viz., a fixed length of 600 feet added to the depth of the gas rock below tide. If this explanation is accepted as satisfactory for Trenton limestone gas, I venture to suggest that the fact will go a great ways towards rendering probable a like explanation for rock pressure in all other gas fields; but I will not at the present time venture to extend it be- yond the limits I have named. Iam aware of certain facts, or at least supposed facts, from the older fields that seem difficult of explanation on this basis. There are a few obvious inferences from this law to which I venture to call your attention in closing this paper: (1) There is no danger that the great gas reservoirs of to-day will “cave in” or “blow up” after the gas is withdrawn from them. The gas will not leave the porus rock until the salt water obliges it to leave by driving it out and taking its place. (2) This doctrine lays the ax at the root of all the optimistic theories which blossom out in every district where natural gas is discovered, and especially among the real-estate operators of each new field, to the effect that nature will not fail to perpetually maintain or perpetually renew the supplies which we find so delightfully adapted to our com- fort and service. So far as we are concerned it is certain that nature has done about all that she is going to do in this line. Jn her great laboratory a thousand years are as a single day. (3) No doctrine could exert a more healthful influence on the commu- nities that are enjoying the inestimable advantages of the new fuel than this. If it were at once accepted it would add years to the duration of these precious supplies of power. The ignorant and reckless waste that is going on in the new gas fields is lamentable. The worst of it comes from city and village corporations that are bringing the gas within their boundaries to give away to manufacturers whom they can induce on these terms to locate among them. To characterize the use of a million feet of natural gas a day, in a single town, for burning com- mon brick, for example, or in calcining common limestone, there is a good word at hand, viz., vandalism. (4) If this doctrine of the rock pressure of gas is the true one, the geologists who have to deal with the subject and the communities that have found a supply owe it to themselves to keep it prominently before the people who are especially interested. They may make themselves temporarily disagreeable thereby, but by just so far as they convince those that are interested, they lengthen the life of these precious sup- plies. H. Mis. 334, pt. 1——11 162 ORIGIN OF ROCK PRESSURE OF NATURAL GAS. THE DURATION OF GAS SUPPLY. Judging from the present indications, the Trenton limestone gas of Ohio is not likely to be long-lived. It seems entirely probable that the term of its further duration can be stated within the limits of numbers that are expressed by a single digit. In considerable sections of the field, the salt water is very aggressive. It requires a steadily increas- ing pressure on the wells to hold it back. In one district last year, one hundred and twenty-five pounds pressure would keep the gas dry, while now two hundred pounds are required for the same purpose. There is likely to be great disappointment in regard to what is called gas territory. The pressure and volume of large areas are found to fail together. Wells draw their supplies from long distances. A farm, or even a mile-square section, may be effectually drained of its gas with- out a well being drilled upon it. Natural gas is a very admirable product, but its highest office, after all, should be to prepare the way for something better than itself, viz., artificial gaseous fuel—better, for the reason that while it furnishes all the intrinsic advantages of natural gas, it will be free from the inevita- ble disadvantages of treasures secured in the way in which the stores of the great gas fields have been gained. GEYSERS. By WALTER HARVEY WEED The hot-water fountains, called geysers, are natural wonders that are of general as well as scientific interest. The striking manifestation which they afford of the earth’s internal heat, their great beauty, and novel surroundings make them indeed worthy of that wide-spread inter- est which they arouse, and it is in the hope of gratifying a general cu- riosity concerning these wonderful fountains that the present paper has been written. At the outset of this inquiry into the nature and occurrence of these natural steam engines it is necessary to exactly define what is a gey- ser? Briefly, a geyser is a hot spring which intermittently ejects a col- won of Gane water and steam. Before attempting to present such a general account of the various geyser regions of the world as will en- able the reader to follow the deductions derived from a study of the occurrence and the characteristics of geysers, it may be well to present a summary of the paper. It is believed that the facts recorded in this article show: First. That geysers occur only in volcanie regions, and in acid vol- eanic rocks. In Iceland and New Zealand the voleanic fires are still active. In the Yellowstone region the lavas are chiefly of pre-glacial age. Second, Geysers occur only along lines of drainage, on shores of lakes or other situations where meteoric waters would naturally seek the sur- face. Unheated waters are often found issuing in close proximity to geysers. Third. Geyser waters are meteoric waters which have not penetrated to great depths but have been heated by ascending vapors. Fourth. The supply of heat is derived from great masses of lava slowly cooling from a state of former incandescence, heating waters which, descending to the hot rocks, ascend as highly heated vapors. lifth. The intermittent spouting of geysers is due to the gradual heating of water accumulated in fissures or tubes in the rocks, the only mechanism necessary being a tube, which may or may not have local expansions or chambers. 163 164 GEYSERS. Sixth. Geysers may originate in several ways, though most commonly produced by the opening of new waterways along fissure planes of the rocks, by a gradual eating out of a tube by ascending hot vapors. Seventh. The thermal activity of geyser regions is not rapidly dying out. The decrease of heat is very slow, and though changes take place from year to year, the establishment of new geysers and new hot springs offsets the decay or drying up of old vents. Attempts to solve the mysterious spouting of geysers date back to the earlier part of the present epoch of scientific research, and the genius of Bunsen and Deseloiseaux was devoted to astudy of the Ice- land geysers as early as 1847. The most important result of their ex- periments and observations was a theory of geyser action, now (with slight modifications) generally accepted, but other conclusions have lately been proven by observations made in the Yellowstone Park to be erroneous. Although numerous visits to the geysers of Iceland by later observers led to various ingenious speculations and theories re- specting geyser eruptions, the questions of geyser origin and the sig- nifigance of their occurrence and other questions of broader scope were not touched upon. The discovery of the geysers of New Zealand appears to have awakened interest, more because of the wonderfully beautiful terraced basins about the geysers of Rotomahana than from any appreciation of the opportunity afforded for a study of the geysers themselves, their relations to the geological structure of the country, or their raison WVétre; and not until the mapping and study of the Yellowstone geyser basins was made by the Hayden survey, was there the slightest attempt to look at the broader questions awaiting solution. In his final report, after giving an account of various theories of geyser action, Dr. Peale discusses very briefly various pecularities of geysers and the supposed influence of atmospheric charges and concludes with a statement of the three conditions he believes to be necessary to the existence of geysers which are essentially confirmed by the long continued study of the Yellowstone region by the writer. In looking at the distribution of geysers in various parts of the world one is quickly impressed with their great rarity. Hot springs abound in many countries, but boiling springs are characteristic only of regions of recent (that is geologically recent) volcanic activity; it is only in such regions that geysers occur. Until late in this century Iceland was the only land where geysers had been found. Less than forty years ago they were discovered in considerable numbers in New Zealand, and since then a few others have been reported from other parts of the world. The ‘ Geyserland” of the world is undoubtedly, however, the Yellowstone National Park, a region situated in the heart of the Rocky Mountains, at the head waters of the Missouri and Yel- lowstone, and discovered so late as 1869, GEYSERS. 165 In order to bring before the reader a general idea of the true relation of geyser vents to the surrounding topography and water courses of the districts, a brief description of the three great geyser regions of the world will be attempted. It has been my good fortune to have spent seven summers at the various geyser “basins” of the Yellow- stone in connection with my duties as assistant geologist on the U.S. Geological Survey party, under Arnold Hague. The other regions are familiar from a large series of excellent photographs as well as through the descriptions of friends and the writings of other visitors to those countries. THK ICELAND GEYSERS. Iceland is the birthplace of the word geyser. It has been called the land of frost and fire, and indeed in no place are the evidences, nay the very forces themselves, of frost and fire brought so forcibly in contrast. The island is eminently a volcanic region, a central table-land with sharp voleanic peaks, hooded with great Jékuls or glaciers, man- tled with perpetual snows, and surrounded by a more or less narrow strip of lowland bordering upon the sea. The evidences of internal fire are unmistakable. Hecla and other volcanoes are occasionally active, and the whole island is covered with lava poured out by the volcanoes, and the source of the heat supplying the geysers is unques- tioned. As would naturally be expected from the combination of water and fire, hot springs are abundant and ata few localities geysers are found. The most noteworthy of these is Haukadal, where The Geyser, Strokr, and a smaller geyser are found. This locality is about 70 miles from Reykiavik, the Iceland metropolis, and is only reached on horse- back over beds of clinkers and rough lava fields; a dreary ride so far as scenery goes, but of fresh novelty to visitors from warmer lands. The hot springs are clustered in an area of about 20 acres, at the base of a bill about an eighth of a mile long and 300 feet high, and at the edge of the marshy bottom that stretches out toward the Hvita River. The springs are really at the base of the seaward border of the high ground where the waters that have percolated through the tufas and porous lavas of the higher region would come to the surface. The two geysers, Strokr and The Geyser, issue from mounds of gray or white silica deposited by the hot waters, and the neighboring springs are sur- rounded by lesser areas of the same material, while on the hillside back of the springs the rock is decomposed by the steam of fumeroles. These two large spouters show two types of geysers. Strokr has a funnel-like pit 36 feet deep and 8 feet across, (see fig. 1, page 174,) expanding into a saucer-like basin. The tube is generally filled to within 6 feet of the top with clear water, which boils furiously, owing to the escape of great bubbles of steam coming from two openings in opposite sides of the 166 GEYSERS. tube. The eruptions are quite as beautiful as those of its more famous companion, the jets rising in a sheaf-like column to a height of 100 or more feet, eruptions taking place at very irregular and long intervals; but by putting a lid on this great kettle, by dumping in large pieces of turf, an eruption can be produced in a short time. The Geyser, on the contrary, is a pool of limpid, green water whose surface rises and falls in rhythmic pulsations. The usual temperature is but 170° F. or 200° F., but varies, being greater immediately before an eruption. The shallow, saucer-like basin is about 60 feet across and slopes gently to a cylindrical shaft 10 feet in diameter, forming the pipe of the geyser; this is about 70 feet deep. This regularity of the tube be- comes important when we consider Bunsen’s experiments and the theory of geyser action he deduced from them. Before an eruption bubbles of steam entering the tube suddenly collapse with loud but muffled re- ports and a disturbance of the quiet surface of the water. During this simmering, for such it is, the water rises in dome-like mounds over the pipe and overflows the basin, running down the terraced slope and wet- ting the cauliflower-like forms of sinter that adorn it. The eruptions that so long puzzled and astonished visitors to this re- mote land are surpassed by those of the giants of the Yellowstone, but their beauty is not less. A short time before Geyser plays, the domes of water rising in the center of the basin, come in quick succession and finally burst into spray, followed by a rapid succession of jets in- creasing in height until the column is 100 feet high. Dense clouds of steam momentarily hide the glistening sheaf of jets, hiding it from sight, then drifting away in the breeze again reveal the sparkling shaft. These eruptions have varied much in appearance and height since the geyser was first known. At present the column does not exceed 90 feet and the eruption lasts but a few moments. After it the basin is empty and seems to be lined with a smooth coating of white silica. THE GEYSERS OF NEW ZEALAND. The geysers of New Zealand are situated in a region clothed with a luxuriant vegetation that is in strong contrast to the bleak and barren lava fields of Iceland, but an examination of the position of the springs, with respect to the physical features of the region, shows that the situation of the geysers is nearly the same in these antipodal isles. The New Zealand geysers occur in the North Island, in what is known as the volcanic region, or the Taupo zone. Within an area of 4,725 square miles, in which none but volcanic rocks are found, there are six volcanoes, and great numbers of solfataras, fumeroles, mud voleanoes, and hot springs, and many geysers. The lavas are all of the acid type, mostly rhyolite, but are hidden by surface decomposition and an abun- dant vegetation, save upon the flanks of the peaks. The axial line of GEYSERS. 167 this zone running northeast is marked at each end by an. active vol- cano, and its course by a line of greatest hydrothermal activity; a sinuous line of hot springs following well marked geographic features of river valleys, low plains, and lake margins, with higher country on either side rising to plateaus of 2,000 to 35,000 feet above the sea. Little is known of the geysers on the shores of Lake Taupo, or those on the banks of the Waikato River, but the famous terraces of Ro- tomahana, called the eighth wonder of the world by James Anthony Froude, attracted attention to the geysers which formed them, and made their vicinity the best known part of the district. The warm lake, called by the Maoris, Rotomahana, was a shallow body of warm water, about a mile long, and a quarter of a mile broad, comprising 185 acres. The waters were of a dirty, greenish hue, reflecting the somber green of the fern and the ti-tree-covered slopes about it, and the sedgy margins sheltered large numbers of duck and other water- fowl. Rising above its surface like stairways of delicately sculptured marble, were the pink and white terraces. At the top of the terrace, 120 feet above the lake, was the Terata geyser, whose overflow had built up this wonderful work and filled the basins and pools with wa- ters whose tints were both the delight of the eye and the despair of the pen. The geyser caldron was some 60 by 80 feet across, its clear and boil- ing water usually overflowing, and occasionally ejected to a height of 40 to 100 feet, wetting the steep banks of bright-colored fumerole clays about the crater, but not forming the beaded geyserite, characteristic of so many of these fountains. Such eruptions followed a period of quiescence, when the waters retired within the pipe for many hours. Owing to the comparative inaccessibility of the caldron and the beauty ot the terraces, but few observations are on record of the action of the geyser. The water carried 159 grains of solid matter to the gallon, of which one-third was silica, and the daily outflow of 100,000 to 600,000 gallons per hour brought up 10 tons of solid matter dissolved out of the underlying rocks. It is easy to see what great underground cay- erns would be formed by this geyser alone in a comparatively brief time. In the voleanic outbreak of Tarawera, in June, 1886, the waters of the lake and underground reservoirs were drawn into the newly opened fissure, and, by the extraordinary explosion that followed the terraces were destroyed, and the site of Rotomahara became a crater that threw mud over the surrounding country. THE YELLOWSTONE ‘“ GEYSERLAND.” The wonderful variety, the great number, and the large size of the geysers of America, found in the Yellowstone National Park, demand a somewhat longer account of this region, which I am the more willing to give as it has been my good fortune to have spent a large part of 168 GEYSERS. the past nine summers in a study of its geysers and hot springs. To many readers this region is doubtless familiar. The geysers are found in detached groups, occupying basins or valleys of the great table-land which forms the central portion of the park, a region whose heavy forests and uninviting aspect, combined with the rugged nature of the encircling mountain ranges, so long proved a barrier to exploration even to those adventurous trappers and prospectors of the Great West, and deferred the discovery of this marvellous region until so recent a date as 1869. The geyser “basins,” as the localities are termed, conform, in their re- lations to the surrounding high ground and their coincidence with lines of drainage and the loci of springs, to the laws governing the distribu- tion of the same phenomena in other parts of the world. The park itself is a reservation of about 3,500 square miles, the central portion being an elevated volcanic plateau, accentuated by deep and narrow canons and broad gentle eminences, and surrounded by high and rugged mountain ranges. This central portion, whose average elevation is about 8,000 feet above the sea, embraces all the hot-spring and geyser areas of the park. The volcanic activity that resulted in the formation of the park plateau may be considered as extinct, nor are there any evidences of fresh lava flows. Yet, the hot springs so widely distributed over the plateau are convincing evidence of the presence of underground heat. There is no doubt that the waters derive their high temperature from _the heated rocks below, and that the origin of the heat is, in some way, associated with the source of voleanic energy. The various geyser basins, or jfire holes, as they were called by the first explorers, each possess individual peculiarities which give charac- ter and interest to each locality. The most noted of these “basins” is however that known as the Upper Geyser Basin of the Firehole River, one of the headwaters of the great Missouri. This “‘ Upper Basin,” as it is generally called, lies a little westward of the center of the park, and is reached by a ride of some 50 miles, over excellent roads, from the railroad terminus. It is a valley of 14 miles long by one-half mile broad, inclosed by the rocky cliffs or darkly wooded slopes of the great Madison Plateau, and drained by the Firehole River, along whose banks the largest geysers are situated. The whole floor of the valley is fairly riddled with springs of boiling water, whose exquisite beauty is indescribable. Light clouds of fleecy vapor curl gently upward from waters of the purest azure or the clearest of emerald, and, encircling rims of white marble-like silica, form fit setting for such great gems. A large part of the valley floor is covered with the white deposit of silica known as siliceous sinter, deposited by the overflowing hot waters.* The weird whiteness of these areas, the gaunt white trunks of pine trees killed by the hot waters, the myriad pools of steaming crystal, and the *See “Formation of Hot Spring deposits,” W. H. Weed Ninth Ann. Rept. Director U.S. Geological Survey, 1889. GEYSERS. 169 whiteclouds floating off from the chimney-like geyser cones, form a scene never to be forgotten by those fortunate enough to behold it. Within this basin there are nearly thirty geysers, presenting many variations of bowl or basin, mound and cone, and whose eruptions are equally diversified in form and beauty. Sentinel, Fan, Cascade, Riverside, Mortar, and Grotto, greet one on entering the basin, either by quiet steaming or by flashing jets. Giant, Splendid, Castle, Grand, Giantess, Lion, and Old Faithful are but a few of the wondrous fountains of the place. The last is most deserving of its name. Every since its discovery, in 1870, it has not failed to send up a graceful shower of jets at a regular interval of sixty-five minutes. Its beauty is ever varying, as wind and sunlight play upon it, and the mound about its vent is adorned with delicately tinted basins of salmon, pink, and yellow, filled with limpid water whose softness is enticing. It is the geyser of the park, and indeed of the world, and many a visitor to “ geyserland” departs without seeing any other of the many spouters in action and yet feels more than repaid for the journey. For beauty of surroundings, the Castle will perhaps be awarded the palm; its sinter chimney or cone is formed of exquisite cauliflower or coral-like geyserite whose general form makes the geyser’s name appropriate. Its eruptions are frequent, occurring about every thirty hours, when a stream of hot water is thrown up to a height of 75 feet for some fifteen minutes, followed by the emission of steam, with a loud roar that can be heard for miles. A few hours after the eruption the tube is again full, and occasional jets of 10 to 20 feet are thrown out until the next eruption ensues. The greatest geyser of the park, and, indeed the grandest of the whole world, is Excelsior, some 25 miles beyond the Norris Basin. Un- like the less capricious and more fountain-like geysers of the Upper Firehole, this monster of geysers does not spout from a fissure in the rock, nor from a crater or cone of its own building. It is a monster of destruction, having torn out its great crater in the old sinter-covered slope, builded by the placid and beauteous Prismatic Lake. The walls, formed by the jagged ends of the white sinter layers, are lashed by the angry waters that are ever undermining the sides and enlarging the caldron. The eruptions are so stupendous that all other geysers are dwarfed by comparison. The grand outburst is preceded by several abortive attempts, when great domes of water rise in the center and burst into splashing masses 10 to 15 feet high, while the waters surge under the overhanging walls and overtlow the slope between the crater and the river. Finally, with a grand boom or report that shakes the ground, an immense fan-shaped mass of water is thrown up to a height of 200 or more feet, great clouds of steam rolling off from the boiling water, while large blocks of the white sinter are flung far above the water and fall about the neighboring slopes. It is a sight that inspires enthusiasm in the most phlegmatic, and few can resist the temptation 170 GEYSERS. to give loud expression to their feelings. Unfortunately, this monarch of all geysers has ceased to erupt, but may be expected to break forth again at any time. Everywhere save at the Norris basin, of the Yellowstone Park, geyser vents are surrounded by cones, mounds, or platforms of white siliceous sinter, which, though built up mto very beautiful forms, hides the true relation of the geyser vent to the fissures in the rocks, so that it hag been generally believed, as stated by Tyndall,* that the hot springs built up tubes of siliceous rock, that made them geysers. That this is not true is shown by several great fountains at the Norris basin, that, spout directly from fissures in the solid rock, notably the Monarch, Tippecanoe, and Alcove geysers. GEYSHR WATERS. The descriptions which have been given of the chief geyser regions of the world lead to the question: What is the source and character of the geyser waters? It has been plainly indicated that, in the fields described, the vents are always situated along lines of drainage, on the shores of lakes, or under conditions where ordinary springs of meteoric water would naturally occur. That the geyser waters are surface waters which have percolated through the porous lavas and have been heated by encountering great quantities of steam and gases rising from the hot rocks below there is no reasonable doubt. The proximity of ordinary cold springs and those of boiling hot water lends support to this view. These hot waters, traversing the rocks in irregular fissures, readily dissolve out the more soluble constituents of the rocks, the amount and the character of the salts present varying somewhat with the nature and amount of gases held in the waters. Chemical analyses of geyser waters from the three regions described show no greater variation than those from different vents in any one of these regions. The following table of analyses shows that the waters are all similar in character. The analysis of the Yellowstone water was made by Prof. F. A. Gooch and for the U.S. Geological Survey. Analyses are also given of the water from the great geyser of Iceland, and from the New Zealand geysers, the former by Damour,t the latter by Smith. * Heat as a mode of motion. t Ann. Chem. wu. Pharm., vol. Lx11, 1847, p. 49. { Jour. fiir prakt. Chemie., vol. LXX1x, 1869, p. 186. GEYSERS. Analyses of geyser waters. {Constituents grouped in probable combination. 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See aeos reece eater rmrer renin semescys ae. hte efel Pt eet They Son ee ec O§ OO NTs aaeet cds) Me | 0.005 LS SE Tinstitopegs nee OCC! = Se Se Oe eo aos eC sees epeaer | OR0002 5 jae = ee Le Pade aca Joy FLO EXPONTE Sy OVER TUTE TT GCN eee ea ee See eee | Tracesal|ssse see hie rahaacers so EEE RGRT OIE CHCl mse en ae an a ate ee eee ma setae Ao ae amas pis dl ene sseiaicte'ss| 'sieee see siemens epson nti FESO POCOSS LOM Sip NAGE eer. ene aa onc emic eee Sen rena sc ntcrsal cows oe celsmiee 0.0180 | 0. 0750 Nir SO) MAO MESS UIP NAO) <<< Se pass san Iaes eee a etiisnss sone [ts S-sl eats QNO09TR AH eee scenes IND? SR Are TSAI, SFO (GS AS apne Ce REDO CUS Sabet a — SHAE eeeE Ss SA AaesSee nace OS0058 5 eee Le a ee ae en ent 1.3908 | 1.2305 2. 6570 SOT i Rees Oe Ce an a ~-4,.00096 | 1. 000205 | 1. 00077 1 Na,0. Source of heat.—That the source of steam is the still hot lavas below, wid is in some way connected with voleanic action, is so evident from the facts that no other conclusion is possible. A very common. belief concerning the source of the heat of boiling springs and geysers, but ‘one which no longer has the support of scientific men, is that the heat results from chemical action, as it is vaguely termed. Were not the evidence so directly opposed to this idea, it would merit consideration, but so far as the heat of geyser waters is concerned, all observation shows it to be untenable. To this class of theories belongs the popular idea that the geyser basins are underlaid by great beds of (quick?) lime, which supply the heat and steam of the geysers. The smothered combustion of beds of lignite, coal, or pyrites, is an- other form of the same theory that has been received with considerable favor, and still commands a few followers. That hot springs may have such an origin is not denied, but the geological conditions and environ- ment clearly show that none of the great geyser regions of the world derive their heat from such action. Where the source of supply is deep-seated, spring waters always have an elevated temperature, generally proportionate to the depth, but the very high temperatures of the geysers and the local source of LW? GEYSERS. the waters excludes this theory. The folding and faulting of rocks is another source of heat made manifest by hot springs. It has been shown by Dr. Peale, however, that boiling waters are only found in the regions of volcanic rocks, and it was pointed out by L’Ap- parent that geysers only occur in acid voleanic lavas. In Iceland the volcanic forces are still active, and melted lavas may exist at no great depth. In New Zealand the recent eruption of the eroded mountain Tarawera showed that heated rocks exist, and in that case rose up near enough to the surface to cause the explosion which so trans- formed the country. In the Yellowstone there are no active voleanoes, and none of even geologically recent activity. The lavas that fill the ancient mountain- encircled basin of the park are scored by glaciers and deeply cut by running water; and the old volcanoes from which the lavas were, in part at least, outpoured show no signs of having been active since Tertiary times. Yet in this region the expenditure of heat by the hot springs, geysers, and steam vents would undoubtedly keep a moderate-sized volcano in a very active state were it concentrated. There is no doubt that this heat is connected with the past voleanic energies of the region and derived principally from the still hot lavas, three-quarters of the entire area of the park (3,500 square miles) being covered by rhyolitie rocks. The significance alluded to above, of the association of geysers and acid lavas (rhyolites), is possibly to be found in the fact that these rocks are more easily dissolved by the hot waters forming the tubes and res- ervoirs for geysers. The situation of hot springs and geysers along water courses has already been mentioned. Itis a well-known fact that the presence of water in the pores of a rock increases its capacity to conduct heat, so that we may surmise a rise in the local isogeotherm in such situations. Geyser eruptions.—Geysers have often been compared to volcanoes, presenting in miniature, with water instead of molten rock, all the phe- nomena of a volcanic eruption. The diversity of form and varying con- ditions of activity of the hot springs found associated with geysers makes it impossible to determine in every case whether a spring is or is not a geyser. Geyser vents may be mere rifts in the naked rocks or bowls of clear and tranquil water, quiet until disturbed by the first throes of an eruption, and surrounded by white sinter deposits in nowise distinguishable from those about hot springs. In other cases the vents are surrounded by a cone or mound of pearly-beaded “ geyserite,” a certain and distinctive feature of a geyser. The displays of the great “Geyser” of Iceland have already been briefly described; they may be taken as the type of eruptions from gey- sers having bowl-like expansions at the top of the tube, the so-called “basin” of the geyser. Where the vent is surrounded by a cone of Sinter, as is so often the case among the fountains of New Zealand and GEYSERS. 1 bres: the Yellowstone, the first part of the geyser eruption is somewhat differ- ent. Perhaps the most familiar geyser of this type is Old Faithful, the one geyser in the Yellowstone that is sure not to disappoint the visitor. Though surpassed by many of its neighbors in the heightand magnitude of its eruptions, it holds a front rank for beauty and gracefulness. Pre- viously heralded by loud rumblings, with spasmodic outbursts of 10 to 20 feet in height that mark abortive attempts to send up its steaming pillar, the white column is finally thrown upwards with a loud roar, and mounts at once to a height that seems hundreds of feet as we gaze upon it. For two, or even three minutes, the column maintains a height which measurements show to vary from 90 feet up to 150 feet, with oc. casional steeple-shaped jets rising still higher, the jets ever varying and giving off great rolling cloudsof steam; then the jets gradually decrease in altitude, and in five minutes the eruption is over, the tube apparently empty, and emitting occasional puffs of steam for a few minutes longer. During the eruption the water falls in heavy masses about the vent, filling the basins that adorn the mound, and flowing off in yellow and orange-colored waterways, while the finer spray drifts off with the breeze and falls upon the neighboring sinter slopes. It is impossible to measure the amount of water thrown out, since it runs off in a num- ber of directions in shallow rills that lead either to the sandy terrace near by or to the river. If however we assume that the column of steam and water is one-third water, a fair assumption, the estimated discharge is 3,000 barrels at each eruption. Comparing Old Faithful with its Iceland prototype we find consider- able difference in the behavior of the two vents during the interval between eruptions. The former, like Strokr, has no bowl or basin, and the geyser throat or tube is partly filled with water, which is in con- stant and energetic ebullition, while the geyser is inactive. The tube and bowl of “ Geyser” are, on the contrary, filled with comparatively cool water. In each case, however, the eruption is preceded by an overflow from the geyser tube, in the case of Strokr and Old Faithful, as jets of 10 feet to 25 feet in height; in ‘‘ Geyser” by a filling of the bowl and successive overflows, accompanied by the noise of condens- ing steam bubbles, a simmering of the water in the tube. Such pre- liminary actions are significant when we consider the theory of geyser action. Theories of geyser action.—The intermittent spouting of geysers was long a riddle to scientific men, for although several theories seemed each to offer a satisfactory explanation of the eruptions of ‘ Gey- ser,” they supposed conditions unlikely to occur in many vents. The investigations of Bunsen, and of Descloizeaux, who spent two weeks studying the Iceland fountains, resulted in the announcement of a theory of geyser action which, with slight modifications, has satisfied all requirements and is to-day generally accepted as the true explana- 174 GEYSERS. tion of the action of these natural steam engines. This theory, which bears the name of the illustrious Bunsen, depends upon the well- known fact that the boiling point of water rises with the pressure, and is therefore higher at the bottom of a tube of water than at the surface. The temperature of water heated in any vessel is generally equalized by convective currents, but in a long and narrow or an irregular tube this circulation is impeded, and while the water at the surface boils at 100° C. (at sea level), ebullition in the lower part of the tube is only possible at a much higher temperature, owing to the weight of the water column above it. In the section of Geyser shown in the figure the observed temperatures are given on the left, and the temperatures at which the waters would boil, taking into account the pressure of the water column, are given on the right. In Geyser the nearest approximate to the boiling point is at a depth of 45 feet oppo- NA LY SV //p Z UY, \-10 ty Observed Temp. ///- SSA Y Yyyy : =— $Y Yj Yy Yj 20 ijpj§— Vj Yj; =e L 30 ——/7/ i ) jececeacedseqeced Yw$7y i (i ///aeee Yn YY, Y Mj Yy 50 2s Gj mecisv 60 YY ty Y GY 4 Yj. Yy 70 QM ee Geysir Sections of Geyser and Strokr showing fissures supplying geyser tubes (after Campbell). site a ledge and fissure discovered subsequent to Bunsen’s experiments. At this depth the temperature is 2° C. below the temperature at which the water can boil. If by the continued heating of this layer by steam from the fissure it attains the temperature at which it can boil, steam is formed, whose expansive force lifts the superincumbent column of water, causing a slight overflow at the top, which, shortening the col- umn, brings the layer B to the position C, where its temperature is above the boiling point of C, wherefore steam is formed at this point and a further lifting and relief of pressure ensues, followed by an eruption. In illustration of this theory a model geyser is easily constructed of a glass tube of an inch or so in diameter and several feet long. When GEYSERS. 175 this tube is closed at one end, filled with water and placed upright we have all the mechanism necessary to produce all the phenomena of a geyser. By heating the water at the bottom by the introduction of steam (or with a spirit lamp), we can produce eruptions whose period will depend upon the intensity of the heat. At first the bubbles of steam collapse in the cool waters at the bottom of the tube, but as the temperature rises the bubbles rise part way up the tube and heat the lower part of the column to a high temperature while the water near the surface is still cool. Eventually the water at the bottom reaches the pressure boiling point, when steam is formed, lifting the water above it and causing an overflow at the top. This overflow or its equivalent, the filling of a shallow basin at the top of the tube, relieves the pressure and all that part of the column whose temperature was previously below the boiling point but now exceeds it, flies into steam and ejects the water above with great violence. The glass walls of our geyser tube permit us to watch the gradual heating of the water by means of thermometers suspended in the tube, the ascent and collapse of steam bubbles, the overflow and abortive attempts to erupt and the final ejection of the water from the tube. Where the tube is surrounded at the top by a basin no actual over- flow need occur. Indeed there is in the Yellowstone a miniature gey- ser, aptly named the Model, with a tube but 2 inches in diameter, sur- rounded by a shallow, saucer-like basin, which has eruptions about every fifteen minutes of 5 feet to 5 feet in height in which scarcely a drop of water is wasted, but flows back into the tube after the erup- tion. During the interval between eruptions no water can be seen in the tube, whose basin and upper part are dry and cool. The first sig- nal of the coming display is a quiet welling up of the water in the tube filling the little basin, which being relatively large and shallow relieves the water column of a considerable height. During the eruption which follows, the spray is chilled by the air, falling back into the basin; at the end of the display the water is quickly sucked back into the tube and re-heated for the ensuing eruption. At first thought the constant boiling of the waters in the tube of Strokr, Old Faithful and many other geysers seems to oppose the theory which we have just given. Observations show however that in many: cases the boiling is confined to the surface and deep tempera- tures do not reach the boiling point corresponding to the depth. It is quite likely also that in some cases a lesser and independent supply of heat may connect with the upper part of a geyser tube; Strokr, we know, has two vents (see figure), one of which is the geyser tube, the funnel-like throat of Strokr being really but a nozzle to the geyser. It is unnecessary to describe the numerous other theories of geyser action; they all suppose caverns or systems of chambers and tubes, of definite arrangement, a supposition most unlikely to occur in many cases, and made unnecessary by Bunsen’s theory. Local expansions and irregularities of the tube do exist, and to them we owe many of 176 GEYSERS. the individual peculiarities of geysers, but such chambers do not form a vital, essential part of the geyser mechanism. In anexcellent résumé of the various theories of geyser action, Dr. A. ©. Peale states that he believes no one theory is adequate to explain all the phenomena of geyser action, though Bunsen’s theory comes nearest to it. * I believe however that Bunsen’s theory is a perfect explanation if we but admit that the geyser tube may be neither straight nor regular, but of any shape or size, and probably differing very much for each vent. The shape of the bowl or basin exercises but little influence upon the eruption save to produce the many individual peculiarities of the geyser column. Origin of Geysers.—It should be noted that Bunsen’s theory of geyser action is quite independent of his theory of geyser formation. The building up of a siliceous tube by the evaporation of the waters at the margin of a hot spring, is a process which may be seen in operation in any of the geyser regions of the world; but it is not a necessary pre- lude to the formation of a geyser, for a simple fissure in the rock answers equally well, as is shown at the Norris geyser basin in the Yellowstone Park. The life history of a geyser varies, of course, for each one, but obser- vations show that the following sequence of events often takes place. The hot vapors rising from unknown depths penetrate the rocks along planes of fracture and shrinkage cracks, decomposing and softening the rock until the pressure of the steam and water is sufficient to force an opening to the surface. If this opening affords an easier exit for waters issuing at a higher level the fissure is probably opened with a violent ejection of mud and débris; more often the process is a gradual one, accompanying the slow eating away of the rock walls along the fissure. The flowing waters slowly clear out the fissure, forming a tube that permits the freer escape of hot water and steam, while at the same time the waters change from a thick mud to a more or less clear fluid. The spring, at first a simple boiling mud-hole, is now an intermittently boiling spring, which soon develops true geyser action. If the open- ing of the fissure afforded a new outlet for the waters of some already existing geyser, these changes take place rapidly, and eruptions begin as soon as the pipe is sufficiently cleared to hold enough water. The bare rock about the vent or fissure is soon whitened by silica deposited by the hot waters. This sinter may form a mound about the expanded tube or basin, or, if the vent be small and spray is frequently ejected, it builds up the curious geyser cones so prominent in the Yellowstone. In certain cases the building up of these deposits may partially choke the geyser’s throat, and cause a diminution of the geyser’s energy, whose forces seek an easier outlet. In other cases the eating out of new subterranean waterways deprives the geyser of its supply of heat, *Twelfth Ann, Rept, U, S, Geol. and Geog, Survey Territories, vol. 11., p. 422. GEYSERS. ord and the vent becomes either a tranquil lawg or wholiy extinct, while the pearly geyserite forming its cone disintegrates and crumbles into fine Shaly débris, resembling comminuted oyster shells. Thus there is a slow but continual change in progress at the geyser basins, in which old springs become extinct and new ones come into being and activity. With few exceptions, where the vents are very new, geysers spout from basins or from cones of white siliceous sinter, or geyserite, depos- ited about the vent by the hot waters. Such deposits are formed very slowly, one-twentieth of an inch a year being an average rate of growth for the deposit formed by evaporation alone. These deposits of sinter are therefore an index to the age of the geyser. In many cases these sinter cones are very odd, fantastic structures of great beauty while wet by the the geyser spray, but becoming white, opaque, and chalk-like upon drying. Where the spattered drops fall in a fine spray the deposit is pearly, and the surface very finely spicular. Ifthe spray be coarse the rods are stouter and capped by pearly heads of lustrous brilliancy. Thus the cone is not only a measure of a geyser’s age and activity, but it tells, in a way, the nature of the eruption, Artificial production of geyser eruptions.—Eruptions of Strokr have, for many years, been provoked by artificial means. The funnel-shaped geyser throat makes it an easy matter to plug it with a barrowful of turf cut in the adjacent marsh. This acts as a cover, confining the steam, which finally overcomes the resistance and produces an erup- tion. ‘Travellers have also attempted to hasten the eruptions of geysers by throwing blocks of sinter down the tube, but it is evident that such measures can only succeed when the forces of heat and pressure are in a very delicate equilibrium. In the Yellowstone geyser basins it has been found that geyser erup- tions may be hastened or even caused in simply boiling springs by the use of soap or of lye. The discovery of this extraordinary fact was made in a very curious way. A Chinaman was engaged by the hotel company to wash the soiled linen; thinking to utilize the abundance of hot water provided by nature, arude canvas building was put up over a small, cireular, boiling spring near the edge of the Firehole River. In this spring the partly cleansed and soaped clothes were put to boil, suspended ina wicker-basket. All went well until the Chinaman left his bar of soap with the clothes, when the spring suddenly threw out. bas- ket, clothes, and hot water, wrecking the shanty and starting the Chinaman on a run from a place that was too near the infernal regions for comfort. This eruption, and the observed effect of soap in increas- ing the ebullition of boiling springs, led to the use of soap to produce eruptions of this boiling but not spouting spring, thenceforth known as the Chinaman. The suecess attending the use of soap in this instance suggested to a photographer, F. Jay Haynes, the use of soap, or its equivalent, lye, to hasten eruptions of those geysers of which he desired to obtain H, Mis, 354, pt. 1 12 178 GEYSERS. photographs, and led to experiments by the Geological Survey* show- ing that eruptions can be produced in many cases of geysers, which have been most capricious in their exhibitions, or have been inactive for weeks or even months. The conditions essential to the successful use of soap or lye for this purpose seem to be that the geyser tube be small, and the water near its boiling point, if not actually boiling at the sur- face. Many of the bowls in the Yellowstone possess a temperature at their surface exceeding the theoretical boiling point for the altitude by lor 2 degrees. This apparently anomalous fact is not due to the mineral matter held in solution by the hot waters, for the analyses show that amount to be too small to have any appreciable effect, but it is explained by the waters being free from air, it being well known to physicists that water freed from air has an increased boiling point, because of the greater cohesion of the particles. The effect of the soap is to increase the viscosity of the water, the consequent explosive liberation of steam producing an eruption. Variations in geyser periods—Many geysers are easily mistaken for simple hot or boiling springs, since during the long intervals between eruptions they present no indications of their true nature. The interval between eruptions is manifestly dependent upon the two factors of heat and water supply. It rarely happens that these fac- tors are so constant that the geyser has a definite period. Even in the ‘vase of Old Faithful, tie most reliable of all geysers, there are very considerable variaticns in the period, though the average is always con- stant from day to day. It sometimes happens that a slight change in the conditions—a les- sened amount of heat or increased amount of water—will cause a ces- sation of a geyser’s eruptions for a long period. This has happened in New Zealand, where the Waikite geyser, near Lake Rotorua, inactive for many years, suddenly exploded, scattering blocks of sinter and scalding several Maoris who happened to be near by. The Excelsior, undoubtedly the largest geyser of the world, was not seen in action until 1878, continuing its periodic eruptions till 1882, when it ceased and did not play again until1888. Last summer it was again inactive, though the water boiled furiously, bulging up several feet in the center of the great caldron. Observations made in New Zealand have led to the belief that the eruptions of certain geysers were influenced by the barometric pres- sure, and itis said that certain geysers are only active during the prev- alence of a northwest wind. Observations in the Yellowstone show no such correspondence. Asa rule the water surface exposed is small and the effect of temperature and pressure would be scarcely appreciable, yet theoretically it is quite probable that when the forces in a geyser are in a delicate equilibriuin a change of temperature and pressure of the air would be quite sufficient to cause an eruption. * ““Soaping Geysers,” Arnold Hague. [Trans. Am, Inst, Min. Eng., Feb., 1889.] ON THE GENERAL CIRCULATION OF THE ATMOSPHERKE.* sy WERNER VON SIEMENS. Translated from the German, by GEORGE E, CurTIs. In an article in the May number of the Meteorologische Zeitschrift entitled “On the theories of the general circulation of the atmosphere, ete.,” Mr. A. Sprung has published a criticism of my computation of the direction and force of the general atmospheric current contained in my memoir, entitled “‘ On the conservation of energy in the earth’s atmos- phere,” presented tothe academy March 4, 1886. These criticisms induce me to make a brief reply, not, indeed, for the purpose of rebutting the objections of Dr. Sprung to the rigid validity of the results of my com- putation— objections with which in part I wholly agree—but to answer the assumption that I have made the attempt, in the same way as Ferrel, ‘“*to build up on theoretical computations a theory of the gen- eral circulation of the atmosphere.” Setting aside the fact that I do not consider myself to be sufficiently versed in mathematical analysis for such an attempt, I hold that this method is utterly inappropriate. A problem so extraordinarily complicated as that of the general cireula- tion of the air can not possibly be constructed backwards upon the basis of mathematical computations. There has been lacking up to the present time the simple fundamental law governing all the phenomena in action. In my considerations ‘“* Upon the conservation of energy in the earth’s atmosphere,” I have endeavored first to state the forces which produce, maintain, and retard atmospheric motions, and next T have sought to determine by computation the general motion of the air, both in direction and magnitude, produced by their interaction. With respect to this method, it is not correct to say that I, “in the same way as Ferrel before me, would show by computation an original con- dition of motion in the atmosphere,” in order to make it a basis for my further speculations. It is equally incorrect to say that in my compu- tations I have wholly neglected the retardation of the motion of the air by friction. The meridional air current, very aptly called by Sprung the funda- mental circulation (Grundcirculation), upon which my, theory of the * From the Sitzungsberichte der Kénigl. Préuss. Acad, der Wiss. zu Berlin. 179 180 ON THE GENERAL CIRCULATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE. general system of winds is based, depends, in plain terms, on the equi- librium between the acceleration of the air in the equatorial updraft (caused by the overheating of the lowest air layers of the torrid zone by solar radiation) and the loss of energy which the transported air ex- periences in its course. The mixture of the air masses, which, without a “fundamental circulation,” must rotate with the velocity of the earth’s surface upon which they rest, is accomplished by it in the course of a thousand years. I have used the mathematical idea of the sudden fric- tionless mingling of air layers at all latitudes only in order to determine in a simple way the condition of motion both with respect to direction and magnitude already prevailing since a primitive period. Ferrel does not proceed, as I do, from a fundamental circulation which inter-changes the air layers rotating with their respective latitude velocities while moving forward and thereby gradually mixes them, but allows this mingling to be effected in a meridional direction by a frictionless dis- placement of the rotating rings of air at different latitudes, the reasons for which are not specifically given. This conception of the mode of mixture furnishes essentially the same basis for computation as mine, and Ferrel reaches the same results of computation so far as the diree- tion of the wind currents is concerned, But, on the other hand, there exists an essential difference in our results for the relative meridional wind force at the latitude of 55°, The assumption of Dr. Sprung that neither of the two theories can be regarded as completely correct I wholly agree with. In fact I have never considered my theory in any other light than as a first approxi- mation to the truth. With this idea I have left out of consideration in my computation complicated influences, such as that of the decrease of temperature toward the poles and that of the non-coincidence of the direction of the centrifugal force with the force of gravity. The latter fact, whose action is also left out of consideration, that rotating air masses in higher latitudes must everywhere have the tendency to move forward in great circles, and thus tend to move toward the equator, would cause a decrease of air pressure aS we approach the poles, and would consequently essentially impair the result of my computation of the mixing, if this tendency were not compensated by other forces which have an opposite effect. Itis not these, however, but other assumptions of a fundamental character which mark a very essential difference be- tween the two conceptions and lead to results quite at variance with one another. In the first place, I refer to Ferrel’s assumption that the so-called principle of areas, in the form of the conservation of the moment of rotation, applies to the displacement northward or southward of the air rotating with the earth’s surface. I can not agree with this, and must enter my decided protest against the idea that the conservation of the moment of rotation is applicable to the movement of the air. The law of areas, borrowed from astronomy, means that a mass which moves freely around another describes equal areas in equal ON THE GENERAL CIRCULATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 181 times. This happens in consequence of the acceleration of the rotat- ing mass while approaching the center of attraction of the fixed mass, and the corresponding retardation which it experiences in departing from it. The greater velocity derived from the acceleration results in the description of a greater are in a unit of time, and leads therefore to the laws of areas. Now, according to Ferrel, a mass of air rotating with the earth’s surface in any latitude, when displaced northward or southward, can not, as IL understand it, continue its course with its absolute velocity unchanged, as would be the case in the conservation of its vis viva, but its moment of rotation must remain constant, which corresponds to an important change of velocity. In order that the moment of rotation shall remain constant—which will be the case if the linear velocity of the rotating body changes in such a way that equal surfaces are described by it in equal times—there must be ex- pended a considerable amount of energy in order to effect the change of velocity of the inert mass. But the force that could do this work is quite lacking. If we shorten the radius of rotation of a rotating solid mass, then the force which causes the shortening must overcome the centrifugal force. The sum of the products of all the centrifugal forces overcome by the paths traversed gives the work performed in accelerating the rotating mass, and this is sufficient to maintain the law of surfaces; that is, here the moment of rotation is constant. But in the motion of the air upon the earth’s surface, no analogous relations subsist. In a tangential displacement on the earth’s surface, no change ot gravity takes place and no acceleration of the displaced mass by gravity. Itis just as difficult to-understand by what means a pres- sure upon them of neighboring air layers should arise for displacing, which would be able to do the enormous work of acceleration that the conservation of the moment of rotation requires! A displacement of the whole air mass of a rotating ring in a north or south direction is not practicable, since the volume of such a ring of given thickness changes with the cosine of the latitude. Thus in a poleward displacement, a corresponding part of the mass of the ring must remain behind—relatively, must return to the equator. But also for the portion of the ring of air actually displaced toward the pole, no physical reason can be found why the conservation of its moment of rotation must be assumed. On the contrary, this assumption would lead to the greatest contradictions and discontinuities; for, in the assumed original condition in which no meridional currents yet existed, from which Ferrel as well as | have proceeded, the air rotated at each latitude with the velocity of the ground upon which it was at rest. The velocity of the masses of air therefore decreased with the cosine of the latitude Now, with the appearance of a meridional current, this relation, acconding to Ferrel, would not only have to be inverted, but instead of a decrease, an increase in the velocity of the air must take place at a still higher rate, if the moment of rotation of the air is to 182 ON THE GENERAL CIRCULATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE. remain constant. But why this must remain constant and what force could effect the enormous increment of the vis viva stored up in the rotary air mass, remain equally incomprehensible.* I pass now to another assumption of Ferrel’s, with which I cannot bring myself to agree. Itis this, 7.¢., that on an inclined surface of equal air pressure there can be a descent of the overlying air layers. It is just as impossible that there should be an impulse to tangential displacement on sloping isobaric surfaces as in the case of level sur- faces. That sucha displacement could not possibly exist is evident at once from the consideration that a descending stream of air, in case it actually begins at any time, must immediately develop a change of pressure destroying the equilibrium, and must at once produce a return current. It results from this that a continuously progressive heating ot the atmosphere, such as in reality (aside from disturbances) takes place from the polar regions down to the equator, furnishes no posst- bility fora meridional circulation such as Dove also has assumed. It is possible, in such an unequally heated atmosphere, to draw at all heights isobaric surfaces extending from the equator to the poles, on which no voluntary air motion can originate. In spite of the great rarefaction by the heat of the torrid zone, the atmosphere would nevertheless remain at rest if no disturbance of the neutral equilibrium took place in any part of it. The neutral equilib- rium, with theadiabatic temperature gradient belonging to it, is the true condition of the equilibrium and of the relative rest of the atmosphere. This means that (apart from all friction) no expenditure of work is re- quired to bring a mass of air from -one height to another; that is to say, that the energy consumed in the expansion of the air under pres- sure finds its equivalent in the loss of heat by cooling, and vice versa, The general prevalence of neutral equilibrium in the atmosphere is therefore the cause of its state of relative rest, and every-disturbance of this equilibrium is of the nature of an accumulation of energy and has a tendency to cause currents in the air and thus to restore the condition of neutral equilibrium. The origin of these disturbances is to be sought exclusively in the unequal heating of the air strata *I must therefore decidedly object to the explanatory statement of Dr. Sprung, “that my assumption of the constant velocity of rotation of the air would be subject to the same error, or at least one very near to it, that vitiated the whole conception of Hadley and Dove as to the influence of the earth’s rotation upon the motion of the air.” Dr. Sprung quotes, quite improperly as a warrant for this opinion, the memoir by von Hemholtz ‘‘ Upon atmospheric motions.” Von Hemholtz in this mathemati- cal investigation has treated the hypothetical case, viz: ‘If we consider a rotating ring of air, whose axis coincides with the earth’s axis, and which is displaced either northward or southward by the pressure of similar neighboring rings, then, accord- ing to the wel)-known general mechanical principle, the moment of rotation must remain constant.” Thisisundoubtedly correct, since in thisassumed case the pressure of neighboring rings does the work of acceleration, but the present question is this: Whether forces are demonstrably present which produce this displacing pressure? ON THE GENERAL CIRCULATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 183 by solar radiation, and in their unequal cooling by the radia- tion of heat into space. The solar radiation especially heats the earth’s surface, and by means of this, the lower air layers contiguous thereto. The excess of temperature thereby produced above the adiabatic ground temperature (which latter corresponds to the average heating of the whole overlying air column), constitutes an accumulation of free energy, like that of a stretched spring, which can be brought into equilibrium again only by such a diffusion of the existing excess of temperature of the lowest strata upward through the entire overly- ing air column as shall restore the disturbed equilibrium. Practically this can only be done by means of air currents. In the vase of a locally restricted overheating there will originate at any favor- able place a bulging upward of the overheated air, which then in- creases rapidly in height, since the upward thrust increases at a rate proportional to the height of the natural chimney thus formed. But apart from its height, this chimney is to be essentially distinguished from an ordinary one by the fact that it has elastic walls, and that the pressure and density of the air strata inside, as well as outside of it, diminish with height. Thus the air velocity during the up-rush in- creases in an inverse ratio to the density, since in every minute of time, an equally great mass of air must pass through every section of the chimney. Since, in consideration of the small height of the atmosphere as compared with the earth’s radius, no increase of volume with the height need be taken into consideration, therefore, in general, the ve- locity of the air currents in ascending and descending must increase and decrease with the locally prevailing air pressure. Hence, also, in the case of an up-rush of air, more of the solar energy accumulated in it is transformed into the vis viva of moving masses of air than would be the case without such an acceleration. In the case of an up-rush of a limited mass of air overheated at the ground, the final result is a local uprush with accelerated velocity up to the higher, and even the highest, air regions, and simultaneously a descent of the air strata surrounding the upward currents, with a veloc- ity diminishing during the descent, and finally a diffusion of the accu- mulated heat at the earth’s surface to all the overlying air strata, with arestoration of the disturbed neutral equilibrium of this part of the atmosphere. In essentially the same manner, but in its outward manifestation very differently, this restoration of the neutral equilibrium disturbed by solar radiation takes place when the overheating of the air strata adjacent to the ground extends over an entire zone of the earth. In this case the up-rush can no longer be locally restricted, but must sys- tematically surround the whole torrid zone. Neither can it be limited as to time, but the process of adjustment must continue just as long as the causes of disturbance. There must therefore originate a circulatory system embracing the whole atmosphere, which finally performs the 184 ON THE GENERAL CIRCULATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE. task of conveying the excessive heat of the air strata adjacent to the ground in the torrid zone continuously to the entire atmosphere at all altitudes and latitudes, and thereby restoring, by a progressive circu- lation, the neutral equilibrium disturbed in the torrid zone. If—with aconsideration of the circumstance that the path of these cur- rents can not intersect, and of the further circumstance that the veloc- ity of the uprising currents must increase with the height in a ratio inversely proportional to the air pressure there prevailing, and finally of the circumstance that the air must retain unchanged the velocity it has once received, until it is destroyed by friction, mixture, or the work of compression,—one attempts to construct the possible paths of these currents, then he will necessarily arrive at the wind system as- sumed by me, which rests essentially upon the inertia of the overheated air set in accelerated motion by the equatorial updraft. This inertia not only drives the accelerated air in the higher air regions toward the poles, but it is also the cause of its return in the lower strata to the equator. It would lead me beyond the limited scope of this memoir were I to enter upon a more extended investigation of the inertia effeets of this mass of air, or upon the partly modifying influence of aqueous vapor. But permit me to add a few words upon the development of the great local accumulations of energy which find expression in maxima and minima of air pressure. The total air pressure over all parts of the earth must be constant, since this integral represents the unchang- ing weight of the total mass of air. A local diminution of pressure must therefore be accompanied by an increase of pressure at other places. It is manifestly fruitless to seek the cause of areas of high and low pressure in the local condition of the atmosphere. These areas are frequently announced by the barometer long before any change in the condition of the atmosphere at the earth’s surface has occurred. Only light streaks of cloud are frequently wont to betoken a change originating in the higher regions of the atmosphere. In my memoir, ** Upon the conservation of energy in the earth’s atmosphere,” I have already removed the place of origination of areas of high and low pressure to the higher regions of the atmosphere. In these areas continuous changes of temperature and velocity take place which are derived from the place of up-rush of the air,—that is, from their previous temperature and humidity. If no change of sea- sons took place, probably a greater regularity would prevail in the upper currents of the air, which then would also give weather rela- tions a definite sequence; such a sequence, up to the present time, has not been detected. We can not judge from what region the air comes which at any point of the earth’s surface momentarily flows poleward at higher elevations. The temperature and velocity which this air has depends on the place of up-rush and on the season of the year. Now since the consumption of heat in the up-rising of the air, ON THE GENERAL CIRCULATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE, 185 and consequently in its compression under pressure, depends entirely on the degree of rarefaction produced, and upon the height of the ascent, then nearly the same diminution of temperature will take place in warm as in cold air. The excess of heat which the air possessed before the uprush must continue to pertain to the rarefied and cooled air, and hence, at all alti- tudes, temperature differences must exist of a magnitude similar to those at the surface of the earth. rom this basis, the condition of the atmosphere in general will not be that of unstable, but of stable equilibrium, since the higher air strata, on account of their equatorial tendency, will be on the average warmer and lighter than the adiabatic temperature gradient of the place over which they are found, requires. The higher the excess of tempera- ture of the air before its ascent and the more vapor it contains, the greater must be the velocity which it acquires in rising. In the higher strata of air of middle and high latitudes, relatively warm and. there- fore light currents of air of great velocity must alternate with the colder and slower flowing ones. Such a current of air, relatively light and warm, which takes entire or partial possession of the higher levels, destroys the neutral equilib- rium of the lower strata. At the surface of contact of the strata, the lower air which is relatively at rest must be under too great a pres- sure. It must therefore expand and be carried along by the lighter air which flows rapidly above it. As von Helmholtz has shown, this process must go on with great energy under a wave form, The result must be an expansion and up-fow of the lower air, which will continue until neutral equilibrium, disturbed by the diminished pressure of the upper strata, is again restored. The inverse case will occur where the air pressure of the upper strata is increased beyond the amount belonging to the elevation, by reason of cooling and of backing up, resulting from the narrowing of the current with increasing latitude. In this case there will be a settling down of the bounding strata. producing a condensation of the lower strata with a corresponding increase of pressure. Finally, in both vases, the disturbed neutral equilibrium must be restored through the action of upward or downward currents, by means of which the air strata lying beneath the sources of disturbance part with or take up air until neutral equilibrium is restored throughout the entire height of the atmosphere. In order to effect this, the air pressure of the lower strata must in- crease or diminish until it becomes adjusted to the pressure gradient of neutral equilibrium of the disturbing upper strata. That is to say, the pressure at the earth’s surface must change proportionately with the variation of pressure at the elevation itself, whereby the surprising magnitude of the changes of pressure at the earth’s surface find their 186 ON THE GENERAL CIRCULATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE. complete explanation. This change of condition of the lower strata by this mode of adjustment will continue just as long as the causes of disturbance in the upper strata continue. Till then, areas of low pressure with rising currents or areas of high pressure with a down- ward motion must prevail and set the atmosphere over an ex- tended region into cyclonic motion. Not till the air current in the higher strata of the atmosphere has again reached its normal relations, will a mean barometric pressure and relative rest again prevail at the earth’s surface. The theory of the general circulation of the atmosphere may now be summed up in the following principles: (1) All motions of the air originate in disturbances of the neutral equilibrium of the atmosphere and serve the purpose of restoring it. (2) These disturbances are brought about through overheating of the strata of air lying next to the earth’s surface by solar radiation, by unsymmetrical cooling of the higher strata by radiation, and by back- ing up of the moving masses of air in case of the occurrence of resist- ances to the current. (3) The disturbances are compensated by rising air currents having an acceleration of such magnitude that the increase of velocity is pro- portional to the decrease of air pressure. (4) Corresponding to the upward currents are equally great down- ward currents in which a diminution of velocity occurs comparable with the acceleration in the case of the rising current. (5) If the region of the overheating of the lower air is a restricted one, a local up-draft sets in which extends up to the highest part of the atmosphere, and presents the phenomena of whirl pillars, whose interior consists of spirally ascending currents and whose exterior is made up of similar spiral air currents directed downward. ‘The result of these vortex currents is to diffuse the surplus heat of the lower air by which the adiabatic equilibrium was destroyed throughout all the overlying air columns which take part in the vortex motion. F (6) In ease the region of disturbance of neutral (or adiabatic) equi- librium is very extended, so as for example to embrace the whole torrid zone, then the equalization of temperature no longer takes place by means of locally uprising vortex currents; now these currents must form and encompass the whole atmosphere. The conditions of accelerated uprise and of retarded down-flow laid down for the local whirl still hold good, so that the velocity of the air motion at different heights, developed by the energy of heat, is increased approximately in proportion to the air pressure there pre- vailing. (7) Since the whole atmosphere (in consequence of the continuous meridional circulation set up and maintained by the energy of heat) must rotate at all latitudes with approximately the same absolute velocity, the meridional currents produced by overheating unite with ON THE GENERAL CIRCULATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 187 the terrestrial current in the great system of atmospheric circulation embracing the whele earth. This circulation serves the purpose of dif- fusing upwards through the whole atmosphere the excessive heat of the torrid zone, of carrying this equatorial heat and humidity to mid- dle and high latitudes, and of bringing about the development of loeal air currents at those parallels. (8) The latter phenomena take place as a result of the production of alternating local increments and decrements of air pressure arising from the disturbance of neutral equilibrium in the higher strata of the atmosphere. (9) Areas of high and low pressure are consequences of the temper- ature and velocity of the air currents in the higher strata of the atmosphere. | consider the investigation of the causes and results of the disturb- ances of the neutral equilibrium of the atmosphere to be the most fundamental problem of meteorology, and the investigation of the geographical origin of the currents which pass over us on their way towards the pole to be the most important problem in’ weather predic- t.on. Hear i BM aaa Sah he tet wearers af Gis 5 hes ag AR ee yeaah an lee ee ere) e ome nen ta iv : ee Mes Se eo Sn Bis styl iret bah ea Spon oh nh oops leg didsat ee Soeihan s = Ne PEASE Lite pe Mla Latiptatis “Lage Been eae Mn rai wolle el tT Ki Ui) PROnaeail aeiiy a] | ; ; ee mee ‘ieee | SemnTaere Heli! 1s, gnats) precy eal eRe: Ma) beigay’ it BT We. dPreckicivalns 14. Gis % pete ane ee oe ” afte ae pons vl) ; ® GAdabaanie A vont iL’ gett LA al apy ry ieee in u.. yt k oad , o 4 \y a A ha Ny iy ois I 4 LT Les TP ea , Le ie sf agat rm ee we Ifa ; = i’ uate shined ; . 4° hy i? neds rit, a or ah ~ =i f ‘a ' s f ’ & , * * = a : k i 4 mi : a “AS 7 ‘i _ Eee “5 bis 4 we fs ae i om © ri = aay age (3 = ib. yarn oii eee te . ‘ a ve : eee ‘eG cm Pied tr meee ° ‘ by i 4 i el guido >a ab ‘ Pi at te ale ; aN ml Tih abe fog ’ at a Mata, THE GULF STREAM.* By ALEXANDER AGASSIZ. The Gulf Stream is the best known and at the same time the most re- markable example of the effect of oceanic circulation upon the distribu- tion of temperature in connection with the currents of the North Atlan- tic. It has long been known to geographers that a cold current coming from Greenland joins the Labrador current, and extends in a southerly direction along the eastern coast of the United States, while a warm cur- rent pouring through the Straits of Florida flows in the opposite direc- tion t along the coast of the southern Atlantic States, and is deflected from the banks of Newfoundland crossing the Aflantic diagonally. This body of warm water makes itself felt along the west coast of the British Islands, penetrating even as far as the coast of Spitzbergen, and perhaps beyond, to Nova Zembla. — It is impossible to discuss the results of the more recent investigations of the Gulf Stream carried on by the Blake, without ineluding the general questions of oceanic circu. lation, and of the thermal conditions of the Atlantic in particular. 1 shall therefore briefly state such points, derived from the explorations of the Challenger and other expeditions, as will assist us in understand- ing the history and physies of this great oceanic current. Sir Charles Lyell has called attention to the fact that in the present epoch the most marked physical feature of the surface of the globe is its subdivision into a land and an oceanic hemisphere. Thomson, like him, looks upon the oceans as continuous, and has happily styled the Atlantic, the Pacific, and the Indian oceans as great gulfs of the South- ern Ocean. The striking hydrographic character of the North Atlantic is its com- parative isolation from the Arctic Ocean; the South Atlantic, on the contrary, is fully open to the circwation of cold water coming from the *From the Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zodlogy, at Harvard College, in Cambridge, Mass., vol. xtv: chap. ix, pp. 241-259. t Along the American coast the sudden transition from the green, cold, and more or less turbid water found along the coast and continental shelf, into the deep blue waters of the warm Gulf Stream, is one which has been noticed by all who have passed from the shore seaward. This cold green water, which has sueh a chilling influence on the climate of the New England States, follows the line of the Atlantic coast of the United States far towards the base of the peninsula of Florida. 189 190 THE GULF STREAM. Antaretic Ocean. The South Atlantic is shut off from its northern area by the ridge extending from St. Paul’s Rocks to Ascension, at a depth of about 2,000 fathoms. The Challenger Ridge runs nearly north and south, leaving a free communication between the Antarctic Ocean and the eastern and western basins of the South Atlantic. The North At- lantic is subdivided into an eastern and western basin at a depth of about 1,500 fathoms by the Dolphin Rise, which follows in a general way the course of the S-shaped Atlantic basin. Ridges separating the Atlantic from the Arctic Ocean extend across Denmark Straits, proba- bly at a shallow depth. From Greenland to Iceland the depth has an average of 500 fathoms; from Iceland to the Fverées, an average of about 300 fathoms, and from there to the Orkneys, of not more than 220 fath- oms. From the configuration of the bottom it is evident that a larger amountof cold water must reach the tropics from the Antaretie than from the Arctic regions,* which are shut off from the Atlantic by submarine ridges. Over these and through the channels of Baffin’s Bay but a limited amount of cold water can find its way south. In the eastern Atlantict the principal cooling agent must be the cold water slowly flowing northward from the Antarctic between the Challenger Ridge and Africa. The shape of the northern extremity of South America, together with the action of the southerly trades, is such as to split the southern equa- torial current, and to drive a considerable part of this southern eurrent northward to join the westerly drift which flows to the northward of the Greater Antilles and Bahamas. The phenomena of oceanic circula- tion in their simplest form are here seen to consist of westerly currents impinging upon continental masses, deflected by them to the northward and eastward, and gradually lost in their polar extension. There is on the west side of the North Atlantic an immense body of warm water, of which the Gulf Stream forms the western edge, flowing north over a large body of cold water that comes from the poles and flows south. The limits of the line of conflict between these masses are con- * The temperature line run diagonally across the Atlantic from Madeira to Tristan da Cunha by the Challenger brings out the remarkably shallow stratum of warm water of that part of the equatorial regions which corresponds to the regions of the tradewinds both north and south of the equator. The temperatures of the belts of water between 200 and 500 fathoms north and south of the line plainly show that the colder water found south of the equator can not come from the warmer northern belt of the same depth, but must come from the colder belt adjoining the equatorial re- gion. In other words, the cold water may be said to rise towards the surface near the equator; and from the temperature of the two sides of the North Atlantic it is also evident that the supply of cold water flowing from the Antarctic into the At- lantic is greater than that coming from the Arctic regions. This vertical cireula- tion, characteristic of the equatorial belt, is insignificant, however, when compared with the great horizontal oceanic currents. tIn the Pacific the amount of cold water flowing into it through the narrow and shallow Bering Strait is infinitesimal compared with the mass of cold water creep- ing northward into the Pacific gulf from the depths of the Southern Ocean, ee THE GULF STREAM. 191 stantly changing, according to the seasons. At one time the colder water from Davis’s Straits spreads like a fan near the surface, driving the Gulf Stream to the east,* and at another, large masses of warm water extend towards the Faroe Islands, with branches toward Iceland and the coast of Portugal. An examination of an isothermal chart of the Atlantic clearly shows the effect of the isolation of the Northern Atlantic, the area of maxi- mum temperature (82°) extends over a far greater space in the North than in the South Alantic. The Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean be- come greatly superheated in September (to above 86°), the effect of this superheating in conjunction with the westerly equatozial drift being seen clearly in the northerly extension of the isothermal lines. In the South Atlantie,t owing in part tothe greater regularity in the shape of the basin, the difference in the extension of the isothermal lines is but little marked. The temperature sections of the Challenger, trom Teneriffe to Som- brero, show remarkably well the great contrast in temperature between the eastern and western basins of the Atlantic, which are separated by the Dolphin Rise. In the eastern basin the cold water on the bottom is supplied by the indratt from the South Atlantic, while the warmer surface water of the western basin is due to the westerly equatoriai currents. We seem, therefore, to have masses of water of different temperatures accumulated at certain points by surface or bottom cur- rents, to be distributed again, either north or south, into the generat oceanic circulation, thus restoring the equilibrium disturbed by the un- equal distribution of heat and cold on the surface of the ocean. Another temperature section (Fig. 1), which I shall borrow from the Challenger soundings, to complement the work of the Blake in the same regions, is that which extends from Halifax to the Bermudas, and thence to St. Thomas. The temperatures observed by these vessels show plainly the path of the warm surface water, which flows outside of the West India Islands, and joins the Gulf Stream proper, whose waters when united are banked against the cold Labrador current in its course along the American coast. Undoubtedly, the early observations made upon the temperature of the ocean were defective, owing to the somewhat imperfect instruments at the disposal of the early explorers; yet they determined the general position of the cold and warm currents of the ocean along our shores. *The direction from which the currents come is plainly shown by the nature of the bottom specimens, made up in part of globigerinze brought by the warmer southerly surface currents, and in part of northern foraminifera and of volcanic sand derived from Jan Mayen and Spitzbergen. The dividing lines between these deposits may be considered as the boundaries of the aretic current where it passes under the Gulf Stream. +The parallelism of temperature is also very marked in the South Pacific, where there are no disturbing influences. (See J. J. Wild, Thalassa, (pl. xv.) and Chal- lenger Temperatures. ) STREAM. GULF THE 192 = c 2 ae ae hee ; er) 2 9 E reat Peo a S a D 100 200 Fathoms meee a cen eens ees eseveeenETe «= + oe eeewurewers secs o-o: $0 wee em wwe oa ee emers ore ETE EIU ET o a ae Beacererseen--p-— on Pa EGE Oo me oo 4 i=) Co wn Eoan & =) » Rn OMON wo a =m en0 9 ou eae | eee oe : ! ieee Ca FROM | iro 40° i : 4 3 i ; H H : 4 : i H L 136'2 3 H ‘ tees t : ma i i {36% t : : ‘ , 36°5 36°S Fic. 1.—Challenger observations. 2700 eee ew er rere? = | eens = + 2850 fme.. s* Thomaa 2960 2800 3B75 625 390 ee ee THE GULF STREAM. 193 The more systematic work of the officers of the Coast Survey first proved the existence of vast bodies of water, of considerable thickness, and of very different temperatures at corresponding depths, moving in opposite directions. It is to the Coast Survey that we owe the demon- stration of the fact that the waters of the polar regions pour into the tropics along the bottom, just as the warmer equatorial waters flow across the temperate zones near the surface, and make their influence felt in the polar regions. The submarine ridges interrupt the flow of these cold polar waters, and form the so-called closed basins, with a higher bottom temperature than that of the adjoining oceanic basin. The effect of such ridges upon the bottom temperature was first traced by the soundings of the Porcupine in the North Atlantic and in the Mediterranean. Subse- quently the Challenger discovered several such ineclosed seas while sounding in the East Indian Archipelago. The correctness of these results has been confirmed by the Coast Survey, from soundings in the Caribbean and in the Gulf of Mexico; their bottom temperature (at a depth of over 2,000 fathoms) is exactly that (393°) of the deepest part of the ridge, at about 800 fathoms, which separates them from the oceanic Atlantic basin, With its temperature of 56° at the depth of 2,000 fathoms. 4 The presence of thick layers of water having a higher bottom tem- perature than that of adjoining areas would indicate the presence of ridges isolating these warmer areas from the general deep-sea oceanic circulation. A map of the Atlantic, made entirely with reference to the temperatures, would correspond to a remarkable degree with the topography of the bed of the ocean, and show how and where the breaks in the continuity of the circulation, both for the arctic and antaretie regions, occur in the Atlantic. It was not however until the Miller-Casella thermometer came into general use for deep-sea investigations that a degree of accuracy before unattainable in oceanic temperature became possible. It soon was a well-recognized fact that as we go deeper the temperature diminishes, and that at great depths the temperature of the ocean is nearly that of freezing. In 1868~69, in the Faroes Channel, the Porcupine found -a temperature of —1.4° C. at a depth of 640 fathoms, and a tempera- ture of 0° C. at 500 fathoms, this being a southern extension, as was subsequently found, of the deep basin of 1,800 fathoms lying between Norway and Iceland. The same temperature, 0.9° C., occurs under the equator at a depth of about 2,300 fathoms, while 5° C. is found at a depth of 300 fathoms. As early as 1859 the Coast Survey had re- corded in the Straits of Florida a temperature of 40° F. (4.4° C.) at a depth of 500 fathoms, while at the surface the temperature was 80° F, (26.79 C.). Beyond 1,000 fathoms the temperature diminishes very slowly. The Challenger also found a temperature somewhat below zero off the Rio de la Plata, at a depth of about 2,900 fathoms. H. Mis. 334, pt. 1-13 194 THE GULF STREAM. The temperature of the oceanic a £ g eae etre he basin depends upon the depth, the = ° . Tg er ae ae a aa latitude, the currents, and the sea- 390° sons; that of mediterraneans (land- locked seas) is controlled by other causes, Which will be more fully dis- cussed when we come to treat of the temperature of the Caribbean and of the Gulf of Mexico. The constants are the depths and latitude, whilethe disturbing elements are represented by the varying atmospheric and oce- : anic currents and the seasons.* The effects of seasonal differences of tem- perature do not extend to great depths, yet act with sufficient power greatly to modify the force and vol- ume of the oceanic currents. AS a general rule, the temperature dimin- ishes from the surface toward the 60° 70° 80° 50° 20° 1o° nee i 5 bottom, a belt limited in depth (about & ™ 150 fathoms) alone, being subject to 2 variations due to the action of the sun. Below that the temperature 2 generally decreases with the depth, until we reach the body of water of 9 which the temperature may in gen- eral be said to be uniform (about 9 3D°),T As explanations of the oceanic cur- 3 rents, we have first the gravitation theory, which looks upon the difter- 3 ences of temperature and of specific gravity of the water at the equator and poles as the prime cause of oce- anic circulation; next, Thomson’s theory, according to which the differ- ence in evaporation and precipitation between the northern and southern Boas. 7° 80° 90° y Ba 2 8 5 ; 3 Bete a) oo ee hemispheres causes a consequent = 4 . ° E heaping up of water in the south- * Dr. J.J. Wild has given in “ Thalassa” an excellent diagram, showing ata glance the general relations of the temperature in the liquid envelopes to the earth’s crust. It is here re-produced (Fig. 2), slightly modified. + As currents sink,as soon as their temperature falls below that of adjoining waters, and as the temperature diminishes from the surface toward the bottom, as well as from the equator to the pole, a combination of these varying elements may produce a somewhat complicated circulation, pie ol sr et Sy ae Se ee ¢ THE GULF STREAM. 195 ern hemisphere, which south of latitude 50° is completely covered by water; thirdly, the theory which attempts to account for the circulation by the vis inertia of the equatorial waters; and, lastly, the theory which considers the trade-winds and other prevailing winds as the principal causes by which oceanic currents are produced. Franklin, Humboldt, Rennell, Sir John Herschel, and Croll have supported this view of the origin of oceanic currents. Of course, until the extension of the frictional effect of winds to great depths has actually been measured, the last theory, plausible as it may appear, lacks its final demonstration. It is by no means proved, be- cause there is an apparent connection intime between the periodic va- riations of the currents and of the trade-winds, that we must seek in the latter the only cause for the existence of the former. The presence of the Guinea Stream, the position of the regions of calms in the north- ern and southern hemispheres, the diminishing force of the trade-winds as we approach the equator, the rise of the colder strata of water to Shallower depths in the equatorial than in the temperate regions, are phenomena which the action of the trade-winds alone does not seem to explain. Why may not oceanic circulation, like the movements of our atmosphere, be dependent upon cosmic phenomena, practically inde- pendent of any secondary causes, and modified by them within very narrow limits? The difference in salinity of certain oceanic districts is in itself insuffi- cient to explain oceanic virculation; so that while the secondary causes referred to above are undoubtedly active as producing more or less ex- tensive local circulation, we seem justified in looking upon the differ- ences of temperature of the zones of the ocean as the principal cause of the general oceanic circulation. We may state, in the main, that the density of the ocean water is least at the equator, gradually rises toward the poles, and attains its maximum at 60° of latitude. For the sake of convenience we may call the density of the ocean as one at a depth of 500 fathoms, and consider the strata of water above and be- low as having a less and a greater density,* within very narrow limits; thus the watery envelope is not in a state of equilibrium. The most important disturbing factors of a uniform distribution of oceanic temperature are the continental masses which lie in the path of the equatorial currents. A comparison of the position of the oceanic isotherms of the North and South Atlantic shows a striking contrast in their course north and south of the equator. A. similar comparison between the Atlantic and Pacifie brings out plainly the contrast in the course of the isotherms of two oceans, fn which the disturbing effect is due in the one to continental masses and in the other to large groups of oceanic islands. i *Ocean water, at depths exceeding 1,000 fathoms, has a temperature of nearly 35° F., the temperature of greatest density. Should the water become either colder or warmer, it must expand; this it can not do, on account of the pressure. 196 THE GULF STREAM. Perhaps the best example of the unstable equilibrium existing be-— tween adjoining oceanic areas is furnished by the heaping up of the waters driven by the tradewinds into the Gulf of Mexico from the Caribbean. The amount of this accumulation has actually been meas- ured by officers of the United States Coast Survey. It gives an addi- tional force at work to keep up the efficiency of the Gulf Stream. The Gult of Mexico is considered by Mr. Hilgard as an immense hydro- static reservoir, rising to the height of more than 3 feet* above the general oceanic level, and from this supply comes the Gulf Stream, which passes out through the Straits of Bemini, the only opening left for its exit. Arago, Lenz, and Leonardo da Vinci before them, maintained that, since the water of the equator was greatly heated and lighter and attained » higher level, there was a flow of the surface waters towards the poles, a compensation being established by the flow of lower strata from the poles to the equator. The principal features of this thermic theory have of late found their most efficient exponent in Dr. Carpen- ter. The results of his experiments to prove this theory upon a small scale seemed to show that the cooling of the waters at the pole and their rapid fall were a more efficient force than the heating of the water at the equator. Ferrell has called attention to the phenomenon that cold water at the bottom will be swung more to the westward than the water at the top, which will be turned in an easterly direction. As the particles of water ascend, they retain the velocity they had in deeper parts of the ocean, and thus, when reaching either the surface or lesser depths than their original position, they must show themselves as producing a westerly current. This current, deflected by the con- tinental masses as it strikes the east coast, would then be set in motion towards either the north or south pole. At the equator, the water which flows westward from the eastern shores of the continental masses can only be replaced by the compensating waters flowing to it from the north and south. This circulation fairly agrees with the phenomena observed in the South and North Atlantic. It is interesting to trace the gradual development of our knowledge of the Gulf Stream and to see how far-reaching has been the influence of the oceanic currents upon the explorations of maritime nations, and the effect these have had in their turn on the discovery of America and its settlement.t The hardy Norse navigators, nearly five hundred years before Columbus, sailed along the eastern shores of Greenland and America, and extended their voyage possibly as far south as Nar- ragansett Bay, following the Labrador current, which swept them along our eastern shores. It was well known to navigators that upon the —_—— - —-. — es: é. we a * By a most careful series of levels, run from Sandy Hook and the mouth of the Mississippi River to St. Louis, it was discovered that the Atlantic Ocean at the first point is 40 inches lower than the Gulf of Mexico at the mouth of the Mississippi. +See Kohl, J. G., Geschichte des Golfstroms und seiner Erforschuna, 1868. THE GULF STREAM. 197 western shores of Norway and the northern coast of Great Britain driftwood of unknown timber and seeds of plants foreign to the tem- perate zone were occasionally stranded, coming from shores where probably no European had as yet set foot. The Portuguese navigators, sailing west, came beyond the Canaries to an ocean covered with seaweed (the gulf-weed of the Sargasso Sea), through which none dared to push their way, and the problem of the ‘Sea of Darkness” remained unsolved until the time of Columbus. He possibly was familiar with the traditions of the voyages of the Norse- men and undoubtedly had access to more or less accurate information regarding the Atlantic, accumulated previous to his time in the ar- chives of Portugal and Spain or circulated among the sea folk of that day, and this information included legends of lands to the west. Co- lumbus started under the full persuasion that he could reach the lands from which the remarkable products brought by the currents had originated. When he came into the region of the northeast trades and found himself swiftly carried westward, not only by the winds, but also by a current moving in the direction of the trades, his return seemed very hazardous, unless he could strike upon that opposite cur- rent which had borne the trees and seeds to the northern coasts of Europe. Obliged by the trades to take a northerly course on his way home from Hispaniola in 1495, he came upon the region of variable and westerly winds, with a current setting in the same direction. Colum- bus was thus the first to introduce the circular sailing course which, up to the present day, vessels sailing from the West Indies to Europe are compelled to take. They come before the wind with the trades, make the Windward Islands, and, sailing northward, find their way through the Windward or the Mona Passage, until they reach the belt of variable and westerly winds, when they steer toward the European shores again. After reaching the Mexican coast, Columbus, by one of his broad generalizations, practically discovered the Straits of Florida, arguing that it must have an outlet into the Atlantic and that he would thus ascape the tedious voyage in the teeth of the northeast trades, which would be his lot if he attempted to find his way home by the usual route of the Windward or the Mona Passage. In 1519, an expedition inspired by Alaminos was dispatched by Garay, governor of Jamaica, to follow the easterly current running along the northern shores of Cuba. The expedition, however, did not succeed in passing to the sastward of Cape Florida. An accurate knowledge of the currents and winds enabled the free- booters of the sixteenth century to carry on their depredations with impunity, and their successors, the wreckers of the Florida reefs and Bahamas, made use of their intimate knowledge of the coasts and of the winds and currents to obtain commercial advantages, not always by the most honest methods. With the mapping of the reefs by the 198 THE GULF STREAM. Coast Survey all this has disappeared, and the lighting of the great highway of the Straits of Florida has reduced to a minimum the dan- gers of navigation, though the Tortugas are still a favorite resort, even in broad daylight, for old ships properly insured. The captain of one of the Spanish vessels was carried south, off the coast of South America, by the current which sweeps from Cape St. Roque along the shores of Brazil, and involuntarily discovered the Bra- zilian shore current. Though these different currents were known to exist in the Atlantic, the most crude notions of their origin and course prevailed. (Fig. 3.) According to Columbus, at the equator the waters of the ocean moved westward with the heavens above, rolling over the fixed earth as a center. It was only in the seventeenth century that physicists began to suspect a connection between the currents and the rotation of the earth, a view afterwards maintained by Arago and Hum- boldt. The first scientific basis for the exploration of the Gulf Stream was undoubtedly due to Franklin. At the time he was Postmaster-General of the colonies, his attention was called to the fact that the royal mail packets made much longer passages to and from Europe than the trad- ing vessels of Massachusetts and Rhode Island. On talking the mat- ter over with Capt. Folger, of Nantucket, he first learned the existence of astrong easterly current, of which the New England captains took advantage in going to Europe, and which they avoided by sailing a northerly course on the home voyage. Folger also called Franklin’s attention to the fact that this current was a warm one.* He and Dr. Blagden becoming interested in the question, Franklin set out to ascer- tain the size of the current and its temperature. Soon after, Franklin published the first chart of the Gulf Stream (Fig. 4), for the benefit of navigators, from information obtined from Nantucket whalemen, who were extremely familiar with the Gulf Stream, its course, strength, and extent. From the time of Franklin until the problem of the Gulf Stream was again attacked, in 1845, by Franklin’s descendant, Prof. A. D. Bache, of the United States Coast Survey, many ingenious theories were published, but nothing was added to our knowledge of the origin and structure of the Gulf Stream. Humboldt, Arago, and others attempted to trace in the Gulf Stream a secondary effect of the trade-winds, and of the rotation of the earth. The officers of arctic expeditions sent to Spitzbergen did not fail to see the effect of a mass of warm water passing northward, and Von Baer was among the first to consider this body of water as an eastern extension of the Gulf Stream. Meanwhile the arctic explorers of Baffins Bay and western Greenland found them- selves baffled in their efforts to reach high latitudes by the powerful * It was noticed by Lescarbot, in 1605, that far north there was a mass of warm water moving toward the east, and that both north and south of it the water of the Atlantic was cooler. aw i: ae i : = = ——— = 8. a = —<— SS 2 % = —— = — ah Ny R osravKo cis 7% eae \ Dey va, SS. Deed te = — Sy tenant, ee — ESA i allt \\ \ eg 0 PASS = \ \\ \Y \\ zea Wie Sars SS dara | eae fo?) a \ \\ Keres Sore = SS iz \ i Nae ———— = =S == Nites § aes = Hy ie ) DN ce aa — SE 7-4 — _—_ COO He SS | soles —— ss res AW fe ui a u : ui i : iM Pat La ie —————— SS ——— ——— SS SSS — — ———— ——— SS== §) Sy th sh © & Z9 aE Q 4 i ee — cl mm Sensi 2 - == SSS i == —— 4 | i SS SSS SSS SS hig L J = , Sees eases 72s SS= SSS SS SS 2 = SSG: SS i i if Hi a l Ht il i | ti _ Ne i i 4 SSS SC SSS SSSSS E\ — SS ~~ ~ ie i i di Le HY is ar ES ats Li a pS ee (| a Ft aa —— — < a a ii ——— — eS Se —— ooo SSS Seay 200 ‘ THE GULF STREAM. southerly current, carrying with it fields of ice or huge icebergs, which — had found their way south below the southern limits of the Banks of Z ‘a , GUL PYSTRE. 4, APE Bermuda I, Fic. 4.—Franklin’s Chart of the Gulf Stream. NortTH ClAROLINA Newfoundland, and even beyond the latitude of Cape Cod and Nan- tucket Shoals. es ee ee ee ee PLATE I. 4 : 2 , iat —_— maga es ° led ° = fe a a Ps epee ‘O9B1-SR] way Sia pure soce wy Buimoys WVAYLS ATV) FNL AO LYVHD oS Snowe ay AQAYHNS LSVODO Sn Fic, 5.—THe Guir STREAM. By Alexander Agassis, 3 THE GULF STREAM. 901 The earlier work of the Coast Survey in its investigations into the structure of the Gulf Stream (1545 to 1860) consisted in making see- tions across the stream, from the Straits of Bemini as far north as the latitude of Nantucket. From the studies of Craven, Maftitt, Bache, and Davis were developed the so-called cold and warm bands, believed at that time to be the principal characteristic of the Gulf Stream. The accompanying map (Fig. 5), published in 1860 by the Coast Survey, will serve to illustrate the structure of the Gulf Stream as it was then understood; namely, as a succession of belts composed of warm north- erly currents flowing side by side with a cold southerly current, or of a cold southerly current which had found its way under the warmer northerly currents. These alternating belts had no definite position, the size of the colder bands and warmer belts being dependent, the one upon the force of the arctic current, the other upon that of the trepical 2650 fins Bermad Sandy Hook 1240 fms. f azyoo 7 2850 2600 Fic. 6.--Challenger observations. current, increased in breadth and volume beyond the Bahamas by the whole of the warm belt of surface equatorial water, which is deflected northward by the Windward Islands, instead of forcing its way through the passage between the Windward Islands, the Mona and Windward passages, and the Old Bahama Passage.* *Great as is undoubtedly the effect of the Gulf Stream proper (Fig. 6) in increas- ing the temperature of the water in northern latitudes subject to its influence, we must not forget to add to it that of the greater mass of heated water which is forced north, and finds its way to the northernmost shores of Siberia, losing in its passage the heat it has accumulated within the tropies. So that, while we can not say that the Gulf Stream has disappeared, and has been replaced off the Banks of Newfound- land by the equatorial drift, neither can we attribute to the Atlantic drift alone the masses of warm water found in the basin of the northern part of the North Atlantic. (See Figs. 1 and 6.) 202 THE GULF STREAM, Commander Bartlett found no warm or cold bands, no distinet cold wall, and no bifureations in the surface waters till he came off Hatteras, Near the shore the current was greatly influenced by winds. The work of the Blake seems to show thatthe cold bands, so called, which figure so largely in all early descriptions of the Gulf Stream, hes eno regularity, and only represent at any given moment the unceasing con- flict going on between layers of water of different velocities and of dif- ferent temperatures. Such a conflict is perhaps the well-known rip we encountered off Charleston, which may be caused by a struggle be- tween portions of the Labrador current passing under the Gulf Stream. As the isotherms rise and fall with the irregularities of the bottom, where water accumulates or piles against ridges, hot and cold bands may be flowing one above the other. We need however more pro- longed observations to show how far below the surface these bands extend. Commander Bartlett, from the last Coast Survey investiga- tions under his direction, is inclined to consider the cold bands of the Gulf Stream as quite superficial.* A cold current striking against a warmer stream that is flowing in the opposite direction may split it into more or less marked hot and cold bands. Bands similar to those of the Gulf Stream were observed by the Challenger in the Agulhas current off the Cape of Good Hope, and off Japan in the Kuro Siwo. ; It is of course difficult to ascertain the part taken by the trade-winds in originating the oceanic circulation of the Atlantic. That winds blowing steadily from one quarter give rise to powerful currents is well known, and it is not difficult to imagine the prominent part the trades must play in setting in motion, in a southwesterly and anorth- westerly direction, the mass of water over which they sweep so persist- ently on each side of the equator. The change of currents in the Indian Ocean due to the shifting of the monsoons is well known. How far below the surface this action of the winds reaches, is another question.t Theoretically it has been cal- culated by Zoeppritz that one hundred thousand years is ample time to allow the friction of the aie sy to extend from the surface to the bot- “Th Seine om Halifax to ine Bae aS Ww Vv Ae Thowcon ES. of passing alternate belts of cold and warm water. Early in the morning of the 22d of May, the surface water was of a temperature of 17° C.; at midnight it had fallen to 12° C., to rise again half an hour later to over 15° C. Thus, from the time the Challen- ger left Halifax with a surface temperature of 4° C., gradually rising to 10° C. until she encountered the Gulf Stream proper, marked by a rapid rise of temperature, she passed through alternate belts of warm and cooler surface waters varying between 18° C. and 23° C. t The movement arising from the action of the winds on the surface is transmitted by friction from one layer to another and communicates the velocity of the upper particles to the underlying layers in succession. If this is continued long enough, the velocity of the lowest layers will equal within a fraction that of the upper layer. a ; THE GULF STREAM. 203 tom, say to 2,000 fathoms, were the winds to blow without intermission in one direction during that time, with the average power they are known to possess.* We may imagine the whole of the mass of the Atlantic within the belt of the trade winds to be moving in a westerly direction and im- pinging upon the continental slope of South America,t and upon the Windward Islands, at which point it is deflected either in a south- erly or northerly direction or forces its way into the Caribbean. In our present state of knowledge it is difficult to trace the path of the equatorial water as it is forced into the eastern Caribbean. Com- mander Bartlett supposes that it is warmed in the Caribbean by cireu- lating round the whole basin. The water which is swept into the Caribbean by the trade winds through the passages between the Wind- ward Islands and, being then driven into the Old Bahama Channel funnel, flows through the Windward Passage, represents a far greater mass than that which can find its way into the Gulf of Mexico through the Straits of Yucatan or that of the stream flowing north through the Straits of Bemini. This is the actual Gulf Stream, a body of super- heated water filling the whole straits; it has an average depth of about 300 fathoms and a velocity extending to the bottom of at least 34 miles an hour. The section of the Yucatan Channel is too small to allow for an out- flow equal to the inflow into the Caribbean,§ so that, after the trades have ceased to force the equatorial water into the Caribbean basins, it - must remain there a considerable length of time before it passes into the Gulf of Mexico, where, owing to similar differences between the rate of inflow and outflow, the water must still become more super- heated. We must therefore consider the Gulf Stream proper, as it emerges from the Straits of Bemini, as an immense body of super-heated water “It is therefore possible that currents which owe their existence to causes that have been modified to a certain extent should still exist in the ocean long after the conditions producing them (acting from the surface) have ceased to be effective by any break of continuity due to the interposition of islands or of banks in the track of oceanic currents. i Did the Gulf Stream not meet continental masses, it would simply expand north and south, losing its initial velocity, and gradually cool down towards the poles, the cold penetrating all the deeper portions of the ocean, just as we find it reaching the higher summits that rise above the line of perpetual snow. {Current observations taken by Mitchell off the coast of Cuba, in the deep part of the Gulf Stream, show that it has a nearly uniform and constant velocity for a depth of 600 fathoms, although the temperature varies 40° F. § A part of this water emerges again at a higher temperature between Guade- loupe and Haiti and joins that portion of the equatorial current which finds its way into the Windward Passage. This increased temperature may he due to its pass- ing over shoals and banks at the northeastern end of the eastern basin of the Caribbean. 204 THE GULF STREAM. retaining an initial velocity which originated in lower latitudes, then : losing both its velocity and its heat on its way north.* The Straits of Florida have a width of about 48 miles between Jupi- ter Inlet and Memory Rock; the greatest depth is 439 fathoms, and the cross-section 430,000,000 square feet. At three knots, the delivery would be, as calculated by Commander Bartlett about 436,000,000,000,000 tons a day, an amount of warm water far less than we find over the North Atlantic, which, as has been shown, is derived from the western set of the equatorial current, joining the Gulf Stream in its way towards European shores.t (See Figs. 1-6.) Commander Bartlett thus describes the general course of the Gulf Stream ‘The Gulf Stream has for its western bank the 100-fathom curve as far as Cape Hatteras. It has a depth of 400 fathoms as far as Charles- ton, where it is reduced to 300 fathoms; but the Arctic current has for its eeerern bank the 1,000-fathom curve, which is quite close to shoal water from the George’s Bank to Hatteras. ; “The average surface temperature in the axis of the stream rarely exceeded 83° F. in June and July. On one or two occasions the ther- mometer read as high as 86° and once 89°; but it was at high noon in a dead calm. The temperature at 5 ume did not range above the average of 814°. ‘“The increase of temperature of the surface was found as we entered the current. - - “The surface temperatures did not indicate a cold wall inside of the stream and the water inside of the 100-fathom line to the shore seemed to be an overflow of the stream, as the temperatures to 5, 10, and 15 fathoms were nearly as high as those found in the stream. ‘““The temperatures at the bottom in the stream, at corresponding depths, were the same as those found in the Windward Passage, and * Between Halifax and the Bermudas, the section of the Gulf Stream observed by the Challenger was cooled 1° C., as compared with that of the Bermudas to New York. The Gulf Stream retains its heat as a surface current as long as the temperature is sufficiently high to make it lighter than the surrounding water. Its greater salinity causes it to sink below the comparatively fresher water of northern latitudes. Similarly, the Arctic current, when it reaches a certain latitude along our eastern coast, sinks from its greater specific gravity below the warmer surface currents and continues its way south as an undercurrent of cold water. t It might, perhaps, be advisable to distinguish between the eastern extension of the Gulf Stream, combined with the Atlantic drift, and the Gulf Stream proper, un- derstanding by the latter the water which passes through the Florida Straits. This has been called by Petermann the Florida Stream; and the name of Gulf Stream has been applied to the vast body of warm water which super-heats the basin of the Eastern Atlantic to the eastward of 45° west longicude. There seems to be no reason for changing the name of the Gulf Stream because so many other liberties have been taken with it. We should retain the original name, limiting it to the Florida Stream coming from the Gulf of Mexico and applying to its eastern extension, in connection with the Atlantic easterly drift, some new name, such as Equatorial Drift or the Caribbean Stream. — wT THE GULF STREAM. 205 in the course of the current to the Yucatan Passage. The average - bottom temperature at 400 fathoms was 45°, and, as off Charleston,* in — 300 fathoms, 55°. The temperature at 300 fathoms, off the George’s Bank, was found in July to be 40°; and this last was the temperature that we found at the same depth just north of Hatteras and the Gulf Streain. “] have stated that the surface temperatures did not show a cold wall inside the stream; but the bottom temperatures give a narrow cold section close to the 100-fathom curve all along the course of the stream from Hatteras to Florida. Soon after leaving the Straits of Florida there is a division of the stream shown by the bottom temper- atures, part following the coast and the remainder branching off to the eastward. - - - “We found that 3 knots wasa general average to aliow for the whole stream. This would give a greater velocity at some central point. Be- tween the Bahamas and Florida the average was exactly 3 miles per hour; but for a distance of 15 miles in the axis of the stream it was as high as 5.4 miles per hour. To the northward of the Bahama banks, and to the eastward of the stream, there was a slight current setting southeast. _We found the direction of the current in the stream very much affected by the wind, sometimes inclining it to the east, then to the west.t “In the latter part of June, 1881, we were hove to, some 50 miles east of the Gulf Stream, off Charleston, where we experienced a current of 3 miles per hour, setting southeast; wind blowing a gale from southwest.t “The sudden rise of the plateau off Charleston, together, probably, with the meeting of the arctic and warm currents, creates a remarkable disturbance at this point. - - - *About 80 miles from Charleston a Jine was run parallel to the coast, along the axis of the Gulf Stream. Bottom | | — - | Surface | einer | tempera- | persue | tempera- Nature of bottom.) ture. | ture. | | Degre es. | Degrees. Degrees. 957 83 83 50 No specimen | 291 83 83.5 45 Fine sand. | 274 | 83.5 8355 44.5 | Coarse sand. 288 87.5 83.5 45 No specimen. 265 S4 83.5 45 Coarse sand. t Inshore of the Gulf Stream, though a southerly current was distinetly traced in- side the 100-fathom line, yet the temperature of the water towards the shore was but little cooler than that of the stream itself; the same is found to be the case if we examine the temperature sections of the eastern edge of the Gulf Stream. The stream itself seems to be mainly characterized by its velocity and by its color. $On the southern side of the Gulf Stream Commander Bartlett observed immense quantities of gulf-weed; this is also blown into Narragansett Bay in considerable quantities, covered with clusters of floating barnacles, 206 THE GULF STREAM. ‘‘We cressed the stream six times in this locality, under conditions of weather from a calm to a strong breeze, and always crossed, near the center of the stream, bands of rippling water several miles in width. It is very like the rip at the entrance to Long Island Sound.” The Gulf stream flows at the rate of about one-fourth of a mile an hour through the Yucatan Channel, whichis 90 miles wide and over 1,000 fathoms deep. Through the Straits of Bemini it has a velocity of from 4 to 5 knots, a width of 50 miles, and an average depth of 350 fathoms. This velocity rapidly decreases as we go north. Off St. Augustine it is rarely more than 4 miles; from there to New York it decreases to 24 miles per hour; off the banks of Newfoundland it is reduced to 14 or 1 miles; and ata distance of 300 miles to the eastward the velocity of the Gulf Stream, which has constantly been spreading out fan- shaped, is scarcely perceptible. As far as the current observations of the Blake may be trusted, they indicate a greater speed in the axis of the Gulf Stream than along its edges—a velocity varying between 2 miles an hour, or even less, and fully 5 miles. The width of the stream off the east coast south of Hat- teras varies from 50 to nearly 100 miles. The observations of the Blake show that the bottom of the Gulf stream along the Blake Plateau is swept clean of slime and ooze, and is nearly barren of animal life. . ON THE ABSOLUTE MEASUREMENT OF HARDNESS.* By F. AUERBACH. Translated by Cart BARUS. Hardness, aside from its practical importance, is one of the most remarkable properties of solid matter. This is shown at once by the difficulties which have been encountered in the endeavor to arrive at an accurate interpretation of it. Indeed, the attempts to solve questions relating to hardness are of very great variety, and are exceptionally large in number, and they have in a measure led to some interesting results; but the subject in its broader bearings has not yet been attacked with success, nor has a rigorous definition of hardness been established. Problems which present themselves in dealing with any of the physical properties of a body may usually be divided into three sub-problems: The first among these includes the scientifically exact description of the conception in question, so that the property may henceforth be treated as a purely mathematical variable. Then this quantity is to be meas- ured, and methods and apparatus must be devised for that purpose. Finally, the measurements are themselves to be generalized by being extended to as many bodies under as many different circumstances as possible. At the outset, however, it is by no means necessary that the procedure adopted should be so simple as to be of immediate practical utility. As arule this will only be attained at a much later stage of the research. The chief aim at the beginning is to work forward from some theoretically perfect basis, and-to so fashion the methods that the end in view may be reached with a reasonable degree of accuracy as wellas certainty. To within a few years none of the three sub-problems which I have mentioned can be said to have been solved. To Hertz belongs the credit of being the first to push the question to an issue. His ingenious reasoning is particularly fortunate, inasmuch as it har- monizes the general conception of hardness and the earlier definitions which were given of it in all essential and necessary points and to the exclusion of errors of principle and vagueness. Taking Hertz’s con- clusions as a point of departure, I believe I have solved the second of the sub-problems, and in the present paper submit a method, which (with *From the dAnnalen der Physik und Chemic, April, 1891; (new series) vol. XLII, pp. 61-100, 207 208 ON THE ABSOLUTE MEASUREMENT OF HARDNESS. _ the exception of a single point as yet in need of further elucidation), seems to lead to satisfactory results, both from a theoretical and a practical point of view. My paper is therefore divided into the follow- ing parts: . §*1. A review of the earlier work. § 2. The theory, in so far as it enters into my work. § 3. The method in general. The deseription of the apparatus. General remarks on the observations. § 6. The constants and the sources of error. \ 7. Theexperinental verification of the method. § 8. The measurement of the elasticity and the hardness of certain sub- stances. ao) With reference to the last I will state at once that the data are given solely with the object of evidencing the utility and accuracy of the method. They show to what degree the second sub-problem has been solved. Systematic work relative to the third sub-problem, as well as many investigations which the present paper suggests or implies, I have reserved for future communications. I. A REVIEW OF THE EARLIER WORK. Relative to the definition and the measurement of any physical quantity like hardness, the observer may proceed from three points in view. He may only wish to find out whether the hardness of any given body is greater or less than the hardness of another given body; and he may therefore be satisfied with a typical series, any mem- ber of which is conventionally harder than the preceding and softer than the succeeding body. The elements of such a series may even be numbered; but the numbers are obviously not significant quantities. Furthermore, if even these members are reliable it is clearly to be shown (1) whether if B be harder than A, A is always necessarily less hard than 6; (2) if when C is harder than Band B harder than A, C is always harder than A. Inthe case of many physical properties these conditions do not hold, or do not hold at least for all substances; and_ it is, therefore, not generally possible to classify bodies in a seale of the kind in question. Only after these fundamental conditions have been fixed in principle, is it permissible to make the second step, namely, to replace the more or less arbitrary members in the scale of hardness, by data which actually measure the property, and which therefore, for any two bodies, will express the hardness ratio. The scale so obtained is relative, and the term of comparison conventionally chosen. Thus, for instance, the hardness in a given definite body may be taken as the unit. But here again it is necessary to reflect that the data may differ not only as to their actual value, but in their relations, depending as they must on the experimental method by whieh they were obtained. Only the final or absolute method is, therefore, always satisfactory, for here the ~ —— ON THE \ ABSOLUTE MEASUREMMNT OF HARDNESS. 209 hardness of each substance is expressed, irrespective of other substances and without reference to a normal body, in terms of the fundamental units of physics. The method of rating hardness by seratching is best known and most generally applied. One body is harder than another, if,a point or sharp edge of the former is capable of scratching a plane over face of the latter. Of the two conditions which make an arbitrary scale possible in this case, the first is approximately given, to the extent only that the differences of hardness to be rated are in any two bodies marked. If this differences is small, it is usually found that a sharp edge of either will scratch a plane surface of the other. It is custo- mary to refer this discrepancy to the sensitiveness of the method. The two bodies are flatly pronounced equally hard, and since the see- ond of the conditions above given is also borne out by all the cases hitherto tested, a rough scale of hardness is thus feasible. The first investigator who made use of such a scale, Hauy, confined his work to four steps. They were limited by calcite, glass, and quartz. Mohs increased the number of steps to ten, and although later mineralogists, believing some of the steps disproportionately large, have inserted intermediate degrees, the Mohs scale has in general been retained to the present day. Indeed the justice of this is apparent, for in view of the absence of any means of even approximately defining the relative values of the successive degrees, all attempts to reduce them in size would, in the long run, rather be productive of error than of increased accuracy. The first attempt at measurement was made by Frankenheim,* who estimated the hand pressure under which a given hard point or stylus leaves ascratch on the surface to be tested. Butinstruments by which this pressure or the depth of penetration of the stylus is actually regis- tered were not invented till much later. They are due, respectively, to Seebeck,t Franz,i Grailich and Pekarek,§ F. Exner,|| Pfaff,{] Turner,** and others, and have been called “‘sklerometers.” The results obtained by these forms of apparatus, as Exner himself admits, are not of the nature of measurements, for all trae measurements of an unknown quantity determine the latter by inclosing it between well-defined limits, and it is by the distance apart of these limits that the accuracy of the method is conditioned. Sklerometers however are capable of furnishing only an upper limit. The lower limit is left to conjecture. *Franukenheim: De cohwsione, etc., Inaug. Diss., Breslau, 1829. tSeebeck: Progr. Céln. Real-Gymn., 1883. tPranz: De lapidarum duritate Inaug. Diss., Bonn, 1850; Pogg. Ann., vol. LXXxx, 1850, p. 37. § Grailich u. Pakarek: Wien. Ber., vol. xii, 1854, p. 410. || F. Exner: Unters iiber d. Hirte an Krystallfldchen, Wien, 1873. q Pfaff: Minch Ber., 1883, pp.55, 372. Pfatf’s invariable use of the term ‘absolute hardness” is quite unjustifiable. His data are relative at best.” **Turner: Proc. Birm. Phil Soc., 1887, vol. v (2). H. Mis, 334, pt. 1——14 210 ON THE ABSOLUTE MEASUREMENT OF HARDNESS. Seebeck’s only advance on Frankenheim is a transfer of judgment from the hand to the eye, the latter being contessediy more skillful in mak- ing estimates. At best, however, the method thus established en- counters the following serious disadvantages. In the first place, the results obtained depend on a variety of minor conditions, foremost among which is the nature of the material out of which the stylus is made. Steel is most generally used, but steel can not be exactly defined, and therefore the observer has no right to assume that his stylus is a body of fixed properties. Moreover, the necessity of using both hard and soft steel in the apparatus introduces a further compli- cation, but,as a matter of fact, when a hard steel stylus is applied to a soft body the pressure under which the stylus moves must be reduced below the limit of measurement, whereas hard bodies are only scratched by hard steel. Franz used both a steel and a diamond point, and endeavored to co-ordinate the results of the two by measuring the hardness of a given suitable body in terms of each stylus. It is true that the numbers obtained in the two series of experiments show a constant ratio (cet. par.), but it does not follow that this would always be the case, and it is quite improbable for large intervals of hardness. The second difficulty encountered is the dependence of the results of the sklerometer on the degree of sharpness of the marking stylus. None of the above papers touch upon this matter, nor would it be possible for them to estimate this effect. Yet it is quite obvious that the pencils of different apparatus can not have been identically sharpened, and that the pencil of the same apparatus will soon become blunted by continued use. Measurements into which this serious discrepancy necessarily enters cannot therefore be comparable among themselves. Finally, the modus operandi, the velocity of the moving stylus and the diree- tion of the pressures are to be considered, and in some of the above papers hints relative to these points (motion, position, and inclination of pencil) are explicitly given. Barnes and Perlsin, however, first showed that the effect producible by varying the rate of motion of the stylus is so great as to be actually capable of inverting the data for hardness. Indeed, it has since become well known that the edge of a rapidly rotat- ing, relatively soft dise is scarcely touched by a file or a lathe tool, and that if the motion be rapid enough, it is the tool which suffers most. Nor is this phenomenon to be referred to an effect of temperature, for it finds its full explanation in consideration with the rates of motion to which it is due. The hardest cast iron can be turned off with a steel tool at a velocity as high as 2 meters per second of the moving parts. I am thus naturally led to the important question, whether the defi- nition of hardness given by the sklerometer is correct in principle. I believe this is by no means the case. Quite aside from the serious prac- tical difficulties which I have just summarized, it seems to me that hardness when determined by scratching is much too complex a concep- tion to be used as a basis for the definition of the property. Compli- ON THE ABSOLUTE MEASUREMENT OF HARDNESS. 21th cations are introduced by the motional phenomena, the lateral sheer which accompanies scratching, and in short by conditions which have nothing to do with hardness at all. It is easy to imagine how the method originated, for the tests must primarily have been made to find out whether the point was capable of puncturing the surfaee; but inasmuch as a puncture is not easily recognized, the passage was made from the point to the scratched line. The statie method is, in fact, much older than the dynamic method of rating hardness. If therefore the static method is sufficient (and this will be shown below) to define hard- ness as a characteristic, independent, and clearly intelligible property of bodies, it is worse than superfluous to introduce processes by which the result can only be complicated. 1 do not mean to imply, of course, that the method of scratching has been fruitless. It has conquered its own ground. Thus, for instance, the gradual change of hardness at points within a given surface of a crystal is among the striking accoin- plishments within the reach of the method; but we can only arrive at a clear knowledge of the meaning of such observations after having solved the statie problem of hardness and then noting the additional circumstances introduced, when we pass from the dent to the scratch. Regarded as practical method of quiet interpolation, scratching must retain a value which can only be enhanced by giving clear interpreta- tions to the nature of the process, and the discrepancies which I have pointed out * need not then be apprehended. Under the circumstances I am inclined to regard it as a step in the right direction, that the static method (static because motion is excluded) has recently again been taken up by a number of observers. Among these Crace-Calvert and Johnson, Hugueny,t Bottone,t and also Pfaff§ may be mentioned. In this class of apparatus a hard point is pressed or struck or drilled into the body to be measured, and the hard- ness is variously measured relative to given depths of penetration. This may be done by noting the weight necessary to sink the stylus or by the number of rotations of a definitely weighted needle (Pfaff’s me- so-sklerometer). Again, the depth to which the stylus sinks fora given weight or even the time necessary to produce a given depth of impres- sion have been used for registry. Here however it is clear at once that these methods are intrinsically different, and that far-fetched assumptions must be made relatively to the proportionality of hardness with the divers data obtained,—assumptions which need not even be approximately true. Furthermore, the body to which these different tests are applied is necessarily acted on in a state of strain, if not ac- * Hugueny (see below), to whom similar considerations are due, takes account of three kinds of hardness, one ‘* tangential” and the other two ‘‘ normal.” t Hugueny: Rech. Lap. sur la dureté des corps, Paris, 1865. Cf. Ber. de Strasb., Ges., 1865. { Bottone: Sill. Journ., 1873, p.457; Pogg. Ann., 1873, vol. 150, p. 644, § Pfaff: , Miinch. Ber., 1884, p. 255, 212 ON THE ABSOLUTE MEASUREMENT OF HARDNESS. tually ruptured at the point of observation. At the time and place of measurement the body necessarily differs from the original body. Thus it appears that the results of such methods are not available. With the object of corroborating the above rewarks I will exhibit two typical series of data from the papers of Franz and of Pfaff (the latter obtained by means of the meso-sklerometer already referred to), choos- ing such substances as are sufficiently definite for comparison. In the first table the numbers for gypsum are made identical; in the second the same is done for corundum, the respective ratios being retained in both cases. Gypsum identically hard. Corundum identically hard. Body. | Franz.| Pfaff. | Ratio. | Body. Franz.| Pfatf. | Ratio. Cry P SUT eset | 6 | 6 1 Corundimisss--eee-eee ee 340 | 340 120 Caleiten sched Nace he Soe 36 8 NEG) |i) ANOHEA Ge Sector cn2 oaasc- 298 240 nL 2) MUMOrite 27 22s eee ee 144 | 20 7 Quantiveesess. ose ee 228 | 160 1.4 WMontifewn se ao-sece poset Goo 38) 15 Reldsparts: s25205 ee | -184-| © q05y| eae INGIGI Ie Googe soe caaes 1, 040 TNs |/t) APabIter = v2. = =see Ea ee | 84 38 2.2 Queries mee ae IA77O' une 160n| Molin wee ete bas tates ee | fis 20.9 AUG NAG Ge Gr Gann eceaae oe 2, 230 240 9 Calcitess eee aries 5 8 0.6 Cormndum qo ese sae =o 2, 650 340 8 Gy PSUMyjs2=~ 2 Se 32 see 1 6 0.2 Mere inspection of the table shows that the ratios of hardness* run as high as 15 in the first table, and fluctuate between 2.2 and 0.2 in the second. It has already been stated that Hertzt investigated a definition of hardness which is mathematically exact, and which does not conflict with the prevailing notions of the quality. He replaces the indefinite point by a definite spherical surface; or, to state this more correctly, since the point is after all a spherical surface of very small radius, Hertz uses a stylus with a radius of curvature large enough to be measurable. Moreover, the material out of which the stylus (now a ball) is to be made, virtually does not at all enter into the problem. A body may therefore be tested for hardness by aid of a probe made of its own substance and the result is in no way dependent on vague properties of a foreign body. Finally, the body to be examined is not subjected to any permanent strain (set), but all operations are con- ducted within the limits of elasticity. The definition of hardness thus obtained takes the following general form: Hardness is the limit- ing elastic resistance (tenacity) of a body, in case of contact of one of its plane surfaces with the spherical surface of another body, thus all vagueness of conception has been removed, and hardness is tersely * Similarly enormous variations of the ratios for metals may be obtained from the series of Bottone and Hugueny (Cu—100, Ni—104 to 58, Pt—81 to 150, Pb—42 to 9, etc). tHertz: Verh, Berl. phys. Ges., 1882, p. 67; Verh. d. Ver. z. F. d., Gewerbefl,, 1882, p. 441. ON THE ABSOLUTE MEASUREMENT OF HARDNESS. 213 classified with the allied properties encountered in case of tension, tlex- ure, ete. It is of course necessary to go into further detail, in par- ticular to determine how pressure is distributed and varies within the surface of contact, for upon these conditions the effects of stress and the resistance of the material will depend. The solution of this problem has enabled Hertz* to propound a fundamental principle. In his attempt to verify his theory experimentally Hertz was however much less successful, and as a consequence soon abandoned the work. The only data which he adduced refer to glass, and his results for hard- ness were: Kg. /mm?. Pressure of a hard steel lens against plate glasse........--!-..:.....--..---2-- 185 DY SE ola egty tog ale ae of | ee a ee ae eee. - SNe ane: fe 150 PSLOSSUNGOD, UV Onumlns OLASS MOCKS ce io fc Soiete os aio HS eis oe ean eee as 190 Thus the data obtained are not satisfactorily constant. Moreover, my results show that not more than the third or fourth part of the dis- crepancies observed are referable to the material. Differences, there- fore, necessarily remain. It would be inexpedient to attempt to account for them here, chiefly because the number of experiments made is much too small relatively to the conditions (form, material, stress, impact, ete.), under which the results were obtained. Nor has Hertz given a sufficiently detailed statement of the dimensions of the bodies exam- ined. II. THEORY. The pressureless contact between a sphere and a plane is a point. If pressure be applied at the center of the sphere, normally, both sur- faces will change form near the point in question, until the strain has reached a given value. In other words, the sphere will be flattened and the plane curved, and the original point is now replaced by a sur- face of contact. ! shall call this the impressed surface or area (Druch- fliiche). Itis neither plane nor of the curvature of the sphere; but the radius will obviously lie somewhere between these limiting values, and will depend (cet. par.) on the elastic properties of the two contiguous bodies. Furthermore, under the conditions stated, the impressed area is clearly cireumscribed by a circle. If pressure acting normally through the center of the sphere is increased the impressed surface will also increase in size, and the pres- sure is now brought to bear ona larger surface. But the strain to which the materialis put will depend on the stress per unit of impressed surface, and we are thus led to inquire as to the law compatible with which the pressure per unit of area increases with the total pressure, for ob- viously both magnitudes must increase simultaneously. It is also easily seen that the relation between total pressure and pressure per unit of the impressed surface is closely allied with the relation of total “Hertz: Crelle’s Journal, 1882, vol. xcut, p. 156. PvE ON THE ABSOLUTE MEASUREMENT OF HARDNESS. pressure to the increase of the impressed surface or area of contact. Now Hertz’s theory shows the radius of the latter to increase propor- tionally to the cube root of the total pressure applied, and hence the impressed area will increase as the two-thirds power of total pressure. To this degree, therefore, the effect of total pressure is abortive; and in view of the enlargement of the impressed area stress per unit of area increases only as the cube root of the total stress. Furthermore, the manner in which pressure is distributed throughout the surface of con- tact is fully given by the theory. It is found that at any given time pressure decreases gradually from the center of the area towards its boundary where stress is necessarily zero, in accordance with the expression Vi=7 where x is the fraction of the total radius of the impressed area by which any of its points is symmetrically located relatively to the cen- ter. The reference roughly made above to pressure per unit area is, therefore, of the nature of a mean value; and the maximum pressure at the center of area is related to the mean value here in question in the ratio of 3 to 2. Now if the total pressure at the center of the sphere is gradually increased, the maximum pressure per unit of area at the cen- ter of the impressed surface will also continually increase; and at a certain value one of the two bodies, or both (supposing them to be made of the same material), will necessarily reach the limits of elasticity. Hyvidence as to whether this has occurred or not is not far to seek; ina plastic body the strain will be permanent, There will, in other words, be an evidence of “set,” for the parts affected fail to return to their original positions when the stress is relieved. Furthermore, in a brittle body, set will be actually accompanied by rupture at the parts too highlystrained. Wemay therefore in all instances conclude ay follows: The least value of the (central) pressure per unit of area necessary to pro- duce permanent set (or rupture) at the center of the impressed surface is Hertz’s datum for the hardness of the body under examination. In addition to the normal pressures every point of the area of contact is also actuated by lateral pressures, and it is quite feasible to obtain Some general notion of their value. At the center of contact they are positive, 7. e., the body is uniformly compressed, whence it follows that in our method of testing a crack is not to be looked for here. The case is pronouncedly different near the boundary of the area, where the lat- eral stresses are all negative and of the nature of tensions; and since the loci of like stresses are circles concentric with the center of area, we may look for a circular line of rupture. Thus far our considerations were only extended to a system of two given bodies in contact. The question arises how the condition will change if the original system is replaced by a second system differing - ON THE ABSOLUTE MEASUREMENT OF HARDNESS. 215 in any manner whatever from the former. The variations possible in such a case are twofold: (1) The spheres may have different radii, and. (2) the bodies may have different elastic constants than those which obtained in the first experiment. The theory of the experiment shows, with regard to the first of these points, that (other things being eaual) the radius of the impressed area is proportional to the cube root of the radius of the sphere, or that the area of the surface of contact varies as the two-thirds power of the radius. For the case of equal total pressures at the center of the latter, the pressure per unit of area, and hence also the maximum pressure in the impressed surface, must be proportional to the cube root of the curvatures of the sphere. To the extent, therefore, in which all reference is made to the stated central or maximum pressure (per unit of area), the data for limiting values of elastic resistance must be independent of the curvature of the impress- ing sphere. Hence the limiting value of total pressure is proportional to the square of the limiting or final radius of the area of contact; or, if the radius of the latter is expressed in terms of the total pressure and the radius of the sphere by aid of the above relations, then the value of total pressure, just sufficient to produce set, must increase with the square of the radius of the sphere. In regard to the second of the above queries, no special inention is expedient here. I will only remark that under conditions which are otherwise identical, the area of con- tact is expressible in terms of values of the elastic constants of the two contiguous bodies. To avoid this complication, I will at the outset confine myself to the state of things observed when both bodies are identical as to material. For this case the relations to be formulated admit of simple expressions. It may be worth while, by way of recapitulation, to express the laws — just enunciated symbolically. Let p be the radius of curvature of the sphere in millimeters, p the total pressure applied at its center, P its superior limit, 7. ¢., the value of p at the time of occurrence of the per- manent set. Let p,; be the pressure per unit of area at the center of the impressed surface, ¢. ¢., the maximuin of pressure in kilograms per square millimeter, P; the superior limit of p,, 7. e., the absolute hard- ness of the body. Let d be the diameter of the area of contact (this quality is immediately given by observation, and is in so far preferable to the radius embodied in the above text), D the superior limit of d, both in millimeters. Let H be the true hardness, which, as will be shown in the sequel, differs slightly from the theoretic value P,, q an abbreviation of the quotient p/d*, Q its limiting value. Let / be the area of contact, Fits limiting value, both in square millimeters. Fin- ally, let # be the modulus of elasticity of the material in kilograms per square millimeter, 4 Poisson’s coefficient, 7. e., the ratio of radial con- traction to longitudinal extension, H’ an abbreviation of the quotient H/ (1-)°). Brackets may serviceably be used to show that the quan- - 7 m7. hi sig Wr tq me 4 —— sy a ee 216 -ON THE ABSOLUTE MEASUREMENT OF HARDNESS. tities inclosed are not expressed in the absolute units given, but in some convenient relative measure. Hence, the following formule are under consideration : for the same p and H!: d a? ——-=const., and —=const.,alsoqg=const., . . (2). p By Vp This constant quantity must also be identical with Q. Hence, for the same p and E', p:/*Vp»=const. For a different value of p, but a given value of LH’, d/> Vp» p=const.,and pq=const. . . . . . (2). For different values of both p and EH’, > Zp p ‘HOP p d= | = “a Pond D= Sar For different values of p and a given value of EH’, P Em eae ery aay 2 P= const., or J p=ooust., v D =CONSL.; ) . . — three equations which are merely different expression of a common inherent relation. Finally for given values of p and 2H’, the theoretical hardness has the form SOUP EA ie pepe, ane ; and the elastic constant 4’, the form Hi! =12 0.9. «4s ed =: Ill. METHOD. [t appears from the foregoing equations that to compute hardness by aid of the phenomenon of contact between a sphere and a plane of a given body the total pressure under which contact takes place is to be increased up to the elastic limits. The time of yielding being eat fea thhs: ay ad x J idcera wat ete ieee Z ON THE ABSOLUTE MEASUREMENT OF HARDNESS. 217 _ sharply marked by the occurrence of either permanent set or of rup- ture at the area of contact, it is merely necessary to measure the total pressure P and the diameter of the impressed area D for the time in question. The first of the equations (4) then leads at once to the value of theoretical hardness. In the interest of accurate work, how- ever, it is unfortunate that the two quantities P and D can be meas- ured but once. It is therefore desirable to introduce some variation of method at least for D, for P does not admit of a second expression. For this purpose the other two equations given under (4) are available. One of them (the second in order) premises a knowledge of both FH! and p, as wellas of P. Now, although p may be considered sufficiently given by the radius of the spherical stylus, #', on the other hand, would have te be taken from tabulated data of H and yu, or be prelim- inarily measured by aid of a special piece of the given body. Neither of these alternatives is acceptable, while ;< is known to vary even with insignificant structural differences of the given substance, and can not even be considered constant for different parts of it. On the other hand, the third in order of the equations (4) is useful in every particu- lar. Based as it is on the values of P and g=p/d’ only, its availability is enhanced by the fact that the q is constant, and can therefore be taken from a whole series of measurements of increasing p. Far from being dependent on a single measurement, therefore, the observer is at liberty to reject the limiting value Q altogether; for if it should differ from the other values q, an explanation is readily found in the fact that @ is measured when * set” has already occurred. The additional labor involved in a step-for-step increase of P is of no moment, seeing that such procedure is under all circumstances necessary. For the limits of elasticity must be gradually approached and not overstepped. I have already stated that brittle bodies present a case of easy obser. vation, for here set is accompanied by rupture. Only in rare instances is this criterion preceded by a visible indentation without break of con- tinuity, and a puncture of this kind can usually be referred to a lack of homogeneity in the material or to anomalies of brittleness. Hence I found it advantageous to begin my work with brittle bodies, and the general method was devised with special reference to the fact that nearly all such bodies, in particular the glasses and the greater number of crystals, are more or less transparent. The spheres in these experiments are suitably ground in the form of a plano-convex lense, with a radii of curvature of 1 to 30 millimeters. The plane surface is preferably a plate, about 11.6 millimeters in diam- eter and 8 millimeters thick. The thickness is purposely chosen of the same order of magnitude as the diameter,in order that any dis- crepancy of the nature of flexure may be excluded from the start. The plate is fixed in position while the lense is free to move up and down, aud pressure is suitably transmitted by a lever actuated by a set of weights. The area of contact and the occurrence of the indentation are 218 ON THE ABSOLUTE MEASUREMENT OF HARDNESS. to be observed, of course, for an invariable position of the plate and lens with reference to the horizontal, and the measurement is made through a microscope with its line of sight normal to the plate, seeing that the lengths to be taken are small. In the field of the microscope the im- pressed area appears in form of a dark circular spot, which, together with the rings surrounding it, presents a case of interference. I shall show that even the diameters of the rings are available for measure- ment. Further particulars however are best discussed in connection with the apparatus. IV. APPARATUS. Through the kind permission of Prof. Abbe, the apparatus was constructed in the workshop of M. Zeis, of Jena, and i desire in this place gratefully to acknowledge the suggestions received from my col- leagues, in particular from Prof. Abbe, during the course of its con- struction. Fig. 1 shows the completed instrument in sectional eleva- tion, nonessential parts having been withdrawn for clearness. It is put together massively, so as to withstand the powerful stresses which are to be brought to bear on it, and it is firmly planted on a pier in one of the vaults of the university. Ample provision is made to guard against tremors. The cast-iron bedplate G Gis T-shaped in eross section, 73°" long and 7.5°™ wide, and a central gutter runs from end to end. The support 7, screwed to the bedplate, is provided above by a re-en- trance ¢, in which the knife edge D, around which the wrought-iron lever H H’ is free to turn, is suitably adjusted. The short arm of H H’ ter- minates in a ring-Shaped expansion / 1’, at a mean horizontal distance of about 5°" from the axis P. In the conical perforation in Ul’ a plug Z fits snugly and the lens Z is attached to the top of Z The other arm of HH’ is about ten times as long as the short arm, and ends in the knife edge c. The glass plate p, to be tested, is attached to the upper perforated plate oo’, secured by means of a pillared arrangement, of ON THE ABSOLUTE MEASUREMENT OF HARDNESS. 219 which s is alone visible in the figure. The plate 0 0/ is about 1.6 thick, and its lower face is flush with the corresponding face of p. The whole “ase can be moved in the gutter of the bedplate, and clamped in any position by aid of the strong screw 8). It is, therefore, easily possible to place a part of the glass plate p opposite the vertex of the test lens i. 'The microscope M is similarly movable, and the clamp screw S, admits of an adjustinent relative to the point of contact to be observed. It is expedient to fasten the lens 1 to the top face of the plug 7 with cement. The plate p, however, exactly fits the hole in 0 0’, and adjusta- bly hinged stops prevent it from falling out. The microscope J con- tains an ocular micrometer m, and since illumination from beiow is clearly impossible, the light of a lateral gas flame I is retlected down- ward by the prism 2, small enough to only half fill the right section of the tube. After impinging on the lens and plate, the rays are reflected upward through the open half of the tube and the micrometer m, finally reaching the eye of the observer. The long arm of the lever H’ abuts against the screw A, and its play may, therefore, be stopped short high enough to prevent all premature contact between the test lens and plate. When A is screwed down, moreover, the long arm would much overbalance the weight of the short arm H. To obviate this a duplicate wrought-iron arm W has been added, along the free end of which a weight w’ may be adjusted to counterpoise the long arm. The form given to W is such that the center of gravity of the lever as a whole is not seriously depressed, and a balance sufficiently sensitive for the present purposes is thus secured. The counterpoise w’ is to be fixed so that the position of equilibrium may leave a little space between the test lens and the plate. Little rings 7 surrounding the pin g are then added until an almost pressureless contact is initially obtained. However slight, a true contact is always easily recognized by the passage of the colored interference rings into a black spot. In order that this initial contact may easily be reproduced, and the prog- ress of an experiment may at any time be checked, a second lever K K’, supported by the pillar U near the end of the bedplate, is at hand. veil leeee pce Pa al Raaee eas WG Tva0 gale et (OBO Wiese ater ECOG Beeree ae P10 Wena Vcc Oed alll ans est 72.0 Cee |e | ail BEE) SES | 846 4 212.2 | 1.2 | Mean value = ROGAS i OS9, | | (2) The following data are sufficient to verify equation (2), viz, pg—const. | (| p= ie 2! 12 Glass T2--4| og || 488 9) 118.5) 89,1202. | : no eased | pq= 463 | 466 469 ase Serepe y= 3 5 10 1D GlassII..4/ q= | 195.4] 1149] 583) 38.3 /$ pg= | 58022 | p= | 586 575 583 575 (| ae 4 12 BOS terciericcies | Glass TII.4| g= KBE | SGBEO) || SPaRE SI ee ee |S pg= 647 44 area 650 | 636 654. | Sagara: (| p 1 4 [Dic ti eee ae Quartz.) g—= .| 846° |) gio! “Wea pg= | 84741 | p= 846...) 6849) 9) 45 ol arcs | | (5) It is now only necessary to prove the equations (3), The data for P vary between 4 and 140 kilograms, an interval which in comparison with the small areas of contact encountered is strikingly large. In the vase of different experiments made under the same conditions, 7. é., for values all corresponding to the same material and the same lens curva- ture, P varies pronouncedly, as the following example shows. The series is again chosen at random and represents an unfavorable case, for the probable error of the mean result is fully 34 per cent. Glass IIL p—4 18. 2 0. 48 19: 2 0.48 Mean value, P=20.3 +-0.7. Now, it is to be observed (1) that at large value of P is usually ecor- related with a large value of D), and therefore also corresponds to a smaller q, thus the fluctuations are in part rectified; (2) thatin the final equation (4) the cube root of P only enters, so that all errors are reduced as 1 to 3. Quite an unexpected result is reached, however, when the data for dif- ferent lens curvatures are compared. The equations (3) are not corrob- vrated, not even approximately, though it would not be difficult to find acorrectedterm. Thus, for instance, in case of the glass II the data are: ON THE ABSOLUTE MEASUREMENT OF HARDNESS. | p— > D 10 15 |- ——s :D?—= | 81.7 _ | 67.0 | 56.6 | 49.8 es 1. 64 0.96 | 0.50 0). 32 pp 0.142 | 0.119 | 0.094 0.080 All of which relations, instead of being constant, appreciably decrease. This may be expressed as follows: The pressure per unit of area which just produces a line of rupture in the surface of a given plate of a given body, is not always the same; the said pressure increases in proportion as the test lens is more convex or the area of contact smaller. A further statement to the same effect may be made by indicating that the total pressure just sufficient to produce a line of rupture is not pro- portional to the square of the lens curvature; or again that the diam- eter of the impressed area when rupture just occurs is not directly pro- portional to the radius of the lens, seeing that both quantities increase at a retarded rate. Mere inspection of the above table shows, how- ever, that the values of the second row (P:p*) decrease at the rate in which thevalues pincrease, and the sameobservation applies to the other rows. Hence it follows that the relations theoretically deduced above are to be replaced by empirical relations such that (1) P is not propor- tional to D*, but to D*”’, (2) P is not proportional to p*, but to p; (3) not D, but D** is proportional to p. In how far these inferences are actually borne out by experiment is shown by the following summary: — 3. 5. 10. 15. Mean values. | as PES ae ch? J ‘eee sah*3 Pz D 32 53.4 52. 0 34. 8 54.5 53.7 +04 Pap — 4. 93 4.78 5. 04 4. 80 4.89 +0. 04 De: — 0.092} 0.092 | 0.092) 0.088 0. 091 +0. 001 The probable errors are throughout only about 1 per cent. For the other plates these relations were also applicable. In these cases, however, only two values of p (4 and 12 millimeters) were availa- ble, so that the test is not very cogent. I therefore had a new plate and lens made out of each of the samples of soft glass I and of quartz, selecting the radius in such a way that the impressions of the stylus approach the effect produced by a point or needle. A small radius also seemed preferable from the following ulterior considerations: If the value of the pressure per unit of area which just produces rupture is a function of the radius of the lens, then the value p=1 (milli- meter) as compared with the above radii, must possess the particular importance of a unit. Experiments made with these small and highly convex lenses, cannot of course lead to as great a regularity of data as were obtained in many of the above cases; but the mean result is none 230 ON THE ABSOLUTE MEASUREMENT OF HARDNESS. the less pronouncedly in harmony with the relations just adduced. 'This appears in the following summary : | Values. p= if 4 ale} Mean values. We ec or | i 2 | J Theoretically con- ee Reese | bu) | iM kaa Glass! seas! | >\P/p2 ) RCERY (OM eM lotrel VOL GRT” PPR se cAkosoocsccc | | Rian | Dip 0.240 | 0,153 Os103. |<) | | )P/D32=| 54.4 | 55.4 53.5 | 54.4 £0,8 | Glass I atl ROUTE EO ek ees Wes | 6.37 6.59 | 635 | 6.44 40:5 |, stant. J pse— | o117 | O19 | 0)119\ |. lolis 20-001 ( . ee 1998 | 952° 66.5" = ee eee Quartz ....4| Dheoretically con |\pj,2— || 50,5. 7 |") ag |) Odo) ||iee see eee | stant. | D/p= } 0.188) ||) 0.08.) 170.070, 0/3 ite eee aes ana ee apeaneene eee 2—=| 64.3 | 65.8 65.2 65.1 +0.3 | Quartz .--- | stant. Pip | 50.5 | 52.2 50. 5 5.11 +0. 04 | | D3125— | 0. 0786 | 0. 0798 0.0775 | 0.0785 +0. 0004 Here, as in the above case, the probable errors are between $ and 1 per cent. On the basis of these results it follows, therefore, that if hardness be computed by the last of the equations (4), the Hertzian values, P, will vary with p. If, however, these data (P,;) are multiplied by yD, or, more conveniently, by 3 Vp, then the new values of hardness are con- stant qualities, irrespective of the curvature of the stylus used. In general, furthermore, the theoretical premises have been corroborated by experiment to a remarkably close degree of accordance; only in one point (and this happens to be the most important deduction) is there a wide divergence between predictions of the theory and the facts. Inasmuch as the disagreement evidences a well-defined law, it is worth while to examine the conditions under which the theory applies. (1) Hertz supposes the area of contact to be small relatively to the spherical surface. In the above experiments, however, it is quite doubtful whether this can at once be assumed in all cases. Indeed, the ratios of the limiting radius of the impressed area Rk and the lens radius preach values as high as 1 : 11, and they can not be at once dis- missed. Weare thus led to inquire in how far the theoretical state- ments, relatively to pressure direction and pressure components, curva- tures and area of the impressed surface, are affected by the large values R/p specified. I have done this and find, ina way which has already been suggested in the above text, that the theory still holds to a degree quite within the errors of experiment, at leastin the majority of obser- vations. The fixed values of q, moreover, is compatible with this result, for in the case of increasing loads q is pronouncedly constant when is smallest. (2) Again, the interesting fact that the locus of rupture surrounds the area of contact and is situated at a certain distance from it, may ON THE ABSOLUTE MEASUREMENT OF HARDNESS. 231 be looked into. But ifin the above formule the impressed surface is replaced by the area within the circle of rupture, the empiric law stated above is not changed. The source of discrepancy is not, therefore, to be found here. (3) Nor does the assumption that the impressed surfaces may be rel- atively too large help us out of the dilemma. For in such a case the differences between theory and fact would vanish in proportion as R/p is smaller. The results do not show this. In case of glass III, for instance, the ratios P/D? are still enormously different, for p=4 and p=i2 P/ DP=83.9 and 56.4, respectively), whereas the quantity R/p has already decreased to 51; and 5',, respectively. To decrease R/p even beyond this, a new lens was made of the same glass with a radius as large as p=30 millimeters. In this case R/p= gy and P/ DP? ought therefore now either to coincide with the corre- sponding quantity for p=12, or at least to differ inappreciably from it. The data found for P/D®, however (59.6 and 56.4), are very far from being constant, while P/ D2/3 shows the same fixed values as above. (4) I may instance, in passing, that in the case of different substances the quotients P/D? are independent of p. Thus, for the substances tested the values given dimensions of lens are: Glass I, 100; glass IT, 105; glass III, 115; quartz, 135. Hence it is possible to obtain a rela- tive scale of hardness which is not affected by the discrepancies here discussed, and therefore some certain progress has been reached, from a practical point of view at least. (5) Summarizing the above, | am bound to confess that the cause of the discrepancy between theory and experiment has thus far eluded me. Sci. Math. et Phys. 1872. XxX. p. 281-287. On the flow of solids and the punching of metals. Mémoires de U Institut, Sa- vants Etrangers, Sci. Math. et Phys. 1872. XX. p. 617-838. An abstract of the foregoing article appeared in the American Journal of Science, 1887, vol. XXXIV, 3d series, p. 277. In a note published in the same journal (1888, vol. XXxv, p. 78), Mr. Spring violently attacks my interpretation of our results, especially my use of the word “fusion,” which I have employed in its secondary sense, aS meaning a uniting as if by melting with heat; the case of actual fusion by heat being specifically excluded. It seemed to me best to leave the word in the above article and make this explanation of its use. See, also, W. Spring, Bull. Acad. Roy. Belg., 1888, vol. xvi, p. 43; also Am. Jour. Sci., 1888, vol. XXXVI, p. 286. And W. Hallock, Am. Jour. Sci., 1888, Xxxvi, p. 59; also ibid., 1889, vol. XXXVII, p. 402; also Zeitschr. fiir Phys. Chem., 1888, vol. U1, p. 378. THE SCIENTIFIC WORK OF GEORGE SIMON OHM.* By EUGENE LOMMEL. Translated by WILLIAM HALLOCK. One hundred years ago, on the 16th of March, 1789, George Simon Ohm was born at Erlangen. His father was a lock-smith, an unusual man, who trained both his sons in mathematics as well as his trade. These gifted young men were endowed by him with that thirst for knowledge which led him to devote his riper years to mathematical studies. The younger brother, Martin Ohm, became distinguished as a mathematician, and died as professor of mathematics at the military school at Berlin. George Simon Ohm climbed to the lofty position of those rare men whose names shine with everlasting glory in the history of science, which they have enriched with their wonderful discoveries. Only a few of his contemporaries could fully appreciate the unpre- tentious scientist, or estimate the wide application of his law of the gal- vanic current, with the discovery of which his scientific career com- menced.. In the beginning of the century Volta had discovered his ‘‘pile,” that most marvellous structure that the keenness of the human mind ever devised. From that moment numerous physicists had been ceaselessly active, investigating in every way the wonderful and mani- fold effects of the electric current which that pile produced. The decomposition of water had been discovered in 1800 by Nichot- son and Carlisle. Twenty years later the deflection of the magnetic needle was observed by Oersted. Thermo-electricity was discovered in 1821 by Seebeck; electro-dynamic phenomena, in 1823, by Ampére. In 1821 Schweigger and Poggendorff invented the galvaniscope (“ multi- plicator”), which first rendered possible the accurate measurement of the effects of the current. The multitude of observations became more numerous in proportion as more varied means of investigation became available. Nevertheless they were not able to lift the mysterious veil which shrouded the workings of the galvanic current. On the con- trary, they seemed rather to increase the Babel of conflicting theories. We are filled with strange sensations, glancing to-day through the articles of that time upon the galvanic current. We see the most experienced investigators doubtfully groping in darkness where to-day, *An address delivered at the public meeting of the Royal Bavarian Academy of Sciences of Munich, March 28, 1889. 247 248 THE SCIENTIFIC WORK OF GEORGE SIMON OHM. thanks to Ohmn’s discovery, all is to us clear and evident. The major- ity of the galvanists of the day indeed seemed contented in the laby- rinth in which they had involved themselves. They did not seize the thread of Ariadne which the sharp-sighted investigator seized at last. These pioneer services of Ohm at first remained generally unappreci- ated. Only individual physicists, like Poggendorff and Schweigger, Pfatf and Fechner, recognized their great importance, and with success in their work used this new enunciation. It required a foreign impulse to win recognition in Germany for his law of the intensity of the current. This law is always meant when ‘“Ohm’s law” is referred to. Pouillet established Ohim’s law in France by the articles which he published in 1831 and 1837, five and eleven years, respectively, after Ohim’s discov- ery. In spite of this fact Pouillet believed himself the real discoverer, because he had found it experimentally. Pouillet believed that Ohm had only deduced it mathematically from certain hypothetical premises. In France the belief arose that Ohm found his law by simple deduction based upon an hypothesis, and then subsequently verified it by experi- ment. This belief remains to the present day in spite of frequent con. tradictions. It is found to-day not only in French treatises, but, most inconceivably, even in widely used German text-books. It would thus appear by no means superfluous to set forth the history of Ohm’s great discovery, in its actual course and based upon original publications. Experimental investigation strives to recognize a law of nature by attempting to establish the dependence of the effect in any natural phenomenon upon its determining cause. Measurements are made in as many individual cases as possible. Then some relation is sought, in the shape of an equation, which shall express this dependence and re-produce all the individual cases as accurately as possible. In the choice of this equation mistakes will occur which can not be immedi- ately detected. The one taken may sufficiently conform to the availa- ble observations, which may embrace too small a range of the determin- ing quantity, and may fail utterly when this range is extended. Then it can not be looked upon as the expression of the law of nature sought, which must cover all cases without exception. Ohm followed this experimental method when, in 1825, he tried to establish the law of conduction. He was at that time a teacher in the public school (gymnasium) at Cologne. The experiments made for the above purpose were described in an article entitled “‘ Preliminary notice of the law according to which metals conduct contaet electricity,” Schweigger’s Journal, 1825, vol. xLIv. His “ preliminary notice” war too hasty. The formula which he proposed is incorrect. It is: vm log (1 + z) ¢ wherem m and @ are constants, and v the loss of force on introducing a length of wire equal to x. Ohm soon recognized the cause of this THE SCIENTIFIC WORK OF GEORGE SIMON OHM. 249 failure in the too limited range of his experiments and in the fluctua- tions in the force of the galvanic battery. Much later the invention of the constant cell obviated these fluctuations. In the summer of the same year, 1825, and in the same volume of Schweigger’s Journal, appears a letter from Ohm to the editor. He says in consequence of more extended experiments he is moved to replace his formula with a new but analogous one. In this the force would only vanish for v = ~. Not long after this, in the spring of 1826, vol. xLIv of Schweigger’s Journal contained that wonderful pioneer work which contains the experimental discovery of the law of the intensity of the current. Its title is: ‘‘ Determination of the law according to which metals conduct contact electricity, together with the outlines of a theory of Volta’s apparatus and the Schweigger’s galvanoscope.” In the introduction to this article Ohm expresses the hope that he is in a position to propose what will appear to be a true law of nature. First, on account of its perfect agreement with experiments extended in all directions; second, and especially because of its simplicity which extends it to all our experience with the electric current. A simplicity such as is only found in truth. The “fluctuations of force ” had disturbed Ohm greatly in his former experiments, Poggendorff suggested that he should use a thermo-electric instead of a hydro-electric battery. This he did and now the law ap- peared in perfect distinctness trom his measurements. The inten- sity of the current is directly proportional to the exciting force and inversely proportional to the total resistance. This he represented in the equation X= ‘‘wherein X is the intensity of the magnetic effect of the conductor whose length is 7, a and b represent constant quantities depending upon the exciting force, and the resistance to conductivity of the other parts of the circuit. In this law he held in his hand the key to the various riddles before which physicists had hitherto stood helpless. And indeed he knew how to use that key! Farther on he says: ‘‘Our equation has now sufficiently established itself as the accepted representative of nature by the correctness with which it always repeats the results obtained in such profusion from the thermo-electric battery. Let us follow it far- ther and see what it may still hold concealed in its lap.” Ohm then developed the peculiarities of the galvanie battery and galvaniscope, which till then had appeared so confused and unintelli- ble. And we in our text-books to-day follow his development. Bub- bling over with joy in the feeling that he had beheld the face of truth. he may well feel a justifiable pride. At the close of that wonderful work he exclaims: “The theories of the battery and galvaniscope, here 250 THE SCIENTIFIC WORK OF GEORGE SIMON OHM. sketched in rough outline, are established even better by the truth of the law of the conduction of the current in metals here set forth, than they are by the experiments themselves from which they were derived. Effects of the galvanic current apparently the most varied are reduced to a striking simplicity.” What Ohm here and in the title calls “ theory ” is limited to the imme- diate consequences of his law determined inductively. It has nothing in method in common with the truly so-called “ theory” which he pro- posed much later in his famous work, ‘The Galvanic Battery,” and which he evolved deductively upon premises and partly hypothetical considerations. It is hence perfectly clear that Ohm discovered his law in the purely empirical way. Six years later, October, 1831, Pouillet appeared in an article on the application of the thermal battery to the determina- tion of the law of intensities in a constant current. What Pouillet believed himself the first to do, had already been done by Ohm in the above article in the most complete manner. Nowhere in his article is there so much as a suggestion of a hypothetical consideration which might have influenced him in the choice of his mathematical expression. The fact above stated that the formula first proposed was wrong, affords the most striking proof that those theoretical considerations which enabled him later to deduce his law mathematically, were at that time quite remote. Ohm’s name has been made immortal by this typical experimental treatise. It contains the discovery of the law of the intensity of the current, fully and completely, along with the most important conclu- sions to be deduced therefrom. In view of this inherent value it is undoubtedly to be preferred to the other most important works of Ohm, even to that one most famous of all his writings, ‘‘ The Galvanic Bat- tery Treated Mathematically,” which has always held the highest place in public estimation. In that experimental investigation he robbed nature of her secret and announced that everlasting and immutable law of nature which will outlive all the variations of theoretical beliefs. A mind like that of Ohm, trained and accustomed mathematically to inquire into the causes of phenomena, must soon have felt the need of showing that what he had inductively recognized was deductively a necessary consequent of simple conceptions as to the way in which electricity appears at the point of contact of different substances and disseminates itself in conducting materials. In the same year 1826 he published an article entitled: ‘‘ Attempt at a theory of the electroscopic phenomena produced by galvanic forces.” He reports the happy result of his endeavors in that he not only re-dis- covered, in this opposite way, the experimentally determined law of the intensities of current, but also found a second, no less important, the electroscopie law or law of tensions. THE SCIENTIFIC WORK OF GEORGE SIMON OHM. 258 This communication was but the precursor of that classic work so frequently referred to: “The Galvanic Battery Treated Mathematic- ally.” This he produced in the quiet of a much-needed vacation, and published in May, 1827. In the introduction to this article he says his aim has been *to deduce in connected sequence and from a few principles those elee- trical phenomena which are comprehended under the epithet galvanic; the purpose is accomplished if the variety of facts is subordinated to the simplicity of comprehension.” Indeed he accomplished his purpose most completely. He extended to electrical conduction the ideas of Laplace, Poisson, and especially Fourier on the conduction of heat, and evolved the laws of the electric current with the mathematical means which those investigators had created for their own purposes. This thoughtful theory of Ohm stands to-day unshaken,—a compactly con- structed whole. In order to bring it into unison with the present views concerning electricity it is only necessary to remark that what Ohm calls “electroscopic force” or “tension” is nothing but electrical potential. The Laplace-Poisson equation, which formed the basis of Ohm’s de- ductions, shows indeed that in a conductor carrying constant electric currents, as well as in one in electric equilibrium, the free electricity is all distributed on the surface. The surface layer, however, in the case of the currents shows a different distribution from that in the condition of equilibrium. Ohm, on the contrary, assumed that the free electricity was spread over the whole cross-section of the conductor carrying the current. This assumption called forth many contradictions, because it was So foreign to the nature of electricity. By removing this contra- diction newer views, without changing in the least Ohim’s formula or conclusions, have only served to establish the theory all the more firmly. The subsequent extension of his theory, by its application to conductors of two and three dimensions, was an immediate generalization of his method of treatment which Ohm himself foresaw; also, the enunciation in that well digested work of Ohm’s on the non-constant or charging and discharging currents, stands to-day in unchanged correctness. As has already been emphasized, the first discovery of Ohm’s law as to the intensity of current is not contained in that master investiga- - tion. The law previously discovered and proven by experiment served only as the touchstone for the theory of which it appeared to be a necessary consequent. But the brilliancy of this theoretical accom- plishment threw his previous tedious work of empirical investigation so into the shade that it is partly conceivable how the belief arose that Ohm mathematically deduced his law from debatable hypotheses. At first Ohm received no recognition from even this work. It received no attention in many circles; from many sides came sharp criticism; from only a few genuine approval. His hopes of being able 252 THE SCIENTIFIC WORK OF GEORGE SIMON OHM. to follow an academic career were dashed by hard disappointment and he resigned his position as teacher at the gymnasium and retired, discouraged, to private life. The cramped position in which he now saw himself placed must have been depressing for his spirits. Still this period of six years which elapsed until his appointment as pro- fessor of physics in the polytechnic school, at Nuremberg, in 1833, was not entirely barren for science. In a series of articles, published mostly in Schweigger’s Journal, he furnished renewed experimental proof of the law discovered by him. We find in these teeming articles the law of the branching of currents (Schweigger’s Journal, 1827, vol. XLIX); observations on the ‘fluctuations of force,” on the poalariztion of electrodes and transition resistance, beside methods for determining galvanic resistance and electromotive force. An article from this period is especially worthy of notice as a model of experimental investigation, entitled ‘‘experiments on the more accurate comprehension of uni-polar conductors.” In it he entirely explained, by a complete series of well- chosen experiments, the enigmatical phenomena of so-called uni-polar conduction. The above-mentioned article of Pouillet, in 1837, and the claim made in connection with it, finally brought Ohm’s discovery to the attention of physicists at home and abroad. Especially in England was its far- reaching importance immediately recognized. ‘The Royal Society, at its annual meeting of November 30, 1841, conferred upon the unassum- ing German scientist the gold medal which Copley had established as a prize for the most conspicuous discovery in the domain of exact inves- tigation. The medal was accompanied by a formal letter of presenta- tion, which points out in strong terms Ohw’s services to galvanism, and which is no less an honor to the learned society than to the recipient of the prize. Thus Ohm received abroad the tardy recognition which his native land had so long withheld. He gave touching expression to his gratitude in the dedication of his work “ Contributions to Molecular Physics” to the Royal Society of London, which by its words of ap- proval had given his courage new strength for continued strife in the field of science, weakened as it was by previous discouraging experi- ences. His creative genius, which seemed to lie fallow during the last years, awoke anew. Soon he was successful in a second great venture, this time in the field of acoustics, (upon which he had entered in 1839,) in a ‘¢ Note on Combination Tones.” In his article “On the Definition of Tone and a Consequent Theory of the Siren and Similar Tone-Producing Apparatus,” he established, in 1843, the law of acoustics also known by his name. Inasmuch as this law furnishes the clearest insight into the hitherto incomprehensible nature of musical tones, it dominates the acoustics of to-day no less completely than does his law of the electric current dominate the science of electricity. This law states THE SCIENTIFIC WORK OF GEORGE SIMON OHM. 253 that the human ear perceives only pendulum-like vibration as a simple tone. Every other periodic motion it resolves into a collection of pendulum-like vibrations which it then hears in the sound as a series of single tones, fundamental and overtones. Ohm arrived at this law from mathematical considerations, making use of Fourier’s series; for its experimental verification he was compelled to use the well-culti- rated ear of a friend, inasmuch as he was himself entirely devoid of musical ear. Like his law of the current, this law of acoustics received no recog- nition from his contemporaries. It was, in fact, opposed by Seebeck, one of the most prominent investigators in that field, as being an idea too foreign to the accustomed method of presentation. This law of Ohm was not accepted until Helmholtz furnished the experimental means which enables every even unskilled ear to resolve a sound into its simple partial tones; and eight years after Ohm’s death completely revolutionized acoustics and the theory of music by that classic work, “The Seience of the Perception of Sound,” which is based on Ohm’s law. In 1827, while Ohm was writing the appendix to his work, ‘‘The Galvanic Battery,” certain ideas in regard to the ultimate structure of matter were forced upon him. ‘“ There are properties of space filling matter which we are accustomed to look upon as belonging to it. There are other properties which heretofore we were inclined to look upon as the visitors of matter which abide with it from time to time. For these properties man has thought out causes if not foreign, at least not innate, and they pass as immaterial and yet independent things of nature, under the names of light, heat, electricity, ete. It must be possible to so conceive the structure of physical bodies that along with the properties of the first class, at the same time and neces- sarily those of the second shall be given.” This thought appears to have been suggested by his broadly designed plan of ‘*Contributions to Molecular Physics.” The recognition of the Royal Society gave him new courage for the carrying out of this work, but unfortunately it remains unfinished. His intention appears to have been, from certain definite assumptions concerning the nature, form, size, and mode of action of the atom, to deduce, by the aid of analytical mechanics, all the phe- nomena above referred to. He desired to create a work that should be for the microcosm of the world of atoms, what Newton’s ‘ Principia ” had become for the microcosm of heavenly space. Ouly the first vol- ume appeared. It was entitled *‘ Elements of Analytical Geometry of Space on a System of Oblique Co-ordinates,” and contained only the mathematical introductin to the actual problem. A second volume was to have contained “the dynamies of the structures of bodies,” and a third and fourth to be devoted to the physical investigation itself. Toward the end of 1849, in the midst of eager work upon his great 254 THE SCIENTIFIC WORK OF GEORGE SIMON OHM. task, he was called to Munich as curator of the mathematical and physical collection of the Royal Academy of Sciences. He was also to be adviser of the ministerial director of telegraphs, and was obliged to lecture on mathematics and physies as professor at the university: Thus for the man of sixty the desire of his youth was tardily fulfilled, too tardily and hence scarcely to the benefit of science. The manifold duties of his new sphere of activity prevented the completion of his great work, and robbed posterity of the legacy which Ohm had intended to leave it from the rich treasures of his thoughts. However, it is by no means true that this period at Munich was entirely without gain for science. Opties had always been a pet object of his activity. In 1840 in Poggendorff’s Annalen, vol. XLIX, he published a “ Description of some simple and easily managed arrangements for making the experiment of the interference of light.” Init he showed how French interference prisms which worked very well could be made from common plate glass ; indeed, how a simple strip from the edge of a piece of plate glass could be used for the purpose. In 1852 and 1853 in his great work, “‘ Expla- nation of all pereeivable interference phenomena of plates of miaxial erystals in plane-polarized light,” heset himself the task of develop- ing ina most general way than had been done, the theory of these phenomena so rich in form and color. He arrived at a formula of great simplicity and beauty, and which covered all the individual colors. This work has many points in common with one by Prof. Sangberg of Christiania, published complete in Norwegian in 1841, in the ‘‘ Ma- gazin for Naturvidenskaberne” (natural sciences), and abstracted in 1842 in the first extra volume (Hrgdnzungsband) of Poggendorff’s Annalen. The title of Sangberg’s work was, ‘‘ Analysis of the isochromatice curves and the interference phenomena in combined miaxial crystals.” Ohm first learned of this work after the completion of his own, which was, however, by no means rendered superfluous by Sangberg’s. The phe- nomena of elliptical interference rings which had led Ohm to his inves- tigation, had also been observed at the same time by Sangberg. Among the causes which prevented Ohm from continuing and com- pleting his molecular physics was the writing of a text-book of physics for his students. In spite of the “aversion always felt to working out a text-book,” he still felt impelled to the work by having accepted the position of instructor. He accomplished the speedy completion of this thoroughly original work by lithographing his lectures as fast as they were delivered and giving copies to his classes. The strain caused by so quick an accomplishment of so difficult a task had a bad effect upon his health, as he sadly acknowledges at the close of the preface of his text-book (Easter, 1854). One other expression in the text of the book dimly suggests his feeling that his strength wasexpended. As a result of repeated attacks of epilepsy, on July 6, 1854, he yielded up that life which to its last breath was devoted to the search after truth. THE SCIENTIFIC WORK OF GEORGE SIMON OHM. 255 We have thus far striven to set forth in hasty outline what Ohm has been to science, without mentioning more of the other circumstances of his life than were necessary to an understanding of his scientific serv- ices. This has seemed permissible because, on the one hand, Lamont in 1855 delivered from this place an address which also covered the bio- eraphical points of his career. On the other hand, another member of our academy, Privy Councilor von Bauernfeind, a pupil and friend of the one immortalized, in his ‘* Memorial address on Ohm,the physicist,” has given us acomplete presentation of the life of his teacher, drawn from reliable sources and from personal acquaintance. The deeds of a scientist are his scientific investigations. Truth once discovered does not remain shut up in the study or the laboratory. When the moment comes it bursts its narrow bonds and joins the quick pulse of life. That which has been discovered in solitude, in the unselfish struggle for knowledge, in pure love of science, is often fated to be the mighty lever to advance the culture of our race. When nearly a hundred years ago Galvani saw the frog’s leg twitch under the influence of two metals touching, who could have suspected that the force of nature which caused those twitchings would transfer the thoughts of man to far distant lands, with lightning’s speed, under the the waters of the ccean—would even render audible at a distance the sound of the spoken word! That this force of nature—after man by ceaseless investigation had learned to vastly increase its strength— would illuminate our nights like the sun! This enormous development of electro-technology, which we have followed with amazement in the last decades, could only be accomplished upon the firm foundation of Ohm’s law. For only he can govern a force of nature who has mastered its law. Ohm by wresting from nature her long-concealed secret has placed the scepter of this dominion in the hand of the present. This great service of Ohm and the fundamental importance of his law, as well for the science as for the technology of electricity, are to-day generally recognized. In order permanently to honor his memory, the international congress of electricians, assembled at Paris in 1881, deter- mined to call **an ohm” the unit of resistance to conduction, then fixed and now generally accepted, after the name of him who introduced this important conception into the science and technology of electricity. Thus it happens that the name of the modest scientist who never strove for show or glory is to-day upon the lips of the thousands who are busy in our highly developed electro-technical industries. Although this ideal monument is the most beautiful and the most lasting, yet the duty of gratitude seems to urge that posterity, which has gathered the rich fruit of his industry as an investigator, should also honor the memory of the great physicist with a visible monument. This idea was suggested by the hundredth anniversary of Ohm’s birth, which we are to-day tardily celebrating. In order to carry it 256 THE SCIENTIFIC WORK OF GEORGE SIMON OHM. out, a committee was formed for the erection of an Ohm statue in Munich, the capital of his more particular fatherland, where in the evening of his life, after long waiting, he found a sphere of activity worthy of himself. Our suggestion found lively approval and active furtherance not only within the boundaries of the German Empire, but far out beyond. Thus we may hope at no distant time there will arise in our capital a worthy monument, a visible witness of the glory of our great country- man, a witness also of the spontaneous gratitude of the nations. JUSTUS von LIEBIG. AN AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. * Translated from the German, by Prof. J. CAMPBELL Brown.t My father, who had a color ware-house, frequently occupied himself in making some of the colors in which he dealt, and for that purpose had fitted up for himself a smail laboratory to which I had access, and where I sometimes enjoyed the privilege of helping him. He made his experiments as prescribed in works upon chemistry, which were, with great liberality, lent to the inhabitants of Darmstadt from the rich court library. The lively interest which I took in my father’s labors naturally led me to read the books which guided him in his experiments, and such a passion for these books was gradually developed in me that I became indifferent to every other thing that ordinarily attracts children. Since *Read at a joint meeting of societies in the chemical laboratories, University Col- lege, Liverpool, on Wednesday evening, March 18, 1891, by Prof. J. Campbell Brown, D.Se. (From The Chemical News, June 5 and 12, 1891; vol. LXIU, pp. 265-267 and 276-278. ) t {At the recent celebration of the jubilee of the Chemical Society, reference was made to the wonderful energy and ability of Liebig; to the great work which he did in founding organic chemistry, and to the immense stimulus which he gaye, alike in his own country and in England, to scientific investigation in pure chemistry and in its applications to agriculture, physiology, and pathology. Very opportunely a portion of an autobiographical sketch in Liebig’s own hand- writing has just come to light, in which he gives a most interesting account of the formation of his habits of thought, and of the development of his scientific activity. He also gives an amusing description of the lectures given in his student days by professors of the deductive method. In his sixtieth year, we are told, Liebig wrote some biographical sketches which were laid aside and could not be found when he wished to resume them. They were never finished. A portion of the manuscript was found among some other papers in Liebig’s handwriting, by his son, Dr. Georg Baron von Liebig, and has been published by the latter in the Deutsche Rundschauw for January, 1891. Mr. E. K. Muspratt has been good enough to lend me a copy which he received from his friend, the present baron. I have endeavored to render it into English as literally as the difference in the idiom and modes of expression in the two languages will permit; and it is now made public in England by the kind permission of the Deutsche Rundschau. His method of teaching and its remarkable success are worthy of attention at the present time, when technical education is occupying se wuch of the public mind. } H. Mis. 334, pt. 1 li go7 258 JUSTUS VON LIEBIG. I did not fail to fetch the books from the court library myself, I became acquainted with the librarian, Hess, who occupied himself successfully with botany, and as he took a fancy to the little fellow, I got, through him, all the books I could desire for my own use. Of course the read- ing of books went on without any system. I read the books just as they stood upon the shelves, whether from below upwards or from right to left was all the same to me; my 14-year-old head was like an ostrich stomach for their contents, and amongst them I found side by side upon the shelves the thirty-two volumes of Macquer’s “Chemical Dictionary,” Basil Valentine’s “Triumphal Car of Antimony,” Stahl’s “Phlogistic Chemistry,” thousands of essays and treatises in Géttling’s and Gehlen’s periodicals, the works of Kirwan, Cavendish, ete. I am quite sure that this manner of reading was of no particular use so far as acquisition of exact knowledge is concerned, but 1t developed in me the faculty, which is peculiar to chemists more than to other natural philosophers, of thinking in terms of phenomena; it is not very ‘asy to give a clear idea of phenomena to anyone who can not recall in his imagination a mental picture of what he sees and hears,—like the poet and artist, for example. Most closely akin is the peculiar power of the musician, who while composing thinks in tones which are as much connected by laws as the logically arranged conceptions in a conclusion or series of conclusions. There is in the chemist a form of thought by which all ideas become visible to the mind as the strains of an imagined piece of music. This form of thought is developed in Fara- day in the highest degree, whence it arises that to one who is not ac- quainted with this method of thinking, his scientific works seem barren and dry, and merely a series of researches strung together, while his oral discourse when he teaches or explains is intellectual, elegant, and of wonderful clearness. The faculty of thinking in phenomena can only be cultivated if the mind is constantly trained, and this was effected in my case by my en- deavoring to perform, so far as my means would allow me, all the ex- periments whose description I read in the books. These means were very limited, and hence it arose that, in order to satisfy my inclination, | repeated such experiments as [was able to make, a countless number of times, until I ceased to see anything new in the process, or till L knew thoroughly every aspect of the phenomenon which presented itself. The natural consequence of this was the development of a memory of the sense, that is to say of the sight, a clear perception of the resemblances or differences of things or of phenomena, which after- wards stood me in good stead. One will easily understand this if one imagines, for instance, a white or colored precipitate which is produced by mixing two liquids; it is formed either at once or after some time, it is cloudy or of a curdy or gelatinous character, sandy or crystalline, dull or bright, it deposits easily or slowly, etc.; ov if it is colored it has a certain tint, Among a JUSTUS VON LIEBIG. 259 * the countless white precipitates each has something peculiar to itself; and when one has experience in this sortof appearances, whatever one sees during an investigation at once awakens the remembrance of what one has seen. The following example will make clear what I mean by sight or eye memory. During our joint research on uric acid, Wéhler one day sent me a crystalline body which he had obtained by the action of peroxide of lead upon this acid. I immediately thereupon wrote to him with great joy, and, without having analyzed the body, that it was allantoin. Seven years before I had had this body in my hands; it had been sent to me by C. Gmelin for investigation, and I had published an analysis of it in Poggendorff’s Annalen; since that time I had not seen it again. But when we had analyzed the substance obtained from uric acid there appeared a difference in the amount of carbon, the new body gave 14 per cent carbon less, and since the nitrogen had been determined by the qualitative method a corresponding quantity (4 per cent) of nitrogen more; consequently it could not possibly be allantoin. However, [trusted my eye memory more than my analysis, and was quite sure that it was allantoin, and the thing now to be done was to find the remains of the substance previously analyzed in order to analyze it afresh. I could describe the little glass in which it was with such precision that my assistant at last succeeded in picking it out from amongst a couple of thousand other preparations. It looked exactly like our new body, except that examination under the lens showed that Gmelin, in the preparation of his allantoin, had purified it with animal charcoal, some of which having passed through the paper in the filtra- tion had become mixed with the crystals. Without the complete conviction which I had that the two bodies were identical, the allantoin produced artificially from uric acid would undoubtedly have been regarded as a new body, and would have been designated by a new name, and one of the most interesting relations of uric acid to one of the constituents of the urine of the foetus of the cow would perhaps have remained for a long time unobserved. In this manner it came to pass that everything I saw remained inten- tionally or unintentionally fixed in my memory with equal photographic fidelity. At a neighboring soap boiler’s I saw the process of boiling soap, and learned what *‘ curd soap” and “fitting” are, and how white soap is made; and I had no little pleasure when I succeeded in showing a piece of soap of my own making, perfumed with oil of turpentine. In the workshop of the tanner and dyer, the smith and brass founder, I was at home and ready to do any hand’s turn. In the market at Darmstadt I watched how a peripatetic dealer in odds and ends made fulminating silver for his pea-crackers. Lobserved the red vapors which were formed when he dissolved his silver, and that he added to it nitric acid; and then a liquid which smelled of brandy, and with which he cleaned dirty coat collars for the people. With this bent of mind it is easy to understand that my position at 260 JUSTUS VON LIEBIG. school was very deplorable; I had no ear memory, and retained nothing or very little of what is learned through this sense; I found myself in the most uncomfortable position in which a boy could possibly be; languages and everything that is acquired by their means, that gains praise and honor in the school were out of my reach; and when the venerable rector of the gynmasium (Zimmermann), on one occasion of his examination of my class, came to me and made a most cutting remonstrance with me for my want of diligence, how I was the plague of my teachers and the sorrow of my parents, and what did I think was to become of me, and when I answered him that I would be a chemist, the whole school and the good old man himself broke into an uncontrollable fit of laughter, for no one at the time had any idea that chemistry was a thing that could be studied. Since the ordinary career of a gymnasium student was not open to me, ny father took me to an apothecary at Heppenheim, in the Hessian sergstrasse; but at the end of ten months he was so tired of me that he sent me home again to my father. I wished to be a chemist, but not a druggist. The ten months sufficed to make me completely acquainted alike with the use and the manifold applications of the thousand and one different things which are found in a druggist’s shop. Left to myself in this way, without advice and direction, | completed my sixteenth year, and mny persistent importunity at last induced my father to give me permission to go to the University of Bonn; whence I followed to Erlangen the professor of chemistry, Kastner, who had been called to the Bavarian University. There arose at that time at the newly-established University of Bonn an extraordinary quickening of scientific life; but the degenerate philosophical methods of investi- gation, as they had been embodied in Oken, and still worse in Wil- brand, had a most pernicious influence on the branches of natural science, for it had led alike in lecture and in study to a want of appre- ciation of experiment and of unprejudiced observation of nature, which was ruinous to many talented young men. From the professional chair the pupil received an abundance of ingenious contemplations; but, bodiless as they were, nothing could be made of them. The lectures of Kastner, who was considered a most eminent chem- jst, were without order, illogical, and arranged just like the jumble of knowledge which I carried about in my head. The relations which he discovered between phenomena were somewhat after the following pattern: ‘“The influence of the moon upon the rain is clear, for as soon as the moon is visible the thunder-storm ceases,” or “the influence of the sun’s rays on water is shown by the rise of the water in the shafts of mines, some of which can not be worked in the height of summer.” That we see the moon when the thunderstorm is dispelled, and that JUSTUS VON LIEBIG. 261 the water rises in the mine when the brooks which drive the pumps dry up in summer, was, of course, too blunt an explanation for a clever lecture. It was then a very wretched time for chemistry in Germany. At most of the universities there was no special chair for chemistry; it was gen- erally handed over to the professor of medicine, who taught it, as much as he knew of it, and that was little enough, along with the branches of toxicology, pharmacology, materia medica, practical medicine, and pharmacy. Many years after this in Giessen, descriptive and comparative anat- omy, physiology, zoology, natural history, and botany were in one single hand. While the labors of the great Swedish chemist, the English and French natural philosophers, Humphry Davy, Wollaston, Biot, Arago, Fresnel, Thenard, and Dulong opened up entirely new spheres of inves- tigation, all these inestimable acquisitions found no soil in Germany where they could bear fruit. Long years of war had undermined the well-being of the people, and external political pressure had brought in its train the desolation of our universities, filled men with painful anxiety for many years, and turned their desires and their strength in other directions. The national spirit had asserted its freedom and independence in ideal spheres, and by the destruction of belief in authority had brought rich blessings in many ways,—for example, in medicine and philosophy; only in physiology it had broken through its natural limits and wandered far beyond experience. The goal of sciefice and the fact that it has value only when it is use- ful to life had almost dropped out of sight, and men amused themselves in an ideal world which had no connection with the real one. It was considered an almost debasing sentiment, and one unworthy of an edu- sated person, to believe that in the body of a living being the crude and vulgar inorganic forces played any part. Life and all its manifesta- tions and conditions were perfectly clear. Natural phenomena were clothed in bewitchingly lovely dress, cut out and fitted by clever men, and this was called philosophical investigation. Experimental instrue- tion in chemistry was all but extinct at the universities, and only the highly-educated pharmacists, Klaproth, Hermbstiidt, Valentin Rose, Trommsdorftf, and Buchholz had themselves preserved it, but in another department. I remember at a much later period, Prof. Wurzer, who held the chair of chemistry at Marburg, showing me a wooden table drawer, which had the property of producing quicksilver every three months. He possessed an apparatus which mainly consisted of a long clay pipe stem, with which he converted oxygen into nitrogen by making the porous pipe stem red hot in charcoal, and passing oxygen through it. Chemical laboratories, in which instruction in chemical analysis was imparted, existed nowhere at that time. What passed by that name 262 JUSTUS VON LIEBIG. were more like kitchens filled with all sorts of furnaces and utensils for the carrying out of metallurgical or pharmaceutical processes. No one really understood how to teach it. | afterwards followed Kastner to Erlangen, where he had promised to analyze some minerals with me; but unfortunately he did not him. self know how to do it, and he never carried out a single analysis with me. The benefit which I gained through intercourse with other students during my sojourn in Bonn and Erlangen was the discovery of my ignorance in very many subjects which they brought with them from school to the university, and since I got nothing to do in chemistry I laid out all my energies to make up for my previously neglected school studies. In Bonn and Erlangen small numbers of students joined with me in a chemico-physical union, in which every member in turn had to read a paper on the question of the day, which, of course, consisted merely in a report on the subjects of the essays which appeared monthly in Gil- bert’s Annalen and Schweigger’s Journal. In Erlangen, Schelling’s lectures attracted me for a time, but Schell- ing possessed no thorough knowledge in the province of natural science, and the dressing up of natural phenomena with analogies and in images, which was called exposition, did not suit me. [returned to Darmstadt fully persuaded that I could not attain my ends in Germany. The dissertations of Berzelius—that is to say, thebetter translation of his handbook, which had a large circulation at that time—were as springs in the desert. Mitscherlich, H. Rose, Woéhler, and Magnus had then repaired to Ber- zelius, in Stockholm; but Paris offered me means of instruction in many other branches of natural science, as, for instance, physies, such as could be found united in no other place. I made up my mind to go to Paris. IT was then seventeen and a-half years old. My journey to Paris, the way and manner in which I came in contact with Thenard, Humboldt, Dulong, and with Gay-Lussac, and how the boy found favor in the sight of those men, borders on the fabulous, and would be out of place here. Since then it has frequently been my experience that marked talent awakens in all men, I believe I may say without exception, an irre- pressible desire to bring about its development. Each helps in his own way, and all together as if they were acting in concert; but talent only compels success if it is united with a firm indomitable will. External hindrances to its development are in most cases very much less than those which lie in men themselves; for just as no one of the forces of nature, however mighty it may be, ever produces an effect by itself alone, but always only in conjunction with other forces, so a man can only make valuable that which he learns without trouble, or acquires readily, for which as we say, he has a natural gift, if he learns JUSTUS VON LIEBIG. 263 many other things in addition, which perhaps cost him more trouble to acquire, than they cost other people. Lessing says that talent really is willand work, and Tam very much inclined to agree with him. The lectures of Gay-Lussac, Thenard, Dulong, ete., in the Sorbonne, had for me an indescribable charm; the introduction of astronomical or mathematical method into chemistry, which changes every problem when possible into an equation, and assumes in every uniformsequence of two phenomena a quite certain connection of cause and effect, which, after it has been searched for and discovered, is called “ explanation” or “theory,” had led the French chemists and physicists to their great discoveries. This kind of “theory” or “explanation” was as good as unknown in Germany, for by these expressions was understood not something ‘¢ experienced,” but always something which man must add on, and which he fabricates. French exposition has, through the genius of the language, a logical clearness in the treatment of scientific subjects very difficult of attain- ment in other languages, whereby Thenard and Gay-Lussac acquired a mastery in experimental demonstration. The lecture consisted of a judiciously arranged succession of phenomena,—that is to say, of experi- ments, whose connection was completed by oral explanations. The experiments were a real delight to me, for they spoke to me in a lan- guage I understood, and they united with the lecture in giving definite connection to the mass of shapeless facts which lay mixed up in my head without order or arrangement. The anti-phlogistic or French chemistry had, it is true, brought the history of chemistry before Lavoi- sier to the guillotine; but one observed that the knife only fell on the shadow, and I was much more familiar with the phlogistic writings of Javendish, Watt, Priestly, Kirwan, Black, Scheele, and Bergmann, than with the anti-phlogistic; and what was represented in the Paris lectures as new and original facts appeared to me to be in the closest relation to previous facts, so much so, indeed, that when the latter were imagined away the others could not be. I recognized or (more correctly perhaps), the consciousness dawned upon me, that a connection in accordance with fixed laws exists not only between two or three, but between all chemical phenomena in the mineral, vegetable, and animal kingdoms; that no one stands alone, but each being always linked with another, and this again with another, and so on, all are connected with each other, and that the genesis and disappearance of things is an undulatory motion in an orbit. What impressed me most in the French lectures was their intrinsic truth, and the careful avoidance of all pretense in the explanations; it was the most complete contrast to the German lectures, in which the whole scientifie teaching had lost its solid construction through the preponderance of the deductive method. 264 JUSTUS VON LIEBIG. An accidental occurrence drew A. von Humboldt’s attention to mein Paris, and theinterest which he took in me induced Gay-Lussac to com- plete in conjunction with me a piece of work which I had begun. In this manner I had the good fortune to enjoy the closest inter- course with the great natural philosopher; he worked with me as he had formerly worked with Thenard; and I can well say that the foun- dation of all my later work and of my whole course was laid in his lab- oratory in the arsenal. Ireturned to Germany, where, through the school of Berzelius, H. Rose, Mitscherlich, Magnus, and Wohler, a great revolution in inor- ganie chemistry had already commenced. Through the support of von Humboldt’s warm recommendation, an extraordinary professorship of chemistry at Giessen was conferred upon mein my twenty-first year. My career in Giessen commenced in May, 1824. Lalways recall with pleasure the twenty-eight years which I spent there; it was as if Prov- idence had led me to the little university. Ata larger university, or in a larger place, my energies would have been divided and dissipated, and it would have been much more difficult, and perhaps impossible, to reach the goal at which [Laimed, but at Giessen everything was con- centrated in work, and in this | took passionate pleasure. The need for an institution in which the students could be instructed in the art of chemistry, by which [ mean familiarity with chemical ana- lytical operations, and skill in the use of apparatus, was then being felt; and hence it happened that on the opening of my laboratory for teach- ing analytical chemistry and the methods of chemical research, students by degrees streamed to it from all sides. As the numbers increased I had the greatest difficulty with the practical teachings itself. In order to teach a large number at one time it was necessary to have a system- atic plan, or step by step method, which had first to be thought out and put to the proof. The manuals which several of my pupils have published later (I*res- enius and Will) contain essentially, with little deviation, the course which was followed at Giessen; it is now familiar in almost every labor- atory. The production of chemical preparations was an object to which I paid very particular attention; it is very much more important than is usually believed, and one can more frequently find men who can make very good analyses than such as are in a position to produce a pure preparation in the most judicious way. The formation of a preparation is an art, and at the same time a qualitative analysis, and there is no other way of making one’s self acquainted with the various chemical properties of a body than by first producing it out of the raw material and then converting it into its numerous compounds and so becoming acquainted with them. By ordinary analysis one does not learn by experience what an important means of separation crystallization is in skillful hands; and JUSTUS VON LIEBIG. 265 just as little the value of an acquaintance with the peculiarities of dif- ferent solvents. Consider only an extract of a plant or of flesh which contains half a dozen crystalline bodies in very small quantities embed - ded in extraneous matter, which almost entirely masks the properties of the others; and yet, in this magma, we can recognize by means of chemical reactions the peculiarities of every single body in the mixed mass, and learn to distinguish what is a product of decomposition and what is not, in order to be able to separate them afterwards by means which will exert no decomposing influence. An example of the great ditficulty of finding the right way in such researches is afforded by the analysis of bile by Berzelius. Of all the numerous substances which he has described as its constituents no one is, properly speaking, con- tained in the natural bile. An extremely short time had been sufficient for the famous pupils of the Swedish master to give a wonderful degree of perfection to mineral analysis which depends on an accurate knowledge of the properties of inorganic bodies; their compounds and their behavior to each other were studied in all directions by the Swedish school with a keenness quite unusual previously and even now unsurpassed. Physical chem- istry, which investigates the uniform relations between physical prop- erties and chemical composition, had already gained a firm foundation by the discoveries of Gay-Lussae and von Humboldt, on the combining proportions of bodies in the gaseous state, and those of Mitscherlich, on the relations between crystalline form and chemical composition; and in chemical proportions the structure appeared to have received its coping-stones and to stand forth completed. All that foreign countries had acquired in bygone times in the way of discoveries now yielded rich fruit also in Germany. Organic chemistry—or what is now called organic chemistry—had then no existence. It is true that Thenard and Gay-Lussac, Berzelius, Prout, and Débereiner had already laid the foundations of organic analysis, but even the great investigations of Chevreul upon the fatty bodies excited but little attention for many years. Inorganic chemistry demanded too much attention, and, in fact, monopolized the best ener- gies. The bent which I aequired in Paris was in a quite different direction. Through the work which Gay-Lussac had done with me upon fulmi- nating silver I was familiar with organic analysis, and I very soon saw that all progress in organic chemistry depended essentially upon its simplification; for in this branch of chemistry one has to do not with different elements which can be recognized by their peculiar prop- erties, but always with the same elements whose relative proportions and arrangement determine the properties of organic compounds. In organic chemistry an analysis is necessary to do that for which a reaction suffices in inorganic chemistry. 266 JUSTUS VON LIEBIG. The first years of my career in Giessen | devoted almost exclusively to the improvement of the methods of organic analysis, and the imme- diate result was that there began at this little university an activity which had never before been seen. For the solution of innumerable questions connected with plants and animals, on their constituents, and on the reactions accompanying their transformation in the organism, a kindly fate brought together the most talented young men from all the countries of Europe, and any one can imagine what an abundance of facts and experiences I gained from so many thousands of experiments and analyses, which were carried out every year, and for so many years, by twenty and more indefatigable and skilled young chemists. Actual teaching in the laboratory, of which practiced assistants took charge, was only for the beginners; the progress of my special students depended on themselves. I gave the task and supervised the carrying out of it, as the radii of a circle have all their common center. There was no actual instruction; I received from each individual every morn- ing a report upon what he had done on the previous day, as well as his views on what he was engaged upon. I approved or made my criti- cisms. Every one was obliged to follow his own course. In the asso- ciation and constant intercourse with each other, and by each partici- pating in the work of all, every one learned from the others. Twice a week, in winter, I gave a sort of review of the most important questions of the day; it was mainly a report on my own and their work combined with the researches of other chemists. We worked from break of day till nightfall. Dissipations and amuse- ments were not to be had at Giessen. The only complaint, which was continually repeated, was that of the attendant (Aubel), who could not get the workers out of the laboratory in the evening, when he wanted to clean it. The remembrance of this sojourn at Giessen awakened in most of my pupils, as T have frequently heard, an agreeable sense of satisfaction for well-spent time. I had the great good fortune, from the commencement of my career at Giessen, to gain a friend of similar tastes and similar aims, with whom, after so many years, I am still knit in the bonds of warmest affection. While in me the predominating inclination was to seek out the points of resemblance in the behavior of bodies or their compounds, he pos- sessed an unparalleled faculty of perceiving their differences. A keen- ness of observation was combined in him with an artistic dexterity, and an ingeniousness in discovering new means and methods of research or analysis such as few men possess. The achievement of our joint work upon urie acid and oil of bitter almonds has frequently been praised; it was his work. I can not suffi- ciently highly estimate the advantage which the association with Wohler : JUSTUS VON LIEBIG. 267 brought to me in the attainment of my own as well as our mutual aims, for by that association were united the peculiarities of two schools— the good that was in each became effective by co-operation. With- out envy and without jealousy, hand in hand, we pursued our way; when the one needed help, the other was ready. Some idea of this relationship may be obtained if | mention that many of our smaller pieces of work which bear our joint names were done by one alone; they were charming little gifts which one presented to the other. After sixteen years of the most laborious activity I collected the results gained, so far as they related to plants and animals, in my “Chemistry Applied to Agriculture and Physiology,” two years later in my “Animal Chemistry,” and the researches made in other directions in my “ Chemical Letters.” ‘The last-mentioned was generally received as a popular work, which, to those who study it more closely, it really is not, or was not at the time when it appeared. Mistakes were made, not in the facts, but in the deductions about organic reactions; we were the first pioneers in unknown regions, and the difficulties in the way of keeping on the right path were sometimes insuperable. Now, when the paths of research are beaten roads, it is a much easier matter; but all the wonderful discoveries which recent times have brought forth were then our own dreams, whose realization we surely and without doubt anticipated. Here the manuscript ends, and it is to be hoped that more of it will yet be found. Liebig’s reference to Wohler is very touching, and shows a side of his character which all his pupils knew well; they tell many genial stories illustrating his unself- ishness and kindness of heart. One could have wished that he had not considered the stories ‘‘ bordering on the fabulous,” of how he ‘“‘found favor in the sight of Humboldt, Gay-Lussac, and Thenard, out of place here.” They would have been far from out of place. Mr. Muspratt supplies one of these stories as he heard it from Liebig’s own lips, in the Miinich Laboratory, as follows: Liebig frequently spoke, in most grateful terms, of the kind manner in which he—a youth barely eighteen—was received by Gay-Lussae, Thenard, and other eminent chemists, in Paris. In the summer of 1823 he gave an account of his analysis of fulmi- nating silver before the Academy. Having finished his paper, as he was packing up his preparations, a gentleman came up to him and ques- tioned him as to his studies and future plans, and aiter a most exact- ing examination, ended by asking him to dinner on the following Sun- day. Liebig accepted the invitation, but, throngh nervousness and confusion, forgot to ask the name and address of hisinterviewer. Sun- day came, and poor Liebig was in despair at not being able to keep his engagement. The next day a friend came to him, and said, “ What on earth did 268 JUSTUS VON LIEBIG. you mean by not coming to dine with von Humboldt yesterday, who had invited Gay-Lussac and other chemists to meet you?” “I was thunderstruck,” said Liebig, ‘and rushed off, as fast as I could run, to von Humboldt’s lodgings, and made the best excuses I could.” The great traveller, satisfied with the explanation, told him it was unfortu- nate, as he had several members of the Academy at his house to meet him, but thought he could make it all right if he would come to dinner next Sunday. He went, and there made the acquaintance of Gay- Lussaec, who was so struck with the genius and enthusiasm of the youth that he took him into his private laboratory, and continued, in conjune- tion with him, the investigation of the fulminating compounds. DIVERGENT EVOLUTION THROUGH CUMULATIVE SEGRE- GATION.* f By Rev. JoHN THOMAS GULICK. INTRODUCTION. In my study of Sandwich Island terrestrial mollusks, my attention was early arrested by the fact that wide diversity of allied species occurs within the limits of a single island and in districts which pre- sent essentially the same environment. As my observations extended I became more and more impressed with the improbability that these divergences had been caused by differences in the environment. It was not easy to prove that sexual selection had no influence; but, owing to the very low grade of intelligence possessed by the creatures, it seemed impossible that the form and coloring of the shells should be the result of any such process. I was therefore led to search for some other cause of divergent transformation, the diversity of whose action is not dependent on differences in nature external to the organism. I found strong proof that there must be some such principle, not only in the many examples of divergence under uniform activities in the environment, but in the fact that the degrees of divergence between nearly allied forms are roughly measured by the number of miles by which they are separated, and in the fact that this correspondence between the ratios of distance and the ratios of divergence is not per- ceptibly disturbed by passing over the crest of the island into a region where the rainfall is much heavier, and still further in the fact that the average size of the areas occupied by the species of any group varies, as we pass from group to group, according as the habits of the group are more or less favorable to migration. I perceived that these facts could all be harmonized by assuming that there is some cause of diver- gence more constant and potent than differences in nature external to the organism, and that the influence of this cause was roughly meas- ured by thé time and degree of separation. During the summer of 1572, I prepared two papers, in which these facts and opinions were presented. One of these, entitled ‘* The Vari- * [Read December 15, 1887.] From The Journal of Zodlogy of the Linnean Society, September, 1888, vol. Xx, pp. 189-274. Ee 270 DIVERGENT EVOLUTION THROUGH SEGREGATION. ation of Species as Related to their Geographical Distribution, illus- trated by the Achatinelline,” was published in Nature for July 18, 1872; the other, entitled ‘* Diversity of Evolution under One Set of External Conditions,” after being read before the British Association for the Advancement of Science in August, 1872, was, through the kindness of Mr. Alfred Wallace, brought before the Linnean Society, and was finally published in the Linnean Society’s Journal, Zodlogy, vol. X1, pp. 496-505. In the former paper I used the following words in calling attention to the impossibility of explaining the origin and distribution of these forms by natural selection: “ Whether we call the different forms species or varieties, the same questions are suggested as to how they have arisen and as to how they have been distributed in their several localities. In answering these questions, we find it difficult to point to any of those active causes of accumulated variation, classed by Darwin as natural selection. - - - There is no reason to doubt that some varieties less fitted to survive have disappeared; but it does not fol- low that the ‘survival of the fittest’ (those best fitted when compared with those dying prematurely, but equally fitted when compared with ‘ach other) is the determining cause which has led to these three species being separated from each other in adjoining valleys. The ‘sur- vival of the fittest’ still leaves a problem concerning the distribution of those equally fitted. It can not be shown that the ‘survival of the fittest’ is at variance with the survival, under one set of external circumstances, of varieties differing more and more widely from each other in each successive generation. The case of the species under consideration does not seem to be one in which difference of environment has been the occasion of different forms being preserved in the different locali- ties. It is rather one in which varieties resulting from some other cause, though equally fitted to survive in each of the localities, have been distributed according to their affinities in separate localities.” In the latter paper I raised the following questions concerning nat- ural selection. ‘The terms ‘natural selection’ and ‘survival of the fittest’ - - - imply that there are variations that may be accumu- lated according to the differing demands of external conditions. What, then, is the effect of these variations when the external condi- tions remain the same? Or can it be shown that there is no change in organisms that is not the result of change in external conditions? Again, if the initiation of change in the organism is through change in the environment, - - - does the change expend itself in producing from each species just one new species completely fitted to the conditions, or may it produce from one stock many that are equally fitted?” (p. 497). In answering these questions I called “attention to the variation and distribution of terrestrial mollusks, more especially those found on the Sandwich Islands,” and gave what seemed to me strong reasons for belieying that ‘the evolution of these different forms can not be attrib- DIVERGENT EVOLUTION THROUGH SEGREGATION. PAPA uted to difference in their external conditions. - - - If we would account for the difference and the limited distribution of these allied forms on the hypothesis of evolution from one original species, it seems to me necessary to suppose two conditions, separation and variation. I regard separation as a condition of the species and not of surrounding nature, because it is a state of division in the stock which does not necessarily imply any external barriers, or even the occupation of separate districts. This may be illustrated by the separation between the castes of India, or between different genera occupying the same locality. - - - We must suppose that they [the diverging forms] must possess an in- herent tendency to variation so strong that all that is necessary to secure a divergence of types in the descendants of one stock is to prevent, through a series of generations, their intermingling with each other to any great degree” (pp. 498,499). I also called attention to the fact that some forms of natural selection must “prevent variation and give a wider diffusion to forms that would otherwise be limited in their range and variable in their type. Natural selection is as efficient in producing permanence of type in some cases as in accelerating variation in other cases” (p. 504). On page 499 I pointed out the law that “the area occupied by any species must vary directly as its power and opportunity for migration, and inversely as its power of [divergent] variation.” And on page 505 I gave a brief summary of my reasons for believing that * separation without a difference of external circumstances is a con- dition sufficient to ensure - - - divergence in type.” Subsequent investigation has led to the development of my theory, with a fuller discussion of the causes and laws that are revealed in these phenomena. In an article published in The Chrysanthemum (Yokohama and London, Triibner & Co.), January, 1883, I state my belief “ that the quality, the diversity, and the rapidity of the varia- tion depend chiefly upon the nature of the organism; and that while the nature of the external conditions has power to winnow out what- ever forms are least fitted to survive, there will usually remain a number of varieties equally fitted to survive; and that through the law of segre- gation constantly operating in species distributed over considerable areas, these varieties continue to diverge both in form and in habits till separate species are fully established, though the conditions are the same throughout the whole area occupied by the diverging forms.” The conclusion reached was that ‘‘ The theory that diversity of natu- ral selection is, like variation, an essential factor in producing diversity of species, is untenable. On the contrary, we find that diversity of natural selection is not necessary to diversity of evolution, nor uni- formity of natural selection to uniformity of evolution; but while variation and separation are the essential factors in diversity, and inter- crossing and unity of descent the essential agents in uniformity of evolution, natural selection may be an important ally on either side.” In an article on * Evolution in the Organic World,” published in rat Wee DIVERGENT EVOLUTION THROUGH SEGREGATION. The Chinese Recorder (Shanghai), July, 1885, I use the following lan- guage: ‘* We see what natural selection can not explain by considering the nature of the process. The survival of the fittest results in the separate breeding of the fittest, and therefore in the increasing fitness of successive generations of survivors; but how can it account for the division of the survivors of one stock, occupying one country, into forms differing more and more widely from each other? To explain such a result we must find some other law. I am prepared to show that there is such a law arising out of the very nature of organic activities, a law of segrega- tion, bringing together those similarly endowed and separating them from those differently endowed.” Without variation there can be no segregate breeding; and with- out segregate breeding and heredity there can be no accumulation of divergent variations resulting in the formation of races and species. In producing divergent evolution the causes of variation and heredity are therefore as important as the causes of segregate breeding; and though I pass them by in my present discussion, I trust it will not be attributed to an under-estimate of their importance. Though I do not stop to discuss the causes of variation, my reasoning rests on the observed fact that in every deparment of the organic world variation is found, and that in the vast majority of cases, if not absolutely in all, the diversities to which any freely inter-generating group of organisms is subject follow the general law of ‘frequency of deviation from an average.” As this is a law according to which half of the members of the inter-generating group are above and half below the average in rela- tion to any character, there must often occur simultaneous variation of several individuals in some character which tends to produce segregate breeding. The reality and importance of this law is not at all depend- ent on the reality of any of the theories of heredity and variation that are now being discussed. Whatever may be the causes that produce variation, whether they depend entirely upon changes in external con- ditions or are chiefly due to changing activities in the organism and the hereditary effects of acquired characters, or are (as Weismann main- tains) the direct result of sexual reproduction which never transmits acquired characters—in any and every case this law of deviation from an average remains undisturbed and is recognized as an important fac- tor in the present paper. It therefore can not be urged that the theory here advanced assumes simultaneous variation without any ground for making such an assumption; nor can it be said that it rests on the incredible assumption that chance variation of very rare kinds will be duplicated at one time and place and will represent both sexes. Moritz Wagner first discussed what he calls ** The law of the migra- tion of organisms,” in a paper read before the Royal Academy of Sciences at Munich, in March, 1868; but my attention was not called to it till after the reading of my paper before the British Association in August, 1872. In a fuller paper entitled “‘The Darwinian Theory DIVERGENT EVOLUTION THROUGH SEGREGATION. 23 and the Law of the Migration of Organisms,” an English translation of which was published by Edward Stanford (London, 1873), the same author maintains that ‘* the constant tendency of individuals to wander from the station of their species is absolutely necessary for the forma- tion of races and species” (p. 4). ‘* The migration of organisms and their colonization are, according to my conviction, a necessary con- dition of natural selection” (p. 5). On pages 66 and 67 he expands the same statement, and objects to Darwin’s view “that on many large tracts all individuals of the same species have become gradually changed.” Again, he contends that “transformation is everywhere and always dependent on isolation in order to have lasting effect. Without separation from the home of the species, this wonderful capacity would be completely neutralized” (p. 74). “Natural selection is not in itself an unconditional necessity, but is dependent on migra- tion and geographical isolation during a long period, together with altered conditions of life” (p. 57). “‘ Where there is no migration, that is, where no isolated colony is founded, natural selection can not take place” (p. 59). A comparison of his paper with my two papers published in 1872, already referred to, will show several fundamental differences in the two theories. He maintains that— (1) The separation of a few individuals from the rest of the species is absolutely necessary for the operation of natural selection, and there- fore for any transformation of the species, no matter how great the change of conditions may be in the original home of the species. (2) Migration and geographical barriers are the only effectual ‘“auses, Independent of human action, by which a few individuals can be separated from the rest of the species, and are therefore necessary to the transformation of species. (3) Exposure to a new form of natural selection is a necessary con- dition for any transformation of a species. (4) Difference of external conditions is necessary to difference of natural selection, and therefore necessary to any transformation of species. (5) Geographical isolation and altered conditions of life are necessary conditions for natural selection, as that is for the modification of spe- cies. (6) The separation of which he speaks is the entering of a few indi- viduals into anew territory, where the conditions are different from those in the old habitat, and where the body of the species fail of reach- ing them. My chief positions were the following, in strong contrast with the fore- going— (1) Separate generation is a necessary condition for divergent evolu- tion, but not for the transformation of all the survivors of a species in one way. Hy. Mais,.004,. pt.. 118 274 DIVERGENT EVOLUTION THROUGH SEGREGATION. (2) “Separation does not necessarily imply any external barriers, or even the occupation of separate districts.” (3) Diversity of natural selection is not necessary to diversity of evolution. (4) Difference of external conditions is not necessary to diversity of evolution. (5) “Separation and variation,” that is, variation not overwhelmed by crossing, “is all that is necessary to secure a divergence of types in the descendants of one stock,” though external conditions remain the same, and though the separation is other than geological. (6) The separation of which I speak is anything, in the species or in the environment, that divides the species into two or more sections that do not freely inter-cross, whether the different sections remain in the original home or enter new and dissimilar environments. Though these propositions were very briefly and imperfectly pre- sented, I am not aware that any better statement of the facts of segre- gation had been previously published. The present paper is the result of a long-continued endeavor to un- derstand the relations in which this factor stands to natural selection and the other causes that co-operate in producing divergent evolution ; and though my work has been done under the great disadvantage of entire separation from libraries and from other workers in similar lines, I trust it may contribute something towards the elucidation of the sub- ject. In expanding my theory I have been unable to make any use of the positions taken in Moritz Wagner’s paper, as they seem to me very extreme and far removed from the facts of nature. The two theories correspond chiefly in that they discuss the relation of separation to the transformation of species, while the explanations given of the nature, causes, and effects of separation widely differ. I am informed that my paper on ‘“ Diversity of evolution under one set of external conditions ” was translated and circulated in Germany; but whether it had any effect in modifying Wagner’s theory I have not the means of knowing. I have recently discovered that the principle of segregate breeding, which I have found to be of such importance in the evolution of species, is allied to the law of segregation propounded by Spencer in his “ First Principles.” By direct consideration of the conditions that have been found necessary for the development of divergent races of domestic plants and animals I have discovered segregate breeding as a neces- sary condition for divergent evolution, and by direct observation on the propagation of plants and animals under natural conditions I have dis- covered cumulative segregation as a constant result from certain forms of activity in the organism when dealing with a complex environment. It is therefore with special pleasure that I observe thata law of very simi- lar import may be derived by a wholly different method from the general laws of action and reaction in the physical world. It should, however, be noticed that in the brief references made to the subject in Spencer’s DIVERGENT EVOLUTION THROUGH SEGREGATION. PALES) “Principles of Biology”* it is assumed that “increasingly definite dis- tinctions among variations are produced wherever there occur definitely- distinguished sets of conditions to which the varieties are respectively subject,” and only where these occur; for “ Vital actions remain con- stant so long as the external actions to which they correspond remain constant”; and noreference isanywhere made to the principle that what- ever causes sexual separation between dissimilar members of one family, race, or species tends not only to perpetuate, but to increase their dis- similarity in the succeeding generations. The view maintained in the following paper is I believe in better accord with the fundamental prin- ciple that ‘‘ Unlike units of an aggregate are sorted into their kinds and parted when uniformly subject to the same incident forces,”t as is also the teaching of Spencer’s “ Principles of Biology,” in one passage; for I have recently discovered that in a single paragraph of this work it is maintained that while exposed to the same external conditions, the members of the same species may be increasingly differentiated, ‘ until at length the divergence of constitutions and modes of life become great enough to lead to segregation of the varieties.”¢ If the segregation had been introduced as a necessary condition without which the divergence of families and races could not take place, the position taken in this paragraph would have been essentially the same as the one I have adopted. In the next section, however, he abandons the position, using the following words: “ Through the process ot differentiation and inte- gration, which of necessity brings together, or keeps together, like indi- viduals, and separates unlike ones from them, there must nevertheless be maintained a tolerably uniform species, so long as there continues a tolerably uniform set of conditions in which it may exist. |The italics are mine. | 1 trust my endeavor to contribute something toward the development of the theory of divergent evolution will not be attributed to any lack of appreciation of what has already been accomplished. The pro- pounders of a doctrine which has profoundly influenced every depart- ment of modern thought need no praise from me; butas their theory is contessedly incomplete, and as one of the leaders in the movement has called attention to the need of a re-discussion of the fundamental factors of evolution, I offer my suggestions and amendments after prolonged and careful study. PHYSIOLOGICAL SELECTION AND SEGREGATE FECUNDITY. The abstract of Mr. Romanes’s paper on ‘ Physiological selection,” given in Nature August 5, 12, and 19, 1886, did not come into my hands till the following January, when my theory of divergent evolution through cumulative segregation, which had been gradually developing *Compare §§ 91, 156, 169, 170 t See Spencer’s ‘First Principles’, § 166, near the end; also a fuller statement in § 169. $See ibid., § 90. 276 DIVERGENT EVOLUTION THROUGH SEGREGATION. since the publication of my paper on * Diversity of evolution under one set of external conditions,” was for the most part written out in its present form. Since then, and with reference to the discussion on physiological selection, I have worked out the algebraic formulas given in the jast chapter, and have introduced explanations of the same; but at the same time I have removed several! chapters in which the principle of selection was discussed at length, and have endeavored to bring the whole within a compass that would allow of its being published by some scientific society. In order to attain this end, I reserve for another occasion a discussion of the principles of intensive segregation, under which name I class the different ways in which other principles com- bine with segregation in producing divergent evolution. It was my intention to bring together examples of the different forms of Segregation discussed, that they might be published with the theo- retical part; but the large number of pages found necessary for even the briefest presentation of the principles involved, and the fact that Mr. Romanes’s paper has appeared relating to some of the same prob- lems, leads me to present the results of my studies without further delay. The facts on which large portions of my theory rest are of the most familiar kind, and no additional light would be gained though their numbers were multiplied a hundredfold. Indeed, one of the marked features of my theory is that in its chief outlines it rests on facts that are universally acknowledged. The aim of the theory is to show the connection of these facts with divergent evolution. Though many divergencies appear in our method of treating the sub- ject, the fundamental theory underlying my segregate fecundity and Mr. Romanes’s Physiological Selection seems to be very similar, if not thesame. The most important differences I have noticed are, (L) that he seems to regard mutual sterility as sufficient to account for the separate propagation of species and varieties thus characterized, without calling in the aid of any other form of segregation, while I regard it as a neg- ative form of segregation that would result in the general destruction of all life if not associated with what I call positive forms of segrega- tion; and (2) that he maintains that “ Physiological selection is almost exclusively a theory of the origin of species, seeing that it can but very rarely have had anything to do with the formation of genera, and can never have had anything at all to do with the formation of fami- lies, orders, or classes. Hence the evidence which we have of the evo- lutionary influence of physiological selection, unlike. that which we -have of the evolutionary influence of natural selection, is confined within the limits of specific distinctions,”* while I maintain that segre- gation of some form is a necessary condition for all divergent evolu- tion, and that in fact segregate fecundity in many cases prevents the inter-crossing of divergent forms that, though descended from a com- mon stock, now belong to different families and orders. * Linn, Soc, Journ., Zodlogy, vol. X1x, p. 396, DIVERGENT EVOLUTION THROUGH SEGREGATION. mA AF The first of these differences, though of considerable importance, is I think due to the method of presentation rather than to any funda- mental discrepancy in the theories. The positive forms of segregation are I judge assumed to be present, though their co-operation is not distinctly recognized as a necessary condition for the breeding of forms that are mutually sterile. I must, however, confess that Ido not see how to reconcile his state- ment that “ Physiological selection can never have had anything at all to do with the formation of families, orders, or classes” with what I believe to be the facts concerning Segregate Fecundity; and if physio- logical selection is to be understood as ineluding Seasonal and perhaps other forms of Segregation, this passage seems to be still more opposed to the principles of divergent evolution as I understand them. He cer- tainly could not have intended to say that mutual fertility between allied genera not otherwise segregated would not have stood in the way of their becoming different families, and that, therefore, mutual sterility has had nothing to do with their continued divergence; still he seems to have failed to perceive the important influence this prin- ciple must have had on the divergent evolution of the higher groups of organisms. The correspondences in the two papers are, notwithstanding, more remarkable than the ditferences. Of these, the most conspicuous is the use of the word segregation to express the principle under considera- tion.* As I have already pointed out, [ used this word for the same purpose in an article in the Chrysanthemum, published in January, 1883; and again in the Chinese Recorder tor July, 1855, where I spoke of the “law of segregation rising out of the very nature of organic activities, bringing together those similarly endowed,” and causing ‘the division of the survivors of one stock, occupying one country, into forms differing more and more widely from each other.” I trust that my discussion of the various forms of segregation, both negative and positive, though presented in so condensed a form, will throw light on the subject of the mutual sterility of species; and that in other ways my presentation of the subject will contribute something, not only to the theory of physiological segregation but to other branches of the general theory of evolution. I should here acknowledge (what will, 1 think, be manifest on every page of my paper) that my obligations to Darwin and Wallace are far greater than are indicated by quotations and references. I very much regret that [have failed of obtaining a copy of “ Evolu- tion without Natural Selection,” by Charles Dixon; but, from his letter in Nature, vol. Xxx, p. 100, I see that he maintains “ That isolation can preserve a non-beneficial variation as effectually as natural selection can preserve a beneficial variation.” He does not there refer to the fact, *See paper on “ Physiolgical Selection,” Linn. Soc. Journ. Zodlogy, vol. XIX, pp. 354, 356, 391, 395. 278 DIVERGENT EVOLUTION THROUGH SEGREGATION. which 1 emphasize, that all divergence of a permanent character, whether beneficial or non-beneficial, is dependent on se-generation, either separative or segregative. PRELIMINARY DEFINITIONS. Believing that great obscurity has often been introduced into the dis- cussion of biological subjects by the use of terms of uncertain import, I have endeavored to obtain greater precision by giving definitions of the terms I have introduced; and for the sake of indicating what words are thus used with special and definite meanings, they have been dis- tinguished by capitals. A few of these definitions are here given, and others will be given in the body of the paper. An Inter-generant, or Inter-generating Group, is a group of individuals so situated and so endowed that they freely cross with each other. Se-generation, or Independent Generation. In harmony with the funda- mental doctrines of evolution, [assume that each species was at one time a Single inter-generant; but we find that many species are now divided into two or more inter-generants, between which there is little or no inter-crossing. This state of freedom from crossing I call Se-generation. Se-generation is of two kinds, Separate Generation and Segregate Gen- eration. Separate generation, or separation, is the indiscriminate division of a species into groups that are prevented from freely crossing with each other. Segregate gereration, or segregation, is the inter-generation of similar forms and the prevention of inter-generation between dissimilar forms. Select generation, or selection, is the partial or complete exclusion of certain forms from the opportunity to propagate, while others succeed in propagating. The generation of any form is select with reference to the non-generation of forms that fail of propagating, and segregate with reference to the generation of forms that propagate successfully, but separately. Adaptational selection is exclusive generation that depends upon supe- rior adaptation either to the environment or to other members of the same species. Nutural selection is the exclusive generation of those better fitted to the natural environment, resulting from the failure to generate of those less fitted. Artificial selection is the exclusive generation of those better fitted to the rational environment. Reflexive selection is the exclusive generation of those better fitted to the relations in which the members of the same species stand to each other. Sexual, social, and institutional selection are forms of reflexive selection. The environment is nature lying outside of the inter-generant. The influence of the environment is the sum of the influences that fall upon DIVERGENT EVOLUTION THROUGH SEGREGATION. 299 the members of an inter-generaut, exclusive of their influence upon each other. The environment of an inter-generant includes members of the Same species only when these members are so near that they exert an influence through competition or otherwise, while at the same time they are so far differentiated that they do not inter-cross; in other words, the members of the same species can mutally belong to the environment only when they have acquired some of the characteristics of independ- ent species. The same environment extends as far as the activities that affect or may affect the species extend without undergoing change. Change in the environment is change in the external activities affect- ing the species. Entering a new environment is a change in the territorial distribution of the species, bringing either all or a portion of its members within the reach of new influences. This may also be called change of cnvi- ronment. Change in the organism, whether producing new adaptations to the environment or not, should be carefully distinguished from both of the above-described changes. Change of relations to the environment may be produced by change in the environment, or by entering a new environment, or by change in the organism. As great confusion has been occasioned by the terms * conditions of life,” and ‘‘ external conditions” being used, sometimes for activities outside of the species under consideration and sometimes for those within the species (as for example the influence upon the seed produced by its position in the capsule), [ have tried to avoid their use. Monotypic evolution is any transformation of a species that does not destroy its unity of type. Polytypie evolution or divergent evolution is any transformation of a species in which different types appear in different sections. CHAPTER I. THE EFFECTS OF SELECTION AND INDEPENDENT GENERATION CON- TRASTED. In as far as any theory of evolution fails of giving an explanation of divergence of character, in so far it fails of explaiming the origin of species. This is the crucial test which must decide the strength or weakness of every theory that is brought forward to account for the derivation of many species from one original species. A satisfactory theory will not only point out the conditions on which divergence depends, but will show that these conditions are the natural result of ‘auses that are already recognized by science as having influence in the organic world, or that are now shown to have such influence. In the present chapter I shall present some reasons for believing that neither ‘natural selection,” nor “sexual selection,” nor ‘the 280 DIVERGENT EVOLUTION THROUGH SEGREGATION. oy advantage of divergence of character,” nor ‘“ difference of external conditions,” nor all these taken together, nor any form of selection that may be hereafter discovered, is sufficient to account for diver- genee of character, but that another factor of equal if not superior importance must be recognized. In subsequent chapters I shall try to trace the causes on which this additional factor depends, and to indi- cate as far as possible the laws and relations under which they appear. DIVERGENT EVOLUTION NOT EXPLAINED BY NATURAL SELECTION. Natural selection is the exclusive generation of certain forms through the failure to live and propagate, of other kinds that are less adapted to the environment. In the case of the breeder, no selection avails anything that dces not result in some degree of exclusion. In the case of natural selection, where we are not considering ineffectual intentions, the selection is measured by the exclusion. Where there is no exclusion there is no selection, and where the exclusion is great the selection is severe. Moreover it is self-evident that there can be no crossing between the best fitted that survive and propagate and the least fitted that perish without propagating. To this extent, therefore, the prevention of crossing is complete. And further,it is evident that those whose meager fitness gives them but little opportunity for propagating will have a correspondingly diminished opportunity for crossing with the best fitted; and so on through the different grades of fitness, the power to affect the next genneration through having a share in propagating will measure the power to affect the progeny of the best fitted by cross- ing with them. It therefore follows that the freest crossing of the fit- test is with the fittest. Natural selection theretore proves to be a process in which the fittest are prevented from crossing with the less fitted through the exclusion of the iess fitted, in proportion to their lack of fitness. Through the pre- mature death of the least fitted, and the inferior propagation of the less fitted, there arises a continual prevention of crossing between the less fitted and the better fitted; and without this separation the trans- forming influence of the laws of organic life would have no power to operate. As Darwin has pointed out, the results produced by this removal of the less fitted and separate propagation of the better fitted closely correspond with those produced by the breeder, who kills off the less desirable individuals of his stock before they have an oppor- tunity to breed. The selection of the breeder avails nothing unless it leads to the determining of the kind that shall breed; and this he ean not accomplish without preventing free crossing with those that he does not desire. He must use some method to secure the separate breeding of the form that he desires to propagate. We therefore find in both natural and artificial selection the same fundamental method. DIVERGENT EVOLUTION THROUGH SEGREGATION. 281 In either case, the kind that is to propagate is determined by the selection, and those that are not to propagate are in some way ex- cluded. The process may therefore be called the exclusive breeding of certain kinds; and natural selection may be defined as_ the exclusive breeding of those better adapted to the environment. But if from one stock of horses we wish to develop two distinct breeds, one of which shall excel in fleetness and the other in strength for carrying or drawing burdens, the result will not be gained by simply preventing all that are inferior in strength or fleetness from breeding. By this process, which is the exclusive breeding of the desired kinds, we should obtain one breed with fair powers of strength and fleetness; but the highest results in either respect would not be gained. Such experiments show that the exclusive breeding of other than average forms causes monotypic evolution, and that to secure divergent or polytypic evolu- tion some other principle must be introduced. In the case of natural selection, the separation it introduces is between the living and the dead, between the successful and the unsuccessful. In other words, natural selection is the exclusion of all the forms that through lack of adaptation to the environment fail of leaving progeny, and therefore in the exclusive generation of the forms that through better adaptation to the environment are better able to propagate. Variation with the natural selection of other than average forms may there- fore account for the transformation of an ancient species into a series of successive species, the last of which may now exist in full force; but with- out the aid of se-generation it will by no means account for the divergent evolution of any one of these species into a family of coexisting species. As I have just shown, natural selection is the exclusive generation of those better fitted to the environment; and it tends to the modifica- tion of species simply through the generation of the better fitted forms, while they are prevented from crossing with the less fitted, which fail of propagating through their lack of fitness. Now, from the very nature of this process, which results from the success and failure of individuals in appropriating the resources of the environment, it follows that it can not be the cause of separation between the successful competitors, and therefore any divergence of character that arises between the differ- ent groups of the successful can not be attributed to natural selection. Natural selection explains the prevention of crossing between the fitted and the unfitted, and shows how the successive generations of a species may gradually depart from the original type, becoming in time a differ- ent species; but it can not explain the divergences that arise between those that have, by the fact of successful propagation, proved their fitness. It depends on superiority of adaptation to the environment, and tends to produce increasing adaptation; butdivergent kinds of adaptation are not necessary conditions for it, and it can not be the cause of inereasing divergence between the incipient kinds that otherwise arise. 282 DIVERGENT EVOLUTION THROUGH SEGREGATION. DIVERGENT EVOLUTION NOT EXPLAINED BY “THE ADVANTAGE OF DIVERGENCE OF CHARACTER.” Two sections of the fourth chapter of the “Origin of species” are given to the discussion of the “ principle of benefit being derived from divergence of character,” which it is maintained ‘‘ will generally lead to the most different or divergent variations being preserved and accu- mulated by natural selection.” Now, it can not be doubted that ability to appropriate unused resources would be an advantage to any members of a community pressed for food; but I do not see how the divergence that would enable them to appropriate, for example, a new kind of food can be accumulated while free crossing continues; and natural selection can not prevent the free crossing of competitors who leave progeny. Having found that the evolution of the fitted is secured through the prevention of crossing between the better fitted and the less fitted, can we believe that the evolution of a special race, regularly transmitting a special kind of fitness, can be realized without any prevention of cross- ing with other races that have no power to transmit that special kind of fitness? Can we suppose that any advantage, derived from new pow- ers that prevent severe competition with kindred, can he permanently transmitted through sueceeding generations to one small section of the species while there is free crossing equally distributed between all the families of the species? Is it not apparent that the terms of this sup- position are inconsistent with the fundamental laws of heredity? Does not inheritance follow the lines of consanguinity, and when consan- guinity is widely diffused, can inheritance be closely limited? When there is free crossing between the families of one species, will not any peculiarity that appears in one family either be neutralized by crosses with families possessing the opposite quality, or being preserved by natural selection, while the opposite quality is gradually excluded, will not the new quality gradually extend to all the branches of the species, so that, in this way or in that, increasing divergence of form will be prevented? If the advantage of freedom from competition in any given variation depends on the possession, in some degree, of new adaptations to unap- propriated resources, there must be some cause that favors the breed- ing together of those thus specially endowed, and interferes in some degree with their crossing with other variations, or, failing of this, the special advantage will in succeeding generations be lost. As some degree of independent generation is necessary for the continuance of the advantage, it is evident that the same condition is necessary for the accumulation through natural selection of the powers on which the advantage depends. The advantage of divergence of character can not be retained by those that fail to retain the divergent character ; and diver- gent character can not be retained by those that are constantly crossing with other kinds ; and the prevention of free crossing between those that are equally successful is in no way secured by natural selection. DIVERGENT EVOLUTION THROUGH SEGREGATION. 283 NATURAL SELECTION WITH GREAT DIFFERENCE IN EXTERNAL CON- DITIONS NOT SUFFICIENT TO EXPLAIN DIVERGENT EVOLUTION. The insufficiency of natural selection without se-generation to account for divergent evolution in an area where the external conditions are nearly uniform may be admitted by some who will claim that the case is quite otherwise when a species ranges freely over an area in which it is subjected to strongly contrasted conditions. It may be claimed that diversity of natural selection resulting from a great difference in external nature is sufficient to account tor divergent evolution without any se-generation. In the discussion of this subject important light can be gained by referring to the experience of the breeder. This experience, in as far as it relates to the subject of separation in the production of divergent breeds, may be arranged under three heads: First, diversity of selee- tion without separation; second, separation without diversity of selee- tion; third, separation more or less complete with diversity of selection. As the full discussion of these points is impossible here, and as there is probably but little difference of opinion in regard to what the results would be, I shall content myself with a simple statement of what I believe the experience of breeders shows. Difference in the standards of selection without separation can avail nothing in creating diver- genceof types; while separation without difference in the standards of selection will avail something, though food and external conditions are kept the same; but to secure the greatest divergence in a given time, there must be both diversity of selection and complete separation. In the case of separation without diversity of selection, there is room for difference of opinion; for the examples that some would claim as prov- ing that there is often divergence without diversity of selection and without difference in external conditions may be attributed by others to unconscious selection. It is granted by everyone that no skill in selecting the animals that possess the desired qualities will have any effect in establishing a new breed unless the selected animals are pre- vented from breeding with others that are deficient in the desired qual- ities. We further find that while separation, isan absolutely essential condition for this divergence, diversity of selection is not so essential. This is illustrated in the case of the slightly different types that are presented by the wild cattle found in ‘the different parks of England,* a phenomenon which can hardly be attributed to any diversity in the environment. In artificial breeding universal experience teaches that variation and selection, without separation, do not produce divergence of races. The separate breeding of different classes of variation is a necessary condi- tion for the accumulation of divergent variation; and wherever the separate breeding of different classes of variation is secured there diver- * See Darwin’s “ Variation under Domestication,” chapter xv, second page. 284 DIVERGENT EVOLUTION THROUGH SEGREGATION. gence of character is the result. In other words, segregate breeding is necessary to divergent evolution in gamo-genetic animals.* Moreover, we have every reason to believe that the same law holds good through- out the whole organic world. The generating together of similars, with the exclusion or separation of dissimilars, is the central necessity in all evolution by descent, whether monotypic or polytypic and whatever causes the separate generation of different classes of variation will be the cause of divergent-evolution. That is, wherever this condition is added to the permanent laws of organic life, there divergence will follow. As we have already seen, natural selection or the survival of the fittest necessarily separates between the survivors and the nonsurvivors, between the best fitted and the least fitted, and is, therefore, the cause of monotypic transformation; but it can not be the cause of separation between the different families of those that survive, and, therefore, can not be the cause of divergence of character between these families. But we find that divergence of character often arises between the branches of one stock, and in many cases this divergence increases till well-marked varieties are established. If therefore the general principle we have just stated is true, there must be certain causes producing the independent generation of these forms; and, if we can discover these causes and trace them to general principles, they will,in connection with the laws of variation and_ selection, explain divergent evolution, that is, the transformation of one form into many forms, of one species into many species. As community of evo- lution arises where there is community of breeding between those that, through superior fitness, have opportunity to propagate, so I believe it will be found that divergent evolution arises where there is separate breeding of the different classes of the successful. In other words, exclusive breeding of other than average forms causes monotypic evo- lution, and segregate breeding causes divergent or polytypic evolution. The facts of geographical distribution seem to me to justify the fol- lowing statements: (1) A species exposed to different conditions in the different parts of the area over which it is distributed is not represented by divergent forms when free inter-breeding exists between the inhabitants of the different districts. In other words, diversity of natural selection with- out separation does not produce divergent evolution. (2) We find many cases in which areas, corresponding in the char- acter of the environment, but separated from each other by important barriers, are the homes of divergent forms of the same or allied species. (3) In cases where the separation has been long continued, and the external conditions are the most diverse in points that involve diver- “In a subsequent paper I shall show how it is that separate breeding, long con- tinued, inevitably ends in segregate breeding. In this chapter I confine my atten- tion more especially to separate breeding when combined with diversity of selection in the different sections, for it is evident that this will produce segregate breeding. _ DIVERGENT EVOLUTION THROUGH SEGREGATION. 285 sity of adaptation, there we find the most decided divergences in the organic forms. That is, where separation and divergent selection have long acted, the results are found to be the greatest. The first and third of these propositions will probably be disputed by few, if by any. The proof of the second is found wherever a set of closely allied organ- isms is so distributed over a territory that each species and variety occupies its own narrow district, within which it is shut by barriers that restrain its distribution, while each species of the environing types is distributed over the whole territory. The distribution of terrestrial mollusks on the Sandwich Islands presents a great body of facts of this kind. SELECTION OF EVERY KIND INSUFFICIENT TO ACCOUNT FOR DIVER- GENT EVOLUTION. Though I have no reason to doubt the importance of sexual selection in promoting the transformation of many species, I think I ean show that unless combined with some separative or segregative influence that prevents free intercrossing, it can avail nothing in producing a diversity of races from one stock. In the nature of its action sexual selection is simply exclusive. It is the exclusive breeding of those better fitted to the sexual instincts of the species, resulting from the failure to breed of the less fitted. It therefore indicates a method of separation between the better fitted and the less fitted; but it gives no explanation of separation between those that are equally successful jh propagating. I maintain that in a great number of animal species there are sexual and social instincts that prevent the free crossing of clearly marked races; but as these segregative instincts are rarely the cause of failure to propagate, and since when they are the cause of failure the failure is as likely to fall on one kind as on another, 1 conclude that the segre- gate breeding resulting from these instincts can not be classed as either sexual or social selection. Reflexive selection in all its forms is, like natural selection, the result of success and failure in vital processes through which the successful propagate without crossing with the unsuccessful; but it in no way secures the breeding in separate groups of those that are successful in propagating. The exclusion of certain competitors from breeding is a very different process from the separa- tion of the suecessful competitors into different groups that are pre- vented from inter-crossing, and whose competition even is often limited to the members of the same group. Sexual selection, like other forms of reflexive selection, can extend only as far as members of the same species act on each other. If the individuals of the two groups have through difference in their tastes ceased to compete with each other in seeking mates, they are already subject to different and divergent forms of sexual selection; and is there any reason to attribute this 286 DIVERGENT EVOLUTION THROUGH SEGREGATION. difference in their tastes to the fact that, when there was but one group and the tastes of all were conformed to a single standard, some of the competitors failed of propagating, through being crowded aside by those more successful? If the failure of the unsuccessful can not be the cause of separation between the different kinds of the suceessful, then selec- tion, whether natural or reflexive, or of any other kind, can not be the cause of divergent evolution, except as co-operating with some cause of independ- ent generation. The failure of sexual selection, without separation or segregation, to account for divergent evolution, will perhaps be made clearer to some minds by considering some of the particular conditions under which it occurs. Suppose for instance that in some species of humming bird there occurs a slight variation in the form or color of the tail feathers of the male that adds to the beauty of the individuals possessing the new character and rendering them more attractive to the females. We can see that they might have an advantage over their rivals in leaving progeny, and that the variety might in that way gradually gain the ascendency, and the beauty of the markings become more and more completely defined; but under such conditions what could prevent the whole species from being gradually transformed? Unless there was some separative or segregative principle that prevented the new variety from crossing with the others, the species would remain but one, though changed in some of its characters. We should have transformation without divergence. The same must be true of institutional selection. It may be the cause of transformation; but it can not be the cause of divergent evolu- tion, unless there are added to it other causes that produce divergence in the character of the forms selected, and the separate breeding of the different groups of forms thus selected. ; of the previous genera- tion of half-breeds by 2, and adding to the result the sum of the previous genera- tions of three-quarter-breeds. This of course gives a number too large; for some of the three-quarter-breeds will fail to breed with three-quarter-breeds. A closer expression of the proportion between pure-breeds and three-quarter-breeds is given in Tables vi and vii. DIVERGENT EVOLUTION THROUGH SEGREGATION. 321 TABLE Il.—Preliminary Formula for showing the Proportion of Half-breeds to Pure- breeds. * Let R=the ratio of pure breeding, i. ¢., the segregation. Let ¢ =the ratio of cross-breeding. Ex. When ,*, of the unions are within the limits of the species and 41, of the unions are with an allied species R=), c= ')._ R will always equal 1—e. Let M=the ratio of fertility in each generation for those that breed with their own kind. Let m=the ratio of fertility in each generation for the cross-unions and for the hybrids when breeding together. Let A=the initial number of individuals representing the pure species when the computation commences, Number of individuals representing the pure form.) Number of individuals representing the half-breeds. A =Initial number. A(RM) SU PONOLAMLON setter cis neem cine ea Ist generation—= Aem. A(RM)? =z2nd' ceneration..:---.-.---..-.-.- --) 2nd generation= (AemR+A(RM)ce—Acme) x m.* A(RM)* Sani lean ean ise oembacEmeneemcabe 2nd generation = (AcmR— Acme)m-|+Acm(RM). A(RM)# ——AGh PEHOLAWON=- 2-2 <- =< 6/2 = as | 2nd generation— Acm(R—c)m--Aem(RM). Substituting (1—c) for R in the 2nd gen., we have Substituting in this (1—ec) for R, we have A(M— Me)?=2nd generation. 2nd generation = Acm(1— 2c)m+Acm(M—Mo). *The term AcmR represents the number of half-breeds that form unions among themselves, the offspring being half-breeds; A(RM)c represents the total number of pure-breeds of the first generation that formed mixed unions; of these Aeme form unions with an equal number of half-breeds, and their offspring being three-quarter-breeds must be rejected; the remainder, namely A(RM)ce— Aeme, form unions with the other race, and their offspring are half-breeds of the second generation. TABLE III.—Developed Formula for Segregation and Segregate Fecundity, giving the pro- portion of Half-Breeds to Puwre-breeds. Half-breeds. Pure-breeds. A == Initial number. A(M— Me) =1st generation. A(M--Mc)?=2nd generation .| A(M—Mce)3=3rd generation - | Ist generation=Ame. 2nd generation =A me(1—2¢)im4-Acm(M — Me). 3rd generation—A me((1—2e)m)?-++ Aem(M — Me) (1— 2e)m-+ | Aem(M—Me)?. 4th generation =A me((1 —2c)m)* 4 Acim(M — Me) ((1—2e)m)?4 } Aem(M —Mce)?(1—2e)in+Acem(M — Me)3. ((1—2¢)m)? | ((1—2e)m)? M—Mes + ( A(M—Me)*= 4th generation . (= 2eym (M— Me) veneration —/ e(M— Me)3 = 4th generation —Ame(M Me)*( (M— Me)? + (M =) (M—Me)3}° nth weneration =A me(M—Me)"—!x (( y+ )+( y+( y+ (1—2e)m\1 1). .M—Me First rule.—The pure-breeds of any generation are found by multiplying the pre- vious generation of pure-breeds by M—M¢e, and the half-breeds of any generation are found by multiplying the previous generation of half-breeds by (1—2c)m and adding the previous generation of pure-breeds multiplied by cm, H. Mis. 334, pt. 1——21 A(M—Me)"—nth generation | 322 DIVERGENT EVOLUTION THROUGH SEGREGATION. Second rule.—The nth generation of pure-breeds =A(M—Mc)"=A(M—Mc)"™1x (M—Mc); and the nth generation of half-breeds— Ame(M—Me)"! multiplied by the (1—2e)m M—Me ae by the number of the generation, 7. ¢., containing » terms, of which the first is 1; sum = of the series 1+~, ., containing as many terms as that expressed “p= le a ae Se ): H being the number of half-breeds, and P being the number of pure-breeds. Third rule.—To correct this formula, so that it shall indicate the proportions that will result when the relative vigor of pure and cross breeds is considered, we must substitute MV for M, and mv for m; V being the proportion of each generation of pure breeds that grow to maturity and propagate, and v being the proportion of half-breeds that do the same. METHOD OF USING TABLE III. By supposing » to be an indefinitely high number, and by giving different values to M, m, and c, we shall have the means of contrasting the number of the pure-breeds with that of the half-breeds, when the process has been long continued under different degrees of positive segregation and segregate fecundity. In the first place, let us take a case in which there is no segregate fecundity, that is M=m; and for convenience in computation let us make M=1, m=1. In every case where m is not larger than M the .. (L—2e)m _ ; b R fraction M= veo less than unity, and the sum of the geometrical progression of our formula will fall within the limits of a number that can be easily computed by the well-known formula S= in which al tq a is the first number of the progression, which in this case is 1, and ¢ is the fraction we are now considering. Supposing c= ‘5, the freer will be Soe =, becomes S=;—3=9—3=?. This number 9 is therefore equal to the sum of this progression and can, therefore, be used as the value of the infinite progression in the formula for the nth generation when » is a very high number. Substituting these values we find that the nth generation of the half-breeds equals the nth generation of the pure forms, each being equal to {% of A (M—Me)r-—. A (M—Me)"—1 is a vanishing quantity, for M—Mc is less than 1. Every form is therefore in time fused with othec forms. But let us try higher degrees of segregation. If we make c= 79 OF zo 00) we still find that half-breeds=pure-breeds, while the latter are con- stantly decreasing, which shows that imperfect positive segregation, without the aid of some quality like segregate fecundity, can not pre- vent a species being finally fused with other species as long as the whole number of each successive generation does not increase. Let us now consider cases in which the Segregation is incomplete, but Segregate Fecundity comes in to modify the result. Let M=2, m=1, ¢= >. Substituting these values in our formula, we shall find that DIVERGENT EVOLUTION THROUGH SEGREGATION. 323 the sum of the infinite progression is $2=18. And M—Mce=18, which makes the half-breeds=the pure forms xem; and em= 5. Let M=2, m=1, c= ;%;; then half-breeds=pure fone Kanes) et M— 2° m—1, e=4; then the infinite progression=1, M—Mc=1, and the pure forms in each generation will equal A, and the half-breeds A x4. Therefore Half-breeds=Pure-breeds x $. Let M=3, m=2,c=3; then the sum of the infinite progression=1, and the. Half breeds=4 x 2x A(M—Me)n—1, and the Pure-breeds=14 x A (M—Me)»—1; therefore Half-breeds=Pure-breeds x 3. Let M=3, m=2, c=4; then Half-breeds= Pure breeds x 2. Let M=3, m=2, c=4; then Half-breeds= Pure-breeds x 2 Let M=3, m=2, c=}; then Half-breeds=Pure-breeds x 2. Let M=3, m=2, c= 145 y ; then Half-breeds= Pure-breeds x ;2;. Let M=3, m=2, c then Half-breeds=Pure-breeds x ;3,. ae oe TABLE IV.—Simplified Formulas for the Proportions in which Half-breeds and Three- quarter-breeds stand to Pure-breeds when all are equally vigorous. From Table III we learn that eee Ue 1 (1—2c)m ) p=M_MeX(t+ Wroate eae When (1—2c)m is less than M—Me, the series within the brackets is a decreasing geometrical progression, and we may obtain the value of the whole series by the a formula S=j—¢, Applying this formula, we have H___me a eee __M—Me — me = P M—Me (1—2¢e) ~ M—Me**M—Mc—m-+2me M—m--(2m—M)e -- (1) -\- Me SOS TS) a LL a a a RE Nhe fs (2) M—m-+-(2m—M)e If m’ — the ratio of fertility for the Three-quarter-breeds, then according to the reasoning given in Tables VII and VIII, fe 2m'e Sree opie tat sate: Ue eae (3) H M—m’ +-(2m’ =Mye? AU Sable and = == tS SEE DSS Sess Goes sss och oss 4 VC Pop xy (4) The following solutions, as well as those given in Table V, are ob- tained by substituting values for M, m, and ¢ in formula (2): When M = 4, m=3, then if c= 4, half-breeds = pure-breeds xX #, c=}, half-breeds = pure-breeds x 3, c= 4, half-breeds = pure-breeds X 2, c= ji, half-breeds = pure-breeds xX #, e=1, half-breeds = pure-breeds x 2, c=}, halt-breeds = pure-breeds X 3, c=t, half-breeds = pure-breeds X 4's, c=4, half-breeds = pure-breeds xX +';, c= 75, half-breeds = pure-breeds xX +%, €= rho, half-breeds = pure-breeds X yz 324 DIVERGENT EVOLUTION THROUGH SEGREGATION. When M = 5, m = 4, then if c= 4, half-breeds = pure-breeds X ?, c=}, half-breeds = pure-breeds X #, c=, half-breeds = pure breeds x 4, o— half-breeds = pure-breeds X #, e=1, half-breeds = pure-breeds X §, c= 1, half-breeds = pure-breeds X ‘5, Css, half-breeds = pure-breeds X 74, Cia half-breeds = pure-breeds X 14, c= 5, haif-breeds = pure-breeds X 1%, c= 4,, half-breeds = pure-breeds X yé3, ¢ = qlyo, half-breeds = pure-breeds X yo4s3 TABLE Y. When M10, and— m=9;| m=8; | m=T; | m=6; | m=—5; | m=4; | m=3; | m=2; | m=). = | a SS | = : If c=4, then Half-breeds— 2 ; Ain agp 2 ! Pure-breeds * Si egeae af 0 a 10 ro ag i6 a0 16? (ae 10S Sooo seonee | 11 iz | 13 ti is 16 ri ee it TP @ 3s, Wel 12 ce sasase | a Ti | i is #5 35 or ai as iW? Gat Bl ee ceeeoee 13 16 15 fs | so] os 31 34 37 IGE fe see, bss We eso seaocoe 1a os | 2 2 | 30 34 38 a2 a6 TOP assy 1301 Co peepore ae 15 ay |) ess 30 a5 | aig WN 25 BO 3s JP Mosc [ele 1PM oo sesdebe gear oa | 3 Fae | biatch arene ales $6 73 OY Ga tiy be IE SSa5soens4| 15 zr | si ae 35 66 7£ BE The GS stig, lS ee csanesae 108 sic 46| «Cex «| «Coe «| on | és 636 7134 Boz 16? WS sainoy Jeb 1S boboooos | doe | dos | soor | aor B0o0 | sive | sobs 790E 5992 | | | OBSERVATIONS ON TABLE V. This mathematical analysis of the effects of positive segregation and segregate fecundity when codperating brings distinctly into view Sev- eral important relations First. Incomplete forms of segregation, that avail little or nothing in preventing a form from being absorbed in the course of time, become very efficient when strengthened by moderate degrees of mutual steril- ity. Take, for instance, the line of the table in which ¢— 745. If i in every 100 unions is a cross with some other form, the form will in time be overwhelmed, unless other causes come in to counteract; but here we see that, if segregate fecundity occurs in the ratio of 10 to 9, the pure form becomes 12 times as numerous as the half-breeds; and if in the ratio of 10 to 5, it becomes 100 times as numerous. Second. Again, if we take the proportional differences between the different terms of the top line opposite ¢— 4, we shall find them very unlike the differences that appear in the bottom line opposite ¢ = y9'o0- In the former the first term is 9 times as large as the last; while in the latter the first term is more than 80 times as large as the last. This shows that when segregation is intense, differences in the degree of segre- gate fecundity produce greater contrasts than the same differences do when the segregation is slight. ‘ DIVERGENT EVOLUTION THROUGH SEGREGATION, cay) Third. A similar distinction is found when we compare the right- hand column with the left-hand column. The smallest term in the for- mer is to the largest term in the same column as 1 to 899, while in the left-hand column the greatest difference is as 1 to 100. This shows that when segregate fecundity is strongly developed, differences in the de- grees of segregation produce greater contrasts than the same differ- ences produce when the segregate fecundity is but slightly developed. Fourth. Once more let us consider the relations to each other of the four terms that stand in the upper left-hand corner of the table. Suppose that of some one variety of a plant species, characterized by pre-potential segregation and segregate fecundity, we have occurring in equal numbers four variations whose relations to other varieties are indicated by the figures given in these four terms, while in their rela- tions to each other they are completely fertile and not segregated. Which variation will leave the greatest number of pure offspring; that is, the greatest number of offspring belonging to the one variety to which the four variations alike belong? Evidently the variations rep- resented by the fraction ;§; will have the greatest influence on the fol- lowing generation. But as the supposed conditions allow of exact computation, let us look at the problem a little closer. If each varia- tion numbers say a thousand individuals, then the number of each that will breed true will be as follows: Of the one represented by— 75, 526 will breed true and 474 will cross, yy, 550 will breed true and 450 will cross, “85, 555.5 will breed true and 444.5 will cross, +5, 600 will breed trne and 400 will cross. And the next generation of each kind will be as follows: Multiplying the pure parents by 10, and the hybrid parents by 8 or 9, according to the value of m, we have those represented by— yo, pure offspring 5260, hybrids 4266, 7, pure offspring 5500, hybrids 4050, 3, pure offspring 5555, hybrids 3556, 35, pure offspring 6000, hybrids 3200. There can therefore be no doubt that under such conditions the aver- age pre-potential segregation and segregate fecundity of the next gen- eration wlll be considerably advanced, and so with each successive generation till the average of the pure forms is represented by the fraction 5§;, and is surrounded by a cirele of variations, of which one will be represented by the fraction ~;. And from this new point con- tinuous advance will be made toward ever higher and higher grades of segregation and segregate fecundity; though of course the process will be subject to antagonisms and limitations arising from the princi- ples of self-accumulating vigor and self-accumulating adaptation. Let it however be carefully noted that we have in this process the mani- festation of a new principle, for it rests not only on self-accumulating positive segregation, but on self-accumulating segregate fecundity. 326 TABLE VI.—Formula for Segregation, Segregate Fecundity, and Segregate Vigor, giving the proportion of Half-breeds to Pure-breeds (constructed from Table LIL, according to — rule 3). DIVERGENT EVOLUTION THROUGH SEGREGATION, Pure-breeds. Half-breeds. eA Initial number. A(MV—MVe). A(MV—MvVe)?. Amve. Amve(1—2c)mv-+ Amve(MV —MVe). 1st generation ----- 2nd generation... -- A(MV—M Ve). 3rd generation. .- --- Amve((1—2c)mv)?2+- Amve(M V —M Ve) (1—2e)mv+Amae (MV—MVe)?. Amve((1—2e) mv)? + Amve(MV—M V e) ((1—2e) mv)? 4- Amve (MV—MVe)2(1—2c) mv + Amove(MV—M Ve)’. ((1—2e)mv)? — ((1—2e) mv)? (MV—MvVe)3* (MV—MVe)? Cpe) (MV—MVe)3}~ A(MV—MVoe)4. 4th generation... - -- =Am ne(MV—MVe)3( ((1—2e) mv) | (MV—MVe) * A(MV—MVe)n—! mn—Ilth generation. A(MV—MVe)n nth generation... -- MV—MVe 1—-2¢e)1 =I Amoe(MV—MVe)n—1( ( c)mv Je hy +( Js ( (1—2e) mo is (1—2e)mov ) MV—MvVc) *MV—Mvet?)- nth generation of Pure-breeds=A(MV—M Ve)»—1 x : Half-breeds move (MV—M Ve); and therefore Pure-brecds a MiV=AaNEWE >< (1 tM pees aE TMV—MVe'° In the above formula V=vigor of pure-breeds expressed by a fraction that gives the proportion of each generation that grow to maturity and propagate; v=the vigor of the half-breeds expressed in the same way. TABLE VII.—formula for Segregation, Segregate Fecundity, and Segregate Vigor, giving the proportion of the Three-quarter-breeds to the Pwre-breeds. T=the number of Three-quarter-breeds, m/=ratio of fertility for the same; v’, a fraction giving the proportion of the Three-quarter-breeds that come to maturity. H=the number of Half-breeds. P—the number of Pure-breeds. Turning to Table I, we find that the Three-quarter-breeds of each generation are the offspring of jy (or c) of the previous generation of Half-breeds who consort with an equal number of Pure-breeds, plus the descendants of previous generations of Three-quarter-breeds in as far as they breed with each other. Commencing our computation with the nth generation we know from Table VI, that the previous generation of Pure-breeds=A (MV—MVe)” ”, and the Half-breeds of the same gen- eration=A(MV—MVc)” e = breeds, which is obtained as shown in Tables IV, V, and VI; and ¢ of this number will consort with an equal number of Pure-breeds, making A(MV—MVe)" 1x3 2c parents in the n—1th generation, that will produce m/v’ times that number of Three- quarter-breed offspring of the nth generation that will grow to maturity. Starting being the ratio in which Half-breed stand to Pure- DIVERGENT EVOLUTION THROUGH SEGREGATION. 327 with this number in the nth generation, and pursuing the same method as was used in constructing Table III, we obtain the following series: Three-quarter-breeds— n—1H nth generation =A (MV—MVe) p2e m'v!, I— 1 (n+-1)th generation —A(MV—MVe) p 26 m'v'> (1—2c)m’v' + 4 (MV—MVe)" 26 m!v'. = aap iH (n+2)th generation =A(MV—MVe) — 552¢ m'ni( (I —2e)m 0) 4 -A(MV—MVe)- pzem'r s< n+1H (( 1—2c) m'v') + A(MV—MVe) pe m'v!. iH n 2, '\ it (n+n)th 2 eee sp 2c m'»'(MV—M Ve) ( ae mtUae ) eee Pp (1—2ce)m! ae (& (1—2e)m ss) oe MV—MvVe MV ave) MV—MVe ). : Sag uv H 2c m'v! In the (n+7)th generation, P=A(MV—M Ve) ; and therefore ——f Be < os (emeyee YC eC DY). : TABLE VIII.—Simplified formulas, giving the proportions in which Half-breeds and Three-quarter-breeds stand to Pure-breeds when we have both Segregate Fecundity and Segregate Vigor. From Table VI we learn that H_ __mve 2e)mv = =< , : P MV—MVe ( te MVe ) When the numerator, (1—2c)mv, is less than the denominator, MV —MVe, the sum of the whole series within the brackets may be obtained in accordance with the (Tae : : : : : formula $ Sm in which S=the sum of the series, a= the first term, and ¢= the constant multiplier. EAS. mve il “PP” MV—MVc*%._(1— 2c) mv ~MV—MVe mve MV—MVe mve MV —MVe* MV —MVe— mo+2mre MV — mv--Qmv—MvVje °°) Applying the same method to the formula in Table VII, we find that TIGEL m'v'c PP X2XMVv— mv Om MV)e. ‘ T H 2m’! v ‘ec “Pp PXMV — mo’+@m’—MV)c? = ° (2) and At: Da Uy ee a. ; Hea Magan Om'v— MV )e ae (3) : = ~ ov SE op ee If M=10, m=5, m’=5, V4, v=, V'= 1s, c= 1, H Tho 180 TRO 150 ’ 1 then : — 3 400——108—12 9 — l —J 0 5 M 5 4 = P — 1,0 —y+43— she TO Ska 45—a0 on and (as m—=m/’, and v=’) 1 al ia bl — oe =2;5—}; and — x See If M—10, m—=10, m’—10, V=3, v=, V' =, C= 10, 1 ci then = = ou a 5 ss} 2¢ el ee Cas P yy aot (s§—4 2) ro 0 as Cee ag ar d a 4b Vee ... --- US ul Bec Om eaeioccl Se C= OCU teen 1874 | Plants...... | Do. Pompper .--.---.- 1841 | Animals..-..|..do .-..|| Scudder -..._.-- 1874 | Insects ..... | Do. Berghaus......-. 1838 | Plants .....- Yes...|| Wallace ..-..... 1876 | Animals....| Do. Martensand Gal- | | Dvenee ene so. 1878 | Plants -....- | No. Goulle-sssen-" 5 - Heeb eocGl) poaceien tNo...-| Bngler----..--.- | IEP) Sees KO seaeaar | Yes. Is tant oe Soe pees TBS oe Oar e lis doe |) Packartias = sa... 1883 | Animals..-.) Do. Frankenheim. - - . 1843"|22=-d0"=2—-—-|-5 oes} dlordaness= =< ==- 1883 | Mollusks...) Do. Warner. -5:-..-- 1844 | Mammals...| Yes...|| Sargent.......-. 1884 | Forests ---..| Do. Richard and Gal- | Drudeesss soe 1884 Blantsi-2e.2- Do Giinleeee oes | 1844 | Plants ...-.. No....|| Hartlaub ....... 1886 | Birds ....... Do. Binney (A.) ----- | 1851 | Mollusks ...|..do ...| Reichenow...... als) Ceteeats (Oe ene Do. Richardson .-...- L851) eelants/ 2.22.2 do ...|| Heilprin........ 1887 | Animals....| Do. Schmarda........ 1853 | Animals....| Yes...|| Hemsley......-. 1887 | Plants .....- Do. Agassiz ..--.---. ibs 8 et Ce een [ee dow.s-|} brendeliass5---- TSR 0 one Ones No. (Og \ ape Ses 1856 | Plants -..... a (are ANIC Namen acer 1887 |) Birds) scese-5 | Do: Woodward ...... 1856 | Mollusks ...) Yes.... Schwarz ........ 1888 | Insects -..-. Do. Sclater ....--.-.- 18583); Birds = 5-2.) Nor. 3) Bessey--s.-02 5 - 1888 | Plants ....-- Do. Le Conte ....-... 1859 | Insects -.--. Wes...|| Ridgway ---.-.. 1889 | Birds ....... Do. Coopers=--=---.<<: 1859 | Forests ..-..|--do -..|| Merriam........ 1890 | Animalsand Yes. Hooker <-:>-:.=.: 1861 | Plants + .c-=|- doe | plants. Binney (W. G.).. 1863 | Mollusks sou fees Keeler? --jso= cc sas - —— Pia aa i a ee f ano ti a ° y 5 ae. 1 : rig % 5 4 = ~ ~ = ~ = na) Ter- taires, Historiques. Protohistoriques. Préhistoriques. Originels. Classification palethnologique by G. de Mortillet. Ages. du Fer. du Bronze. | dela Pierre. Périodes. Mérovingienne. tomaine. Galatienne. Etrusque. Johémienne. Néolithique. Pierre polie. Paléolithique. Pierre taillée. Rolithique. Epoques. Wabénienne. Franque.—Burgonde, Germanique. | Champdolienne. | Décadence Romaine. Lugdunienne. Beau temps Romain. Marnienne. Gauloise. 3° Lacustre. Hallstattienne. Des Tumulus. lve du Fer. Larnaudienne. 2° Lacustre, majeure partie. Morgienne. 2° Lacustre. partie. Robenhausienne. Des Dolmens. Je Lacustre. Campignienne. Des Kjoekkenmoeddings. Maedalénienne, Des Cavernes, majeure partie. Du Renne, presque totalité. Solutréenne. Du Renne et du Mammouth. partie. Menchecourienne. Moustérienne. Du Grand Ours des cavernes. Acheuléenne. Du Mammouth, partie. De 1) Blephas antiqwus, tin. Chelléenne. De I’ Blephas antiquus. Puycournienne. Miocéne supérieur. Thenaisienne. | Miocéne inférieur. Oligocéne. 456 SUMMARY OF PROGRESS IN ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1891. A remarkable series of lucky finds were made on the Hopewell farm, near Chillicothe, Ross County, Ohio, by Mr. Warren K. Moorhead, di- rector of the World’s Fair archeological expedition at that point. Not only were new forms of objects discovered, but old forms were collected by thousands. The exciting part of the exploration was the finding of hundreds of copper objects, many of them of such uniform thinness as to raise the question of their European origin. The Drexel Institute, founded in Philadelphia by the liberality of Mr. Anthony J. Drexel, will be devoted to the encouragement of technical industries. The museum will be administered on the plan of South Kensington. Before the Tennessee Historical Society the Hon. Gates P. Thurston delivered a short course of lectures on the archeology of Tennessee, SOCIOLOGY. Economie science as a branch of sociology is the all-absorbing study of the time. There is not space to enumerate the separate books and papers on this subject, but every reader should know the general re- sources of the study. Section F, British Association, Economie Sei- ence and Statistics List of Papers, p. xix. Among the political leaders of France, as well as in the Société WV Anthropologie, no other question seems to be of such importance as that of the decrease in natality throughout the Republic. M. Chervin sums up the results of an inquiry in the department of Loir-et-Garonne in the Bulletin de la Société W@W Anthropologie (4 ser., 1, 42-78). There results the demonstration that in this rich department it is the most wealthy that have the smallest number of children, and in the most thriving part of the department the average of children to a family is one. Among the causes of this paucity M. Chervin finds that the well- to-do peasant and farmer wills it to be so, and he believes that no leg- islation will effect a radical change. Believing that quality and that early deaths become a potent factor in the decline of population, to M. Chervin the saving and perfecting of lives already created is the feasi- ble method of strengthening the population. Assistance and hygiene are the practical methods of relief. M. Bertillon (id., 366-385), regarding the terrible dangers to which the phenomenally low natality in France exposes her, and believing that the evils of alcoholism, tobacco, and syphilis have only a subsidiary influence, makes the following statement: ‘‘ That which renders the natality of France so feeble is the voluntary sterility of families hay- ing some property. Such families are exceptionally numerous in France. They know that the sure way to keep their property is to have only one child, and a sure way to lose it is to have more than two. One way, therefore, to save France is to remove the cause of feeble na- tality and to make it more desirable in the way of relief from taxation and increased security of property to have three children than one.” In SUMMARY OF PROGRESS IN ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1891. 457 the older settlements of our own country attention has frequently been called to the decline in the number of large families. Dr. Robert Fletcher has brought together, in his address before the Anthropological Society of Washington as retiring president, the re- sults of a careful study of the new school of criminal anthropology. By criminal anthropology is meant the study of the being who, in consequence of physical conformation, hereditary taint, or surround- ings of vice, poverty, and ill example, yields to temptation and begins a career of crime. It is to study the anatomy, the physiology, the hygiene of the criminal, his productivity, his capability of amend- ment, to examine into his condition, and to recognize his rights. An indispensable work to students of the history of human marriage is Edward Westermarck’s work, published by Macmillan. The author, it is true, is at issue with almost every school of anthropology, and for that reason presents the subject from anew point of view, but he has brought together a vast amount of material, and his list of authorities quoted amounts to a full bibliography. The pedagogic problem has been taken up from the side of anthro- pology. Fresident G. Stanley Hall, of Clark University, Worcester, Mass., has established a new journal, entitled ‘ The Pedagogical Sem- inary,” as an international record of educational literature, institutions, and progress. The second number of vol. I, is devoted largely to children and adolescents, and deserves that the contents be given bodily: Editorial. G. Stanley Hall. Notes on the study of infants. G. Stanley Hall. Contents of children’s minds on entering school. Jd. The moral and religious training of children and adolescents. Jd Childrens’ lies. Id. The study of adolescence. Mrs. H. Burnham. Observations of children at the Worcester Normal School. Jd. Anthropological investigations of schools. F. Boas. Reviews are also given of the following: The story of a sand pile. By G. Stanley Hall, June, 1888. Boy life in a Massachusetts town a quarter of a century ago. /d. Proc. Am. Antiq. Soc., 1880, p. 107-128. Rudimentary society among boys. By John Johnson. Overland Monthly, and Johns Hopkins Hist. and Polit. Studies, 1884. Observations on college seniors. By A. E. Kirkpatrick. Am. J. of Psychol., 1890, 168 pp. Physical training in American colleges and universities. By E. M. Hartwell. Cir- cular of Information, Bureau of Education, No. 5, 1885, 185 pp. Physical training conference. Jd. Boston, 1889, p. 155. Physical and industrial training of criminals. By H. D. Wey. Industrial Edue. Assoc., N. Y., 1888, p. 50. Overpressure in the high schools of Denmark. By Dr. Hirtel. London, 1885. 148 pp. The growth of children. By H. P. Bowditch. HKighth An. Rept. Mass. Bd. of Health, Boston, 1877; also Tenth An. Rept. Why do we measure mankind! Francis Galton. Lippincott’s, February, 1890; also the reports of Mr. Galton’s laboratory work and measuring apparatus. Cambridge anthropometry. By John Veron. J. Anthrop. Inst., xviii, 140 pp. 458 SUMMARY OF PROGRESS IN ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1891. An anthropological cabinet for pedagogic purposes. Prof. Sergi, of the Univ. of Rome. Education, Sept., 1886. Mental association investigated by experiment. By Cattelland Bryant. Mind, xiv, 230. The children: How to study them. By Francis Warner. London, 1887. 80 pp. Experiments in testing the character of school children. By Mrs. Sophie Bryant. J. Anthrop. Inst., xv, 338. Mental imagery. Francis Galton. Inquiries into human faculty, p. 83. Kye-mindedness and ear-mindedness. By Jos. Jastrow. Pop. Sc. Month., xxxiii, p. 597. A study in mental statistics. Jos. Jastrow. Replies by teachers to questions respecting mental fatigue. Francis Galton. J. Anthrop. Inst., 1888, p. 157. On the principle and methods of assigning marks for bodily inefficiency. F. Galton, Nature, Oct. 3, 1889. Ueber Schulwanderungen. O. Lomberg. Elberfeld, 1887. Notes on studies of the language of children. By E. C. Sanford. Die Stipendein und Stiftungen, Convicte, Freitische, etc., in allen Universitiiten des deutschen Reichs. Dr. Max Baumgart. Berlin, 1885, p. 760. Grundsiitze und Bedingungen der Ertheilung der Doctorwurde, ete. Baumgart, Berlin, 1888, 328 pp. Die Reform der Doktorpromotion. Max Oberbreyer, Eisenach, p. 155. Allgemeiner deutschen Hochschulen. R. Kukula. Wien, 1888, 1,000 pp. Lehrbuch der Erziehung und Unterrichts mit besonderer Beriichsichtigung der psychologischen Grundlagen, ete. F. Deutz. Karlsruhe, t in 1887, xt in 1890. Gesinnungsunterricht und Kulturgeschichte, E. von Sallwurk, Langensalza. Beyer & Sohne, Die piidogogische Pathologie oder die Lehre von den Fehlern der Kinder. L.Straumpell. Leipzig, 1890, vi 225 pp. Die Erziehungschule nach psychologischen Grundsiitzen, E. Doring. Conférence sur l’enseignement, F. Horridge, 1890; La Science de Venseignement; id., 1888, Paris, A. Rousseau; L’Enseignement commercial et les écoles de commerce en France et dans le Monde entier. E. Leautey, Paris, 1786, 774 pp. Un lycée sous la troisitme République, P. Verdun. Paris, 1889, E. Dentur, 462 pp. Manual training in France, A. Salicis, N. York, 1890. Report of the Indian Education Commission, Calcutta, 1882, Gov. Print., 639 pp. History of indigenous education in the Panjaub since annexation and in 1882, G. Leitner, Calcutta, 1883. A new review of National education, H. Biggs, London, 1890, 117 pp. A plea for pure science, H. A. Rowland, Proc. A. A. A.S. Suggested reform in Publie Schools, C. C. Catterill, Edinburgh, 1%85, 178 pp. University extension, 8. T. Skidmore, Lippincott’s Mag., Oct., 1890. Year Book of learned Societies in Great Britain and Ireland, London, 1885, 231 pp. La decadenza dell’ Universita Italiana, T. Martello, Bologna, 1890, 138 pp. Das Schulwesen Italiens, besonders die Realschulen Italiens im Jahre 1878, Max Strack, Leipzig, 1878, 80 pp. Raccolta completa di testi di legge, decreti, etc., Bruto Amanto, Roma, 1890, 470 pp. Statistica dell’ Instruzione secondarie superiore, Roma, 1889. Stato di provisione della Spesa, etc., Roma, 1887, 255 pp. Guida de’ Comuni e de Maestri Bruto Amante, 2d ed., 1890, 253 pp. L’Université de Bruxelles, L. Vanderkindere, Bruxelles, 1884, 216 pp. Rapport triennial sur l’état de Venseignement moyen en Belgique, Bruxelles, 1887, elxv 248 pp.; also, L’Instruction Primaire, cexlix, 762 pp. Conseil de perfectionnement de l’instruction primaire, Bruxelles, 1883, 79 pp. Entwickelung und Gestaltung des belgischen Volksschulwesens seit 1842, M. Lauer, Berlin, 1885, 194 pp. Annuaire de ’ Université Catholique de Louvain, 1890, xevili, 419 pp. a SUMMARY OF PROGRESS IN ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1891. 459 Ministére de Vinstruction publique. Recueil des lois et arrétés relatifs 4 Ven- seignement supérieur, Bruxelles, 374 pp.; also Annuaire statistique, 20th year, twenty volumes (also other Belgian documents of a pedagogic character). L’Abeille. Revue pédagogique, ete., Bruxelles (in 1891, 36th volume). Annuario de la Seccion de Instruccion publica, Santiago de Chile, No. 112, 1890, 381 pp. Congreso nacional pedagdjico, Santiago de Chile, 1890, 274 pp. Also Memoria del Ministro de Justicia e Instruccion publica. 7c., id., 368 pp. Revista de Instruccion primaria, Santiago de Chile, 170 pp. (Also other public Chilean documents). Etude Géographique, statistique, descriptive et historique des Etats mexicains, A. G. Cubas, Mexico, 1889, 411 pp. Pedagogicheskiy Mozey Voenno-uchebnuh zavedney, 1888-90, St. Petersburg (20th and 21st Annual Report pedagog Mus.) Also educational maps of Russia. Verslag van den Staat der hooge, middelbare en lagere scholen in het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden, over 1888-89, ’s Gravenhage, 1890, 458 pp. Annario Estadistico de Instruccion Publica, 1889. Madrid, 1890, 409 pp. Memoria presentada al Congreso Nacional de 1890. By D. A. Alorta, Buenos Ayres, 1890. 3 vols. ; El Real Colegio de San Ienacio de Loyola, Mexico, 1889, 244 pp., appendix, 130 p. Recherches sur les mouvements chez quelques jeunes enfants, Binet, Rey. Philos., Mass., 1890. La perception des longeurs et des nombres chez quelques petits enfants; id. Guillet. Perception des enfants, id., décembre. Ueber Geistesstérungen in der Schule, Ch. Ufer, Wiesbaden, 1891. A report on the examination of 100 brains of feeble-minded children. A. W. Wil- marth, Alienist & Neurologist, Oct., 1890. The growth of children. G. W. Peckham, Milwaukee, 1881, Wisconsin Board of Health. Foreign miscellanies, by the editor. FOLK-LORE, MYTHOLOGY, AND HikROLOGY. The third annual meeting of the American Folk-lore Society was held at the Columbian University, Washington, D. C., on Tuesday and Wednesday, December 29 and 30. This meeting of the society was of especial interest on account of the co-operation of the two anthropolog- ical societies of Washington in giving to the sessions a scientific turn. The papers were mostly upon American aboriginal lore. The organ of the society, the Journal of American Folk-lore, edited by W. W. Newell, devotes much space in each number to bibliography. Branches of the American Folk-lore Society are the Louisiana Association of the American Folk-lore Society and the Boston Association of the American Folk-lore Society. An independent organization is the Chi- eago Folk-lore Society, and there is also a folk-lore section of the Museum of Archeology of the University of Pennsylvania. The meeting of the International Folk-lore Congress, at Burlington House, London, in October, and the third annual meeting of the Amer- ican Folk-lore Society in Washington in December, were important events in the evolution of that science. Regarding folk-lore as the archeology of thought and custom, the presidents of both gatherings dwelt on the fact that the mere dilettante collecting stage had now been passed and folk-lorists were engaged in a serious business. 460 SUMMARY OF PROGRESS IN ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1891. The science of folk-lore has been very much strengthened in Ger- many by the founding of Zeitschrift des Vereins fiir Volkskunde, which is a new branch of Lazarus and Stanthal’s Zeitschrift fiir Volkerpsy- chologie und Sprachwissenschaft. The carefully prepared bibliography of journals and other works relating to this science accompanying each number obviate the necessity of repeating here the title of every paper that has appeared on this subject. The friends of the study of comparative religion conducted in the University of Pennsylvania a loan collection of objects used in reli- gious ceremonies, including charms and implements used in divina- tion. The basis of the exhibition was a collection of Oriental idols of the Board of Foreign Missions of the Presbyterian Church of the United States. This is, so far as reported, the first attempt to set up an exhibition of this kind, and could be repeated in alinost every city of the United States with happy results, not only with religious objects, but also to illustrate any class of anthropological concepts. The lectures of Count Goblet d’Alviella on the origin and growth of the conception of God as iJlustrated by anthropology and history, in the Hibbert Course for 1891, define the limits within which the study of religion may be considered a part of the natural history of man. In these summaries the subject has been made to include the creeds and cults of men and of the world. From the side of the spirit world, the study has been called daimonology, but this term is entirely too narrow. Count d’Alviella employs the word “hierography” as includ- ing the study of both creeds and cults. The elements common to all organized religions are: (1) The belief in the existence of superhuman beings who intervene in a mysterious manner in the destinies of man and the course of nature. (2) Attempts to draw near to these beings or to escape from them, to forecast the object of their intervention and the form it will take, or to modify their action by conciliation or compulsion. (3) Recourse to the mediation of certain individuals supposed to have special qualifications for success in such attempts. (4) The placing of certain customs under the sanction of super- human powers. Primarily, religion is defined as “‘the conception man forms of his relations with the superhuman and mysterious powers on which he believes himself to depend.” Further on and growing out of this con- ception are “ the acts which man’s primitive conception of superhuman beings and his relation with them lead him to perform.” Commencing with primitive animism, these conceptions have arisen through polydemonism and polytheism, through dualism to monotheism. The outlook in this author’s mind is most cheering. On the other hand, the teachings of the Ecole d’Anthropologie are to the effect that under, the clear light of science all religions will be banished from the world. SUMMARY OF PROGRESS IN ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1891. 461 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ANTHROPOLOGY, 1891. Aarbéger for Nordisk Oldkyndighed og Historie. Udgivene af det Kongelige nor- diske Oldskrift-Selskab. Kjobenhayn, vol. 1, 1864. 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I. J. Griffin. American Dental Association. Instructions, tables, and diagrams for the exami- nation of human crania. Series A., n. p., 101 1., obl., fol. American Economie Association, Baltimore, Md. Publications; contributions. American Folk-Lore Society, Boston, Mass. J. Am. Folk-Lore (quarterly); v. I, 1888; v. WI-1x, 1890. Houghton, M., & Co. American Geographical Society, 11 West Twenty-ninth street (Elliott F. Hall, secretary), New York City. Bulletin v. 16; 2, 1884; v. 22; 2, 1890. (Forms journal when yearly volume is completed. ) American Historical Association. U. 8S. National Museum, Washington, D. C. (A. H. Clarke, assistant secretary). Papers. 8vo. v. 1, 1884; v. Iv, 3, 1890. Put- nam. Cont., v.1, No.1. Sept. 9-10, 1884; v. 4, No. 1, Dec., 1889. American Institute of Christian Philosophy, New York. Founded in 1891. Pub- lishes lectures and papers. American Institute of Sacred Literature, New Haven, with local branches. American Journal of Archeology and History of Fine Arts, 1. American Journal of Philology. American Journal of Psychology (The). Prof. G. Stanley Hali, Clark Univ., Wor- cester, Mass. Quarterly, vol. I-1v; 1888-1891. American Journal of Science. [For bibliography see Bolton’s Catalogue, Smithson. Pub’s 514, p. 25.] New Haven. 8vo. American Library Association, 330 Pearl st., New York. American Museum of Natural History [Central Park, 77th st. and 8th ave. A. F. Bickmore, sec.] N. Y. City. Bulletin, v. 1-6, 1884; v. 2-4, 1890. (Issued in parts and signatures.) (Also Annual Reports. ) American Naturalist. A popularillustrated magazine of natural history. Monthly. Philadelphia, vol. 1, 1867; vol. xxv, 1891. 2 American Numismatic and Archeological Society. [101 E. 20th st., N. Y. City. ] Proceedings 27th meeting, 1884. American Oriental Society. (C. R. Lanman, sec., Cambridge, Mass.; A. Van Name, lib., New Haven, Conn.) Journal, v. 11, pt. 2, 1885; v. 13, 1889; v.14, 1890. 8vo. American Philological Association. (Herbert Weir Smythe, sec., Bryn Mawr, Pa.) Transactions, V. 15, 1884; v. 21, 1890. American Philosophical Society. (104 South Fifth st., Philadelphia, Pa.) Proceed- ings, V, 21-114, 1884; v, 28-133, 1890. 8vo. Transactions, new series. v, 16, 2, 1888, 3, 1890. 4to. American School of Classical Studies in Athens. Under patronage of the Archzolo- gical Institute of America. American Social Science Association. (IF. B. Sanborn, sec., Concord, Mass.) J. of Social Science. No. 19, Dec., 1884. No. 26, Feb., 1890. American Society for Psychical Research. Proceedings, v, 1, 1885~’89. American Society for the Extension of University Teaching. Philadelphia. American Society of Church History. New York papers. American Statistical Association. (David R. Dewey, sec. Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass.) Publications, new ser. No. 1, 1888; No. 12, 1890. 8vo. SUMMARY OF PROGRESS IN ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1891. 463 Am Ur-Quell. Monatsschrift fiir Volkskunde. Ed. 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U.S, Nat, Mus., 188889, 553-559. The natural history of folk-lore. J. Am. Folk-Lore, Bost. and N. Y., tv, 97-105. Massachusetts Historical Society [Justin Winsor, sec.], Boston, Mass. Collec- tions, ser.5, Vv. 9,10, 1885-’88; ser. 6, v. 1-3, 188890. 8vo. Reports, 1884~’85, 1886-87. Massachusetts Society for Producing Good Citizenship. [C. F. Crehore, see., 87 Milk st., Boston, Mass.] Circulars of information, 1888. Lectures upon municipal government and reform, 1889. MATHEWS, W. Civilization and suicide. N.Am. Rev., N. Y., cir, 470-484. MAtTIneKA, HEINRICH. Crania bohemica, JT. Theil. Béhmens Schiidel aus dem vi-xul. Jahrhundert. Prag, F. Hoerpfer, 157 pp., 4 pl., 5 tab. &vo. MavureEL, E. Note sur quelques modifications apportées au compas d’épaisseur pour ses applications 4 la mensuration de la poitrine. Bull. gén. de thérap., ete. Par., CXX, 153-157. MAXWELL, G. Slava. Folk-Lore, Lond., 11, 65-72. MEISNER. Die K6rpergrésse der Wehrpflichtigen in Mecklenburg. Arch. f. An- throp., Brnschwg., X1x, 317-329. Mexipora, R. Photographic Chemistry. J. Soc. Arts, Lond., 787-784, 799-806, 812-821. MELUSINE. Recueil de mythologie, littérature populaire, traditions et usages. H. Gaidoz, Paris. Rollam. 1877-91, vols. I-v1. Mémoires de la Société Royale des Antiquaires du Nord. Copenhagen. Nouvelle series, 1890. Mémoires de la Société d’Archéologie Lorraine et du Museé Historique Lorraine. 3° série. Nancy, Crepin-Leblond, xxx, 399 pp. 8vo. Menorah (The) Mouthly. Devoted to Jewish interests, literature, science, and art. Official organ of the B’nai B’rith, New York. 1880-91, vols. 1, XI. MERCERAT, ALCIDE. Observations relatives 4 deux articles critiques de Mr. Flo- rentino Ameghino, Buenos Ayres. Noimprints. 29 pp. 8vo. Meriden Scientific Association [C. H. 8. Davis, sec.], Meriden, Conn. ‘Transac- tions, V. 1, 1884-85 (0. p.); Vv, 4. 1889-’90. 8vo. Merz, C. Notes on cephalometric measurements. Med. Age, Detroit, 1x, 737-740. MrsstkOMMER, H. Zur Feuererzeugung der Urzeit. Antiqua, Strassburg, IX, 15, 16. Mryer, A. B. On crude jadeite in Switzerland. J. Anthrop. Inst., Lond., 1892, XO oO! Neue Beitrige zur Kentniss des Nephrit und Jadeit, Berlin. R. Friedlinder, 42 pp., 2 photolith. pls. 4to. [Abhand]. u. Ber. d. Kénigl. Zool. u. Anthrop.- Ethnog. Mus. zu Dresden, No. 1.] MEYER, E.H. Die eddische Kosmogonie. Freiburg. 118 pp. MEYER, Kuno. On the Irish origin and the age of Shelta. J.Gypsy L. Soc., Edinb., 11, 257-266. MEYNERS, D’EsTREY. Les Kalangs de Java. Rev. Scient., Paris, 1892, xL1x, 46-49. Michigan Pioneer and Hist. Society. [George H. Greene. Sec.] Lansing, Mich. Pioneer collections, vol. I-xvu1, 1874-91. Historical collections. Collections and researches made by the Pioneer and Historical Society, 1888, v. x; 1892, v. XVIII. SUMMARY OF PROGRESS IN ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1891. 4&5 Middlebury Hist. Society [Philip Battell, Sec.], Middlebury, Vt. Papers and pro- ceedings, v. 1-2, 1886. O. 1-2, the marble border of western New England. Mies. Die Hohenzahl des Kérpergewichts der sogenannten Amazonen und Krieger des Kénigs von Dahome. Verhandl. d. Berl. Gesellsch. f. Anthrop., Berl., Xx, 110-114. Ueber die Héhe und die Héhanzahl des Gewichts und des Volumens yon Menschen und Thieren. Arch. f. path. Anat., etc., Berl., CXXIII, 188-195. MILLEKER, F. Bericht iiber die alte Ansiedelung in der Flur Ludosch der Gemar- kung der Stadt Werschetz. Verhandl. d. Berl. Gesellsch. f. Anthrop., Berl., 1891, xxim, 85-97. Mind. A quarterly review of psychology and philosophy. London. Williams & Co. 1876-91, vol.1-xv1. Minnesota Academy of Natural Science [C. W. Hall, Sec.], Minneapolis, Minn. Bulletins, v. 2,5, containing ‘‘ Proceedings and accompanying papers, 1881-82.” V. 3,1 (same), 1883-85, 1885-’89, 8vo. Minnesota Historical Society. St.Paul, Minn. Collections, v. 4, 1885-v. 6, 1, 1887. &vo. V.5: History of the Ojibway Nation, by W. W. Warren [and E. D. Neill, ed.]. il 8vo. 1885. Biennial reports, 1885~87~89. 8vo. Mississippi Historical Society. Jackson, Miss. Missouri Historical Society. St. Louis, Mo. Publications. No. 8,1885. 8vo. MITCHELL, C. PitFiELD. Dissolution and evolution and the science of medicine. London. Williams & Norgate. 246 p. Mittheilungen aus Justus Perthes geographischer Anstalt. Gotha. Vol. 1, XXXvII, 1885-91. With Ergiinzungsbiinde and indexes. [An excellent guide to all Ger- man and foreign geographical publications. ] Mittheilungen der anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien. Wien, Hélder. Vol. 1, XXI, 1871-91. 4to. [Excellent in bibliography. ] Mittheilungen des anthropologischen Vereins in Schleswig-Holstein. Modern Language Association of America. (A. Marshall Elliott Sec., Johns Hop- kins Univ.) Baltimore, Md. Transactions. V.1, 188485 (1885)-v. 2, 1886 (1887). Transactions and Proceedings. YV.3, 1887 (1888). Proceedings. 1884, 785, 89, ’90. Publications. V.4, 188889; v.5, 2, 1890. Monist (The). A quarterly magazine, published in Chicago by The Open Court Publishing Co., edited by Paul Carus. Vol. 1 in 1890-91. Monsecr, E. Questionnaire de folk-lore publié par la Société du folk-lore wallon. Liége, H. Baillant-Carmaune, XI, 156 pp. 8vo. Mooney, JAMES. Die Kosmogonie der Cherokee. Am Ur-Quell, 85-87. Growth of a myth, Am. Anthrop., 393-394. Moore. A. W. The folk-lore of the Isle of Man. Isle of Man, Browne & Son, 192 pp. 16mo. Mooredeap, W.K. The Indian Messiah and the ghost dance. Am. Antequar., XIII, 161-167. Moravestk, E.E. -_22¢ i262 see ee ee XLIL Wiorldis, € olomibram sb xp ostbvom i ae ee) ae ee ees see ee ie ne eee XLUI Loological Par ksict ai aie ch cee eese ee ee aes ee rte cel pee ieee XLII Coneress, resolution by,appombine megentsne. aaa = ate eee XI resolution of, to print extra copies of annual report for 1891-_.____- II provide for additional Museum building. --...._-- XII Congressional appropriations disbursed by Smithsonian Institution .-...XXXII, XLI Congressional appropriation for— AStro-phivercal Obsenvatonyeeeeer aoe eee ere ee ee 8 Building repairs, to be expended by the Secretary...........-....------ Xo, ROUT @apronccollectiontts-hy eee oe ee ee eee ee See XXXII, XXXVOL, XLICX, 13 Daushbersio® chelate; Joseph) Hentye===o: seer =e eee eee NO,O-G NU 0.0.00 Sa Displays at the World’s Columbian Expoposition.--.....-.-.--..-.---- 20 Hire=proonine; smi chsonransp ual ding ees see eee eee eee eee XII Internationaliexchan ges]. ¢- 252. 2222.25 ]- = XOMUIL, KX NV) ROOK VN, NORGE NG lan Nationals Miuse ums 25 a ose ass coe 2 here oie mca Vie a any sees eras oe Vs I RONONG NATIT PSION furniture and fixtures-----.XXk, XXXIV; KV Key ou heating, lighting, ete. XXXI, XXXIV, XXXV, XXXVII,XXX VII, XLII POSLAPOIEs sas Sass: eee OO OURNO OO MIC p.o.O.Q\005 SUI preservation of collections. ..----XXXIII, XXXVI, XXXVI, XLII PLintine 24 ee---- ee eee OOPS OO A HOO.O QE SOOO IHL AU), NIU North Americaniethmolocy == 2-522 ccs oo se se = 5 2a > RDI ONONAVEI)| NONONG VENT NG Perkins colllectiome == == sae sos caesar cle Sale oe aria a ERO RONET LONGING VU ENERO NG) VA TOLAIN CD Smithsonian buildime mepair -S) 45222 seo. pee ae = ee oe eee eee oe eNO Ne VAP Ne NON MSTIIN Loologicalsrarks sees see sees Sane eee Roe eee XXXV, XXXVI, XL 22 Congressional bills for statues of Robert Dale Owen and Prof. Baird -..---. 13 publications, transmissions to foreign governments....------ AT re-payment asked for money advanced on account of ex- Changes) x5. 2S eee tk ol a ee Se nee eee eee 10 Constantinople, Lurkeyexchaneeag ency, an) sss) eee eee ee eee eee 45 Consuls.eran ting tree trelohite sas se sees ese eee eee See eee eae eee 48, 44 Contentsvof Annual dkepontitor 80sec eee eee eee eee eee eee Vv Contributions to Knowledge, expenditures on account of -...----.--------- XXII repayments on accoumt/of-2=- ---- -2) see ae XXII repontton) 3552 e See eee ee ae eee eee 8, 60 Contributions to North American Ethnology, vol. -.....--.-------.------ 37 Cooper, James E., presented Asiatic elephant to Zodlogical Park... ....---.- 50 Copenhagen, Denmark, jexchanceiagency ines ssee sees ee ee ae eee df Coppée, Dr. Henry, member of executive committee..---.......----..----- aK, NeNOR GIONS Tegenb Olin INS tLouutOn ees eee eee ee eee eee Dp OT Copperhead addedito! Zoolocical Par kee ee eee 52 Corbin Game Park-spaperion,) by Jha SD C:ES se ae ents are a ee 417 Correction of sextants for error of eccentricity and graduation, by Joseph Ay ROGOrS! 325. eesti ree ig BS cis ia) ae St Ne eo elec ee eer 8, 61 Correspondence of Eixchanvelbureau, esse] sees ae ee se eee 38, 39, 40, 45 of National Museum panerease Ol eeeses eee eee eee eee 16 Ee INDEX. 691 Page MOmespoudents mow: WstiOt, NCOA6C..>-25 s2hs cs alcool Nese Se sacla cos hoses: re Seis eed haus ALEC AOI NG) Sas oL soos WEP. ae oe a Soe a eee ee Se 43 Corous americanus added to Zoodlogical Park ....................--..-----. 52 Cosmbics oxchanperdPoncy LOT (oa. a soss OSes ccc hesdec coe cee doedene ce A4 UbARSMISSIONUSMN ACS tOs as a-2 Soe ees 2 Sos ees. Seco Sace cen eeeed 46, 47 Crook vOcapUlatyy OLwinh PreparawlOMe oso: o225 foo oc. ces ose aenjccc oe se Sas 3d Pan aned to AOUlorival avis ols lt. JS5 fesse ck otal sons ooe5 232 nese gseead 52 Crown agents for the colonies, London, act as exchange agents. ........---- 44 eeEGRU NEMEC UR ONCY LON es. othe Sas ood Jaca - Stee SINS S Soon ses Lease 44 ULANSIISSLOUS IN ACL OWOn om See ae ee ee iene inate eA atceere ste laSiee actoen eoe 46, 47 Cullom, Hon. Shelby M., regent of the Institution -......-.......---.----.- a Ii Cunard Royal Mail Steamship Company, grant free freight... ......--..-.-- 43 Curatorships in National Museum should be increased -........-.--.------- 16 Curtin, Jeremiah, engaged in preparation of vocabularies..........-----.-.. 36 PMCGeeCeOvo Crh. suLans AblONy Dees ae 2 =e ajo csm seese- oes ee coe festa 179 Customs duties, payment of, Congressional appropriation for .......-..---- XLII duty on glass for National Museum, estimates for...-...-..--.---.- 4 Cyclophis vernalis added to Zoological Park -.--/..-...-..:---22 £2..-s22- 52 Cynomys ludovicianus added to Zodlogical Park..--.........-.--..-------- 52 10% Dasyprocta agouti added to Zoélogical Park.......-...---..----.---------- 52 Day-book sheets for recording of exchange transactions.-..-...-..--...--.- 45 DEMING oO COAG LOCNDS {cme Suh A = "hie dH sdoteys uiaisk ak broecn ces eee elsess Sas 49 Peorsaccommodations tor, in Zoological, Park...2_ 25 <5. 2.2 <22s2-e- oe oe 49, 50 BAGO CLOLAOOLOMI CAL Pann. se Soa. ech ast epiise os |i Seyaaeen ne eyee eS 52 Wen Helder, Holland, exchange arency: in<.----<2-2-- 2 s2ns2ss-ceesee-ne=e = ae Wena (CONSUL TON, eTants tree frelon. s<- = a es eer seo= oe eee eeeeoe 43 OXGHANO OsMONOY AOL seo. - s-2e saa aee 30 Copmany ex Chan Te aAPen Gy tOl hac ssn Sees See clas aan acie eee see ence 44 POVernMen talexchany es swith js) -)s sms = fae ss all eae se ee 47 BRATS OLASTON Sf DULG UO! Pane ae esa Sana tee oeerslaeepen sees ae 46, 47 Geysers, paper on, by Walter Harvey Weed... -.-... 2-2 ..5----- 1.5... ---- 163 GUO DAT VOlCObtr, /ASSIStaNCe ClVGD LO. s-6 2. o- sa —ptee neers Smee noes a nee 6 investigations upon chemical compounds. ---..---..---- 6 Gibson, Hon. Randall L., Regent of the Institution ....-...---.--..----.---- X, XI Giessen, University of, sent set of academic publications ..-...-..--.------ 58 PURER GRO SOOO OTC ele tzu Kenner screen ee = ees er tee hae iain clos Se emiee ae 25 Gila River rection, archeolocical exploration Of-22. ---222-- .<-2-- 252... === 31, 32 or bo Gila monster aaged: to Zoolomical Park ©2522 520222 st wesc cos sere issc occ ses= 696 INDEX. Gill, De Laney W., prepared illustrations for Bureau of Ethnology -.------ Glass snakejadded to Zooloticallranksas= = a= =— se ae eee a el eee Goodale, George Lincoln, paper on possibility of economic botany --------- Goode, Dr. G. Brown, appointed a representative to the World’s Columbian Exposition. +453. G5 528 Sa Oe ce eee Assistant Secretary of the Institution........-....--.. Gordon & Gotch, London, the exchange agents for New Caledonia-----.--- Goose Creek, shell deposits of, examination of ..-.-.-.-.---..-.-.--------.- Gottingen, University of, sent set of academic publications ._....-....----- Governmentalvexchanpes, statemenb Ofa%. = sacme= ase) eee e ee tee eee ae Government collections, additional space required for ...---..----.-------- Departments, repayments on account of exchanges.----.-.----- exhibits at World’s Columbian Exposition, Congressional ap- propriation for-s-s2s.Ste sete Shsaee Cassone See eee officials as curators in National Museum --.---.-----.--.-.---- of New South Wales establish Exchange Bureau..-.--.--.----- Paraguay carried out Brussels exchange treaty -....--..---- Uruguay establish Exchange Bureau.--.--....-..----.----- Governments receiving Congressional publications. ...-..------------------ Grace mW Co.ranbenee ined eo hGe: ays emits =e ee see ee ee ee Grand Medicine Society meeting witnessed by Dr. Hoffman -...-......------ Crant)| County, Wasconsin mounds im) examimedia=s= sees sas = aes eee Crave Dr Asa, ohestorest trees OL Nort heAmenica) assesses ene -ee ee aes eeee Great Britaim*tand Ireland vexchanoerac encystors= sss eee] eee ae = ee ee ee TovernmensbaleexehrameeS) vyit ees ae les ee ee ee transmissionsamade tore weness eee eee ee eee eee Gnreberaddedito Zoclosicall Ravkee 2.2 2a. 2 santas oe eee een ena Greece, exchange/agency for 22/25. -s8sese4s eh qlee ee eee ee eee eee eee governmentalexchanges wilha==s4-2 sere ease eee ee ee eee eee transmissions madeghoes 5 fae 52 ede coe et as ee eee secre Greifswald, University of, sent set of academic publications .....---.-.----- Growth of collections of National Museum: ©2525-5222 5 3a eee a ee ee Grubb, Sir Howard, constructed siderostat for astro-physical observatory - - Grunow, William, & Son, constructed spectro-bolometer for astro-physi- CaliODSCFVALOLY: 2st... ce se enve oe abies See cet Geto Ee Ea eee eee eee Guadeloupe yexchanpe aceon cy tO sees eee see ee ee ee Guatemala exchanveiarency tor 25-42 - esos se eae eee ae eae eee transmissions made GO22=2025 522 tose eee eae eee eae Gulf Stream (The), paper on, by Alexander Avassiz_--...---:------=------- Gulick, Rev. John Thomas, paper on divergent evolution .-...---..-------- H. Hakelsbequest, conditionof. 7. 22 22,5. 6-2 See ae eee ees oe ee eee Harti sexchanse agency fOr oo. cece eee = cee ee ee p= pene oe eee Seen goviermmentaljexchanges) with. eee eee 2 Ee eeee ee = eee ee transmissions made ossen-c 22 — sos oe eee eee eee ee eee Halizctus leucocephalus added to Zoological Park ....-...--...--.-------- Halle, University of, sent set of academic publications ........---.-------- Hallock Walliam paper on the tlowsof solids) ss. == ===: eer translation (DY 25 ect ates eee eee eee ee eee eee Hamburg-American Packet Company, grant free freight ........---.------ Stadt Bibliothek, donations to library by ---- -----*-.--=-------- Hamilton bequest condnironote a2 =>. 2 o- eee eee aee Hamy-ea 0s thevhome) ory tlresire olodiites) asset o sane ere eee 31 58 11, 41 14 11, 39, 40 A Ss pre P Pe HAIN HSDNHAH INDEX. 697 Page Hardness, absolute measure of, paper on, by Auerbach ........-.----.----- 207 Harrison, Benjamin, member ex-officio of the Establishment ._.._..._..-__-- 1X HiawvinS dedi boreoolomical Park: —7- 95.0. <2 22-4 sane ose ede se eee 52 Heating, lighting, etc., for 1889— balance of appropriation ..._.--.-..--.-.--XXXIV, XXXVII CxPeNCwUULES: sasates ee ee eee Conia. eee BOQ for 1890— balance of appropriation ------....---.---- RENIN ekCKONG VIR (beg fe) UE NATO SS Se eS ee et a eee en eo OGY, of National Museum for 1891— Congressional appropriation for_-...........--.- XXXI, XXXVI, XXXVI, XLII expenditures oniaccount of-------.-------- 4. o--4 XXXI Heating and lighting, Congressional appropriation for --....-....-----.---- 4 ESUUMALCS HOLM SON —O2 ene meee cscs ees esc e noes es nee 4 Hedronor added to ZoOlosical Parkin 2 -.5.2.\22 0. eto. fee. ola boae 52 Heidelberg, University of, sent set of academic publications ...-..--------- 58 Heloderma suspectum added to Zoological Park ..........-.-.---.----....- 52 Helsingfors, University of, sent set of academic publications. ...--.--.:.---- 58 Henderson Brothers. orantitree treimhts- 22-2 22502-2222 2 ese 5 sk ale nee 43 Hensel, Bruckmann & Lorbacher, grant free freight ...................-..- 43 Henry, Joseph, daughters of, Congressional appropriation for ...X XXII, XXX VIII, XLII expendituresion accounb of 22522 .62--)------- XXXII PAVIMEN UN COs ese See a ae OKT NOKSNCUD eRONRE VALLE Henshaw, Henry W., engaged in preparation of dictionary of Indian tribes. - 3 OlliGe\wwOrksOfe. so. s- a2 os oeleeem ete Stee tee e eer anes 34 Henoumunkdedsto.7O0lOtlCailib anlc= 22 aceasta sae e eset ieee cose 52 Hewitt, J. N. B., Tuskarora dictionary in preparation -.....-..---..------.- 36 UMS UC aOLIG Olea es as ya eee eee aes oe Seer cise 36 translations of older works on the Iroquois.......-..-.----- 36 Hillers, J. K., photographie work for Bureau of Ethnology-....----..------ 37 HiAonical cencs collection, ACCESSIONS tO... 222.452.2222. 56-se5se nse oon) 18 Bnei, vOCAbIaAnry, Of Im preparation. ... - 22... 2 52 ees scemece ssc cee oss 35 Hobart, waAsmani a exchamoe APenGy IMac sss. sean es aes css esse ee see 45 Hodgkins, Thomas G., donation to Smithsonian fund ..._....-------------- 3 mena ire Ny. 0-. told studies Of:. 22026 52-202 asc2 oes noe ena l= = see 3 32 work on Ojibwa shamans, in preparation......-.------ 35 pictography and gesture language -....------ 35 Eee eo tpi Sy ASSISbAMCe CIVENNLO ss. canta se cle gs gece nee noes seems 6 perfecting apparatus for securing photographs of the NC W.E. © Sees Selene eee eee Pes Peer ee 6 Like lheaetsin Wie TB ie KONG 55 7G rel Soo RRS eee Oe eS ep eee Meese 29; 30 iInecharce on mo unl) ex pPlOraulONG soo -- 4. == ames sats ate 29 OM LOLAULOMSN Diysae ore oo tea Sart ree mn ne Oe Serene 29, 30, 31 Oi On 0 ke ee aoe oP Se ee aS 34 Pa ELAM PLE) leu Gl OL Dyas sare ae a re al era 34 Holt Mansion in Zoological Park, repairs to .-.-.- .------------=-.)---- --==- 48 Home of the Troglodytes. Paper by E. T. Hamy ---..--...----..-.--.------ 425 WiGHOROHE oxchaAlpe APCNGCY IN)... 5 - sone << ~~ 2 oe ie in eee meeen = 3 === == Ad Honolulu, Polynesia, exchange agency 1n---------- -=---.------ ---- =~ ~~ = AD Honnediiond added to Zoolopical Park <2... 22s. -e <= sacoee = = 52 Hot Springs, Ark., mound near, examination of --.-......-----. —-+.-----.- 29 House of Representatives, exchange relations with ...-....---.------------ 41 698 INDEX. Page. Howell, D. J., made topographical survey of Zodlogical Park ......-------- “18 prepared plans for bridge in Zodlogical Park ....-...-------- 49 Hubbard, Gardiner G., paper on evolution of commerce. .__...-------------- 647 Huggins, William, paper on celestial spectroscopy -----.---.---.------------ 69 Hungarian Society of Natural History, donations to library by .----..-.--- ic 59 Himsany, coverumentallexchia mle si walt lise eats tee ee 47 WEP MNS MIS NONE KONO coSsoacese sobanena cece Hoo Googe osene daiacc 45, 47 Hupa vocabulary in preparation by Jeremiah Curtin. ...........----------- 36 Hutchins, Prof. C. C., services of, in connection with astro-physical observa- HOLY oe OSes Cores Seer eee ee See eels Be oe Oe at ere Se ere tere eae re ees 8 Hydrocraphie:Ofhiee; exchanve relations) wathess- sss e2525--5 2a eee eee 41 Hydrogen, density of, apparatus for determinations of-........-....--------- 6 Hystrix cristata added to Zoological Park -.....-.--..-...----------------- 52 It lipyana added to-Zoclogieal: Park = 2228 252 2 oh icet cate mee ene hee ee 52 apst,added> to: ZoclogicaliParks-s-c..2 25-5. eee ee Seen eee eee 52 Minstrations invannualireport) tor L89l ist Of eee sees ee ae ee ee eee Vil improvements in-ZoologicaliParks..-\ 5S. l2i22. obese eee sees one See eee 22-23 Incidentalvexpenditunestotelnstibithloneses senses e eee eae ae eee SKONGUL Incidentals paid on account of International Exchanges.......------------- 40 LE-VAVINeMts ON CACCOUMpOhe ee eee ee ee rae eee eee ee XXII Inclosure; to: Zoological: Park! fen. sso tee Se eee ee eee eo eer 24 Income of Institution, appropriation Ofes=--- 225 2>--2ess eee eee eee XII Incressejon library, byvexchanges/s------s-= een eae a eee eee eee oS eee 12, 53 Museum-corresponden¢e <2-2-2 secon. et ec oeee See oe eee ee 16 “Index: Medicus/7exchancemelations swithieoss es ae eres enone eee eee 41 Imdia,-covernmentalioxchaneesnwalth see. eae oe ace oe eee eee ee eee eee AT Indian Affairs, Office of, exchange relations with ......---.--.------------- 41 Commissioners, Bureau of, exchange relations with ..---..--------- 41 village on Choptank River, examination of ..---....--.-------:+:-- 30 Individuals in correspondence with Exchange Bureau.........-...---.--.- 38, 39, 40 Industries collection accessions tO == -- asses e eae eee ae eee 18 Inman’ Steamship Company, srant free freight_-.2--22-- 22-222. -2 2-2-2 ---- 43 Insects aquatics dithcnltiesineihewitevotens=s-— seer ee se ae eee eee ees 349 collectionioftaccessions#b0lssss255 cere tone eee oe ee eee 19 Institut National de Géographie, Brussels, donations to library by --------- 59 Instruments employed by astro-physical observatory ...--.---------.------ a Intermational-exchanpes = ss s-2 ss jens ee ee eee eee eee nee eee ee O11 O OOM report of Executive Committee on .---..XXI, XXIII, XXXVII service (see Exchanges, International). Interstate Commerce Commission, exchange relations with ......---.------- 41 Interior Department, exchange relations with.------...-------=-=---+------ 41 Invertebrates, collection iofiaccessionSit0ssse-e5 552 > ae eee ee eee eee eee 19 Invested tundsof themMnstitubion=s24-c=5-- - sees aan eee eee eee ee 3 Investigations upon chemical compounds, by Dr. Wolcott Gibbs ...--..---- 6 oayconeas) \poteY jopie IOscolnf hates IBUHR se. 5 cob ae se aeadassssuS cosmeoeescee Ss 38, 39 Island exchange agency for xs: Seka aoe ees aati es ae eee ee ee 44 Islands Hipuisbokasaéfn, the exchange agent for Iceland ........-..---.---- 44 Italian Exchange Bureau, donations to library by--.----------.---.--------- 58 Italy, exchancve'acency for) 22 652222 scar Sa meat ee orice icici 44 covermmentalioxchanees withees =.= see sees see se eee eee 47 Hydrographic Office of, donations to library by---..----..------------ 58 transmissions Made: toes Ye dae Sao cele ee ~ oe oe eee Eee ee 46, 47 INDEX. 699 J. ; Page. James River valley, archeological exploration of...--....--.-------------- 31 village sites upon, shores of, examination of ...--...---.------ 31 Jamestown Island, Virginia, ancient village sites upon, study of ---.-.----- 31 Journal of Proceedings of Board of Regents-...--.--------------------------- ra Jena, University of, sent set of academic publications -..--.-.-------------- 58 Japan, exchange agency for.....-..-------------+-+- +--+ -++-e2ee rere e eee 44 (MORI SD NEO TOs 5 Sao n BAB Sees CbOS Benen ao Harte A AaB eters 46,47 governmental exchanges with-.-...-..-------------------------+-++---- 47 Java, exchange agency for -.----.----------------------+------ 2-02-0202 277- A4 Journal of Proceedings of the Board of Regents, January 11, 1888. ......---- 62 Jewaehiny Ch ities) aos eoceose 63 K. Karr, W. W., disbursements by ------------ ----+----+ ----22 se ere teeter eee XXXIX Kidder, Dr. J. H., bequest of...----------------+---+ +--+ ---2-- 2222 rere cee 341 executor of, money refunded by..-.--------------------- NIK ONG Kiel, University of, sent set of academic publications -...---.--..---------- 58 King snake added to Zodlogical Park ..---.---.-------------------+------- 52 Kiowa reservation visited by James Mooney .-.----------------------------- 33 Kiowas to be represented in exhibit at World’s Columbian Exposition -..-- 33 Klamath Indians of southwestern Oregon, monograph on, by Albert I. GINO ccecbbonsk bok Gece sc elesticico ce poo SeerEsoaose Shon snoEee noon ioocracrE 35, 37 Knapp mounds, Arkansas, SCAM von tee een ee eee ee eee sees oe 29 Koksharow, Nicholi von, donations to library by .----.-------------------- 58 Kénigsberg, University of, sent set of academic publications....-.---------- 58 L. Labor Department, exchange relations with -..------- Ne He REISE eer 41 Lands for Zodlogical Park acquired ...---..----------------+-------+-++----- 48 Langley, Samuel P., Director of the U. S. National Museum..--..---------- IX experiments in aerodynamics ...--.------------------- 7,8 letter to Congress relative to additional building for WRG oh Se nebs eso Geen Boe eee Beso eaaaono XIV, XVI submitting annual report.--------- 111 report to Board of Regents, June 30, 1891. ---.-------- 1 Secretary of Smithsonian Institution....-.------------ Bs 1 Ate) Languages of North American Indians, expenditures LOTR Tene Ce es eta certs OY Lark added to Zodlogical Park .......-.--.---------------+ +--+ --2- 27-0507 52 Lebouce, Prof. H., donation to library by ..--.---------------------+++-7-> 59 Ledger account kept by Exchange Bureau......-----------------++++------ 11, 38, 39 Leghorn chicken added to Zodlogical Park ....-.-----------+---+-++--+7->- 52 Leipzig, Germany, exchange agency in ...------------------- 22-222 00t to 44 University of, sent set of academic publications -.-------.--------- 58 Lepus callotis, campestris, cuniculus, and sylvestris, added to Zodlogical TARAS . We oe reo a bone SE BOS eS SOC Sa SE SREB ERD ne Sho BOI SIOC ISO AEC. 52 Letter from Dr. J. B. Angell, a regent ....-.---------- -------------+-----7-- XI of Secretary to Congress, relative to additional building for Mu- “(Gti Le A | eee ERS eee BOB e IS ee aeRO ner Comm perenin Gc Onmt X1V, XVI of Secretary to Congress, submitting annual report. ---------------- Ill Letters received by Exchange Bureau. .-.--.---------------+-+75-70 errr 38, 39 written by Exchange Bureau...-..-..---------------+ +--+ 7700070777 38, 39 De DTS yee te in haw oe eet ene Faas eee Sent ene ee 53 Liberia, exchange agency for ..........------ ------ ---2 2222s crete 44 700 INDEX. Pa Library of Dr. J. R. Bailey bequeathed to Institution --....-..............- Fv Congress, Congressional act appropriating money for exchanges. XLI exchanges, relations wiltiht==eseere oer nee se eee eee 41 Smithsonian, academic publications received by ....-....---------- 58 addition to list of regular serials -..........----.----- 53 expendituresMor cece ce saccereat cee oe eee eas oes XXII INCreASe Ol. DyOXC HAN OC seer ee eee =e eee 12, 53 IM portant) accessions Ole Hee eae eee eee eee 58 Miundockr io hineslatinr arlene ee oa eee ee 59 DUblicationsitecelived ees ces ase ee ae ee 11, 53 TEP ORU OMG eae arts elale ee eee a ate eee eer eee 11, 53 requires additional accommodations-.--...---..------- 13 Necretany Ss MepoLwones=sse ee eeeeeee eee eee Ree etecese 11, 28 tLaANSIMISsIONS Mad esvOs see eee eee eee eee eee eee 46, 47 Liebig von, Justus, autobiogrophical sketch of .........-..-...---------<-<- 257 Light, chemical influence of, bibliography of, by Alfred Tuckerman. ---.-..... 8,9 Light-House Board, exchange relations! with--..----------.s--=2---<-+ s--4-- 41 illjeboroa Mr donations tosibnany Dy: 2. -ses—- ee eee eae eee eee eee 58 himasPeruvexchanoearencyales ese. seee aaes aaeee seine eee ae a eee ee 44 Limitation of work in Zoélogical Park caused by insufficient funds ...-.. -- 23, 24 imemstickchantipreparedy by: de Wi etOW ellen sama eee: eee eee nee eee 33 Work ot bureal ol Ebimologye:=-sse-eoee see eee eee eee 21, 33 Lisbon bothucalyexchangerapencyaln sss =] eee eee ee eee eae eee eee eee 45 ihistiof accessions to Zoological Parkes=-22 2222-2245 -aeee-- Pe Aer ite 50-52 correspondents, new edition, urgently needed ...........---..------- 45 ilnstrationsianranntiual report fornlsGleense ease eee eee eee eee VII Ship plmicsagenits yactivann Oy fine ete Ose sere ea 43 Mithology collection, accessions: to. S222 oo. 5 oe eco nene eee eee eee ee 19 Little Falls, Indian village sites at, study of ---...-.-...--.------.-------- 30 Livanio animals collection of accessions) tosses seeeeeee sees ae eee ene eee 19 Lodge, Hon. Henry Cabot, Regent of the Institution.......-...-------.----- SXegeXaT iondon, bneland exchanged rency ine ese == cee ee eee eee eee eee 44 Louvain, University of, sent set of academic publications....-.-..--...------ 58 humarphovrographys .ocasocec Sooke c cece Sale coe ene teense See Sees Beenie aceeee 6 Admiral Mouchez, co-operation of, in securing .... ------ 6 Prot Eloldenssyap py arra:t Ws ko ree ae ee ee ee la 6 Prot.shickerinioys) series) oft eee heen es ane eo eee 6 proposed wworlk Oni eeeas see ee ee ee eee eee ere eae 6 Lund, University of, sent set of academic publications --........-.....------ 58 Lynnhaven Bay, Virginia, ancient village sites on, examination of _-.....--- 31 livmxeritusladded toy Zoolo sie ale Par: keer epee eee as ete 52 M. MeChesney;, Jj..D)., disbursements iDyece= aes eeeeateoee eee nee sees eee XXXIX MeGill College, Montreal, acts as exchange agent..--2.2--2--2--52--------- 44 Madnidey Spainkiexchanceracency aneassee. see ee see oe aaa eee 45 Madeiravexchaimeiacencyain s. 2.0 cece eee oo eee ree ee eee 44 Magowan, D.J., paper on time keeping among the Chinese. -..--...-..------ 607 Maharajah of Jeypore, donations to library by ---.---.-------------------- 59 Maintenance of zoological spark; expensesiOt-e---2 esse een eee ese eee eee: 22 Mallery, (Col. Garrick ottice: workiofsct 2 emt eae eeemenee cee Coreen 34 WOT Ks OTP GO Orr clip Lisyeies eee tes eee een 34 Malta: vexchan gevarency for sos. ce teac ees asec eenee eee ee eee 44 Mammals collectionyor. aACcessiGnsstosees seee eee eee nee eee 19 INDEX. 7TO1 Page. Manila, Philippine Islands, exchange agency in...... ..s. cseesecece-e-e---- 5 Mantéz, Consul General José, grants free freight -..........0....-.-------- 43 Marsh hawk added to Rodlogical Park .........-..... SOO TCSBaScOtECO aeBUE 52 Marine invertebrates collection, accessions to...............---..---.------ 19 Maryland, systematic archeological exploration of ..............---..-.--- 21, 30 Mason, O. T., summary of progress in anthropology for 1891..............- 433 Materia medica collection, accessions to........-.......--- SES OCA ae ee 18 Matter, molecular structure of, paper by William Anderson......-..._____. 62-63 Matinews, W., paper on Navajo dyestuiis ...-:- 2. 1-ceescqeceeeees ee bacae 613 NAGE AU RTEST TT NTES yd EWC] NET AICS VENTECEN ORE 100) ad ee ee es a 44 Mean density of the earth, paper on, by J. Wilsing......-....--.--....__.. 61, 62 Megalsicollectlonsaaccessions tO-<-- oe eee os Se eon ne ee cee. 18 Medical library bequeathed by Dr. Jonathan R. Bailey...............-....- Xx publications deposited in library of the Surgeon-General of the JNM Con CRAG ERE ODD OEE. ADO PO ROOD DEBE SO OE Ee ae na IAPS, on 12 Medicine and Surgery, Bureau of, exchange relations with.-.......-...-__- 41 MeauncCroOtebOardrot HRementS= ae sass Sele ons aisle, wey a ak ee oars wa ccue eee XI Meenas OX PEN aliUNGS fOMee mais =a ope tepals fa 2 os Scissor, seis Scere ee XXII Merascops asio added to Zoological Park -..- ----...---.------s<- ceeacscs-- 52 Meigs, Gen. Montgomery C., member of executive committee ........-.-.-.X, Xxx1x Régentiot the institubion==-----.-2..c2- 52 2-- ean MolnouEne, Victoria,exchange agency IM)... 2. coe oo socewe senses cceae- 45 Mempersiot the smibhsonian lstablishment.-.<.-.02 .-ces< co2- cece cceccn o5e Ix Memorandum relative to the re-imbursement of moneys advanced for ex- CLONES gk SoBe OR OOS CoB SBE aan aoe Sisters er eeteisio eta e Satan mic cree ae Se eee XVII er yer sl MErOM OO UCONN Gs COmsses neces ome Mal tare wie mieicioc sic obice Sa eececice -- XVI, XVII Menomonee Reservations visited by Dr. Hoffman -...--..........-......... 32 Menehanhy Sele es CO sera y tree trele nt =e aac. eles as <2. eee ec oe 43 Merriam, C. Hart, paper on geographic distribution of life in North america. 365 MIGNOAZQIOTONSTLS COLLEGHION, ACCESSIONS O- 4-2 se eae Seas essences 5s cerciecie cece 19 Messiah religion investigated by James Mooney .-.---..--.........------..- PAL BB: Metallurgy collection, accessions to...---...--.-----..--.--- ae orice ae oe 19 Meteorological records transferred to Signal Office ----- Sas6cg bo ee nS eae 13 NGEICO Re NGM ANS Cx CCM C VAL OL see mie ee eas to oro felsiaiare Sie .oG) o!mialarcie.cieioin sie sn.sisls oes 44 PovernmentaliexchanGeshwithi sss see oe as cass cela o/s .< 222 2.262652 reseee (os) -e eee a ee 1X other Governmental Departments acting as curators in National MUSCUIMN GR. 3.05 en ete mem cores eetlces Secs ce oer soe ee Ree 16 Official documents, international exchange of -......-.:---.-------.=---f--=- 11, 40, 41 Ohioystate Library, donations tolibrany Dy o-.-s.s9225. = 2-225 — =e eee eee 58 alleys mound sin jexaminatloniotece sss cessor ses aee eee eee eee eee 29 Ohm |GeoreeiSimon scien tite qworkiots sss. yaa pees see eee eee eee 247 Oilsvandioums: collection of, accessions tO. = = sane ee ee eee a eee 19 Ojibway reservations visited by Dr. Hoffman...-......-..-.---.------------ 32 shamans) works on, im prepatablonss= sess = eee eee eee 35 Olmstead, Mr., suggested improvements in Zodlogical Park ......-------. 49 Omaha and Ponka letters, paper on, in preparation ...-...-.--...---.------ 34 dwellines* paperion, imapreparablonies = ees see= = eee aee eee eee 34 Opheosaurus ventralis added to Zoological Park...-.....-...-....-----..-- 52 Ophibolus doliatus and getulus, added to Zoélogical Park ......-.---------- 52 Opossummadded. to Zoalopreal Parle. er. sec tae eres Sek ee era ee 52 Ordnance Bureau, exchange relations with -*2 = 2-2-2 -6 = oso s2 = eee 41 Onoeanicach Mo diicahlongor neg uuIne deer ess eee =e e see eae ae eee eee XVIL Oriental antiquiblesssaccesslOnssbOces= soem eeteecn se sae ae eee ete iy) Origin of the rock-pressure of natural gas, paper by Edward Orton .-....--- 155 Orton, Edward, paper on the origin of the rock-pressure of natural gas ---- 155 Osteolooy-colllechion; accesslonisibOls=s—-—ea-ee eee eae ee eee eee ee eee 19 Otocoristalpestris addedito) Zoolopical (ark==--— sse=s- 2 eee eee 52 Ottawa; Canada, exchange agency im..--=.-.-.-.---.-------<- EE aid 44 Ottawalndlans visibedubyaOn? (klothman eco. sce ee seo eee eee 32 Ovis montana, at Zoological Park, died of apoplexy ...--.......-----.---- 51 Owen; Robert) Dale statueOie-ct 22 50sec ese eees eo ee eae eee 13 Owls added to: Zodlogical Parke. - 2. 5-22 ass s25 5 eee on eee eae eee eee eee 52 Oxygen, density of, apparatus for determinations of.......-....--...------- 6 1B Pacific islands. donations to Zooolgical Park from---2-.-----.-2:.-.------- 25 Mail Steamship Company, grant free freight -..........-..-.------- 45 Packages'received by Exchange Bureau 2o-2-s25-2----s see oe see 11, 38, 39, 41, 42 Packing-boxes paid on account of internatioual exchanges ----.---.-.-------- 40 Parve, Hon. Harlan. donations to library sDyeac2 --see eee eee 58 INDEX. 705 Page, Paints and dyes, collection of, accessions to.......----.----.- 22222. eee eee. 19 Palaihnihan vocabulary in preparation by Jeremiah Curtin ................ 36 Palozoic fossils collection, accessions to, .........-..-..-.....--..----..... 1s Panama Railroad Company, PLA Une eles eae ee, ee ee eons 43 Paper-money collection, accessions to ..........-.-------.---2-- 2222-2 eee. 18 Pare UAv OxGhanipmarency for 2... .-. 2-5 222s lee cc- dese eme ote nean sc? Af Government of, carried out Brussels exchange treaty ........_.. 42 Paramaribo, Dutch Guiana, exchange agency in........................... 44 Petia tance, exchange agency i o226-..2-22 2222-2 -ceece-: dd. Hovernmidital AXChANTEs Wil ..>. .S2s2. cece ee eee ees = Ja. AT PeamRIniaciond mauve’ hOs 0s. oxSs cet ee Ne Pee ee age ste 46, 47 PHeipy brothersid Co., rant free freiphts/.22... 2-2-2 AS. sew se =e 43 Philippime Islands; exchange agency for: .... 20... 2. -=2- -226 2222-2 28- 005s 45 Pinokels minor added to Zodlogical Park ...--.---25:242522+22-- ---< - -5-- 52 Bhoca vitals added. to Zoblosical’ Park 2-222 io). 22. ao8e Se =- eee ine 52 Phrynosoma douglassi added to Zoblogical Park ..---..---.----------------- 52 Physical gpparatus, accessions to... .2.---.-.-2.--- 5+ 26 see se srt tess 2-20 =- 19 geology collection, accessions to...--..-------------------++-++++-- 19 Physies and mathematics, application of, to geology, paper by ©. Chree -.-- 127 Pickering, Prof., photographs of the moon. ...-...-----------------+-------- Gui Pictographic sketches prepared by Dr. W. J. Hoffman ...--..-------------- 3D Pictography, work on, by Col. Garrick Mallery .-----.--------------------- 34. Picture writing, expenditures for........-..----------------++++2e2 2-27 + > XXV Pilling, James C., ceased connection with U.S. Geological Survey --.-..--.--- 35 linguistic work of.....-..-.--------------+--++-+++++---+- 35 work on bibliography of the Algonquin languages ------- 35 Pim, Forwood & Co., grant free freight .-..-.----------------------------- 43 Piney branch quarries examined by Bureau Of eruINO LO Giyaee = = eee 29 Pioneer Line, grant free freight..--..-.--------------------------- 777-70 00-> 43 Pit of Nelson mound, model of, prepared by Burean of Ethnology ----.----- 36 ‘Pityoptis sayi added to,Zodlogical Park ..---------------------+ + +--+ --+--- 52 Plants, collection of, accessions t0.---.----.----------------------+ rt 007 ~ Podilymbus podiceps added to Zodlogical Park .--~-----------------------) e ies Dr Wolipe, Mesut saa a. 05(- - 1 Sate = wel - mi ae Se niece eee 42 Poey, Jr. Frederic, acts as exchange agent for Guba en 8. eee ee eee 44 ay appointed exchange agent .--------------------+--++--7- 43 45 H. Mis. 334, pt. 1 706 INDEX. Page. Polynesia exchangejagenciys f0ly See is eee ee eee ee Bsremigetnete 45 transmissions Made GOL = sesese. oe eee ee phe SSL woe 4647 Pomatres, Consul-General Mariano, grants free freight -.................. aie 43 PopesiCreek, shell mounds of, examinavioniof. == === ase aes aaes nee see eee 31 Porcelam\collechion,;accessions|O1 seen ee eee eee eee ee eee eee 19 Porcupine added to: Aoolosicall Park==-= 4 22522-5550" 424525 foci eee 52 IONE VE dae) ale vt er.col nh avers) Duet PN = os ye seoo caoeeS Sedo ones sc eee bse 44 Rort louis) Mauritius exchanee acenc yin ees ee eee eee eee eee oer 44 EOrter uD ree N Oat srest omen tl OM Oty oper repe tsetse ees eee XI Portraits of Regents presented by Bureau of Engraving and Printing...... 18 Eortugal exchange agency fOr: 22 o.0% -) se nsec are eee oe) mee ee ee 45 COniamiMneAanienlCoCel\eyanerxess Waldo = soeseogssessccco uses ace Spo eae 47 ULANSMISSONS MAG WOes sae te ace ae ees ee eee ee 46, 7 Possibilities of economic botany, by George Lincoln Goodale. .___. Aleeemene 617 Postage of Smithsonian Institution, expenditures for .......---..-.-...---. 5 Oxi paid on account of international exchanges -....-..--..---...-....- 40 HOS] OF HOSOI HS COMM OOOH (OMS os oan 5 ces qeban sono casdoeSeas cong coSe- 5 XXII for National Museum for 1891: Congressional appropriation for.....--.-.... XXXII, XXXVU, XXX VIII, XL, 4 OSLLMAES TOPs. sterist ce eso ee og Se ceses ole eter ia awe ee oe 4 EXsPETNC I MLES|ON: ac COUN Oleeeees eee ae ee eee eee ere eee 2.29.00 Postmaster-General, a member of “‘ The Establishment” ...............-... Ix Post-Office Department, exchange relations with ........-. Sette cies Sep 41 Potomac valley, mounds in, examined by W. H. Holmes .....,-.......... = 29 Potowonieck, village site of, examination of .---..-.---..---.-.----- eceeeee 31 optery. collection, «accessions Os ==. = =e se eee eeeemeese eee jae aes 19 Powell, J. W., classification of North American languages.-.....--..-..---.-. 33 Director of the Bureau of Ethnology .....-.-2-..---+<0. XXIV, 20, 37 Lins uisbie chart prepacedsbyeraa=—e see aee eee ee eee «ibe ners 33 Work Ofc ac555 has oe eee ieee eee eee 33 Powhatan, ancient village site of, examination of..--.-2.-:222-:--.-+----e< 31 NOCcap Many, Of VOLE p aLalOM ee ee eee err eee eee 35 Prairie woltadded to Zoolosical Parker. sus sc eee seeeeskne seers Bere a ae 52 dog colony in ‘Zoologi¢al Park 12529 22222 aesi= ate a eee 50 Prehistoric anthropology collection, accessions to.-....--..--..--..- Sei aie 19 Preservation of collections for 188889 -....:...--.:-2-.2-22--- Seca) eee XXXVII balance of appropriation -.-..+.----.-. sFsidee XXXII expenditures! 2 S20 pease ee eee ererr eee XXXII for 1890— balance of appropriation ---.---.--...- XXXII, XXxVvir expenditwnes 2: 52% Paes eae ete oe eee se ee XXXIII for 1891— Congressional appropriation for.....---..-.-- XXVI, XXXKVIL, XXX VIM, UIT ExpPendimUNes OneaC COMMULOL I= ee eee eee XXVI Congressional appropriation for......---.-.----- 4 estimatesstor, ISO = 9 22s seas ee ey eee eee 4 species nearly extinct, the primary object for establishment of: Zoolooical Parks) ti aeee setae oe ee a eee 21 President of the United States, a member of “The Establishment” -....---- Ix exchange relabioniwilthieee=-e en eee eee 41 Printing for National Museum for 1891— Congressional appropriation for-..-..-... --.-.---.- XXX, XXXVI, XO, eT expenditures on account Of <2 i. (shies sates olnel whee sae eee openSSL INDEX. 707 Page. Printing for 1890, balance of appropriation ................-2..-...-. XK, ea and binding, Congressional appropriation for.............-...---- 4 eee ne Mn aT G | Ode te See e ae EL ee eee, 4 paid on account of International Exchanges ....-..........2-2..--.- 40 ordered of extra copies of Report for 1891..................2.....- II MESVaNNenS (Ol ACCOUMUOL sa - = dec se 1 aSes aa Sees cere a eee eee XXII pinstiunon, expenditures for.= 22: 2. 226ch. ss. sco. secs 2 see eee em ae eee eee VII OlsexXeCUblyel COMM ee st OTe so Nese =e ae eee SXULTs| XRG NERO OnlexpendiGures) LOmexc Ham DCS = ae eee eee eee eee XXIII NorihyAmerican tho] omy ee ee eee XXIV Napbional Museum sa. + ease seeen a eee eee XXVI National) Zoological Parks 22epeessse ese eaee ee XXXV buildin ore p air 22 cere ecco: sate eel eee XXXVI ofacting: manager of Zoolosicall) Pome oe ees. eens eee eae ee 48 Curatorsjof National) Musenm tor S88 ces es. sass =e ee 62 thevAssistanb Secretary wor lSs8) scans. ese eee ae a eee 62 Curator Of Pech ameese ee soles soseeieie esters ai siene ore ee cies eee ee 10, 38, 47 Director: of Bureau of Ethnology 3.21.22 jee eee ee ee 29 Secretary, of Boardiotene ments ss =) see e= see eee 1 the Thibrarian.4e sees oes voter re a Serene a ee 12, 53 Reports wexpenditures/onjaccound, Ofeee ees an] eee ee ee ee eer XXII GO= PAV ALLSWIES LO Ws eC. C OLN LO tie eee XXII Reptiles; collection of accessions, t0s.- eee sees ae ee see see ee 19 Researches encouraged) by Instiiwilom oes etee aeeeeeee= eeeeeers 6 INlASiLro-pliysical obseLvVatony.e-es-- se nese eee eee eee eee 7 im zero-dynamics, by the Secretary, ---- 2-22) ss2ese == -2-- eee 7 IMmancheOlo py Rexp CNGIbUNeS tO eee tale eee ee ee XXV OxXPenaiGMmees OMA COMMbIONEs ei = tae eee ee eee eee eee XRT unary hoto owarp biyase eee aes ae See Ge ae eee en 6 INDEX. 709 Researches, money grants for, made in special cases..............---..----- 6 CAD DS WOT Wi OlCOtueme se aster Saye se ne ce inl eee Le ae 6 TIGNES 77] 0) Dal Dito ees Se ree epee ee See oR He ne Sse ce ae 6 6 6 Michelson, Prof. A. A Morley, Prof. E. W Mouchez, Admiral, cobperation in securing lunar photographs... - 6 Pickering, Prof., photocraphs of the moon.............2-..-..-- 6 SUMMA s) OMS CROME GUC tyr oia. ot. 2 2 =o, eee coe j Residuanyleracy ot smithson, condition of -.2.--2 222 2. .2 .shsosee5 sect eee a Resolution, Congressional, appointing Regents.......-........:.........-.- XI for additional Museum building............-.--.. X11, XIV of Congress to print extra copies of Annual Report for 1891... - Il Hee CONSTESS, actsramd TesOlUblOns/ Ob. ----222s¢ -S nes eee XLI Caner Meir eCuaker eM Uses sepia ne 22s oh e nce b = onan eee eee 52 WalsonyécrAsmius; or anitmireentnevo hit) sass ese ere ene renee eee eee aaa 44 Windom, Hon. William, member of ‘‘The Establishment ”.......-..-....-- Ix Cea Theor sen eo ois a 4ane tier lo. sis Sern eine Oa ee OEE 1 WWYSHOVIG OS. Nive, C8, OOMENTOP ph CoG MANNS o= aS sos SoSr.osoosepscose eossesboeSoss 47 LEP ON OMe XC AN VES eee arce ear eae eee eee ee 11, 47 Wintu vocabulary in preparation by Jeremiah Curtin ..................... 36 Wasconsin, mounds in, examined by Wi. EH: Holmes 2-22 22-2 52-- - ase. aes 29 Wolves addeditoyZoolooicall Parle = ses. oes eae eee eee eee eee 52 Wioodehniiel=adidedetorZomlio oie cu lP ar kya re nee eee 52 Wvrconelte, @lceyares abn. /Aoviilloven term lenivic S255 Sanisos casos cose shoo mse sessocoss 28, 24, 48, 49, 51 World?eiC olmmibramr Erp OSitiOni esses Se ee oe ee 20 Dr. G. Brown Goode appointed Smithsonian representative ......------ 20 Coneressromaltappropriatrom: forex hits) nee eee eee XLII, 20 Harll, Edward lk., appoimbed chief specialiacentes--- -sesaeeeeeeee eee 20 Warreht., Peberes SONS so Ramit Ee) tO lO ING = - eater yee eae 43 Wurtembers, sovernmentalexchanves with: -... 2-22. . 22225. eas sac ee eee AT traANSMISSLONS MadertOa-=2e22,22— oo = seer ele eee eee eee eee 47 Wiirzburg, University of, sent set of academic publications.-.....- sie Seta 58 wi. Yana vocabulary in preparation by Jeremiah Curtin. ....................- Z 36 Z. ‘Zi-ka-wei Observatory acts as exchange agent for China ................... 44 Zodlovical Park accounts examined by executive COE Hi) Sate irs ata te RORORGU EIT antelopes; accommolanons forsee. se eee eee a= eeeeeee 49, 50 hayborenl Sinelkiteris Conmisinemeneiel Wal 225 52 o5o5ckbeocecseces 49 animals to be procured by Commissioners of World’s Co- Jum bian Exposition e/o-mss seas saree ee eee ae ee eee 50 Baker) Hirani actin o mana cei Olea eee er ee eee 52 balance of appropriations 222 2-2-5282 a 2 oa = = = SOXCRGV, OCGA SII bear: dens: constructionsoba-5 24s se eo <2 ee eee 24, 49 Divthstofsamimials: 1252 aseelee ee cee ae eee eee ee 50 JONSON, Execonmmarcrelaymoynsy kde e 4 =segee ona tdeocoahoceesace 25, 49 Bridie ins she tee oF ae ae 23, 24, 48, 49, 51 INDEX. 715 Page. AG OLOONC ale ral kee OU INOS ees nee eta eae 2a a oN etoile ieiabe Mee ers ister a ey s/eic 6 deer pac COMMOd ailONS kOe tee sae eter 49, 50 Ele paeis ste eraeen et ee ee (oe eee ein ae err ee A eae 50 CSUUMALES LORS eres Geta ose ss 2 eave ee eS oe a eee 4 ExPeEncNoURe si ee Pees Neier te eyes aes eee EXON NONONG Vis ORO RORG VAL EVO Ge aI STO MEINE ae eye yars- eyes epee eet eee aye eer 48 ltsimo tele COS] ON Ripe eng tee eo te oe eS ere ath Se ate cme 50, 52 MOLGAi hye AnUOM Ose See eee ae eee ae ee ee 51 PLaLLIe-.0 cx COlOnysie ease eee eae ae aot Sees Sse 50 LEport Ok Acuin oe mMaM aC et eee te ae ayers sees eee Se 48 report of Executive Commmbbes ON==-----=+---.---.----==-X XT, XKXV SCCLOUATY S LEPOLrb OM y tan er = eclncpete = etase eis San ceriate 1, 21, 28 OAS BM eee pens Oe cere sees eto ee ene Ses ee os OA Aes topoocraphicallsumvey Ole=-s22-5 5252 see see eee emiene see 48 VA BUGORS (hO see nes eee SAE Stee oe hese, oe See eee eee 51 WHOL Ka CLOT GSU saeco nee ee Sie iets re ie le sam 23, 24, 48, 49, 51 Z“iirich, University of, sent set of academic publications. -........-........- 58 >) a a ‘ i‘ , D 5 let Af vy, i Py ae eh Pie Oe Gane re Baht sat i Wy | Reor'ss : y Len vm ) 1) Cees Ta ar | i, AT ao ah re ay i get a aun . iy 7 LO ae eo inl Oe ae : ; tniy, ae 8 = : . ld a wo 5 NL I MI 7” w c <= c o = = fe a = | E Ee ” z z < z fe) n | | | 3 9088 01421 7 Sogo gi Neo wee ie teamct oe