= machen nA ews 2 se, y a 3 See Ee > See munca — ee = = eee me Sr ee rae \ \ Yr AS 3) ‘) \ % ma \C mY Ape 0 iF guru 7 Fy _ ra ANNUAL REPORT BOARD OF REGENTS SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, THE OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND CONDITION OF THE INSTITUTION Aor Ae Oe: WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1893. FIFTY-SECOND CONGRESS, SECOND SESSION. Concurrent resolution adopted by the Senate February 9, 1893, and by the House of Rep- resentatives February 15, 1895. Resolved by the Senate (the House of Representatives concurring), ‘That there be printed of the Reports of the Smithsonian Institution and of the National Museum for the year ending June 30, 1892, in two octavo volumes, 10,000 extra copies; of which 1,000 copies shall be for the use of the Senate, 2,000 copies for the use of the House of Representatives, 5,000 copies for the use of the Smithsonian Institution, and 2,000 copies for the use of the National Museum. II Te Es SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, The annual report of the Board of Regents of the Institution to the end of June, 1892. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, Washington, D. C., July 1, 1892. To the Congress of the United States: In accordance with section 5593 of the Revised Statutes of the United States, | have the honor, in behalf of the Board of Regents, to submit to Congress the annual report of the operations, expenditures, and con- dition of the Smithsonian Institution for the year ending June 50, 1892. I have the honor to be, very respecttully, your obedient servant, S. P. LANGLEY, Secretary of Smithsonian Institution. Hon. LEvi P. Morron, President of the Senate. Hon. CHARLES I’, CRISP, Speaker of the House of Representatives. yaw ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION TO THE END OF JUNE, 1892. SUBJECTS. 1. Proceedings of the Board of Regents for the session of January, 1892. 2, Report of the Executive Committee, exhibiting the financial affairs of the Institution, including a statement of the Smithson fund, and re- ceipts and expenditures for the year 1591-92. 3. Annual report of the Secretary, giving an account of the opera- tions and condition of the Institution for the year 189192, with statis- tics of exchanges, ete. 4. General appendix, comprising a selection of miscellaneous me- moirs of interest to collaborators and correspondents of the Institu- tion, teachers, and others engaged in the promotion of knowledge. IW CORN ON 7S. Page. Resolution to Congress to print extra copies of the Report. ....-..---------- Il Letter from the Secretary, submitting the Annual Report of the Regents to WOR ORES Sees see aoe =o see ie ola a iafal mint ota cin wefan =) i= = sainjenine =i eine == III General subjectsof the Annual Report...-..-.---.------------------------- IV (Chamntienrnits) Ore WAG ING) (Ono Sooo esue ons doe sooo oned Seed costes Gade Soc eeasOueS Sue V LAS Or TMG o6 op coeu cose coadereaanon Sa OnnS OHO EE OE Gooce cocs cane Members ex officio of the Establishment.....-..-----------.---------------- Ix Regents of the Smithsonian Institution... --- Ue OAT eae SEN Spe sara Re yelp XK JOURNAL OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS..---.----.---- XI Special meeting, October 21, 1891--..---.------ ee ri tyke Sidte se atcjae sie XI Stated meeting, January 27, 1892 -.........---.-------------------=---- XIV Specialemecting, March)295 18920 oo ee alec ce er acalaiein wn nini=!2 mm anime XXI Report oF THE Exrcurive COMMITTEE for the year ending June 30, 1891... XXUII Comahiniom Gre wie) agvaal diulhyail eM eee oe cee eeoa eere cess enoSSoee— Besos XXII RECoLptSHIOE CHEN Gai eae yoo ees Sa cee. oe ow nce sien cet ne siecle saleme XXIII Hexpendipures foritheyearss 1.5.22. 2. 252-3 - eas ee sme XXIV Silos) GinGhiey rene ise Gan Soon aso bedeicoca chen Haasan Goose BoSUEEa sone Sect XXIV Appropriation for internationa] exchanges...........--..-------------- XxX V DotanlsrotmexpenGibunes¢O les ales eee ee eee alate ate appeal Xk V Appropriations for North American Ethnology -...------- Sitar tva rate XXVI =Detals of expendibureswot Same ae-— — == sea los lee = onic is ayalinlmiar XXVI Appropriation for the National Museum ...--...-...------------------- XXVII Doras Omexpendibunesiolas amen see se eee seta ae erate siete ln ee eto XXVIII Appropriations for the National Zoological Park.........--.------------ XXX VIII IDYeeMUES One Crgaverobhpeyort Keni Bed bo5 eae be eee Sess coecco coon Oeneo- XXXVUI Appropriation for repairs of Smithsonian building.---.------.----------- XL Detatlsorex pena iures Ol SAMO. esse sere oo ae - ocr eee ane eae XL Appropriation for Astro-physical Observatory . ..---.------------------ XL Details ofexpendrures OF GAMO-.-- 2-22 ------42-- . -20--= eae ee ee Present Problems in Evolution and Heredity, by H. F. Osborn....2......---- Report on the Migration of. Birds, by J.Av Palmény-..--- 5-5. ee0s sole eee fhe-Empire.of the-Aur; bywus 2) Mouillardigss- sss e= een eee eee Erogress of Anthropology in 1892, by ©: T. Mason ..-.:2-.---.2---2e- 2a seee The Advent of Man in America, by A. de Quatrefages Primitive Industry, by Thomas Wilson i ae reas 16 16 16 2. 45 49 49 59 69 G4 80 CONTENTS. VII Page. Prehistoric New Mexican Pottery, by Henry Hales -...-.-...-....2.2......-- 535 Relics of an Indian Hunting Ground, by Atreus Wanner...-.-..........-..-.. 55D Aborisinal Burial Mounds in ‘Ohio, by R. J. Thompson... ---..-..-.-------- 571 Indian Remains on the Upper Yellowstone, by William S. Brackett .....----- 577 PrimibivesNumberio ystems, by Wwevd Py Conant. 5--s2c.esc-c. 257 Heredity: Fig. 2....-..-------- cee seenee 258 ee Te ae 1, ne, a a 336 Wig gies sh Oy Ose eins = sees 259 WiacaqouSee ke. 7, yaaa 819 EMS Seip OaO Meee ses ots wis, 2 50s ee 260 | Bion. isin Bl op et oe Be 843 lovers (0) bl lee one SaaS eeoe 261 Hig uGies tektec ees poe eee 2t{ Oe eS BO CONST Gar oe ere 262. THY fie 1 ee Pee or Fig. 13........-----+-------+- 264 Me eee ees 0 alia 356 Ea aan lela eam ine nln 265 Siete eee ae Rees te 360 Hier US aoe Sec cognate 6 CSco.CeREe 266 Igo teil. ane ge rere 363 Crystallization : ERO RIDE SEs Teens BS) sere sere 364 1 Da ine ( ae NOC ASABE SC SaEee 271 | The Empire of the Air AOS eo nats se toy ite Aceeaee c120e 272 1 es lose ene Ae ee Bee 107 |ELet 2) Os A ee a a 273 fie) ape ales ee a ere BN 429 aR ee a x nyeen seca see 274 MG Sistem Ae oe cree ee ene 431 Vill The Empire of the Air—Continued. Page. | Relies of an Indian Hunting Lota ee Eeoelit ieee Hulots Omer Wigs 7,3): : Jeihees WMO) See Fie. Fig. JPri@es I soon ONO ene ieee ceo Pies, (B55 en6 Wicwipece == TET GR) pee [Mie Ose eae Homa ae Jeriag, eS = Hilo eee JGR Tye a Viegas ae IMiees Wa) = Sse Mige 1622-2 pres, IIA eee Relics of an Indian Hunting WAS eos Ground: Wirt Vigs. Figs. Figs. Figs. Ae « Figs. CONTENTS. 433, 437 | AA | 449, | 448 | 449 450 | ADA | 455 | Indian Remains on the Upper Yel- Explorations in Mongolia and Ground—Continued. iosy 38 aAo ot res eee een igs. 43=4 605 see ee eee eerie Bios Ara S ee eee ete reap aaa Tigs. Figs. Figs. Figs Figs Aboriginal Burial Mounds in Ohio: Fig. Fig. Vig. Fig. BOL Dino eee O51, Soe a ee BS, 00 ee eee eae 02661522 cecce eee eee OM OS ae eta ee eee lowstone: Fig. 1. y POs De yeas a See se eetee Fig. Tibet: Fig. Mig. Fig. Fig. Fig. lig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Vig. Tig. THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. MEMBERS EX OFFICIO OF THE “ESTABLISHMENT.” (January, 1892.) BENJAMIN HARRISON, President of the United States. LEVI P. MORTON, Vice-President of the United States. MELVILLE W. FULLER, Chief-Justice of the United States. JOHN W. FOSTER, Secretary of State. CHARLES FOSTER, Secretary of the Treasury. STEPHEN B. ELKINS, Secretary of War. BENJAMIN F. TRACY, Secretary of the Navy. JOHN WANAMAKER, Postmaster-General. WILLIAM H. H. MILLER, Attorney-General. WILLIAM E. SIMONDS, Commissioner of Patents. REGENTS OF THE INSTITUTION. (List given on the following page. ) OFFICERS OF THE INSTITUTION. SAMUEL P. LANGLEY, Secretary. Director of the Institution and of the U. S. National Museum. G. BROWN GOODE, Assistant Secretary. REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. By the organizing act approved August 10, 1846 (Revised Statutes, Title LXxti1, section 5580), “The business of the Institution shall be conducted at the city of Washington by a Board of Regents, named the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, to be composed of the Vice- President, the Chief-Justice of the United States [and the Governor of the District of Columbia|. three members of the Senate, and three mem- bers of the House of Representatives, together with six other persons, other than members of Congress, two of whom shall be resident in the city of Washington and the other four shall be inhabitants of some State, but no two of the same State.” REGENTS FOR THE YEAR 1892. The Chief-Justice of the United States: MELVILLE W. FULLER, elected Chancellor and President of the Board Jan- uary 9, 1889. The Vice-President of the United States: LEVI P. MORTON. United States Senators: Term Expires JUSTIN S. MORRILL (appointed Feb. 21, 1883, and Dec. 15, 1891). Mar. 3, 1897. SHELBY M. CULLOM (appointed Mar. 23, 1885, and Mar. 28, 1889). Mar. 3, 1895. RANDALL L. GIBSON (appointed Dee. 19, 1887, and Mar. 28, 1889).Mar. 3. 1895. Members of the House of Representatives: JOSEPH WHEELER (appointed Jan. 5, 1888, and Jan. 15, 1892) .. Dee. 27, 1893. HENRY CABOT LODGE (appointed January 15, 1892). _........- Dec. 27, 1893. W. C. P. BRECKINRIDGE (appointed January 15, 1892) -.....--.. Dec. 27, 1893. Citizens of a State: HENRY COPPEE, of Pennsylvania (first appointed Jan, 19, 1874)..Jan. 26, 1898. JAMES B. ANGELL, of Michigan (first appointed Jan. 19, 1887) ...Jan. 19, 1893. ANDREW D. WHITE, of New York (first appointed Feb. 15, 1888). Feb. 15, 1894. WILLIAM P. JOHNSTON, of Louisiana (appointed Jan. 26, 1892) ..Jan. 26, 1898. Citizens of Washington: JAMES C. WELLING (first appointed May 13, 1884).........--.-- May 22, 1896. JOHN B. HENDERSON (appointed January 26, 1892)............. Jan. 26, 1898. Executive Commitiee of the Board of Regents. JAMES C. WELLING, Chairman. HENRY COPPEE. J. B. HENDERSON. x > JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. SPECIAL MEETING OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. OCTOBER 21, 1891. Pursuant to a call by the Secretary, a special meeting of the Board of Regents was held at the Institution to-day at 10:50 A.M. Present: the Honorable Levi P. Morton, Vice-President of the United States; the Honorable S. M. Cullom, the Honorable R. L. Gibson, the Honor- able B. Butterworth, Dr. A. D. White, Dr. J. C. Welling, Dr. Henry Coppée, Gen. M. C. Meigs, and the Secretary. The Vice-President took the chair and called the meeting to order, and on Dr. Welling’s suggestion, there being no objection, the reading of the minutes of the last annual meeting was dispensed with. The Secretary then stated that he had, some months since, entered on a correspondence with Mr. Thomas G. Hodgkins, of Setauket, Long Island, and that Mr. Hodgkins had intimated his desire to give a con- siderable sum to the fund of the Smithsonian Institution ‘for the in- erease and diffusion of knowledge among men.” Further correspond- ence led to visits to Mr. Hodgkins by the Seeretary and by the Assistant Secretary, and to prolonged conferences with him, the result of which was that Mr. Hodgkins offered a donation of $200,000, concerning which the Secretary had telegraphed the Regents June 22, and upon receiving the individual approval of most of the Regents to the accept- ance of the sum named, Mr. Hodgkins had later, on September 22, at his home on Long Island, given this amount in cash to the Secretary, who, in company with the Assistant Secretary, had brought it te Washington and deposited it in the Treasury of the United States, with the under- standing that an early meeting of the Regents would be called as a body to consider as to its acceptance. The exact terms in which Mr. Hodgkins made this gift would, the Secretary said, be stated later; but he gives $200,000 to the Smithsonian Institution to be added to the Smithson fund proper ‘for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men,” with the condition that the income of $100,000 of the gift shall be used, under this general purpose, for the especial one of the increase and diffusion of knowledge by in- vestigating and spreading knowledge concerning all the phenomena of atmospheric air. XI XE JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. This meeting was, therefore, called in pursuance of this understand- ing, and also with regard to some matters concerning the Zodlogical Park. Dr. Welling said that he had been instructed by his colleagues on the Executive Committee to bring the matter of this donation before the Regents in such a way that they can accept or reject the munificent gift made by Mr. Hodgkins. He then read the following preamble and resolutions: Whereas, Thomas G. Hodgkins, of Setauket, Long Island, has placed in the hands of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, the sum of two hundred thousand dollars, for the purpose declared by him in a formal statement, as follows: SEPTEMBER 22, 1891. I, Thomas G. Hodgkins, of Setauket, New York, desiring to increase the endow- ment of the Smithsonian Institution, founded in the city of Washington, for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men, have transferred to Samuel Pierpont Langley, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, the sum of two hundred thousand dollars, the same to be delivered to the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Insti- tution, to whom I give it in trust, to be invested permanently in the Treasury of the United States, as a part of the Smithson fund, and its interest to be applied to the increase and diftuson of knowledge among men; this fund to be called the Hodgkins Fund, and all premiums, prizes, grants, or publications made at its cost, to be designated by this name; the interest of one hundred thousand dollars of this fund to be permanently devoted to the increase and diffusion of more exact knowledge in regard to the nature and properties of atmospheric air, in connection with the wel- fare of man in his daily life and in his relations to his Creator, the same to be effected by the offering of prizes, for which competition shall be open to the world, for essays in which important truths regarding the phenomena on which life, health, and human happiness depend shall be embodied, or by such other means as in years to come may appear to the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution calculated to produce the most beneficent results. * * * (Signed) THOMAS G. HODGKINS. Witness: (Signed) M. L. CHAMBERS. Therefore, be it Resolved, That the Regents hereby accept the sum in question, subject to the con- ditions thus stated by the donor, and that the Secretary is instructed to carry into effect these conditions, and to administer the income as in the case of the income from other funds belonging to the Institution. Resolved, That the Secretary is instructed to place the sum of $200,000 in the U. S. Treasury, at six per centum interest, under the terms of section 5591, of Title LX x11, of the Revised Statutes of the United States. ‘ x x x x x P Resolved, That the thanks of the Board of Regents are tendered to Mr. Hodgkins for his generous and public-spirited donation, and that an engrossed copy of the above preamble and resolutions be transmitted to him by the Secretary. In answer to a question as to whether this was an absolute gift to the Institution, the Secretary said that Mr. Hodgkins thoroughly under- stood that this gift was subordinate to the general title of the Smith- sonian fund, though it was to bear his own name as a sub-title. Senator Cullom addressed the meeting at length, quoting frequently from the Revised Statutes, arguing in favor of accepting the gift with JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. XIII its conditions, and concluding his remarks with a motion that the resolutions be adopted. The Chairman having put the question, the resolutions were unani- mously adopted. The Secretary then brought before the Regents the difficulties under which he was laboring from the insufficient appropriations for the Na- tional Zodlogical Park, and after a full discussion of the special diffi- culties of the situation belonging to a novel undertaking, where no one could say beforehand what appropriation would certainly be required under each item, but where limited appropriations are nevertheless made in unchangeable specific items, unsupplemented by discretionary power, the following preamble and resolution were adopted: Whereas, the National Zodlogical Park has been placed under the direction of this Board, under legislative conditions quite other than those contemplated at the time that the responsibility of its administration was accepted by it: Resolved, That the Secretary is authorized and instructed to represent to the proper committees of Congress the difficulties which these conditions impose upon the administration of the Institution, and to advise such legislation as may do away with the present system by which half of the expense of said park is paid from the revenues of the District of Columbia; and also to advise such changes in the form of future appropriation bills as may be requisite to do away with the especially imposed difficulties which are now encountered in carrying on the work. Adjourned, XIV JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. ANNUAL MEETING OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. JANUARY 27, 1892. The annual meeting of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Tustitution was held to-day at 10 A. mM. Present: Mr. Chief Justice Fuller, Vice-President Morton, the Hon. J. 8. Morrill, the Hon. 8. M. Cullom, the Hon. R. L. Gibson, the Hon. Joseph Wheeler, the Hon. W. C. P. Breckinridge, Dr. Henry Coppée, Dr. J. B. Angell, Dr. William Preston Johnston, the Hon. J. B. Henderson, and the Secretary. Excuses for non-attendance were read from Dr. J. C. Welling, caused by illness, and from Dr. A. D. White, by important engagements. The Chancellor stated that the minutes of the annual meeting of January 28, 1891, and of the special meeting of October 21, 1891, were of considerable length, and the Secretary was requested to read them in abstract, which was done. The Secretary announced that the Vice-President on December 15, 1891, re-appointed as Regent the Hon. J. 8S. Morrill, a United States Senator; that the Speaker of the House had re-appointed Repre- sentatives Joseph Wheeler, of Alabama; Henry Cabot Lodge, of Massa- chusetts, and appointed Representative W.C. P. Breckinridge, of Ken- tucky, and that further vacancies in the Board had been filled by the re-appointment, by joint resolution approved by the President, January 26, 1892, of Henry Coppée, of Pennsylvania, and by the appointment of Willian Preston Johnston, of Louisiana, and John Bb, Henderson, of the District of Columbia. The Secretary announced the death of Gen. M. C. Meigs, a Regent at large, on January 2, 1892. Dr. Coppée moved that a committee, to consist of one member of the Board and the Secretary, be appointed to present to this meeting an obituary notice of the late Gen. Meigs. The motion was carried, and the Chancellor nominated Dr. Coppée to act with the Secretary. Dr. Coppée, after expressing his regret at the illness of the chairman of the Executive Committee, and his personal sorrow at the death of his col- league on the committee, Gen. Meigs, read the following memorial reso Jution: MEMORIAL RECORD OF GEN. M. C. MEIGS. The Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution desires to place on record the expression of its sincere sorrow and its sense of the great loss it has suffered in the death of Gen. Montgomery Cunningham Meigs, a member of the Board and one of its Executive Committee. His valuable services to the Institution began indeed before he was officially connected with it as a regent and continued until his death. While Gen. Meigs was prominently associated with many useful undertakings, his record as a soldier and as a citizen is marked by unswerving fidelity and extraor- dinary capability. The principal events of his life can only be briefly mentioned, as showing what varied experience he placed at the service of the Institution, JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. XV He was born on the 3d of May, 1816, at Augusta, Ga., where his father, Charles D. Meigs, afterwards the eminent physician and author of Philadelphia, was then practicing medicine. After preliminary studies at the University of Pennsylvania, he entered the Military Academy at West Point on the Ist of July, 1832, and was graduated with distinction in 1836. He was at once appointed to a position in the artillery service, and in the following year was transferred to the Corps of Engi- neers. In 1849 he was engaged in the Engineer Bureau at Washington, and from that time until the outbreak of the civil war his activity was principally directed to the construction of Government works. ‘Toward the close of 1852 he made a sur- vey at Washington to determine the best plan for supplying the city with water. He was eventually placed in charge of the work, which included the designing and construction of the Potomac acqueduct. This remarkable work contains a single arch of 220 feet span, which still remains the largest stone arch hitherto constructed. He also had charge, as supervising engineer, of the north and south extensions oi the National Capitol and of the construction of the iron dome, as well as of vate northward extension of the General Post-Office building. When the war broke out he was appointed colonel of the Eleventh Infantry (May 14, 1861) and afterwards quartermaster-general of the U. S. Army, with the rank of brigadier-general. This post required unusual administrative ability, with a@ probity which commanded general recognition, and it was because of his high integrity and the strength of his personal character, as well as his acknowledged capacity for business, that he was entrusted with the handling and use of hundreds of millions of dollars in the greatest war ever waged. This is not the place to recount his military services. They were numerous and admirably discharged. His duties took him to all parts of the country, connected him with many fields of labor, and engaged him on the most varied comiissions. Suffice it to say that he fully justified the confidence imposed in him by President Lincoln, performing with signal ability the duties entrusted to him. In 1864 he received the well-earned title of brevet major-general in the Army. Even during the period of his service in the Army he was engaged in other oceu- pations; rendering the Smithsonian Institution most important service in 1876 by devising the new building for the National Museum, a marvel of economic design. While still full of vigor Gen. Meigs was retired from active service on the 6th of February, 1882, by the inexorable law which makes the grand climacteric the period when military inaction begins. But he was by no means idle. Tle signalized his talent as an architect by the construction of the Pension-Oftice building at Washington between the years 1882 and 1887. He was elecied a feliow of the National Academy of Sciences in 1865, and a regent of the Smithsonian Institution, as a ‘citizen of Washington,” and directly upon his entrance into the board, December 26, 1885, became an active member of its Exeen- tive Committee. He was always present, extremely painstaking, and eminently judicious in his counsel and judgment on important points of business and policy. He had just been nominated as regent for another term of six years when he was taken away from us by sudden illness (January 2, 1892). He was eminent as a soldier, as a scientific investigator, as a public-spirited citi- zen, and as a man. Industrious and exact in business, he knew no idle time. He yas a busy man even when he spent a year in Europe for his health in 1867 and 1868, as well as on his visit there in 1875 on Government service. Few regents have been of such importance to the Institution as Gen. Meigs, and it is fitting that we should record our tribute of thankfulness for his eminent serv- ices and our great sorrow at his loss. He was a man faithful in all things, who has left behind him an enduring reputation. Senator Gibson moved the adoption of the memorial and that a copy thereof should be sent to the family of Gen. Meigs, which was carried. XVIII JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. three items: For buildings, improvements, and maintenance. While all were insufficient, that for maintenance (which was essentially for the care and food of living animals) was peculiarly inadequate, since it left him unable to care for creatures who could not care for themselves, and ought not to be allowed to suffer. This item, then, was notably different in kind from those providing for buildings or roads, which might be left incomplete with less immediate damage or only pecuniary loss. Senator Morrill expressed his regret at the deplorable insufficiency of the appropriations for the park, and at the necessity of contemplating the sundering of the park from the Institution, but he was of the opin- ion that such a separation would become desirable unless some change was made. He thought it out of the question that the matter should continue on the present footing, and the Smithsonian ought not again to be put under the necessity of caring for any part of the park out of its private funds, even temporarily and indirectly. Further remarks were made by Mr. Breckinridge and Mr. Wheeler. With reference to the administration of the Institution, the Secretary recalled that the Assistant Secretary has, as such, no power to act in the Seeretary’s place, such as the Assistant Secretary in any Execu- tive Department possesses, and that he can not even execute such routine signatures of necessary vouchers and like papers as in Executive Departments the law authorizes, not only him, but his subordinates to do. Apart from the important administrative duties assigned to the Secretary, there present themselves daily a great many vouchers and like routine papers for the Treasury from the different bureaus under his charge—papers which, as has just been stated, would in every bureau of any Executive Department of the Government be signed by a subordinate officer; while here the Secretary or Acting Secretary must personally sign such routine money papers, under a custom which has grown step by step from small beginnings to be a hardly tolerable burden in the illness or absence either of the Secretary or of the Act- ing Secretary, while tor their joint illness no provision is made what- ever. To meetin part the difficulties arising from the necessity of dele- gating authority for signing voucbers and like Treasury papers, it was Stated that by proper action of the Board of Regents all require- ments of the Treasury Department might be met. No similar difficulty exists in any Executive Departinent, because in all such the law provides not only for the Secretary and Acting Secretary, but for a line of succession of subordinate officers author- ized to execute such acts as the daily conduct of their respective bureaus renders necessary. The Seeretary pointed out that, owing to the established principles of couduct in the Smithsonian Institution (which there was no intention here of departing from), the Secretary’s power had never been diffused JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. XIX and delegated as was the case in the Executive Departinents of the Gov- ernment, where there were several persons in every separate bureau who had a right, in case of the absence not only of the Secretary and Acting Secretary, but of the head of the bureau itself, to carry on its affairs, and especially to sign such money papers as were required for its current business with the Treasury. There was no time, however, in the past twelve years, when, in the joint event of the illness of the Secretary and the Acting Secretary, there was any such provision for ‘arrying on the current business of the Institution. The Secretary further pointed out that since the provision for an Acting Secretary was first made in 1879, he had made a computation of the amount of business coming before the Secretary then and now, which shows that the work is at present from eight to ten times that when the first legis- lation for an Acting Secretary was asked for. Dr. Coppée said that owing to his long connection with the Institu- tion—perhaps the longest of any member present, with the possible exception of Senator Morrill—he felt particularly in a position to cor- roborate the statements made by the Secretary as to the growth of the business of the Institution since the passage of the act relating to the appointment of an Acting Secretary, and he thought the best manner of effecting this immediate relief to the Secretary was covered by the following resolution : Resolved, That the Secretary be empowered to appoint some suitable person who, in case of need, may sign such requisitions, vouchers, abstracts of vouchers, accounts current, and indorsements of checks and drafts as are needed in the current busi- ness of the Institution or of any of its bureaus, and are customarily signed in the bureaus of other departments of the Government. He added that as this came before the Board at a late hour he would move, in order to give time for its consideration, that the whole matter be put in the hands of a committee appointed by the Chancellor with power to act. The Chancellor stated that undoubtedly the increased growth of the Institution had introduced new demands, and that it was desirable that the action in reference to them should be carefully studied. After further remarks by Mr. Breckinridge and Mr. Henderson and other members of the Board, Dr. Coppée said that he thought the action of the Hxecutive Committee could cover the ground of the reso- lution, and, on motion of the Vice-President, the whole subject was referred to the Executive Committee with power to act on the resolu- tion. The Secretary said, in connection with what had just been done, that the increased burdens of extraneous duties imposed by Congress were accompanied by special expenses for administering appropria- tions for which no legislative provision was made, and which necessa- rily fell on the limited Smithsonian fund, partly in indirect’ ways. There was uo provision, tor instance, for a disbursing oflicer, or private XX JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. secretary, or stenographers, or clerks, or messengers to attend to the administrative duties common to all the bureaus under the Regents’ care. Dr. Coppée offered the following resolution, at the same time calling the attention of the Board that it referred to public funds only: Resolved, That the Secretary be instructed to ask for an appropriation by Congress to meet the miscellaneous expenses incident to the administration of the public funds with which the Regents are intrusted. On motion the resolution was adopted. There being no further business before the meeting the Board ad- journed. JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. XXI SPECIAL MEETING OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. MARCH 29, 1892. A special meeting of the Board of Regents was held to-day at a quarter before 10 o’clock A.M. Present: The Chancellor—Mr. Chief- Justice Fuller, in the Chair; the Hon. Levi P. Morton, Vice- President; the Hon. S. M. Cullom; the Hon. R. L. Gibson; the Hon. Joseph Wheeler; the Hon. H. C. Lodge; the Hon. W. C. P. Breckin- ridge; Dr. J. C. Welling, and the Secretary. The reading of the minutes of the last meeting was dispensed with, and the Secretary read a telegram from Dr. Coppée, expressing his regret at his inability to be present. The Secretary stated that the meeting had been called at the request of three of the Regents chiefly on account of the action of the Appro- priations Committee of the House of Representatives—a matter in which the good name of the Institution was in some measure involved, —whereby the appropriations for various Government interests under the charge of the Regents had been reduced to such an extent that the prosperity of all these departments would receive a blow from which they could not hope to recover for years to come. Especial stress was laid upon the inadequacy of the appropriations for the National Zodlogical Park and attention was also called to the fact that the park is already visited on fair days by thousands not only of adults but of children, while dangerous animals are there with- out sufficient buildings or cages or inclosures, and without means to provide them, and that the only protection of the public and especially of children must be from incessant guardianship, which the present small and overworked force is unable to properly render. The Secretary stated that he was unable to carry on the park with less expenditure for maintenance than $26,000, or with a less total appropriation than $50,000, in case it were made in one item. The following resolutions were introduced by Mr. Wheeler: Resolved, That the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution would re- spectfully represent to Congress the impossibility of maintaining the administration of the United States National Zodlogical Park, required by the act of Congress of April 30, 1890, with a less appropriation for maintenance than $26,000, or with a less total appropriation than $50,000. Resolved, That the Secretary of the Institution be requested to communicate this resolution to the President of the Senate and Speaker of the House of Representa- tives, with a preliminary statement of the reasons and considerations on which it is based. After some further discussion, the resolutions were adopted, with the understanding that such limited modification of the wording might be made as to meet any technicality suggested by the Treasury De- partment. There was a general expression of opinion among the Regents that the XXII JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS condition of the affairs of the park should be brought to the attention of Congress by explanation on the floor of the House and Senate from Regents and friends of the Institution. Further remarks on the matter were made by Mr. Lodge and Dr. Welling. The Secretary then read a communication from Mr. Thomas G. Hodgkins, dated March 10, 1892, in which Mr. Hodgkins stated that he desired to relinquish the option of contributing the further sum of $100,000 to the Smithsonian fund. There being no further business betore the Board, the meeting ad- journed., REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. FoR THE YEAR ENDING 3011 oF JUNE, 1892. To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution: Your Exeeutive Committee respectfully submits the following report in relation to the funds of the Institution, the appropriations by Con- gress, and the receipts and expenditures for the Smithsonian Institu- tion, the U. S. National Museum, the International Exchanges, the Bureau of Ethnology, the National Zodlogical Park, and the Astro- Physical Observatory, for the year ending 350th June, 1892, and balances of former years: SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, Condition of the fund July 1, 1892. The amount of the bequest ef James Smithson deposited in the Treasury of the United States, according to act of Congress of August 10, 1846, was $515,169. To this was added by authority of Congress, February 8, 1867, the residuary legacy of Smithson, savings from income and other sources, to the amount of $134,831. To this also have been added—a bequest from James Hamilton, of Pennsylvania, of $1,000; a bequest of Dr. Simeon Habel, of New York, of $500; the proceeds of the sale of Virginia bonds, $51,500; and a gift from Thomas G. Hodgkins, of New York, of $200,000, mak- ing in all, as the permanent fund, $905,000. Statement of the receipts and expenditures from July 1, 1891, to June 30, 1892. RECEIPTS. SashronshaMdeyulvelet ool. - Ko eee e Veoh as ASO EC $40, O62. 11 MNLOLEStNONsURG vel VOOM: sone etree oe $21, 090. 00 Interestion fund January, 1, 1892 2-2 22------ ee. 23, 391. 36 —————— _ 44, 481.36 Casiitrommelnomas; Gs blo doles) esc eee ec ccc steers 200, 000. 00 ——— 284, 543.47 CashwromstesiOf publications) -- 942. -e)-- ke sale Pee 1, 200. 00 assistant librarian; 12 months; at $l00:. {225 s2es 22 2 - 1, 200. 00 stenographer, 11 months, at $60; 1 month, at $85.------ 745. 00 draftsman, 7 months, 15 days, IERS: OB ce eneeee ee ome 326. 41 assistant draftsman, 5 months, at $40:_2 2-2-2 2.--5------ 200. 00 clerk: d2smonths sa tipi baa ee eee eee 1, 500. 00 clerk, 4monthsjand do dans, -atipl >= eee 665. 32 clerk. 12 months at Sib 2 ee eee eee 1, 380. 00 Clerks 12 sma omibhis se ets Sie he ee ere 1, 380. 00 Clenk-al2 months, at SlO0 sc) ees a eee eee ete eee 1, 200. 00 clerk, 12 smomths ati GilOO1: sve eee ee eer eee 1, 200.00 $14, 625. 00 1, 590. 00 va 6, 769. 88 1, 576. 67 6, 206. 80 174. 00 1, 710. 00 32, 652. 35 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE Salaries or compensation—Continued. COMMITTEE. HC lecke ge 2 SmMonbis y abepoO =e mes cen sey oe: oe oe #1, O80. 00 eclenk lo mMmonihs ya bepoadooes see aoe eee aaa tn ee fee 999, 96 le clerk voumaonith sel oyd any Sabie se seep ee ea ee 520. 00 IeClerkeelaemon bas eatin sees cores.) eee ee oe 900. 00 MeClerksala MOnONS pAb pisces a etee en oe oe eine ee 840. 00 liecler|-sal emouuns wath bOUs ass aoe cece ac oes ate eee 720. 00 Welenkssliemonths24- days ati t602=-o +> oe 25- ce ey 706. 45 IolenkwlinmontnsyladayeratisO0 nme eee eee ees eee 661. 94 clerk el Zanonuhis ati poO ee seme ias cece le can eae sere 720. 00 NP ClOLkc wl rIMOMGHS cabo Omerseepa se cee aisles eerie a ete 720. 00 NgcClonkwilemombhs ati eoUss eee =e ae ee eee eee 660. 00 Iteleonioen 2 MONEUS sabi ose= meee reer ee ss oe ee earn 660. 00 inclerk pro Monon Ss ea bipoo sats as sae eta ea en ee 660. 00 Heclenkemlosmombhis sea tipootemen ce see ciac ees ce Mikes oa oe 660. 00 Mclork-wlZsmonmths< atone rm sacists oe ee eee Co eee 660. 00 iclerk-sl2hmonuhs rat poUl ee seeee ns eee et eee oe = 600. 00 Nvclerk elommonbhs sauipoOle pee ete ea eee ee ae eee 600. 00 HeclenkewlemonthsedaysruulpoU ners rea ee = eee 561. 29 ivclerik-eosmonths9 dasa tivo san- 2s oes ae ere ec 165. 00 He COpysteplapm Onbhe abso seem hese cee oe eee 660. 00 lecopyish elem onbhe ab po Op ee eee sey en eer 600. 00 HE COpVTStal asMoOmunS wartiho Oke sees ene eee oe cee ae ee ene 600. 00 fecopyist, tosmonths, at($50) <2). 32k lS EUR rae 600. 00 IZCOPYIShWOMMONUNS abihoO pecs leeeeites eee ese nena 150. 00 1 copyist, 8 months 15 days, at $45........-.......-.--.--- 381, 77 (Fcopyise, l2smonths, dati plO! sss sos ee eee aol aes 480. 00 [ecopyast,el2imonbths at p40 sos s6 see ae ee ee 480. 00 iFcopyist. 2 months satiGlOimes=-- eee asses ee See 480. 00 IT COp YAS Zan ONL hs ea tpl) cts se eels eer ee oes ee 480. 00 HRCOP YAS Zemonths i abepd 0S yes sere eee ee ak rose eee 480. 00 AucopyIst mle months wah poomeeee sss] eae anaes eke ees see ee 420. 00 MCOpPYASt pO MONT US Gidays mation) sae ee eee eee cee eee 123. 06 Ngcopyisiml 2emonths wat boo see see ees see soe eee 420. 00 IRCOpYISt MOMMONbS ati PSOMyenacrseeas se secon Oconee Soc. 180. 00 ISCOPVISt elicamronbus pabipoOmeere eas enaecescss ene eee. 360. 00 HECOWVISteeoMOmMUS abi Hal mye Sere wee Det ete Ne ee cee 360. 00 MCOpyAsStwoo lays mabiploOlperndays-- sso: css 2 ac.cuce ee - 84. 00 [Gby. pe-wiluer, to months jab Go0ssss-cee+ -6-5 55222552 lee 600. 00 PREPARATORS. 1 preparator, 10 months, at $100 ...-..-.-.---........--..- 1, 000. 00 ispreparator, l2imonths, andeQlereas eee. ]s- ee eS l ee 960. 00 i preparator, 12 months, at $602- 222-25 222..2--2-5.-22.+:. 720.00 1 preparator, 6 months, at $60, $360; 30 days, at $60 per month, $58.06; 284 days, at $60 per month, $58.97; 30 days mauPoO per monuh 506.06) 2595 seen cena eons eee 535. 00 LGPL PAarabor lemMonb has oe ss SSS eee ee ee oe Lok ce 75. 00 ispreparator,. 24 days, at $3:20)-.).- 222 Se ee ee sce 76. 80 LEAS to MMOnU MSs ab pill er yeaa oe eee oe Sees ete 1, 320. 00 1 photographer, 9 months, at $158.33, $1,424.97; 15 days, at $158.33 per mouth, $76.61; 16 days, at $158.33 per TO Lib ee hey ati ee ae ee Re een Dee ene i ee cate © 20) HRB 80 1 taxidermist, 12 months, at $60\-...-.-...-.....:...-..... 720. 00 1 taxidermist, 12 months, at $125 ............... Sect rl 00s 00 $38, 580. 16 XXX REPORT -OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Salaries or compensation—Continued, I taxidermist, 12 months; ab pl20i sos. ses sae = eee ee $1, 440. 00 1 taxidermist, 1 month, $80; 2,280 hours, at 45 cents -.---- 1, L06. 00 1 assistant taxidermist, 19 days, at $60 per month. --..---- 36. 77 ee 1 012196 BUILDINGS AND LABOR. 1 superintendent, 12 months, at $137. 50_...---..---...---- 1, 650. 00 1 assistant superintendent, 12 months, at $90 ....--...-... 1, 080. 00 CUTE tO tecyys UU C le 2 111 OTN ENS cee hitter ae eet 780. 00 ihehiet of watch, Wd months atipOos = = sass eae 780. 00 10 CRE OE AWENOO Fi asionese PYRO w eRe Ok Se ee 450. OO UAV BUC MITER, IMO MANS Chp sites) seeps so occas escesn sess = 780. 00 aware hinvensed 2 im ONG WS abner eee are ee 7, 200. 00 1 watchman, 9 months, at $50, $450; 29 days, at $50 per month, $48.33; 29 days, at $50 per month, $48.34; 30 days; ab $50) per mombhyp4s° 39s 2s Se see ee een 595. 06 1 watchman, 3 months 26 days, at $50 -..-.--.---.---.--.- 191. 94 iiwatchman..9 months)24 day saute eae ae eee 441. 00 1 watchman, 8 months 17 days, at $45 —..-2. .-22..-=---2-: 384. 68 (watchman soumonthis sa biplies —oe- scrieie seises yrs tener 135. 00 1 watchman, 10 months 29 days, at $45 ...-:.-.-.-.--.-..- 492.10 1 watchman, 10 months, at $45, $450; 30 days, at $45 per month, $43.55; 30 days, at $45 per month, $43.55 ...-..- 537. 10 {skilled Waborer, 12imonths, ab $522.2 = ee ree se ee O00 i skilledilaborer. limon this, abba 0) ee es ene setae eer OO C0) 1 skilled laborer, 1 month 16 days, at $50 ....--..-:..:-::- 75. 81 1 skilled laborer, 19 days, at $45 per month -...........-.- 27.58 Iiskilled laborer 2iadayis ;abiboeenes ee eee See 54. 00 Pskilledwaborern, 210d aysabiple 50 === a2 5 eaters 31.50 1 laborer, 8 months, at $46; 5 months, at $47.50; 1 month, ab P44 DOs 2k ecee s espns sae 2s seer soe eel ene eres 55d. 00 1 laborer, 2 months, at $51; 1 month, at $52.50; imonth, ~ at $49.50; 5 months, at $45; 3 months, at $48.._._..._... 573. 00 1 laborer, 4 days, at $1.29; 39 days, at $1.25; 240 days, at Pi DO! Scie ee 2S ee are cia nee eee ete eer eee 413, 91 t laborer, 10 months, at $40; 1 month, at $43; 1 month, at GAT 50! onc a vcine 5b. ok Stas Se cle wees pad petseine eee moses 484.50 llaborer.al2amon this, abis40 yess eerie ee aeieeeeee 480. 00 Djlaborer, 12 inon ths; ati $405 se seca eee oseee eae eeee 480. 00 IAlaporer, 12 month's sat 0 eee eee sete 480. 00 Laborer, l2-months> ait $40 ole se es ae os ye ees 480. 00 Ilaborer, 19 days) /atis40)perimonthgessesse.- 22a 24. 52 iMaborer,-298 days sab pile kee a2 = Soc ee eee 447, 00 Ilaborer,303F days) nati ple D0= soe eta se eee ee eae 455, 25 Llaborer, ol days at S100 eee = ea ee eee eee 76. 50 {dlaborer.28i- days; ab Sika Ok cee ce. soe ese oe eee eee 421.50 IMlaborenye20tedaysy abide 50) seme aes eee a ener 445,50 (slaborers 2374 dans, atipils Obes seek cee eee ee eer oe ee ee cee 431. 25 laborer days at hle50) asa nes see eee eee 16.50 Laborer: S2)days, avis 502. a meee oe earn en 48. 00 [Va OT ETS 1S Cay yy ati ley (oes ces ye ee ge eee a 117.00 ilaborer; 321 dayepat bil50) 22 eeee eee eee 481.50 LUE Xorveres GRUBER ln Aue ang gee Aeon Sosa enckae seen 48, 00 Laborer, S052 days abioleo 0s seo Sa ee ee 460, 38 Ltaborer -tlardays, at: bl; 50) rac ere cts cates alone eee ere etree Le OLY > REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Salaries or compensation—Continued. Ie MDOKEr osteCayS edu oO Marat; aatcjesmle Saat wcas ote cess $536. 25 NUS OLOT cote CaN Ss mcubr dll. eteaha ary ene Sia aie pen ono Ye ene 490. 50 PU MORET eo CLUS tev bp pulses uate meat ei Nee toners i, Ne ee, coe 424.50 PL YOLEL elo zal ayiS cub; ple OO se ae fe eerie serene eo 228. 00 PL NDOLeE eo seca Sy vole Unk ees eo setae eet te ee es oe 447. 00 Hela orewelsaclanisircutipilien Ose eas een tes on oseyeeey eae a) oe 19.50 PLU OLCISRO mr Chaycerch bile Om me peers = nye eee ye ee Sy A 97.50 iWahorer-Liemonths! 25idavys, ab pl.50) 2-242. - 245-2 >. - 476. 13 MAb orer.. 29a days, abapl- OOM os tect ec ee ee a EL 483. 75 el PDOKer OAS ¢ aur plo Osweceeaece aioe cis her mere ene - Sain 2 7.50 UM oneness days ab) hile zoe eee omnes ree Sake = Sse see 30. 00 1 laborer, 2 months, at $20; 24 days, at $i) .....2-2.-...-.. 64, 00 1 attendant, 10 months, at $40, $400; 30 days, at $40 per month, $38.71; 30 days, at $40 per month, $38.71 _......- ATT, 42 1 attendant, 10 months, at $40, $400; 28 days, at $40 per month, $37.33; 29 days, at $40 per month, $38.67--...... 476, 00 1 cleaner, § months, at $30, $270; 30 days, at $30 per month, $29.03; 293 days, at $30 per month, $29.48; 304 days, at $30 ELMO MGM ELI: 2 spears esters ome ae REN oh. eiaars oe ae TOD OAOS 1 cleaner, 12 months, at'$30.-...-..:.- 360. 00 1 cleaner, 10months, at $30, $3800; 304 an vs, sae $30-per ananirn, $29.52; 30 days, at $30 per month, $29.03...............- 358. 55 HeClEDIEL ple mNONbUS Ab boOUs see sare a tee eciecet ees Soe eee 360. 00 MCleANC DRO Cavs Bal. plore ae oe Soe. ei etree coe ee ce 314. 00 WecCleanter nol a; Wayis nation. San cre octal te scone Ceres ae. 314. 00 IeMessenser wl moms wal Slime ae ec ace ee sects coon 540. 00 1 messenger, 6 months, at $45; 6 months, at $50...........- 570. 00 1 messenger, 12 months, at $30 ............ ee BO0R00) 1 messenger, 11 months, at $30;:1 month, wp $31. 50. AES OSS 361. 50 [PMESSCUC eT O MNOS sab PI = aeye ey niece ate Salers Save see 150. 00 ibimeseremeccie, IP doris One) See 6 soGe6 boagooL Seee aoe a asec 240. 00 Pinessencern Aimonths 26idays; at $20. -2.222. 22252250 -2. 2 236. 17 1 messenger, 8 months, at $25, $200; 26 days, at $25 per month, $20.16; 20 days, at $25 per month, $16.67......... 236. 83 IBMGSHEM MET sro MIOTNUN Sicuby pl omersame rsa slere sctsiele teste Se tee on 88. 55 Special services by OMOLACOM UA CT =e esas cis says tors SE Beye ee eet ate PRODAGSErVilC Ge emeeeen pees mse St ote Sos celeise Sos ace hicks ac cemee Summary—Preservation of collections, 1892. IDSINGCHID. St: eRe BO OSB CROSS De oon SC6 SOOO eC enna tina en See gee Scientific staff .......... Mees Sc COREE Se ee eee POMC OS UA Tie seer es eet SS Seppe ute cee ts Soest he MN UN LEHI O NEON Oe SB oes Bie NE ctr i a ge ee ne POUL VEE CLAM OE ae comes ays 2 3P es er aecee Nee eietoe eee ee Mines wk eae ees SPeCIAeOlmCOMDLACURWOL Kater ce 2... cee te ee aac etic aes nletianG oe otal galanieson compensatione. oes es e a+ 2 asec os 2 oe Miscellaneous: SEL DULCE eee te ie ee crs hae Pa, RE oe rete ob ut 32, 038. 76 SHIGA DINETR eG oe ei ae oa eae sy eR oy ea Se ee $42. 79 Sy OXSLOVU CIES HIS) _ Late Coca Seer oa egies Le Se ee 6, 840. 12 BOOS OrLOduC Ula tem, saan er oaG a dine sicaciel adults : 453. 00 XXXI $33, 606. 36 2, 839. 64 122, 751. 43 $3, 999. 96 82, 652. 35 38, 580. 16 11, 072. 98 33, 606. 36 2, 839. 64 122, 751. 43 XXXII REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Miscellaneous—Continued. DP iGlenenoy oa e cos natn eenebaRanOmSmaEromeco cuatocensa Soe $1, 574. 81 Freight and cartage ...-..-..2-:2----+ +--+. S225 == se === -2, 180. 95 — $18, 450. 43 Total expenditure to June 30, 1892, for preservation of collections, Ie et Sab aie Genoa tose nono oD core votdde sae don dceeisboasgauses she 136, 181. 86 National Museum—Furniture and fixtures, July 1, 1891, to June 30, 1892. RECEIPTS. Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1892, ‘ for cases, furniture, fixtures, and appliances required for the exhibition and safe-keeping of the collections of the National Museum, includ- ing salaries or compensation of all necessary employés” (sundry civil eo Weis, IUceI)) oe cose eoonsoo nase so oc sancees Sono Gta ono oDesac $25, 000. 00 EXPENDITURES. Salaries or compensation: 1 engineer of property, 9 months, at $175 ....-....ssss0ee0.-------- $1,575.00 iL @zngoeimicre, 1A Gly Bhi tes 555 obo o oe Sone odsco! Ccébos cose econ sone 381. 00 i Cengage, CREED Cehish Gin eias Soe bebe eos eoshod soGson sabe sshesomcdlt 899. 25 IP Geng arene, Gls SCN Rh CIN Boxpolared Geseocesconuiscoued osaecuoso code 925. 50 il Ganyoeniie, 289 GASs Eli SBS So ose sosacebosso5 oss en8s S555 seus cocces 888. 00 il Garg ocinite, 113} Glenys, MU i Sced sean Soscsoogbs0s Saas se sesen cecacs og0c 39. 00 iene ceimicis, bis) CRAyS MUR Biogas Asnoo4 oreo pono cnhbSosce asses so555sc065 174. 00 Wearpenterss Ohmomthss atin Ole eae eee ere eee =e eee ae 910. 00 ikcanpenber.s0MndanySseabito estan eer ieeiner hee setae See eee 903. 00 ivearpenterw4 days satlpoee see eee are r eee eee eee ae ieee 42.00 ikehroullvssh Ven syonrese, Gall GleRYSS Che G2) Sos stom ene cocoon eenosaSocsases 628. 00 feskilledMaboreryail Std any8s ai poem eee eee eee eer 637. 00 iiskilledMaborer; Wmonth lO} danys,eait $00 esse. eee eee eee 81.45 APskalledela borers iO dlaiyserciieho 0 pee eee ete ee ete eee ee eters 30. 65 skilled laborers months abies Oeecis=eseeeee ese te ee 575. 00 ISON ol Vel nore, Zi) CAs), AN So 5s socono on sesacadsecososseodes¢ 550. 00 iL Siroulleyel Neal yaneeie, Bile) GlENYS, Bly BNL) 2655 esos cece suds cose ccomeanSoane 551. 25 IL Gleave ery, BIEL CbNVS, QU eisceomoco Ue scoucseUaseasSeep coos ao: 942. 00 ispaintensy 12 months patihooies setae see eee aici eae 780, 00 lstorekeeper 2 months atihOp-sen. seer esc. eee eae 840. 00 1 property clerk, 12 months, at $90 per month. ....-..-.--- is Wakes 1, 080. 00 1 laborer, 84 months, at $40 per month. --.....--....--.-.- $340. 00 1 laborer, 19 days, at'$40 per month: --2) 2... - 5. ee eee 26. 21 1 laborer, 1 month, at $46 per month...-.....-...- Oeene 46. 00 1 laborer, 1 month, at $41.50 per month..........-...--- 41.50 a 453. 71 13, 885. 81 Specialcorcontractiservacercee se ese ere eee eee eee 87. 96 Total expenditures for salaries or compensation.-.---.-.-.---- 13, 973. 17 Miscellaneous, materials, ete. : EMT DI GION CasOS eos nace eo cee tito Reece Bee $350. 00 Drawinostor CasOs= sc: = 25 ee oes AE ee eee eee 15. 00 Drawers; trays; (DOXCS=..22sce- ener eee Pee eer ee eee 543. 72 Frames, stands, ete REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Miscellaneous, materials, ete.—Continued. (CIES 2. cee) ob od cescte ReGen OS Con eee ae ne a oa oe ee $281. 75 leu wit Owe se ay kas setae © Rocce te Se A re once oy he gees 1, 016. 95 TEGONS SSCS GASES A SASSER OCS pen Eee eee ee ee eee 45.59 ClOtueSCOLDON Rob G esse pen ees ae ais cece cee =e oe aces aisles 63. 05 GSSS ALS Merce ors areola sine tapers) ata aya ere: fteteee Srsjsvein siecle 1, 062. 97 IE Terral SN Sra ee he ee tS aa en a ee 1, 660. 21 FETUS Ol USIMGS peers sieiceiers tact eros ae alee ee 499, 70 Oi Ceghurmibune sete ctae cree siete ore Saisie Seve eee eee 765. OO Wie halls perraceteccitnn eee sta ee Nae arse Vesta a cto eine se 367. 14 Rm bergamdelegulterr espe cee ieee epee ces ee seen oe eee 122. 28 APPALAlUS sean eso ae te esicies Hehe ee 5 sca fee cee eteees 129. 00 einai Cleo sts reese eerie = Oa Ae lyo ops ee esas assis eers 2.00 Peer nla lan Ove eeeseseerecsictap secre cates clara (sien els crs aisterie. oa cucecio eee 632. 00 Total expenditure July 1, 1891, to June 30, 1892, for furniture AUDA EXUMTCS eI SOS ere eee ete en cie oe eee ee ere cee Balance July 1, 1892, to meet outstanding liabilities......... XXXIIT $7, 725. 86 21, 699. 63 3, 300. 37 Heating, lighting, electric, and telephonic service, July 1, 1891, to June 30, 1892. RECEIPTS. Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending 30th June, 1892, “for expenses of heating, lighting, electrical, telegraphic, and tele- NHOMe sence don bheeNaplonalle MiUse Unde meen eee eee eee “For removing old boilers under Museum hall in Smithsonian building, replacing them with new ones, and for necessary alterations and con- nections of steam-heating apparatus and for covering pipes with fire- proof material” (sundry civil act, March 3, 1891)..........:.........- $12, 000. 00 3, 000. 00 15, 000, 00 EXPENDITURES. Salaries or compensation : en sincerplamonuls utah Loe eee = seem cee eee eee $1, 380. 00 1 fireman, 6 months, at $50 per month, $3800; 304 days, at $50 per month, $49.18; 194 days, at $50 per month, $31.45; 28 days, at $50 per month, $48.27; 9 davs, at $50 per month, $15. $443. 91 ASME Man 2M OMbNS wabipo Wee rec se eee sh ce 600. 00 Il irene, IPsaMOMNNS, BGO o 5 ocoocesauocesoede 600. 00 1 fireman, 11 months and 9 days, at $50.....-.-. 564. 52 ————— 2,208.43 1 telephone clerk, 12 months, at $60.........-.. 720. 00? 1. 140. 00 1 telephone clerk, 12 months, at $35.........-. 420.008” laborer. 327 days, av l.p0 perdave.++---c2-+---------- 490, 50 DECI UES EI WLCO we ere, aco ete ie ae oe ciccine sere ores 20. 00 Expenditures for salaries or compensation.-.--------..2--.------. (General expenses: HC OLEAN CEWOO Cmca sorts pee see seat neeeiat incl ee sine yscist $3, 365. 85 (CUO tas cad pate ie en et ea ee Sn 1, 360,51 PROLG NON ES reese eerste eee ie bon ernise Mmioa ss ees Sas 622. 65 EST @ CGC ayy kare rea ns NC ae Sener tee cee witty s oe 37. 00 PILEGUCICISUP DILOS Seeroer-ta mee oe Anes Seis emig eels eyeiave Sersice 87.53 NentaunOtscalleDoxeserme se asec eee ees nett e Se ee 100. 00 H. Mis. 114 Ill 5, 238. 93 XXMTV REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. General expenses—Continued. Heatine me pails: s5.282 == sc sees see's So ahe ee see eee se ee $329. 00 Meaitimojsuppliles secec cya oot ere Se ee eer ee Oy New boilers (spee Saal ap PLOpP Lavon) = see= ese eeee ee eee 2, 938. 47 $9, 274. 63 Votal expenditures July 1, 1892, to June 30, 1892, for heating, enn CbCH © soe. cterelee cep ee ee ie ee eee ee ee 14, 513. 56 Balance July 1, 1892, to meet outstanding liabilities........--... 486. 44 Postage, July 1, 1891, to June 30, 1892. « RECEIPTS. Appropriation by Congress tor the fiseal year ending 30th June, 1892, “for postage stamps and foreign postal cards for the National Whnseunn (dba Chhial evn Wiel Bis WED) oso e ke heoe csaeoscoesse cece $500. 00 EXPENDITURES. City, post-office for postage and postal cards ---52-- 2--------------=---- 500, 00 Appropriation all expended July 1, 1892. Printing, July 1, 1891, to June 30, 1892. RECEIPTS. Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1892, ‘‘for the Smithsonian Institution, for printing labels and blanks, and for the ‘Bulletins’ and volumes of the ‘ Proceedings’ of the National Museum” (sundry civil ACA MAN ivd eUOOIN aoe cee ere rk eee oe eee #15, GOO. 00 For the Smithsonian Institution, for printing for the use of the National Museum (deficiency act, March 3, 1891), not OXCCCMING < ceijsc..0 Joho gas ee Sees Ape ooo ea see eee 1, OOO. 00 ——-——— 16, 000500 Bulletins Nosi39 540 44 2 ee see ae eee $3, 639. 03 Bulleotmiys pecially NOs Gna pent) p= eee eee iL teil) 7s} Bulletin, special, No. 2 (im part)? --22 2222-22 ==. 427. 95 ——— 5,886.73 FLO CEE MUGS ys VON S op REN ONT yg SV at pe eee 2, 317. 96 Extras from LepOLtS|s- ase eee eee eee 310. 87 IGUSUS;sObC eects Gemintes co eee eee eee 74. 46 Wabels for;specimens= oss saa. eee eee ee a a eee 2, 023. 66 Letter heads, memorandum pads, and envelopes ------------ 125. 14 Blam; ses ctins Sethe cc xis StS aoe cae Oe Se Ce ee ere 360. 05 MCCOTE NOOKS 252 s5.c hha see eee ee eee 37.70 ConeressionalihecondS esses pees oe eee eee 24. 00 Total expenditure, July 1, 1891, te June 30, 1892, for DEIMGIN Te Naibi on all Vin sec ee eee 11, 160, 57 Balance July, Ws92)s: sc Coe ee eee 4, 839, 43 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. XXXV Building. RECEIPTS. Appropriation by Congress ‘* for removing the decayed wooden floors in the Museum building, substituting granolithie or artificial stone there- for, and for slate for covering trenches coutaining heating and electric apparatus, including all necessary material and iabor, to be immedi- GIVE Le “EEE LNT Sh a coe ath mee na eR 45, 000. 00 LEROMN AVE HREIN S} DNL ka) dimbite) BO) ARNE RS 5550 aes oeoc oo Sanaa eESouaGe 4,474. 64 Balance July 1, 1892, to meet outstanding liabilities............. 525. 36 Duties on Articles Imported for National Museum. Appropriation by Congress ‘‘to meet custom duties on glass, tin, and other dutiable articles and supplies Unported for the United Siates INGTON a eM Se Wee ee ats ye a ep oeesee se e g be eee ehe e 1, 000. 00 Paid direct by Treasury Department: Duty OMmOlasSseren eee ciate se eee gaye ee Mae se aoe $642. 75 Dutyronmalass-LOpsbOKeSS= se] oes eee nee cee ae 7.25 JOA OL RA RY Sao pts Oe oe eS Se ee re eae eee 291. 75 — 941. 75 Balan cop iullivarlal S92 Seis seer eee ees eee ee ee ee ee 58. 25 Preservation of Collections, 1890, Balance July 1, 1891, as per last annual report: --.--.....-......- 14. 92 Expenditures from July 1, 1891, to June 30, 1892, freight...........--- 14. 40 BY le wa vere). tol hii [Sed Roh A Se ers ears aes Senge ors ee ee a RE reo .o2 Preservation of Collections, 1S91. Balance July 1, 1891, as per last annual report.................. 7, 979. 99 Expenditures from July 1, 1891, to June 30, 1892: Salaries or compensation: [Fassistantmomonthatipe0 a) eee anes ee ee: #80. 00 IFASSIStanoemnOnbhe ab POD mee a. see so ee ee 65. 00 le Clerkex oN OM bR DOU ee eee cece cee 120. 00 ————=| Ee 00) SHOCIA CHO MAG WhO oc ooo pee tos eer see EGS ean eee ee 224, 93 489, 93 SUD OIG 52 8 A eer ee ac SSS es oes 1, O79. 37 SUguLON GD Veer hea Ns <5 ee ence! = ins, 422. 54 SP CCIM ENA ets eee ye is 35 Oe eee a axis vine HESS f, 191.51 Books ese. sse022 2 ee eee ce es 768. 15 PAN. lence ees ee t= Raye See Be ncthia aocttihe 273. 04 I RDey (ed ag ss a eB ae ee ee ee ee a8 Ae oO 465. 95 DPCM CNtMUe COV UNO Ose yea ae ee ene See eee ens nes. 7, 690. 49 ; 289. 50 Creepy disallowancerons stavlonely= -22 = 5... sen. o.oo) 2s ose 2.08 lee wae) Liu hea ea eh ee oe oe ee eee ee 291. 58 XXXVI REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Statement of Total Expenditures of the Appropriation for Preservation of Collections, 1891. Expenditures. From July1,| From July 1, | 1890, to June | 1891, to June |POra! to June 30, 1891. 30, 1892. pe [iorealaries...-2¢ eoetces see eee ae $117, 300. 52 | $489.93 | $117,790.45 | Mor Supplicsse— sass eee eee aa 3, 052. 32 1, 079. 37 4, 131.69 | TOPE SUE so50 esc oc macmseeodens 1, 653. 02 422. 54 2, 075. 56 | Hones pecimensees sae eee eee eee 6, 211. 40 4,191.51 10, 402.91 | Ten Hee) eecaoouasnoHhoscencbuguseseS 1, 114.78 273. 04 1, 387. 82 | Hor freightons-sc5-- esse tase seeeaeeer | 1, 862. 57 | 465. 95 2, 328. 52 | For books. .----- ene eee ee cee 825. 40 768.15 1,593.55 | TO eRe ee eae 132, 020. 01 7,690.49 | 139, 710. 50 | Balance eon aes oes ee 7, 979.99 289. 50 | 289.50 | (Ois2 esata booceocosnancooSone nae Sosb ord leooesoeSaebode lameooaeeeee = 254] 2. 08. | FE Geet | een ee 291.58 | Furniture and Fixtures, 1890. Balance July il 1891, as per last annual report wt ter tt rt eee tere sere wees $0. 28 Carried under the action of Revised Statutes, section 3090, by the Treasury De- partment to the credit of the surplus fund, June 30, 1892, Furniture and fixtures, 1891. Balance July 1, 1891, as per lastvanmniualitepontesease eee ee eee eee eee $3, 690. 54 Expenditures from July 1, 1891, to June 30, 1892: Exh bitlOMmicasese sone rie sieis eat ioe oo ee eee eee eee eer $1, 118. 00 IDR ENS EDs GUC 52555 5500 coon cas 4Scse5 sos5 ose Sos.cScas 43.50 (GUS sconeacecone cencus e550 ceScogen seco cestocuscédnad oases 397. 91 [RARE YES) sa cond acon censcesdcc cnse7D asos case ssoo cede csooas 212. 42 INDO eo ocone coenco ne ssse suds docSoo esses sods pOSoEE Sees cane 23. 85 GUMWIN, GUO cescen Ss5s cece co05 cede Sesd Gees cecese sseesese sce 4,50 (GUIEVSS ENE! coca nade sons. conc bosc Sea sense Sedessso cs ago sccSey 723, 76 IERIE Ee Cosa caso has case 5500 Spec aces See soooSse seasbooesaSe 737. 65 IONS, Ol, GAG lORUEINES. oo. soo aes5 Secd coonea see osessecpec 52.77 (ONTOS) THOT) Sooo sono dads sabe Sues soSdiccecce Sone dese gcse 316. 70 WMrin, NEG, GUC s Saco déaccse 5 S550 5455 so5se0 Segoe ssocea cscs secs 42, 40 TRATIONS. LADO Soonde accs cad eon seetes Sep eoe cenboses eso ones 11. 88 iiraive lino esq OT SS pies eee eer 2. 85 ANONIEN Coq NEINGUUUIRG ene s soon eo necesooses coceas ac oe BSS So Seas cseees 3, 688. 19 Balance: July: 1, W892 aosetascersaces 22a a eee eee oe ee 2.39 REPORT OF THE tXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. XXXVII Statement of total expenditure of appropriation for furniture and fixtures, 1891, = : —_ Designs and drawings .-......--....-. Drawers, trays, DOXKeS! sc... - 5-cis-/= == = Frames, stands, ete (G3 PRT Ags seen Se A Son CEA eC SO SS Sores Clagsh| areca cae meee eee icine a WOM Dense ese e cerca eemasiceoccle : Paints oiband brushes =--2------- 2 -- | Office furniture Metals ia me nsec cisecem me sanaccrcsieyeas INT NGP PN Coon age soognesqdeSson DUNES WeRTOMIDEACKC Ue scree a cieiee ei iia eles er IBACD Paratus cae e sansa siseiee arses cineioeerete Travelling expenses------.---------- Plumbing From July 1, 1890, to June 30, 1891. - ou 1, 295. 00 3. 00 .08 152 . 56 14. 21, 309. 46 | 3, 690. 54 | From July 1, 1891, to June 30, 1892. 1 Total to | June 30, 1892. ase oqudesoNs $14, 212.52 $1, 118. 00 2, 413. 00 Si sewreye|alsteractcterace 36. 00 43.50 491.58 sree a tee 330. 52 | 397. 91 1, 352. 47 212.42 919. 55 23.85 97.52 4.50 112.53 723. 76 785. 68 737. 65 2,101.70 | 52.77 618.17 316. 70 904. 92 42.40 310. 88 11. 88 116. 92 | =e .iseee a eee 87.10 Bates tie Duara yohstore es 84.50 | 2. 8d 7.85 SHS Secapoereen 14, 24 3, 688.19 24, 997. 65 | 2.39 2.35 Heating and lighting, ete., 1890. Balance July 1, 1891, as per last annual report Carried under the action of Revised Statutes, section 8090, by the Treasury De- partment to the credit of the surplus fund, June 30, 1892. Heating, lighting, electric, and telephonic service, 1891. Balance July 1, 1891, as per last annual yr OPOLb- sae sc:c) cewiciccs Se eae eer ose Expenditures from July 1, 1891, to June 30, 1892: Coal and wood Telephones Electric work Electric supplies..-...... Rental of call boxes Heating supplies Total expenditure . 20 . 7d 200. 25 32.75 She Ghoti Ub: 20. 00 s(t <0 $842. 34 840. 69 5 20) UTM Gomes AULT hye leaped 3 hs eee pees ae ne eyes aca ahe ce afaia 9.StS 25) sini mmm 1, 65 XXX VIII REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Statement of total expenditure of appropriation for 1891, $12,000. heating, lighting, ete., | Krom July 1,} From July 1, . | 1890, to June | 1891,to June J Total ine | 30, 1891. Z0;negar~ | umesenTesz 3 a a Sr See SS: SER cae eed | NSularies: (a9 sa.. as cr -seace ec eee cence een ae se 378. Bromire-payments con drelolib, | CuC ssa saaeies a =i icles == =
  • 15, 000 TBSONU Gb! Wels oke oe enn eseaoseo es ss oan Cabo ee acca aac os Sersaanseaoe GEE Seae 18, 000 INTTITEMARNOO 55 Sop obosdodces ces aseuasn5s congue d450se case ae seaeca SES 17, 500 Netro-Pnysical: ObSeEvatOnye = sees ee ae ee es ee eee 10, 000 BUILDINGS. I have repeatedly urged upon your attention the necessity for more ample accommodations for the rapidly increasing collections of the National Museum, a necessity that has been emphasized by the diffi- culties attending the preparation for the Museum exhibit at the World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago and the Columbian Histori- eal Exposition in Madrid. In the light of past experience, it is not unreasonable to anticipate a large increase in the collections of the Museum in the shape of donations from exhibitors at these expositions, if any assurance ean be given that such material will eventually be properly installed. If no such assurance can be given a great amount of material will be lost to the Institution, the value of which would, in my opinion, nearly equal the estimated cost of a new building for the Museum. The present Museum building was finished and occupied in 1881. The collections increased so rapidly that as early as 1883 the Regents, at their meeting of January 17, recommended to Congress the erection of anew building. Since 1883 the collections have again increased to such an extent that a new building as large as the present one could now be advan- tageously filled with material held in storage, and I can only repeat with increased emphasis the closing sentence of my letter of January 21, 1890, to the Hon. Leland Stanford, chairman of the Senate Com- mittee on Publie Buildings and Grounds, ‘‘That unless more space is provided, the development of the Government collection, which is al- ready partly arrested, will be almost completely stopped.” The Museum collections have overflowed into every part of the Smithsonian building, and special provisions have been made for them, beginning with the galleries long since erected in the main hall, not contemplated in the original plans of the building, and which seriously interfere with lighting the exhibition open to the public. The storage space of the Institution building needed for other purposes, is now also almost exclusively occupied by Museum specimens, and some relief must be found. REPORT. OF THE SECRETARY. cl A bill providing for the erection of a fire-proof building for the National Museum was introduced in the Senate by the Hon. J. S. Mor- rill, and passed the Senate on April 15,1892, but failed to secure favorable action in the House. The work of fire-proofing the so-called “ chapel” of the west wing of the Smithsonian building has been practically completed, and I would especially urge that the balance of this appropriation, unex- pended, by reason of a limiting clause introduced in the act, on account of which the money is not available for certain repairs originally con- templated, should be now made available by Congress for increasing the storage room in the east wing of the building, and at the same time that certain rooms be fitted for the special needs of the Govern- ment Exchange Bureau, now occupying rooms in the Main Building, urgently needed for other purposes. The new buildings erected or in’ progress of erection for the collee- tion of living animals, being all in the Zoological Park, are mentioned in the report upon the park. RESEARCH. In pursuance of the long established policy of the Institution, finan- cial aid has, during the past year, been extended to original investi- gators in the domain of science, and considering the modest sum that it has been found possible to devote to this purpose, the results are gratifying. The subscription for twenty copies of the Astronomical Journal, which are distributed abroad as exchanges of the Institution, has been continued. To the Lick Observatory, through its director, Prof. Holden, an addi- tional grant has been made for the continuance of experiments in lunar photography. Prof. EK. W. Morley is still engaged in his determinations of the density of oxygen and hydrogen, for which some special apparatus has been provided by the Institution. Mention has been made in previous reports of the aid extended to Prof. A. A. Michelson, of Clark University, in his experiments with the refractometer, and in the determination of a universal standard of length founded on the wave length of light. In furtherance of the latter project, the Institution will, during the coming summer, send one of its scientific staff to assist Prof. Michelson in his investigations under the auspices of the International Bureau of Weights and Meas- ures in the laboratory of the Bureau at Sevres, France. soth these latter investigations refer to fundamental constants of nature, and their results promise to be of wide and lasting importance. Allusion was made in my last report to aid extended to Dr. Wolcott Gibbs in his investigations of the physiological action of chemical com- 8 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. pounds. These investigations are now completed, and have resulted in a substantial contribution to this branch of science. Astro-physical Observatory.—The Smithsonian Astro-physiecal Ob- servatory still occupies the temporary wooden shelter upon the grounds just south of the Smithsonian building, and the money given to the In- stitution for the erection of a more permanent building is. still held while awaiting the action of Congress in providing a site. The ob- servatory has received much of my personal attention during the year. In statements to Congress and elsewhere some brief official expla- nation has been given of the object of this observatory, which, as it has not been explicitly given in previous reports, I repeat here in the most succinct manner before entering on any description of the special work. The general object of astronomy, the oldest of the sciences, was, un- til a very late period, to study the places and motions of the heavenly bodies, with little special reference to the wants of man in his daily life, other than in the application of the study to the purposes of navi- gation. Within the past generation, and almost coincidentally with the dis- covery of the spectroscope, a new branch of astronomy has arisen, which is sometimes called astro-physices, and whose purpose is distinctly different from that of finding the places of the stars, or the moon, or the sun; which is the principal end in view at such an observatory as that, for instance, at Greenwich. The distinct object of astro-physies is, in the case of the sun, for ex- aiple, not to mark its exact place in the sky, but to find out how it affects the earth and the wants of man on it; how its heat is distributed, and how it in fact affects not only the seasons and the farmer’s crops, but the whole system of living things on the earth, for it has lately been proven that in a physical sense, it, and almost it alone, literally first creates and then modifies them in almost every possible way. We have however arrived at a knowledge that it does so, without yet knowing in most cases how it does so, and we are sure of the great importance of this last acquisition, while still largely in ignorance how to obtain it. We are, for example, sure that the latter knowledge would form among other things a scientific basis for meteorology and enable us to predict the years of good or bad harvests, so far as these depend on natural causes, independent of man, and yet we are still very far from being able to make such a prediction, and we cannot do so till we have learned more by such studies as those in question. Knowledge of the nature of the certain, but still imperfectly un- derstood dependence of terrestrial events on solar causes, is, then, of the greatest practical consequence, and it is with these large aims of ultimate utility in view, as well as for the abstract interest of scien- tific investigation, that the Government is asked to recognize such researches as of national importance; for it is to such a knowledge of REPORT; OF THE SECRETARY. , causes with such practical consequences that this class of investiga- tion aims and tends. Astro-physiecs by no means confines its investigation to the sun, though that is the most important subject of its study and one which has been undertaken by nearly every leading government of the civil- ized world but the United States. France has a great astro-physical observatory at Meudon, and Germany one on an equal scale at Pots- dam, while England, Italy, and other countries have also, at the na- tional expense, maintained for many years institutions for the prosecu- tion of astro-physical science. It has been observed that this recent science itself was almost coeval with the discovery of the spectroscope, and that instrument has every- where been largely employed in most of its work. Of the heat which the sun sends, however, and which, in its terrestrial manifestations, is the principal objeet of our study, it has long been well known that the spectroscope could recognize only about one-quarter—three-quarters of all this solar heat being in a form which the ordinary spectroscope can not see nor analyze, lying as it does in the almost unknown ‘“ infra- red” end of the spectrum, where neither the eye nor the photograph canexamineit. It has been known for many years that it was there, and we have had a rough idea of its amount, with an almost total ineapacity to exhibit it in detail. Our imperfect knowledge of this region is at present represented by a few inadequate types of parts of it given in drawings made by hand, where the attempts to depict it at all are even to-day more crude than the very earliest charts of the visible spectrum, made in the infancy of spectroscopic science. One of the first pieces of work which this observatory has under- taken is to explore and describe what may be properly called ‘this great unknown region,” by a method which the writer has recently been able to bring to such a degree of success as to give good grounds for its continued prosecution and for the hope that a complete map of this whole region will shortly be produced by an automatic and therefore trustworthy process, showing the lines corresponding to the so-called Fraunhofer lines in the upper spectrum. The firstsyear’s work of any such observatory must ordinarily con- sist largely in perfecting its apparatus and determining its constants, but a portion of this necessary labor has been deferred in favor of this principal task, of which it is hoped that another year will see the es- sential completion. In this, the present principal scientific work here, all resources of the observatory are, then, for the time being engaged. I have acknowledged in a previous report the valuable assistance of Prof. C. C. Hutchins, of Bowdoin College, who efficiently aided in in- stalling the apparatus. Prof. Hutchins was obliged to leave in Aug- ust. On the 16th of November Dr. William Hallock was appointed senior assistant. At different times during the year, there have been employed as 10 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. assistants Mr. C. A. Saunders, Mr. C. T. Child, and Mr. IF. L. O. Wads- worth. A photographer and a laborer complete the present force of the Observatory. In the latter part of the year, Dr. Hallock, to my regret, advised me of his proximate call to another duty, and the work was later left tempo- rarily in the charge of Mr. Wadsworth, who had joined the staff in June, but who was sent to Europe in July, for the purpose, elsewhere referred to, of contributing to the work of establishing a wave-length standard under Professor Michelson. The labor has been carried on under the disadvantages of these interruptions, and also under others of another kind, due to the fact that the extremely delicate apparatus, which is used in a perpetually darkened room, is, by reason of the location of the temporary observatory shed, in proximity to traffic-laden streets, where there is danger that the passing vehicles affect the accuracy of the ob- servations both by earth tremors and by magnetic disturbances. Not- withstanding these latter drawbacks, much better results have been obtained than it was supposed could be reached in such a situation, and these, as I have said, I trust, another year will enable the Institu- tion to make public. EXPLORATIONS. Several explorations have been carried on during the year by the U.S. Fish Commission, resulting in the transfer to the Museum of many large and varied collections of zodlogical, botanical, and geological material. Dr. W. L. Abbott has continued his work in Asia and has contributed collections made in Kashmir. Dr. Edgar A. Mearns,of the International Boundary Commission, has sent several large collections of natural-history specimens obtained near the border line between the United States and Mexico. Mr. P. L. Jouy has made important col- lections in Arizona and New Mexico. Collections of the fishes of Nica- ragua have been received from Mr. C. W. Richmond. Mr. W. W. Rockhill, the distinguished traveler, whose previous ex- plorations have been mentioned in my reports and who has already deposited in the Museum very valuable collections which he made illus- trating the religious practices, occupations, and amusements of various peoples in different parts of China, Thibet, and Turkestan, has started upon a second journey to hitherto almost unknown parts of Thibet, with such aid (much more limited than I could wish) as it was possible for me to afford him. From his known qualities as an explorer it may be confidently expected that his journey will result in important con- tributions to our knowledge of this country. PUBLICATIONS. The number of publications during the year has been about the same as in preceding years. As has been frequently stated, the publications of the Institution proper are of three classes: First, the series of ‘‘ Smithsonian Contribu- REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. iu! tions to Knowledge,” in quarto form, comprising original memoirs of researches believed to present new truths, and which, as required, are liberally illustrated with figures or plates; secondly, the series of Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections,” in octavo size, containing special reports, systematic lists of synopses of species, etc., whether from the organic or the inorganic world, instructions to naturalists for collecting and preserving specimens, special bibliographies, tabulated results, and other aids to scientific investigation not generally requir- ing illustrations; and lastly, the series of ‘Smithsonian Annual Re- ports,” presenting to Congress, through the Secretary, the condition of the Institution, accompanied, under the early plan of Professor Henry, by scientific articles from competent writers, either original or selected, but as arule in untechnical terms, representing the advances made in va- rious departments of researchand frequently admitting of illustration by plates or figures. These articles are intended to be of interest not alone to the correspondents and collaborators of the listitution, but to that large number of the educated public who follow such statements with profit when they are presented in popularly intelligible form. Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge.—The only publication of the year in this series is a memoir detailing the results of original experi- ments in aérodynamics by the Secretary,* and occupying 115 quarto pages, Ulustrated with 11 figures and 10 plates. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections.—The number of titles in this series during the year is 47, of which none seem to call for any partic- ular comment. Smithsonian Annual Report.—t have referred in my report for 1889 to a modification of the plan on which the Appendix was prepared. From 1880 to 1888 the Appendix was chiefly devoted to an annual sum- mary of progress in various branches of science. The growing ineffi- ciency of this summary, due to causes elsewhere mentioned, led me to return in the report for 1889 to the earlier plan of Prof. Henry, which was to present a selection of papers by eminent, or at least competent, expositors, chosen from the scientific literature of the year. This modi- fication, or rather this return to the method of the earlier reports, has been continued, and seems to meet with general appreciation at the hands of the correspondents of the Institution and others to whom the reports are sent. The report for 1890 issued during the year embraces a considerable range of scientific investigation and discussion. Many of the papers are the work of distinguished investigators, and all are presented in untechnical language so as to interest the largest number. Lunar photographs.—l have devoted considerable thought to a plan for publishing a work on the moon, which shall represent the present knowledge of the physical features of our satellite. A study of the * Resolved, That the Secretary of fhe Smithsonian Institution be requested to con- tinue his researches in physical science, and to present such facts and principles as may be developed for publication in the Smithsonian Contributions. (Journal of Proceedings of Board of Regents, January 26, 1847. ) 12 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. surface of the moon is of special and growing interest to geologists, who have rarely access to the largest class of telescopes, and what we know of it is derived very largely from maps made from eye-studies by astronomers. Within a few years photography has been used with such increasing advantage in this interesting field, that it is believed by those compe- tent to express an opinion, that photographs can shortly be produced which will exhibit in a permanent form everything that a trained eye can recognize at the most powerful telescope. If this surprising result be not actually obtained, [ am of opinion that it is attainable; and I have proposed to procure, through the association of the Smithsonian Institution with some of the leading observatories of the world, a series of photographic representations of hitherto unequaled size and defini- tion, which shall represent the moon’s surface as far as possible on a definite scale, and entirely without the intervention of the draftsman. Photographs of the moon made at the Harvard, Lick, and Paris obsery- atories have been piaced at the disposition of the Smithsonian Institu- tion for publication, and it is intended to issue a series of them accom- panied by explanatory text. Whether this considerable work shall appear as one of the regular series of “Contributions to Knowledge,” or as a special publication in a more limited edition, has not yet been decided. Smithsonian Tables.—The meteorological and physical tables, originally prepared by Dr. Guyot and first published in 1851, have been in such demand that they have already passed through four editions. The last edition was exhausted several years ago, and in considering the advisa- bility of issuing a fifth edition, it was determined in 1887 to revise the tables to conform to the present state of our knowledge. The work has been divided into three parts, meteorological, geographical, and physi- cal, each one being independent of the others, but the three capable of forming a homogeneous volume. In carrying out this plan I was able to secure the assistance of Prof. William Libbey, jr., of Princeton, under whose editorship the last edi- tion was issued in 1884, and Prof. Libbey, devoting gratuitously such time to the work as he could command from his engrossing college duties, prepared the first volume of the series, the ‘“ Meteorological Tables.” The plan of the work was then somewhat modified and a further re- vision was made by Mr. G. E. Curtis, who was at the time employed upon other work at the Smithsonian Institution, and by the end of December, 1891, the manuscript was essentially ready for the printer. Since that timeit has been passing through the press, and it is hoped that the volume will be entirely finished by the close of the present calendar year. SMITHSONIAN INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGE SERVICE. ° The international exchange service, through which the Smithsonian Institution is known to most of the large libraries and to a vast num- REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 13 ber of scientific men throughout the world, has received such attention in my recent reports that it seems unnecessary to dwell upon it at length here. The work of the bureau continues to increase, and in spite of many labor-saving devices in the clerical work suggested by experience, it will be impossible to meet all the demands made for transportation of doe- wnments unless some considerable increase is also made in the amount appropriated by the General Government in the near future. The United States Government has undertaken, by a treaty formu- lated at Brussels in 1886, and finally proclaimed by the President in 1889, to carry on a system of international exchanges. These various countries adhering to the treaty have formally agreed each to estab- lish a bureau charged with the duty of attending to the exchange of official documents, parliamentary and administrative, which are pub. lished in the country of their origin, and the bureaus of exchange will furthermore serve as intermediaries between the learned bodies and literary and scientific societies of the contracting States for the recep- tion and transmission of their publications. In transmitting abroad each State assumes the expenses of packing and transportation to the place of destination, but when the transmis- sions are nade by sea, special arrangements regulate the share of each State in the expense of transportation. The Smithsonian Institution, having since 1850 conducted an ex- change service with means of communication over the entire world, has been charged by the United States Government with the conduct of its own exchange business, and appropriations for the purpose have accordingly been made of late years to the Institution, covering at present the greater part of the expense. The deficiency arising each year has been met from the Smithsonian fund, and the Institution has continued its paid agents in Mngland and in Germany, as these two countries have not signified their adherence to the treaty in question, but maintain exchange relations with the United States independently of other countries concerned in the treaty. By referring to the cura- tor’s statistical report contained in the Appendix, it will be seen that over 100 tons of books passed through the exchange office during the fiscal year, representing 97,027 packages—an increase of 6,36L packages over the number handled during the preceding year—while upon the exchange books, accounts of publications received and transmitted are kept with 20,682 societies or institutions and individuals. The expen- ditures upon this account have amounted to $20,510.49, of which $17,000 were appropriated by Congress, $2,103.44 were repaid by Government bureaus, and $30.75 by State institutions and others, leaving a deficiency of $1,171.30 to be met by the Smithsonian Institution. The expenses, it will be noted, take no account of the rent value of the rooms in the Institution occupied in this manner by the General Government for exchange purposes, or that portion of the service of 14 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. the regular officers of the Institution occupied with exchange business, and the sum appropriated by Congress would be entirely inadequate were it not that the chief ocean steamship companies have, since the early days of the Institution, granted the privilege of free freight for its exchange boxes. I have repeatedly called attention to the impro- priety of further trespassing upon the generosity of these companies, the privilege having been originally intended as a direct encouragement of the philanthropic aims of the Institution, whereas now a very large proportion of the freight thus carried is Government property and the service is conducted under an international treaty. Imay further call attention in this place to the fact that an additional treaty made at Brussels in 1886 and proclaimed by the President of the United States on January 15, 1889, wherein provision is made for the immediate exchange of official journals, parliamentary annals and docu- ments, has never been executed. A bill making an appropriation of $2,000 for this purpose passed the Senate in 1891, but no final action thereon has been taken. The amount estimated for the conduct of the exchange service for the year 189293 was $23,000, a sum which was expected to cover the present expense of the Exchange Bureau in a single item, including the $2,000 just mentioned. At the close of the fiscal year the Sundry Civil Appropriation bill, of which this was an item, had not become a law. I desire to mention again here the increasing difficulty of making provision for the storage of Government publications not needed for immediate transmission abroad. A portion of the building is now de- voted to this purpose which is needed more and more each year for the more legitimate purposes of the Institution. The exchange offices are also needed for the growing reference library of scientific books belonging to the Institution, and with a view to re- lieving the overcrowded condition of the library by removing these offices to the basement, I have urged upon Congress the desirability of making available for the purpose, the balance of an appropriation orig- inally intended for repairs and alterations to the western part of the building, which, by reason of a restricting clause in the appropriation act, can not be used for the work first proposed. By the expenditure of about $10,000 the basement of the east wing, now damp and some- times flooded with water, can be made thoroughly healthy and well adapted to the needs of the exchange work. In my report for 1890 I stated that there had been expended from the Smithsonian fund for the support of the international exchange sys- tem, in the interests and by the authority of the National Government, $38,141.01 in excess of appropriations, advanced from January 1, 1868, to June 30, 1886, for the exchange of official Government documents, and $7,034.81 in excess of appropriations from July 1, 1886, to June 30, 1889, advanced for the purpose of carrying out a convention entered into by the United States, or an aggregate of $45,175.82. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 15 A memorandum in regard to this matter was duly transmitted to the Hon. Benjamin Butterworth, a member of the Board of Regents, in the House of Representatives, for the purpose of taking the necessary steps to procure a return by Congress to the Smithsonian fund of this last mentioned sum, namely, $45,175.82, but I am not aware that action has been taken on it. LIBRARY. The accessions to the library have been recorded as in the previous year, the entry numbers in the accession book extending from 225,586 to 246,109. The following statement shows the nunber of volumes, parts of vol- umes, pamphlets, and charts received from July 1, 1891, to June 30, 1892. Octayo or | Quarto or | smaller. | larger. Total. | WIRE Aa Se sea betickd Bicep > HeY ABA BOBO AEE are Aare AR eae te teresa | 1, 320 | 669 1, 989 PALES OimVOLUIMeN eames care term eins cok ican eee Aele cacti, Aen s 7, 631 | 16, 098 23, 729 ampbletsmsetcne ecole cee aciene ace necodacas $c ocatacoussaudsocaucees 3, 087 | 502 | 3 589 (Cligin i ee eo aN ce 6c Gs ge AAD ORE See Ce OES OBES DAE Sea See Sel tes Sener eee leaeicnososa sc 621 JON REE ae POSS See aan IRE CCE RES BASSE EOE ROCCHI RE Gre Hate oat] Ieee Tana | Sie ame tees 29, 928 Of these accessions, 297 volumes, 6,363 parts of volumes, and 774 pam- phlets—7,454 in all—were retained for use in the Institution and Mu- seum; and 857 medical dissertations were deposited in the library of the Surgeon-General, U. S. Army; the remaining publications were sent to the Library of Congress on the Monday following their receipt. The reading room continues to be well used; it has only been possi- ble to provide room upon the shelves for new periodicals by removing to the special libraries under the charge of curators or to the Library of Congress such technical periodicals as experience has shown are seldom called for by general readers. The plan detailed in my report for 188788 for increasing the acces- sions to the library and for completing the series of scientific journals already in possession of the Institution has been continued; the sup- plementary work involved by the issue of new scientific journals within the last few years has added somewhat to the work originally planned. The small collection of books torming what is called “ the Secretary’s library ” has been added to this year, but is already encroaching upon the limited space available for library purposes. These books, as I have stated in my previous reports, are mostly, if not exclusively, books of scientific reference, and are, under certain restrictions, available to all connected with the Institution. I regret to state that Mr. John Murdoch, who has been the efficient librarian of the Institution since 1887, resigned his position on May 15, 1892. At the close of the year his successor had not been appointed. 16 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. MISCELLANEOUS. Tomb of Smithson.—During the summer of 1891, upon the occasion of a visit to KEurope, I madea special journey to Genoa for the purpose of seeing if the place of sepulture of the founder of the Institution was properly cared for. The tomb of Smithson is on the hill of San Be- nigno, high above the Gulf of Genoa, in a small obscure cemetery, whose existence is unknown to most of the people of the city. It is the property of the English Government and in the immediate charge of the British consul. Smithson’s tomb is a substantial structure, but it appears to have had no attention during the sixty years of its existence, though other tombs in the small inclosure give evidence of continued care. A small sum of money, the interest of which is sufficient to de- fray the expense of the care of the inclosure and tomb, was placed to the credit of the United States consul at Genoa, who kindly consented to take charge of the matter. Statue of Prof. Baird.—. bill to provide for the erection of a bronze statue of Prof. Baird in the grounds of the Institution was introduced in the Senate by Mr. Morrill, but failed to pass. This was a renewal of previous efforts in this direction and the result is particularly disap- pointing to the friends of the Institution. Statue of Robert Dale Owen.—A bill to appropriate $20,000 for a statue to the Hon. Robert Dale Owen, of Indiana, first chairman of the Board of Regents of the Institution and one of its staunchest friends, was in- troduced in the Senate by Mr. Voorhees and passed, but failed to secure favorable action in the House. Perkins collection of copper implements.—An amendment to the Sun- dry Civil Bill providing for the purchase by the Institution of a further collection of prehistoric copper implements belonging to Mr. Freder- ick S. Perkins, was proposed, but failed to secure favorable action in the House. Stereotype plates.—The Institution is possessed of a large collection of stereotype plates and engravers’ blocks. An effort has been made to arrange these in a systematic manner to facilitate reference, but owing to the pressure of routine work, much yet remains to be done in this direction. It is the policy of the Institution to permit the use of these plates by publishers under reasonable conditions. Government collections at Washington.—There was passed during the first session of the Fifty-second Congress a joint resolution (H. Res. 92) defining the policy of the Government with reference to the scientific and literary collections, designed to facilitate the use of such collections by students, and to encourage the establishment of institutions of learn- ing at the national capital. Assignment of rooms.—Pendulum observations by officers of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey have been continued in a basement room specially fitted for such work. The use of the “chapel” of the Smithsonian building was granted REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 17 to the American Oriental Society as a place of assembly in April, 1892, and later to the Art Congress for a loan exhibition of works of Amer- ican artists, held during the session of the Congress in May, 1892. The Hodgkins gift—In May, 1891, a letter received from Mr. Thomas George Hodgkins, of Setauket, N. Y., led to a correspondence in which he was advised by the Secretary of the objects of the Institution. At Mr. Hodgkins’s request, the Secretary, and subsequently, the Assistant Secretary, made several visits to him at his home, and in conversation with him learned more in detail his wishes with reference to a proposed gift. Mr. Hodgkins wished to present to the Smithsonian Institution the sum of $200,000, the interest of $100,000 of which was to be used for the general purposes of the Institution in the “increase and diffusion of knowledge among men,” provided that the interest of the other $100,- 000 should be used in the investigation of the properties of atmospheric air considered in its very widest relationship to all branches of science. Before taking any steps with regard to this offer, a telegram was sent on June 22, 1891, to each Regent who could be reached in this country, requesting his individual opinion of the propriety of accepting Mr. Hodgkins’ proposition. Favorable opinions having been received in answer to this from nearly ail the Regents, Mr. Hodgkins later, on September 22, at his home on Long Island, placed his gift of $200,000 in cash in the hands of the Secretary, with the understanding that an early meeting of the Regents would be called to consider its formal acceptance under the terms which Mr. Hodgkins proposed. A meeting of the Regents was therefore called at the earliest day practicable (October 21, 1891), and the matter having been laid before them in detail, the gift was accepted in the terms of the donor. It seems appropriate at this time to make a statement in elucidation of Mr. Hodgkins’s wishes as they have been expressed in various conferences with the Secretary and the Assistant Secretary. It is not his intention that his fund should be applied to special investigation in Sanitary science, but he desires rather that the standard of work should be primarily in relation to the demands of pure science, believing that application in many directions would follow. He has spoken of the experiments of Franklin upon atmospheric electricity as one of the investigations which, if carried on at the present day, would be germane to his foundation; and has, in further illustration of his meaning, also referred to the prize awarded by the French Academy of Sciences to Paul Bert for his discovery in regard to the influences of oxygen on the phenomena of vitality, as appropriate to his own pro- posed foundation. His great interest in the diffusion of knowledge concerning air grows out of his belief that the air is of the highest importance to man in every aspect of his physical and mental condition, and he hopes that his gift will stimulate scientific investigation of the highest order by the best minds, believing that by this means the H. Mis. 114 2 18 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. attention of mankind may best be concentrated and kept concentrated on the importance of the subject. He has expressed a hope that it might be thought advisable to offer some very considerable prize, which, being published to the entire world, would by its magnitude call attention to the subject in which he was so much interested. Mueh consideration nas been given to the question as to how the donor’s wishes may best be carried into effect, for no small difficulty arises from the universality of the application of his foundation, since manifestly there is no branch of natural science which is not affected by it. Meteorology, hygiene and related subjects are most obviously concerned, while others, though less obviously, are no less immediately connected, such as geology, for instance, which has for its field the erust of the earth, now recognized as being largely formed of atmos- pherie deposits and molded by atmospheric influences. This is only an instance of what we find in the case of nearly every one of the whole circle of sciences, biological and physical, all of which appear on examination to be affected by our knowledge of the atmosphere in a very real and important sense. In order to secure the advice and co-operation of scientific men throughout the world, letters were addressed to a number of eminent specialists, stating the circumstances of Mr. Hodgkins’s gift to the Institution, and explaining his wishes. The following letter is an example: Sir: I have the honor to inform you that a bequest has been made to the Smithsonian Institution by Mr. Thomas G. Hodgkins, the income of a portion of which is to be devoted to the increase and diffusion of more exact knowledge of the nature and properties of atmospheric air, In carrying out the donor’s wishes, it is proposed to offer a number of prizes for scientific investigations of a high order of merit bearing upon the properties of the atmosphere, to be awarded without regard to the nationality of the author. While hygiene will occupy a prominent place, it is not intended to limit these prizes to any single class of investigations, however in- portant, but to extend them over the whole field of the natural sciences, as far as these may be regarded as related to each other through the atmosphere as a common bond. In illustration of my meaning, I may instance as proper subjects for investigation— . 1. Anthropology, considering man himself as modified by climate, and his arts as affected by the atmosphere; . Biology, in connection with the atmosphere as a fountain of life; . Chemistry, in its many obvious relationships to the subject; . Electricity, considered in connection with atmospheric electricity ; . Geology, considered in connection with the action of the atmos- phere in its formation and deformation of the surface of the planet; and so on through almost the whole circle of the sciences. I now write to ask if you will kindly suggest the nature of the prin- cipal relationships existing between physics and the atmosphere, and indicate one or two subjects arising out of these relations which you consider to be proper for prize essays. . ~ t tH Cs —) REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 19 L shall also be glad to know if you will consent to be a member of a committee to award such a prize, if given, and to learn from you in the same connection of any important research, germane to your own studies, that would be materially advanced by a grant from the funds now available under this liberal construction. In further illustration of my meaning, [ take the liberty of inelosing a copy of a reply made to me in answer to a similar inquiry concerning the science of anthropology, which | do merely to show more cle arly the character of the information I desire. The following was the inclosure. It is an answer by a distinguished anthropologist to a similar question, and was inclosed as an illustration of the fact that the terms of the Hodgkins donation apply even to sci- entific matters which may appear at first sight disconnected with the subject (7. e. to anthropology), but which upon consideration are seen to be intimately related to it: DEAR SiR: In reply to your inquiry concerning the relations existing between anthropology and the study of the atmosphere | beg leave to say that the natural history of man takes into consideration :— (1) Man, as modified by climate. (2) His arts as occasioned and affected by the atmosphere. As to the first, the atmosphere, through climate, elevation, ete., upon man considered as an animal, is believed to have affected his bodily form and stature, the color of his eyes, hair, and skin; his longevity, fecundity, and vigor, and therefore to have been the most potent factor of all in producing those varieties of our species called races, and to be at the foundation of these problems whose discussion constitutes the science of ethnology. As to the second, most of the arts and activities of man depend upon the atmosphere for their suggestion and methods. For example, his habitations, clothing, and the common occupations of his daily life are most obviously controlled by his atmospheric surroundings, which make him in the Arctic regions a hunter of furs, dwelling underground; in the temperate zone a farmer, dwelling in houses; in the tropics a hunter of ivory, dwelling in open shelters from the sun. Permit me to observe further, that the study of the air can not be omitted in connection with the science of sociology. Even philology draws its material and perhaps derives it forms largely from the atmos- phere, and the primitive philosophies and mythologies of the world are filléd with imagery and theories derived therefrom. Therefore in select- ing, at your request, from the relationships of the atmosphere to the science of anthropology in general, two or more subjects for prize essays, I have only too much scope. After much consideration [ would propose to suggest that a prize of not less than $1,000 should be offered for an essay upon one of the fol- lowing topics: 1. The relation of atmospheric phenomena to the cosmogenies, creeds, and cults of all peoples. 2. Atmospheric changes as determining the forms of primitive so- ciety, family and tribal organizations, ete. 3. AS between the monogenistic and the polygenistie theory of the origin of man, what light is thrown upon the question by a study of atmospheric influences upon man’s physical constitution. 4. Atmospheric influences and phenomena as affecting constructive and decorative architecture. 20 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. These essays should be presented within a specified time and sub- mitted to the judgment of a committee, of which I should be willing to be amember. Notice of this prize could advantageously be made public through the following special journals: L’Anthropologie, Paris; Archiv fiir Anthropologie, Braunschweig. In regard to your inquiry as to any important research germane to the subject in which I am personally interested, which would be ad- vanced by a grant of money, I beg leave to say that Iam at present hindered from pursuing my investigations into the influence of climate and other atmospheric phenomena in bringing about the distribution of tribes and stocks of North American aborigines at the time of the discovery, by the need of a small sun of money which might be placed at my disposal. If I had $500 unfettered by conditions, I could within a year’s time undertake to bring together the elements for the solution of this problem, which has puzzled for so many years students of ethnology and philology. Lam, very respectfully yours, 5. P. LANGLEY, Esq., Secretary Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. As soon as the attention of the public had been directed to Mr. Hodekins’s gift, numerous applications for assistance from the fund were made, and I deemed it advantageous to appoint a special advisory committee, to which might be referred matters pertaining to the Hodgkins fund. This committee was composed of Surgeon John 8. Billings, U.S. Army, Director of the Army Medicc! Museum, in behalf of hygiene and the related sciences; Prof. F. W. Clarke, chemist of the U. S. Geological Survey; Mr. William H. Dall of the U.S. Geolog- ical Survey, well known for his biological and anthropological studies; Prof. William ©. Winlock, in behalf ot astronomy and physics, and the Assistant Secretary of the Institution, Dr. G. Brown Goode, who acted as chairman. The committee has held several meetings, and I desire at this time to express my high appreciation of the value of the work which they have already done, both as a committee and individually. At the close of the year, the committee had under consideration, at my request, a form of circular to be issued to learned institutions and in- vestigators throughout the world, calling attention to the establish- ment of the Hodgkins fund, and announcing certain prizes which it is intended to offer for essays upon specified subjects. THE NATIONAL MUSEUM. 1 took occasion in my last report to invite your attention to the fact that the very rapid growth of the collections of the Museum was be- coming, under existing circumstances, a source of great embarrass- ment. The difficulties of the situation have increased during the past year, since, while the influx of specimens has continued, no additional space has been provided for their reception and only an insignificant additional sum of money for their maintenance. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Al This unsolicited increase of the collections should properly be a source of gratification rather than of embarrassment. Growth is essen- tial to the welfare of a museum, and to check it is sure to produce un- fortunate results. It seems undesirable to say to the friends of the Museum that their valuable donations can not be received. Such a course would alienate their sympathy, and the Museum would lose the advantage of their good offices. Under existing conditions, however, the necessity of resorting to so undesirable a measure is perilously near. The increase of the collections from certain other sources can not even thus be checked. Large collections are made every year by the Department of Agri- culture, the Geological Survey, the Fish Commission, and other De- partments and Bureaus of the Government, either as an essential part of their work or incidentally. By provision of law the Museum is made the custodian of these collections, and it can not, therefore, do other- wise than to receive and preserve them. Many valuable objects are exposed to dust and vandalism from the lack of sufficient money to procure the necessary cases for their protec- tion. Series of objects, such as the great Lacoe collection of fossil plants, recently acquired, are frequently offered with the condition that suitable cases be provided. For the safe-keeping of the objects already in the possession of the Museum and for the reception of those offered. numerous storage and exhibition cases are a necessity. The number of specimens of all kinds in the Museum at the close of the year, as shown by the following table, nearly equalled three and a quarter millions. The inerease for the year was about 260,000 speci- mens, or nearly double that of 1891, Table showing the annual increase in the departments of the National Museum. Name of department. | 1882. | 1883. 1884. (') 1885-'86. | 1886-’87. eee = Se FS = a = : a3 Art and industries: WT SOUL aR MOdI CRS ce see eee a oe |e ee | 4,000 | 4, 442 | 4, 850 5,516 Monsees 2-5/0 5. aes. memes ery: ise aed Vingere 1, 580 822 | 877 Mextiespe. ste. caw! sk aeceeer 22 As¢Gens04 be aoun ead leap on BaOre | 2, 000 3, 063 | 8, 144 Misheries = ss.2.5- 02 2e5. 6622 BARR Sanna seae| Mase coed Boe 5, 000 | 9, 870 10, 078 PAC A TOC NCGS see oils sem nie witaieceicee mea Ble gies re 1,000 | 2, 792 2, 822 GraphiCiariste sere ae aael soe 2 = 4 = is) BR S ie i= 4} a ° i=} ba 7 Q ’ ee tO Ot (2 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. List of animals presented—Continued. Nun- Name. Wonoe ber of speci- mens. Great horned owl...--------- Employés of H. E. Burgess, Washington, D.C .....---.---------- 1 ince ie eee BY 1S, Balls Conowango. Milos eee te ee a ke he ee | 1 Senecchvowlteerecctas- ee eree IMimrse Bab coc ken Was aii horse) i © meee eee ate renee ee 1 IDs dciscescossasocseuse Jd viahoneyaiagiin SON ps Cee cater ee see eee 5 Commom ero Wee -=22== == Mrs. Wiheeler: Wiashimoton On es oe ne aera eee il American magpie. .-.-------- E.S. Schmid, Washington, D.C. asane OQ) ace dace fede eee are 8 Golden-winged woodpecker .|| Corbez Daniel, eesbungy Viale -.- = ace =a eset ie 1 Blue and yellow macaw ..---| D. M..Cranford, Washington, D: C. (loaned), ----=-------=-------- 1 Green parrot.--...---.-------- Mrs. Williams, Washington, D. C. (loaned)---..---------.-----=- 1 (GR iebedosodeace.sonpodases Hon. C. I. Croft, Cartagena, Colombia, South America -..--..--- 2 CnrassOWesernae-.n sae Wa CeButler, Was bin oton sls 0) 52 lame ene eee ee ee eee il BW aha bOmlbIS sate cseercicecen JAM MeINTCholson Orland owila- se cee epee see ee eee ee 1 2 Black-crowned night heron-..| E. Lyons, Washington, D.C. --...........--.------------+------- 1 Sandhill’ crane -----..-2-.---- Mrs: Mas iRerdell\ Orlando laka-po-se re as ey eee ee ane 2 JMG Re SS coos saossesaceads | We Eewalson, OrangesPoint, Masses 2 sees A Pl wk | 1 Wisse ose soccospesesses | Wuatta Griswold washington © Sas ese = ses seer eee ee ee il IDs sa Sosnounesoss soeas Sterrett Bross) Wiashime tomes Cees seers a aes te re 2 IOs soosdecoceboessesces Sir Julian Panuncefote, Washington; i Cm- 2-6 anes aoe 1 JOYNER OMe. ee US. Kish’ Commission" (loaned) ees aassee ese eee sone ae 1 100) Sen ondaopoospEnosee I SaGs Walliams’ Was nie G01 Wn Ossie epee Sate iee re Serer 2 (Chyinelin Ses obese ate ceubsce Hnsion Roser Wrelless jl WcisseN as-cast eee | 1 Soft-shelled ile Sp cuaeaicod 1 Snapping turtle....-..-..-..- | 1 IDG) satocee sees ocoocoe scl Hebatoosudenoesakecanesomedeuaccnooeccuags ooocedccecesinseicnan es 1 INGA Saecoeesesennuoetecrsee | 1 Chuck molly lizard. ...---.-- | Dr. M. M. Crocker: Hort Mojave, Aniqies=.- aaa se eee 7 Homed stoadisa= se eee ame | AGL. Gace: Washing bon is © 2m see c caesar eee ae eee 1 Dor sae a yssceek oe aso- se Dra CsSteams- San Diero: Calecessssss sess eee ene 4 Diamond rattlesnake .....--- | Den ee Bee eee aoe CAs eon et eates = ae aa ey rk AS 1 Tiger rattlesnake....-....-.- Dr MM. Crocker Hort Mojave: Avize=-2228- sess seasons ssa 2 Ground rattlesnake. .-..------ | Capt. Henry Romeyn, Mount Vernon Barracks, Ala.----.------- | 2 IWriater MOCCASIN se -\=- 2 - Ieee Oas2 oS te ee oa cane Ce ae Renesas ee eee sce eee 2 Goppernteadie tes: -eseenare == 165986 (oval ove — > CONN) Se 5 nein soe oenassseStescenseceses| 1 TECTAGe RPO) KG Sas Bae aococce | Dr. Z. T. Daniels, Cheyenne, Agency, Dakota .-.--..--------.-.-- } iL 1 DIO, seach co a ane OGRE aI acC SES ee Sata pone nuonsoos Once n ude Saber ereaaos LNs eae ee 1 IG, sasceeecabbaponceeae Capt. Henry Romeyn, Mount Vernon Barracks, Ala-.----------- 1 iplacks snakOter see sss —2 ane Ge oacieoe < susan ads boss eam ea pase ba chon Saeasiabasssocccse 1 WO aa eee eee (ite BaWieedenteweishiim oO s DY Cie aera trate ete eee erates 1 WO sess ease ent DPS Stapler ee aetet = ei om si sie ates eS yaaa aoe een ote oar 2 ANA OREN Gye ce k acsogesces = Capt. Henry Romeyn, Mount Vernon Barracks, Ala-..----------- le 1 Hog-nosed snake .--..---.--- aie Gl scare eens edeseashebs -madeicd s socece ssosnen qesodecootom= se | 1 IBYip), 5s a5 Gon sencnesonssooass Emsion Roger Welles, jr-, U.S: N=-----=----------- ----------—= | 1 — q | ; ieee REPORT Name. Diana monkey (Cercopithecus diana) Barrigudo (Lagothria huwmboldtii) Capuchin monkey (Cebus capucinus.)---. Sapajous}(Cebus hypoleucus) ...--..------- Durukuli (Nyctipithecus trivirgatus) -.--. Teetee (Chirysothria sciureus) .--.-------- Marmoset (Hapale jacchus) Lion (Felis leo) Ocelet (Felis pardatlis) American Wildeat (Lynx rufus) Coyote (Canis latrans) Red fox (Vulpes fulvus) Arctic fox (Vulpes lagopus) Gray fox (Vulpes virginianus) .....-.----| PMlbt fox (MUL DES) VELOL) = je -eeicine sare = American badger (Tawidea americana) -.| Common skunk (Mephitis mephitiea) ....| American otter (Lutra canadensis) Grizzly bear (U7sus horribilis) Black bear (Ursus americanus) “Cinnamon” bear (Ursus americanus) - -- Polar bear (Thalassarctos maritimus) --.. Raccoon (Procyon lotor) Coati-mundi (Nasua rufa) Coati-mundi (Nasua narica) Kinkajou (Cercoleptes caudivolvulus) Zebu (Bos indicus) Aimerican bison (Bison americanus) American antelope (Antilocapra ameri- Angora goat (Capra hireus angorensis) -- Virginia deer (Cariacus virginianus) -.-.. South American deer (Coassus sp.) Moose (Alces macehlis) Collared peccary (Dicoryles tajacu) ------ Flying squirrel (Seiwropterus volucella) ..| ENEIZONA STAY SQWITTE] | os sae cs eee apse Striped gopher (Spermophilus trideciim- tineatus) Prairie dog (Cynomys ludovicianus) ----. Woodchuck (Arctomys monax)........-. American beaver (Castor canadensis) ---. Muskrat (Liber zibethicus) White rat (Mus rattus) Coypu (Myopotamus coypu) White rabbit (Lepus cuniculus).....-.-.. Tree porcupine (Syntheres prehensilis) - -. Capybara (Hydrocherus capybara) Paca (Calogenys paca) ai gouti (Dasyprocta aguti)...........---. Acouchy (Dasyprocta acouchy) Guinea pig (Cavia aperea) Great anteater (Myrmecophaga jubata) -- Respectfully submitted, OF List of accessions. Speci- meus. — em es ee on ' Parrakeet Crested curassow (Craa alector) _ Searlet ibis (Guara rubra) | White ibis (@uara alba) | Snapping-turtle (Chelydra@ serpentina) -- | South American lizards (un-named) | Diamond rattlesnake (Crotalas adinan- | Ring-necked snake ( Diadophis punctatus )| | . Common boa (Boa constrietor) THE SECRETARY. (i | Name. Peba armadillo (Tatusia novemeincta) -.-- Opossum (Didelphys virginiana) .....---- Bald eagle (Haliaetus leucocephalus) ...-- Golden eagle (Aquila chrgsetos) ..------- Sparrow hawk (Kaleo sparverius) -------- Pigeon hawk (Falco coluamnbarius) Red-tailed hawk (Butco borealis) ..---.--) Marsh hawk (Cireus hudsonius) .---.---- Great horned owl (Bubo virginianis) -...) Barred owl (Syrniwm nebuloswim)-.------ Sereech owl (Megascops asio)..--..-.----- American magpie (Pica pica hudsonica) - American crow (Corvus americanus) Golden-winged woodpecker (Colaptes QUT DEUS) on LG eee ree Yellow and blue marcaw (Ara ararau- | GreCNRVALrO bres sete ge oclen eee eee eee Sandhill crane (Grus mexicanad)......---- Black-crowned night heron (Nycticorax TY CLCOTMELTUCEUUILS) em eraisie eee ee eee Ganneti(Sula0assad) asso seae eae eee Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis)..-. Caiman (Jacare sclerops ) Soft-shelled turtle (A spidonectes ferox) -. Painted turtle (Chrysemys picta) Chuek-anolly (Sauromalus ater) Marbled polyehrus (Polychrus marmor-| atus ) Horned toad (Phrynosoma douglassti) -_. sanded rattlesnake ( Crotalus horridus) .. EMO odde anodib os coe bhoonthe see doconanes Ground rattlesnake ( Caudisona miliaris) Water moccasin (Ancistrodon piscivo- TUS) ee aetcls cme She ee eee aee eee ee Copperhead (Ancistrodon contortrix) .... King snake ( Ophibolus getulus)...-..---.| Black snake (Bascaniwm constrictor)... Coach-whip snake (Bascanium jlagelli- OGL) Sere 6 Gane se pono ween e ese ses assec| Anaconda (Punectes murinus ) Garter snake (Putenia sirtalis) Hog nose snake (ITeteodon platyrhinus) - Speei- | mens. NRF Se oO noe © = mm C S& bo to KH bo to we wow Nm = & CO ] bo or 23 Smali South American snakes (annamed) South American batrachians (unnamed) .| PRANK BAKER, Acting Manager. Secretary S. P. LANGLEY, Smithsonian Institution. 74 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. APPENDIX IY. REPORT OF THE LIBRARIAN FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1892. Str: I have the honor to submit herewith the report on the library of the Smith- sonian Institution during the year ending June 30, 1892. The operations of the library have been conducted as in the two preceding years. The entry numbers in the accession book extend from 225,586 to 246,109. Following is a statement of the volumes, parts of volumes, pamphlets, and charts received during the year: Publications received between July 1, 1891, and June 50, 1892. | Octavo or, | Quarto or Pe eaetall | smaller. | larger. | | | 7 | = 7 ; Fag oe ROR AMT? (sea eee aha nares AV/COW LEH RAK SX he he toe eae REN MS a ag SANT me a RPE oer RE 1, 320 | 669 | 1, 989 PASTOR TOMER eee te eae i A ta Cd ae | 7,631| 16,098 | 28, 729 PAM HT tse eee cee ent erect a ese eS ee ee eee | 3, 087 | 502 | 3, 589 (GUE eae ade eRe Ait rte gn cae ED en AORN CAS Meee ee ea PSO basaak asses: | Sindee oe 621 Mig talent wet lade Mee we ee nN ac set ee eee (seater Neots sal 29, 928 | Of these publications, 297 volumes, 6,363 parts of volumes, and 774 pamphlets— 7,434 in all—were retained for use in the National Museum. Light hundred and fifty-seven medical dissertations were deposited in the library of the Surgeon-General, U.S. Army; the remaining publications were sent to the Library of Congress on the Monday after their receipt. In carrying out the plans formulated by the Secretary for increasing the library by exchanges, 803 letters asking for publications not on our list, or asking for numbers to complete the series already in the library, have been written. As a result of this correspondence it gives me pleasure to report that 444 new exchanges were acquired by the Institution, while 220 defective series were completed either wholly or as far as the publishers were able to supply missing parts. Below is a comparative statement of the operations of the library sinee June 30, 1889: Number of publications received. | 1889-’90. 1890-91. 1891-92. EVO MATES een Ses Spee OS See PER eee aI Rint Be A a ep | 1, 763 | 2, 681 1, 989 Parts OfevGlUMeS <)-.o-. = ; REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 15 The following universities have sent complete lists of all their academic publica- tions: Basel, Halle aS., Lund, Bern, Heidelberg, Marbure, Bonn, Helsingfors, Strassburg, Christiania, Jena, Tiibingen, Dorpat, Kazan Vienna, Krlangen, Kiel, Wiirzbure, Freiberg, Br., Leipsic, Utrecht, Giessen, Louvain, Ziirich. Gottingen, The tollowing publications have been added to the list of regular serials: > oS A A Notes (Archit’s’ Assoe.), London. Acts of the Parliament of South Austra- | lia, Adelaide. Actes Société Simico-Japonaise, Paris. Agricultural Science, State College, Pa. Amateur Sportsman, New York. American Amateur Photographer, New York. American Anthropologist, Washington, DACs American Cyclist, Hartford, Conn. American Florist, Chicago. American Gardening, New York. American Jeweler, Chicago. American Journal of Philately, York. American Naturalist, Philadelphia. American Notes and Queries, Philadel- phia. New Analele Academa Romana, Bucharest. f Anales de la Universidad Central del Ecuador, Quito. Anales de la Universidad video. Annaes Biblioteca Nacional, Rio Janeiro. Annalen der Physik und Chemie, Leipsic. Annales de Chimie et de Physique, Paris. Annals of Scottish Natural History, Edin- burgh. Annuaire, Société des études juives, Paris. Annuaire israélite, Société des études juives, Paris. Annnaire Statistique des Pays-Bas, Am- sterdam. de Monte- Annual Report Agricultural Bureau, Adelaide. Annual Report Chiswick Free Publie Library. Annual Report Department of Agricul- ture, Brisbane. Annual Report Dep’t of Mines, Sydney. Annual Report Gordon Technical Col- lege, Geelong, Australia. Annual Report and Prospectus School of | Mines, Stawell, Australia. Annuario Scolastico Regia Universita, | Parma. Annuario Societi Reale Academia di Archeologia, Naples. Antiquitiiten-Zeitschrift, Strassbure. Anuario, Asociacion de Ingenieros Indus- | triales, Barcelona. | | Bollettino Mensile della Situazione _ Bollettino | Archief Zeeuwsch Genootschap der We- tenschappen, Middelburg. Archives des Sciences Biologiques, St. Petersburg. Argus Annual, Cape Town. Army. and Navy Journal, New York. L’Art et Vidée, Paris. Artist Printer, Chicago. Ateneo Italiano, Rome. Atti Societa Reale Accademia di Arche- ologia, etc., Naples. Babylonian and Oriental Record, Lon- don. Bacteriological Michigan. Baptist Quarterly Review, New York. Beiblitter zu den Annalen der Physik und Chemie, Leipsic. Bergmanns Kalender, Saarbriicken. Bericht des akademischen Vereins deut- scher Historie, Vienna. Berichte der bayerischen Gesellschatt, Munich. Berichte der deutschen Gesellschaft, Berlin. Bible Advocate, Birmingham. sible Society Record, New York. Bibliographie des Travaux Historiques et Archéologiques, Paris. Bibliotheca Philologica Classica, Berlin. Bicycling World, Boston. slacksmith and Wheelwright, N.Y. Blackwood’s Edinburgh Magazine. Body and Soul, Cardiff. Soletim de la Sociedade Broteriana, Co- imbra. Boletim Sociedade de Geographia, Rio Janeiro. 3oletim de Agricultura, Mineria e Indus- trias, Mexico. soletin Bibliographico y Escola, Mexico. soletin de la Institucion Libre de Ense- ntanza, Madrid. Boletin de la Real Academia de Ciencias y Artes, Barcelona. Boletin de la Sociedad Geogratica, Lima. dei World, Battle Creek, botanischen chemischen Conti, etc., Rome. delle Pubbliecazioni Italiane, Florence. Bollettino della Reale Accademia Medica, Genoa. 716 REPORT OF Bollettino della Societa Adriatica di Scienze Naturali, Trieste. Bollettino della Societa di Naturalisti, Naples. Bollettino della Societa Romana per gli Studi Zoologica, Rome. Book Buyer and Seller, Cincinnati. Book Shop, New York. Books, Denver. Brazilian Missions, Brooklyn. Breeder and Sportsman, San Francisco. British Naturalist, Hartlepool. Buletin Societatea Geografica Romana, Bukarest. Bulletin Aéronautique, Paris. Bulletin Agricultural Experiment Sta- tion, Reno, Nevada. Bulletin Association Paris. Bulletin Astronomique, Paris. Bulletin of the Botanical Department, Kingston, Jamaica. Bulletin Commission Archéologique de Narbonne. Bulletin Cornell University Experiment Station, Ithaca. Bulletin Department of Toronto. Bulletin of the Geological Society of America. Bulletin of the Library and Museum of Laurent College, Montreal. _ Bulletin Mensuel des Publications Etran- geres, Paris. Bulletin Mensuel Statistique Municipale, Buenos Aires. Bulletin du Ministere de Publique, Brussels. Bulletin New York Mathematical Society, New York. Bulletin Ontario Agricultural Experi- ment Farm, Toronto. Bulletin Pennsylvania State College Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin Société VAgriculture du Dépt. du Cher, Bourges. Bulletin de la Société Frangaise de Phy- sique, Paris. Bulletin de la Société @Archéologie, Geneva. Bulletin de la Société @ Horticulture du Doubs, Besancon. Bulletin Société Royale Linnéenne, Brus- sels. Bulletin Société de Statistique des Sci- ences Naturelles, Grenoble. Buletinul Observatinmiloy Meteorologici din Romania, Bucharest. Bye-Gones, Oswestry, England Calabria, Monteleone, Italy. Cambridge University Reporter. Canadian Bee Journal, Beeton, Ontario. Canadian Entomologist, London, Onta- rio. Canadian Patent Office Record, Ottawa. Canadian Poultry Journal, Beeton, On- tario. Canadiana, Montreal. Cape Times, Cape Town. Capitale (now L’Universelle), Paris. Polytechnique, Agriculture, VInstruction (UThistoire et THE SECRETARY. Carpet and Upholstery Trade Review, New York. Carpentery and Building, New York. Carrier Dove, San Francisco. Casopis pro prumysl chemicky, Prague. Cassier’s Magazine, New York. Cesky Lid, Prague. Chinese-American Adyocate, Philadel- phias Christian Recorder, Philadelphia. Christian Worker, Manchester, land. Chronique Industrielle, Paris. Church and Home Magazine, London. Chureh Union, New York. Circular System, Oakland, California. Cireular Leland Stanford, Jr., Univer- sity, Palo Alto, California. Civies, New York. Civil Service Record, Boston Clay Record, Chicago. Clay Worker, Indianapolis. Collector (monthly), New York. Collector (semimonthly), New York. Collector’s Monthly, Danielsonyville, Conn. College Echo, Austin, Tex. Compass, New York. Comptes Rendus des Séances de la Société Américaine, Paris. Comptes Rendus de L’Athénée Louisia- nais, New Orleans. Conchologist, St. Andrews, Scotland. Congo Illustré (Le), Brussels. Contemporary Review, London. Contributions Historical Society, Helena, Mont. Cornhill Magazine, London. Crank, Ithaca. Culture, Bombay. Current Review, New York. Darkest Russia, London. Dedham Historical Register, Dedham, Mass. Deutsche Zuekerindustrie, Berlin. Discovery, London. Documente privitor la Istoria Romanilor culese de Eudoxin, Academia Romana, Bucharest. Droit d’Auteur (Le), Berne. Eeclesiastical Chronicle, London. Echo Polyglotte (L’), Paris. Economista Espatiol (1), Barcelona. Edinburgh Review, Edinburgh. Electric Power, New York, — Electrical Enterprise, Boston. Electricity, New York. Elektrichestvo Zhurnal, St. Petersburg. Electrotechnische Rundschau, Frankfort O. M. Entomologist’s Record, London. Eirdészeti Lapok Kézlonye, Budapest. Esoteric, Applegate, Cal. Experiment Station Bulletin (U.S. Dept. of Agriculture), Experiment Station Record (U, 8S. Dept. of Agriculture). Fanciers’ Journal, Philadelphia. Farben-Industrie, Berlin, Farm, Field, and Stockman, Chicage. Eng- v REPORT OF Farmers’ Bulletin (U. S. Dept. of Agri- culture). Fauna, Luxemburg. Federal Reporter, St. Paul. Fernsechau, Mitteischweizerische Geo- graphische Cemmercielle Gesellschaft Aarau. Financial World, Boston. Fortnightly Review, London. Fortschritte der Physik, Berlin. Franco-Gallia, Cassel. French and German Echoes, London. Geelong Naturalist, Geelong, Australia. Gewerbehalle, New York. Gewerbeschau, Dresden. Great Divide, Denver. Guide, Glasgow. Hapisgoh, Baltimore. Harness Gazette, Rome, N. Y. Helios, Frankfort o. O. Hide and Leather, Chicago. Hintz’s Moderne Hiiuser, Berlin. Hoisting, Stamford, Conn. Home and Country, New York. Home Cheer, New York. Ice and Refrigeration, Chicago, Illustrirte Welt, Stuttgart. Insekten-Boirse, Leipsic. Instructor (E1), Aguas Calientes, Mexico. Internationale Patent-Zeitung, Berlin. Inventors’ Review, London. Inzhjenjer, Kiey. Towa School Journal, Des Moines. Trish Naturalist, Dublin. Irrigation Age, Denver, Colo. Tron Belt, Roanoke, Va. °* Jahresbericht Geographische Gesell- schaft, Bern. Jahresberichte Verein fiir Erdkunde, Cassel. Jewish Messenger, New York. Journal of Comparative Neurology, Gran- ville, Ohio. Journal de V’Eelairage au Gaz, Paris. Journal of the Engineering Society of the Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pa. Journal of the Institute of Jamaica, Kingston. Journal of Medical Philosophy and Prac- tice, Philadelphia. Journal of Philately, New York. Journal of Philology, Cambridge, Eng. Journal of the Polynesian Society, Well- ington. Journal of the Society of Dyers and Col- orists, Bradford, England. Journal of the U.S. Artillery, Fort Mon- roe, Juvenile Magazine for the Young, Lon- don. Kansas University Quarterly, Lawrence. Knowledge, New York. K. T. S. News, Mount Sterling, Ky. Landwirthschaftliche Jahrbuch Schweiz, Bern. Library Record, Jersey City. Light, London. Lithographer, London. Lithographers’ Journal, Philadelphia. Littell’s Living Age, Boston. der THE SECRETARY. (Zl Litterarischer Merkur, Weimar. Locomotive Engineering, New York. Londoy Quarterly Review, London. Longman’s Magazine, London. Manufacturer and Builder, New York. Manufacturers’ Engineering and Export Journal, London. Marine Rundschau, Berlin. Marine Verordnungsblatt, Berlin. Matériaux et Documents d’Architecture et de Sculpture, Paris. Meddelelser fra Carlberg Laboratoriet, Copenhagen. Mémoires Société Royale de Géographie, Antwerp. ° Memoirs British Astronomical Associa- tion, London. Memorias Sociedad Cientifica, Mexico. Memorie Societi degli Spettroscopisti Italiani, Rome. Mercurio Occidental, Guadalajara. Meteorologicheskija Nobljudenija, Odessa. Methodist Review, New York. Milling, Indianapolis. Mineralogists’ Magazine, Jersey City. Minerals, New York. Minerva, Rome. Minutes ofthe Managing Committee, Pro- vincial Museum, Lucknow. Mitteilungen aus dem gesammten Ge- biete der englischen Sprache und Lit- teratur, Leipsic. Mitteilungen der Vereinigung von Freun- den der Astronomie und kosmischen Physik, Berlin. Mitteilungen Vereins fiir Kunst und Alter- thum, Ulm. Mittheilungen Leipsic. Mittheilungen aus dem Gebiete der ange- wandten Naturwissenschaften, Schén- berg, Moravia. Mittheilungen des ornithologischen Ver- eins, Vienna. Mittheilungen der Section fiir Naturkun- de, Oesterreichischen Touristen-Club, Vienna. Mittheilungen der statistischen Amtes, Dresden. Mittheilungen des Verbandes deutscher Architekten und Ingenieure, Berlin. Modern Language Monthly, London. Modern Miller, Kansas City. Monatsblatt der numismatischen Gesell- schaft, Vienna. Monitor de la Eduecacion Comun, Buenos Aires. Monthly Bulletin Colorado State Weather Service, Denver. Monthly Bulletin Texas Weather Sery- ice, Galveston. Monthly Chronicle of North Country Lore and Legend, Newcastle u. Tyne. Monthly Weather Review, Calcutta. Mouvement Antiesclavagiste, Brussels. Nabytki Biblioteki, Cracow. Narragansett Historical Register, Provi- dence. Nasha Pistsha, St. Petersburg. von F. A. Brockhaus, 78 REPORT OF National Coopers’ Journal, Buffalo, N. Y. National Educator, Allentown, Pa. National Monitor of Poultry and Pets, Fort Wayne, Ind. ~ Natural Science, London. Nature (La), Paris. Neptunia, Venice. Neue Mitteilungen aus dem Gebiete der historisch-antiquarischen Forse hun- gen, Halle a S. Neue Philologische Rundshau, Gotha. New Jerusalem Magazine, Boston. New Nation, Boston. New York State Library bany, N.Y. Nineteenth Century, London. North American Review, New York. Nouvelles Géographiques, Paris. Observations faites & ’Observatoire Mé- téorologique, Kiey. Observations Finska Vetenskaps-Societe- tens imeteorologiska Centralanstalt, Helsingfors. Observations Institut Météorologique Central, Helsingfors. Oesterreichische Zeitschrift waltung, Vienna. Onderzokningen Physiotogische Labora- toriet, Utrecht. One and All, Birmingham. Onward and Upward, Aberdeen. Bulletin, Al- fiir Ver- Operele principelier Dimileantermiru, Bucharest. Ornithologist and Botanist, Birmine- ham. Our Day, Boston. Painswick Annual Register. Painting and Decorating, Philadelphia. P. C, P. Alwnni Report, Philadelphia. Pedagogical Seminary, Worcester. 12 estalozziblitter, Zurich. Peterborough Diocesan Magazine, Le1- zester. Petit Etranger (Le), Paris. Pharmaceutical Record, New York. Phonographic Magazine, Cincinnati. Phosphate (Le), Amiens. Photographie Work, London. Photographischer Correspondenz, enna. eostal Record, New York. Power and Transmission, Mishawaka. Proceedings of the Cotteswold Natural- ists’ Field Club, Cheltenham. Proceedings of the Society of Antiqua- ries, Newcastle u. Tyne. Protokoly Zasiedanij oidjelenija, Khimii, St. Petersburg. Public Library ‘Bulletin, Los Angeles. Publications Alfred University, Alfred Center, N. Y. Publications of the Architectural Asso- ciation, London. Publications from Dr. C.U.S8. Aurivillius, Upsala. Publications Guille-Allés Library, Guern- sey. Publications by. Vi- Jardin, M. Ed. Publications K. K. orientalische Akade- | mie, Vienna, THE | SECRETARY. Publicationen des Kéniglichen Museum fiir Naturkunde, Berlin. Publications of Dr. Olsen. Publications Section de Moscou de la Société Impériale Technique, Moscow. Publications University, Vienna. Quarterly Bulletin American Catholic Hist. Society, Philadelphia. Quarterly Review, London. Raportt: asupra activitatei, Academia Romana, Bukarest. Rapport Ecole Polytechnique Suisse, Bern. Records and Papers of the New London County Historical Smane New T.on- don, Conn. Reformed Church Messenger, Philadel- phia. j Reformed Quarterly Review, Philadel- phia. Regents’ Bulletin, N. Y. Albany, N.Y. Religio-Philosophical Journal, Chicago. Rendiconti Societa Reale Accademia di Archeologia, etc., Naples. Répertoire des Travaux de Statistique de Marseille. State Library, la Société de xepertorium fiir Meteorologie, St. Pe- tersburg. Repertorium der technischen Journal- Litteratur, Berlin. Report Rotherhite Public Library. Report Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, London. Review of Reviews, New York. Revista General de Marina, Madrid. Revista Italiana di Scienze Natural, Naples. Revista Militar de Chili, Santiago. Revista del Museo de la Plata, La Plata. Revue du _ Bas-Poitou, Fontenay-le- Comte. Revue de Botanique, Auch. Revue Botanique, Paris. Reyue de Botanique, Toulouse. Revue de l’Ecole d’Anthropologie, Paris. Revue des Etudes Juives, Paris. Revue d’Horticole, Marseilles. Revue Internationale Scientifique et Populaire des Falsifications, Amster- dam. Revue des Livres et dela Presse, Paris. Revue Mensuelle de V Ecole @’ Anthropolo- gie, Paris. Revue des Questions Historiques, Paris. Revue des Questions Scientifiques, Brus- sels. Revue des Sciences Naturelles de 1’ Ouest, Paris. Revue Universelle des Inventions Nou- velles, A, B, C, D, Paris. Richmond College Magazine, Galle. River-Plate Sport t and Pastime, Buenos Aires. Romens’s Journal, Charlottenberg. Rosario, La Nuova Pompei (It), Ville di Pompei. Rural Californian, Los Angeles. Rutland County Historical Society, New- port, Vt. . REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 4) Satety Valve, New York. Treasury of Religious Thought, New St. Joseph’s Advocate, Baltimore. (ee Works Salem Press Historical and Genealogical Record, Salem. Scottish Notes and Queries, Aberdeen. Scottish Review, London. Séances de la Société Frangaise de Phy- sique, Paris. Seifensieder Zeitung, Augsburg. Selmi (11), Pavia. Shendun News, Shendun, Va. Sitzunesberichte der Gesellschaft fiir Morphologie und Physiologie, Munich. Socialpolitisches Correspondenzblatt, Berlin. Sociologic News, Brooklyn. South Eastern Naturalist, Canterbury, England. : Southern Farm, Atlanta, Ga. Southern Historical Magazine, Charles- ton, W. Va. Sozialpolitisches Centralblatt, Berlin. Speaker, London. Sportsman’s Review, Chicago. Strand’s Magazine, London. Sugar, London. Sugar Beet, Philadelphia. Supplemento Annuale alla Enciclopedia di chimica scientifica, ete., Turin. Svensk Kemisk Tidskrift, Stockholm. Technies, Stawell, Australia. Temple Bar, London. Tennessee Journal of Meteorology, Nash- ville. Textile Record of America, Philadelphia. Theosophist, Madras. Tidsskrift for Folkundervisning, Stock- holm. Tidskrift Jiimtlands Liins forening, Ostersund. Tidsskrif tfor Physik og Chemie, Copen- hagen. To-day, Boston. Toreh, London. Tradition, La, Paris. Transactions of the Academy of Science, St. Louis. Transactions of the Canadian Institute, Toronto. Transactions Manchester Statistical So- ciety. Yransactions Mining Association of Corn- wall, Camborne. Transactions of the Yorkshire Naturalists, Union, Leeds. Travaux et Mémoires des Facultés Lille. Travaux de la Section de Physico-Chim- ique de la Société des Sciences Experi- mentales, Kharkoy. i ornminnes- de Very respectfully submitted. Mr. 8. P. LANGLEY. Uebersicht der Ein und Ausfuhr der wich- tigsten Waarenartikel, Bern. Uchenijja Zapiski, Kazan. Union Postale (L’), Bern. Union Signal (The), Chicago. U.S. Catholic Historical Magazine, New York. U.S. Miller, Milwaukee. Universal Market, Berlin. University Extension Bulletin, Albany. University Magazine, New York. University Star, Omaha, Nebr. Verhandlungen Gelehrte EstnischeGesell- schaft, Dorpat. Verétientlichungen des Rechen-Instituts der Kéniglichen Sternwarte, Berlin. Vierteljahreshefte zur Statistik des deutschen Reiches, Berlin. Voleur fllustré, Paris. Volkskunde, Ghent. Vom Fels zum Meer, Stuttgart. Vremennik Tsentralnije, St. Petersburg. Weather crop Bulletin, Crete, Nebr. Wee Willie Winkie, Aberdeen. Weekly Bulletin, Boston. Weekly Stationary Engineer, Chicago. Western Electrician, Chicago. Worcester Commercial and Board of Trade Bulletin, Worcester, Mass. Workshop, New York. World’s Progress, Cincinnati. Wiirttembergisch-Franken, Kocher. Year Book of Australia, Sydney. Yorkshire. County Magazine, Bradford, England. Yorkshire Notes and Queries, Bradford, England. Zdrowie miesieczrisk poswieconij, etc., Warsaw. Zeitschrift Munich. Zeitschrift fiir deutsche Philologie Halle a/s. Zeitschrift fiir Oologie, Berlin. Zeitschrift des Vereins deutscher Inge- nieure, Berlin. Zeitschrift Verein fiir Volkskunde, Berlin. Zeitschrift fiir Volkskunde, Halle a/S. Zeitschrift Westpreussicher Geschichts— Verein, Danzig. Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaftliche Geo- graphie Weimar. Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaftliche Mikros, kopie und fiir mikroskopische Technik- Braunschweig. Hall am/ fiir anorganische Chemie, N. P. SGU. DER, Acting Librarian. Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 80 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, APPENDIX VY. PUBLICATIONS FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1892. Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report upon the publications of the Smithsonian Institution for the year ending June 30, 1892. SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO KNOWLEDGE. Among the issues in quarto size a fragmentary publication, referred to and partly described in the last annual report as nearly ready, has been completed. and dis- tributed during the present fiscal year. This fragment, as explained in the preceding report, is not included in the collected volumes of the “Contributions to Knowledge,” though produced in same form and style. It forms in the Smithsonian series: No. 800. ‘‘Plates prepared between the years 1849 and 1859, to accompany a report on the Forest Trees of North America, by Asa Gray.” This is a quarto brochure, comprising all the plates (23 in number) prepared for Dr. Gray’s long contemplated work on forest trees. Though nearly forty years old, these plates, carefully en- graved and skillfully colored by hand, are here for the first time collected and issued, without any descriptive text, no accounts or descriptions having been found among the iamented Dr. Gray’s papers. No. 801. ‘Experiments in Aerodynamics.” By S. P. Langley. Quarto volume of Iv + 115 pages; illustrated with 11 figures in the text, and 10 plates. ? SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS. No. 787. ‘Lists of Institutions and Foreign and Domestic Libraries, to which it is desired to send future publications of the National Museum.” (From the Reportof the National Museum for 1889.) Octavo pamphlet of -78 pages. No. 788. ‘‘Memoir of Heinrich Leberecht Fleischer.” By Prof. A. Miiller. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1889.) Octavo pamphlet of 20 pages. No. 789. “On Aerial Locomotion.” By F. W. Wenham. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1889.) Octavo pamphlet of 20 pages; illustrated with 6 figures. No. 790. ‘‘Photography in the service of Astronomy.” By R. Radau. Translated from the French, by A. N. Skinner. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1889.) Oc- tavo pamphlet of 22 pages. No. 791. ‘“A Memoir of Gustav Robert Kirchhoff.” By Robert von Helmholtz. Translated from the German, by Joseph de Perott. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1889.) Octavo pamphlet of 14 pages. No. 792. ‘‘The Musewms of the Future.” By G. Brown Goode, Assistant Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. (From the Report of the National Museum for 1889. ) Octavo pamphlet of 19 pages. No. 793. ‘Te Pito te Henua, or Easter Island.” By William J. Thomson. (From the Report of the National Museum for 1889.) Octavo pamphlet of 106 pages; illus- trated with 20 figures and 49 plates. No. 794. “Aboriginal Skin Dressing. A study based on material in the U. &. National Museum.” By Otis T, Mason. (From the Report of the National Museum for 1889.) Octavo pamphlet ot 62 pages; illustrated with 32 plates. No. 795. ‘The Puma or American Lion (Felis concolor of Linnweus). By Frederick W. True. (From the Report of the National Museum for 1889.) Octavo pamphlet of 18 pages; illustrated with 1 plate. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 81 No. 796. ‘Animals recently extinct, or threatened with extermination, as repre- sented in the collections of the U. S. National Museum.” By Frederick A. Lueas. (From the Report of the National Museum for 1889.) Octavo pamphlet of 41 pages; illustrated with 9 figures and 11 plates. No. 797. ‘The development of the American Rail and Track, as illustrated by the collection in the U. S. National Museum.” By J. Elfreth Watkins. (From the Re- port of the National Museum for 1889.) Octavo pamphlet of 58 pages; illustrated with 115 figures. No. 798. ‘‘ Explorations in Newfoundland and Labrador in 1887, made in connec- tion with the cruise of the U. S. Fish Commission schooner Grampus.” By Frede- rick A. Lucas. (From the Report of the National Museum for 1889,) Octavo pam- phlet of 20 pages; illustrated with 1 plate or sketch map. No. 799. ‘Preliminary Handbook of the Department of Geology of the U.S. Na- tional Museum.” By George P. Merrill. (From the Report of the National Museum ; Appendix.) Octavo pamphlet of 50 pages. No. 803. “The Squaring of the Circle.” By Herman Shubert. (From the Smith- sonian Report for 1890.) « Octavo pamphlet of 24 pages. No. 804. ‘‘An Account of the Progress in Astronomy for the years 1889, 1890.” By William C. Winlock. (From the Smithsonian Report fer 1890.) Octavo pamphlet of 62 pages. No. 805. ‘‘ Mathematical Theories of the Earth.” By RobertS. Woodward. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1890.) Octavo pamphlet of 18 pages. No. 806. ‘‘On the Physical Structure of the Earth.” By Henry Hennessy. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1890.) Octavo pamphlet of 19 pages. No. 807. “Glacial Geology.” By James Geikic. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1890.) Octavo pamphlet of 10 pages. No. 808. ‘The History of the Niagara River.” By G. K. Gilbert. (*romthe Smith- sonian Report for 1890.) Octayvo pamphlet of 46 pages: illustrated with 8 plates. No. 809. ‘‘The Mediterranean Physical and Historical.” By Sir R. L. Playfair. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1890.) Octavo pamphlet of 18 pages. No. 810. ‘Stanley and the map of Africa.” By J. Scott Keltie. (From the Smith- sonian Report for 1890.) Octayvo pamphlet of 15 pages; illustrated with 2 maps. No. 811. “Antarctic Explorations.” By G. 8. Griftiths. (Irom the Smithsonian Report for 1890.) Octayvo pamphlet of 12 pages. No. 812. ‘‘The History of Geodetic Operations in Russia.” By B. Witskowski and J. Howard Gore. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1890.) Octavo pamphlet of 10 pages. No. 813. “‘Quartz Fibers.” By C. V. Boys. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1890.) Octayvo pamphlet of 20 pages; ilustrated with 9 figures. No. 814. “Dr. Keenig’s Researches on the Physical Basis of Musical Harmony and Timbre.” By Sylvanus P. Thompson. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1890.) Octavo pamphlet of 25 pages; illustrated with 8 figures. No. 815. “The Chemical Problems of To-day.” By Victor Meyer. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1890.) Octayo pamphlet of 15 pages. No. 816. ‘‘The Photographic Image.” By Raphael Meldola. (From the Smith- sonian Report for 1890.) Octayo pamphlet of 11 pages. No. 817. ‘A Tropical Botanic Garden.” By M. Treub. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1890.) Octavo pamphlet of 18 pages. No. 818. “Temperature and Life.” By Henry de Varigny. (From the Smithso- nian Report for 1890.) Octavo pamphlet of 18 pages. No. 819. ‘“‘Morphology of the Blood Corpuseles.” By Charles-Sedgwick Minot. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1890.) Octavo pamphlet of 3 pages; illustrated with 1 plate. ; No. 820. ‘‘Weismann’s Theory of Heredity.” By George J. Romanes. (Irom the Smithsonian Report for 1890.) Octavo pamphlet of 14 pages, Pe NLISss L146 82 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. No. 821. “The Ascent of Man.” By Frank Baker. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1890.) Octavo pamphlet of 20 pages. No. 822. “Antiquity of Man.” By John Evans. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1890.) Octavo pamphlet of 8 pages. No. 823. ‘The Primitive Home of the Aryans.” By A. H. Sayce. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1890.) Octave pamphlet of 13 pages. No. 824. ‘‘The Prehistoric Races of Italy.” By Isaac Taylor. (From the Smith- sonian Report for 1890.) Octavo pamphlet of 10 pages. No. 825. ‘‘The Age of Bronzein Egypt.” By Oscar Montelius. (From the Smith- sonian Report for 1890.) Octavo pamphlet of 23 pages; illustrated with 6 plates. No. 826. ‘An Account of the Progress of Anthropology in the year 1890.” By Otis T. Mason. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1890.) Octavo pamphlet of 82 pages; illustrated with 8 figures and 4 plates. No. 827. ‘A Primitive Urn Burial.” By Dr. J. F. Snyder. (From the Smith- sonian Report for 1890.) Octavo pamphlet of 5 pages; illustrated with 2 plates. No. 828. ‘‘Manners and Customs of the Mohaves.” By George A. Allen. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1890.) One sheet of 2 octavo pages. No. 829. ‘Criminal Anthropology.” By Thomas Wilson. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1890.) Octavo pamphlet of 70 pages. - No. 830. ‘Color-vision and Color-blindness.” By R. Brudenell Carter. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1890.) Octavo pamphlet of 18 pages. No. 831. “Technology and Civilization.” By F. Reuleaux. (From the Smithso- nian Report for 1890.) Octavo pamphlet of 15 pages; illustrated with 2 figures. No. 832. “The Ramsden Dividing Engine.” By J. Elfreth Watkins. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1890.) Octavo pamphlet of 19 pages; illustrated with 1 figure and 3 plates. No. 833. ‘‘A Memoir of Elias Loomis.” By H. A. Newton. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1890.) Octavo pamphlet of 50 pages. No. 834. ‘(A Memoir of William Kitchen Parker.” (From the Smithsonian Report for 1890.) Octavo pamphlet of 4 pages. No. 835. “Sale List of Publications of the Smithsonian Institution, January, 1892.” Octavo pamphlet of 27 pages. No. 838. ‘‘ Report on the International Congress of Orientalists.” Held at Stock- holm, Sweden, and Christiania, Norway, in September, 1889. By Paul Haupt. (From the Smithsonian Report for i890.) Octayvo pamphlet of 8 pages. SMITHSONIAN ANNUAL REPORTS. No. 770. ‘‘ Report of the National Museum. Annuai Report of the Board of Re- gents of the Smithsonian Institution, showing the operations, expenditures, and condition of the Institution for the year ending June 30, 1889.” This volume com- prises five sections: I. Report of the Assistant Secretary of the Smithsonian Insti- tution, G. Brown Goode, in charge of the National Museum, upon the condition and prospects of the Museum; II. Reports of the Curators of the Museum upon the prog- ress of work during the year; IiI. Papers describing and illustrating the collec- tions in the Museum; IV. Bibliography of publications and papers relating te the Museum during the year; and V. List of accessions to the Museum during the year. The whole accompanied with an index of 59 pages, and Appendix E.—Preliminary Handbook of the Department of Geology in the U. 8. National Museum, of 50 pages, by George P. Merrill, Curator. This Report forms an octavo volume of xvii+-933 pages; illustrated with 144 cuts or figures in the text, and 107 plates. No. 786. ‘‘ Report upon the condition and progress of the U.S. National Museum during the year ending June 30, 1889.” By G. Brown Goode, Assistant Secre- tary of the Smithsonian Institution, in charge of the National Museum. (From the Report of the National Museum for 1889.) Octavo pamphlet of 277 pages; illustra- ted with four plates. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 83 No. 802. ‘‘ Proceedings of the Regents, and Report of the Executive Committee for the year 1889-90, together with acts of Congress for the year. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1890.) Octavo pamphlet of 32 pages. No. 386. ‘‘ Report of S. P. Langley, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, for the year ending June 30, 1891.” Octavo pamphlet of 65 pages. No. 837. “Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, showing the operations, expenditures, and condition of the Institution to July, 1890.” This volume contains the Journal of Proceedings of the Board of Regents at the annual meeting held January 8, 1890; the report of the Executive Com- mittee of the Board ; acts and resolutions of Congress relative to the Institution, for the year; and the Report of the Secretary of the Institution: followed by the “General Appendix,” in which are given the following papers: ‘‘The Squaring of the Circle,” by Herman Schubert; ‘‘The Progress of Astronomy for the years 1889, 1890,” by William C. Winlock; ‘Mathematical Theories of the Earth,” by Robert S. Woodward; ‘ Physical Structure of the Earth,” by Henry Hennessy; “Glacial Geology,” by James Geikie; ‘History of the Niagara River,” by G. K. Gilbert; ‘‘The Mediterranean, Physicaland Historical,” by SirR. L. Playfair; “Stan- ley and the Map of Africa,” by J. Scott Keltie; ‘Antarctic Exploration,” by G. 8. Griffiths; ‘‘History of Geodetic Operations in Russia,’ by B. Witskowski and J, Woward Gore; “Quartz Fibers,” by C. V. Boys; ‘‘Kcnigs’s Researches on Musi- eal Harmony and Timbre,” by Sylvanus P. Thompson; ‘The Chemical Problems of To-day,” by Victor Meyer; ‘The Photographic Image,” by Raphael Meldola; ‘A Tropical Botanic Garden,” by M. Treub; ‘Temperature and Life,” by Henry de Varigny; ‘‘Morphology of the Blood Corpuscles,” by Charles S. Minot; ‘‘ Weis- mann’s Theory of Heredity,” by George J. Romanes; “The Ascent of Man,” by Frank Baker; ‘‘The Antiquity of Man,” by John Evans; ‘‘Primitive Home of the Aryans,” by A. H. Sayce; ‘The Prehistoric Races of Italy,” by Isaac Taylor; “The Age of Bronze, in Egypt,” by Oscar Montelius; ‘Progress of Anthropology in 1890,” by Otis T. Mason; “A Primitive Urn Burial,” by J. F. Snyder; “Manners and Customs of the Mohaves,” by George A. Allen; ‘‘Criminal Anthropology,” by Thomas Wilson; ‘‘Color-vision and Color-blindness,” by R. Brudenell Carter; “Technology and Civilization,” by F. Reuleanx; ‘The Ramsden Dividing Engine,” by J. E. Watkins; “Memoir of Elias Loomis,” by H. A. Newton; and “Memoir of William Kitchen Parker ;” the whole forming an octavo volume of xli+808 pages, illustrated with 29 figures and 26 plates. Very respectfully, Wn. B. TAyYror, Vditor. Mr. 8. P. LANGLEY, Secretary Smithsonian Institution. GENERAL APPENDIX TO THE SMITHSONIAN REPORT FOR 1892. ADVERTISEMENT. The object of the GENERAL APPENDIX to the Annual report of the Smithsonian Institution is to furnish brief accounts of scientifie diseov- ery in particular directions; occasional reperts of the investigations made by collaborators of the Institution; memoirs of a general charae- ter or on special topics, whether original and prepared expressly for the purpose, or selected from foreign journals and proceedings; and briefly to present (as fully as space will permit) sueh papers not published in the Smithsonian Contributions or in the Miscellaneous Collections as may be supposed to be of interest or value to the numerous correspond- ents of the Institution. it has been a prominent object of the Board of Regents of the Smith- sonian Institution, from a very early date, to enrich the annual report required of them by law with memoirs illustrating the more remark- able and important deyelopments in physical and biological discovery, as well as showing the general character of the operations of the Insti- tution; and this purpose has, during the greater part of its history, been carried out largely by the publication of such papers as would possess an interest to all attracted by scientific progress. In 1880, the Secretary, induced in part by the discontinuance of an annual summary of progress which for thirty years previous had been issued by well-known private publishing firms, had prepared by com- petent collaborators a series of abstracts, showing concisely the prominent features of recent scientific progress in astronomy, geology, meteorology, physics, chemistry, mineralogy, botany, zodlogy, and anthropology. This latter plan was continued, though not altogether satisfactorily, down to and including the year 1888. In the report for 1889, a return was made to the earlier method of presenting a miscellaneous selection of papers (some of them original) embracing a considerable range of scientific investigation and discus- sion. This method has been continued in the present report, for 1892, 87 Bi a PD THE METEOROLOGICAL WORK OF THE SMITHSONIAN IN- SEO EION. * The Smithsonian Institution has always made it a rule of action to undertake such lines of work as point the way to great public utilities, and these have subsequently been made the function of useful govern- ment bureaus of applied science. This is notably true in the case of meteorology, which was developed by the Institution in both its scientific and its popular aspects, until its importance became so well understood, and its utility so widely ap- preciated, that in 1870, Congress made it the duty of the Chief Signal Officer of the U. S. Army to observe and report storms for the benefit of commerce and agriculture. The interest of the Smithsonian Institution in meteorology began with the organization of its work by its first secretary, Prof. Joseph Henry, in 1847, and from that time to the present—nearly half a cen- tury—meteorological science has been granted an important share ofits labors and expenditure. In his “ programme of organization, ” submitted on the 8th of Decem- ber, 1847, in giving examples of objects for which appropriations might properly be made, the Secretary mentioned first, and urged upon the immediate attention of the Institution, a ‘system of extended meteor- ological observations for solving the problem of American storms.” This clear appreciation of the existing state of knowledge, and of the utilities to be gained, are set forth in the following words, with which he commends this undertaking : Of late years, in our country, more additions have been made to meteorology than to any other branch of physical science. Several important generalizations have been arrived at, and definite theories proposed, which now enable us to direct our attention, with scientific precision, to such points of observation as can not fail to reward us withnew andinteresting results. It is proposed to organize a system of ob- servations which shall extend as far as possible over the North American continent. The present time appears to be peculiarly auspicious for commencing an enterprise of the proposed kind. The citizens of the United States are now scattered over every part of the southern and western portions of North America, and the extended lines of the telegraph will furnish a ready means of warning the more northern and eastern observers to be on the watch for the first appearance of an advancing storm. In the inauguration of this system of observations, Prof. Henry so- licited the suggestions of the most experienced American meteorolo- gists—Espy, Loomis, and Guyot—who extended their cordial co-opera- tion. *Summary prepared for the section of history, World’s Congress of Meteorology, Chicago, 1893. 89 90 METEOROLOGICAL WORK OF SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. Accompanying the above-quoted presentation of his programme the Secretary published a valuable, and now historic, report by Prof. Loomis upon the meteorology of the United States, in which he showed what advantage society might expect from the study of storms, what had been already done in this country toward making the necessary observations, and, finally, what encouragement there was to a further prosecution of the same researches. He then presented in detail a plan for unifying all the work done by existing observers, and for supple- menting it by that of new observers at needed points, for a systematic supervision, and, finally, for a thorough discussion of the observations collected. On the 13th of December, 1847, the Board of Regents adopted the “programme of organization,” and on the 15th inaugurated the sys- tem of meteorological observations by an appropriation of $1,000 for the purchase of instruments and other related expenses. In the following year (1848) Prof. Espy, who was then the official meteorologist of the Navy Department, was assigned to duty under the direction of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. In connee- tion with Espy, the Secretary (Henry) addressed a circular letter to all persons who would probably be disposed to take part in the contem- plated systems of observations, and co-operation was solicited from the existing systems under the direction of the Surgeon-General, and of the States of New York and Pennsylvania. As aresult of these efforts the Institution at the close of 1849, already had one hundred and fifty daily observers, and the number continued to increase. In order to unify the methods adopted by observers, Prof. Guyot was requested to prepare a pamphlet of Directions for Meteorological Observations,* which was published in 1850, and to compile a collee- tion of Meteorological Tables, which was published as a volume of the Miscellaneous Collections in 1852. In 1857, after careful revision by the author, a second and much enlarged edition of the Tables was pub- lished, and in 1859, a third, with further amendments. ee 7 | ; . GEOLOGICAL CHANGE, AND TIME. 123 southern shores of Kngland, and across the Baltic into France and Ger- many. This Arctic transformation was not an episode that lasted merely a few seasons, and left the land to resume thereafter its ancient aspect. With various successive fluctuations it must have endured for many thousands of years. When it began to disappear it probably faded away as slowly and imperceptibly as it had advanced, and when it finally vanished it left Europe and North America profoundly changed in the character alike of their scenery and of their inhabitants. The rugged rocky contours of earlier times were ground smooth and pol- ished by the march of the ice across them, while the lower grounds were buried under wide and thick sheets of clay, gravel, and sand, left be- hind by the melting ice. The varied and abundant flora which had spread so far within the Arctie circle was driven away into more southern and less ungenial climes. But most memorable of all was the extirpation of the prominent large animals which, before the ad- vent of the ice, had roamed over Europe. The lions, hyenas, wild horses, hippopotamuses, and other creatures either became entirely ex- tinct or were driven into the Mediterranean basin and into Afriea. In their place came northern forms—the reindeer, glutton, musk ox, woolly rhinoceros, and mammoth. Such a marvellous transformation in climate, in scenery, in vegetation and in inhabitants, within what was after all but a brief portion of geo- logical time, though it may have involved no sudden or violent convul- sion, is surely entitled to rank as a catastrophe in the history of the globe. It was probably brought about mainly if not entirely by the operation of forces external to the earth. No similar calamity having befallen the continents within the time during which man has been recording his experience, the Ice Age might be cited as a contradiction to the doctrine of uniformity. And yet it manifestly arrived as part of the established order of Nature. Whether or not we grant that other ice ages preceded the last great one, we must admit that the conditions under which it arose, so far as we know them, inight conceivably have occurred before and may occur again. The various agencies called into play by the extensive refrigeration of the northern hemisphere were not different from those with which we are familiar. Snow fell and glaciers crept as they do to-day. Ice scored and polished rocks exactly as it still does among the Alps and in Norway. There was nothing abnormal in the phenomena, save the scale on which they were manifested. And thus, taking a broad view of the whole subject, we recognize the catastrophe, while at the same time we see in its prog: ress the operation of those same natural processes which we know to be integral parts of the machinery whereby the surface of the earth is continually transformed, Among the debts which seience owes to the Huttonian school, not the least memorable is the promulgation of the first well-founded con- 124 GEOLOGICAL CHANGE, AND TIME. ceptions of the high antiquity of the globe. Some six thousand years had previously been believed to comprise the whole life of the planet, and indeed of the entire universe. When the curtain was then first raised that had veiled the history of the earth, and men, looking beyond the brief span within which they had supposed that history to have been transacted, beheld the records of a long vista of ages stretching far away into a dim illimitable past, the prospect vividly impressed their imagination. Astronomy had made known the immeasurable fields of space; the new science of geology seemed now to reveai bound- less distances of time. The more the terrestrial chronicles were studied the farther could the eye range into an antiquity so vast as to defy all attempts to measure or define it. The progress of research continually furnished additional evidence of the enormous duration of the ages that preceded the coming of man, while, as knowledge increased, periods that were thought to have followed each other consecutively were found to have been separated by prolonged intervals of time. Thus the idea arose and gained universal acceptance that, just as 10 boundary could be set to the astronomer in his free range through space, so the whole of by- gone eternity lay open to the requirements of the geologist. Playfair, re-echoing and expanding Hutton’s language, had declared that neither among the records of the earth, nor in the planetary motions, can any race be discovered of the beginning or of the end of the present order of things; that no symptom of infancy or of old age has been allowed to appear on the face of nature, nor any sign by which either the past or the future duration of the universe can be estimated; and that although the Creator may put an end, as he no doubt gave a begin- ning, to the present system, such a catastrophe will not be brought about by any ofthe laws now existing, and is not indicated by anything which we perceive. This doctrine was naturally espoused with warmth by the extreme uniformitarian school, which required an unlimited duration of time for the accomplishment of such slow and quiet cycles of change as they conceived to be alone recognizable in the records of the earth’s past history. It was Lord Kelvin, who, in the writings to which I have already referred, first called attention to the fundamentally erroneous nature of these conceptions. He pointed out that from the high internal tem- perature of our globe, increasing inwards as it does, and from the rate of loss of its heat, a limit may be fixed to the planet’s antiquity. He showed that so far from there being no sign of a beginning, and no prospect of an end, to the present economy, every lineament of the solar system bears witness toa gradual dissipation of energy from some definite starting point. No very precise data were then, or indeed are now, available for computing the interval which has elapsed since that remote commencement, but he estimated that the surface of the globe could not have consolidated less than twenty millions of years ago, for the rate of increase of temperature inwards would in that case have GEOLOGICAL CHANGE, AND TIME. 125 been higher than it actually is; nor more than four hundred millions of years ago, for then there would have been no sensible increase at all. He was inclined, when first dealing with the subject, to believe that from a review of all the evidence then available, some such period as one hundred millions of years would embrace the whole geological history of the globe. It is not a pleasant experience to discover that a fortune which one has unconcernedly believed to be ample has somehow taken to itself wings and disappeared. When the geologist was suddenly awakened by the energetic warning of the physicist, who assured him that he had enormously overdrawn his account with past time, it was but natural under the circumstances that he should think the accountant to be mis- taken, who thus returned to him dishonored the large drafts he had made on eternity. He saw how wide were the limits of time deducible from physical considerations, how vague the data from which they had been calculated. And though he could not help admitting that a limit must be fixed beyond which his chronology could not be extended, he consoled himself with the reflection that after all a hundred millions of years was a tolerably ample period of time, and might possibly have been quite sufficient for the transaction of all the prolonged sequence of events recorded in the crust of the earth. He was therefore dis- posed to acquiesce in the limitation thus imposed upon geological his- tory. Sut physieal inquiry continued to be pushed forward with regard to the early history and antiquity of the earth, Further consideration of the influence of tidal friction in retarding the earth’s rotation, and of the sun’s rate of cooling, led to sweeping reductions of the time allow- able for the evolution of the planet. The geologist found himself in the plight of Lear when his bodyguard of 100 knights was cut down. “What need you five-and-twenty, ten or five?” demands the inex- orable physicist, as he remorselessly strikes slice after slice from his allowance of geological time. Lord Kelvin is willing, I believe, to grant us some twenty millions of years, but Professor Tait would have us content with less than ten millions. In scientific as in other mundane questions there may often be two sides, and the truth may ultimately be found not to lie wholly with either. I frankly confess that the demands of the early geologists for an unlimited series of ages were extravagant, and even, for their own purposes, unnecessary, and that the physicist did good service in re- ducing them. It may also be freely admitted that the latest conclu- sions from physical considerations of the extent of geological time re- quire that the interpretation given to the record of the rocks should be rigorously revised, with the view of ascertaining how far that inter- pretation may be capable of modification or amendment. But we must also remember that the geological record constitutes a voluminous body of evidence regarding the earth’s history which can not be ignored, and 126 GEULOGICAL CHANGE, AND TIME. must be explained in accordance with ascertained natural laws. If the conclusions derived from the most careful study of this record can not be reconciled with those drawn from physical considerations, it is surely not too much to ask that the latter should be also revised. It has been well said that the mathematical millis an admirable piece of machinery, but that.the value of what it yields depends upon the quality of what is put into it. That there must be some flaw in the physical argument LT can, for my own part, hardly doubt, though [ do net pretend to be able to say where it is to be found. Some assumption, if seems to me,. has been made, or some consideration has been left out of sight, which will eventually be seen to vitiate the conclusions, and which when duly taken into account will allow time enough for any reasonable interpre- tation of the geological record. In problems of this nature, where geological data capable of nu- merical statement are so needful, it is hardly possible to obtain trust- worthy computations of time. Wecan only measure the rate of changes in progress how, and infer from these changes the length of time re- quired for the completion of results achieved by the same processes in the past. There is fortunately one great cycle of movement which ad- mits of careful investigation, and which has been made to furnish val- uable materials for estimates of this kind. The universal degradation of the land, so notable a characteristic of the earth’s surface, has been regarded as an extremely slow process. Though it goes on without ceasing, yet from century to century it seems to leave hardly any per- ceptible trace on the landscapes of a country. Mountains and plains, hills and valleys appear to wear the same familiar aspect which is indicated in the oldest pages of history. This obvious slowness in one of the most important departments of geological activity doubtless contributed in large measure to form and foster a vague belief in the vastness of the antiquity required for the evolution of the earth. But, as geologists eventually came to perceive, the rate of degrada- tion of the land is capable of actual measurement. The amount of material worn away from the surface of any drainage basin and carried in the form of mud, sand, or gravel, by the main river into the sea represents the extent to which that surface has been lowered by waste in any given period of time. But denudation and deposition must be equivalent to each other. As much material must be laid down in sed- imentary accumulations as has been mechanically removed, so that in measuring the annual bulk of sediment borne into the sea by a river, we obtain a clue not only to the rate of denudation of the land, but also to the rate at which the deposition of new sedimentary formations takes place. As might be expected, the activities involved in the lowering of the surface of the land are not everywhere equally energetic. They are naturally more vigorous where the rainfall is heavy, where the daily range of temperature 1s large, and where frosts are severe. Hence they GEOLOGICAL CHANGE, AND TIME. Mar are obviously much more effective in mountainous regions than on plains ; and their results must constantly vary, not only in different basins of drainage, but even, and sometimes widely, within the same basin. Actual measurement of the proportion of sediment in river water shows that while in some cases the lowering of the surface of the land may be as much as ;,, of a foot in a year, in others it falls as low as y2jo. Inother words, the rate of deposition of new sedimentary formations, over an area of sea floor equivalent to that which has yielded the sediment, may vary from one foot in seven hundred and thirty years to one foot in six thousand eight hundred years. Ifnow we take these results and apply them as measures of the lengti. of time required for the deposition of the various sedimentary masses that form the outer part of the earth’s crust, we obtain some indication of the duration of geological history. On a reasonable computation these stratified masses, where most fully developed, attain a united thickness of not less than 100,000 feet. If they were all laid down at the most rapid recorded rate of denudation, they would require a period of seventy-three millions of years for their completion. If they were laid down at the slowest rate they would demand a period of not less than six hundred and eighty millions. But it may be argued that all kinds of terrestrial energy are grow- ing feeble, that the most active denudation now in progress is much less vigorous than that of bygone ages, and hence that the stratified part of tle earth’s crust may have been put together in a much briefer space of time than modern events might lead us to suppose. Sueh arguments are easily adduced and lock sufficiently specious, but no confirmation of them can be gathered from theroecks. On the contrary, no one can thoughtfully study the various systems of stratified forma- tions without being impressed by the fullness of their evidence that, on the whole, the accumulation of sediment has been extremely slow. Again and again we encounter groups of strata composed of thin paper- like lamine of the finest silt, which evidently settled down quietly and at intervals on the sea bottom. We find successive layers covered with ripple-marks and sun-eracks, and we recognize in them memorials of ancient shores where sand and mud tranquilly gathered as they do in sheltered estuaries at the present day. We can see no proof what- ever—nor even any evidence which suggests—that on the whole the rate of waste and sedimentation was more rapid during Mesozoie and Palie- ozoic time than it is to-day. Had there been any marked difference in this rate from ancient to modern times, it would be incredible that no clear proof of it should have been recorded in the crust of the earth. But in actual fact the testimony in favor of the slow accumulation and high antiquity of the geological record is much stronger than might be inferred from the mere thickness of the stratified formations. These sedimentary deposits have not been laid down in one unbroken sequence, but have had their continuity interrupted again and again by upheaval 128 GEOLOGICAL CHANGE, AND TIME. and depression. So fragmentary are they in some regions that we can easily demonstrate the length of time represented there by still exist- ing sedimentary strata to be vastly less than the time indicated by the gaps in the series. There is yet a further and impressive body of evidence furnished by the successive races of plants and animals which have lived upon the arth and have left their remains sealed up within its rocky crust. No one now believes in the exploded doctrine that successive creations and universal destructions of organic life are chronicled in the stratified rocks. It is everywhere admitted that, from the remotest times up to the present day, there has been an onward march of development, type succeeding type in one long continuous progression. As to the rate of this evolution precise data are wanting. There is however the im- portant negative argument furnished by the absence of evidence of recognizable specific variations of organic forms since man began to observe and record. We know that within human experience a few species have become extinct, but there is no conclusive proof that a single new species have come into existence, nor are appreciable variations readily apparent in forms that live in a wild state. The seeds and plants found with Egyptian mummies, and the flowers and fruits depicted on Egyptian tombs, are easily identified with the vege- tation of modern Egypt. The embalmed bodies of animals found in that country show no sensible divergence from the structure or propor- tions of the same animals at the present day. The human races of Northern Africa and Western Asia were already as distinct when por- trayed by the ancient Egyptian artists as they are now, and they do not seem to have undergone any perceptible change since then. Thus a lapse of four or five thousand years has not been accompanied by any recognizable variation in such forms of plant and animal life as can be tendered in evidence. Absence of sensible change in these instances is, of course, no proof that considerable alteration may not have been accomplished in other forms more exposed to vicissitudes of climate and other external infiuences. But it furnishes at least a presumption in favor of the extremely tardy progress of organic variation. If however we extend our vision beyond the narrow range of human history, and look at the remains of the plants and animals preserved in those younger formations which, though recent when regarded as parts of the whole geological record, must be inany thousands of years older than the very oldest of human monuments, we encounter the most im- pressive proofs of the persistence of specific forms. Shells which lived in our seas before the coming of the Ice age present the very same peculiarities of form, structure, and ornament which their descendants still possess. The lapse of so enormous an interval of time has not sufficed seriously to modify them. So too with the plants and the higher animals which still survive. Some forms have become extinct, but few or none which remain display any transitional gradations into * Pate GEOLOGICAL CHANGE, AND TIME. 129 new species. We must admit that such transitions have occurred, that indeed they have been in progress ever since organized existence began upon our planet, and are doubtless taking place now. But we can not detect them on the way, and we feel constrained to believe that their march must be excessively slow. There is no reason to think that the rate of organic evolution has ever seriously varied; at least no proof has been adduced of such va- riation. Taken in connection with the testimony of the sedimentary rocks, the inferences deducible from fossils entirely bear out the opinion that the building up of the stratified crust of the earth has been ex- tremely gradual. If the many thousands of years which have elapsed since the Ice age have produced no appreciable modification of sur- viving plants and animals, how vast a period must have been required for that marvellous scheme of organic development which is chronicled in the rocks! After careful reflection on the subject, I affirm that the geological record furnishes a mass of evidence which no arguments drawn from other departments of nature can explain away, and which, it seems to me, can not be satisfactorily interpreted save with an allowance of time much beyond the narrow limits which recent physical speculation would concede. I have reserved for final consideration a branch of the history of the earth which, while it has become, within the lifetime of the present generation, one of the most interesting and fascinating departments of geological inquiry, owed its first iinpulse to the far-seeing intellects of Hutton and Playfair. With the penetration of genius these illustrious teachers perceived that if the broad masses of land and the great chains of mountains owe their origin to stupendous movements which from time to time have convulsed the earth, their details of contour must be mainly due to the eroding power of running water. They recognized that as the surface of the land is continually worn down, it is essentially by a process of sculpture that the physiognomy of every country has been developed, valleys being hollowed out and hills left standing, and that these inequalities in topographical detail are only varying and local accidents in the progress of the one great process of the degredation of the land. From the broad and guiding outlines of theory thus sketched we have now advanced amid ever-widening multiplicity of detail into a fuller and nobler conception of the origin of scenery. The law of evo- lution is written as legibly on the landscapes of the earth as on any other page of the book of. nature. Not only do we recognize that the existing topography of the continents, instead of being primeval in origin, has gradually been developed after many precedent mutations, but we are enabled to trace these earlier revolutions in the structure of every hill and glen. Kach mountain chain is thus found to be a H. Mis. 114-9 130 GEOLOGICAL CHANGE, AND TIME. memorial of many successive stages in geographical evolution, Within certain limits land and sea have changed places again and again. Voleanoes have broken out and have become extinct in many countries long before the advent of man. Whole tribes of plants and animals have meanwhile come and gone, and in leaving their remains behind them as monuments at once of the slow development of organic types, and of the prolonged vicissitudes of the terrestrial surface, have furnished materials for a chronological arrangement of the earth’s topographical features. Nor is it only from the organisms of former epochs that broad generalizations may be drawn regarding revolutions In geog- raphy. The living plants and animals of to-day have been discovered to be eloquent of ancient geographical features that have long since vanished. In their distribution they tell us that climates have changed ; that islands have been disjoined from continents; that oceans once united have been divided from each other, or once separate have now been joined; that some tracts of land have disappeared, while others for prolonged periods of time have remained in isolation. The pres- ent and the past are thus linked together, not merely by dead matter, but by the world of living things, mto one vast system of continuous progression. In this marvellous increase of knowledge regarding the transtorma- tions of the earth’s surface, one of the most impressive features, to my mind, is the power now given to us of perceiving the many striking contrasts between the present and former aspects of topography and scenery. We seem to be endowed with a new sense. What is seen by the bodily eye—mountain, valley, or plain—serves but as a veil, beyond which, as we raise it, visions of long-lost lands and seas rise before us in a far-retreating vista. Pictures of the most diverse and opposite character are beheld, as it were, through each other, their lineaments subtly interwoven, and even their most vivid contrasts subdued into one blended harmony. Like the poet, ‘we see, but not by sight alone ;” and the “ray of fancy” which, as a sunbeam, lightened up his land- scape, is for us broadened and brightened by that play of the imagina- tion which science can so vividly excite and prolong. Admirable illustrations of this modern interpretation of scenery are supplied by the district wherein we are now assembled. On every side of us rise the most convineing proofs of the reality and potency of that ceaseless sculpture by which the elements of landscape have been carved into their present shapes. Turn where we may, our eyes rest on hills that project above the lowland, not because they have been upheaved into these positions, but because their stubborn materials have enabled them better to withstand the degradation which has worn down the softer strata into the plains around them. Inch by inch the surface of the land has been lowered, and each hard rock successively laid bare has communicated its own characteristics of form and color to the scenery. GEOLOGICAL CHANGE, AND TIME. 13h [f, standing on the Castle Rock, the central and oldest: site in Edin- burgh, we allow the bodily eye to wander over the fair landscape, and the mental vision to range through the long vista of earlier landscapes which science here reveals to us, what a strange series of pictures passes before our gaze! The busy streets of to-day seem to fade away into the mingled copsewood and forest of pre-historic time. Lakes that have long since vanished gleam through the woodlands, and a rude canoe pushing from the shore startles the red deer that had come to drink. While we look, the picture changes to a polar scene, with bushes of stunted Arctic willow and birch, among which herds of reindeer browse and the huge mammoth makes his home. Thick sheets of snow are draped all over the hills around, and far to the northwest the distant gleam of glaciers and snowfields marks the line of the Highland mountains. As we muse on this strange contrast to the living world of to-day the scene appears to grow more Arctic in aspect, until every hill is buried under one vast sheet of ice, 2,000 feet or more in thickness, which fills up the whole midland valley of Scotland and creeps slowly eastward into the basin of the North Sea. Here the curtain drops upon our moving pageant, for in the geological record oi this part of the country an enormous gap oceurs before the coming of the Ice Age. When once more the spectacle resumes its movement the scene is found to have utterly changed. The familiar hills and valleys of the Lothians have disappeared. Dense jungles of a strange vegetation— tallreeds, club-mosses, and tree-ferns—spread over the streaming swamps that stretch for leagues in all directions. Broad lagoons and open seas are dotted with little voleanic cones which throw out their streams of lava and showers of ashes. Beyond these, in diminer outline and older in date, we descry a wide lake or inland sea, covering the whole midland valley and marked with long lines of active volcanoes, some of them sev- eral thousand feet in height. And still furtherand fainter over the same region, we may catch a glimpse of that still earlier expanse of sea which in Silurian times overspread most of Britian. But beyond this scene our vision fails. We have reached the limit across which no geological evidence exists to lead the imagination into the primeval darkness beyond. Such in briefest outline is the succession of mental pictures which modern science enables us to frame out of the landscapes around Edin- burgh. They may be taken as illustrations of what may be drawn, and sometimes with even greater fulness and vividness, from any district in these islands. But I cite them especially because of their local interest in connection with the present meeting of the Association, and because the rocks that yield them gave inspiration to those great masters whose claims on our recollection, not least for their explanation of the origin of scenery, I have tried to recount this evening. re: cueeiee ; ebepaigld dulsh aie a TCE rhe fr ara ‘ait if ee 4 yan GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK.* By ARNOLD HAGUE, U.S. Geological Survey. In the short time allotted to me I can only hope to present a brief sketch of the main geological features of the country which you are about to visit. My remarks must, of necessity, be more or less incom- plete, as my desire is not so much to elucidate any special problem connected with the many interesting geological questions to be found here, but rather to offer such a general view of the region as will enable you, during your five days’ trip through the Park, to understand clearly something of its physical geography and geology. The Yellowstone Park is situated in the extreme northwestern por- tion of the Territory of Wyoming. Its boundaries, as determined by the original act of Congress setting apart the Park, are very ill- defined. At the time of the enactment of the law establishing this national reservation, the region had been but little explored, and its relation to the physical features of the adjacent country was but little understood. Since that time, surveys have shown that only a narrow strip, about 2 miles in width, was situated in the Territory of Mon- tana, but it was also found that a still narrower strip extended west- ward into the Territory of Idaho. The question of properly establish- ing the boundaries, based upon our present knowledge of the country, is now before Congress, and an act has already passed the Senate, pro- posing to make the northern boundary coincide with the boundary between Wyoming and Montana, and the western boundary coincide with the Wyoming and Idaho line. The act under consideration extends the southern boundary of the Park to the 44th parallel of lati- tude, carrying the area of the reservation southward 94 miles. The “astern boundary is made to coincide with the meridian of 109° 30/, adding a strip of country about 244 miles in width along the entire eastern side of the Park. The area of the Park, as at present defined, is somewhat more than 3,300 square miles, and the proposed addition increases the reservation * An address at a special session of the American Institute of Mining Engineers, at Mammoth Hot Springs, Wyoming, on the borders of the National Park, July, 1887. (From Trans. Am. Inst. Mining Engineers.) 133 134 GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE YELLOWSTONE PARK. by nearly 2,000 square miles. The Park plateau, with the adjacent mountains, presents a sharply defined region, in strong contrast with the rest of the northern Rocky Mountains. It stands out boldly by itself, unique in topographical structure, and complete as a geological problem. The central portion of the Yellowstone Park is, essentially, a broad, elevated, volcanic plateau, between 7,000 and 8,500 feet above sea-level, and with an average elevation of about 8,000 feet. Surrounding it on the south, east, north, and northwest, are mountain ranges with eulmi- nating peaks and ridges rising from 2,000 to 4,000 feet above the general level of the inelosed table-land. For present purposes it is needless to confine ourselves strictly to legal boundaries, but rather to consider the entire region in its broader physical features. It is worthy of note, however, that by the proposed enlargement the protected area will agree closely with the geographical provinee. South of the Park, the Tetons stand out prominently above the sur- rounding country, the highest, grandest peaks in the northern Rocky Mountains. The eastern face of this mountain mass rises with un- rivalled boldness for nearly 7,000 feet above Jackson Lake. North- ward, the ridges fall away abraptly beneath the lavas of the Park, only the outlying spurs coming within the limits of the reservation. For the most part the mountains are made up of coarse crystalline gneisses and schists, probably of Archean age, flanked on the northern spurs by up- turned Paleozoic strata. To the east, across the broad valley of the Upper Snake, generally known as Jackson Basin, lies the well-knowa Wind River Range, famous from the earliest days of the Rocky Mountain trappers. The Northern end of this range is largely composed of Mesozoic strata, single ridges of Cretaceous sandstone penetrating still farther north- ward into the regions of the Park, and protruding above the great flows of lava. Along the entire eastern side of the Park stretches the Absaroka Range—so-called from the Indian name of the Crow Nation. The Absaroka Range is intimately connected with the Wind River, the two being so closely related that any line of separation must be drawn more or less arbitrarily, based more upon geological structures and forms of erosion than upon physical limitations. The Absarokas offer, for more than 80 miles, a bold, unbroken bar- rier to all western progress; a rough, rugged country, dominated by high peaks and crags from 10,000 to 11,000 feet in height. Only a few adventurous hunters and mountaineers cross the range by one or two dangerous, precipitous trails known to but few. The early trap- pers found it a forbidding land; prospectors who followed them, a barren one. At the northeast corner of the Park a confused mass of mountains GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE YELLOWSTONE PARK. 135 connects the Absarokas with the Snowy Range. This Snowy Range shuts in the Park on the north, and is an equally rough region of coun- try, with elevated mountain masses covered with snow the greater part of the year, as the name would indicate. Only the southern slopes, which rim in the Park region, come within the limit of our investiga- tion. Here the rocks are mainly granites, gneisses, and schists, the sedimentary beds, for the most part, referable to the pre-Cambrian series. The Gallatin Range ineloses the Park on the north and northwest. It lies directly west of the Snowy, only separated by the broad valley of the Yellowstone River. It is a range of great beauty, of diversified forms, and varied geological problems. Electric Peak, in the extreme northwestern corner of the Park, is the culminating point in the range, and affords one of the most extended views to be found in this part of the country. Archean gneisses form a prominent mass in the range, over which occur a series of sandstones, limestones, and shales, of Pale- ozoic and Mesozoic age, representing Cambrian, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, Trias, Jura, and Cretaceous. [mmediately associated with these sedimentary beds, are large masses of intrusive rocks, which have played an important part in bringing about the present structural features of the range. They are all of the andesitie type, but showing considerable range in mineral composition, including pyroxene, hornblende, and hornblende nica varieties. These intrusive masses are found in narrow dikes, in immense interbedded sheets forced between the different strata, and as laccolites, a mode of oceur- rence first described from the Henry Mountains in Utah, by Mr. G. K. Gilbert, but now well recognized elsewhere in the northern Cordillera. We see then that the Absarokas rise as a formidable barrier on the eastern side of the Park, the Gallatins as a steep mural face on the west side, while the other ranges terminate abruptly, rimming in the Park on the north and south, and leaving a depressed region not unlike the parks of Colorado, only covering a more extended area with a rela- tively deeper basin. The region has been one of profound dynamic action, and the center of mountain building on a grand scale. On the accompanying map of the Yellowstone Park, which shows the position of the principal objects of interest, the relations of the ranges to the plateau are clearly indicated. It is not my purpose at the present time to enter upon the details of geological structure of these ranges, each offering its own special study and field of investigation. My desire is simply to call your attention to their general features and mutual relations. So far as their age is concerned, evidence goes to show that the action of upheaval was con- temporaneous in all of them, and coincident with the powerful dy- hamic movements which uplitted the north and south ranges, streteh- ing across Colorado, Wyoming, and Montana. This dynamic move- ment blocked out, for the most part, the Rocky Mountains, near the 136 GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE YELLOWSTONE PARK. close of the Cretaceous, although there is good reason to believe that in this region profound faulting and displacement continued the work of mountain building well into the Middle Tertiary period. Throughout Tertiary timein the Park area, geological history was char- “Obsidian Cliff On iw UPPER Old Faithful ¢ ASIN TS, — J 72404 Le oN | Gee “Shoshone _ || Lake { MT.SHER(DAN inh ° ae i 10, 200%e—a5 x Two Océean-Pass ER ee } = fred bt oe ceeae oe 0.61 1. 74 MEnKOUSIOMIUG. =-co- tae > 2 EAE am: Live 1.37 0. 08 EELICIS UP kG Otte aioe eile terete a alate ena 0.11 Maneanese oxide .....-.-.-... Pe reeedoe de coCl Le (race: None lbh A eet Ee Sse ann Aceeess bee aoCepUcneE Pel sae 0. 68 0.78 MEMO ER oe rea A as Asenesiocdecomenoabanciccptoc: 0.09 0.10 | Wuithiaieeseaas. ee eee eae orate tarps severe 0. 02 LEAT ee etc c cbc ROCer JaSC HORE Te BOR CODOD SOE CEL 3. 33 3. 62 SLT ES Se 2 Rae SCOR BOE Oa aE Oe ee tee 3. 83 3. 93 SUV GINO Ge son as acoso ec OS BEcoae eo Sanoneoaca. 0.29 ViWTH I) 856 po Soe ode CES oe GRC das BECHER co caca roe 0. 65 Wer OMe eae peas le oe eis ele 0.39 ata ey testa od sad ee a AS 99.83 | «i100, 38 140 GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE YELLOWSTONE PARK. The rock from Madison Plateau was collected on the north side of Madison Canyon and was selected asa typical rock covering large areas of the Park. It is purplish-gray in color, rough in texture, porphy- ritic in structure, and characterized by well-developed sanidin and quartz. The obsidian, from Obsidian Cliff, is an excellent example of pure volcanic glass, wholly devoid of porphyritie crystals. In general the investigations of the laboratory contirm the observations of the field geologist, that the differences exhibited by the voleanie product are not of chemical or mineral composition, but rather of physical con- ditions under which the magma has cooled. I have dwelt somewhat in detail upon the nature of these rocks for two reasons: First, because of the difficulty met with by the scientific traveller in recognizing the uniformity and simplicity of chemical com- position of the rhyolite magma over the entire plateau, owing to its great diversity in superficial habit; second, on account of their geolog- ical importance in connection with the unrivalled display of the gey- sers and hot springs. That the energy of the steam and thermal raters dates well back into the period of voleanic action, there is in my opinion very little reason to doubt. As the energy of this under- ground heat is to-day one of the most impressive features of the country, I will defer commenting upon the geysers and hot springs until speaking of the present condition of the Park. Although the rhyolite eruptions were probably of long duration and died out slowly, there is, I think, evidence to show that they occupied a clearly and sharply defined period between the andesites and basalt eruptions. Since the outpouring of this enormous body of rhyolite and building up of the plateau the region has undergone profound faulting and displacement, lifting up bodily immense blocks of lava and modifying the surface features of the country. Following the rhy- olite came the period of basalt eruptions, which, in comparison with the andesite and rhyolite eras, was, so far as the Park was con- cerned, insignificant, both as regards the area covered by the basalt and its influence in modifying the physical aspect of the region. The basalt occurs as thin sheets overlying the rhyolite and in some instances as dikes cutting the more acidic rocks. It has broken out near the outer edge of the rhyolite body and occurs most frequently along the Yellowstone Valley, along the western foothills of the Gal- latin Range and Madison Plateau, and again to the southward of the Falls River basin. After the greater part of the basalt had been poured out came the glacial ice, which widened and deepened the pre-existing drainage channels, cut profound gorges through the rhyolite lavas and ‘modelled the two voleanos into their present form. Over the greater part of the Cordillera of the centrai and northern Rocky Mountains wherever the peaks attain a sufficiently high altitude to attract the moisture-laden clouds evidences of the former existence of local glaciers are to be GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE YELLOWSTONE PARK. 141 found. In the Teton Range several well-defined characteristic glaciers still exist upon the abrupt slopes of Mount Hayden and Mount Moran. They are the remnants of a much larger system of glaciers. The Park region presents so broad a mass of elevated country that the entire plateau was, in glacial times, covered with a heavy capping of ice. Evidences of glacial action are everywhere to be seen. Over the Absaroka Range glaciers were forced down into the Lamar and Yellowstone valleys, thence westward over the top of Mount Evarts tothe Mammoth Hot Springs Basin. On the opposite side of the Park the ice from the summit of the Gallatin Range moved eastward across Swan Valley and passing over the top of Terrace Mountain joined the ice field coming from the east. The united ice sheet plowed its way northward down the valley of the Gardiner to the Lower Yellowstone, where the broad valley may be seen strewn with the material trans- ported from both the east and west rims of the Park. Since the dying out of the rhyolite eruptions erosion has greatly modified the entire surface features of the Park. Some idea of the ex- tent of this action may be realized when it is recalled that the deep -anons of the Yellowstone, Gibbon and Madison rivers—canons in the strictest use of the word—have all been carved out since that time. To-day these gorges measure several miles in length and from 1,000 to 1,500 feet in depth. To the geologist one of the most impressive objects on the Park plateau is a transported bowlder of granite which rests directly upon the rhyolite near the brink of the Grand Canon, about 3 miles below the Falls of the Yellowstone. It stands alonein the forest, miles from the nearest glacial bowlder. Glacial detritus carrying granitic material may be traced upon both sides of the canon wall, but not a fragment of rock more than a few inches in diameter, older than the recent lavas, has been recognized within a radius of many miles. ‘This massive block, although irregular in shape and somewhat pointed toward the top, measures 24 feet in length by 20 feet in breadth and stands 18 feet above the base. The nearest point from which it could have been trans- ported is distant 50 or 40 miles. Coming upon it in the solitude of the forest with all its strange surroundings it tells amost impressive story. In no place are the evidences of frost and fire brought so forcibly to- gether as in the Yellowstone National Park. Since the close of the ice period no geological events of any moment have brought about any changes in the physical history of the region other than those produced by the direct action of steam and thermal waters. A few insignificant eruptions have probably occurred, but they failed to modify the broad outlines of topographical structure and present but little of general interest beyond the evidence of the con- tinuance of volcanic action into quaternary times. Volcanic activity in the Park may be considered as long since extinet. At all events in- dications of fresh lava-flows within historical times are wholly want- 142 GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE YELLOWSTONE PARK. ing. This is not without interest, as evidence of under-ground heat may be observed everywhere throughout the Park in the waters of the geysers and hot springs. they have heard say of those of Saguenay, there was never man heard of that found out the end thereof, for as they told us they themselves were never there.” Allowing for the difficulty of communicating by signs and the many chances of misunderstanding, of which the interpretation of the Indian signs to mean gold is doubtless an instance, thisis a geographical deserip- tion which can alinost be followed on the map, and the account shows that the St. Lawrence Indians knew that the copper they had came from a place in the west where there were great lakes and a “sea of fresh water.” This was all hearsay with them, as they had never visited the distant country, which was inhabited by other tribes. But it seems evident enough that there was at that time a widely diffused knowledge of the source of the copper, which would hardly have been the case if the supply had ceased two or three generations before. When, over a hundred years later, French settlements had been established and traders and missionaries began to push forward to the great ‘sea of fresh water,” they continually encountered the statement that copper could be found on its shores, and Indian guides finally took them to the precise localities where the metal had formerly been mined, and whence it was still occasionally obtained. Copper specimens, some- times of large size, all reported as coming from Lake Superior, were not uncommon, at this time, as the following extracts show, and it seems evident that Indians still visited the old diggings and carried away such pieces of copper as they could find. The Abbé Sagard, who was a missionary to New France about the year 1630, gave an account of the resources of the country in his “Grand Voyage du pays des Hurons,” published at Paris in 1632. He did not penetrate as far as the upper lakes, but says that there were copper mines in that distant country which might prove profitable if there was a white population to support them and miners to work them, which would be the case if colonies were established. He saw a speci- men of copper from the mines, which, he says, were 80 or 100 leagues distant from the country of the Hurons. In Margry’s Décourertes et établissements des Francais, Premiere partie, voyages des Francais sur les grands lacs, 1614-1684, p. 81, is an extract from a letter relating to an exploration for copper written by Sieur Patowlet in Canada to Colbert in Paris. Itis dated at Quebec, November 11, 1669, and is as follows: ‘Messrs. Joliet and Péné, to whom M. Talon paid 100 and 400 livres respectively, to explore for the copper deposit which is above Lake Ontario, specimens from which you have seen, and ascertain if itis abund- ant, easy to work, and if there is easy transportation hither, have not yet returned. The first named should have been here in September, but there is no news of him yet, so that a report of what may be expected of the mine must be postponed until next year.” On page 95 of the same volume is a letter from Jean Talon to the king, dated Quebec, November 2, 1671, in which occurs the following reference to copper, IN NORTH AMERICA. 191 one locality of which had then become known: ‘‘ The copper specimen from Lake Superior and the Nantaonagon (Ontonagon) River which I send, indicates that there is some deposit or some river bank which yields this substance in as pure a state as could be wished, and more than 20 Frenchmen have seen a mass of it in the lake which they esti- mate at eight hundred weight. The Jesuit fathers among the Ottawas use an anvil of this metal which weighs about 100 pounds. It only remains to find the source of these detached pieces.” He then gives some description of the Ontonagon River, in which he attempts to account for the formation in situ of the copper specimens found in its neighborhood (galets de ce mestail, evidently float copper), and goes on to say: “It is to be hoped that the frequent journeys of the Indians and French, who are beginning to make expeditions in that direction, will result in the discovery of the place which furnishes such pure metal, and that without expense to the king.” The passages from the Jesuit Relations, which have been often quoted in this connection, show that the mining districts were well known to the Indians. Father Dablon, in the Relations for 1669~70, describes these places, of which he was informed by the Indians. The first was Michipicoten Island, on the east shore of the lake; then came St. Ignace, on the north shore, and then Isle Royale, ‘celebrated for its copper, where could be seen in the cliffs several beds of red copper separated from each other by layers of earth.” The other principal locality was the Ontonagon river, from which place the French had received a cop- per specimen three years previously which weighed 100 pounds. The Indian (Ottawa) women of this region, the father says, while digging holes for corn, used to find pieces of copper (float copper) weighing 10 and 20 pounds. A hundred years later Alexander Henry mentions the same thing of this locality, and adds that the Indians beat the pieces of copper into bracelets and spoons. Father Dablon goes on to say that opinions differed as to the place the Ontonagon copper came from some thinking it was near the forks of the river and along the eastern branch (near the old workings), while other guessers placed it elsewhere. The information the Indians gave was not spontaneous, for Father Dablon says that it required some address to induce them to reveal the mineralogical secrets which they wished to conceal from the whites. This reluctance to give information about mineral localities has sur- vived down to a very recent period, and stories are known to the older residents of the copper district, some of them amusing enough, illus- trating this trait. At all events, Father Dablon’s Indians knew pre- cisely where the old mining localities were. He says he was assured that in the land to the south there were deposits (mines is the French word) of the metal in various places. He had just been speaking of Keweenaw Point, but the connection is not close enough to warrant the inference that he meant immediately to the south of the point. If that could be shown, there would be a direct reference to the ‘dig- gings” on the peninsula, L92 PRE-COLUMBIAN COPPER-MINING But most of the misapprehension in this matter has arisen from the use of the misleading term “mine” in connection with this district- We associate with that term shafts or tunnels and under-ground work. ings, none of which ever existed on the lake. The ancient miners were not miners in the proper sense of the word as were those prehistoric men who mined copper ore in the Tyrol, or those other prehistoric mine:s who sank shafts and ran drifts in the chert deposits of Belgium. On the contrary, they were, as has been abundantly shown, only surface prospectors, and appear to have dug for copper wherever they happened to find it. Ifthe pieces were loose float in the gravel, as at the Quincy location, and as the Ottawa squaws found them at Ontonagon, in 1670, and the later Indians in Henry’s and Schoolcraft’s time, well and good, they ‘mined ” them and beat them into shape. If the copper was in huge masses on the surface as at the Mesnard they ‘‘mined” it in that shape by working off pieces with their stone hammers. If the copper was fast in the rock they broke it out by hammering the rock away from it, and if the rock extended into the ground they dug down around it, broke away what ‘barrel work” they could, and treated the “ mass” as they did that already dug for them on the surface. They had no idea corresponding to the word mine. Hence there is no apparent reason why there should have been much of a distinction in the minds of people who were not miners between places where they dug copper out of the gravel, as in the trenches at Quincey, and places where they were obliged to dig around rocks to obtain it. It is largely the undue emphasis upon the idea of mining that has led writers to create another race than the Indians to practice that skilled art on Keweenaw Point, Isle Royale, and the Canadian shore. The false or exaggerated idea has led to an equally exaggerated inference. ATI this is well illustrated in a passage in Wilson’s “Prehistoric Man,” describing an interview with an old Chippewa chief some fifty years ago. He was asked about the ancient copper miners, and declared that he knew nothing about them. The Indians, he said, used to have copper axes, but until the French came and blasted the rocks with powder they had no traditions of the copper mines being worked. His fore- fathers used to build big canoes and cross the lake to Isle Royale, where they found more copper than anywhere else. This is a distinct tradition enough of one famous copper locality—Isle Royale—although it may be unreliable from its late date, but the story shows how the belief that the Indians had no tradition of the old mines could originate. The old chief very properly denied knowing about a thing that never existed. His ancestors never carried on mining, but only digging. Deep mines, where blasting is done, which very likely he had seen, were, of course, unknown to them. Like this old chief, Father Dablon’s Indians showed full traditional knowledge when they told him of the mineral localities where, several generations before, copper had been extensively dug. The ancient —" IN NORTH AMERICA. 193 trenches in the woods had long been covered and contained no visible copper. They possessed only an antiquarian interest to which the Indians were strangers, and also, as Father Dablon relates, his Indian friends were not disposed to give more information than they could help. The first systematic exploring or “prospecting” party to search for the Ontonagon lode was sent out from Quebec about the same year that Father Dablon described the place, viz, 1669. The expedition returned without accomplishing its object for want of time, and was meton Lake Erie by La Salle’s party going to the Mississippi. No mining was done there until a hundred years later under Alexander Henry. The foregeing extracts from the account of Cartier’s voyage, the Abbé Sagard, the Jesuit Relations, and Margry, show the continuity of the ancient or pre-Columbian mining on Lake Superior and the mod- ern. As soon as the French arrived at the St. Lawrence in 1535, they found the natives knowing proportionately as much about the distant source of the copper they possessed as the ordinary eastern citizen does now. Over a hundred years later, after settlements had been made, there was still living knowledge that copper came from Lake Superior, and especially the Ontonagon River, where it was easy to find float copper. But during this long period active importation of European articles had been going on so that, as the Chippewa chief explained, native industries, including the search for copper, had been interrupted. Iron articles, knives, hatchets, weapons, and innumerable other desira- ble things made it unnecessary for the Indians to exert themselves in exploiting the old source of supply. But when the French began to inquire for copper they were taken to the precise localities where the metal had formerly been obtained which, like al! mining districts, were full of abandoned and forgotten workings, and they were shown the metal in place. Native copper, as has been said, occurs sparingly in several places in the eastern part of the country. In the Appalachian region ores ot copper occur and have been extensively mined, but native copper does not occur there except as a mineralogical rarity. Nevertheless it has been suggested that copper was produced in that part of the country in pre-Columbian times. If this were so there should be evidences oJ old mines and of smelting operations of some kind, because copper ore must be smelted to produce the metal. No old workings in that region have, however, yet been identified as pre-Columbian copper mines, and no traces of aboriginal smelting have been discovered to support the suggestion. Ancient mica mines have, indeed, been discovered in North Carolina which are now worked, but if the Indians mined for copper at allin that mineral district the fact remains to be proved: Moreover, the Smithsonian collection, so far from showing a compara: tive abundance of copper articles from the Appalachian region, as would be expected if it had been a center of distribution like Kewee- H. Mis, 114-——13 194 PRE-COLUMBIAN COPPER-MINING naw and Ontonagon in the North, has remarkably few copper relics from the Carolinas, Georgia, Alabama, and Tennessee. ‘The idea doubtless arose from the statements in the accounts of the Spanish explorers of this region and of the French and English colonies on the coast. De Soto’s march was a continuous pursuit of an ignis faturs. He was told that gold or copper and other riches were in the Appala- chians, and was kept perpetually on the move after them, while they eluded him in the most tantalizing manner. He did find pearls, and probably in large quantities; the contents of graves show that that form of wealth really existed. But that other form of wealth—‘a melting of gold or copper”—which he coveted, kept moving before him from town to town and tribe to tribe all through his weary journey, and he never found it. The Spaniards on the Florida coast in the follow- ing years were persuaded that there was great mineral wealth of some kind in the Appalachians, and told of a town in the region where the minerals were supposed to be, which they called La Grand Copal. This town was said to be 60 leagues northwest of St. Helena, on the South Carolina coast. De Soto’s march was undertaken in 1539. In 1562 the French estab. lished a short-lived colony at Port Royal, 8S. C., under Capt. Ribault, which was succeeded two years later by another at the river of May (the St. John’s), in charge of René Laudonniere, the history of which, with its tragic end, was brought prominently to notice by Parkman some years ago. Laudonniere wrote a full description of the resources of the country, in the course of which he says (Hakluyt’s translation), ‘‘there is found amongst the savages good quantitie of gold and silver which is gotten out of the shippes that are lost upon the coast, as [ have understood by the Savages themselves. They use traffique thereof one with another. And that which maketh me the rather believe it, is that on the coast towards the cape, where commonly the shippes are cast away, there is more store of silver than towards the north. Neverthe- less, they say that in the mountains of Appalatecy there are mines of copper, Which I thinke to be golde.” From these mountains came “ two stones of fine christal,” which were presented to the French, together with a number of pearls, and they learned from the Indians that there was ‘an infinite quantity of slate stone, wherewith they made wedges to cleave their wood,” in the same mountains. _ 2 ore) HERTZ’S EXPERIMENTS. P19 ductors simultaneously, and the upper ends of both wili be similarly electrified at any instant, while the lower end of the upper one will always be oppositely electrified to the upper end of the low conductor, and if these two points, or two short wires connected with them, be close enough together, a spark will pass from one to the other whenever the electric force sets up these electric oscillations in the conductor. Thus this apparatus is a detector of the electric force. Whenever there is a Spark we may be sure that there is electric force, and whenever we “an not get a spark we may be sure that there is either no electric force or at any rate too little to produce sparks. The apparatus will be more sensitive for electric forces that oscillate at the same rate as the natural vibration of the electric charge on the conductor, because the effect of each impulse will then add to that of the last; resonance will help to make the electrifications great, and so there will be a better chance of our being able to produce a spark. We may weaken the strength of this air-gap by reducing the pressure of the air init. Todo this the ends of the conductors, or wires con- nected with them, must lead into an exhausted air vessel, such as a Geissler’s tube. There is no doubt that much longer sparks may thus be produced, but they are so dim and diffused that when dealing with very minute quantities of electricity those sparks in a vacuum are not more easily seen than the smailer and intenser sparks in air at atinos- pherie pressure. The additional complication and difficulty of manipu- lation from having the terminals in a vacuum are not compensated for by any advantages. This whole detecting apparatus works on some- what the same principle as a resonator of definite size connected with one’s ear when used to detect a feeble note of the same pitch as the resonator. Such a resonator might very weli be used to find out where this note existed and where it did not. It would detect where there were compressions and rarefactions of the air producing currents of air into and out of your ear. In the same way the conductor sparking tells where there are alternating electric forces making currents alternately up and down the conductor, and ultimately electrifying the end enough to make it spark. In the sound resonator there is nothing exactly like this last phenomenon. We have much more delicate ways of detecting the currents of air than by making them break anything. If anybody would allow the electric currents from a Hertzian detector to be led di- rectly into the retina of his eye, it would probably be a very delicate way of observing, though even in this direct application of the eurrent to an organ of sense it is possible that these very rapidly alternating currents might fail te produce any sensible effect, for they are not rapid enough to produce the photo-chemical effects by which we see. To recapitulate the arrangements proposed in order to detect whether electric force is propagated with a finite velocity, and if possible to measure it if finite, if is proposed to ereate electric oscillations of very great rapidity, oscillating some four or five hunded million times per 220 HERTZ’S EXPERIMENTS. second, and it is expected thereby to produce waves of electric force whose length will be less than a meter if they are propagated with the velocity of light. It is proposed to do this by causing an electric charge to oscillate backwards and forwards between two conductors, and across an alr gap between them. This oscillating charge is to be started by charging the conductors, one positively and the other negatively, until they discharge by a spark across this air gap. By making the conductors small, and the distance the charge has to go from one to the other small, the rate of osciliation of the charge can be made as great as we require. If waves are produced by this arrangement, we can reflect them at the surface of a large conducting sheet, and then loops and nodes will be produced where the incident and reflected waves co-exist. The loops will be places where the alternating electric forces are great, while at the nodes there will be no electric forces at all. In order to detect where there are these alternating electric forces and where there are none, it is proposed to use either a single wire bent nearly into a cirele, with a very minute air-gap between its ends, or else two conductors placed end to end, with a minute air gap between their ends. In either case, if the natural period of vibration of a charge on the single conductor, or on each of the conductors in the second arrangement, is the same as the rate of alternation of the elec- tric force we wish to detect, there may be sufficient electrification of the neighboring ends to cause a spark across the minute air-gap. We are thus in possession of a complete apparatus for determining whether electric waves are produced, and what their wave length is. The experiment is conducted as follows: The two conductors which are to generate the waves are placed—say, one above the other, so that the electric charge will run up and down in a vertical line across the spark gap between them. They might be placed horizontally or in any other line, but for definiteness of descrip- tion it is well to suppose some definite position. We may call them A and B. They are terminated in polished knobs, between which the spark passes. A and B are connected with the terminals of a Ruhmkorff coil, or a Wimshurst or other apparatus by which a succession of sparks may be conveniently made te pass from A to Bb. Before the spark passes, A and B are being electrified, and when the spark occurs the electricity on A rushes over to B, and part of it charges B, while the electricity on B rushes across the spark and partly charges A, this taking place alternately up and down. Each time there is less elec- tricity, for some is neutralized during each oscillation by the opposite charge; for energy is being spent, some in overcoming the resistance of the spark gap, ¢. ¢., in producing the heat developed there, and some in producing electric waves in the surrounding medium. Thus the elec- trie energy of the two oppositely charged bodies A and B is gradually dissipated, and one way of describing this is to say that the two oppo- site electric charges combine and neutralize one another. This whole HERTZ’S EXPERIMENTS. 220 language of talking of electric charges on bodies, and electric currents from one to the other, of electric charges neutralizing one another, and so forth, is not in accordance with the most recent developments of electro-magnetic theory. At the same time, those for whom these articles are written are familiar with this language and with the view of the subject that it is framed to suit, while they are unfamiliar with wether electrically and magnetically strained and thereby the seat of electric and magnetic energy, and consequently it would have added very much to their difficulty in grasping the details of a complicated question if it had been described in unfamiliar terms and from an un- familiar point of view. The electric force in the neighborhood of the vertical generator will lie in vertical planes through it, and as A and B are alternately positive and negative, the electric force will alternately be from above down- wards, and from below upwards. If then this force is propagated out- wards in a series of waves, we may expect that all round our generator waves of electric force will be diverging; Waves in which the force will be alternately down and up. The state of affairs might be roughly illustrated by elastic strings stretched out in every direction from our generator. If their ends at the generator be moved alternately down and up, waves will be propagated along the strings, waves of alternate motion down and up. In order to reflect these waves we require a metallic sheet of consid- erable area some two or three wave lengths away from the generator; so far away in order that we may have room for our detector to find the loops and nodes formed every half wave-length where the outgoing waves meet those reflected from the screen; not too far away or our waves will be too feeble even at the loops to affect our detector. The waves are thrown off all round, but are most intense in the horizontal plane through the spark, so that our detector had better be placed as near to this plane as possible. The detector may be either a very nearly closed circle of wire or two conductors, each somewhat longer and thinner than the combined lengths of the generating conductors, and placed vertically over one another, and separated by a minute air gap. As the theory of this latter form of detector is simpler than that of the circle, it will simplify matters to consider it alone. The two con- ductors should each have a period of electrical oscillation wp and down it, the same as that of the charges on the generator. The generator consists of two conductors certainly, but then during the time the spark. lasts they are virtually one conductor, being connected by the spark across which the electric charges are rushing alternately up and down. Hence the period of oscillation of the charges on the generator corre- sponds to that on a single conductor of the same size as its two parts combined. Various experiments have been made as to the best form for these conductors that form the detector They might be made identical 2? HERTZ’S EXPERIMENTS. with the generator, only that the spark gap in the generator should be represented by a connecting wire. They may be longer and thin- ner. If longer, they should be thinner, or they will not have the same period of vibration. On the whole, the best results have been got with conductors somewhat longer and thinner than the generator. It is not generally convenient that the spark between the two conduc- tors that form the detector should take place directly from one to the other. Itis not easy to make arrangements by which the distance apart of these conductors can be regulated with sufficient accuracy. The most convenient way is to connect the lower end of the upper conductor and the upper end of the lower one each with a short thin wire leading, one to a fixed small knob and the other to a very fine screw impinging on the knob. The screw may then be used to adjust the spark gap be- tween it and the small knob with great accuracy. This spark gap must be very small indeed, if delicate work be desired. A thousandth of a centimeter would be a fair-sized spark gap. The minute sparks that are formed in these gaps when doing delicate work are too faint to be seen, except in a darkened room. Having placed the detector in position between the generator and the screen, the difficult part of the observation begins. [tis heart-rending work at first. A bright spark now and then arouses hope, and long periods of darkness crush it again. The knobs of the generator require re-polishing; the spark gap of the detector gets closed up; dust destroys all working, and not without much patience can the art be attained of making sure of getting sparks whenever the conditions are faverable, though it is easy enough not to get sparks when the conditions are unfavorable. Before making any measurements all this practice must be gone through. It is hard enough with the success of others before us to en- courage us, with their advice to lead us, with a clear knowledge of what is to be expected to guide us. How much credit then is due to Hertz, who groped his way to these wonderful experiments from step to step, without the suecess of others to encourage him, without the advice of others to lead him, without any certainty as to what was to be expected to guide him. Patiently, carefully, through many by- paths, with constant watchfulness, and checking every advance by re- peated and varied experiments, Hertz worked up to the grand sim- plicity of the fundamental experiment in electricity that is engaging our attention. Having gained command over the apparatus we may look about for places where sparks occur easily and for others where they can not be produced. Two or three places may be found where no sparks can be observed, ‘These places will be found to be nearly equi-distant. ‘hey are the nodes we are in search of. The distance between any pair is half the distance an electric wave is propagated during the period of an oscillation. Their presence proves that the electric force is not prop- agated instantaneously, but takes time to get from place to place, If yj Gd seed sx. HERTZ ’S EXPERIMENTS. 223 the electric force were propagated instantaneously there might be one place where the action of the currents induced in our reflecting sheet neutralized the direct action of our generator, but there could not be a series of two or more such places between the generator and the re- flecting sheet. That there are more than one proves that electric force is propagated from place to place, and does not occur simutaneously everywhere. It sets the crowning stone on Maxwell’s theory that elee- tric force is due to a medium. Without a medium there can be no propagation from place to place in time. It only remains to confirm by calculation that the rate of propagation is the same as that of light. This is a complicated matter. It involves the question of how fast should, on any theory, the charge oscillate up and down a conduetor. The problem has only been accurately solved in a few special cases, such as that of a sphere by itself. The conductors that have been employed are not this shape, are not by themselves, and-so only rough approximations are possible as to the rate at which these oscillations occur. Knowing the wave length will not determine the velocity of propagation unless we know the period of vibration; and consequently this direct measure of the velocity has only been roughly made; but it agrees as accurately as could be expected with Maxwell’s theory that it must be the same as the velocity of ight if electrical phenomena are due to the same medium as light. The conviction that more acecu- rate determinations will confirm this agreement is founded upon safe ground. It was pointed out that the ether that transmits light and is set in vibration by the molecules of matter can hardly avoid moving them itself. This wether can hardly help having other properties than merely transmitting a comparatively small range of vibrations. It can hardly help producing other phenomena. When it has been shown that, if there is a medium concerned in conveying electric and mag- netic actions, if must possess properties which would enable it to transmit waves like light; and when it has been shown that there is a medium concerned in conveying electric and magnetic actions, and that the rate at which they are conveyed is approximately the same as the rate at which light is propagated; the conclusion is almost unavoid- able that we are dealing with the same medium in both cases, and that future experiments, capable of accurate caleulation and observation, will confirm the conclusion that electrie force is propagated through, and by means of, the luminiferous ether with the velecity of light. We really know very little about the nature of a wave of light. We know a great deal more about electric and magnetic forces, and mueh may be learnt as to the nature of a wave of light by studying it under the form of a wave of electric force. The waves produced by the Hertzian generator may be a meter long or more. The difficulty is to get them short enough. We know a good deal about how they are produced, and from this, and also by means of suitable detectors, we 224 HERTZ’S EXPERIMENTS. can study a great deal about their structure. They are truly very long waves of light. Atoms are Hertzian generators whose period of vibration is hundreds of millions of millions per second. A Hert- zian generator may vibrate rapidly, but it is miserably slow compared with atoms. And yet the wonder is that atoms vibrate so slowly. If a Hertzian generator were, say, 10~* “™ long, about the size of a good big atom, its period of vibration would be some hundreds of times too rapid to produce ordinary light. Atoms are probably complicated Hertzian generators. By making a complicated shape, as, for exain- ple, a Leyden jar, a small object may have a slow period of vibration. All that is required is that the capacity and self-induction may be large in comparison with the size of the conductor. We saw that these rapidly vibrating generators have but little energy in them; they rap- idly give out their energy to the wether near them. ‘This is also the szase with atoms. These, when free to radiate, give up their energy with wonderful rapidity. How short a time a flash of lightning lasts! It is hardly there but it is gone: the heated air molecules have so sud- denly radiated off their energy. The reason why atoms in the air, for instance, do not radiate away their energy like this is because all their neighbors are sending them waves. Hach molecule is a generator, but it is a detector as well, It is kept vibrating by its neighbors: it eceu- pies a part of the «ther that is in continual vibration, and so the atom itself vibrates. As each atom can radiate so rapidly, it must be a good detector; its own vibrations must be very much controlled by the neighborhood it finds itself in; and as the waves of light are very long compared with the distances apart of molecules, those in any neigh- borhood are probably, independently of their motions to and fro, each vibrating in the same way. It is interesting to caleulate how much of the energy in the air is in the form of vibrations of the ether between the molecules of air. A rough calculation shows that in air at the ordinary density and tem- perature only a minute fraction of the total energy in a cubie centi- meter is in the wether; but when we deal with high temperatures, such as existin lightning flashes, and near the sun, and with very small den- sities, there may be more energy in the «ther than in the matter within each cubic centimeter. All this shows how wide-reaching are the re- sults of Hertz’s experiments. They teach us the nature of waves of light. Wecan learn much by considering how the waves are generated. Let us consider what goes on near the generator, consisting of two con- ductors, A and 6b, sparking into one another. Before each spark, and while A and B are being comparatively slowly what is called charged with electricity, the «ther around and between them is being strained. The lines of strain are the familiar tubes of electric force. If A be positive, these tubes diverge from all points of A, and most from the knob between it and b, and converge on B, Where they are narrow, HERTZ’S EXPERIMENTS. 225 the ether is much strained; where wide, the «ther is but little strained. Each tube must be looked upon as a tube of unit strain. The nature of the strain of the «ther is not known; it is, most prob- ably, some increased motion in a perfect liquid. We must not be surprised at the nature ef the strain being unknown. We do not know the nature of the change in a piece of India rubber when it is strained, nor indeed in any solid, and though the «ther is much simpler in structure than india rubber, it can hardly be wondered at that we have not yet discovered its structure, for it is only within the present century that the existence of the «ther was demonstrated. while men have known solids and studied their properties and struc- ture for thousands of years. Any way, there is no doubt that the wether is strained in these tubes of force when A and B are oppositely charged, and that the energy per cubic centimeter of unstrained ether is less than that of strained «ther, and that the work done in what is called charging A and B is really done in straining the wether all round them. When the air-gap breaks down, and an electric spark takes its place, there is quite a new series of phenomena produced. Sud- denly, the strained iether relieves itself, and in doing so, sets up new motions in itself. The strained state was probably a peculiar state of motion, and in changing back to ordinary ether a new and quite dis- tinet state of motion is set up. This new state of motion all round tle conductors is most intense near the spark, and is usually described as an electric current in the conductors and across the spark,or as a rush- ing of the electric charge from one conductor to the other. The elec- tric current is accompanied by magnetic force in circles round it, and the tubes of magnetic force define the nature of the new movement in the wether as far as we know it. Hitherto, for the sake of simplicity, the existence of this magnetic force has been unnoticed. It is due to a peculiar motion in the wther all round what are called electric currents. The current in fact con- sists of little else than a fine, all round which this movement is going on; like the movement surrounding an electrified body, but also un- like it. Whenever electric forces are changing, or electrified bodies moving, or electric currents running, there this other peculiar mo- tion exists. We have every reason for thinking that this, which may be called the magnetic strain in the wether, as the movement all round electrified bodies was called the electric strain—that this magnetic strain only exists in these three cases: (1) When the electric strain is changing; (2) when electrified bodies are moving, and (3) when electric currents are running. These three may be all cases of one action; certainly the magnetic strain that accompanies each is the same, and it seems most likely that the electric change is only another aspect of the magnetic strain. There are analogies to this in the motion of matter that partly help and partly annoy, because they partly agree and partly will not agree with the wetherial phenomena. Take the case H. Mis, 114 15 aaa 220 ~ HERTZS EXPERIMENTS. described in a former article of a chain transmitting waves. Atten- tion was drawn to the displacement of a link and to its rotation. Now for the analogy: To seem at all satisfactory the first thing that would strike one would be to pay attention to two motions, to the velocity of displacement of the link and to its rotation. This would lead to inter- minable difficulties in carrying out the analogy. We ean not liken electric strain to a velocity in this direct and simple way, because what are we to do with a change in the strain which produces the same ef- feets as a continuous current? A change in the strain is all very well, it would be like a change in the velocity, but what about a continuous change in the velocity: We can hardly suppose a velocity continually increasing forever; we are evidently landed in immediate difficulties. It is better therefore to be content to liken the electric strain to a dis- placement of the chain link. It seems most likely that it really is a peculiar motion in the wether, but we must be content for the present with the analogy. If we want to drive it further, we must suppose stress in the chain that draws the link back to be due to a motion in the chain or of things fastened to it, and then the changed motions produced by a displacement of the chain might be analogous to the peculiar motions accompanying electric strain. It would lead us too far to work out this analogy. Returning to the simpler case of the diplsacement of the lnk representing electric strain, and the velocity of its rotation representing magnetic strain, see how the actions near a Hertzian generator may be likened to what takes place when a wave is being sent along a chain. While the conductors are being slowly charged we must sup- pose electric strain to be produced in all the surrounding space. This is a comparatively slow action, and as the rate of propagation is very rapid, the electric strain will rise practically simultaneously in the whole neighborhood, and that it does so is a most important fact to be taken account of in all our deductions from these experi- ments. This slow charging must be represented by a slow raising of one end of the chain, which raises the rest of it to a great distance apparently simultaneously if the raising be done slowly. Suddenly the air-gap breaks. This might be represented by lifting the chain with a weak thread, and by having the end of the chain fastened to a pretty strong spring. When the thread broke the spring would pull the chain back quickly, would pass its position of equilibrium, and thus commence a series of rapid vibrations on each side of this posi- tion; the vibrations would gradually die away owing to the energy of the spring being gradually spent, partly on friction in itself, and partly in sending waves along the chain. In actually performing the experi- ment, an india-rubber tube or limp thin rope is better than a chain when hung horizontally, as the chain is so heavy; when it can be hung vertically, a chain does very well. In the description it simplifies matters to describe a chain, because it is easier to talk of a link than of HERTZ’S EXPERIMENTS. 227 a bit of the rope; a link has an individuality that identifies it, while a bit of the rope is so indefinite that if is not so easy to keep in mind any particular bit. Consider now what these waves are, what sort of motion originates them. When the spring first starts, the near parts of the chain moves first. What happens to any link? One end of it moves down before the other. What sort of motion then has the link? It must be rotating. Thus it is that change in the displacement is generally accompanied by rotation of the links. Thus it is that change in the electric strain is accompanied by magnetic strain. The analogy goes farther than this. Each wave thrown off may be described as a wave of displaced—or as a wave of rotating—links, and the most dis- placed are at any time the most rapidly rotating links. Just m the same way, what have hitherto been called waves of electric force may also be looked upon as waves of magnetic force. Because there are two aspects in which the motion of the chain may be viewed does not diminish from the essential unity of character of the wave motion in its waves; and similarly the fact that these Hertzian waves have an elee- tric and a magnetic aspect does not diminish from the essential unity of character of the wave motion in them. At the same time the two elements, the displacement of a link and the rotation of a link, are quite distinct things; either might exist without the other; it is only in wave propagation that they essentially co-exist. In the same way electric strain and magnetic strain are quite different things; though in wave motion, and indeed whenever energy is transmitted from one place to another by means of the wether, they essentially co-exist. io ~ , Rhle fo ON THE DISCHARGE OF ELECTRICITY THROUGH EX- HAUSTED TUBES WITHOUT ELECTRODES.* By J. J. THomsoy, F. R. 8. The following experiments, of which a short account was read before the Cambridge Philosophical Society last February, were originally undertaken to investigate the phenomena attending the discharge of electricity through gases when the conditions are simplified by confin- ing the discharge throughout the whole of its course to the gas, instead of, as in ordinary discharge-tubes, making it pass from metallic or glass electrodes into the gas, and then out again from the gas into the elec- trodes. In order to get a closed discharge of this kind we must produce a finite electromotive force round a closed circuit, and since we can not do this by the forces arising from a distribution of electricity at rest, we must make use of the electromotive forces produced by induction. To break down the electric strength of the gas such forces must be very intense while they last, though they need not last for more than a short time. Forces satisfying these conditions occur in the neighborhood of a wire through which a Leyden jar is discharged. During the short time during which the oscillations of the jar are maintained enormous currents pass through the wire, and as with a moderate-sized jar these currents change their direction millions of times in a second, the elec- tromotive force in the neighborhood of the wire is exceedingly large. To make these forces availabie for producing an electrodeless discharge, all we have to do is to make the wire connecting the coatings of the jar the primary of an induction-coil of which the discharge-tube itself forms the secondary. The arrangements which I have employed for this pur- pose are represented in the accompanying diagram. In (a) A is the inside coating of a Leyden jar: this is connected to KE, one of the poles of a Wimshurst electrical machine, or an induc- tion-coil, the other pole F of the machine being connected to b, the outer coating of the jar. A © Dis a wire connected to the inner coating of the jar, a few turns © (which we shall call the primary coil) are made in this wire; these turns are square if the discharge-tube is square, circu- lar if the discharge-tube is a spherical bulb. The wire at Dis attached to an air-break, the other side of which is connected with the outer “From the L. £. D., Phil. Mag., October and November, 1891; vol. XX X11, pp. 321- 336, and 445-464. 229 230 DISCHARGE OF ELECTRICITY. coating of the Leyden jar. The knobs of this air-break ought to be kept brightly polished. The loop C is connected to earth. The dis- charge-tubes, which were in general either rectangular tubes or spher- ical bulbs, where placed close to the turns of C. When the difference of potential between A and B is sufficiently large, a spark passes across the air-break, and the electrical oscillations set up produce a large electromotive force in the neighborhood of the coil, sufficient under favorable circumstances to cause a bright discharge to pass through the vacuum-tubes. In some experiments the jars, at the suggestion of Prof. Oliver Lodge, were connected up differently, and are represented im shurst ( Wimshurst : Y Fie. 1 by (8) in Fig. 1. ‘wo jars were used, the outside coatings of which, A and B, were connected by the wire containing the primary coil C, the inside coating of the first jar was connected to one pole of the Wims- hurst, that of the seeond to the other. With this method of arranging the jars no air-space is required, as the sparks pass between the ter- minals of the machine, and the polishing of these terminals is not nearly so important as that of the knobs of the air-break in the arrange- ment (q@). Before proceeding to describe the appearance presented by the dis- charge, I will mention one or two points which may prove useful to any one who wishes to repeat the experiments. According to my experi- ence the discharge is more easily obtained in bulbs than in square tubes, and with a Wimshurst machine than with an induction-coil. If an in- duction-coil is used a break which will transmit a large current ought to be substituted for the ordinary vibrating one supplied with such in- struments. It is essential to success that the gas in the bulbs or tubes should be quite dry and ata suitable pressure; there is a pressure at which the brillianey of the discharge is a maximum, and as in endeav- oring to get at this pressure the exhaustion may be carried too far, 1t is convenient to use a form of mercury pump which will allow of the ‘asy adinission of a little gas; the pattern which I have used and found DISCHARGE OF ELECTRICITY. 2al to answer very well is called the Lane-Fox pattern. When any gas is introduced it should be sent through sulphuric acid to get rid of any moisture that may bein it. Owing, I think, to the pressure in ordin- ary incandescent lamps being very different from that at which the discharge has its maximum brilliancy, | have met with very poor suc- cess in attempts to produce these discharges in already exhausted tubes such as incandescent lamps, though I have tried a considerable number by different makers; on the other hand, the radiometers which I have tried allow the discharge to pass pretty readily, though it is in- terfered with by the vanes, and is not comparable in brillianey with that obtained in home-made tubes and bulbs. I have obtained sparks easily with apparatus of the following dimensions: two gallon jars, the outside coatings connected by a wire about 2 yards long, the coil con- sisting of three or four turns, each about 3 inches in diameter. I have some bulbs which with this apparatus will give a bright discharge when the distance between the terminals of the Wimshurst is only 4 inch; these are, however, exceptionally good; it more frequently takes a spark an inch or an ineh and a half long to produce the discharge. I find that Hittorf, in Wiedemanw’s Annalen, XX1, p. 138, describes the light produced in a tube round which the wire connecting the coat- ings of a Leyden jar is twisted; the luminosity in Hittorf’s experiments seems to have filled the tube, and not, as in the experiments described in this paper, been confined to a ring. It seems possible that the dif ference in the appearance in the tubes may have been due to the exist- ence of an electrostatie action in Hittorf’s experiments, the primary coil getting raised to a high potential before the discharge of the jar, and inducing a distribution of electricity over the inside of the glass of the tube; on the passage of the spark the potential of the primary coil will fall, and the electricity onthe glass re-distribute itself; to effect this re-distribution it may pass through the rarified gas in the discharge tube and produce luminosity. In my experiments I took two precautions against this effect. In the first place I connected the primary coil to earth, so that its poten- tial before discharge took place was unaltered, and as an additional precaution I separated the discharge tube from the primary by a cage made of blotting paper moistened with dilute acid; the wet blotting paper is a sufficiently good conductor to screen off any purely electro- static effects, but not a good enough one to interfere to an appreciable extent with the eleetro-motive forces arising from rapidly alternating currents. In this way we can screen off any electrostatic effects due to vauses which operate before the electrical oscillations in the jars begin. When once these have commenced, there ought not, I think, to be any separation of the electro-motive forces into two parts, one being called electro-statie, the other eleetro-dynamic. As this is a point on which it is desirable to avoid any misunderstanding, | hope to be excused if L treat it at some length. 232 DISCHARGE OF ELECTRICITY. In the mathematical treatment of the phenomena of the “ Eleetro- magnetic Field,” it is customary and not inconvenient to regard the electro-motive force as derived from two sources, or rather as consisting ot two parts, one part being calculated by the ordinary rules of electro- staties from the distribution of electricity in the field, the other part being the differential coefficient of the vector potential with respect to the time. From a mathematical point of view, there is a good deal to be said for this division; the two forces have very distinct and sharply contrasted analytical properties. Thus the electrostatic force possesses the property that its line integral taken round any closed curve van- ishes, while the surface integral of its normal component taken over a closed surface does not in general vanish. The ‘vector potential force,” on the other hand, does not in general vanish when integrated round a closed curve; the surface integral of its normal component taken over any closed surface however vanishes. When however our object is not so much mathematical calculation as the formation of a mental picture of the processes going on in the field, this division does not seem nearly so satisfactory, as the fundamental quantities concerned, the electrostatic and vector potentials, are both of con- siderable complexity from a physical point of view. We might judge that this division of the electro-motive force into two parts, the one de- rivable from an electrostatic, the other from a vector, potential, is rather a mathematical device than a physical reality, from the fact which I pointed out in a report on electrical theories (Bb. A. Report, 1886), that though the electrostatic potential satisfies the mathematical condition of being propagated with an infinite velocity, the total electro-metive force in the electro-magnetic field travels with the.velocity of light, and nothing physical is propagated at a greater velocity. In an experimental investigation such as that described in this paper, it is not so important that our method of regarding the phenomena should lead to the shortest analysis as that it should enable us to pie- ture to ourselves the processes at work in the field, and to decide without much calculation how to arrange the experiments so as to bring any effect which may have been observed into greater prominence. The method which I have adopted for this purpose is the one de- scribed by me in the Philosophical Magazine, March, 1891, and whieh consists in referring everything to the disposition and motion of the tubes of electrostatic induction in the field. These tubes are either endless, or have their ends on places where free electricity exists, every unit of positive electricity (the unit being the quantity of electricity on the atom of a univalent element) being connected by a unit tube to a unit of negative electricity, the tube starting from the positive elec- tricity and ending on the negative. At any point in the field the elee- tro-motive intensity varies as the density of the tubes of electrostatic induction at that point. When the electricity and the tubes in the field are at rest, the tubes distribute themselves so that the electro-motive DISCHARGE OF ELECTRICITY. 233 intensity at any point is derivable from a potential function; as soon, however, as the equilibrium is disturbed, the tubes move about and get displaced from their original positions, the disposition of tubes and therefore the electro-motive intensity are changed, and the latter will no longer be derivable from a potential function, and according to the mathematical theory would be said to include forces due to electrostatic and electro-magnetic induction. According to our view, however, the cause of the electro-motive intensity is the same in both cases, viz, the presence of tubes of electrostatic induction, and the electro-motive in- tensity ceases to be derived from a potential, merely because the dis- tribution of these tubes is not necessarily the same when they are moving about as when they are in equilibrium. It is shown, in the paper already referred to, that these tubes when in motion produce a magnetic force at right angles, both to their own direction and to that in which they are moving, the magnitude of the force being 47 times the product of the strength of the tube, the velocity with which it is moving, and the sine of the angle between the direction of the tube and its direction of motion. In an electric field in which the matter is at rest, these tubes when in motion move at right angles to themselves with the velocity “v,” that at which electro-dynamic disturbances are propagated through the medium. We ean easily show that, K being the specific inductive capacity of the medium, the line integral of 47/K times the density of these tubes taken round a closed cireuit is equal to the rate of diminution of the number of lines of magnetic in- duction passing through the circuit. Thus, since the fundamental laws of electro-dynamic action, viz, Faraday’s law of induction and Ampere’s law of magnetic force, follow from this conception of the field as produced by tubes of electrostatic induction moving at right angles to themselves with the velocity “v,” and producing a magnetie force at right angles both to their own direction and to that in which they are moving, and proportional to the product of the strength of the tube and its velocity, it is a conception which will account for all the known phenomena of the field. It furnishes, in fine, a geometrical instead of an analytical theory of the field. It will also be seen that from this point of view the magnetic force, when introduced to ealeulate the electro-motive forces arising from induction, logically comes in as an intellectual middle-man wasting mental effort. We may thus regard the distinction between electrostatic and elec- tro-magnetic electro-motive forces as, one introduced for convenience of analysis rather than as having any physical reality. The only differ- ence which I think could from made from a physical point of view would be to define those effects as electrostatic which are due to tubes of elec- trostatic induction having free ends, and to confine the term electro- magnetic to the effects produced by closed endless tubes. It is only however when the electro-motive forces are produced exclusively by the motion of magnets that all the tubes are closed; whenever batteries or condensers are used, open tubes are present in the field. 2a DISCHARGE OF ELECTRICITY. [t will be useful to consider here the disposition and motion of the tubes of electrostatic Induction in the arrangement used to produce these electrodeless discharges. We shall take the case where two jars are used, as in /, Fig. 1, as being the more symmetrical. Just before the discharge of the jar, the tubes of electrostatic indue- tion will be arranged somewhat as follows: There will be some tubes — stretchip g from one terminal of the electric machine to the other; others will go from the terminals to the neighboring conductors, the table on which the machine is placed, the floor and walls of the room, ete. The great majority of the tubes will, however, be short tubes passing through the glass between the coatings of the jars. Let us now consider the behavior of two of these tubes, one from the jar A, the other from B, when a spark passes between the terminals of the machine. Whilst the spark is passing these may be regarded as connected by a conductor; the tubes which originally stretched between them now contract, the repulsion they exerted on the surrounding tubes is destroyed so that these now crowd into the space between the terminals, the two short tubes under consideration now taking somewhat the form shown in Fig. 2. These tubes, being of opposite sign, tend to run together; they do wre Via. 4. BGs io: so until they meet as in Fig. 3, when the tubes break up asin Fig, 4, the upper portion running into the spark gap, where it contracts, while the lower portion rushes through the dielectric to discharge itself into the wire connecting the coatings of the jars, an intermediate position being shown in Fig. 5. These tubes while rushing through the dielee- tric produce, as already stated, magnetic forces; some of them on. their way to the discharging wire will pass through the discharge tube; if they congregate there in sufficient density, discharge will take place through the rarefied gas. e The discharge of the jar is oscillatory, and we have only followed the DISCHARGE OF ELECTRICITY. 235 motion of the tubes during a part of the oscillation; when, however, this tube enters the wire between the jars a tube of opposite kind emerges from it; the same thing happens when the other portion enters the spark gap. These go through the same processes as the tubes we have followed, but in the reverse order, until we get again two short tubes in the jars, but opposite in sign to the original ones; the process is then repeated, and so on as long as the vibrations last. In order to see what are the most advantageous dimensions to give to our apparatus, let us consider on what the maximum electro- motive force in the secondary depends. Let us take the case of a con- denser of capacity C discharging through a circuit whose coefficient of self-induction is L; then, if the potential difference between the plates of the condenser is initially Vo, the current 7 at the time ¢ is (suppos- ing as a very rough approximation that there is no decay in the vibra- tions) given by the equation So that if M is the coefficient of self-induction between the primary and a secondary circuit, the maximum electro-motive force around the secondary is MV,)/L, which for a given spark-length is independent of the capacity of the condenser. In practice it is advisable, however, to have as much energy in the jars to start with as possible, and better results are got with large jars than with small ones. Using a six-plate Wimshurst machine I got very good results with two “ gallon jars;” with a large induction coi] the best results were got with two ‘ pint- and-a-half jars.” The best number of turns to use in the primary coil C depends upon the size of the leads; if all the circuit were available for this coil one turn would give the largest electro-motive force, because, though for a given rate of change of the current in the primary the effect on the see- ondary increases with the number of turns, the rate of change of the current varies inversely as the self-induction of the primary, so that if all the circuit is in the coil C, since an increase in the number of turns will increase the self-induction of the circuit faster than the mutual in- duction, it will diminish the electro-motive force round the secondary. In practice however it is not possible to have the whole of the wire connecting the coatings of the jar in the coil ©; and in this case an in- crease in the number of turns may inerease the mutual induction more than the self-induction, and so be advantageous. The best result will be obtained when the self-induction in the coil C is equal to that of the remainder of the circuit. It is very easy to find by actual trial 236 DISCHARGE OF ELECTRICITY. whether the addition of an extra turn of wire is beneficial or the re- verse. The brigiitness of the discharge depends upon the time of the electrical oscillations as well as upon the magnitude of the electro-mo- tive force. Thus, in an experiment to be described later, the brilliancy of the discharge was increased by putting self-induction in the leads, which, though it diminished the intensity of the electromotive force, increased the time constant of the system. When the discharge tube was square and the coil © had also to be square it was found most convenient to make it of glass tabing bent into the required form and filled with mereury. When however the discharge was required in a bulb, the primary coil was made of thick gutta-percha-covered copper wire wound round a beaker just large enough to receive the exhausted bulb. There is sometimes considerable difficulty in getting the first discharge to pass through the bulb, though when it has once been started other discharges follow with much less difficulty. The same effect occurs with ordinary sparks. It seems to be due to the splitting up of the molecules by the first discharge; some of the atoms are left uncombined, and so ready to conduct the discharge, or else when they re-combine they form compounds of smaller electric strength than the original gas. When the discharge was loath to start, I found the most effectual way of inducing it to do so was to pull the terminals of the Winshurst far apart and then, after the jars had got fully charged, to push the terminals suddenly together. In this way a long spark is obtained, which, if the pressure of the gas is such that any discharge is possible, with the means at our disposal will generally start the dis- charge. Appearance of the discharge.—Let us suppose that we have either a square tube placed outside a square primary or a bulb placed inside a circular coil of wire, and that we gradually exhaust the discharge tube, the jars sparking all the time. At first nothing at all is to be seen in the secondary, but when the exhaustion has proceeded until the pres- sure has fallen to a millimeter or thereabouts, a thin thread of reddish light is seen to go round the tube situated near to but not touching the side of the tube turned towards the primary. As the exhaustion pro- ceeds still further, the brightness of this thread rapidly mereases, as well as its thickness; it also changes its color, losing its red tinge and becoming white. On continuing the exhaustion the luminosity attains a maximum, and the discharge passes as an exceedingly bright and well-defined ring. On continuing the exhaustion, the luminosity begins to diminish until, when an exceedingly good vacuum is reached, no dis- charge at all passes. The pressure at which the luminosity is a maxi- mui is very much less than that at which the electric strength of the gas is a minimum in a tube provided with electrodes and comparable in size to the bulb. The pressure at which the discharge stops is ex- ceedingly low, and it requires Jong-continued pumping to reach this stage. We see from these results that the difficulty which is experi- DISCHARGE OF ELECTRICITY. 23 enced in getting the dischage to pass through an ordinary vacuum-tube when the pressure is very low is not altogether due to the difficulty of getting the electricity from the electrodes into the gas, but that it also occurs in tubes without electrodes, though in this case the critical pressure is very much lower than when there are electrodes. In other words, we see that as the state of the bulb approaches that of a per- fect vacuum its insulating power becomes stronger and stronger. This result is confirmed by several other experiments of a different kind, which will be described later. The discharge presents a perfectly continuous appearance, with no sign of striation, of which [ have never observed any trace on any of these discharges, though I must have observed many thousands of them under widely different conditions. Action of a magnet on the discharge—The discharges which take place in these tubes and bulbs are produced by periodic currents, so that the discharges themselves are periodic, and the luminosity is pro- duced by currents passing in opposite directions. As this is the case, it seemed possible that the uniformity of the luminosity seen in the discharge was due to the super-position of two stratified discharges in opposite directions, the places of maximum luminosity in the one fitting into those of minimum luminosity in the other. Since these discharges are in opposite directions, they will be pushed opposite ways when a magnetic force acts at right angles to them, the dis- charges in opposite directions can thus be separated by the application of a magnetic force and examined separately. In the experiment which was tried with this object, a square tube was used placed outside the primary, the tube at one or two places being blown out into a bulb so as to allow of the wider separation of the constituent discharges. When one of these bulbs was placed in a magnetic field where the force was at right angles to the discharge, the luminous discharge through the bulb was -divided into two portions which were driven to opposite sides of the bulb; each of these portions was of uniform lumi- nosity and exhibited no trace of striation. It was noticed, however, in making this experiment that the discharge seemed to have much greater difficulty in passing through the tube when the electro-magnet was on than when it was off. This observation was followed up by several other experiments, and it was found that the discharge is retarded in a most remarkable way by a magnetic foree acting at right angles to the line of discharge. This effect is most strikingly shown when the discharge passes as a ring through a spherical bulb. If such a bulb is placed near a strong electro-magnet, it is easy to adjust the length of spark so that when the magnet is off a brilliant discharge passes through the bulb, while when the magnet is on no discharge at all can be detected. The action is very striking, and the explanation of it which seems to fit in best with the phenomena I have observed, is that the discharge through the rarefied gas does not rise to its full intensity 238 DISCHARGE OF ELECTRICITY. suddenly, but as it were feels its way. The gas first breaks down along the line where the electro-motive intensity is a maximum, and a small discharge takes place along this line. This discharge produces a supply of dissociated molecules along which subsequent discharges can pass with greater ease. Thus under the action of these electric forces the gas is in a state of unstable equilibrium, since as soon as any small discharge passes through it the gas becomes electrically weaker and less able to resist subsequent discharges. When the gas is in a magnetie field, the magnetic force acting on the discharge pro- duces a mechanical force which displaces the molecules taking part in the discharge from the line of maximum electric intensity, and thus subsequent discharges do not find it any easier to pass along this line in consequence of the passage of the previous one. There will not therefore be the same instability in this case as in the one where no magnetic force acted upon the gas. A confirmation of this view is, I think, afforded by the appearance presented by the discharge when the intensity of the magnetic field is reduced, so that the discharge just—but only just—passes when the magnetic field ison. In this case the discharge, instead of passing as a steady fixed ring, flickers about the tube in a very undecided way. If the strength of the magnetic field is reduced still further, so that the discharge passes with some ease, the bright ring which, when no magnetic force is acting, is in one plane, is changed into a luminous band situated between two planes which intersect along a diameter of the bulb at right angles to the magnetic force. These planes are in- clined at a considerable angle, one being above and the other below the plane of the undisturbed ring. This displacement of the ring by the magnetic force shows that it consists of currents circulating tan- gentially round the ring. This action of a magnet on a discharge flowing at right angles to its lines of force is not, however, the only remarkable effect produced by a magnet on the discharge. When the lines of magnetic force are along the line of discharge, the action of the magnet is to facilitate the dis- charge and not to retard it as in the former case. The first indication of this was observed when the jars were connected, as in (a) Fig. 1. The earth connection being removed, in this case there is a glow from the glass into the bulb, due to the re-distribution of the electricity induced on the glass by the primary when it is at a high potential before the spark passes. If the primary is connected to earth by a eireuit with an air break in it, the intensity of the glow may be altered at will by adjusting the length of the air break; when the air-space is very small there is no glow; when it is long the glow is bright. The bulb in which the discharge was to take place was placed on a piece of ebonite over the pole of an electro-magnet, and the air-space in the earth connection of the primary was adjusted so that when the magnet was off no glow was observed in the tube. When the magnet was on, DISCHARGE OF ELECTRICITY. ZOU however, a glow radiating in the direction of the lines of magnetic foree was produced, which lasted as long as the magnet was on, and died away rapidly, but not instantaneously, when the magnet was taken off. In this case the discharge seems to be much easier along the lines of magnetic force. The following experiment shows that this effect is not confined to the glow discharge, but is also operative when the discharge passes entirely through the gas. A square tube ABCD (Tig. 6) is placed out- side the primary EFGH, the lower part of the discharge tube CD being situated between the poles L M of an electro-magnet. By altering the length of spark of the Wimshurst machine, the electro-motive intensity D —— Le 4 Fic. 6. acting on the secondary can be so adjusted that no discharge passes round the tube ABCD when the magnet is off, whilst a bright dis- charge occurs as long as the magnet is on. The two effects of the magnet on the discharge, viz, the stoppage of the discharge across the lines of magnetic force, and its acceleration along them, may be prettily illustrated by placing in this experiment an exhausted bulb N inside the primary; then the spark length can be adjusted so that when the magnet is off the discharge passes in the bulb, and not in the square tube, while when the magnet is on the discharge passes in the square tube, and not in the bulb. The experiments on the effect of the magnetic field on the discharge were tried with air, carbonic acid, and oxygen, but I could not detect any difference in the behavior of the gases. The explanation of the longitudinal effeet of magnetic force seems more obscure than that of the transverse effect; it is possible how- ever that both may be due to the same cause, for if the feeble dis- charge which we suppose precedes the main discharge branches away at all from the line of main discharge, the action of the magnetic force when it is along the discharge will tend to bring these branches into the main line of discharge; and thus there will be a greater supply of dissociated molecwes along the main line of discharge, and therefore an easier path for the subsequent discharges when the magnetic force is acting than when it is absent. It is perhaps not necessary to assume that the mechanical action of 240 DISCHARGE OF ELECTRICITY. the magnetic force is on a small discharge preceding the main one; the action of the magnetic force on the chain of polarized molecules which are formed before the discharge passes might produce an eftect equivalent to that which we have supposed was produced on an actual discharge. The chain of polarized molecules would be affected in the following way: The magnetic field due to the electro-magnet consists of tubes of electrostatic induction moving about these tubes, as well as the diree- tion in which they are moving, are at right angles to the lines of mag- netic force. The short tubes of electrostatic induction which join the atoms in the molecules of the gas will, under the influence of the electrie forces, set themselves parallel to the direction of the electro-motive in- tensity at each point. Thus, when the magnetic force is at right angles to the line of dis- charge, tubes of electrostatic induction parallel to those in the molecules will be moving about in the field; and since parallel tubes exert attrae- tion and repulsion on each other, the molecular tubes will be knocked about and their efforts to form closed chains made much more difficult by the action of the magnet. On the other hand, when the lines of magnetic force are parallel to the discharge, the moving tubes are at right angles to those in the molecules, and will not disturb them in the attempt to form chains along the line of magnetic force; they will in fact assist them in doing so by preventing all attempts in directions across the lines of force. Prof. G. F. Fitzgerald has suggested to me in conversation that this action of a magnet on the discharge might be the cause of the “streamers” which are observed in the aurora; the rare air being electrically weaker along the lines of magnetic force than at right angles to them will cause the discharge in the direction of those lines to be the brightest. Discharge through different gases.—I have examined the discharge through air, carbonic acid, hydrogen, oxygen, coal gas, and acetylene. As I have already mentioned, at the highest pressures at which the discharge passes through air, the discharge is reddish, and gets brighter and whiter at lower pressures. If the discharge is examined through a spectroscope, the lines in the spectrum coincide with those obtained by sparking through air in the ordinary way with a jar in the circuit. The relative brightness of the lines in the spectrum of the discharge without electrodes varies very much with the pressure of the gas and the length of spark in the jar cireuit. With a long spark in this cir- cuit, and the pressure such as to give a bright white discharge, the spectrum is very much like that of the ordinary jar discharge in air. When however the pressure is so low that the discharge passes with difficulty, a few lines in the spectrum shine out very brightly, whilst others become faint, so faint indeed sometimes that if the air spectrum were not thrown into the field of view of the spectroscope at the same time, they might pass unnoticed, Three lines which are very persist- DISCHARGE OF ELECTRICITY. 241 ent, the first a citron green, the second a more refrangible green, and the third a blue, I am inclined to think must be due to mercury vapor from the pump. lam indebted to Prof. Liveing for the loan of a very fine direct- vision spectroscope, and to him and Mr. Robinson, of the Cambridge Chemical Laboratory, for valuable advice in the attempts which I made to photograph the spectra of some phosphorescent glows mentioned below. I should like to call attention to the advantages for spectroscopic purposes which attend this method of producing the discharge; it is sasily done either by an ordinary electrical machine or an induction coil. An intensely bright discharge is got, and there is no danger of complication arising from the spectrum of the gas getting mixed with that of the electrodes. Discharge in sxygen.—By far the most remarkable appearance is pre- sented when the discharge passes through oxygen, for in this gas the bright discharge is sueceeded by a phosphorescent glow which lasts for a considerable time; indeed, with a strong discharge it may remain visible for more than a minute. When the discharges succeed one another pretty rapidly, the phosphorescence is so strong that it hides the suecessive bright discharges, and the tube seems permanently full of a bright yellow fog. We can thus, by the use of this gas, convert the intermittent light given by the bright discharge into a continuous one. Perhaps the most striking way of showing this phosphorescence is to use a long tube, about ameter long and 6 or 7 centimeters in diameter, with a bulb blown in the middle, the primary coil being twisted round this bulb. Then, when the sparks pass between the jars, a bright ring discharge passes through the bulb, from which, as if shot out from the ring, the phosphorescent glow travels in both directions along the tube, moving slowly enough for its motion to be followed by the eye. It can not, therefore, be produced by the direct action of the light from the spark on the gas in the tube, for if it were, the glow would travel with the velocity of light. It is necessary to mention this point, for the light from these discharges has great powers of producing phosphores- cence. The glow seems to consist of gas which has been in the path of the discharge, and whose molecules have beer split up by it and projected from the line of discharge. This gas which, when projected, is ina peculiar state, by a process of chemical combination gradually returns to its original condition, and it is while it is in this state of transition from its new condition to the old that it phosphoresces. If this is the case we should expect that the period of phosphorescence would be shortened by raising the temperature. On trying the experiment I found that this took place to a very narked extent. A discharge bulb filled with oxygen at a low pressure was placed over a Bunsen burner; Li, Mis, 114——16 242 DISCHARGE OF ELECTRICITY. before the bulb got hot each bright discharge was succecded by a bright after-glow, but as the bulb got hotter and hotter the glow became fainter and fainter, and at last ceased to be visible, though the bright ring was still produced at each discharge of the jar. When the Bunsen was taken away and the bulb allowed to cool the glow re-appeared. The spectrum of the after-glow is a continuous spectrum, in which I could not detect the super-position of any bright lines. The only gas beside oxygen in which I have been able to detect any after-glow is air, though in this case the range of pressure within which it is exhibited is exceedingly small; indeed it is often by no means an easy matter to get a bulb filled with air into the state in which it shows the glow. The spectrum of the air-glow showed bright lines; I thought myself that I could see a very faint continuous spectrum as well. Some friends however who were kind enough to examine the spectrtm, though they could see the bright lines clearly enough, were of opinion that there was nothing else visible. I endeavored to photograph it, but without success, so that the existence of a continuous spectrum for this glow must be considered doubttul. When the discharge passes through acetylene, the first two or three discharges are a bright apple-green; the subsequent ones, however, are white, and as the green discharge does not reappear, we must conclude that the acetylene is decomposed by the discharge. Phosphorescence produced by the discharge—The discharge without electrodes produces a very vivid phosphorescence in the glass of the vessel in which the discharge takes place; the phosphorescence is green when the bulb is made of German glass, blue when it is made of lead glass. Not only does the bulb itself phorphoresce, but a piece of ordi- nary glass tubing held outside the bulb and about a foot from it phos- phoresces brightly; while uranium glass will phesphoresce at a dis- tance of several feet from the discharge. Similar effects, but to a smaller extent, are produced by the ordinary spark between the poles of an electrical machine. The vessel in which the discharge takes place may be regarded as the secondary of an induction coil, and the discharge in it Shows similar properties to those exhibited by currents in a metallic secondary. Thus no discharge is produced unless there is a free way all round the tube; the discharge is stopped if the tube is fused up at any point. In order that the discharge may take place, it is necessary that the molecules of the gas shall be able to form a closed chain without the interposition of any non-conducting substance; indeed, the discharge seems to be hindered by the presence in such a chain of any second body, even though it may be a good conductor of electricity. Thus, when a tube such as that in Fig. 7 is used, which has a barometer tube attached to it, so that by raising or lowering the vessel into which the tube dips a mereury pellet may be introduced into the discharge circuit, DISCHARGE OF ELECTRICITY. DAS the spark length in the primary circuit may be so adjusted that a dis- charge passes when there is a clear way round the tube, but stops when a pellet of mercury is forced up so as to close the gangway. I noticed a similar effect in my experiments with a long vacuum tube described in the Proceedings of the Royal Society tor January, 1891, Thad another discharge tube prepared, of which a sec- tion is shown in Fig. 8, a, in which a diaphragm (AB) of thin copper plate was placed across the tube; the diaphragm happened to catch at the bottom of the tube, so that it divided the latter rather unequally, and left a narrow pas- sage round its edge. As much of the discharge as there was room for went round the edge of the plate; the remain- der was not able to get through the copper, but formed a closed cireuit by itself in the larger segment of the tube. In another tube, which is represented in section in Fig. 8, /, the copper diaphragm was attached to the walls of the tube by sealing- yax, So that there was no free way; in this case the discharge again refused to go through the copper, and split up into two separate dis- charges, aS in the figure. When the tube was divided by copper diaphragms into six segments, as in Fig 8, y, no discharge at all would pass through. When the primary was slipped up the tube above the diaphragm, a brilliant discharge was obtained. These four experi- ments all illustrate the difficulty which the electricity has in getting transferred from a gas to another conductor. TG hie > ? ----<~ --" Pan, (rn nae Se = /@ Com ! ia \ \ X o B 4 Ww There is no discharge through the secondary, if it is of such a kind that, considering a closed curve drawn in it, the electro-motive inten- sity as we travel along the curve tends to polarize the particles in one half of the chain in one direction, and in the other half in the opposite direction, the direction being reckoned relative to the direction we are traveling round the curve. Thus for example if we take a tube whose axis is bent back on itself, as in the figure, the electro-motive intensity will tend to polarize the particles in one part of the chain in the direction of the arrow, and those in the other in the opposite 244 DISCHARGE OF ELECTRICITY. (lirection; it is impossible to get a discharge through a tube of this kind. On the other hand, the molecules exhibit remarkable powers of mak- ing closed chains for themselves when not actually prevented , by the action of the electro-motive intensity. Thus the dis- charge will pass through a great length of tubing in the secondary, even if it is bent up as in Fig. 10, where the ver- tical piece in the upper part of the secondary is at right angles to the direction of the electric force, and where the molecules will receive no help in forming closed chains from the action of the external electro-motive forces. Ihave — e- ceeded in sending discharges through tubes of this kind 12 to 14 feet in length. : Fia. 10. Screening effects due to the currents in the tubes.—One very noticeable feature of these discharges is the well-defined character of the ring, if the pressure is not too low. Ifa large bulb is used for the secondary with the primary just outside it, when the sparks pass between the jars a bright, well-defined ring passes through the bulb near to the surface of the glass, the gas inside this ring being, as far as can be judged, quite free from any discharge. If now a bulb whose diameter is less than that of the lumin- fe) ous ring is Inserted in the primary in place of the larger bulb, a bright ring will start in this, though at this distance from the primary there was no dis- charge in the larger bulb. Thus when the large buib was in the primary, the discharge through its outer portions screened the interior from electro- => Iopump motive forces to an extent sufficient to stop a dis- Ge charge which would otherwise take place. The screening action of these discharges is also shown by the follow- ing experiment: A, B, C, Fig. 11, is the section of a giass vessel shaped like a Bunsen’s calorimeter; in the inner portion A, B.C of this vessel To DISCHARGE OF ELECTRICITY. 2A5 an exhausted tube is placed, while a pipe from the outer vessel leads to a mereury pump and enables us to alter the pressure at will. The primary coil, L, M, is wound round the outer tube. When the air in the outer tube is at atmospheric pressure, the discharge caused by the action of the primary passes in the tube EI inserted in A, B, ©; but when the pressure in the outer tube is reduced until a discharge passes through it, the discharge in the inner one stops; the discharge in the outer tube has thus shielded the inner tube from the action of the primary. If the exhaustion of the outer tube is carried so far that the discharge through it ceases, that in the inner tube begins again. It re- quires very high exhaustion to do this, and as on account of the joints it is unsafe to make the vessel very hot during the pumping, I have found it impossible to keep a vacuum good enough to show this effect for more than from half to three-quarters of an hour; in that time suffi- cient gas seems to have escaped from the sides of the vessel to make the pressure too high to show this effect, and it then takes from two to three hours’ pumping to get the tube back again into its former state. An interesting feature of this experiment is that for a small range of pressure, just greater than that at which the discharge first appears in the outer tube, there is no discharge in either of the tubes; thus the action of the primary is screened off from the inner tube, though there is no luminosity visible in the outer one; this shows that a discharge equivalent in its effects to a current can exist in the gas without suffi- cient luminosity to be visible even in a darkened room. We shall have occasion to mention other cases in which the existence of a discharge non-luminous througnout the whole of its course is rendered evident in a similar way. Another experiment by which the screening can be effectively shown is to place the primary coil inside a bell-jar which is connected with a mercury pump, the electrical connexions with the primary being led through mereury joints. An exhausted bulb is placed inside the pri- mary, the bulb being considerably smaller than the primary, so that there is an air-space between the two. Before the bell-jar is exhausted the discharge passes through the bulb, but when the bell-jar is ex- hausted sufficiently to allow of the discharge passing through the gas outside the bulb the discharge in the bulb ceases, and the only dis- charge is that outside. I have never been able to exhaust the bulb sufficiently well to get the discharge outside the bell-jar to cease, and that in the bulb to appear again, as in the preceding experiment. In this experiment, as in the preceding one, there was a range of pressure when neither the bulb nor the bell-jar was luminous, showing again the existence of currents in the gas which are not accompanied by any appreciable luminosity. A curious bending-in of the discharge which takes place in a square tube provided with a bulb can, I think, be explained by the principle of shielding. The discharge in the bulb does not, unless very long 246 DISCHARGE OF ELECTRICITY. Sparks are used, take as its course through the bulb the prolongation of the direction of the tube, but is bent-in towards the primary. In Fig. 12 the dotted line represents the course the discharge would have taken if there had been no bulb, the continu- ous line the course actually taken. This bending-in can be explained by supposing the currents started: near the primary to shield off from the outlying space the action of the primary, and thus make the electro-motive in- tensity along the axis of the tube smaller than it would Fic. 12. have been if no discharge had been possible between the axis and the primary circuit. Betore describing some further experiments on this shielding effect, it will be useful to consider the means by which it is brought about. Let us suppose we have a vertical plate made of conducting material, aud to the right of the plate a region A which it shields. This region has to be shielded from tubes of electrostatic induction coming from the left, which have to pass through the shield before reaching A, and from tubes coming from the right which have to pass through A before reaching the field. The action of the shield in the first case is very simple, for when a tube gets inside a conductor it at once attempts to contract to molecular dimensions, and after a time proportional to the specific resistance of the conductor it succeeds in doing so. Thus if the shield is made of a good conductor the tubes of electrostatic induction will be transformed into molecular tubes before they have time to get through; so that the shield will protect A from all tubes which have to go through it. The way the shield destroys or rather neutralizes the effect of the tubes coming from the right is somewhat different: when a positive tube reaches the shield a negative one emerges from it, travelling at right angles to itself in the opposite direction to the inei- dent tube; thus, when the first few tubes reach the shield from the right they will produce a supply of negative ones, and the presence of these negative tubes at A concurrently with the positive ones which continue to arrive there will weaken the field to a greater and greater extent as A approaches the shield. At the surface of the shield itself the neutralization will be complete. A dielectric whose specific indue- tive capacity is greater than usual will behave in a similar way to a metal plate, but to a smaller extent. It will emit tubes of the opposite sign, but not so numerous as those incident upon it. Thus a metal plate, or even one made of a dielectric of considerable specific inductive sapacity, will reduce very considerably the tangential electromotive force on either side of it. I have made several experiments in which this effect was very strik- ingly shown. In one of these, two square discharge-tubes of equal cross section placed near and parallel to each other were connected by a cross tube, so that the pressure was the same in both tubes; a fine wire passed round the inside of one of the tubes, its ends being con- DISCHARGE OF ELECTRICITY. 2A nected together so that it formed a closed circuit, the other tube con- tained nothing but air at a low pressure. When this double tube was placed outside the primary the discharge went, at the passage of each spark, through the tube without a wire, while the tube containing the wire remained quite dark. pica eo THE MOLECULAR PROCESS IN MAGNETIC INDUCTION. 259 turning at once into the exact direction of the applied foree, for there was nothing (beyond a trifling friction at the pivot) to prevent it from turning. Now try two magnets. I have cut off the current, so that there is at present no field, but you see at once that the pair has, so to speak, a will of its own. I may shake or disturb them as I please, but they insist on taking up a position (Fig. 3) with the north end of one as close as pos- 4 ore <> ‘ H 4 ) h Fic. 3. Fig. 4, sible to the south end of the other. If disturbed they return to it; this configuration is highly stable. Watch what happens when the mag- netic field acts with gradually growing strength. At first, so long as the field is weak (Fig. 4), there is but little deflection; but as the de- flection increases it is evident that the stability is being lost, the state is getting more and more critical, until (Fig. 5) the tie that holds them ——_—- > ee ee H Fie. 5. together seems to break, and they suddenly turn, with violent swing- ing, into almost perfect alignment with the magnetic foree H. Now I gradually remove the force, and you see that they are slow to return, but a stage comes when they swing back, and a complete removal of the force brings them into the condition with which we began (Fig. 3). If we were to picture a piece of iron as formed of a vast number of such pairs of molecular magnets, each pair far enough from its neigh- bors to be practically out of reach of their magnetie influence, we might deduce many of the observed magnetic properties, but not all. In particular, we should not be able to account for so much residual a magnetism as is actually found. To get that, the molecules must make new connections when the old ones are broken; their relations are of a kind more complex than the quasi-matrimonial one which the experi- 260 THE MOLECULAR PROCESS IN MAGNETIC INDUCTION. ment exhibits. Each molecule is a member of a‘larger community, and has probably many neighbors close enough to affect its conduct. We get a better idea of what happens by considering four magnets (Fig 6). At first, in the absence of deflecting magnetic force, they group themselves in stable pairs—in one of a number of possible com- binations. Then—as in the former case—when magnetic force is ap- plied, they are at first slightly deflected, in a manner that exactly tallies with what I have called the stage a of the magnetizing process, ewan ; Se _—_eo > o> orice ear Lowe > Se H Soe oe Soe > een —+—> x —- IG fe Fig. 8. Next comes instability. The original ties break up, and the magnets swing violently round; but finding a new possibility of combining (Fig. 7), they take to that. Finally, as the field is further strengthened they are drawn into perfect alignment with the applied magnetic force. (Fig. 8). | Fia. 9. We see the same three stages in a multiform group (Figs. 9, 10, 11). At first, the group, if itis shuffled by any casual disturbance, arranges itself at random in lines that give no resultant polarity (Fig. THE MOLECULAR PROCESS IN MAGNETIC INDUCTION. 261 9). A weak force produces no more than slight quasi-elastic deflections ; a stronger force breaks up the old lines, and forms new ones more fa- vorably inclined to the direction of the force (Fig. 10). A very strong force brings about saturation (Fig. 11). In an actual piece of iron there are multitudes of groups lying differ- ently directed to begin with—perhaps also different as regards the spacing of their members. Some enter the second stage while others are still in the first, and so on. Hence, the curve of magnetization does not consist of perfectly sharp steps, but has the rounded outlines of Fig. 1. Fia. 10. Fig. 11. Notice, again, how the behavior of these assemblages of elementary magnets agrees with what I have said about residual magnetism. If we stop strengthening the field before the first stage is passed—before any of the magnets have become unstable and have tumbled round into new places—the small deflection simply disappears, and there is no residual effect on the configuration of the group. But if we carry the process far enough to have unstable deflections, the effects of these persist when the force is removed, for the magnets then retain the new grouping into which they have fallen (Fig. 10). And again, the quasi- elastic deflections which go on during the third stage do not add to the residual magnetism. Notice, further, what happens to the groupif after applying a magnetic force in one direction and removing it, | begin to apply force in the oppo- sitedirection. At first there is little reduction of the residual polarity, 2962 THE MOLECULAR PROCESS IN MAGNETIC INDUCTION. till a stage is reached when instability begins, and then reversal occurs with arush. We thus find a close imitation of all the features thal are actually observed when iron or any of the other magnetic metals is carried through a cyclic magnetizing process (Fig 12). The effect of any such process is to form a loop in the curve which expresses the re- lation of the magnetism to the magnetizing force. The changes of magnetism always lag behind the changes of magnetizing force. This tendency to lag behind is called magnetic hysteresis. A Magnetism AM / Magnetec Force vas) Fic. 12.—Cyclic reversal of magnetization in soft iron (AA), and in the same iron when hardened by stretching (BB). We have a manifestation of hysteresis whenever a magnetic metal has its magnetism changed in any manner through changes in the magnetizing force, unless indeed the changes are so minute as to be confined to what I have called the first stage (a, Fig. 1). Residual magnetism is only a particular case of hysteresis. Hysteresis comes in whatever be the character or cause of the mag- netic change, provided it involves such deflections on the part of the molecules as make them become unstable. The unstable movements are not reversible with respect to the agent which produces them; that is to say, they are not simply undone step by step as the agent is removed. We know, on quite independent grounds, that when the magnetism of a piece of iron or steel is reversed, or indeed cyclically altered in any way, some work is spent in performing the operation—energy is being given to the iron at one stage, and is being recovered from it at another ; but when the cycle is taken as a whole there is a net loss, or rather a waste of energy. It may be shown that this waste is proportional to THE MOLECULAR PROCESS IN MAGNETIC INDUCTION. 263 the area of the loop in our diagrams. This energy is dissipated; that is to say, it is scattered and rendered useless; it takes the form of heat. The iron core of a transformer, for instance, which is having its mag- netism reversed with every pulsation of the alternating current, tends to become hot for this very reason; indeed, the loss of energy which happens in it, in consequence of magnetic hysteresis, is a serious draw- back to the efficiency of alternating-current systems of distributing electricity. It is the chief reason why they require much more coal to be burnt, for every unit of electricity sold, than direct-current systems require. The molecular theory shows how this wasteof energy occurs. When the molecule becomes unstable and tumbles violently over, it oscillates and sets its neighbors oscillating, until the oscillations are damped out by the eddy currents of electricity which they generate in the sur- rounding conducting mass. The useful work that can be got from the molecule as it falls over isless than the work that is done in replacing it during the return portion of the cycle. This is a simple mechanical deduction from the fact that the movement has unstable phases. I can not attempt, in a single lecture, todo more than glance at several places where the molecular theory seems to throw a flood of light on obseure and complicated facts, as soon as we recognize that the constraint of the molecules is due to their mutual action as mag- nets. It has beer known since the time of Gilbert that vibration greatly facilitates the process of magnectic induction. Let a piece of iron be briskly tapped while it lies in the magnetic field, and it is found totake up a large addition to its induced magnetism. Indeed, if we examine the successive stages of the process while the iron is kept vibrating by being tapped, we find that the first stage (a) has practically disap- peared, and there is a steady and rapid growth of magnetism almost from the very first. This is intelligible enough. Vibration sets the molecular magnets oscillating, and allows them to break their primi- tive mutual ties and to respond to weak deflecting forces. For asimi- lar reason, vibration should tend to reduce the residue of magnetism which is left when the magnetizing force is removed, and this, too, agrees with the results of observation. Perhaps the most effective way to show the influence of vibration is to apply a weak magnetizing force first, before tapping. If the force is adjusted so thatit nearly but not quite reaches the limit of stage (q@), a great number of the molecular magnets are, so to speak, hovering on the verge of instability, and when the piece is tapped they go over like a house of cards, and magnetism is acquired with a rush. Tapping always has some effect of the same kind, even though there has been no special adjustment of the field. And other things besides vibration will act in « similar way, precipi- tating the break-up of molecular groups when the ties are already 264 THE MOLECULAR PROCESS IN MAGNETIC INDUCTION. strained. Change of temperature will sometimes do it, or the applica- tion or change of mechanical strain. Suppose, for instance, that we apply pull to an iron wire while it hangs in a weak magnetic field, by making it carry a weight. The first time that we put on the weight, the magnetism of the wire at once increases, often very greatly,in con- sequence of the action I have just described (Fig. 13). The molecules have been on the verge of turning, and the slight strain caused by the weight is enough to make them go. Remove the weight, and there is only a comparatively small change in the magnetism, for the greater part of the molecular turning that was done when the weight was put on is not undone when it is taken off. Re-apply the weight, and you find again but little change. though there are still traces of the kind of action which the first application brought about. That is to say, there are some groups of molecules 220 which, though they were not broken up in the first application of the weight, yield now, because they have lost the support they then obtained from neigh- 210 bors that have now entered into new combinations. Indeed, this kind of action may often be traced, al- 200 ways diminishing in amount, during several succes- sive applications and removals of the load (see Fig. 190 15), and it is only when the process of loading has been many times repeated that the magnetic change brought about by loading is just opposite to the 180 5 magnetic change brought about by unloading. Whenever indeed we are observing the effects of 170 an alteration of physical condition on the magne- tism of iron, we have to distinguish between the 160 primitive effect, which is often very great and is not reversible, and the ultimate effect, which is seen only after the molecular structure has become some- what settled through many repetitions of the proe- Fig. 13.—Effects of load- ess. Experiments on the effects of temperature, of ena." strain, ete., have long ago shown this distinction to be exceedingly important; the molecular theory makes it perfectly intelligible. Further, the theory makes plain another curious result of experiment. When we have loaded and unloaded the iron wire many times over, so that the effect is no longer complicated by the primitive action I have just described, we still find that the magnetic changes which occur while the load is being put on are not simply undone, step by step, while the load is being taken off. Let the whole load be divided into several parts, and you will see that the magnetism has two different values, in going up and in coming down, for one and the same inter- mediate value of the load. The changes of magnetism lag behind the changes of load; in other words, there is hysteresis in the relation of MAGNETISM 1SO © toap 2 THE MOLECULAR PROCESS IN MAGNETIC INDUCTION. 265 the magnetism to the load (Fig.14). This is because some of the molece- ular groups are every time being broken up during the loading, and re-established during the unloading, and that, as we saw already, in- volves hysteresis. Consequently, too, each loading and unloading re- quires the expenditure of a small quantity of energy, which goes to heat the metal. 440 420 400 380 360 340 320 300 » a io} MAGNETISM ~ a fo) 240 © Loso Fig. 14.—Cyele of loading and unloading. Moreover, a remarkably interesting conclusion follows. This hys- teresis, and consequent dissipation of energy, will also happen though there be no magnetization of the piece as a whole; it depends on the fact that the molecules are magnets. Accordingly, we should expect to find, and experiment confirms this (see Phil. Trans., 1885, p. 614), that if the wire isloaded and unloaded, even when no magnetic field acts and there is no magnetism, its physical qualities which are changed by the load will change in a manner involving hysteresis. In partie- ular, the length will be less for the same load during loading than dur- ing unloading, so that work may be wasted in every cycle of loads. There can be no such thing as perfect elasticity in a magnetizable metal, unless, indeed, the range of the strain is so very narrow that none of the molecules tumble through unstable states. This may have 266 THE MOLECULAR PROCESS IN MAGNETIC INDUCTION. something to do with the fact, well known to engineers, that numerous repetitions of a straining action, so slight as to be safe enough in itself, have a dangerous effect on the structure of iron or steel. Another thing on which the theory throws light is the phenomenon of time-lag in magnetization. When a piece of iron is put into a steady magnetic field, it does not take instantly all the magnetism that it will take if time be allowed. There is a gradual creeping up of the magnetism, which is most noticeable when the field is weak and when the iron is thick. If you will watch the manner in which a group of little magnets breaks up when a magnetic force is applied to it, you will see that the process is one that takes time. The first molecule to yield is some outlying one which is comparatively unattached—as we may take the surface molecules in the piece of iron to be. It falls over, and then its neighbors, weakened by the loss of its support, fol- low suit, and gradually the disturbance propagates itself from molecule to molecule throughout the group. Ina very thin piece of iron—a fine wire, for instance—there are so many surface molecules, in comparison with the whole number, and consequently so many points which may become origins of disturbance, that the breaking up of the molecular communities is too soon over to allow much of this kind of lagging to be noticed. wy £600 > tc 1400 S 5 1200 2 & 1000 v 2 800 oa mn eee eee eee eee aniline to 56 of water does so at & Ht-HtH +4 ass ree 15795. He plotted his results in & Begs ss eeeee mieelaaiee > > = & SS the form of curves, with tempera- «o}+1411) SSacnmmes < ’ One Dwar aaa srapceeete ture and percentage strength as H+ JE FF nee bes ; ae the two codrdinates. The curve Ly . . . . / ‘ for aniline and water is shown in 120° a Fig. 1, and this may be taken as HH a fair representative, the general a o @ to) a form of all being similar. It is at once apparent that for every temperature up to a certain limit there are two possible saturated 40 solutions, one of water in aniline and one of aniline in water. The limiting temperature at which ° 922 Be a = ao there is but one possible saturated !!4 1.—Percentage of aniline in its saturated aque- : : ous solution (Alexéeff), solution, and above which satu- ration becomes impossible, is called by Alexéeff the Mischungs Tem- peratur. It is what I have called the critical solution temperature. It is in the case of aniline and water about 167°, as nearly as one can judge from the curve without a greater number of experimental points than we have in this part; and the corresponding satruation strength is about 50 per cent. It is hardly necessary to say that this equality 294 DEDUCTION FROM THE GASEOUS THEORY OF SOLUTION, of the two ingredients is an accident which does not characterize all Cases. Now imagine a 50 per cent mixture of aniline and water sealed up in a tube, shaken, and gradually heated. Let us assume that the tube is only large enough to contain the mixture and allow of expansion by heat, so that evaporation may be neglected as too small to materially complicate the result. The course of events will be exactly what I have already described with reference to the hypothetical A layer and Blayer. There will be formec a saturated solution of water in aniline, which we may e€all the aniline layer, and a saturated solution of aniline in water—the water layer. “Given the temperature, the percentage strength of each layer may be read off from the curve. a L— ¢C, hes Hale mes “) _is the weight of aniline in as it was in the other case, then 7 b—x the water layer, and n. baoe 1 1s weight in the aniline layer, and . L—eC bs the total volumes of the two layers aren. b. eae and 2. ¢. eS: respectively, together equal x. x. if the actual weights of aniline and water in the mixture be given, the value of « can be caleulated with a very fair approach to accuracy by the method adopted in plotting the curve; and thus all the faets with regard to the distribution at any temperature can be obtained, 298 DEDUCTION FROM THE GASEOUS THEORY OF SOLUTION. Now, if it be remembered that this case of aniline and water is not an isolated one, but typical of many cases experimented on by Alexéeft, and if it be remembered also that there exists no direct experimental evidence to show that the law which governs these cases is not the general law regulating all simple solutions it must I think be granted that the facts do somewhat strongly support the hypothesis of a critical solution point which I deduced in the first instance from the general theory of solution. It may be.summed up as follows: (1) In every system of solution which starts with a solid and its simple solvent, the solid has a solution melting point which is lower than its true melting point. Above this temperature the system con- sists of two separate liquids, each of which is a saturated solution. (2) These two liquids become one homogeneous solution at a tem- ‘ perature which depends on the ratio of the original ingredients. There is one ratio which demands a higher temperature than any other. This is the critical solution temperature, above which either ingredient is infinitely soluble in the other. SOME SUGGESTIONS REGARDING SOLUTIONS. By Prof. WILLIAM RAMSAY, IF. R. 8. The brilliant presidential address of Prot. Orme Masson at the Chem- ical Section of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science marks a distinet advance in our ideas of solution. The analogy between the behavior of a liquid and its vapor in presence of each other and of a pair of solvents capable of mutual solution is so striking as to carry conviction, The resemblance of the liquid-vapor curve, with its apex at the critical point, to the solubility curve, withits apex at the critical solution point, appears to me to prove beyond cavil that the two phenomena are essentially of the same nature. There are two other phenomena, which, it appears to me, are made clear by the ideas of Prof. Masson. The first of these has reference to super-saturated solutions. The curves (published in Nature, February 2, p. 348) showing the analogy between liquid-gas and solution curves, are isobaric curves, or, more correctly, they represent the terminations of isobaric curves in the region of mixtures, where, on the one hand, a liquid exists in presence of its vapor, and on the other, one solvent in the presence of another (for both solvents play the part of dissolved substances, as well as of solvents). M. Alexéeff’s data are not. sutffi- cient to permit ‘of the construction of a curve representing a similar region mapped out by the termination of isothermal lines. But it is obvious that it would be possible to determine osmotic pressures of various mixtures by the freezing-point method, and so to construct isothermal curves for such mixtures of solvents. And there can be no reasonable doubt that, as the isobaric curves of liquid-gas and of. sol- vent-solvent display so close an analogy, the isothermal curves would also closely resemble each other. Granting then that this is the case, we may construct an imaginary isothermal curve on the model of the curve for alcohol published in the Phil. Trans. by Dr. Sydney Young and myself. Now, in one series of papers on the liquid-gas relations, we showed that with constant volume pressure is a linear function of temperature; and we were thus able to calculate approximately the pressures and volumes for any isothermal “Read before the Royal Society on Thursday, March 5, 1891. ‘From Nature, April 23, 1891; vol. XLII, pp. 589, 590.) 299 300 SOME SUGGESTIONS REGARDING SOLUTIONS. representing the continuous transition from the gaseous to the liquid state (see Phil. Mag., 1887, vol. xxi, p. 485). It would be interesting to ascertain whether, if concentration be kept constant, osmotic pres- sure would also show itself to be a linear function of temperature. But this apart, it appears in the highest degree probable that there should also exist, in theory at least, a continuous transition from solvent to solvent, the representation of which would be a continuous curve. In such a case, on increasing the concentration of the solution by elimi- nating one solvent, the other solvent should not separate visibly, but the two should remain mixed until one solvent has been entirely re- moved. The accompanying diagram (ig. 1) will make this clear. The os 7] os y Fia. 1. sinuous curve A B OC D H may represent either continuous change from gas to liquid along an isothermal on decrease of volume, or it may represent a similar continuous change from saturated solution to dis- solved substance on increase of concentration. Mr. Aitken’s experiments on the cooling of air containing water- vapor have shown us that it is pessible to realize a portion of the curve A B; the phenomenon of “boiling with bumping” constitutes a practical realization of a portion of the curve DH; and we may profitably inquire what conditions determine such unstable states with solvent and sol-— vent. Regarding the portion of the curve A B, I think that no reasonable doubt can be entertained. It precisely corresponds to the condition of super-saturation. In the liquid-gas curve the volume is decreased at constant temperature without separation of liquid; in the solvent-sol- vent curve the concentration is increased without separation of the solvents. Dr. Nicol has shown that it is possible to dissolve dry sodium sulphate in a saturated solution of sodium sulphate to a very consider- able extent without inducing crystallization; and here we haye a reali- SOME SUGGESTIONS REGARDING SOLUTIONS. 301 zation of the unstable portion of the curve AB. Inthe gas-liquid curve pressure falls with formation of a shower of drops; in the solvent-sol- vent curve crystallization ensues and the solvents separate. The phenomena are however not completely analogous; the complete anal- ogy would be if the temperature were so low that the substance in the liquid-gas couple were to separate in the solid, not in the liquid, state. This, so far as [am aware, has not been experimentally realized, but one sees no reason why it should not be possible. I have some hesitation in offering speculations as to the state of matter at the portion of the continuous curve DH. It may be that it corresponds to a syrupy or viscous state. Cane sugar at the moderate temperature dissolves water; indeed it is possible to obtain a solution — of 1 per cent of water in molten cane sugar. And such a solution, if quickly cooled, remains a syrup. But it can be induced to crystallize by the presence of crystals. Thus, in such a mixture of sugar and water a few grains of crystalline sugar cause the whole mass to erystal- lize, and water saturated with sugar, and sugar, separate into two layers. Here again a complete analogy fails us, for it is a solid which separates. As we know nothing of the osmotic pressure of a syrup, the analogy is a defective one; but it is probable that a dilute solution of sugar would pass continuously into a syrup of pure sugar by evaporation of the sol- vent, and analogy would lead to the supposition that the syrup coin- cides with the unstable state of the liquid. I would therefore offer the analogy between the syruppy and the super-cooled states as a tentative one; it lacks foundation in both cases. One point remains to be mentioned. I have for the past nine months, in conjunction with Mr. Kdgar Perman, been determining the adiabatic relations for liquid and gaseous ether: the rise of pressure and tempera- ture when volume is decreased without the escape of heat. It is ob- vious that similar relations are determinable for solutions, and probably with much greater facility. M. Alexcéeff has made some measurements which might be utilized for this purpose, but they are far too few in number, and moreover, the necessary data as regards osmotic pressure are wholly wanting. It would be possible, by a series of different ex- periments, to ascertain the evolution of heat on increasing concentra- tion, and so to arrive at a knowledge of the specific heats of the selu- tion at constant osmotic pressure, corresponding to the idea of specific heats at constant pressure; and also of specific heats at constant concen- tration, corresponding to specific heats at constant volume. I do not know whether such researches would yield as accurate results as those we are at present carrying out, but they are at least well worthy of at- tention. LIQUIDS AND GASES.* By Prof. WILLIAM RAMSAY, F. BR. S. Almost exactly twenty years ago, on June 2, 1871, Dr. Andrews, of Belfast, delivered a lecture to the members of the Royal Institution in this hall, on “The Continuity of the Gaseous and the Liquid States of Matter.” He showed in that lecture an experiment which I had best deseribe in his own words: 1 “Take, for example, a given volume of carbonie acid at 50° C., or at a higher temperature, and expose it to increasing pressure till 150 atmospheres have been reached. In the process, its volume will steadily diminish as the pressure augments; and no sudden dimunition of volume, without the application of external pressure, will occur at any stage of it. When the full pressure has been applied, let the tempera- ture be allowed to fall, until the carbonic acid has reached the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere. During the whole of this operation, no break of continuity has occurred. It begins with a gas, and by a series of gradual changes, presenting nowhere any abrupt alterations of volume, or sudden evolution of heat, it ends witha liquid. For con- venience, the process has been devided into two stages—the compress- ion of the carbonic acid, and its subsequent cooling. But these opera- tions might have been performed simultaneously, if care were taken so to arrange the application of the pressure and the rate of cooling that the pressure should not be less than 76 atmospheres when the carbonic acid had cooled to 51°C.” I am able, through the kindness of Dr. Letts, Dr. Andrews’s succes- sor at Belfast, to show you this experiment, with the identical piece of apparatus used on the occasion of the lecture twenty years ago. I must ask you to spend some time to-night in considering this remarkable behavior; and, in order to obtain a correct idea of what occurs, it is well to begin with the study of gases, not, as in the case you have just seen, exposed to high pressures, but under pressures not differing greatly from that of the atmosphere, and at temperatures which can be exactly regulated and measured. ‘To many here to-night, such a study is unnecessary, owing to its familiarity; but I will ask such of my audience to excuse me, in order that I may tell my story from the beginning. * Lecture delivered at the Royal Institution, on Friday, May 8. (From Nature, July 23, 1891; vol. XLIV, pp. 274-277.) 304 LIQUIDS AND GASES Generally speaking, a gas, when compressed, decreases in volume to an amount equal to that by which its pressure is raised, provided its temperature be kept constant. This was discovered by Robert Boyle in 1660; in 1661 he presented to the Royal Society a Latin trans- lation of his book, ‘Touching the Spring of the Air and its Effects.” His words are: : “It is evident, that as common air, when reduced to half its natural extent, obtained a spring about twice as forcible as it had before; so the air, being thus compressed, being further crowded into half this narrow room, obtained a spring as strong again as that it last had, and consequently four times as strong as that of common air,’ To illustrate this, and to show how such relations may be expressed by a curve, I will ask your attention to this model. We have a piston, fitting a long horizontal glass tube. It confines air under the pressure of the atmosphere—that is, some 15 pounds on each square inch of area of the piston, The pressure is supposed to be registeretl by the height of the liquid in the vertical tube. On inereasing the volume of the air, sc as to double it, the pressure is decreased to half its original amount. On decreasing the volume to halt 16 original amount, the pressure is doubled. On again halving, the pressure is again doubled. Thus you see a curve may be traced, in which the relation of volume to pressure is exhibited. Such a curve, it may be remarked incidentally, is termed an hyperbola. We can repeat Boyle's experiment by pouring mercury into the open limb of this tube containing a measured amount of air; on causing the level of the mereury in the open limb to stand 30 inches (that is, the height of the barometer) higher in the open limb than the closed limb, the pressure of the atmosphere is doubled, and the volume is halved. And on trebling the pressure of the atmosphere the volume is reduced to one-third of its original amount; and on adding another 30 inches of mereury, the volume of the air is now one-quarter of that which it originally occupied. It must be remembered that here the temperature is kept constant; that it is the temperature of the surrounding atmosphere. Let us next examine the behavior of a gas when its temperature is altered, when it becomes hotter. This tube contains a gas—air—con- fined at atmospheric pressure by mercury, in a tube surrounded by a jacket or mantle of glass, and the vapor of boiling water can be blown into the space between the mantle and the tube containing the air, so as to heat the tube to 100° C, the temperature of the steam. The tempera- ture of the room is 17° C., and the gas oeeupies 290 divisions of the scale. On blowing in steam, the gas expands, and on again equalizing pres- sure, it stands at 373 divisions of the scale. The gas has thus expanded from 290 to 575 divisions, @. e., its volume has Pea: by 83 divisions; and the temperature has risen from 17° to 100°, 7. ¢., through 83°C. This law of the expansion of gases was een ee simultane- LIQUIDS AND GASES. 305 ously by Dalton and Gay-Lussac in 1801; it usually goes by the name of Gay-Lussac’s law. Now, if wedo not allow the volume of the gas to increase, we shall find that the pressure will increase in the same pro- portion that the volume would have increased had the gas been allowed to expand, the pressure having been kept constant. To decrease the volume of the gas, then, according to Boyle’s law, will require a higher initial pressure; and if we were to represent the results by a curve, we should get an hyperbola, as before, but one lying higher as regards pressures. And so we should get a set of hyperbolas for higher and higher temperatures. We have experimented up to the present with air—a mixture of two gases, oxygen and nitrogen; and the boiling points of both of these ele- ments lie at very low temperatures: —184° C. and —193°.1 C., respect- ively. The ordinary atmospheric temperature lies a long way above the boiling points of liquid oxygen and liquid nitrogen at the ordinary at- mospheric pressure. But it is open to us to study a gas, which, at the ordinary atmospheric temperature and pressure, exists in the liquid state; and for this purpose I shal) choose water gas. In order that it may be a gas at ordinary atmospheric pressure, however, we must heat it to a temperature above 100° C,, its boiling point. This tube contains water gas at a temperature of 105° C.; it is under ordinary pressure, for the mercury columns are at the same level in both the tubes and in this reservoir, which communicates with the lower end of the tube by means of the india-rubber tubing. The temperature 105° is main- tained by the vapor of chloro-benzene, boiling in the bulb sealed to the jacket, at a pressure lower than that of the atmosphere. Let us now examine the effect of increasing pressure. On raising the reservoir the volume of the gas is diminished, as usual, and nearly in the ratio given by Boyle’s law; that is, the volume decreases in the same proportion as the pressure increases. Buta change is soon ob- served; the pressure soon ceases to rise; the distance between the mercury in the reservoir and that in the tube remains constant, and the gas is now condensing to liquid. The pressure continues constant during this change, and itis only when all the water gas has condensed to liquid water that the pressure againrises. Afterall the gasis condensed an enormous increase of pressure is necessary to cause any measurable decrease in volume, for liquid water scarcely yields to pressure, and in such a tube as this no measurements could be attempted with success. Representing this diagrammatically, the right-hand part of the curve represents the compression of the gas, and the curve is, as before, nearly a hyperbola. Then comes a break, and great decrease in volume occurs without rise of pressure, represented by a horizontal line; the substance in the tube here consists of water gas in presence of water; the vertical, or nearly vertical line represents the sudden and great rise of pressure, where liquid water is being slightly com- pressed. ‘The pressure registered by the horizontal line is termed the H, Mis, 114 20 306 LIQUIDS AND GASES. ‘“vapor-pressure” of water. If now the temperature were raised to 110° C., we should have a greater initial volume for the water gas; it is compressible by rise of the mereury as before, the relation of pressure to volume being, as before, represented on the diagram as an approxi- mate hyperbola; and as before, condensation occurs when volume is sufficiently reduced, but this time at a higher pressure. We have again a horizontal portion, representing the pressure of water gas at 110° ©. in contact with liquid water; again, a sharp angle where all gaseous water is condensed, and again a very steep curve, almost a straight line, representing the slight decrease of volume of water pro- duced by a great increase of pressure. And we should have similar lines for 120°, 130°, 140°, 150° C., and for all temperatures within certain limits. Such lines are called isothermal lines, or shortly “isothermals,” or lines of equal temperature, and represent the relations of pressure to volume for different temperatures. Dr. Andrews made similar measurements of the relations between the pressures and volumes of carbon dioxide, at pressures much higher than those I have shown you for water. But I prefer to speak to you about similar results obtained by Prof. Sydney Young and myself with ether, because Dr. Andrews was unable to work with carbon dioxide free from air, and that influenced his results. For example, you see that the meeting points of his hyperbolic curves with the straight lines of vapor pressures are curves, and not angles; that is caused by the presence of about 1 part of air in 500 parts of carbon dioxide; also the condensation of gas was not perfect, for he obtained curves at the points of change from a mixture of liquid and gas to liquid. We however were more easily able to fill a tube with ether free from air, and you will notice that the points I have referred to are angles, not curves. Let me first direct your attention to the shapes of the curves in the diagram. As the temperature rises the vapor-pressure lines lie at higher and higher pressures, and the lines themselves become shorter aud shorter. And finally, at the temperature of 31° C. for carbon di- oxide, and at 195° ©, for ether, there ceases to be a horizontal portion at all; or rather the curve touches the horizontal at one point in its course. That point corresponds to a definite temperature, 195° C, for ether; to a definite pressure, 27 meters of mereury, or 35.6 atmos- pheres; and to a definite volume, 4.06 cubie centimeters per gram of ether. At that point the ether is not liquid, and it is not gas; it is a homogeneous substance. At that temperature ether has the appear- ance of a blue mist; the striw mentioned by Dr. Andrews and by other observers are the result of unequal heating, one portion of the Substance being liquid and another gas. You see the appearance of this state on the screen. When a gas is compressed it is heated. Work is done on the gas, aud its temperature rises. If I compress the air in this syringe forci- Se LIQUIDS AND GASES. 307 bly its temperature rises so high that I can set a piece of tinder on fire and by its help explode a little gunpowder. If the ether at its critical point be compressed by screwing in the screw, it is somewhat warmed and the blue cloud disappears. Conversely, if it is expanded a little by unscrewing the screw and increasing its volume, it is cooled and a dense mist is seen, accompanied by a shower of ether rain- This is seen as a black fog on the screen. I wish also to direct your attention to what happens if the volume given to the ether is greater than the critical yvolume—on increasing the volume you see that it boils away and evaporates completely; and also what happens if the volume be somewhat less than the critical volume—it then expands as liquid and completely fills the tube. It is only at the critical volume and temverature that the ether exists in the state of blue cloud, and has its critical pressure. if the volume be too great, the pressure is below the critical pressure; if too small, the pressure is higher than the critical pressure. Still one more point before we dismiss this experiment. At a tem- perature some degrees below the critical temperature, the meniscus, i. e., the surface of the liquid, is curved. It has a skin on its surface; its molecules, as Lord Rayleigh has recently explained in this room, attract one another, and it exhibits surface tension. Raise the tem- perature and the meniscus grows flatter; raise it further, and it is nearly flat and almost invisible; at the critical temperature it disap- pears, having first become quite tiat. Surface tension therefore dis- appears at the critical point. ; Maternal en 6 = & j : ° $s H 4 ‘ S Paternal... «> Maternal ., Maternal .... Paternal.... Via. 1. J. 0., fertilized ovum or embryo. containing maternal and paternal characteristics; S, soma, or adult body, containing 7, s,m, d, v, somatic cells of the various tissues; and G, germ cells of the reproductive glands. I. HistoGENESIS.—Showing the successive rise G, and union f. 0. of the maternal and paternal germ cells by direct histogenesis. II. PANGENEsIS.—Showing the tissues of the body S, contributing to the germ cells G, so that each f. 0. is composed of elements from both the somatic and germ cells. II. Conrinuiry.—Showing the division of the embryo f. 0., into somatoplasm, s (from which arise the body cells), and germ plasm, @ (which passes direct to the germ cells), establishing a direct con- tinuity. Prof. Brooks, of the Johns Hopkins University, then contribute and original modification of pangenesis in which the functions of the ova and PRESENT PROBLEMS IN EVOLUTION AND HEREDITY. Dail spermatozoa were sharply differentiated.* (1) He regarded the ovum as a cell especially designed as a storehouse of hereditary characteris- tics, each characteristic being represented by material particles of some kind; thus hereditary characters were handed down by simple cell divi- sion, each fertilized ovum giving rise to the body cells in which its hered- itary characters were manifested and to new ova in which these charac- ters were conserved for the next generation (this portion of Brooks’s theory is very similar to Galton’s and Weismann’s). (2) The body cells have the power of throwing off ‘*gemmules,” but this is exercised mainly or exclusively when its normal functions are disturbed, as in metatrophie exercise or under change of environment. (3) These gem- mules may enter the ovum, but the spermatozoan is their main center. According to this view the female cell is rather conservative and the male cell progressive; the union of these cells produces variability in the offspring, exhibited especially in the regions of the offspring cor- responding to the regions of functional disturbance in the parent, This hypothesis was well considered, and while that feature of it which distinguishes the male and female germ cells as different in kind has been disproved, and the whole conception of gemmules is now abandoned, the fact still remains that we shall nevertheless be obliged to offer some hypothesis to explain the facts disregarded by Weismann for which Brooks provides in his theory of the causes of variation. 2. Continuity of germ cells.—The central idea here is an outgrowth of our more modern knowledge of embryogenesis and histogenesis, and is therefore comparatively recent; it is that of a fundamental dis- tinction between the “germ cells,” as continuous and belonging to the race, and the “body cells,” as belonging to the individual. Weismann has refined and elaborated this idea, but it was not original with him. Richard Owen,f in 1849, Haeckel,i in 1866, Rauber,§ in 1879, in turn dwelt upon the distinction which Dr. Jaeger, now of manufacturing fame, first clearly stated: “Through a great series of generations the germinal protoplasm re- tains its specific properties, dividing in every reproduction into an ontogenetic portion, out of which the individual is built up, and a phylogenetic portion, which is reserved to form the reproductive material of the mature offspring. This reservation of the phylogenetic material | described as the continuity of the germ protoplasm. - -— - Eneapsuled in the ontogenetic material the phylogenetic protoplasm is sheltered from external influences, and retains its specific and em- bryonic characters.” The latter idea has, under Weismann, been expanded into the theory of isolation of the germ cells. Galton introduced the term “stirp” to express the sum total of *The Law of Heredity, 1883. t See Parthenogenesis, in his Anatomy of Vertebrates. t Generelle Morphologic, vol. 11, p. 170. § Zool. Anz., vol. 1X, p. 166. H. Mis. 114 22 338 PRESENT PROBLEMS IN EVOLUTION AND HEREDITY. hereditary organic units contained in the fertilized ovum. His con- ception of heredity was derived from the study of man, and he sup- ported the idea of continuity in the germ cells in order to account for the law of transmission of “latent” characters; it is evident from this law that only a part of the organic units of the “stirp” become “patent” in the individual body; some are retained latent in the germ cells, and become patent only in the next or some succeeding generation. For example, the genius for natural science was “patent” in Erasmus Dar- win, grandfather of the great naturalist, it was ‘‘latent” in his son, and re-appeared intensified in his grandson, Charles Darwin. I have elsewhere* summed up as follows Galton’s general results, which so remarkably strengthen the ‘‘continuity” idea: Weare made up, bit by bit, of inherited structures, like a new building, composed of fragments of an old one, one element from this progenitor, another from that, although such elements are usually transmitted in groups. The hereditary congenital constitution thus made up is far stronger than the influences of environment and habit upon it. Fic. 4. EVOLUTION OF THE CUSPS OF THE HUMAN LOWER MOLAR.—p7r*, protoconid (anterior buccal cusp); pa*, paraconid; me*, metaconid (anterior lingual cusp); hy', hypoconid (posterior buccal) ; ent, ento- conid (posterior lingual cusp); ms‘, mesoconulid (intermediate cusp). Diagram 1.—Reptilian stage. Diagrams 2-5.—Mesozoic mammals, first lower molars showing rise of ancestral cusps. Diagram 6.— Eocene carnivore (miacis), showing how the low tubercular crown 13 is derived from the high crown m1. Diagram 7.—Eocene monkey (Anaptomorphus), showing how the primitive anterior lingual cusp pa’ disappears. Diagram 8.—Human first molar with its ancestral cusps. important race index.* A glance through the diagrams shows that the development of the crown has been by the successive addition of new cusps. Without entering upon the details of evidence, which : trigor Palen ed ith —— eT yalhes ors trigonid | 1 ' } : } ‘ : : ’ ’ [be- ON ‘ ‘ a Lower molar. Upper and lower molars opposed. Upper molar. IG. 5. KEY TO PLAN OF UPPER AND LOWER MOLARS IN ALL MAMMALS.—Lach tooth consists of a triangle, trigon, with the protocone, pr, at the apex. The apex is on the inner side of the upper molars and on the outer side of the lower molars. would be out of place here, I may say, briefly, that the new main cusps have developed at the points of maximum wear (7. é., use), and con- * The upper molars in many Esquimaux are triangular (as in Fig. 6, diagram 11); in most negroes they are square (diagram 12). In our race they are intermediate. 344 PRESENT PROBLEMS IN EVOLUTION AND HEREDITY. versely in the degeneration of the crown, disuse foreshadows atrophy and disappearance. Upon the whole, with some exceptions which we do not at present understand, the course of evolution of the teeth supports the evi- dence derived from the skeleton that, whether any true causal relation has existed or not, the lines of individual transformation in the whole fossil series preceded those of race transformation. Fia. 6. EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN UPPER MOLARS.— Diagram 9.—Anaptomorphus, a Lower Eocene monkey. Diagram 10.—An Upper Eocene monkey. Diagrams 11 and 12.—Human; 11, Esquimaux; 12, negro. Sco addition of “talon,” hy. to“ trigon® composed of pa, pr, me. The rise of new organs.—We owe to Dr. Arbuthnot Lane a most interesting series of studies upon the influences of various occupa- tions upon the human body. He proves conclusively that individual adaptation not only produces profound modifications in the proportions of the various parts, but gives rise to entirely new structures. His anatomy and physiology of a shoemaker* shows that the life-long habits of this laborious trade produce a distinet type, which if ex- amined by any zoélogical standard would be unhesitatingly pro- nounced a new species—homo sartorius. The psychological analysis which a Dickens or Balzae would draw, showing the influences of the struggle for existence upon the spirit of this little tailor, could not be more pathetic than Dr. Lane’s analysis of his body. The bent form, crossed legs, thumb and forefinger action, and peculiar jerk of the head while drawing the thread, are the main features of sartorial habit. The following are ouly a few of the results: The muscles tended to recede into tendons, and the bony surfaces into which they were in- serted tended to grow in the direction of the traction which the muscle exerted upon them. The articulation between the sternum and the clavicle was converted into a very complex arthrodial joint, con- stituting almost a ginglymoid articulation. The sixth pair of ribs were anchylosed to the bodies of the vertebrie, indicating that they had ceased to rise and fall with sternal breathing, and that respira- tion was almost exclusively diaphragmatic. The region of the head and first two vertebrie of the neck was still more striking: the trans- verse process of the right side of the atlas, toward whieh the head was bent, formed a new articulation with the under surface of the jugular process of the occipital bone, “a small synovial cavity sur- rounded this acquired articulation, but there was no appearance ot a *Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, 1888, p. 59d. PRESENT PROBLEMS IN EVOLUTION AND HEREDITY. 345 capsular ligament;” the left half of the axis was united by bone to the corresponding portion of the third cervical; there was found a new upward prolongation of the odontoid peg of the axis, and a new accessory transverse ligament to keep it from pressing upon the cord. In short, ** the anatomy of the shoemaker represents the fixation and subsequent exaggeration of the position and tendencies to change which were present in his body when he assumed the position for a short period of time. Rate of inheritance.—This illustration serves also to emphasize the great contrast between the rapidity of individual transformation and the slowness of race transformation. No one would expect the son of this shoemaker to exhibit any of these aequired malformations. Yet Dr. Lane thinks he has observed such effects in the third generation by the summation of similar influences. All paleontological evidence goes to show that the effeets of normal habits, if transmitted at all, would be entirely imperceptible in one generation, The horse, for example, has not yet completely lost the lateral toes which became useless at the end of the Upper Eocene period. This objection as to rate of evolution may be urged with equal force against the natural selection theory. It is obvious that-the active pro- gressive principle in evolution (whatever it is), must contend with the enormous conservative power of inheritance, and this, to my mind, is one of the strongest arguments against the possibilities of the rise of adaptive organs by the selection of chance favorable variations in the germ plasm. Application to human evolution.—Principles underlying these illus- trations may now be applied to some of the facts in human evolution brought out in the first lecture. They show that if functional tenden- cies are transmitted we can comprehend the distinct evolution history of each organ; the rise and fall of two organs side by side; the definite and purposive character of some anomalies; the increase of variability in the regions of most rapid evolution; the correlation of development balance, and degeneration in the separate organs of the shoulder, hand, and foot. Yet even granting this theory there still remain difficulties. The relation of use and disuse to some of the contemporary changes in the human backbone is rather obscure. I would hesitate to pronounce an opinion as to whether our present habits of life are tending to shorten the lumbars, increase the spinal curvatures, and shift the pelvis with- out making an exhaustive study of human motion. Among the influ- ences which Dr. Lane has suggested* as operative here are the wear- ing of heeled shoes and the increase of the cranium. He considers the additional or sixth lumbar vertebra as a new element rather than as a reversion, and works out in some detail the mechanical effects of the * Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, 1888, p. 219. 346 PRESENT PROBLEMS IN EVOLUTION AND HEREDITY. presence of the fetus upon female respiration (7. ¢., in the sternal re- gion) and upon the pelvis. Now, if it be true that the pelvis is larger in the higher races than in the lower, I do not think that Dr. Lane can sustain his point, because in the lower races the fetus is carried for an equally long period, during a much more active life, and in a more con- tinuously erect position. Therefore, if these mechanical principles were operating, the pelvis in the modern lower races should be larger than in the higher. On the other hand, the form of the female pelvis in the higher races is one of the best established selecting or eliminat- ing factors, a large pelvis favoring frequent births and the preserva- tion of those family stirps in which it occurs. I mention this to show how cautious we must be in jumping to conclusions as to kinetogenesis. The transformism in all the external features of the skull, jaws, and teeth may be attributed to inherited tendencies toward hypertrophy or atrophy; but how about the convoliutions of the turbinal bones or the complex development of the semicircular canals and cochlea of the internal ear and the many centers of evolution which are beyond the influences of use and disuse? These are examples of structures which fortify Weismann’s contention, for if complex organs of this character can only be accounted for by natural selection, why consider selection inadequate to account for all the changes in the body? Difficulties in the natural-selection theory.—The answer, I think, is readily given: We do not know whether use and disuse are operating upon the mechanical construction of the ear; we do know that the organ can be rendered far more acute by exercise; but even if it were true that habit can exert no formative influence, the ear is one of those structures which since its first origin has been an important factor in survival and may therefore have been evolved by natural selection. Now, the very fact that selection may have to care for variations in such prime factors in survival as the ear, renders it the more diffieult to conceive that it also is nursing the minutie of variation in remote, obscure, and uncorrelated organs. Even in the brief review of human evolution in the first leeture I have pointed out eight independent regions of evolution, upward of twenty developing organs, upward of thirty degenerating organs. A more exhaustive analysis would increase this list tenfold. Now, where chance variation should produce an increase in size in all the developing organs, and a decrease in size of all the degenerating organs, and an average sizein all the static organs, we would have all the conditions favoring survival. But the chances are infinity to one against such a combination occurring unless the tendencies of variation are regulated and determined, as Lamarckians suppose, by the in- heritance of individual tendencies. But may not the favorable vari- ations in the body be grouped to either out-weigh or under-weigh the unfavorable variations? This would be possible if combinations ov- curred; but we can readily see that combinations, such as we observe PRESENT PROBLEMS IN EVOLUTION AND HEREDITY. ay! Si in the separate elements of the foot alone, completely neutralize each other so far as “‘survival” is concerned; how the foot would neutralize the hand, or the foot and hand would neutralize the lumbar region.* it is this consideration of single organs, the observation of their in- dependent history, the rise of new compound organs by steady growth from infinitesimal beginnings of their separate elements, the combined testimony of anatomy and paleontology which force us to regard the theory of evolution by the natural selection of chance variations as wholly untenable. With the utmost desire to regard the discussion in as fair a spirit as possible, the explanations offered by the adherents of Weismann’s doctrine strike me as strained, evasive, and illogical.t We can however by no means undervalue or dispense with natural selection, which must be in continuous operation upon every character of sufficient importance to weigh in the scale of survival. I need hardly remind you that this selecting principle was first discovered in 1813 by Dr. W. C. Wells, of Charleston, in connection with the immu- nity from certain tropical diseases enjoyed by negroes and mulattoes.t The eliminating factor in selection is illustrated almost daily in cases of appendicitis. I regret I have not had time to ascertain whether or not this disease is considered due purely to accident or to congenital variation in the aperture of the appendix, which favors the admission of hard objects. If so, modern surgery is only benefiting the individual to the detriment of the race by its efficient preventive operations; and every individual who suecumbs to this disease can refiect with melan- choly satisfaction that he does so pro bono publico. Conclusions as to the factors of evolution.—The conclusions we reach from the study of the muscular and skeletal systems are there- fore as follows: 1. That individual transformism in the body is the main determinant of variations in the germ cells, and is therefore the main cause of definite progressive or retrogressive variations in single organs. 2. That evolution in these organs is hastened where all mem- bers of the race are subject to the same individual transformism. The contrast between the rate of individual transformism and race trans- formism is due to the strong conservative forces of the germ plasma. 5. That evolution is most rapid where variations are of sufficient rank to become factors in survival. Then selection and use inheritance unite forces as active progressive principles opposing the conservative prin- ciple in the germ plasma. 4. That fortuitous and chance variations also arise from disturbances in the body or germ cells; they may be perpetuated, or disappear in succeeding generations. *T have expanded this idea fully in recent papers upon the theory of evolution of the horse. See *‘Are Acquired Variations Inherited?” American Naturalist, Fel- ruary, 1891. tSee Weismann’s last essay, ‘‘Retrogressive Development,” in Nature, Biol, Mem., trans., in press. {See Introduction of Darwin’s Origin of Species. 348 PRESENT PROBLEMS IN EVOLUTION AND HEREDITY. Applying these views to variation there should theoretically ap- pear to be just those two distinct classes of anomalies in the human body which we have seen actually occurring: First, those in the path of evolution, arising from perfectly normal changes in the somato-plasm and germ-plasm: second, those wholly unconnected with the course of evolution, arising fortuitously or from abnormal changes in the somato-plasm or germ-plasm; te this head may be attributed the whole seale of deformities. Thus tranformism and deformism should be kept distinct in our minds. Nevertheless the facts of deformism con- tribute the strongest body of evidence which we can muster at present to prove that there does exist a relation between the somato-plasm and germ-plasm which renders transformism possible. The relations between the somato-plasm and germ-plasm.—We have seen reasons to take a middle ground as to the distinet specific nature of the body celis and germ cells, and this position is, I think, strength- ened the more broadly we extend our inquiry into all the fields of pro- toplasmie activity. There are three questions before us. 1. What is the evidence that the germ-plasm and somato-plasm are distinct? 2. What is the specific nature of the germ-plasm? 3. What is the nature of the relations which exist between the two? 1. The separation of the germ-plasin is in the regular order of evolu- tion upon the principles of physiological division of labor. The unicel- lular organisms combine all the funetions of life in a single mass of pro- toplasm, that is,in one cell. In the rise of the multi-cellular organisms the various functions are distributed into groups of cells, which spe- cialize in the perfecting of a single function. Thus the reproductive cells fall into the natural order of histogenesis, and the theory of their entire separation is more consistent with the laws governing the other tissues than the theory which we find ourselves obliged to adopt, that while separate they are still united by some unknown threads with the other cells. The morphological separation of what we may call the race proto- plasm becomes more and more sharply defined in the ascending scale of organisms. Weismann’s contention as to the absolutely distinct specific nature of the germ-plasm and somato-plasm has however to meet the apparently insuperable difficulty that in many multi-cellular organisms, even of a high order, the potential capacity of repeating complex hereditary characters, and even of producing perfect germ cells, is widely distributed through the tissues. For example, cuttings from the leaves of the well-known hot-house plant, the begonia, or portions of the stems of the common willow tree, are capable of reproducing complete new individuals. This would in- dicate either that portions of the germ plasm are distributed through the tissus of these organisms, or that each body cell has retained its potential quota of hereditary characters. . PRESENT PROBLEMS IN EVOLUTION AND HEREDITY. 349 Among the lower animals we find the same power; if we cut a hydra or bell animalcule into a dozen pieces, each may reproduce a perfect new individual. As we ascend in the animal scale the power is con- fined to the reproduction of a lost part in the process known as reeres- cence. As you well know, in the group to which the frog and _ sala- mander belong, a limb or tail, or even a lower jaw, may be reproduced. The only logical interpretation of these phenomena is that the heredi- tary powers are distributed in the entire protoplasm of the organism, and the capacity of reproduction is not exhausted in the original for- mation of the limb, but is capable of being repeated, There has been considerable discussion of late as to the seat of this power of recrescence. It seems to me not impossible that in the vertebrates it may be stored in the germ cells, and it would be very interesting to ascertain experi- mentally whether removal of these cells would in any way limit or affect this power; we know that such removal in castration or ovari- otomy sometimes profoundly modifies the entire nature of the organ- ism, causing male characters to appear in the female, and female chayr- acters to develop in the male. So far as man is concerned it has been claimed by surgeons that genuine recrescence sometimes occurs; for example, that a new head is formed upon the femur after exsection; but my friend Dr. V. P. Gibney informs me that this is an exaggeration, that there is no tendency to reproduce a true head, but that a pseudo-head is formed, which may be explained upon the principle of regeneration and individual trans- formism by use of the limb. Pfliiger’s opinion is that recrescence does not indicate a storage of hereditary power, that there is no pre-existing germ of the member, but that the re-growth is due to the organizing and distributing power of the cells at the exposed surface, so that, as new formative matter arrives, it is built up gradually into the limb. This view would reduce re-crescence to the level of the regeneration process which unites two cut sections of the elements of a limb in their former order. [tis partly opposed to the facts above referred to, which seem to prove the dis- tribution of the hereditary power. Yet it seems to me quite consistent to consider these three processes—a, reproduction of a new individual from every part; 0, recrescence of a new member from any part; ¢, re- generation of lost tissues—as three steps indicating the gradual, but not entire withdrawal of the reproductive power into the germ cells. [ have not space to consider all the grounds which support the view of the separation of the germ cells in man. Some of the more promi- nent are: the very early differentiation of these cells in the embryo, observed with a few exceptions in all the lower orders of animals, and advancing so rapidly in the human female that several months betore birth the number of primordial ova is estimated at seventy thousand, and is not believed to be increased after the age of two and a half years. The most patent practical proof is that we may remove every 350 PRESENT PROBLEMS IN EVOLUTION AND HEREDITY. portion of the body which is not essential to life and yet the power of complete reproduction of a new individual from the germ cells are un- impaired. Among the many reasons advanced for pensioning the crippled soldiers of our late war you never hear it urged that their children are incapacitated by inheritance of injuries. The strongest proof however rests in the evidence I have already cited from hered- ity of the extraordinary stability of the germ cells, which is the safe- guard of the race. 2. The specific nature of the germ-plasm must be considered betore we consider its relations. Wherein lies the conservative power of the germ-plasm, and in what direction shall we look for its transforming forces? You see at once that marvellous as is the growth of cells in other tissues, the growth of the germ cell is still more so. We find it utterly impossible to form any conception of the contents of the microcosmice nucleus of the human fertilized ovum, which is tess than one twenty-five-hundredths of an inch in diameter, but which is nevertheless capable of producing hundreds of thousands of cells like itself, as well as all the unlike cells of the adult organism, We can only translate our ideas as to the possible contents of this nucleus in the terms of chemistry and physiecs.* Spencer t assumed an order of molecules or units of protoplasm lower in degree than the visible cell units, to the internal or polar forces of which, and their modification by external agencies and inter-action, he ascribes the ultimate responsibility in reproduction, heredity, and adaptation. This idea of biological units seems to me an essential part of any theory; it is embodied in Darwin’s “* gemmules,” in Haeckel’s “plastidules ;” yet, as Lankester says the rapid accumulation of bulk is a theoretical difficulty in the material conception of units. In the direc- tion of establishing some analogy between the repetition power of hered- ity and known function of protoplasm, Haeckelt and Herings have likened heredity to memory, and advanced the hypothesis of persist- ence of certain undulatory movemeits; the undulations being suscep- tible of change, and therefore of producing variability, while their ten- dency to persist in their established harmony is the basis of heredity. Berthold, Gautier, and Geddes|| have speculated in the elaboration of the idea of metabolisin; the former holding the view that ‘inheritance is possible only upon the basis of the fundamental fact that in the chemical processes of the organism the same substances and mixtures of substances are reproduced in quantity and quality with regular periodicity.” §| *See Ray Lankester, Nature, July 15, 1876. t Principles of Biology, vol. i., p. 256. t Perigenesis der Plastidule oder die Wellenzeugung der Lebenstheilchen. Jena, 1875. § Ueber d. Gediichtniss als cin eallgemeine Function d. organischen Materie, Vienna, 1870. || See also Thomson, op. cit., p. 102. 4 Berthold: Studien iiber Protoplasma-Mechanik, Leipsic, 1886. PRESENT PROBLEMS IN EVOLUTION AND HEREDITY. Jol I have merely touched upon these speculations to show that the un- known factors in heredity are also the unknown factors in operation in living matter. All we can study is the external form, and conjecture that this form represents matter arranged in a certain way by forces peculiar to the organism. These forces are exhibited or patent in the somatic cells; they are potential or latent in the germ cells. The last stage of our inquiry is as to the mode in which the action of habit or environment upon the somatic cells can be brought to bear upon the germ cells. The nature of the relation between the body cells and germ cells.—I have already shown that we are forced to infer that such a relation exists by the facts of evolution, although these facts show that the transmission of normal tendencies from the body to the germ cells is ordinarily an extremely slow process. Virchow* says every variation in race character is to be traced back to the pathological condition of the originator. All that is pathologi- ‘al is not diseased, and inheritance of a variation is not from the influ- ence upon one individual necessarily, but upon a row of individuals. This is in the normal condition of things. In the abnormal condition the rate of transmission may be accelerated. Does this transmission depend upon an interchange of material par- ticles, or upon an interchange of forces, or both? There are three phenomena about which there is much skepticism, to say the least, which bear upon the question of a possible interchange of forces between the body and the germ-cells. These are the inherit- ance of mutilations, the influence of previous fertilization, and the in- fluence of maternal impressions. They are all in the quasi-scientific realm, which embraces such mental phenomenaas telepathy. That is, we incline to deny them simply because we can not explain them. Mutilations.—Since the publication of Weismanw’s essays the sub- ject of inherited mutilations has attracted renewed interest. 1 would first call attention to the fact that this matter has only an indirect bear- ing, for a mutilation is something impressed upon the organism from without; it is not truly “ aequired;” the loss of a part by accident pro- duces a sudden but a less profound internal modification of the organism than the loss of a part by degeneration. Most of the results are nega- tive; many of the so-called ‘ certain” cases prove upon investigation to be mere coincidences. Weismann? himself experimented upon white mice, and showed that 901 young were produced by five generations of artificially mutilated parents, and yet there was not a single example of arudimentary tail or of any other abnormality in this organ. The cases of cleft ear lobule have recently been summed up.i Israel reports two cases of clefts in which the parent’s ears were normal. Sehmidt and be * «Ueber den Transformismus,” Archiv fie Anthropologie, 1888, p. 1. t Biological Memos, p. 432. {Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, 1891, p. 433. 352. PRESENT PROBLEMS IN EVOLUTION AND HEREDITY. Ornstein report affirmative cases. His shows that an affirmative case, cited by V. Zwieciki, is merely an inherited peculiarity. The entire evidence is unsatisfactory, and upon the whole, is decidedly negative. Not so however in cases where the mutilation results in a general disturbance of the normal functions of different organs, as in the ex- periments conducted by Brown-Séquard* upon guinea-pigs, in which we see “acquired variation” intensified. In these, abnormal degener- ation of the toes, muscular atrophy of the thigh, epilepsy, exophthal- Inia, etc., appeared in the descendants of animals in which the spinal cord or sciatic nerve had been severed, or portions of the brain removed. | It was also shown that the female is more apt to transmit morbid states than the male; that the inheritance of these injuries may pass over one generation and re-appear in the second; that the transmission by heredity of these pathological results may continue for five or six gen- erations, when the normal structure of the organs re-appears. These cases, Which are incontestable, at first sight appear to establish firmly . the transmission of acquired characters; they were so regarded by Brown-Séquard. These lesions act directly upon the organs, and the abnormal growth of these organs appears to be transmitted. But can they not be interpreted in another way, namely, that the pathological condition of the nerve centers has induced a direct disturbance in those portions of the germ cells which represent and will develop into the corresponding orgaus of the future offspring? Previous fertilization—Consider next the influence exerted upon the female germ cell by the mere proximity of the male germ cell, as exhibited in the transmission of the characteristics of one sire to the offspring of a succeeding sire, observed in animals, including the huinan species, also in plants. The best example is the oft-quoted case of Lord Morton’s mare, which reproduced in the foal of a pure Arab sire the zebra markings of a previous quagga sire. Some physiologistst have attempted to account for these remark- able indirect results from the previous fertilization or impregnation, by the imagination of the mother having been strongly. affected, or from interchange between the freely inter-communicating circulation of the embryo and mother, but the analogy from the action in plants (in which there is no gestation but early detachment and development of the fertilized cells) strongly supports the belief that the proximity of male germ cells acts directly upon the female cells in the ovary. All that we can deduce from these facts is that in some manner the normal characteristics and tendencies of the ova are modified by the foreign male germ cells without either contact or fertilization. Maternal impression.—The influence of maternal impressions in the * Comptes-Rendus, March 13, 1882. These experiments have been confirmed by Obersteiner. + See the cases cited by Ribot, and Darwin: Animals and Plants Under Domestica- or lion, vol. 1, p. 437° PRESENT PROBLEMS IN EVOLUTION AND HEREDITY. 353 causation of definite anomalies in the foetus is largely a matter of in- dividual opinion - It is denied by some high authorities, led by Bergman and Leuek- hart.* Most practitioners, however, believe in it, and I need hardly add that it is a universal, popular belief,f supported by numerous cases. I myself am a firm believer init. The bearing which the sub- ject has upon this discussion is this: If a deviation in the develop- ment of a child is produced by maternal impression, we have a proof that a deviation from normal hereditary tendencies can be produced without either direct vascular or nervous continuity. We see an analogy between the experiments of Brown-Séquard, the influence of the previous sire, and the maternal influence. Neither, in my opinion, directly supports the theory of transmission of acquired characters, for they do not prove that normal changes in the body cells directly react upon the germ cells; they all show that the typical hereditary development of single organs may be diverted by living forces which have no direct connection with them according to our present knowledge. What the nature of these forces is 1 will not undertake to say, but I believe we must admit the existence of some unknown force, or rather of some unknown relations between the body cells and germ cells. A year ago, recognizing fully the difficulty of advancing any theory ofheredity which would explain the transmission of acquired characters, I came to the following result: “It followsas an unprejudiced conclusion from our present evidence that upon Weismann’s principle we can explain inheritance but not evolution, while with Lamarck’s principle and Darwin’s selection principle we can explain evolution, but not, at present, inheritance. Disprove Lamarck’s principle and we must assume that there is some third factor in evolution of which we are now ignorant.” In this connection it is interesting to quote again from my colleague, Prof. E. B. Wilson. He writes that the tendency in Gerinany at present is to turn from speculation to empiricism, and this is due partly “to the feeling that the recent wonderful advances in our knowledge of cell phenomena have enormously increased the difticulties of a purely mecihanico-physical explanation of vital phenomena. In fact, if seems that the tendency is to turn back in the direction of the vital-force conception. - - - AS Boveri said to me recently, “Es gibt zu viel vorstand in der Natur win eine rein mechanische Erklirung der Sache zu erméglichen.” In the final lecture we turn to the forces exhibited in the germ cells. *Handerwirterbuch der Physiologie, Wagner, Artikel “ Zeugung,” Leuckhart. tSee Medical Record, October 31, 1891, an article by Joseph Drzewiecki, M. pD. H, Mis. 114-——25 354 PRESENT PROBLEMS IN EVOLUTION AND HEREDITY. LECTURE III.—HEREDITY AND THE GERM CELLS. According to the general law* the germ cell was considered as matter potentially alive and having within itself the tendency to as- sume a definite living form in course of individual development. The nucleus must be extraordinarily complex, for it contains within itself not only the tendencies of the present type, but of past types far distant. The supposition of a vast number of germs of structure is required by the phenomena of heredity; Nigeli has demonstrated that even in so minute a space as one one-thousandth cubic millimeter, 400,000,000 micelle must be present. The study of heredity will ultimately center around the structure and functions of the germ cells. The precise researches of Galton show that the external facts of heredity, questions of average and of proba- bilities, of paternal and maternal contributions to the offsprings, are capable of being reduced to an exact science in which mathematical calculations will enable us to forecast the characteristics of the coming generation. There will still remain however a large residuum of facts which will present themselves to a inathematician like Galton, as fortuitous, or in- exact, such as the physiological conditions of reversion; the course of pre-potency, by which the maternal or the paternal characteristics pre- vail in parts or in the entire structure of the offspring; the material basis of latent heritage upon which reversion depends, aud which ecom- pels us to hypothecate either an unused hereditary substance or a return to an older disposition of the forces in this substance; the nature and determination of sex. These apparently chance phenomena must also be due to certain fixed laws, and by far the most promising routes to discovery have already been taken by Van Beneden, the Hertwig brothers, Boveri, Maupas, and others. They have attacked the problem of the relation of the germ cells to the heredity on every side, and by the most ingenious and novel meth- ods, which are familiar enough in various branches of gross anatomical and physiological research, but seem almost out of the limits of applica- tion to minute microscopic objects. Hor example, the Hertwig brothers have ascertained the influence of various solutions of morphine and other drugs of the alcohols, and of the various degrees of temperature upon the ovum and spermatozoon during the conjugation period, with results which are highly suggestive of the causes of congenital mal- formations, anomalies, and double births. The Hertwigs and Boveri have succeeded in robbing ova of their nuclei and watching the results of the subsequent entrance of spermatozoa. In order to further test the relations of the nucleus to the remainder of the cell, Verworn has experimented along the same line with extirpations of every kind from the single cells of Infusoria. Of equal novelty are the recent studies of ‘See Huxley, Article ‘‘ Kvolution,” Lne. Britannica, vol. vill, p. 746. PRESENT PROBLEMS IN EVOLUTION AND HEREDITY. a) Maupas upon the multiplication and conjugation of the Infusoria, giv- ing us ahost of newideas as to the cycle of life, the meaning of sex, and the origin of the sexual relation. In all this research and in the future outlook there are two main questions: 1. What is the hereditary substance?) What is the material basis of heredity, which spreads from the fertilized ovmms to every cell in the body, conveying its ancestral characteristics? Is there any substance corresponding to the hypothetical idioplasm of Niigeli? 2. What are its regulating and distributing forces? How is the he- reditary substance divided and distributed? How far is it active or passive? I may say at the outset that the idioplasm of Nigeli, a purely ideal element of protoplasm which he conceived of as permeating all the tis- sues of the body as the vehicle of heredity, has been apparently mate- vialized in the chromatin or highly coloring materials in the center of the nucleus. This rests upon the demonstration by Van Beneden and others that chromatin is found not only in all active cells, but is a eon- spicuous element in both the ovum and spermatozoon during all the phenomena attending conjugation. Fic. 7.—TYPICAL CELL DIVISION, SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION OF CHROMATIN.—(From Parker after Carnoy.) A-C, arrangement of the chromatin in threads; D-E, formation of the chromatin rods and loops; F, splitting of the loops; G-H, retraction of the chromatin into the two daughter cells. Secondly, that while the chromatin is apparently passive, it is played upon by forces resident in the clear surrounding protoplasm of the nucleus, but chiefly by the extra nuclear archoplasm, which seems to constitute the dynamic and mechanical factor in each cell. This, un- like the chromatin, only comes into view when there is unusual activ- ity, aS during cell-division, and is not evident (with our present histo- logical technique, at least), when the cell is arrested by reagents in any of the ordinary stages of metabolism. The distribution of hereditary substance.—I may first review some of the well-known phenomena attending the distribution of the chro- matin substance to the tissues. 356 PRESENT PROBLEMS IN EVOLUTION AND HEREDITY. I have borrowed from Parker, figures by Carnoy, to illustrate the rest- ing and active stages of the cell, and from Watase, a Japanese student of Clark University, figures representing the high differentiation of the cell contents during division (Figs. 8,9). They bring out the active and passive elements of the typical cell. The phenomena of karyokinesis which attend the division and dis- tribution of the hereditary substance throughout the whole course of embryonic and adult development are well illustrated in Carnoy’s fig- ures (I-ig. 7). First we have the quiescent period, in which the chro- iG GEOR Re See Fic. 8.—BEFORE DIVISION. DIFFERENTIATION OF Fic. 9.—AFTER DIVISION. INTERIOR OF A DAUGHTER- THE CYTOPLASM AND NUCLEUS DURING CELL DIVI- CELL IN THE SQuID. (After Watase.) Division has SION OF ASQUID EMBRYO, LOLIGO. (After Watase). just taken place and the daughter nucleus, N, shows M, The nuclear membrane; F, Achromatin or the chromatin coil. The daughter centresome is nucleoplasm; C, Cyteplasm, or protoplasm out- just forming two new centrosomes, A-A, by direct side of the nucleus; A-A, The two centrosomes division. of archoplasm; B, Extra nuclear archoplasmic filaments; E, Intra-nuelear archoplasmic fila- meuts attached to 2, 2’, the chromatin rods. matin presents the appearance of a coiled, tangled thread; surround- ing this is the clear nucleo-plasm (or achromatin) bounded by the nu- clear membrane; the extra-nuclear substance, or cyto-plasm, is appar- ently undifferentiated. As soon as cell division sets in, however, ra- diating lines are seen in the cyto-plasm above and below the nucleus; these are called the archo-plasmie filaments by Boveri, since they pro- ceed irom what is now believed to be the dynamic element, the archo- plasm (Fig. 8). As the activity becomes more intense the filaments are seen to diverge from a center—the archo-plasmnic centrosome—which lies just without the nucleus at either pole; this radial display of cell forces suggested the term “asters” to Fol, and ‘‘spheres attractive” to Van Beneden. The behavior of the chromatin, or hereditary substance, PRESENT PROBLEMS IN EVOLUTION AND HEREDITY. 5Did under these archo-plasmic forces, is beautifully shown in Carnoy’s dia- grams (Fig. 7). First, the nuclear wall breaks up, then the chromatin coil unfolds into lines of vertical striation which become thread-like, hence the term mitosis, and then more compact, wntil finally a number of distinct vertical rods, chromatin rods, or chromasomes are tound. A remarkable and significant fact may be noted here, that the num- ber of chromasomes varies in the cells of different species, and even in the cells of different varieties (as in the thread-worm of the horse— Ascaris megalocephala), but is constant in all the cells of the same va- riety through all stages; thus the same number of chromasomes ap- pear in the first segmentation of the fertilized ovum as in the subse- quent cell division in the tissues. Carnoy next indicates the vertical splitting of each rod into a loop or link preceding the horizontal splitting; thus we may conceive of a thorough re-distribution of the chromatin before it passes into the daughter-cells. The split loops are each retracted toward a centro- some, suggesting to some authors a contractile power in the archo-plas- mie filaments, each chromasome being apparently withdrawn by a single filament. But as the chromasomes separate, the filaments also appear between them, and are variously termed ‘“interzonal,” ‘“verbin- dungs fiden,” “filaments réunissant;” there is therefore some differ- ence of opinion as to what the mechanies of the chromasome divisions really are. The chromatin is now retracted into two coiled threads, each the center of the daughter nucleus with a single centrosome be- side it. But as the tine of cleavage is drawn between the two cells (Fig. 9), the single centrosome in each cell divides so that each daughter-cell is now complete with its chromatin coil and two archo- plasmic centrosomes. This process has been beautifully described by Watase.* It thus appears that both the chromatin and archo-plasm are perma- nent elements of the cell, such as we formerly considered the nucleus; the apparently passive chromatin is divided with great precision by the active archo-plasm, then the archo-plasm simply splits in two to resume the cleavage function. Fertilization—the union of hereditary substances.—Before looking at the host of questions which fertilization suggests, let us review a few of the well-known phenomena preparatory to the union of the germ cells in order to give greater emphasis to the importance of recent dis- coveries, First, the ovum is a single cell, the typical structure of which, with its nucleus and cytoplasm, is generally obscured by a quantity of food- material, surrounded by a rather dense cell wall. The ovum is said to be ripened or “matured” for the reception of the spermatozodn, by the extrusion of two small “polar bodies,” containing both chromatin and *See Marine Biological Laboratory Lectures, 1889. Boston: Ginn & Co. 358 PRESENT PROBLEMS IN EVOLUTION AND HEREDITY. hyaline protoplasm, and separating off by karyokinetic division. After maturation is complete, a single spermatozobn normally penetrates; then a reaction immediately sets in in the cell wall of the ovum which prevents other spermatozoa from entering. The head of the spermato- zoon and the nucleus of the ovum now fuse together to form a single nucleus, which itis obvious contains the hereditary substance of two individuals. his is the starting point of the segmentation or distri- bution process above described, and it follows that the fertilized ovum at this stage must contain its typical complement of chromatin, archo- plasm, ete., for the whole course of growth to the adult. How shall we connect these phenomena of fertilization with the facts of heredity? The most suggestive enigma in connection with the fertilization process has been the meaning of the tivo polar bodies, especially since Van Beneden demonstrated that they contained chro- matin? Fortwenty-five years, speculation has been rife as to why the ovum should extrude a portion of its substance in two small cells; why not in one cell? why not in a larger number? Thanks to the intense curiosity which these polar bodies have aroused, and to the great va- riety of explanations which have been offered for them, we have ar- rived to-day at a solution which links the higher animals with the lower, breaks down the supposed barrier between the sexes, and ac- cords with the main external facts of heredity. It seems to me best to disregard the order of discovery, and to state the facts in the most direct way. TVirst, a few words as to the specu- lations upon the meaning of the polar bodies. The early views of fertilization* were naturally based upon the ap- parent significance of this process in the human species, in which the sexes are Sharply distinguished from each other in their entire struc- ture, and the reproductive cells are also widely differentiated in form, the ovum large and passive, the spermatozoon small and active. The readiest induction was to regard these elements as representing dis- tinct physiological principles, corresponding to the essential sexual characteristics—in short, as male and female cells, the former vitalizing and rejuvenating the latter. Thus one of the earliest definite ‘“polar- body” theories was that the ovum was hermaphrodite, containing both male and female principles, and that it was necessary to get rid of the male substance before the spermatozoon could enter. As Von Siebold and Leuckart had demonstrated that some ova re- produce parthenogenetically, that is without fertilization by spermato- zoa, Weismann turned to such forms for the solution of this problem, and was surprised to find that parthenogetic ova only extrude one polar body. Thisled him to attach one meaning to the first polar body, and another meaning to the second, which he viewed as designed to reduce the heredity substance in the ovum without regard to sex. Thus both this and the older theory conveyed alike the idea of redue- .., *See also the introduction of Weismann’s last essay, ““Amphimixis.” PRESENT PROBLEMS IN EVOLUTION AND HEREDITY. 359 sion, but with an entirely different supposition as to the nature of the material reduced or eliminated. Maupas on Conjugation among the Infusoria.*—Among the newer researches which throw light upon this old problem, those of Maupas are certainly the most brilliant. After a most exact and arduous re- search, extending over several years, he collected his results in two memoirs, published in 1889 and ie His experiments were first directed upon the laws of direct multi- plication by fission, which revealed a complete cycle of life in the single- celled Infusoria and showed that after a long period this mode of reproduction becomes less vigorous, then declines, and finally ceases altogether unless the stock is rejuvenated by conjugation of individ- uals from different broods. In other words, these broods of minute organisms grow old and die unless they are enabled to fertilize each other by an exchange of hereditary substance altogether analagous to that observed in the higher multicellular organisms. The cultures were made in a drop of water upon a slide, and teeding yas adapted either to the herbivorous or carnivorous habits of the species. Under these conditions it was found that the rate of fission or direct multiplication varied directly with the temperature and food, rising in some species (Glaucoma scintillans) to five bipartitions daily. With the optimum of conditions this rate, if sustained for thirty-eight days, would produce from a single individual a mass of protoplasm equivalent to the volume of the sun. This rate is however found to be steady for a time, and then the offspring decline into “senescence,” in which they appear at times only one-fourth the original size, with reduced buccal wreaths and degenerate nuclear apparatus. Tine is reached sooner in some species than in others; Stylonichia pustulata survives three hundred and sixteen generations or fissions, while Lew- cophrys patula persists to six hundred and sixty generations. Finally, even under the most favorable conditions of environment, death ensues, Not so where conjugation is brought about by mingling the offspring of different broods in the same fluid, as in the natural state. Maupas soon discovered that exhaustion of food would induce conjunction be- tween members of mixed broods. He thus could watch every feature of the conjugation process, aud determine all the phases in the cycle of life. These differed, as in the longevity of the species. In Stylonichia, for example, ‘“‘ immaturity” extended over the first one hundred bipar- titions: “puberty,” or the earliest phase favorable to conjugation, set in with the one hundred and thirtieth bipartition; ‘““eugamy,” or the most favorable conjugation phase, extended to the one hundred and seventieth; then senescence” set in, characterized by a sexual hyper- esthesia in which conjugation was void of result or rejuvenesence, owing appareitly to the destruction of the essential nuclear appar atus. *Sur Ja multiplication des Infusoires C iliés, Archiv. de Zoilogic experimentata, Ser. 2, vol. VI., pp. 165-273; Le Rajeunissement Karyogamique ches les Ciliés, vol. Vu, pp. 149-517. See also Hartog, Quart. Jour. Microscop. Science, December, 1891. 360 PRESENT PROBLEMS IN EVOLUTION AND HEREDITY. Conjugation begins with the approach of two individuals, and adhe- sion by their oral surfaces. There is no fusion, but an immediate trans- formation in the cell contents of each individual sets in, concluding m, micronucleus; e other; 1, Two infusoria copulating; 17, meganucleus; 1e persisting micronuclei from each infusorian into th ‘e(l micronuclei. ’ S nn, after Maupas.) 7, Union of the interchang ’ : (From Weis ONJUGATION OF INFUSORIA. -5, Successive divisious of micronuclei; 6, The ] 9 “ Fig. 10.—TEE ( with an interchange of nuclear substance. In each cell Maupas dis- tinguishes between the (2) mcganucleus (Fig. 10, the macronucleus, nucleus, endoplast of authors), which presides over nutrition and PRESENT PROBLEMS IN EVOLUTION AND HEREDITY. 361 growth and divides by constriction, and the (im) micronucleus (paranu- cleus, nucleolus, of authors), which presides over the preservation of the species. The latter contains chromatin; it is the seat of rejuve- nescence, the basis of heredity, it divides by mitosis, showing all the typical stages of karyokinesis excepting the loss of the cell membrane. The transformation in each of these copulating cells first affects the centers of hereditary substance, viz, the micro-nuclei; they divide three times; thus the micronuclear substance is reduced to one-fourth of its original bulk. It is contained in two surviving micronuclei (the others being absorbed or eliminated). one of which migrates into the adjoin- ing cell; the other remains stationary. This migration is followed by a fusion of the migrant and stationary micronuclei; this fusion effects a complete interchange of hereditary substance, after which the two in- fusoria separate and enter upon a new life cycle. Meanwhile the me- ganucleus breaks up and is reconstituted in each fertilized cell. Maupas gathers from these interesting phenomena additional proof that the chromatin of all cells bears the inherited characteristics and that the eyto-plasm and nucleo-plasm, or achromatin, is the dynamic agent, because the micronuclei bearing the chromatin are the only struet- ures which are permanent and persistent, all the other structures— nucleo-plasm, archo-plasm, ete.—being replaced and renewed. The re- duction of the chromatin is purely quantitative, the eliminated and fer- tilizing micronuclei being exactly equivalent; after the chromatin has been quartered the cell becomes incapable of further activity until it is reinforced by chromatin from the copulating cell. No distinction between the sexes in heredity.—The three laws which underlie these phenomena are: (1) That fertilization consists in the union of the hereditary substance of two individuals. (2) That before the union the hereditary substance in each is greatly reduced. (3) That there is no line between male and female, the conjugating cells are simply in a similar physiological condition wherein a mingling of hereditary characteristics affords a new lease of life. As Maupas says: “Les différences appelées sexuelles portent sur des faits et des phénomenes purement accessoires de la fécondation. La fécondation consiste uniquement dans la réunion et la copulation de deux noyaux semblables et équivalents, mais provenus de deux cellules distinetes.” In this conclusion as to the secondary and superficial, rather than fundamental, difference between the two sexes, Maupas simply con- firms the views of Strassburger, the botanist, Hensen, R. and O. Hert- wig, Weismann, and others, namely, that sex has evolved from the necessity of cell conjugation; that even in the higher forms the cells born by the two sexes are absolutely neutral so far as sex is concerned, the wide difference of form of the germ cells is a result of physiological division of labor—the mass and yolk of the ovum having been differ- entiated to support the early stages of development while the sperma- tozoon has dispensed with all these accessories and acquired an active 362 PRESENT PROBLEMS IN EVOLUTION. AND HEREDITY. vibratile form for its function of reaching and penetrating the ovum. The evidence of the Infusoria is paralleled among some of the plants, in which conjugation between entirely similar cells is observed. The causes finally determining sex may come surprisingly late in development, and according to the investigations of Diising and the experiments of Yung* and of Giron are directly related to nutrition. High feeding favors an increase of the percentage of females, while, conversely, low feeding increases the males. In Yung’s experiments with tadpoles the following results were obtained: | Females.) Males. Normal percentage sacensee te sieiceemeeecicnces 57 | 43 ER Shen tbEr GLO Meera ere ae ee islet ae ee ere 92 8 Geddes expresses this principle in physiological terms of metabolism, that anabolic (constructive) conditions produce females, while katabolic (destructive) conditions produce males. I think we may now safely eliminate the factor of sex from our cal culations upon the problem of heredity, and thus rid ourselves of one of the oldest and most widespread fallacies. We shall thus, in using the terms “paternal” and ‘“‘maternal” imply merely the distinction between two lines of family descent. The theory of reduction.—This leads us back to the significance of the polar bodies. Van Beneden’s discovery that these bodies con- tained chromatin led gradually to the view that they were not frag- ments of the ova, but represented minute, morphologically complete cells. Biitschli showed that they were given off independently of, and prior to, the contact of the spermatozoon, and, finding in the leeches that the first polar body subdivides to form two bodies, he considered them as formed by true cell division, and containing both nucleoplasm and chromatin. Giard independently reached a similar opinion, as- signing an atavistic meaning to the polar cells. Whitman, in 1878, advanced the idea that they represented vestiges of the primitive mode of reproduction by fission, while Mark described them as ‘“abor- tive ova.” At this pomt speculation subsided until it was revived by Weis- mani’s attempt to connect these bodies with his theory of heredity,t already referred to. The whole history is clearly given in R. Hert- wig’s masterly memoir upon Ovo and Spermatogenesis in the Nema- todes.t Taking advantage of Boveri’s discoveries in staining teeh- “See Geddes and Thomson: 7he Evolution of Sex, 1891; also, Diising: Die Regu- lierung des Geschlechtsyverhiilinisses bei d. Vermehrung der Menschen, Tiere und Pilanzen, Jen. Zeit. f. Natur., Bd. 17, 1884. tOn the Number of Polar Bodies and their Significance in Heredity, 1887. {Ei und Samenbilauig bei Nemutoden, Arehiv. f. Mikr. Anat., Bd. 26, 1890. PRESENT PROBLEMS IN EVOLUTION AND HEREDITY. 363 nique, and stimulated by Weismanni’s prediction that spermatozoa would also be found to extrude polar bodies, this author examined all stages in the peculiarly favorable germ cells of the thread-worm of the horse (Ascaris megalocephala). He made the surprising discovery that ova and spermatozoa are formed in a substantially similar manner by repeated divisions, the single difference being that the last products of division among the sperm cells are effective spermatozoa, capable of development in fer- tilization, while the last products of division in the ovary are, first THE MATURATION OF OVA, OR FORMATION OF POLAR BODIES IN ASCARIS. (From Weismann afte Hertzwig.) | Z ae Ornis, V1. | 1888/(—1889) | Three numbers of communications of the ornithological commit- tee of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, prepared by Sundstrém and Smitt, contain the observations made by 107 correspondents im Sweden during recent years up to 1886. From the Russian Baltie provinces, especially Livonia, E. yon Mid- dendorff has sent three annual reports, 1885-87 (Ornis). Abstracts of the phenological observations made in Finland have been published by Ad. Moberg (Ofv. Finska Vet. Soc. Forh.) for a num- ber of years; and in the years 187889, arrival data in tabular form for 12 species of birds at 34-68 stations have been published. The re- mainder is still being prepared for publication; also a comprehensive material of observations which were sent to the writer in reply to a summons of the year 1885. Out of this material, only a few local faunas have been published by way of preliminary. We may here remark that in most of the other countries of Europe and in some isolated states out of Europe, it has been resolved in prin- ciple to join the above mentioned efforts, and some observations are at hand ready for printing, while in others the way has been prepared for this accession only by a few calls to the friends of the birds. The investigations on the migration of birds in Great Britain have, as is known, taken a form consonant with the insular character of the territory. At the instance of the British Ornithologists’ Union and with co-operation of the British Association for the advancement of Science, observations were commenced at most of the British light-houses and REPORT ON THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 385 light-ships. Yearly notices have been sent in from LOO or 150 of these stations since the year 1879, and a committee named by the association (J. Cordeaux, J. A. Harvie-Brown, A. Newton, R. M. Barrington, A. G. More, W. Eagle Clarke, and others) has looked after the publication of in- dividual observations in nine ** Reports on the Migration” (.879-1887), as well as in a brief report which has been made annually to the agso- ciation. Already in 1882 these notices proved tne wonderful coustaney with which the birds of passage year after year follow the same lines or great routes when they approach or abandon the British coasts, and this constancy points to a definite law governing the whole phenome- non. ‘Two separate migrations may be distinguished: the great periodi- cal waves which sweep from the breeding places in the far northeast and return; and further, quite independent of these, a constant stream of immigrants, which moves from the continent toward the south- eastern and eastern coasts of England, across the southern part of the North Sea in the direction of east to west or from southeast to north- west. On the other hand, the west coasts, and especially Ireland, are comparatively seldom visited by these birds of passage. Nevertheless, the stream of inigration (18386) does not strike equally all points on the east coast of England, but appears constantly to follow fixed lines. For example, the Farne islands on the coast of Northumberland, as also the mouth of the river Tee, appear to be prin- cipal stations for the passage over the North Sea; likewise certain parts of the coasts further to the south. To the north of Norfolk, the migratory birds appear to penetrate through the Wash into the interior of England toward Severn, Bristol Channel, and still further westward. It is further pointed out that the vertical height at which the flights take place must be accurately noted*, and that the light-ships appear to yield a better series of observations than the light-houses. It was also ascertained that only certain species were attracted by the light, and those in an unequal manner. The special direction and force of the wind (1887) appears to exert only a small influence on the great autumn rushes; but the direction of the wind which prevails during the passage in general, seems to play a more important part,—the direction of the journey and the angle of the route to the coast being to a great extent dependent upon it. A large part of the birds of passage are in autumn driven far out on the Atlantic Ocean, Observations on the subject ave noted on the most frequented lines of communication, and also made over to the committee. The more the published material accumulated, the more desirable it seemed to utilize the whole mass in forming conelusions. This was already referred to in the report for the year 1887. It was further pro- * Compare also on this subject Albarda, Ornis, 1, pp. 592-504. Hi, Mis. 114 (9 bx mAD) 356 REPORT ON THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS. posed, in the year 1888, that the collecting of observations should be stopped temporarily, that the immense mass of facts in the nine re- ports, arranged in concise form, statistically, and in strictly scientific manner, might be treated as briefly and clearly as possible, in order to attain practical scientific results. his proposal was accepted by the British Association in the year 1888, and a member of the commit- tee, Mr. W. Eagle Clarke, charged with the duty of directing the com- prehensive undertaking. The British example exerted a deep influence on the First Interna- tional Ornithological Congress in the year 1884. Through the efforts of the authorities of the permanent ornithological committee of the Congress, the wish was communicated to as many state governments as possible that the passage of the birds might be observed at the light- houses. The authorities of these institutions are also charged to ad- vance the question as much as possible, from the White Sea to the Cas- pian. The lght-house officers on wide tracts of the coasts of South Asia, certain parts of Africa, Australia, and South America are in the Same manner called upon to make observations. As yet, however, we have but few printed reports from the light- houses, except from Great Britain. These few are the ones above men- tioned from Denmark, 188689, and two reports on bird life at the Ger- man light-houses, published by R. Blasius (Ornis, VI, VII). In North America the investigations relating to the migration of birds have assumed quite an independent form and reached considera- ble dimensions. In the year 1882 Prof. W. W. Cooke took the initiative with a sys- tematic observation of the migration of birds, at first in the State of Iowa, butlaterin the whole Mississippi Valley. Thirteen observers were at work the first year and twenty-six in the year 1885. But after the American Ornithologists’ Union had been organized in September of the last-named year, it appointed a committee for the investigation of the geographical distribution of the birds of North America, as also another for the investigation of the migration of birds. The two were however consolidated later on. By the co-operation of this committee with Prot. Cooke, the investigations were continued systematically un- der the direction of Dr. C. H. Merriam. The whole territory was di- vided into fourteen, later sixteen, districts, each under a superintend- ent; and for the year 1884 thousands of question-sheets and instructions were communicated to members of the most different social groups, as well as to all light-houses and other public institutions. As it was to be expected that the homogeneous territory of the Mississippi Valley, in consequence of its immense extent from north to south, and the absence of mountain range or great lakes, would afford a particularly favorable field for the investigation of migra- tion, the observations coming from there for 1884 and 1885 were taken in special charge by Prof. Cooke. REPORT ON THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 387 In the meantime, the observations colleeted had reached such a quantity that it did not seem judicious to expect the Union alone to elaborate the material. At its instance, a special Division of Eeo- nomic Ornithology was established by the Congress of the United States in the Department of Agriculture, at first under the Division of Entomology, and with an annual subsidy of $5,000. Since the year 1886 it has operated as a separate Division of Economie Orni- thology and Mammalogy, with an annual appropriation of $10,000. Economically supported in this manner, and under direction of Dr. ©. H. Merriam, the prosperity of the institution is assured. In the year 1888 the Division issued a most excellent publication on the migration of birds: Report on Bird Migration in the Missis- sippl Valley in the years 1884 and 1885, by W. W. Cooke. In this work are submitted the data which 170 observers collected respecting 560 species of birds. The author also shows his method of investi- gating the relations of the phenomenon of migration to the prevailing meteorological phenomena, by which method he has extensively utilized the synoptically grouped observations of the meteorological stations existing in the territory The old experience that weather exerts an important influence on migration was now definitely confirmed. Prof. Cooke proved that the atmospheric centers of depression, moving from west to east in thespring, according tothe laws of meteorology, and which are characterized by cor- responding phenomena of wind and temperature, produce in every re- gion changing relations of temperature, namely, alternate warm and cold periods, which changes are accompanied by definite migration phenomena. A “warm wave” in the atmosphere of the region in question is also a necessary condition for the beginning of a ‘bird wave,” “migration wave,” whose further progress is checked by the occurrence of a cold period until a new warm wave again pushes it forward and gives rise to others. Prot. Cooke specifies the time of these waves for the period chosen (188+) and for the territory in question. He expressly states that his investigation, on account of certain circumstances, is not a complete one, and that such a series of observations must be well prepared, and carried out besides under favorable conditions. ‘ Under such adverse conditions no attempt would have been made to study the bird waves were it not for the extreme importance of the subject. It is during the nights of bird waves that the bulk of migration takes place. To study migration successfully it must be studied when most active. More- over, it ison bird waves that the action of the weather is most appar- ent; hence these waves furnish the readiest means of studying the re- lation between meteorology and migration. The greatest drawback is met with in the difficulty of aceurateiy observing and reporting bird waves. It is by far the hardest part of the field work in the study of migration, and requires more time and more constant presence in the field than most observers can give,” 388 REPORT ON THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS. It is further pointed out by Prof. Cooke that the expression “ bird wave” may be taken in a double sense, and consequently answers to two methods of investigation. First, a bird wave comprises a very large number of individuals of one or of several species, which extend at one time over a certain territory. In studying such a wave it is necessary to determine the species of which the moving mass is com- posed and the bounds of the territory over which the wave extends. Second, certain species of birds which are proved to move in company on the same day may also be regarded as a wave, whose progress from day to day and from week to week must be accurately observed. By a critical study of these points of view and by a conscientious use of the meteorological and ornithological observations which em- brace a precise time and a precise region, the rapidity of the migra- tion, on which so much has heretofore been written, can be calculated. Only by attentive observation and multifarious labor can the migration be followed until the moving flocks have reached their resting places. It is evident that Prof. Cooke’s investigation of migration over a long continuous route, apart from all unavoidable shortcomings, must be particularly adapted to elucidate migration with respect to its course and its outward conditions; and that it is very desirable that similar Investigations may henceforth be undertaken in suitable regions. This course is opposed however by the difficulty of finding a suffi- cient number of capable observers. Prof. Cooke has been able to rely in essential degree upon one conscientious and expert observer, Mr. O. Widmann, of St. Louis, whose methodically arranged notices he submits in his work. In this connection the writer will only quote the words of a competent judge: ‘A dozen observers like Mr. Widmann, scattered at proper intervals, would give a fairer basis for generalizations than hundreds of observers of the grade on whom Prof. Cooke was obliged to depend for many of his data. This should stimulate the more experienced and well qualified field ornithologists to contribute to the fullest degree possible to the furtherance of this important investigation.—J. A. Allen, The Auk, 1889, v1, p. 61.” The continued meteorological phenomena were rendered in the usual manner by synoptical maps, which alone made a view possible, and es- sentially facilitated the study of the influence of weather on the migra- tion of birds. It may not therefore be injudicious to here refer to an attempt to represent graphically the migration of birds and the com- position of the avi-fauna, changing with the season, as Mr. W. Stone has proposed (Awk, v1, p. 159). Besides this material of observations, made chiefly with a view to explaining the problem of bird migration, numerous faunal works have appeared—iminor local catalogues, and comprehensive works on the birds of larger definite geographical areas, prepared with con- scientiousness and intimate knowledge. No one perhaps can value these avifaunal works more highly than the writer, with regard to their REPORT ON THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 389 importance for the determination of the migration routes, External circumstances forbid us to notice all these works here, although they may be worth it, like those of Radde, Pleske, Olph-Galliard, Oustalet, Dresser, and others, and notwithstanding they contain many single re- sults, many valuable thoughts on bird migration. On the other hand, it seems proper to here call attention to some special investigations on bird migration in certain regions, founded on avifaunal material. Some places have long been known in the western portion of our continent where migrating birds collect in crowds because obstacles situated on the side, like seas, allow a passage here only; or, like mountain regions, only here leave the door open. Such highways have been examined farther eastward in regions which are important for the migration between great districts. From his comprehensive observations in the years 1857—79 in the Aral-Thian-Shan region, N. Severtzow has given us (bull. des Nat. Mos- cow, 1880,) a very brief view of the highways where the greatest mmmbers of birds of passage congregate. He designates cartograph- ically three groups of such routes: A, through the Kirgheez steppes, from the river Ural to the Sir, characterized by the enormous number of merely passing birds; B, along the western border of the Thian- Shan mountains, distinguished by a tolerably large migration, and by the cireumstance that the native summer birds give way to winter guests; and C, through the interior portions of the range mentioned, known chiefly by the annual change of species just alluded to. The wintering on the routes B and C is owing to the warm springs existing there. Severtzow mentions further the connection of the routes named with the known migration routes along the Irtish and the Ob on the one side; on the other with their presumptive continuations in Persia, Afghanistan, Punjab, and in the region of the Indus. He designates the Altai as a region whence the migration routes diverge: in the southwest toward Russian Turkestan; in the south towards the des- ert; and in the southeast towards China. The movement of the birds of passage in a vertical direction from the highland of Thian-Shan and Pameer towards the low grounds is also suggested by him. Referring to the details to be specified later, Severtzow here coni- municates some general points of view (pp. 282-254). The course of the steppe routes depends on the existence and situation of the waters in them. On the other hand, the general extent of the lofty Thian- Shan range compels the flocks moving ata short distance from it to follow a general direction from east northeast to west southwest; therefore, great masses of birds of passage are pressed together on the western border of the range (Tschemkend-Tashkend), while these masses can spread out again to the northward, as also to the south- ward. 390 REPORT ON THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS. “This divergence toward the north (more or less considerable) de- pends essentially upon the fact that each species has its particular routes, the direction of which is modified according to the nature of the localities which suit this species, and which it seeks also during its migrations, at least for stopping places; and for this reason the migra- tion routes even of a single species, starting from different parts of the region which it inhabits in summer, are not parallel, but for many species convergent towards the south, for many others divergent. This applies much more forcibly to the routes of a number of species which, in the season of migration, concentrate in some locality par- ticularly abundant in birds of passage.” The author therefore categorically maintains that the individual species, according to their peculiarities, are dependent on the topo- graphical relations of the territory through which they migrate, and that the routes of each species accordingly assume a_ particular geographical form. In the same spirit Prof. Menzbier also reports (1886, Bull. Soe. Nat. Moscow) on the results of his investigations on the migration routes of the birds in European Russia. He unconditionally joins those inquirers who maintain that each species moves along peculiar, strongly marked routes, because during the migration they are de- pendent upon the condition of the country through which they happen to be passing. He agrees in dividing the routes according to their topographical character into categories, which, however, are compli- cated by transitions. He also lays stress upon the fact (pp. 333, 351) that the relations of the ground and the conditions of procuring food do not always suffice to explain the situation of these routes; but that the routes mark fairly well the ways along which a species has once migrated, and that about the same ways are still utilized as a result of inherited tendency. (Compare on this subject the writer’s Zugstr., cap. X, as also Weismann. ) Menzbier furthermore refers (p. 354) to the importance of the spring stragglers (compare Palmeén, Zugstr., ix, p. 238 st seq.), which under favorable circumstances may remain in a region where they have ar- rived by chance, and, nesting there, may change the bird fauna in a characteristic manner, Finally the author discusses the order of migration of the individuals, and appears to fayer the belief that they change their relative positions (Voriiberzug). In conclusion, he de- clares that migration routes in the course of time, in consequence of geological changes in the topography, may pass from the compass of one group into that of another, To these results, which agree with those of the writer, Prof. Menzbier adds corrections of some of my statements and conclusions, which are worthy of acknowledgment. The conclusions: reached in the years 187476 respecting the migration routes were founded on facts which REPORT ON THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 591 certainly suffice in a measure for the western and central portions of Europe, but not for European and Asiatic Russia. The more abundant material of observations now available from the latter continental dis- tricts shows that the conclusions based mainly on the oro-hydrographie conditions in the West do not fully answer for the more eastern parts of the palewarctic region, where the ground takes another form. Many species of birds (for example, Hamatopus, Strepsilas, Totanus calidris, Limosa rufa, Phalacrocorax carbo), which in western Europe migrate along the seashore, breed and migrate also in the interior of continental Russia, along rivers, salt lakes, and on the steppes. Harelda glacialis moves regularly along the Kama and the Volga, as well as behind the Ural, along the lakes—is even said to nest here—and winters on the Cespian Sea. These birds belong, therefore, in the East, to the group submarino fluvio-lacustres. Accordingly, Prof. Menzbier distributes the birds of passage in some- what different manner. He thinks that glacial littoral routes do not exist,* and groups the accepted routes also in another manner in the (lifferent categories. The following table shows the respective arrange- nents of the last-named writers: Palmén, 187476. Menzhbier, 1886. A. View (aves) migr. aqr. 1. pelagica. Il. litorales. Ll. View (aves) marine litorales, a. glaciales-lit. b. pelagicw-lit. a. pelagice-lit. c. marine-lit. b, marine-lit. 2. View (aves) continentales and submarina litorales. c. submarine-lit, 1. submarine-lit. 2 fe BEY 1d. subm.-fluvio-lacustres, ee hasiatilesctat ( ¢. Muvio-lacustres. 7 : iis flurio-litorale iy III. Palustres. gy. palustres. B. View (aves) miqr. terrestres. g IV. Various groups not distinguished. h. continentales. After Prof. Menzbier has in this way considered and grouped his mi- eration routes from the standpoint of their peculiar topographical char- acter, he dicusses them with regard to their geographical position. The author designates on two maps the routes of Kuropean Russia found by him, basing his work on his considerably greater material from that country—greater because new observations were at his dis- posal, and above all because he has brought more southern species also within the scope of his investigation. The question therefore is less about routes of individual species, for the author himself says (p.520) he has paid little attention to such. *His report of my division of the category ‘‘viw pelagicw” (p. 6) is not correct. 392 REPORT ON THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS. than about routes of communication (highways), which lead certain groups of inigratory birds from their habitats in European Russia to their winter stations. This already appears from the names of the routes: Vie norwegica, Via baltica, Via pontica, Via caspica. These all follow, at least partially, greater bodies of water, but receive their supplies also from the interior of the country. All the ways on the first map correspond more or less directly to the routes which are settled upon in the writer’s work. On the other hand, Prof. Menzbier’s representation contains entirely new assertions about the continental routes (map 2). According to the writer’s method—but without giving fully the material of observa- tion, which is now indispensably necessary—he has studied the habi- tats of 13 eastern species of birds with reference to their geograph- ical distribution, and finds this explicable only by the assumption of certain migration routes, which he designates upon the map without claiming to have thereby exhausted the question (p. 349). In the text, he completes their continuation towards the east. The routes are pro- vided with names in the same sense as those before mentioned: (1) Via sibirica begins in the northern half of European Russia and passes in an easterly direction through the Siberian plains, on one side to the sources of the Ob and Irtish, on the other side to Lake Baikal, along the northern slope of the Ekta-Altai, out of Dauria in a straight direc- tion towards Urga, and through Gobi to the Ala-Shan. A branch goes besides to the Kuku-nor. Individuals for example of Emberiza aureola from European Russia might winter in southern China, and those from southeastern Siberia might pass through southern China to winter in East India. (2) Via turkestanica also leads from the northern half of European Russia and from western Siberia, but towards the southeast, between the Caspian Sea and the Thian-Shan (therefore in part Sev- ertzow’s highways), to the winter quarters in northwestern and central India. (3) Via transcaspia, (partly coinciding with V. caspia), leads to winter quarters on the southern side of the Caspian Sea and the steppes lying to the east of it, as well as probably to the upper Oxus and the sources of the Indus. In eastern Asia this way might in part co- incide with the Via sibirica, (4) Via anatolica leads out of the Kirgheez and Calmuck steppes to the Black Sea, through the Bosphorus to Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, and northern Arabia, As a matter of course, Prof. Menzbier has founded these assertions on the material which was at his disposal. The facts themselves were, however, as before stated, not laid before the reader in detail, but in short abstracts, accordingly all his conclusions relating to the posi- tion and the ramifications of these routes are withdrawn from all con- trol, and from any improvement in consequence of newly discovered facts. It is therefore quite impossible for the writer to judge scien- tifically these routes of Prof. Menzbier. Only personal opinions, formed according to analogies. can be entertained on this subject; and the REPORT ON THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 393 writer will by 10 means pass off his objections as critically weighed refutations. These continental ways appear to me in a great part very doubtful. The routes from west to east especially are of an enormous length, like that from the Dwina to South China, lead entirely through the interior of a continent, without the guidence of a homogeneous well characterized conformation of soil, and touch alternately great forest, desert, and mountain regions. It is difficult to conceive how birds of passage could find their way on this route. It seems much more prob- able that we know too little just now about the occurrence of the species examined, some of which are difficult to distinguish, and that their winter stations are eventually to be sought much nearer, at the most in the regions whither Severtzow’s routes lead. Im the meantime, I will not venture upon a scientific judgment in this respect until the author submits the facts on which his opinions are based. After this short statement of the development of the question of the migration of birds, the writer takes the liberty to cast a retrospective view upon it. In the study of the migration of birds, two kinds of material for investigation present themselves—the avi-phenological and the avi-faunal observations. Since the first-named were collected for this very purpose, it was at first thought that the investigation should be commenced on this side. The avi-phenologica! material explains the times of migration, and from these results an attempt was made to infer the directions of the migration. Nevertheless these results ap- peared too inexact to serve as a starting point for further investiga- tions. Anattempt was therefore made to take the opposite course, first to fix the migration routes from the avi-faunal material, and after- ward to employ the method just mentioned with regard to the times of migration. An attempt to fix geographically the routes of some species of birds proved that the question could be advanced in this way. The need for more abundant material now made itself felt, and new observations were zealously collected year after year in different countries. It must be conceded that at present very considerable energy is devoted to the investigation of the distribution of birds and of the secrets of their migration. The annual reports, which contain obser- vations from numerous stations, are multiplying. This gratifying increase in the material of facts which are to extend and deepen our knowledge of migration. is characteristic of the ornithological inquiry of the past years. It is to be desired that these efforts may continue and may be further completed, and that in consequence the quantity of material shall go on increasing. Nevertheless the condition of af- fairs may also examined and judged from another side. In such investigations the quantity of observations will certainly not alone decide the question. The material is also to be treated scientifically. The inner connection of the facts and their fitness to 394 REPORT ON THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS. form a basis for conclusions must be tested, in order that we may judge whether the method adopted is adequate or whether it can be com- pleted in any way. It seems high time to consider the matter from this point of view also, if the scientific character of the investigation, and with it its pur- pose also, is not to be laid at stake. That this conception is shared by others we know from the fact that the result of nine years of British observations is now subjected to scientific treatment whose results will surely advance our question; further, from the fact that in North America, in a region where the conditions of the ground offer only small difficulties to the judgment of the direction of migration, an investigation of the time of migration and of the relation of the migration to the meteorological conditions has been undertaken, which has disclosed new points of view. The systematic observation of bird migration along certain lines, started in Hungary in the year 1890, and a statement of which is expected on occasion of the Second International Ornithological Congress in Buda- Pesth, also affords proof that we are not now satisfied with mere obser- vations alone, but want these used scientifically, and that hereby new demands will surely be made of the observation in future. Because therefore at present the existence of geographically fixed routes for the individual species is becoming more and more acknowl- edged, and these are to be determined from the material at hand, it seems timely to discuss the question according to the method to be employed. Two different methods seem to present themselves, both of which have their advantages and disadvantages: (1) The migration routes of all the species of a certain district are examined by the investi- gators of that district and reproduced cartographically: (2) One species for itself is examined monographically in the largest possible geographi- cal area and reproduced cartographically. The first method offers many advantages. The workers concerned are masters of the language of the district, and the entire local litera- ture is accessible to them, even to the most insignificant writings. They can judge of the reliability of the observers at each station, exer- cise a final control, and complete certain points by correspondence. At all events the native inquirers will thus be able to more completely group all the facts from a given country, as well as to watch over them critically. In the second case the monographer can study more closely the species treated by him, then special variations, their nature, as well as also the specific peculiarities of their flight. He will perceive more read- ily the difference in the flight during the successive sections of the route, or on different routes; in short, the route as a whole can be judged in a more exhaustive manner. In the first method the following disadvantage becomes apparent: that in every country, unless it is a very large country, we get only REPORT ON THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 395 fragments of migration routes, which perhaps can not be brought into continuity with those of the neighboring regions. On the other hand, difficulties will arise in the second case regarding the use of the literary sources of information. It would seem therefore the most practical, if by a combination of the two methods the advantage of each could be kept in view. In a practical view, it would be advantageous if in every country all accessible data on the occurence of all the species met with in the region should be brought together into a national avifauna, in which details also could be accurately specified in concise form. Although the writer by no means under-rates the importance of such a work to the population of the country itself, yet attention must be called to the general advantage which science might derive from the translation of such a work into other modern languages. As a model work of this kind, I take the liberty to name Pleske’s Ornithographia Rossica. It would also be very much to the purpose if at the same time the habitat of the individual species could be indicated cartographically, as has already been done in Germany and Switzerland. By such work the investigation of migration routes would be greatly facilitated. The more complete the material at hand, the more suitable appears the method of determining the route of each species for itself. At least the writer would unconditionally give the preference to this method. Finally we come to the question of the distribution of the work. The writer takes the liberty to urge once more that a choice be made of species to be investigated, because at present we are still at the thresh- old of the investigation, and it seems advantageous to first take up the less difficult species. Among all the categories of birds of passage, the littoral without doubt move along the routes easiest to be deter mined. Among the continental, on the other hand, those which avoid high mountains, like the swallows and their congeners, might be easier to study, One more division of work appears to me advisable. Since every in- quirer is specially interested in the species of his own country, it might be suitable for the northerners to investigate their species with regard to all their migration routes, the southerners in like manner theirs; fur- ther, that the eastern species of the paliearctic region should be taken up by those who are masters of the literature relating to them. That the chief interest of the Americans is directed towards their own species, they have already proved by the fact. In ascertaining the migration routes of a species, it would be indis- pensably necessary to record all facts which contributed to the result; then only can the conclusion drawn from such premises, the migration route, claim real validity. The cartographic representation of the ma- terial, when at all possible, is highly to be recommended. A model procedure for the investigation of the individual species can not be prescribed. It is rather to be expected that each inquirer will 396 REPORT ON THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS. learn something from the practical methods of the others. The manner of representation will then develop of its own accord. In conclusion, it is hardly necessary to call attention to the fact that a very inviting field of inquiry, in the same direction as that entered upon by Prof. Cooke in America, is open to those ornithologists who are sufficiently versed in practical meteorology. It is however to be foreseen that the phenomenon will be much more complicated in Eu- rope, and that for this reason the investigation is to be commenced with those species whose routes have already been fixed geographically with some degree of certainty. (Face page 396.) Smithsonian Report, 1892.—Part 1. ‘ TAN IN WIRES b] -LITTORAL, BIRDS IN EUROPE; IN UEBER DIE ZUGSTRASSEN DER SECTION FROM PALMEN’S MAP OF THE MAIN MIGRATING ROUTES OF THE LITTORAL EXCEPT FLUVIO VOGEL, LEIPzic, 1876. THE EMPIRE OF THE AIR: AN ORNITHOLOGICAL ESSAY ON THE FLIGHT OF BIRDS. * By Ly Po MourmLarp: INTRODUCTION. If there be a domineering, tyrant thought, it is the conception that the problem of flight may be solved by man. When once this idea has invaded the brain, it possesses it exclusively. It is then a haunt- ing thought, a walking nightmare, impossible to cast off. If now we consider the pitying contempt with which such a line of research is appreciated, we may somewhat conceive the unhappy lot of the poor investigator whose soul is thus possessed. Many of these searchers, either through pride or through timidity, have withdrawn themselves from human intercourse, and have found themselves paralyzed by attempting to carry on their experiments in secret. They quickly found themselves so cavalierly classed as dream- ers or as lunatics that they were compelled, under pains of complete discredit, to conceal from others this so-considered flaw in their intellect. It must however be acknowledged that this persecution has much diminished during the past decade. We are no longer classed with the seekers for the quadrature of the circle, or for perpetual motion. There has been progress since Charles, Janssen, Quatrefages, and other recognized scientific anthorities, have been bold enough to affirm that they believed that the problem can be solved. We no longer risk the lunatic asylum, but the general public still considers us as mentally unsound, The public understanding, moved by the assertions of some scientists, has made some progress. There were two roads to possible success, the one broad, beautiful, smooth, and bordered with tlowers, but after all leading to no result; it was that of aérostation, of balloons lighter than the air. The other way was contrarywise, a rough, narrow, rugged path, bristling with difficulties, but still leading to something; it was that of aviation, of rapid transit by machines heavier than the air, Most of would-be inventors have taken the easy road, and from the height they have gained, pityingly look down upon the unfortunate z - Extracted and translated from a work entitled “ L’? Empire de V Air; Essai d’Orni- thologie appliquée a VAviation.” Octayo: pp. 284. Paris, 1881. B97 398 THE EMPIRE OF THE AIR. aviators still floundering in the quagmire, with little thought that they may have to come down to this same quagmire in order to get somewhere. O! blind humanity! open thine eyes and thou shalt see millions of birds and myriads of insects cleaving the atmosphere. All these creatures are whirling through the air without the slightest float; many of them are gliding therein, without losing height, hour after hour, on pulseless wings without fatigue; and after beholding this demonstration given by the source of all knowledge, thou wilt acknowl- edge that Aviation is the path to be followed. It is therefore apparatus ‘heavier than the air” which I propose to study ; and I mean to grasp the monster by the horns. I expect to have as a guide and as a support that potent creator of all prodigies, Nature herself. She has wholly ignored the principle of “lighter than the air” in designing her creatures, and all her flying animals are heavier, much heavier, than the air which they displace. We can not err if we faith- fully follow her teachings. There are two methods of investigating such an arduous problem; one may be termed the “closet” and the other the “open air” method. The first calls in the aid of mathematics, it applies them to some few observations, more or less defective or irrelevant, and relying upon this fragile foundation, 1t expresses by a goodly show of equations all that the observations teach—and generally a good deal more. Mathematics are doubtless useful, but they are less indsipensible than is generally believed towards the solution of this difficult problem. This arises from the fact that the basis of operation, the formula, is always erroneous. Nothing seems more simple than to say: “* Given, that we know that V, Rk, and P, are equal to some other compound factors, then it must follow,”—and then quadractic equations and caleulus come in, and the student reaches a final result, which completely disagrees with the facts. When we start from false premises, we arrive at some conclusion just the same, but it is not the object sought. But even if the formule be correct, it is certain that for ninety-nine in one hundred intellects, including even the computer himself, a mathematical result will never be as convincing as a clear explanation of the phenomena, or what is much better a conclusive experiment. Thus, I conceive mathematics to be an interesting instrument of re- search, but not a convineing argument. I will not resort to them as < means of persuading others of the probability of success, because I feel well convinced that I never will meet with anybody willing to hazard his life upon the bare dictum of a formula. Historical.—There is nothing new under the sun ; and for the problem of flight, as for many others, this old proverb is true, : THE EMPIRE OF THE AIR. 399 In the farthest antiquity the problem is presented to us as having been solved by Icarus. Whatis there absolutely impossible in that assertion? With close observation, good sense, and inventive faculty success may be accomplished; Icarus, perhaps, had these marvellous good gifts. - - At a later period, balloons came with their enormous bulk athwart the question; for eighty years they obscured the way to success. They led men’s minds estray into conceptions without issue, and inventors have all, one after the other, brought up against the impossible. - -— - Balloons.—At the first glance there seems to be a close connection between the power of ascending into the air, and that of progressing through it, and yet half a century’s consideration has shown that there is a profound abyss between these two orders of ideas; they prove in point of fact to be directly opposed to each other. THOUGHTS ON AVIATION. I have already said that Nature, provident, infallible, always know- ing far more than the most attentive study can teach us, points out to us the way to imitate her works. Let us not seek to be wiser than she: let us in all simplicity follow where she leads; thus shall we arrive at a result easily, without fa- tiguing our brains with that Chinese puzzle,—that mathematical com- pounding of 2 and y and 2, which at the present day invades all ardu- ous questions. By merely observing with close attention how the winged tribes per- form their feats, by earetuily reflecting upon what we have seen, and above all, by striving correctly to understand the modus operandi of what we do see, we are sure not to wander far from the path, whieh leads to eventual success. Methods of Observation.—VYo be really fruitful, observation must possess several peculiarities and qualities. In the first place, we must see accurately and then we must understand what we have seen, and then again we must apply our acquired knowledge to the de- tailed investigation of the performances of the great masters in the art of flight. To see accurately, if is not only necessary to have good eyes, to know how to keep in the field of the telescope a bird going at full speed, but still more, to know what to look at, what it is important to observe. For instance, when an amateur, little accustomed to this kind of observation, hears an expert affirm, peremptorily, that the little black dot just perceptible in the sky is a male kestrel falcon (Faucon crécerelle), he fancies the expert to be wool gathering, and yet the assertion is quite true. Given the black dot perceived by the expert, who has acquired skill m such observations, a kestrel falcon is easily recognized in the air, 400 | THE EMPIRE OF THE AIR. whether in soaring or in flapping flight; its long tail is a sure index; there is no possibility of confounding it with a raven, a buzzard, a kite, or even with some other species of falcon; its peculiarities are too plain. Now, as to the determination of the sex, nothing is easier. One need only observe the bird for a few moments, the male discovers himself by the petulance and rapidity of his beats, by the energy of his movements; the female is more supple and less ardent in her mode of cleaving through the air. As for the “ Pharaoh’s chicken” (Percnoptere), the case is again easy. Afar off it may be distinguished amid a flock of kites, which it often accompanies. by a slight peculiarity in its flight, a remarkable unsteadiness in its forward progress, also by the narrow width of its wings, and by their decided rectilinear set athwart the body, for they are partly folded or flexed only when the wind is very strong. As to the male bird, he may be distinguished from the female as far as the eye can reach by his color, for he is white and the female is dark brown. The great tawny vultures (Gyps fulvus) are to be recognized by their steadiness in soaring, by the amplitude of their circling sweeps, and by the majestic deliberation of their movements. The arrians (Valtur monachus) and the oricous (Otogyps auricular) are noticeable by the exaggeration of all these latter qualities and by a darker plumage. As for the bearded griffin (Gypaétos), its long tail, broad and rounded, easily discloses him afar off; there is no bird of similar outline among the large soarers. Here then in all its simplicity, is the explanation of a feat of dis- cernment which generally astonishes the inexpert. In order to deter- mine accurately the kind of bird seen afar off in full flight, it is simply necessary to have observed it long and well. When eagles have started off within 50 yards, and the eyes have followed them many times, the evolutions have become photographed on the memory; and later, on other occasions, when the same rhythm of movement is per- ceived, there is no longer need to concentrate the attention on the shape of the claws to determine whether the bird in view be an eagle or a vulture. Close proximity is greatly to be desired in studying the manceuvres of birds. I have been enabled to observe at very close range several kinds: the crows, the kestrel falcons, the peregrine falcon, the kite, the Egyptian vulture, the pelicans, the tawny vultures, etc., have yielded many of their secrets to me. T will not here amplify on what I say as to the crow and the kite in the chapter devoted to them; in Cairo it is easy to touch the latter bird in full fight, by going about it dexterously, but the most stirring, exciting sight (the word is not too energetic) is to stand in the vulture roost on the Mokatan ridge, near Cairo, and to look upon the Gyps ful- vous, passing within five yards in full flight. * THE EMPIRE OF THE AIR. A()1 How useless to seek to describe this spectacle! When these enor- mous birds rush by so close to you, an astonishing rustling may be heard; the great primary feathers vibrate like tongues of steel, and flex upward to a quarter circle under the fifteen pounds of bird they bear. There the great vultures gather in hundreds; the -Kgyptian vul tures” are no longer to be reckoned, they are but a garnishing, while the kites creep in among the lot and make themselves small, and the great raven (Corvus corax) incessantly croaks against the invasion of his domain. Beak blows are numerous; each smaller bird must keep his distance, for if he passes within neck length, a savage peek he gets from the vulture. The larger birds are scarcely more amiable to their own species; if interference threatens in alighting, a shrill warn- ing ery is heard, a blow impends, and the weaker must dive away, to begin all over again the complicated evolutions required to check the motion, and to alight upon the perch in safety. One of the maneuvres which always astonishes the observer is the alighting. The great vultures arise above the perch at the average height which they generally keep above the ground—that is to say, some 500 or 600 yards above it. Having reached the terminus, they sweep around for a few minutes to inspect the topography, and then they determine to descend. The eagle comes down like a meteor; he is so powerful that he can control his movements at 100 miles an hour; but the great vulture has no such strength of pectoral muscle. He drops perpendicularly like the eagle, but he seldom folds his wings to gain speed. He would come down too fast, and the descent is some- times very great; for | have seen birds which were already in full descent when first they appeared at the zenith, say at a height of nearly 2 miles. If they had then folded their wings, and allowed ac- celeration to occur, they could no longer have controlled their velocity; they would have been disabled, for their power would then have been inadequate to a change of direction. Next to close and accurate observation a proper understanding must be attained. This second stage 1s more difficult to reach than the first; and this results because we must discard many pre-conceived ideas which - obscure the eyes of the mind. - - - Then the observations must also be accompanied by accurate data. We can no longer accept the immense dimensions and the monstrous weights of guess-work. We must have exact measurements and ac- curate live weight of birds in full health and in normal condition. Above all, it is indispensable that the observer shall be enough of an ornithologist to determine at once the species and peculiarities of the bird he is looking at; not merely on the dissecting table, but also afar off, on a perch, and especially in full flight. This knowledge is to be acquired neither trom books nor trom museums; it must be obtained by much conning of the great volume H. Mis. 114 26 4AQ2 THE EMPIRE OF THE ATR. of nature, by taking account and thought of the various movements, operations, and evolutions of the birds, by becoming acquainted with all their mancuvers, and above all by understanding them correctly, the how and the wherefore. Without all this information success is not possible. If the man does not clearly understand what the bird does and intends in a given position and a certain conjuncture, how ‘an he hope to imitate its flight? The observer must constantly set problems tor himself, in the hope that occasionally the bird will demonstrate a solution. Thus, I was convinced, @ priori, that an expert soarer could, in a fresh breeze, rise directly into the air and advance against the wind at the same time. I felt sure that the feat was feasible. I waited for years before witnessing this evolution. At last one day in Africa, two eagles in love afforded me this spectacle. One of them launched from the top of the ash tree which served as a perch, descended against the wind 6-to 10 feet, was raised up by a gust of wind, and thus continued to rise, slowly, steadily, for a hundred yards into the air, while he also advanced some 50 yards against the wind, without a single beat or im- pulse of his mighty wings. Such convincing demonstrations are not to be seen every day; they must be persistently awaited; the observer must burn with the sacred fire; he must be drawn to the study of flying creatures by that unde- finable enthusiasm which shall cause his heart to throb when he wit- nesses certain evolutions. - - - It is but rarely that a bird manceuver 1s absolutely incomprehen sible; for peculiarities and motives not understood upon a first demon- stration are explained by fresh observations made under happier condi- tions. In all cases, to learn the how and wherefore, the study must be a labor of love. All my life shall | remember the first flight which I saw of the Gyps fulous, the great tawny vultures of Africa. Iwas so impressed that all day long I could think of nothing else; and indeed there was good zause, for it was a practical, perfect demonstration of all my precon- ceived theories concerning the possibilities of artificial flight in a wind. Since then I have observed thousands of vultures. I have disturbed many of the vast flocks of these birds, and yet, even now, I can not see one individual passing through the air without following him with my eyes until he disappears in the distant horizon. Fruitful observation requires that the model be well chosen. Ordinary observers are confined to the bad examples which are found in their locality. They can only study the flapping birds—the pigeons, the bats, the little insects even. What good is to be got from studying a model which can not be imitated on a larger scale? It is impossible to reproduce an insect, a sparrow, even a pigeon, upon proportions which will carry a man. No material will bear the strains of wing beats as energetic as those of the sparrow. Steel itself is too weak in proportion to weight. - - - THE EMPIRE OF THE AIR. 403 Common sense indicates that the weak can only aspire tolight tasks. Which then are the birds that expend the least energy? They are clearly the soaring birds, sweeping over great distances, by the sole power of the wind. ¥ * ¥* * * * * The vulture’s needs are few, and his strength is moderate. To earn his tiving he but needs to sight the dead animal from afar. And so what does he know? He knows how to rise, how to float aloft, to sweep the field with keen vision, to sail upon the wind without. effort, till the carcass is seen, and then to descend slowly, after careful recon- naissanee and assurance that he may alight without danger, that he will not be surprised, and compelled to percipitous and painful depart- ure. And so he has evolved a peculiar mode of flight; he sails and spends no force, he never hurries, he uses the wind instead of his mus- cles, and the wing flap occasionally seen is meant to limber up rather than to hasten through the air. And so the true model to study is the vulture—the great vulture. Beside him the stork is as a wren, the kite a mere butterfly, the falcon a pin feather. Whoso has for five minutes had the fortune to see the Oricou vul- ture in full sail through the air, and has not perceived the possibility of his imitation by man, is—I will not say of dull understanding, but certainly inapt to analyze and to appreciate. ORNITHOLOGY; SURVEYED IN FLIGHT. And here I must deliver a little lecture upon ornithology, from a point of view vital to the question, that is to say, the acts of flight,—a point of view, queerly enough, which is generally ignored in books. Flight is the bird’s chief peculiarity; it is his one good gift, so let us rapidly review the acts of the creatures which travel on the air. The lowest class is that of the insects. All of them progress by beat- ing flight; they are rowers (rameurs), Save perhaps some mid-day butter- flies, which occasionally glide. Their wings are elastic, true planes, altering their shape and acting on the air through flexible torsion on the up and the down stroke. Dr. Marey has given very interesting descriptions and graphic dia- grams of insect flight. They are pictured motions, exactly re-produced. Nothing better is to be desired. The reptiles—supposed to be the bird’s original prototype—can now- adays only produce that little Hast Indian lizard, the Draco volans, who glides from tree to tree. He can compass but a few yards,—say, from one branch to another. But past geologic times afford much more interesting specimens. At the epoch of the Lias, nature produced a whole family of reptiles whose lives must have been spent in the air. The pterodactyls must, in order to earn their living. have possessed the faculty of moving and sailing on the air, just as the large birds do to-day. 404 THE EMPIRE OF THE AIR. The class of fishes, as might be expected, presents few specimens of flying creatures; perhaps a dozen species can project themselves from the sea, glide a few air yards with great effort, and return to their liquid element. “* * * e. * * * Flight progression is certainly the most elegant mode of motion given by nature to her creatures. But all birds are not equally gifted although sach animal has modes of flight appropriate to his needs, for life depends on this. Which of all the birds is best endowed for flight by nature?) A ques- tion often put, and answered many ways. Is it the eagle, with his majestic sweep? He is certainly great; the king of the air; but the humble pigeon outstrips him in the sky, as the greyhound flashing by the mastiff. Is it the frigate bird, with his great spread of wings? Assuredly no, I answer; there are circumstances when the frigate bird can not rise from the ground. Is it the group of the great vultures? These may be the best for man to imitate, but for speed, for endurance, for quick evolution, their vast wings re- quire too much space to produce modes of flight entitling them to bird- life primacy. A condor can not get under way and rise like a sparrow. May it not then be the charming swallow, so lively, so quick, so agile? Alas! no; her great proportion of wing surface is the sport of a gust of wind. Her small inass is insufficient. in great currents of air. The sparrows are after all the best endowed for bird flight and bird life. Speed, quickness in action, difficult feats, constant readiness, all are compassed by them. And yet these birds during their whole year, do not flit as far as sea birds in a month. From these remarks it is safe to conclude, and to say to ourselves, that each bird flies perfectly, according to his needs. Yet, from bird point of view, the sparrow approaches the type of perfection. As to speed, he may outstrip the pigeon; as to power, he can rise vertically to considerable heights; as to journeys, he equals other birds, for he also has his periodical migrations. This selection may at first sight appear curious; but it will be re- membered that it is only small birds which compass all the monstrous difficulties of flight. The warblers, the sylvias, the humming-birds, are constantly performing astonishing feats and gymnastics; they are athletesandacrobats. We may even at this point formulate an ornitho- logical law, and here it is: The proportional power is in direct ratio to the smallness of the bird. We do not generally appreciate this power; and yet let us observe the metallic elasticity of the warbler’s muscles, in its zigzag flashings in pursuit of a fly; observe the wings’ pulsation, vibrating like tongue of steel, and almost producing harmonic notes; and conceive of the energy spent in such rapid motions. A condor whose pectoral muscles could produce such lightning beats, needs have his wings of steel; their roar would be as thunder. THE EMPIRE OF THE AIR. AOD From the bird’s point of view, the small are best endowed; but their power, skill, and life, man can not re-produce. If he is destined ever to cleave the azure, he must seek his model more nearly of his size. Varieties in forms of wings.—Ornithologists have divided the differ- ent forms of wings into two groups: the acute wings and the obtuse wings; then again these are sub-divided into the super-acute and sub- acute, the super-obtuse and sub-obtuse. This classification, however excellent it may be, is not sufficient. In order to explain satisfactorily the numerous facts observed concern- ing flight, we must have more data than are furnished by these divi- sions, which are too vague and general. Wemust take account of the amount of wing surface, in proportion to weight, of the length of the wing in relation to its width, and to the mass of the bird; in fact we must consider many circumstances, which render it necessary to study each family by itself, in order to reach satisfactory conclusions. Asa result of the study of all these conditions—a study to be found farther on,—we may now establish a series of principal divisions, which may be condensed under the remarks following. It may be safely affirmed: that a bird with long and wide wings is well equipped for soaring flight. A gift which goes on increasing with the mass; that the bird with long and narrow wings is well equipped for gliding in great winds, and that this gift also increases with the mass; that short and wide wings (in proportion to body) indicate and produce a flight of small extent; finally that short and narrow wings denote great rectilinear speed. We may even lay down the law: Velocity is in inverse ratio to wing surface. This, be it understood, applies to birds which fly, for else the ostrich and the apteryx would be the most rapid of birds; but we may say that among flying birds velocity, straitforward, increases as the propor- tional surface diminishes. [t must be so to sustain the increased rela- tive weight. Every sportsman knows the astonishing speed of ducks, teals, loons, etc., and the slowness of herons, lap-wings, and barn owls. It is useless to-enlarge upon these fundamental principles, for we shall find them constantly explained and applied in our studies of the flight of each feathered family. The tail of birds —The tail, as an apparatus, serves to sustain, to direct, and to preserve the equilibrium. - - - It is a useful organ, but not indispensable. A bird who has been deprived of its tail will fly, with its own particular mode of flight, after some days’ practice, and without much variance or difficulty. - - - Many birds which are expert flyers have scarcely any tail: the herons, the albatross, the ducks, the teals, the pelicans, the gulls, ete., ete. Again, the tail may be large or small without apparent reason. As witness the turtle-dove and the Egyptian dove, the magpie and the jay, the vulture and the tumbler eagle. A406 THE EMPIRE OF THE AIR. Great size of tail always indicates feeble flight, especially when the appendage becomes very large. We may neglect to consider this organ, as giving but vague indica- tions of its utility, yet if we must account for the final cause, for the necessity for this organ, particularly when it is well developed, we arrive at the following deduction: The tailof birdsserves as either anornament or as an organ for flight. The ornamental consideration concerns us not, it may here be neglected. As an organ of flight, we may be enlightened as to its use by the fol- lowing description of a manceuver witnessed. A kestrel falcon was skimming close along a hedge, almost at ground level; its speed was moderate and its direction straight; when all at once,—as if moved by a released spring, it darted a right angle and pounced upon a lizard. The angle deviated was precise and the action of incredible swiftness. To perform this, the bird used its tail; it absolutely needed this rudder, so ample and powerful. Here we see the use of a great development of this organ of locomo- tion; it permits surprising the prey by a sudden change of direction. It seems probable that the powerful tail of the gypaétus is destined for the same function; his mode of hunting among the rocks, deliver- ing great body blows must be facilitated by its ample and powerful tail. In fine, the tail best serves in pursuing the prey, but is not indis- pensable for long-continued flight, as indeed may be proved by remov- ing it from the bird. We then conclude that the tail’s chief use is in producing rapid changes of direction; and curiously enough when the bird does not employ it, his flight is always straight. This may be formulated as follows: Aptitude for changing the direction of flight is in direct ratio with the amplitude and power of the tail. It is only from the theoretical point of view, from its application to artificial flight, that the utility of this organ is here disregarded. The equilibrium may be maintained upon two points of support, aS witness our legs, stilts, the velocipede, etc, yet we must acknowledge that in practice a third point of support becomes very useful; it introduces ahsolyte stability, and minimizes that constant strain on the attention required to avoid falling. Therefore a third point of support obtains even among birds with rudimentary tails. For example, the pelican dazzles not with the development of his caudal appendage, but we may note that the gen- eral form of his body supplies the deficiency. When in full flight he presents the following attitude: (See Fig. 1.) It will be observed that bis arm and his forearm form pronounced angles, like those of a flattened letter M, and that he may shift his center of gravity by playing these wings back and forth without com- promising his equilibrium. This leads, incidentally, to another formula: Birds without tails all have the forearm very long. THE EMPIRE OF THE ATR: A407 The tail to be effective requires that the speed, or the wind, shall be great (these are equivalent in aviation), for if the bird had no other means of steering, his movements would be dreadfully hampered at Fic. 1.—Pelican in flight. low speeds. He substitutes, as we shall see, for this imperfect action other and more energetic means of changing his direction. The flight of the flapping birds.—Let us view the bird when first he means to start. He is on the ground; he crouches to spring up, letting his wings hang down loosely. Let us analyze this first movement. The wing is divided into three planes, one formed by the humerus, another by the radius and the ulna, and the third by the hand. The result produced by the position of these three planes is to offer no resistance to the air. But this does not exhaust the decomposition of this attitude; all the feathers, particularly those at the tips of the wings, are so incline that the air is met by their edges instead of their broadsides. Still further we see that the wing is never raised on the up stroke at full spread, but well folded on itself, so as to present the least possible surface and yet accomplish the movement with least effort and greatest celerity. Now let us note the second movement; the bird’s wing beating down the air. The action is simple; the wing is fully extended and stiff, the feathers close its whole surface, and it is concave on the under side. There is therefore a great difference in the result obtained between the up and down stroke of the wing. This difference produces the lifting effect in flapping flight. Exactly to appreciate this difference, to feel it as it were, let the reader take the freshly severed wing of a large bird, grasp it by the humerus, and imitate the up and down stroke. This experiment will give a bet- ter understanding of beating flight than all possible descriptions and explanations. It is proximate and plain, one feels the efforts required by each movement, and passes judgment on them directly. The upward spring of the legs, and the first beat of the wings, have launched the bird in the air. He repeats the beats rapidly and rises, not vertically, but at an angle within 45°. To rise perpendicularly the bird is com- 4O8 THE EMPIRE OF THE AIR. pelled to reverse himself, a difficult manceuver, sometimes performed by pigeons in the pigeon house to limber up their wings. To pass from this inclination of some 45° into horizontal course, the bird brings the tail into play. He depresses it, and produces through the pressure corresponding to the velocity (sometimes aided by a par- ticular light beat) a decomposition of forces which results in changing the course from 45° to the horizontal. If the tail is weak, he uses his deltoid muscles, which raise his body relatively and so produce the sane result. In general, birds often employ both means simultaneously. Horizontal motion being attained, the manner of flight is slightly modified with inereasing speed. The wing no longer beats perpendic- wlarly, but is slightly inclined in the direction of the course in order to increase the speed. Soaring flight—Some naturalists have advanced most curious ex- planations of bird flight, especially of soaring or sailing flight. For their purpose lightness is the main requisite. They have pointed to the porous bones, to the spaces filled with air sometimes occurring under the skin of these creatures, as indispensable conditions for sup- port in the air. These are fallacies. Birds always exhibit corporal density, practi- cally the same as land animals. Deprived of their feathers they sink in water; their specific gravity is about 1, as is that of nan, of mam- mals, and of fishes. To rightly explain the flight of birds, we must consider them as highly organized machines, which are sustained through the reactions produced by muscular effort; not as a balloon floating in the air, but as a stone glancing along the water, or a skater gliding over thin ice. All that apparatus described for distending the gannet, the pigeon— all those hollow bones of the pelican, the albatross, etc., serve fiight in no degree. Their utility is different. After all, experiment is easy. Strip a bird of his body feathers, leaving him only the wing and feathers, and his flight will bein no way changed; he will get chilled, he will not be able to swim if he isa water bird, but he will assuredly not tly the worse. Let us now explain the flight of the soaring birds, or as I prefer to call them, the sailers. Birds soar perfectly in proportion to the mag- nitude of their sustaining surfaces and of the greatness of their mass. This is an unquestionable principle. A large bird, an average sized bird, and a small bird, all three having the same proportional surface relative to their weight, will soar the better the heavier they are. Let us consider, then, only the larger birds, for these alone can effect the decompositions of wind-force which produce flight without flapping of wing. As the sailing bird first launches out with flaps, unless from a perch he plunges to get speed, we will suppose him in full action in air, and possessing initial velocity. He will then glide on rigid wings. If THE EMPIRE OF THE AIR. 409 there be no wind he will glide to the ground, to a distance proportional always to his surface, and above all, to his mass; therefore an arrian vulture will glide farther than a tawny vulture, and this latter farther than an Egyptian vulture, yet they are all constructed very nearly in the same proportions. When there is no wind, sailing birds must come down: flight is not possible unless they choose to flap. This sore necessity rarely brings early birds, for the morning 1s usually calm, particularly in the tropics. But let there be a current of air, a circumstance almost always present at a certain height in the atmosphere; at once the scene changes, the sailer sweeps in circles, he rises upon the air to great altitudes, and thence he glides downward where he wishes to go, even against the wind. Let us try to explain this circling act. The bird glides in his sweep in the direction with the wind, losing as little height as possible, the wind imparting velocity almost equal toits own by impact in the rear. This push is effective: there isa good hold against upturned feathers, whereas when the bird turns again against the wind all feathers are smoothed down snug against each other and presenting surfaces of least resistance. This difference in action is akin to the revolving cups which serve as anemometers through the different resistances of the convex and concave surfaces.* As the bird further sweeps around he faces the wind, with freshly acquired velocity, and utilizes this in gain- ing fresh elevation. In all soberness is this fraction of an explanation presented; for this cireling action is little understood and is evidently of great use to the bird. When he faces the wind in the sweep he describes, the bird ad- justs his wings and tail so as to rise slightly, his own acquired speed in- creasing the normal wind pressure, he rises more than he has dropped to develop his own speed. To sum it up, there is a balance of benefit; the result, a lift pro- duced by the force of the wind, which does not act with equal effect whether the bird’s front or rear is presented thereto. The soaring bird repeats this circling sweep, and gaims elevation at every lap. The greater is the mass of bird and the more nearly con- centric are the sweeps, especially when the breeze is light. Yet even anong those birds best able to produce those decompositions of force approaching theory, the sweeps are only exactly concentric in the sole “ase when there is no wind; while he is awaiting the vivifying cur- rent the bird simulates the circling rise, he still sweeps around to sus- tain himself, but he gains no elevation. This action almost always de- ceives the observer, and leads him to believe that the bird is rising unless they are both placed on the same level. It is not well however to ascribe undue importance to the varying A410 THE EMPIRE OF THE AIR. as a Sole explanation; the problem contains many more elements. The variations in the amount of wing surfaces unfolded to the wind, in the different portions of the circles described, the variations in speed, and the shifting in position of the center of gravity of the bird are all of them factors to be taken into account. The bird’s elevation is gained by the skilful] utilization of all these elements, and by the happy use of a number of casual circumstances, begining with those of ascending currents, which have been so much discussed of late, but which are not to be reckoned upon as a steady, sole cause, and ending with the utilization of the coming puff of wind, which the bird takes advantage of by breasting it at the best angle of incidence, just at the right moment; finally, and especially, by the difference in length of course while sweeping with the wind or against it, the latter being shorter, and the difference being more marked, as the rise becomes steeper. The advantage obtained in rising on circling sweeps is easily ob- served and understood, yet it must be confessed that there is a weak point in the analysis, an insufficient explanation. This pertains to the stage when the bird is going with the wind. Is the acquired momen- tun, the velocity necessary to support the bird, sufficient to account for the subsequent phenomena? I scarcely think so, and I feel that the explanation is not absolutely correct, for observation shows that there is often complete arrest of motion. In any case, whether my analysis be good or inadequate, the circling sweep is much practiced by birds, and observation indicates that it is the manceuver which aft: fords easiest ascent, for it is the process always employed by the sail- ing bird when there is a minimum of wind. While still lacking a clear, convincing explanation, we may hold to that above given provisionally. Relying on the instinct of the birds, we may without risk accept the usefulness of the sweeping circle. Instead, a manceuver which supports analysis, and which is easily understood, is that of direct ascension against the wind, either by drifting back, which is an easy feat, or vertically, which is more diffi- cult, or even while advancing against the wind, the most difticult of all. When we note the correct angle of incidence presented by the bird, the adjustment of his surfaces, and his skillful utilization of the vary- ing velocities of the wind, advancing forward in the calm, and ascend- ing on the increased velocity, we understand his manceuvers and find his solution of the problem easy to follow. But we remark that this particular process of rising in the air re- quires that the wind shall possess such speed as to sustain at all times an areoplane with no velocity of its own, while, if in circling sweep, this same areoplane would have an initial velocity, thus enabling it to utilize breezes too feeble to serve in direct ascensions. We must never think of the wind as a regular current of air—we THE EMPIRE OF THE AIR. Al] would greatly err; attentive observation of bird tlight demonstrates the constant recurrence of irregular gusts, not only near the ground, but even up to the limits of the visible atmosphere. Birds certainly possess the gift, like good sailors, of seeing the coming eust of wind; the curling change of color on the water indicates to the seaman the approach of the squall. How is it that the bird perceives the coming gust? It may be difficult to conceive how it is done, but the fact is certain, for the irregular puff is often utilized; and yet here again is a basis itis notsafe to build on overmuch, for the heavy soar- ing birds seem to disdain to use these puffs of wind; they accept them, they store up, asit were, theaccruing momentum, but they never trouble themselves to profit fully by them. In order to gain a sound idea of what is going on in sailing flight, to understand and to account for it, we must separate two conditions of wind which are usually confounded—the regular current of wind and the irregular gust. It would seem at first consideration that when in a regular current of air the bird sweeps a circle, he must lose, against the current, just so much momentum as he has received in going with the wind, plus the frictional losses, etc. But we have observed that this is not the case, and as we say because the bird breasts the wind with his smooth cleaving shape, a shape more perfect as he excels as a sailer; which cleaving shape differs much from the rear, which latter is arranged in quite another form to catch the wind as a sail. Now to the difference in the coefficient of result upon these different shapes we must add the effect of the varying angle of the incidence of different spreads of wing as velocities change, the reiative short course against the wind, and finally that mysterious first cause which we eall life, which exhib- its marvelous wondersof equilibrium of rest and of motion and governs the active part of existence. Yet, as I said before, very large soaring birds do not seem to trouble themselves much to utilize all these little accessories; the experts in the art, having adjusted their surfaces at an average angle, judged sufficient from their experience, do not readily modify their attitude; they know there is small profit to them in small manceuvers, such as the furling and unfurling the wing, to modify the extent of sustaining surface in different portions of the circling sweep; one might say that they adjust their areoplane up to a fixed notch, which they know to be practically good, and trust to the wind gust for material uprise. There are probably minute changes in adjusting the equilibrium which the telescope does not disclose, such, for instance, as movement of the head, which is a precious balancing pendulum admirably located; there are even unconscious movements of the whole body; but as to intentional changes in the size and set of the sails (that is, the attitude of the bird’s flight), they may remain for whole hours at the point fixed, with reasonably steady wind, just like the sails of ships. We must there- 41? THE EMPIRE OF THE AIR. fore examine the problem further, and seek a more satisfactory solution of the cireling problem. This we shall find in studying the effects produced by irregular gusts of wind. The wind gust is the very essence of the uprise; it is the magic wand which, striking the child’s hoop, keeps it upright in rolling, drives it along, or raises it up to overleap elevations on its way. Suppose the toy to be placed on a steep inclined descent; gravity will cause it to roll to the bottom. If beyond this an ascending plane follows, the hoop, urged forward by momentum of acquired velocity, will rise to a height equal to that of fall, minus the losses by friction on the soil and by air resistance. But if, instead of utilizing gravity alone, we accelerate the hoop with the wand, it will run up much higher than the point it started from. Let us suppose further, when the hoop is about to ascend, we can displace the ascending plane, in contrary direction to the toy’s course, so that the plane shall glide under the hoop, then we would still more assist the ascension, by adding a supplementary force, independent of the others, and whose resultant would likewise be an uprise. Let us now re-consider the action of the yivifying current of air upon the bird. If the gust of wind occurs just where the bird is going with the wind, its effect is akin to the blow of the wand on the hoop; it stores up energy and economizes descent, hence the bird profits to that extent. If the gust occurs when the bird faces the wind, then the sustaining plane is gliding beneath him, and the resulting pressure causes him to ascend; therefore again profit results in an uprise, nowise connected with antecedent fall. If the wind gust occurs when the bird is on the quarter sweep, forward or back of the wind’s course, it still exerts contributory rise; there is always, in each case, an impulse, a thrust from foreign source, which the bird profits by; or else a saving of acquired momentum, which the creature transforms into uprise. 3ut, after all, these explanations avail only for the public, curious to know why. They neither corroborate nor disprove the facts. Whether we understand and mathematically demonstrate the mechanics of sailing flight, or whether we fail in the attempt, the result is the same. ‘There remains always the demonstration produced by the Great Master, who in His wisdom has implied: ‘If you understand it, it is well; if you do not understand, ‘tis to be regretted; but in any case, look! that is the way ‘tis done! I exhibit it all day long, not in a dark corner, but in the blue; and if you can not eventually profit by the lesson, you will really deserve never to join me in the skies.” Thus acts the bird; he demonstrates. Wesee the demonstration; and what more can we do with a formula which leads to no result? What testimony is an explanation more or less clear? Can there remain a doubt as to the fact of sailing flight, when the proof is evident and visible THE EMPIRE OF THE AIR. 413 every day? The bird works no magic, he does not violate natural laws. We have not as yet rigorously explained these multifarious decomposi- tions of forces because they are all complicated by movement and by life; but they are demonstrated each instant, and they constantly invite us to imitate a mode of motion which can not be bevond our attributes any more than the feats of equilibrium which we perform unconsciously every moment of our lives. We appreciate well enough the acts of walking, of leaping, of gym- nastics, of the velocipede: have the manceuvers which maintain their stability been calculated mathematically? No, they have not. Our vital instinct suffices for such action, not only accurately, but with all ‘apidity required by the need. Thus willit be assuredly for that remain- ing problem of equilibrium which resembles the others so greatly—the sailing on the wind; for man’s life, that wondrous reservoir of uncon- scious science, will certainly prove equal to this new achievement. The main requirement will be skill. The knowing how, and when, and why, each act is to be performed, to be expert in all possible manceu- vers required to produce various results or to meet contingencies; in fine, the man must thoroughly know his business—as a bird, a soaring bird, just as he knows in time his business as a swimmer, a skater, a bicycle rider, an acrobat—and, in short, as an expert inany gymnastic exercise. Speed of the wind.—For the sailing birds, the wind is the source of all good gained while sustained. No wind, no uprise, no sailing flight pos- sible; therefore, in a dead calm, they are all on the perch. Now, what least velocity of wind can support and upraise the most expert soaring birds? Observers may fancy they see kites and vultures ascending in dead ‘alm. ’Tis an impossible feat. There must absolutely be, at a certain height, a current in the air, perhaps indiscernible to the eye, but ney- ertheless revealed to the experienced observer by the bird’s manceuvers. The sailing bird, rising during a calm, generally flaps his wings till he is up one hundred yards. At that elevation he begins to circle, partly gliding partly flapping; then he diminishes his beats as the ele- vation increases, and finally stops them altogether; this proves that the air is motionless only near the ground. It is well known that there is almost always a strong current of air at prominent altitudes; we leave the valley where absolute stillness reigns, and on the mountain top we find a lively breeze. A light zephyr, fanning the spring-lixe day, which we can not miscall a wind, is blowing however a hundred yards above, some twenty-two miles per hour, as proved by accurate observations made by myself, by means of bursting fire-works, bombs, whose smoke is most sensitive. When the wind is decidedly perceptible at the surface of the ground, it greatly exceeds twenty-two miles an hour at an altitude of 1,000 feet. A good wind, a fresh sea breeze, one in which the sailor takes 414 THE EMPIRE OF THE AIR. in no reef, but keeps an eye on his sails, is found to blow forty-four miles an hour 1,500 feet up above the sea. The great North wind, measured by the transit of the cloud’s shadow, blows from 67 to 89 miles per hour, while a violent “Kamsin” at a height of 500 yards shows incredible speed. In this terrible wind, a tawny vulture moving with it, has a fright- ful velocity; in a moment it has traversed the field of vision, say (for a bird of that size) four or five miles. These are the tempestuous winds which expatriate the birds, which cause the creatures, after a day’s journey, to find themselves 3,000 miles from their own habitat. These enormous velocities are proved by actual facts. The balloon “Ville d@’Orleans,” which left Paris during the siege at 11:45 P. M., arrived next day near Lifjeld (Norway) at 3:40 P.M. Say 900 miles in 15 hours, or 60 miles an hour. The balloon launched at the coronation of Napoleon I, travelled during seven consecutive hours at a speed of about 90 miles an hour. During a long summer’s day, say 18 hours, a bird swept away by such a current of air, and rowing in the same direction, might travers 1,800 miles! - - - What splendid journeys a powerful wind might enable man to make if he could navigate the air! But let us entertain no illusions; it will be the accident, not the rule. - - - Let us now consider every day winds, those of moderate velocity. Observation indicates, by comparing birds’ progress with that of rail- ray trains, that the slow flyers go at most 25 miles an hour, and that birds well endowed, such as the turtle-doves and the large sailing birds, in full flight through space, get over some 37 miles in the hour. So that, for general use, we may assume a speed of a little over a mile in two minutes, as a probable achievement, if man sails on the wind. If the problem can be worked out, if the skill be acquired, this is the rate of translation man may expect to compass, less perhaps, rather than more. Butit is a fair promise. He may journey 300 to 400 miles in the day of 10 hours, with no expenditure of power whatever, for the wind will do the work. * * * * * * * Velocity of the bird.—The speed of the bird’s translation, considered generally, especially for sailing birds, is composed of the bird’s ve- locity with that of the wind. With flapping birds the case is different, and the speed results from three factors; the speed of wind, the theo- retical speed of the bird (which is to be estimated as if he were a sailer), and the additional speed produced by personal exertion. Tis latter speed, already object of many experiments within doors, and of reams of calculations, nowise interests the observer who watches the sailing bird in all the simplicity of its flight. We therefore will con- sider only the lesson to be Jearned from practical performances, THE EMPIRE OF THE AIR. 415 To measure accurately the speed of translation of the bird, we can- not survey him in the air, for we have no reference points. It is to the bird’s shadow upon the ground that we must direct our attention. This shadow is easily followed by the eye; it may be gauged by the speed of a horse, of a chance donkey, a dog, a carriage, or a railway train; and thus we get sure data and trustworthy points of comparison. For instructive observation it is well to study many models, and to live close to them, For instance, as | write these lines two families of domesticated ravens are within a few yards, awaiting for the food I am about to throw to them. On the mosque, in front, my pet kites are perched, Waiting my appearance to plunge towards me, at the least gesture I may Simulate of casting meat to them. Thus I can closely view this expert at full speed, for there are two of them which snatch their pit- tance from my hand, There are endless battles between ravens and kites and among kites themselves, and battle always brings the performance of feats; con- stantly does the kite turn over back downward, this being a favorite fighting posture with all the eagle tribe. I often see two kites lock claws up in the air, clutched fast, and thus locked spin down hun- dreds of yards. When a great wind blows, the observation is wonderfully interesting. To try to explain these complicated movements with mathematical formule seems a farce. Their mere description is difficult enough; how then can we fasten within algebra’s rigid rules the evolutions, the feats, the stratagems, which shift with each wind gust, with each fancy? It is like an attempt to calculate the foot pounds expended by a gymnast during his exercises, or the thermal units utilized in a strug- gle between two athletes. What is most known concerning the speed of birds is generally vague, for they do not lend themselves to accurate experiment. The speed of flapping flight is pretty well indicated by the carrier pigeons, who, by a dead calm, cover from 33 to 50 miles an hour, according to species. We know that the turtle-dove flies faster than the wood-pigeon, its velocity being about 50 miles an hour. Dueks and teals have greater swiftness still, but it is difficult to determine how much. Moreover, the effective speed is governed by the force and direction of the wind. It is therefore almost impossible to be exact as to the speed of flapping birds, and the question possesses small interest for him who thinks the soaring birds to be the true model to imitate. The sailing birds afford an occasional chance of measuring their speed of flight, which naturally varies with the wind, but which always illustrates the advantage of mass. There often is a race between three birds of different size; the tawny vulture, the Keyptian vulture, and the kite, 416 THE EMPIRE OF THE AIR. Near the ** Abbassich” gate at Cairo, amid mountains of potsherds, dead animals are deposited by the scavengers. They are not buried; there is no need, for between vagrant dogs and rapacious birds, they are eaten up in a few hours. As soon as the carcass has been laid down and the knackers have finished skinning it, carniverous birds appear. They pass in the zenith of the observer and arrive at their destination, all the time visible through the telescope. The distance is known, and only the time need be noted which is consumed in the journey. This trip is performed with the same velocity by the three birds named, but the force expended is evidently much less when the mass is great. The actual speed, of course, varies with the velocity and direction of the wind. . - : As a final result, deduced from such daily observations, I think that I closely approximate the fact when I state that a kite, soaring to survey the hunting ground beneath him, has a mean proper speed of 11 miles an hour when the wind blows also 11 miles an hour; this is the Sailing bird which seems able to obtain support with the feeblest eur- rent of air. The tawny vultures, in order to rise on such velocity of breeze, need to unfurl their entire possible wing surface. For them it seems that the wind velocity should be at least 17 miles an hour to be in full accord with their faculties. Effect of speed.—Theorists frequently set themselves this problem: What is the power required to obtain support in the air? The lifting force, (ascensional power if you please so to call it), is under many circumstances so slight that it may be neglected, and is reduced to the force necessary to sustain the apparatus. In soaring flight this ascensional power is only indispensable when there is no wind. The problem would be better stated thus: What velocity must be imparted to an aeroplane, bird or machine, in order that it may be sustained on the air and may rise? Now for this, as for all aspects of this problem, we find a solution provided by nature. Birds whose pectoral muscles have not power to raise them bodily are not rare. Sailing birds can, unaided, compass but little rise; especially the very large birds. A tawny vulture can not rise 20 yards on a Start of 45°; he can not rise 10 yards vertically. So this king of Soarers nay be kept a prisoner in a roofless cage, provided the sides or walls are 20 yards high and 20 yards apart. Among birds with nar- row wings this peculiarity is still more marked. The Swift, this wild, darting, rustic inhabitant of the air, can not rise vertically 6 feet. It is perfectly caged in a large box without a cover, and yet if any creature is thoroughly equipped for flight it is he. The same is true of- the large sea birds. 99s - 72552 HASYSOY) |-°- ose eke -) Tomine a | : = | | | io) | | | | | | | = | ieagecore: | | | | “(o9Teg9 ce GL-6F | IS9T FL9000-0 1:06-F | 961-0 | 319-0 | G6EE60-0 | Ge ; 1/0 | Se SOS SAUNT AEM hop) OSes os RD ces a aR ~~) enonb) aay up deracad ay | | | | | | | a | | | | ee 4 | | | | ‘suajau Dy | supe | suagaur Dy | | "sdazoqy | -suajayy | ‘suajaw “by | «sway Hl pees Tne || | =| | - ee a | | | “stod | | “UROLLSULY 10 STP LIT *qoued -ULpAlTOAv | spunod SUT} se Gy | 1a) | ane POR ar rn a a i F-QLT 10 -sns paueysns Sate | OERe EAL +0} *parq, SOTPL 08 Baier FUSIOM |. doraod jompra| go. | 202 Uregrss Jo OTR OUTIMALIOS urejsns 09 | erenbs | s,paiq go | Liam erent op aovzang | AUST AA . iene posh 9ug, mw ouC old uve | peeads AUR LOUTTLOD -91 o0RjanS | OATZEPOY | | | i} S ! 4 ae Se al ns — = teth A eat? He bs “ae = = oD + ‘ddA MMV THY, THE EMPIRE OF THE AIR. : 431 its wings. Changes of plane against the air which change the direction of its flight with ineredible celerity. No other flying creature has this gift equally developed. With what astonishment is the flight of this enormous bird beheld underthe trees! Nosuchdexterity can bere-called. Theobserver’s habit being to see birds generally proceed in a straight line, it renders the flight of the great-eared owl fairly stupefying; if seems at every mo- ment as if it were about to dash against a tree, and yet every obstacle is avoided. It flashes silently, horizontally, or even vertically through spaces where there would seem to be no passage; and this is done with absolute mechanical precision, without hesitation or slackening of speed. This is truly the most extraordinary mode of flight, but it is a rare sight even to dwellers in the country. The Gulltype—This genus teaches one thing, namely, that in order to hover or to penetrate in great currents of wind, the resistance of the Fic. 3.—The Kingfisher. wroplane must be reduced to a minimum. The spread of wing is of less consequence than its width. When we think of it this is rational, but it must be confessed that nature did well to demonstrate it, for it was a difficult deduction to get at. The table shows that in this type the spreads of the wings is from 6 to 10 times their width. The albatross, which is not included, must greatly exceed this pro- portion, for travelers mention some 16 or 17 feet as the extreme spread of wings, and as its width is about 10 inches we have for this bird a proportion of about 20 to 1. This teaching is of great importance, and should be borne in mind in the design of ceroplanes with adjustable surfaces, EMPIRE OF THE AIR. THE 432 | Seat ai post | = apie liecra ies ook suvlexo VIpomtoyg |--*** 77-7 SROMTeCTiVlse: ein TICE Bae soleqry | | | 2 } P SF-0L | 9192 TE1000-0 | 1G-0 CL-1 | OSTSLE-0 | 0886 | 0 | 7° *-BazUBSLS BlIel[e001g le eee ty gees Saeenetig & DF 2525252 Ung s Tenog: Soso0 CR sro ROocci5 SOO SOIR COTE ROD) Sra gc Hess istatsaGisne| hel of sxie ict siolsre | pease alone) ates aN [fei ste-< CRO ORDO ROBIE aa rtp AoC DS pono SOC OOr Joccccc cece OD UTURR] WT JPR ocoee (ay thi) quvulUTe Lp | | | * pag o3B BOUO Te Sey ha eae BRIO ROH ESE iH tee ae \iebernsel ch eer acctaicie iesein = |ipeeeciele takes a oleae tesa slclojeler sels olo oy mies alae Aes epinbe oyeseag | -BLiy ‘parq-aem-jo-ueyy | - 7°77 ---=- oqesoa iy Bae |eeerteeteccueas \Weieeras neat cos seer uaa sal cacy a tacicearseicp all ickcaraca phen (nicseiciniess(-bean/e7 | escietsicisss olay iasela\siciabercsole ie orere michele isan es camieeCeh Rey Tl sae ace hh la FOUUBX) |o2° >= Se Ae PEE DONTE THEE ota 3 | FILG | GLT000-0 ~| *1:00-01 | ezt-o | Gat |<-cctt-7777"] 002 3 | 0 [tcc tcc ccc eraeteooag |o7- cc [P40d | - BLIR[Q001 HDD G OB AS AI25) | SSeS 0060 0G | oo aoe ae Goes onn cian Poagod: Lurr0yg lets rorsepod Blaeppooodg P RSRERSTE oS + SSE es aio otal aca (nee ce Ue Sea S| a coined NeeaMiecciaeare 9 lester hoe a icieg stearate eee ac ba Se ATT Sse ee aa pur[goy | | | | | | 89-LE | 60L6 T8F000-0 | LGPL €1-0 c96-9 Seo ie Oma nas OA ee ayqonoW | | | | | “FF OL-E = |= | -@g a TLF000-0 | T2-2 | 81-0 9F6-0 €8Z601-0 | BE% |: iD Wea sea e varie SpE Sulerlarss: vemos LSS TOS ee ae aS ae sono W | | “OF OLT | esl 80-88 | Lea | 029000-0 | 196-9 |, -80-0 606-0 FELOFO-0 9 er) Ot paar se SNic[MUMTIME A) | 55s sere AMET FUCENE j= 5 MLIAONOSUGT | | ‘QGLT | | | weeete eee ==") y60z | 9LF000-0 | T:00-8 690-0 76.0 9F6IE0-0 | LO Fi Ol acted CYC UPTO [COOMBS a= = i= ose an eae ia geen VORA 9) | | | | | | | | | | { BS cpso0sec sanesad00s BUTIY See pee ae yk > UC LOT fee ocean eae OTTO qouIV | WsSanGc00ae ROUSNd OPuNIFT °° 777 MOTTRAAS Wie | agULMMeT[O op e[[eptmoarfzy | i} | [PRSRSaeR He BG boLco Ge Eps aie soo lear soo R OU RG apoceda etna a4 pop ieoo SAO BOTAN OPIN Leyes een as One UIQIV] | 91} QU9F Op O[[OPWOAL AT | | | VE ZO-T | | Z6-19 | Teal | F4L000-0 | 1408-9 0-0 6-0 F8ecL0-0 | OL WhO) PP sjaysodnd afhyoQ |-"-~ "> ANOTTBALS YUBA | OSHS a[[opuomryy | Ni eo a aia PRP OPEOO OR pa oocanicenct ee ae a al Ware ed nae | a a A tl | Ee ROS S| Kees octal eso wal snwiyparor snpipooag |r ttt ed en Pee JTONOUL-TNBIST() *suajaw by | “suns | “stajgaue by | "s.0ajayt “SMajaTT “stajaur by | SUDAN) | OA | | x « = | = = — be — ere = = SSS SS ee a a | | | *stod | | URDLIOULW 10 YStig | “qoned yy -1LpAtOAr | | | | See — oe spunod sure Aq fi (v) (q) | | F-QLT 10 sns | poureysns Lar Rea | moy “pat SOTEY O8 qojour «=| 4ysrom q ee eet 9 | Woo UTYATAY) go ‘ote OYTUEIDG ureysns 03 | oavnbs | s,parq go | Horaod | J are : see , | a0RfFINS | PPSTO AL | poamb oug Weis 9U~—) 01g oW t s | | | Uv MOTLUOD “91 90 BJ INS | | | PATRON | | ‘AdA J, ITO) AH, THE EMPIRE OF THE AIR. 433 Teal and Duck type-—These birds are the representatives of rapidity in flight. They flap to excess, supplied with carbon as they are by the heavy layer of oily fat which covers their pectoral muscles. This is the type to imitate for aviation with motors. These birds afford practical lessons as to methods of getting under way and of alighting, both of them points of capital importance. These birds need, like the scolopax, to traverse over long distances, from one lake to the next, and as they are weaponless speed is their sole safeguard. It is enough for their safety, for they are never at- tacked in the air. The eagle, their chief enemy, abandons pursuit as soon as they are well under way. The Pelican.—Here is a wag and a philosopher, a swift sybarite, mounted on two great wings. Where is his nest?) Whence does he come tous? 1 confess I hardly know. I merely am aware that we see a good deal of him in Kgypt. Great flocks of these birds are found on the inundated lands, upon the the Mareotis and the Manzaleh lakes. There are even some in the city, domesticated. | bought one for a dollar in the Mouski. Every year they are peddled in Cairo during November, December, and January, —e — ae, Bic. 4.—The Pelican. What a droll creature! IL had two of these for my personal friends. They were more ludicrous than will be credited. But | must abstain, for if I were to begin telling of waggish tricks of pelicans, I never would be done. Let humorists treat themselves to one, and have no fear of his bill, which is quite inoffensive, and they will have their money’s worth of amusement. But, dropping the humoristic feature of this charming animal, let us attend to his flight. The pelican possesses a peculiarity in his structure; it is an exces- sive length of arm and fore arm. He is without a tail. His center of oscillation, or the limits within which he can shift his center of gravity without compromising his equipoise, lies within the branches of that Bea MisS ltd 28 434 THE EMPIRE OF THE AIR. great flat AA which is outlined by his extended wings and body. This is the disposition of parts which gives him that equilibrium, length- wise, which his rudimentary tail could not furnish. His mode of flight is magnificent. He rows but seldom, for as soon as the wind permits he becomes a sailing bird. The effect produced by great mass is always surprising. If a bird be large and has adequate surface, he practices sailing flight, as wit- ness the pelican, who has less surface, proportionally, than the teal, and yet soars to perfection, while the other only rows. The teal is proportioned at 1 gram per 177 square millimetres (1 pound for each 0.86 square feet), and the pelican at the rate of 1 gram per 150 square millimetres (i pound for each 0.73 square feet). When in full flight he does not stretch out his neck a yard in front, like the goose, the stork, the swan, but he curves it back like the heron, and rests his head gently upon his shoulders, which attitude gives him a peculiarly graceful appearance. He then seems so much at his ease, he appears so comfortably posed upon his two immense wings, set at picturesque angles, that once well launched he seems to glide through space without the least fatigue. Of all the large birds he is certainly the one which presents the most elegant silhouette. The great vulture is rigid, and looks as if cut out of tin plate: the swan and the goose have an attitude as if already spitted; the eagle is stiff and all of a piece, but the pelican, notwithstanding his awkward heaviness when on the ground, becomes as graceful as a gull once he has mounted in the air. The varied atti- tudes of his wings, the great length of their arm and forearm, ofter every moment new aspects which the evolutions of other birds never present. In point of intelligence the pelican is among birds what the elephant is among mammals. Like the latter animal, a boundless curiosity attracts him to man. The doings of the sovereign of creation interest him profoundly. The attention which he bestows upon all movements is a sure sien of great intelligence. He will not, like the large birds of prey, morosely assume a gloomy state of sulks, beginning with his captivity and ending with his death; he will not go crouch in a corner and motionless ponder on his lost liberty—not a bit of it. After two or three days, if, without looking at him or apparently noticing him in any way, you are occupied in doing something, he will not let half an hour pass before he is between your legs, the better to observe your actions. Every now and then he will stretch out that frightful bill of his, but there is no need of extra guard; all there is to do is not to draw the hand back, because it might be cut against the saws of his mandibles. When he sees no reply to his overtures he will become almost troublesome in his familiarities; he will come into the house as if it were his own, he will pick fleas off the dogs, he will purloin a shoe, he will make way with a ball from the billiard table with an air of perfect innocence; and he will not even ‘HdX,J, SOON ANY WOAG Nem) } | me) liye’ Weare ieee Ite 5 : 5° ~>--- ~*~ ~~ TWEOTO ce laa ae ies SLs TROT[a | | 8d f [9d | Cs iti aa ati aa eas ree Pat ie hs Faia ny sat at aac el i Oi WHEE MWS) ISS OSS Spots Ble area ousAg | | | 2 [peesos- Se feat AR FRR SR AICI Or ey |S ae ed aS OOS ees dace earn a slafsiedsl aiefeetchalite chete tits sty alsin! sietcinieieleiciciafaistel| aiisirasis loc tei ee OR OO Th mi cane aubiyseauop a) | | 09-6 | O0ZL000. 0 1°94. L 61-0 Le. 1 LIEFFS- 0 0706 Aes ake SS STAQSOATAS*IOSUU; lence sero OSO0.051) 0A eel nee “"""9DBANKS 9I() | [rs meant reagan) a Soiivse nigh [Di ai eR era ii Pe iam Sie tr | ears eae be ese QUBIOULIOZ “=> 1RLOTUIOD at -(a[Ru) prevuryg mS “AF 08-2 fo) | 06-8 OCL6 GOTOOO- 0 [98-9 OL-0 OL. 0 COCFLO- O GL hilt) =| PSS CIVOMATO SBiiy: || osec sm oaee oe Youp PTLAL °° 77° 77+ (epjettey) paraeg | | fe | OL. FT | 6F9S | ANE O) aiPeneeessoe lessee ale OS ea | #E9%S 162 nO caer rare ATM POLUD.LO Ms S07 Osi sen lca [Cee hens DEOGSSE “-- gT]90IRS | a | “4F 98-0 | s GL- 08 | F096 FREO5O- 0 T'e0-€ 620-0 G9G- 0 O80ETO- 0 uns UN laa Tarp amare ae C1) Opec lia ge eB ot ODF igs aecia aia ey Se i) = | rat ea | | “VW 8-0 ES F9- 46 608E | SEFOOO: 0 Eo¢.F | 790-0 cB: 0 OOOETO- 0 [¢ HN eal i ereraie ate ray ee a OD a \ consi RS SEA Uae tay -- (a[Rua) rnet~Ped uTaR yy an } | “VWOL-0 a 9c. FE FLIES ZeF000-0. | T:#9-% | 0-0 GEG: 0 ZLOTLO- 0 LZ POUR stesas tees UPLUSTULO 00 vane loysysury (ajjoeutey) mneqood unaeyy *sdajaul “by | “sumin | swazau “by | ‘slajaTT =“ Shajayy | “stagaun “Dy sup.) A ‘ 2 ee ra | Ee wees es | *srod | ‘UROL 10 YUShtig “TOUIA : “NPALOAB | ; spunod | —surey Sa ae | its all ) | as F-9LT Jo | -sns peureysns | ni ee! a aes “1104 “parq | SO[LT 08 419qyout JYSIOM | eae stati ‘aa AEIUAN Ke ay -M00 UTYIEM jo | ‘AULET OYTPWOINS mieysngs 07 | arenbs § parq JO | . |4 a! ue 4 Iq BORING Wyse \\ | poamb aud MIRA OO Ota aS TNS (il cca en anal QUIVU WOULTIOY : -@1 9ORTINS | BAIQROY | | | 436 THE EMPIRE OF THE AIR. cease his raseally tricks at night, for if he is allowed he will stay up, like the human biped. In the garden or yard, you must not expect him to fraternize with the other inmates; he has a profound contempt for these weak-headed winged creatures. He will not quit the neighborhood of man’s social gathering, but he will squat down all rolled up in a ball, in the middle of the group, rest his bill on his back, and from this vantage ground his intelligent eye will follow every gesture and every word spoken. He imposes himself upon man as his companion; he decides that his society will be accepted, and as after all he is not very troublesome, as—far from being repugnant—he is clean and stately, man gives in and becomes his friend. We have yet to speak of the pelican when in possession of his full wings, when he is able to fly; for up to this we have only described the bird whose wings have been clipped; but the chapter would be endless. I will only add this, that his familiarity grows with his wings. Judge then what it becomes when his plumage is complete. It might perhaps be possible to acclimate the pelican in Europe, in full liberty. He would find himself so expatriated that he might not attempt to escape. Should his wings be allowed to grow his first trials of flight would not permit him to think of undertaking a long journey; at most, he might visit the surrounding country the first year. Care being taken to keep him captive in September—the period of migration—we might in a country wherein hunting them was pro- hibited treat ourselves to the curious sight of the evolutions of these great water birds which are as amiable as the swans which we have are stupid and mischievous. The Swan.—There are two cities where the swan is easily observed, Geneva and London. The foggy atmosphere of the Thames does not permit of keeping them in sight very long, moreover they look very melancholy on that foul stream. To observe them thoroughly, there is but one spot—the lake of Gen- eva. There these beautiful birds are quite at home, and act as if they owned the whole lake. They build their nests in the moats of the city, and make the rounds to beg, or rather to collect their daily rations of bread, as far as Ville- neuve. They even do more, they follow the steamboats and dip down to gather food thrown over to them; then when the boat has gained a mile or two ahead, they resume their flight, catch up with the ship amd settle in its wake. Their flight is a composite of beats of small amplitude, alternated with rectilinear glidings. They do not wheel in circles like the pelicans and birds of prey; they always proceed in a straight line, like the ducks, the geese, and in fact like all birds which have but little propor- tional surface at their command. * * *% a & * * THE EMPIRE OF THE AIR. ALT The great eared-Owl.—The great eared-owl is a curious creature, and a .painter’s brush would better describe him than a pen. Those great horn-like ears, those large yellow eyes, that plumage spotted with crosses and drops, the noise which he makes when snapping his bill, which night be mistaken for that of a crackling bone; everything in fact, even its attitudes, give it a satanic air, little like anything in this world. But let us disregard this infernal aspect, and examine him in broad day. It is a large bird of prey; its talons are strong, its wings are power- ful; its beak, while almost entirely hidden beneath the hairy feathers protecting its nostrils, is nevertheless strong and with a force not found in the bill of most diurnal birds of prey. Its ears are very large; we see at first sight, that in consequence of the enormous development of this organ, the sense of hearing must exist in great perfection. This group of brilliant qualities, joined to a reckless courage, render this bird an animal of extraordinary power. The great eared-owl might dispute with the eagle the empire of air. The eagle is like the lion; he has the noble look of royalty, whilst the tiger, which has only a brilliant reputation for ferocity, might easily dispute for the prey should both meet on the same hunting grounds. a Fig. 5.—The great eared-Owl. Let us consider the bird further, for we are confronted with a re- markable creature. His bony frame is robust, his feathers are like hose of all nocturnal birds, of velvet-like softness; but this soft down covers muscles with a different order of action from those of the eagle; they are shorter, quicker, and more rigid in their contraction; the lever arms are longer. The flight is a marvel; it is excessively compli- cated in action. He soars perfectly well but rarely does so; he rows like a pigeon, and possesses moreover the faculty of stopping suddenly when at full speed, and of glancing off in another direction. This he does to avoid collision with tree trunks at every moment. The flight is absolutely silent. We see these large creatures flash under the foliage, and we do not hear a murmur, This silence results from the i Seppe sid) eed Se a the a A ee ee eee ° | Sta | | ; | | eae | ‘ | | ‘ SP 86099 0RO0R HOTBR SABI SCC Pag USAR hI Rena oR tS at ao see e|eceeee eres sees eeeee es |ee eee Siete ceihiaisetavesel peXel-seg hace snr oqug |-7--** [MO-paiva qwoatry Peeters gee Four eke) v | | | | | | ‘ Rite ietaiaic wie Bed ea ee are ace |e p| Re Boeeo Sed jason ce Gmina asemac sage priacoayoon sOD aus snydejeose oqng |--------s-- 7 2e [oc eeeseeeee === oude Rosy foc} | | | | | i. —_ | | | } >> stsuayePomes wiaaysATe | Saal | Sch eae SLIBS[TNA BBSLW | rea Coren eaighace arog SQO SO SIAS AHS) Th Wicd | Vain ae Vek ati eqye BIMOOL/) | pee rae ets I VIPBLOONY] VITV}L] 7A) | Set Ri one as BLOND BOPLIY | [eeaeoen 8 lea gona oe voandand vapry | | | F 1977) il Sosa ae a XBLOITIATL VOPLIV Ome 2 -72>* Sn[OULo[ey SIQT | (00,0) tame | ie le tem snjnurut snqdug | | | 40 proezece SNYVISLIO SNI[OME A. | Werks | 0 | °-7--> seurds serapereyp | | eit | saaiaae pet ate scr sdoda vednd gq A | ‘QTR OUT MALY NOUdp, TH Saremeine sss cc OURS 31048 Trquoods | woray Lorry) Woda WPSIN a0dooyy “UBdTLOULY 10 YSU Ty Taqe glo ses eToys ween see ee ete eeee “OUDODT) sine s\eimialeim = PREGGO (oy qtri 18S etelaketatelatotetataterays STIs WOLF DEO ICHMT: Ff (KOH TOLD FL neoloyig ~ SIqy roses JuMq-opaes wWoLa TT veer ete e eee eeee NBeIuUV A verre eee ee ome LITANT eee eee ee eens ----- oddny ‘qn OTURT TOTRULOZ THE EMPIRE OF THE AIR. 441 alight without breaking their legs. It is clear however that they are hampered by this excess of surface; not one of them is remarkable as a flyer, neither as to velocity—which is easily explained, nor even as ¢ permanent denizen of the air—which is more extraordinary. They are in fact so well equipped for sailing on light winds that the surface resistance destroys all the other qualities when the breeze freshens. Itis only when the weight becomes 4 pounds or more that the mass momentum sueceeds in overcoming the friction of the air against these over-feathered wings. The birds first named in the table fly as unsteadily as the butterfly; the hoopoe, the armed plover, and the lapwing can advance against strong winds only by completely folding their wings. This deficiency diminishes with the increase in weight. The ibis flies better than the small heron, and both are distanced by the storks. Kia. 6.--The grey Heron. We find proof in this type that the useful, active surface of the wing lies in the hand and the forearm, and that the arm remains almost quiescent in flapping. The demonstration is palpable, as is ever the case in nature. The feathers of the humerus have been simply sup- pressed in most of the herons, and only those of the covert remain, which latter feathers are merely ornamental. The kestrel Falcon.—The kestrel is common in France. It inhabits our large cities. It is known by allobservers, and they doubtless have gathered their best knowledge from its evolutions. Its strength is great and it always rows when hunting; but when there comes a change of weather and the south wind sets in, then the creature climbs up soaring into the sky and exhibits its talents as a sailing bird, which talents are fully as great as might be expected from its mass. The peregrine Falcon.—A rare bird, and therefore difficult to study. An astonishing rower, reaching at times a velocity almost unique; the pigeon, the duck are then greatly out-distanced. - - - 442 THE EMPIRE OF THE AIR. = It soars well, but only when at leisure. It weighs 1.52 pounds, and rs) its surface amounts to 1.72 square feet, being in the proportion of 1.5 square feet to the pound. * * * ae * * * a Sat a J ) a ee, a Pages eee a Oye we \ } Fic. 7.—Kestrel Falcon. Hagles.—With the fish-hawk (Pandion fluvialis) we reach the heavy birds. We still find a bird which beats the air, but already the re- sults of inertia are manifest. When the mass is 2 pounds or more there appears a steadiness in flight not found among the 1-pound birds. Loe V Fia 8.—Peregrine Falcon. ies s eX The small eagles of Europe and of Africa, the imperial eagle with white back (Aquila heliaca), and the great golden eagle (Aquila chrysaéta) found in the Alps, all have the same modes of flight. Their talents as sailing birds increase with their weight. The necessities of their existence require many different qualities: First, they must be able to remain easily in the air, in order to survey the field, to watch a possible prey for whole hours; therefore they must be able to soar well, and this they do to perfection. Once the prey discovered, there needs be great speed to capture it, for often it is a duck, and a duek flies very fast; or it is a hare to be caught on the run, and this is not at all an easy enterprise. ‘To gain this great speed the eagle utilizes gravity; he lets himself drop 200 or 300 yards, and employs the velocity so acquired with great dexterity to cateh the game. These violent hunting exertions in catching other rapid animals require an enormous muscular power on the part of these birds, THE EMPIRE OF THE AIR. 443 A few eagles are to be found in Savoy; they are the finest, but they are rare. Some few are also to be seen in Egypt. From time to time a passing bird is seen with an unusual figure; when it is far distant one remembers that it is an eagle. In Algeria I was enabled to observe this creature close at hand. In winter there were always three or four stationed some 200 yards from my farmhouse. They were hunting for wild dueks on a drowned meadow. Sometimes they came to in- spect my barnyard, but from a distance, as they were not well re- ceived. Upon the whole, they kept nearly as far away as one would desire for a chicken’s sake, for it does not take long to pick up a fowl. There is a tremendous outery from the roosters, then a terrible hissing and scuffle, and an unhappy egg producer is seen ascending into the air, strewing her feathers by the way during her dizzy rise. The tales which are told of the eagle letting his prey drop when a gun is fired at him, even when beyond range, are perfectly true. Only in this, as in all else, it must be done at the proper moment. I once caused the experiment to be tried by a sportsman who doubted the faet. He made such haste that the eagle had not had time to kill the duck before letting him go; the result was that the eagle went one way and his victim another. As both by that time were three times beyond range, we had to be content with looking on. Not far from there, grew two great ash trees, where often in the spring eagles were seen in pairs. Here it was that occurred that wondrous tour de force of rising in the air, advancing against wind. an observation of prime importance already described in a preceding chapter. The great golden Eagle.—Here is undoubtedly the king of the birds. He possesses strength and courage. Having no enemy his equal, he peacefully passes long days in the beatitude of uncontested autocracy. The eagle fears none but man, and even him Hie fears but little. Brought to bay, he does not hesitate to hurl himself at his enemy. In eaptiv- ity he is at first exceedingly dangerous; his ferocious temper renders him an untamable animal. It requires great skill to succeed in im- pressing him with fear, and moreover he must not be excited, for then he will fight to the death. Nature has created him to keep down undue inerease. In this he is like the felis (tigers, ete.), the squales (dog-fish, ete.), and the esor (pike ete.) This tyrant of the air is abundantly provided with all the weapons necessary for his murderous life. lis arms consist in eight talons as long as a finger, curved and sharp pointed and moved by terrible muscles. His much-hooked beak serves him to earve the ani- mal perforated by his talons. His wings are large and exceedingly strong. They are pre- eminently adapted to sailing flight. He rarely beats the air unless there is no wind, or unless he is loaded with a prey. Pen is power- less to depict the majesty of his gait, the amplitude of the immense 444 THE EMPIRE OF THE AIR. circles which he sweeps in the air. At times he is absolutely motion- less. Heis examining the field or watching a prey; then suddenly he drops hundreds of yards. He falls like a meteor with the velocity of bodies falling through space. The speed is such that it produces a sound difficult to deseribe. It is not like that of the bullet or of the cannon ball, but must be heard to get a true conception. Then, when within a dozen feet of earth, his wings’ great strength safely checks his descent; and this at once—in half a second—merely by expanding his wings to their full spread. Hisskillis wonderful; never amiss makes he. His eyes are excellent; from high up in the air he spies out the rabit hiding in the thicket, or the inconspicuous duck swimming among the reeds. He uses his talons, the arms with which he kills, in a remarkably skillful manner. In cap- tivity, when he is hungry, he catches on the fly the morsels of meat thrown to him with a single claw, and never misses them if they pass within his reach. His movements have all the precision of those of small birds. He is free, quick, sharp, and powerful in his movements; above all, his coup @wil, the power of taking all in at a glance, is very remarkable. As the motor muscles of the eye-ball are but little devel- oped, he is compelled to turn his head whenever he desires to see any- thing sharply. His head then assumes splendid poses; his eye, that brilliant gem set under a deep arch, darts out lightning glances; his curved beak, his savage air, his sharp head feathers bristling up and forming a diadem—all that ensemble of vehement sweeping outline— make the eagle a model of power and of audacity. He lords it over a territory which he always selects of vast extent. All the smaller mammals dread him; the young of larger animals fear to be seen by him; the young chamois crouches up to its dam, the old bucks call the herd and stamp their feet with fury. Man himself—in infaney—has been attacked by him. He is intelligent only from a hunting point of view. A very interest- ing spectacle it is, that of a family of eagles making a battue in order to furnish the nest with provisions. The male is up 100 yards in air, quite motionless, the female is beating the thickets; her flight while doing this has an ease of great elegance; she follows the undulations of the ground without effort; glides from one hill to another, descends and re-ascends the mountain slope; then when a prey appears the two spouses are upon it almost at the same time. It often happens that a hare starting up 10 yards from the female is caught by the male, who was stationed 100 yards, in the air; he dives head foremost, is upon the prey in four or five sec- onds, and picks it up on the fly; then, if he isin the mountains, he first plunges in the valley with his load, and with great wing-beats re-as- cends to his eyrie. ‘There the spoils are divided, and this never takes place without much dispute, spite of the charms of matrimonial bonds. Aside from this old leaven of ferocity, which constantly appears, the 445 AIR, EMPIRE OF THE THE GL-0G 66-08 06-16 9-0F | 91-c¢ | FZ-0¢ saqaur hy stod “Npaloae spunod P-9LT 10 SOE 08 ureqysns 0} poamb ad oORJANS OATPELI YY —— G6CT ULDLL) | —sure} -BUS | oud ayo UW | areubs ~, 69L000-0 | G9Z000-0 80¢6000-0 E99000-0 829000-0 suagau by ——N( poureysns qUS Ta §,pargq jo UlRIS OC) | 160-9 1:06-9 1° jy moaod OL 66-0 cT-0 CZ1-0 80-0 L0-0 O29 TE (») “DUT JO UI pra aH ING | SFG T VW 98'F | 6&1 | | AF OnS 60-1 AE Sh S FL-0 | | 4 60°1 | 186-0 | IF 00°T COE-0 “SHOOT (q) “SOUTM Jo peordg } CLIGLE-0 SLIGGE-0 OOFLEG-0 GEFET-O OL0G60-0 OfTFGO-0 000460-0 suagaue “by “aN01 “109 WHY EM BORPUIG | | | | | | e "SUD. “par jo ULSTO AN A vil SI iar Eh saqavsAayo BpLUby poBlpay vpMb yw hae tare BIABT BIND Wy | STTRIANY Worpur TeSys SUSAR ED) oaquegy Bi ~ snorydAsa sna “>> snutisedted ope yy 9° === BAVISTIO VpPILOTe x) QUIVE OY IWAOS -odod ~*="="*9[589 Uaplo+) “9[5¥o poptez-a}tty Ay SOIL “HOOTRyy OLAS ‘yAut yond inl tat naae LE SoS] ( [efor apsry => -* OnSIBS Ag ~- TeLgdurr a_5r_w = een LAC WLO: O [01007 a St i OW SCO OOS pleznqgieg Soong sues gsass= oyanodyy) (oTRUL) URL aTjeutay) uLlayead WoonR yp > AT] e1e981) TOOT so sceee es! (ayeul) SLAM oyONOLy SLA9tV00 apNOLy *1Pomed “SULRTL TOULELOL) ‘HdA], AIOVIE NV NOOTVY ANZ 446 THE EMPIRE OF THE AIR. family is perfectly well brought up, and above all abundantly sup- pled with nourishment. During the education of their young, fam- ilies of eagles consume enormous quantities of game; the eaglets dur- ing this period require much food in order to furnish material for the growth of their great feathers. Nature then inspires the parents with an activity, which, happily for neighboring hares and rabbits, has nothing in common with their usual indolence. During this time, this period of activity, lasting a month, there is no respite; the vicinity of the eyrie is generally encumbered with putrefying carcasses; but luckily the crows have an eye out for everything which is spoiling, and possess the audacity to go for it even in the eagle’s nest. All things con- sidered, the crows run little risk; they are so adroit that even in a very confined space they manage to escape. The great golden eagle, which I possessed for years, had always a magpie with him. There is no sort of malicious trick that this mis- chievous little creature did not play upon his terrible and taciturn companion, but he received no more attention than the tom-tits, which may be seen with the telescope roving among the branches among which the nest of the eagle is built. The eaglets, after a month and a half, are as big as papa and mam- ma. Their first flights are timid enough and the parents then follow them with peculiar solicitude; then little by little, as skill in flight and hunting increases, the family affection wanes, the eyrie is abandoned, and each by degrees becomes a hunter upon his own account. - -— - Two eagles are rarely seen together when they have no young ones. Those shut up together in cages, all perish in the same manner, from a stroke of the talon, penetrating the brain. Vultures.—Let us rest long in our studies of this type of flight, for itis full of useful instruction: this is the type which will lead man to navigate the immensity of space. This great family of birds solves the problem of remaining in the air with the least expenditure of force; we may even say, in other words, that it is that which flies, or rather soars, with the utmost science. The life needs of the creature, here as everywhere, determine its kind of talent. The vulture, to make a living, must rise to a great height thence to gain a large field of observation, and he must there long remain without fatigue. Now consider the construction of this bird. His weight is very great, his wings are immense, both in length and breadth; his large proportional surface sustains him, and his great mass stores up mo- mentum. So we see him after a few beats of wing, at once begin to soar, Climbing up in the air and floating there with no expenditure of force, save for the start and for guidance. Certain species of vul- tures, particularly the larger, absolutely can, upon a windy day, leave their perch in the morning, travel many leagues, spend the whole day THE EMPIRE OF THE AIR. 447 in the air, and get back to their perch at night without one single beat of their wing's. In this family, velocity is only useful to the smaller species, which are, after a fashion, the purveyors of the larger; therefore the Egyptian vultures, the turkey-buzzards, the urubus, having to execute more varied movements expend much more force. Now, here is the way a vulture spends his day upon one or the other continent. The larger species have spent the night perched among rugged and inaccessible rocks, where they gather for shelter from the wind, if they have neither eggs nor young ones. The turkey-buzzards and the Egyptian vultures have been roosting in the lower regions, they are less fierce and much more intelligent. The sun comes out and dries the dew collected on their feathers; the vultures stretch their wings, limber up the joints and trim the growing quills with all the care that the maintenance of an essential organ needs. About 7 o’clock there are many flappings of the great wings, but without quit- ting the perch; then they sink their heads between their shoulders and resume their sinister, forbidding look. Between 8 and 9 o’clock the breeze begins to rise; once in a while the vulture glances into the valley through those magnificent eyes, unique in creation for their power, then with four or five great beats of wing he launches into space. He descends some 50 yards on rigid wings, and is then in full sailing flight. The smaller species, who are earlier risers, are already at work and searching for food. The large vultures sail at heights which vary with the species. The tawny vultures, the Sarcoramphes or papa of South America, gener- ally keep at elevations of 500 or 600 yards in the air; they are scarcely visible from the ground. The arrian vultures, the otogyps, the con- dors usually float much higher: they become quite invisible. The arrian vultures survey the movements of the tawny vultures, who in turn have an eye upon the Egyptian vultures, which latter again watch the doings of the kites, and especially of the crows. In America the urubus is watched by the turkey-buzzard, the latter by the papa, and this last by the condor. As all these great birds of prey thus establish a complete net-work of observation over the earth, from the mere fact of mutual surveillance, just as soon as a meal is found all the neighbors close by start in that direction, they are at once followed by the others, and thus they assemble very rapidly. They scent the carcass, is the common expression. In point of faet this is quite incorrect, being impossible if the birds are to windward of the dead animal. Their olfactory apparatus is so little developed that it is quite insufficient to guide them to a careass, even close at hand. This may be easily tested by hiding some tainted meat and attracting a vulture to the neighborhood. He will pass close to it without find- ing the meal; his sense of smell will not have revealed it. 448 THE EMPIRE OF THE AIR. The attitudes of these birds in the air are particularly worthy of at- tention. Their aspect when sailing upon a wind of about 11 miles per hour, which velocity is best adapted to exhibit their faculties, becomes a most interesting study of flight without beat of wing. It is clear that to rise upon so feeble a current of air they must spread all their surface. At this speed of 11 miles per hour the Egyp- tian vulture holds his wings to an even straight line; the Gypoteraxr cathartoide slightly brings the tips of his pinions forward: the tawny vulture advances them so much that the angle produced in front is 165°; the oricou or Nubian vulture goes much further, to make a sat- isfactory sketch of his attitude in flight, would require an angle of 440°. The great tawny Vulture-—We are now face to face with our desi- deratum. Look at his beak! We might disregard his talons, but the beak is terrible, of a force not to be imagined; garments are insuffi- cient to protect a man from this beak. —— a ioe lig. 9.—The tawny Vulture. Once he is dead, your gorge rises, for the smell is horrible. This odious perrtune is in no way fugacious, for it persists worse than musk; the whole body of the animal is impregnated with it. The room in which it remains for only a few hours will not lose that nauseating odor for many months. Then look out for lice; they are of good fig- ure. The first of the enormous parasites one sees, wandering over one’s clothes, causes inexpressible astonishment. However, notwith- standing its size, it is not dangerous, for it does not become accli- mated to man. But, passing by these petty annoyances, what a magnificent animal we have before our eyes. Here we have alar spread of 8 feet or more of wing, a weight of 16 pounds for this admirable living aeroplane. Beyond him there are but three or four varieties which surpass him in size, but without causing us to forget him. In any case he is quite their brother in sailing flight. Little need be said concerning the oricou (otogyps), save that the closest attention is required to recognize them in any group. As to the condors, inasmuch as their confoymation is the same as THE EMPIRE OF THE AIR. 449 that of the vultures of the ancient continent, we may say, without risk- ing a mistake, that their mode of performance in the air is practically the same. We commend the special study of the ways of the tawny vulture. This will better explain the action of sailing flight and the possibility of its imitation than long observations of all the other families of birds. The dominant note in this flight, the remarkable feature, is the decided tendeney to pertorm all required manceuvers and evolutions by gliding, by soaring flight, and to avoid all performances which in- volve flapping the wings. The oricou and the arrian are in the same category; they even exaggerate this tendency. All these large birds only beat the air when there is a dead calm, an atmospheric cireum- stance quite rare in Egypt, and as the slightest breeze suffices for their support it is rarely the tranquillity of the air which keeps them at rest. Rain troubles them much more than a calm; they seem in five minutes ia. 10.—'The tawny Vulture. to dread having wet wings. Great winds also disorder the econ- omy of their mode of flight; they are proportioned to sail well upon an average wind, so when the wind freshens much they begin to encounter difficulties; and when it blows a tempest they seek shel- ter and do not stir out. This results from the great breadth of their wings, a breadth which by the resistance it offers completely deranges their facilities for locomotion. In order to encounter strong currents of air, there must be narrow wings; thus, observe the gulls, the stormy petrel, the albatross. Ina wind where all aboard ship is clewed up you will see them in full activity, chasing ardently and moving with ease—they are in their element; there is no beating the air; they are then, as it were, set on two rigid supports, much curved downwards, skimming the wave with astonishing precision, fingering it with their wing tips, rising and descending with the billows without ever being overtaken. These same birds, in a wind of 11 miles per hour, a light breeze, are com- H. Mis, 114 29 A450 THE EMPIRE OF THE: AIR. pelled to settle down on the water, to dabble around like common ducks; while in this same wind the great land-sailing birds sweep with ease those great circles which transport them, without fatigue, up to enormous heights. Thus the vulture is the bird which can utilize the feeblest current of air in order to obtain sustaining power; he exaggerates the type of what we might call permanent rest in the air. I have already said—and I repeat it, a large vulture can make long flights without once beating the air. I have seen the following perform. ance, not once but a hundred times: At the abattoirs of oriental cities vultures are to be seen in great numbers, waiting a propitious moment to get at their food, and sustaining themselves in the air meanwhile without a single beat of wing. They mount up out of sight, they de- scend within 200 yards of earth, advance against the wind, glide with the wind, slide to the right or left, cruising in a single hour over all the surrounding country to see if there be not a dead animal more easy of access; and they perform these maneuvers the whole day long, making twenty ascensions of 1,000 yards each, gliding over 100 leagues, and all this without one single stroke upon the air. ie. 11.—Oricou or Nubian Vulture. When you go still-hunting for a tawny vulture, take notice how he first comes into sight; he does not then appear to be a large bird. At the altitude at which he habitually soars he appears of exactly the same size as the kites and the Egyptian vultures; he makes no more impression than they. You will however learn quickly to distinguish him by the angle to the front produced by his wings, by the absence of wing beats, and above all, by the slowness and steadiness with which he moves in space. This is an infallible sign by which to re- cognize him as far as the eye ean reach. It is only much later that his true size will be understood, when he is only 200 or 300 yards off; and as he approaches within that distance he will grow in appear- ance much faster than other birds. You will turther distinguish him by the peculiar spread of his wing tips. We may say that this is THE EMPIRE OF THE AIR. A451 the bird who spreads his primary feathers most widely apart from each other. There is at the extremity an open space between each quill about five times the width of the feather. Still another peculiarity: the primary feathers, instead of tapering towards the point, are constructed on the reverse plan; they seem to be implanted into the wing by the thin end: the outer tip being mate- rially wider than the part which seeins to be attached to the wing, and which precedes the main widening of the barbs. These large feathers, widest at their tip and spread asunder, present a curious outline which would please artists greatly if they could cbserve this bird in his native habitat. To the peculiar construction described we must add the effects of the partial rotation of the quills within their sockets, which action is ob- served only in these large birds. These quills must be wonderfully strong and elastic, for the birds put them to severe proofs. During the efforts which he makes when starting up fromthe ground and when his pectoral muscles are dome their utmost, the tips of the feather point directly to the zemth. In short, from every point of view these ereat birds, when free, are exceedingly interesting to observe. There are altitudes, quite unknown to those who only see the bird in museums, which would confer suecess on an animal painter, if he reproduced them. But there must be freedom; otherwise, we have only eagles motion- less as milestones, or ill-smelling vultures worrying themselves to death, their heads smothered between their shoulders; two aspects which have nothing in common with that of these kings of air proudly traversing the immensity of the skies. The one cireumstanece which frequently deprives the observer of the chance of witnessing their in- teresting evolutions is the bird’s alarm. At the slightest apprehen- sion these great creatures resort to rowing flight, they desire to get rapidly beyond danger, so that developing ali their powers with strokes of wing they quickly tly away. Their power of vision must be great; we may sately assume this, because these birds, of all flying creatures, are those whose mode of life requires the most extensive views. A sparrow needs a field of view of but a few hundred yards: a more powerful organ of sight would be needless, and therefore atrophied in a few generations; the sea birds need to observe the surface of the waves for only some dozen yards or so. It is not among these creatures that we must seek for those pertect lenses, capable of collecting all divergent rays of light. The hunting birds of prey, such for instance as the falcons and the sagles, often scrutinize the surface of the ground from a great height; the latter birds, especially, sometimes maintain themselves at an ele- vation of 400 or 500 yards while hunting; but what is that distance 452 THE EMPIRE OF THE AIR. when compared with the 3 or 4 miles required by the vultures to study their field of research? We may safely conclude that the constant necessity for seeing further than other birds has caused them to acquire in the organ of vision a per- fection not possessed by other birds. We must therefore be ourselves invisible to be able to witness their extraordinary evolutions when sailing; or better still, we must seek them in the primitive countries where they have not yet learned to be afraid of man, and even there we should wear adress which shall not attract their attention, for other- wise they will not come down to a meal. In order to see these birds. French observers must leave home. There® are no vultures nearer than the high plateaus of central Auvergne, the Alps, and the Pyrenees, where there may be found (very rarely how- ever) the Gyps occidentalis, which is—on a smaller scale—the dupli- cate of Gyps fulcus, or tawny vulture of Africa. It chance does not bring to us one of the latter master soarers, we must entice him: a dead carcass planted in some isolated spot is the best means to attract him. By crossing the Mediterranean to Algeria one is certain, with a proper bait, to see the bird, particularly in the autumn; for it is rather an uncertain enterprise to endeavor to find him in northern Africa in other months than September, October, and November. There are undoubtedly a few at all seasons, but it is only during those three months that they are in considerable numbers; either in consequence of their annual migrations from north to south, or from other causes. In any case, even where there are many they are not uniformly abundant. Sometimes we may chance upon a flock of a hundred, and then remain for years without seeing them except afar off. It is unfortunately an unknown bird to those interested in the prob- lem of flight, for not one person in a hundred has seen it in the air. In Algeria, even in Cairo, (where there are some sailing over the city every day during three months of the year,) most of the European residents are unaware of their existence. But when the student takes the pains to go where the bird is to be found; when he sees this great animal, large as a sheep, painfully rising from the ground with strokes upon the air whose hissing is heard 300 yards away in the silence of the desert; when he sees them afterwards describing their endless sweeps, he ap- preciates this most interesting sight; every human being is chained to the spot; even the Arab is stirred with emotion; for in this bird we have found motion under a new aspect; it resembles as to majesty and impressiveness the action of a locomotive at full speed. When we watch a martin flashing through space we think of high speed mechanism; when it is a snipe or a partridge which flies off, we are reminded of the action of a released spring; a gull suggests per- petual motion or the endless sweep of a pendulum; but the view of the great vulture in sailing flight inspires at once the desire for imitation; it is a dirigible parachute which man may hope to re-produce. OF THE AIR. EMPIRE THE PITT 98-61 | “swaqawe “Dy eeStod NPALLOAB spunod F-9LT 10 SO[EL 08 IR ISTS OF poarmb -9.1 9ORJAINS "SUDA SULLY -sns Io} ouL ainnbs oud @aTqR [OT | | “suajau “Dy —fq poureysns QUID toM §,prLq Jo MRIs OQ TOF-9 Q ee | tnor10d -OLg ChF-O Gc-0 (p) “OUTTA Jo Apr uBo pl YW FG-8 c19-T “sajayy (9) “ST ULM fo proadg ‘smommtoads Jo FSTAM Wee 9LSFPO'L CTGETF- 0 suagaun Dy “M04 “10D WIYQTAL AOVJLUG GOLT "SUDAL) “pag jo | WYSIO AN | 0 au ‘dX, AWAGINA ~-snyd das sopdtnioo1eg akg ~--rBporine sdvco1o -==5 = SUTORUOUL OINQTN | ~--smaquy sdiry SITBLUApLov0 Sd XY) xudarypods ry) ~---- uded soydurt ong > snaaqydouotod wot doo Stoywy sopreyyny) RNY SoqVyIVO OULU DIPLPUATOS “UROLLOULY Oo STIG Semana cimer eame ALO [DTLON) LOOT) See eat G ULISo] ee OC SANK ANON A Bests syejueprooe sd Xr) xnae1od Ar) IOI OER IIT TY § 125 oto} ood Sees ose === nqnay) 5 Aaa ier acim a CCU LARS *TOMAL ST | * “QUILL WOULULOZ | 454 THE EMPIRE OF THE AIR. THEORY OF THE AEROPLANE. Vertical and horizontal equilibrium.—To change the equipoise of his aéroplane in the vertical direction, the sailing bird makes use of his tail, which under the action of the imping air serves in all respects as a rudder; but he has a much more energetic means of displaying his center of gravity, which consists in altering his center of figure; that is to say by changing the form of his sustaining surface, and by dis- placing it in relation to his body. ; \ Fic. 12.—Wings in normal attitude. When the bird has disposed his organs of sailing flight in proper equipoise, when his aéroplane is set for efficient progress, as for example in Fig. 12, should any necessity whatever require him to aseend sud- denly, he will not employ his tail for that purpose, especially if it be a teeble one, because it will not produce sufficient action, but he stretches luis wings forward, Fig. 15. His center of gravity and his center of figure thus recede decidedly to the rear, and upward gliding and ascen- sion must follow. Wic. 18.—Wings projected. If, on the other hand, the bird assumes the following attitude, Fig. 14, the center of gravity being carried forward produces downward gliding. These displacements, produced at will by the variable position of the wings and the guidance obtained by the action of the air on the tail, constitute the bird’s directing power in a vertical direction. As to guidance in the horizontal direction, it is very simply brought about. It is also almost always procured through the derangement in the equipoise of the a®roplane, except with birds having very ample tails and thus possessing an organ capable ofethis service; these use it constantly, as witness the naucler and the kite. THE EMPIRE OF THE AIR. 455 When a bird is sweeping in a circle, the wing pointing towards the center of that circle is always less extended than that which sweeps the circumference, so that when a sailing bird is seen slightly to fold one of his wings, it may be known that he is about to turn towards Fic. 14.—Wings retracted The whole body aids in this movement; the whole bird bears itself to that side, the tail, even when rudimentary and hence feeble in action, concurs in the exeeution of this maneuver. It is an instinctive action among the feathered tribe, just as with man, when he uses his arms to equilibrate himself on his legs. The two wings never balanee each other perfectly; one side is always heavier than the other, as the surfaces are not equally divided. Differences in weights and surfaces cause a tilt towards the side most heavily loaded or exposing least surface, as the case may be; hence aéroplaues, whether machines or birds, always tend to sweep to one side or the other. To obtain rectilinear progression some corrective force inust intervene. In the animated a@roptane this force consists in life; in artificial flying apparatus man will needs produce this foree. It might be possible to produce rectilinear progression automatically, in large aéroplanes, by means of electrical apparatus, in which contacts would be made through the use of nercury which would seek its level. When we observe attentively a salling bird gliding in a strong and irregular current of wind, we are struck with the rapidity with which the center of gravity is shifted in order to satisfy the needs for support and for maintaining the course. A puff of wind immediately results in a flexing of wings, their tips swing to the rear, the center of grav- ity advances in consequence, and thus neutralizes the increased pres- sure produced by the acceleration in the current of air. This adroit evolution, performed just at the right time, which at first sight seems to be an instinctive action of the creature, is probably after all simply automatic. We may be assured that this change in form of surface, this alteration in the equipoise is not produced by the con- scious vital action of the nerves, but is simply a phenomenon of muscu- lar elasticity. The bird receives the shock of the wind unconsciously, his attention is otherwise engaged, his wings are stretched at their e 456 THE EMFIRE OF THE AIR. usual tension. When they encounter a pressure greater than usual, the tips yield, swing to the rear, and automatically perform the nee- essary ancuver. In mechanical aéroplanes it will be indispensable, and very easy, to imitate nature in this act; two springs of calculated strength, main- taining the wings in the position of ordinary equipoise, might very well answer the purpose. Tt follows from the facts just stated that it is probable that birds often sail unconsciously. This is the conclusion resulting from attentive observation. Whosoever has closely watched sailing birds will’ infer that during three-fourths of the time they expend neither force nor will power, that direct action on the part of the creature only occurs when he makes a decision, such as to change his gait or his direction. This line of thought leads us to fancy that the soaring birds sleep on the wing. Assuredly no bird actually goes dead to sleep during flight, yet those sufficiently gifted to spend six or eight hours in the air for no particular purpose must reach a state nearly approaching slumber, and which must be very restful. This may resemble the slumber of the horse while standing, in which he still retains sufficient control over his muscles to preserve the equipoise on his four legs. How far will automatic mechanism permit man to progress with his aéroplanes? It is easy to foresee, at first glance, that he need take action only when first starting, upon reaching decisions, and in final alighting; the rest of the time his faculties may be otherwise occupied, and it is quite certain that mere support will be attained without com- pelling hin to intervene at each instant. 2 MAN-FLIGHT THEORETICALLY CONSIDERED. Is the reader then to infer that the author has dared to dream of surpassing nature in aérial evolutions? It is certain that before talking of improving upon nature, it would be more becoming to make an at- tempt to imitate her; not as a lord of creation, but as an humble adept. Yet, as the author has seriously contemplated producing a larger bird than any existing in nature, and as there may be some value in his thinkings, notwithstanding the deficiency of experiments, he will enter upon the question of possible man-flight. We are led to consider this question by nature herself; she occasion- ally lifts a corner of the veil through certain evolutions of her favorite children. In point of fact, when we continually observe the sailing birds, when we expend on this stady much time, much action, and much thought, we are rewarded once in a while—rarely, itis ttue—by the sight of some manceuver which sets us to dreaming of its imitation. We say to ourselves upon observing it: But why does not the bird, instead of fatiguing himself by wheeling, rowing or struggling as he generally does, always employ his present evolution, so economical of force? THE EMPIRE OF THE AIR. 457 The answer is simple. [f there be a creature with super-abundant life, it is the bird. With him, movement is not the result of reflection; it proceeds from the great excess of power he possesses, and as he knows no will but his own, he can not resist the desire and follows it to the detriment of his force. The simple comparison of the different modes of flight is already a step towards suecess; we have been able to select one mode as most available to man, and as best within the reach of his means of imita- tion. Let us take another step forward and consider which evolu- tions, among the numerous maneuvers performed by our chosen type, the great tawny vulture, it is most easy to re-produce, and what is most profitable for our purposes. Then, even while canvassing this selection, if we meet any happy thought, let us analyze it coolly but without shyness; for, by carrying it to an extreme we may perhaps find something new. Assuredly, when man shall have sueceeded in utilizing the wind in flight, he will bring to bear his ingenuity upon that art and it will enable him not only to imitate nature but to surpass her perform- ances. Thus it will not be impracticable for him to produce a sailing apparatus more steady and slow than the condor or the oricou vulture; or perhaps a motor machine possessing greater speed than the teal; this he will do by exaggerating the features of these different modes of flight. But he will excel especially in the profound study of the seience of flight. He will not, like the bird, be constantly distracted by his necessities or by fear; every movement will be foreseen and provided for; every danger and contingency will be vanquished in advance, and he will need but to mind his evolutions —a duty which he will fulfill resolutely, with his characteristic science. As methods of getting abeut—not to mention the railway, the steam- boat, or the ballooun—man has inveuted, out and out, two new modes of locomotion, complete in all their parts and with no analogue in nature: IT mean the skate and the velocipede; why then should he not bring to perfection a mode already known, which nothing warrants considering as having reached its utmost limit? When the first dread has been conquered, when the horror of empty space has been mastered through habitude, intelligent man, after hav- ing re-produced all the gaits of the birds, will want to improve upon them. He will inquire whether there are not possibilities beyond them. Then with varied sustaining surfaces he will attempt to rise, advancing into the wind, or he will rise with a stern wind, both evolutions being performed without sweeping in circles; and beyond all this, he will attempt gliding’ backward. ; With the wind dead against him, man will needs study whether it is most advantageous to rise direct, even advancing to windward, as in the case of the eagles already herein described, or to sweep around in circles, thus drifting back and afterwards regaining the lost ground 458 THE EMPIRE OF THE AIR. at the expense of height. This last procedure is the one generally employed by the birds, but as we know that they can do better upon occasion, it might be well to experiment. Birds are like all inferior creatures: they do not like to tax their brain with sustained attention, and the circling sweep brings no tax upon their heads, while it enables them to search for food. inasmuch as man will only desire to get forward over the ground, and possesses greater faculties for combina- tions than birds, the care in balancing required by direct ascension will be mere sport to hin. » With the wind abeam nothing is more simple. All there is to do, so to speak, is to allow ourselves to sail. The sailing birds while doing this wear a happy look; the observer feels that they are laboring neither with body nor with brain, especially if the wind be brisk enough to sustain them well. If the breeze is feeble then they have to take to circling from time to time; but when it is sufficiently strong sailing on a quarter wind is certainly the most convenient, and it is the first mode which will be suecessfuliy employed by man. it will be the system causing the least difficulty, and which man will utilize much more than the bird, the former being always anxious to get to his journey’s end. A brisk wind ought to permit of direct ascent, even if blowing from the direction sought; by facing the wind and rising while drifting back, or even by receiving it in the rear of the weroplane, that is to say by eliding with the wind during a lull, and turning an angle and descend- ing slightly during a puffof wind. These two different manceuvers are performed by the sailing birds, but they employ them so rarely that they may be said not to be in their line. With a good wind, when we desire to proceed in its direction, both the ascent and the horizontal progress will be achieved in the latter manner. Summing up, even admitting that man shall invent no new manceu- vers, he will nevertheless have a choice among many, and their combi- nation will constitute what ought to be termed the human type of flight. We may condense our studies into a smaller compass and say: When the aéroplane enters into motion, its center of pressure varies 1n the direction of that motion and is displaced by an amount which varies with the speed. With machines “heavier than the air” aérial navigation may be com- passed with two separate classes of apparatus: (1) By machines with prepellers. (2) By aéroplanes without propellers. The first class is quite ontside of my present design. Mechanical science will eventually furnish quite a number of different solutions; such as flapping wings, propelling screws, rocket propulsion, ete. The second class—that is to say, the aéroplane without a propeller— it is the object of the present essay to promote. What has been stated herein permits me to affirm that in the flight of the sailing birds (the vultures, the eagles, and other birds which fly without beating the air), ascension is produced by the skillful use of the force of the wind, THE EMPIRE OF THE AIR. 459 and that the guidance is the result of skillful manceuvers; so that by a moderate wind a man can, with an aéroplane, unprovided with any motor whatever, rise up into the air and direct himself at will, even against the wind itself. Man therefore can, with a rigid surface and a properly designed apparatus, repeat the manceuvers of ascension and guidance performed by the soaring birds, and will need to expend no muscular force whatever, save for guidance. As to the exact shape to be given to the aéroplane, it need not be discussed in this chapter, because there are many shapes and devices which may be employed; but all forms of apparatus, however dissimi- lar, must be based upon this idea, which I repeat: Ascension is the result of the skillful use of the power of the wind, and no other force is required. It will doubtless be very difficult for many persons to admit that a bird can, with a moderate wind, remain a whole day in the air with no expenditure of force, They will endeavor to suppose some indiscern- ible pressures or some imperceptible beats. In point of fact the hu- man mind does not readily admit the above affirmation; if is astonished and seeks for all the evasions !t can find. All those who have not seen the performance say, when ascension without expenditure of force is mentioned to them, ‘Oh, well, there were some motions which escaped your observation.” It even occurs sometimes that a chance or super- ficial observer who has had the good fortune to see this manceuver well performed by a bird, when he turns it over in his mind after- wards feels a doubt invading his understanding; the performance seems so astonishing, so paradoxical, that he asks himself whether his eyes did not deceive him. For observation of this manceuver, in order to carry absolute con- viction, must bear upon the performance of the largest vultures, and upon them alone, and this is the reason: it is because all the other birds which ascend into the air by this process do not perform the necessary decomposition of forces required in all its naked simplicity. If we observe small birds, we see creatures weighing only a few ounces, the martin, the bee-eater, ete., perform this manceuver in high winds and high up in the air. But even when carefully observed with a telescope a doubt remains, in consequence of the enermous power of the martin, who can pro‘ect himself forward more than a yard witha single beat of wing. The kites, buzzards, bustards, ete., when they rise, wheeling round, perform such complicated mancuvers as to permit a doubt. -— - To reach a vigorous, undeniable demonstration, we must diseard even the great eagle, whose mancuver is not easily followed by the eye, and we must absolutely confine our observations to the vultures. Mere theorizing would never open up the conception of sailing flight; more- over, we may consider it a dead letter when human life is to be risked in experiment. The moral result of observation is infinitely more con- 460 THE EMPIRE OF THE AIR. vincing, but, alas, it is beyond the reach of most persons. It is not in Paris that the seeker will become convinced, it is not even in Europe, where soaring birds are so rare that months may pass without one being seen. In short, one must go abroad to enter this new path of investigation ; the path through which I have reached absolute conviction, and which must be followed by all who desire to know what can be done. If they will thus observe the soaring birds in their own habitat, they will doubtless witness all the performances which I have described, and probably still others which have escaped me. But to be convinced « man must see; for to see, even only once, is better than a whole volume of explanations. Therefore, O reader, if you are interested in this subject, go and see for yourself and be edified. Go to the regions where dwell the birds which perform these demonstrations; and when you have beheld them for a few instants, being already initiated as to what to observe, comprehension will at once come into your understanding. Imperfect machines.—It is somewhat unfortunate that [ have not suf- ficient space left for a little treatise upon ‘paper arrows.” This school boy’s toy, simple as it may seem, is quite instructive when its principles are studied. The arrow may be constructed in various forms, from the acute triangle, which is the type of speed, to the broadside rectangle, the aéroplane type, proportioned like a stormy petrel, in which the plane is narrowest in the direction of its motion. Moreover, we note that nature has not constructed all sailing birds upon the same model. If we compare the aspect of the great tawny vulture with that of the stormy petrel, who sails wonderfully in a high wind; or with the aspect of the tern, or the gannet, or the frigate-bird, when the latter assume their arrow-like forms, we shall perceive that there is a great diversity of models; we might even say there is an antagonism in models, for we have noted that all of them are pertect in their flight as considered in relation to their life needs. But, not- withstanding these diversities, the gliding flight of each creature, whether supported on elongated or on square wings, is always based upon the same general principle; it results from the possibility of shift- ing the center of gravity by a change in the position of the sustaining surfaces, and this confers the faculty of maintaining equipoise in the air. Aéroplanes, provided with the necessary sustaining surfaces, and equipped with this faculty, will be sufficient to reproduce the sailing evolutions of the birds. We may now conclude, therefore, that a par- ticular, special shape is really not indispensable for aérial locomotion ; all sorts of forms, even the most curious, may be utilized; only, they will produce the required decompositions of forces, under the action of the wind, in the ratio of their individual perfections. Man may succeed in gliding on the wind with cireular, triangular, THE EMPIRE OF THE AIR. 461 or rectangular forms, with aérial rafts in the shape of an arrow, with irregular forms even, provided always that he can shift the center of gravity as required; provided also, that the sustaining surface be suffi- cient in extent, and that the speed of the wind, or the speed of the wroplane, shall be about 22 miles per hour. The problem, thus broadly stated, leads to some curious consequences. Eventually, when success is achieved, we shall perhaps be quite surprised to see some second-hand apparatus circulating in the air; some eroplanes full of holes and rents, patched up, damaged and mended, holding together by the grace of Providence, and yet gliding along after a fashion. These will not be the best to resist the vicissi- tudes of the wind, but they will get along just the same. Now, what is the proof of this? I have conferred liberty upon kites and upon Egyptian vultures whose flying surfaces were in deplorable condition; some with wings almost plucked to bare poles, some with a wing and a half only (this lack of counterpoise in their sustaining surfaces trou- bles them greatly). | remember a particular pelican who glided upon an incredible pair of wings. He had lost six or seven primary feathers at least, and the rest of his plumage was far from complete. Yet, when the wind blew fresh, he launched out from sloping ground and sometimes succeeded in getting under way. Once fairly wp in air, he became most surprising. Gliding upon his ragged wings he would skim within a yard of the observer, his neck bent back, his head rest- ing upon his shoulders with an air of supreme impertinence. He would go out for a tour over the sea, would come back to inspect the market, and complete his perigrinations by settling down on the waves. A most curious thing it was to see this creature, which was quite tame, pass close at hand, very swiftly, near the spectators. He produced a strange sensation by gliding by with ease and no exertion, It was a foretaste of the pleasures of wrial speed—a sort of class-room gliding, in which the bird-professor was teaching the beholders the art of sailing flight. After all these digressions, the main question which comes up is the following: What is the least surface required to sustain a man and apparatus, weighing 176 pounds? The exact answer must be ascertained by experiment; but we may even now say that it probably will astonish by its mediocrity. My own idea is that 82 square feet will suffice, as a minimum, to sustain 176 pounds in sailing flight. # * # # ae % * Speculations as to results—Atter having discussed the benetits to be derived from the conquest of the air, let us now consider the pertur- bations which it may cause. Let us see whether there is not some blot on the other side of the shield; for so important an achievement as this new mode of locomotion can not take place without producing dis- turbances, A462 THE EMPIRE OF THE AIR. Let us admit that the problem is solved, and let us speculate upon ° the effects upon society. Let us begin with property. Property will be riven with an enormous gap. With the patent insufficiency of in- closure, with intrusion into the privacy of home, hedges, walls, will no longer be of service; the inclosure under the roof will be incomplete and will need emendation. All this will constitute a curtailment of the privileges of possession, for a little consideration evidences the dimin- inished efficiency of barriers. We shall no longer be at home as here- tofore; there is no need to dwell on this, it is easily grasped. But what of the collectors of customs and the police in the presence of this new mode of locomotion? They often fail to control existing ways of communication which nevertheless are upon well-defined lines, where all must pass and are easily inspected. What will these officers do when they must watch the air, that immense pathway some 4 or 5 miles high? During the day it may be possible to faney some partly satisfactory surveillance; with a large force, good telescopes, fast cruisers of the air, we might perhaps exercise some control, but at night, what is to be done? How can we bar the empire of air? How can we so much as watch it when opaque fog annihilates the ef- fects of electric reflectors? Smugglers will certainly have such facili- ties for plying their industry, that the only thing to do will be to sup- press the custom-house entirely. But then what will become of the revenues and the balance of the budget? These perturbations to property, to the customs, to the po- lice, ave mere bagatelles when compared to the perturbations which will result in political matters. After all there may be found in time means more or less sufficient to supervise the transportation of goods; men will become accustomed to the new limitation of privacy; but as to political matters we shall find ourselves in the presence of such fa- cilities for confusion that the like has not been seen since the tower of Babel. What will become of the army, this new invention being successful? All will have to be done over again; the fortifications, the manceuvers, the defenses of the frontiers, strategy, all is brought tonaught. It will even cause, in a very short time, the suppression of nationalities; ‘races will be rapidly commingled or destroyed, for there will »o longer be efficient barriers, not even those movable barriers which we term armies. No more frontiers! No more insular seclusion! No more for- tresses! Whither are we drifting? | It must be confessed that we are face to face with the great unknown. What will be the result? Will society perish? Assuredly no! As to the procedure that society will adopt to conform to this new mode of existence I have not the least idea, but it may be attirmed that society will emerge victorious from the struggle; that after the tempest caused by injured interests a period of restored equilibrium willfollow; and thatin theend at the cost of a time of distress, humanity will enter into possession of the empire of the air. oe THE EMPIRE OF THE AIR. _ 463 Thus we may recover our equanimity and calmly consider the pos- sibility of success. We may proceed toward that pharos, that beacon, which is the immeasurable law of nature and which we call progress; for human progress is Synonymous with welfare. Finally, I counsel the greatest possibile prudence to all who under- take to solve the problem of sailing fight. Let them carefully canvass all the causes of accidents which it is possible to foresee; but once they have made this canvass, once they have completed their researches, I recommend them to act with energy and will, and I know of no better word to say to them than the one with which I began this inonograph: Osez”—daring wins. PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1892: By Prof. Orts T. MAson. Anthropology has busied itself with the multiplication of societies, journals, congresses and other means of co-operative work. The bene- fit of this is seen in many ways; it prevents duplication; it puts ma- terial where it should be looked for; but, chief of all, it enables men to undertake enterprises that are entirely beyond the capacity and the resources of individuals. The inereasing favor of the science is observed in the fact that most of the leading governments have at great expense organized explorations and studies. ‘+ The year 1852,” said Prof. Macalister before Section H of the British Association, “has not been futile in discoveries bearing on those great questions that are of popular interest.” Indeed, there has been a growth of wholesome doubt on questions concerning which men’s minds were thought to be settled. This will be seen most apparent in the archeological area, especially in America. The examination of ancient corner stones and foundations, the clearing away of encumbering materials, are prepara- tory to the strengthening of the structure at every point. The American Association for the Advancement of Science was held in Rochester, N. Y. As usual, the science of anthropology received a larger amount of attention, even outside section H. This fact is noticeable especially in the large number of papers devoted to domes- ticated animals and plants. The adress of Vice-President Holmes had for its topic ** the evolu- tion of the asthetic.” The following papers were read - Proposed classification and international nomenclature of anthropologic sciences, D. G. Brinton. Tusayan legends of the Snake and Flute people, Matilda C. Stevenson. Primitive number systems, L. L. Conant. The Peabody Museum Honduras expedition, F. W. Putnam. Exploration of the main structure of Copan, Honduras, M. H. Saville. Vandalism among the antiquities of Yucatan and Central America, id, Aboriginal quarries of flakable stone and their bearings upon the question of palwolithic man, W. H. Holmes. Sacred pipestone quarries of Minnesota and ancient copper mines of Lake Su- perior, id. On the so-called palwolithic implements of the upper Mississippi, id. Brief remarks upon the alphabet of Landa, H. T. Cresson. Be aie. L430 465 466 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1892. Comparative chronology, W. J. McGee. The early religions of the Iroquois, W. M. Beauchamp. Early Indian forts in New York, id. Prehistoric earthworks in Henry County, Ind., T. B. Redding. Prehistoric objects from the Whitewater Valley, Amos W. Butler. Indian camping sites near Brookville, Ind., id. Earthworks near Anderson, Ind., id. Pebbles chipped by modern Indians as an aid to the study of the Trenton gravel implements, H. C. Mercer. Ancient earthworks in Ontario, C. A. Hirschfelder. ’ Prehistoric trade in Ontario, id. Fort Ancient, Ohio, 8. 8. Scoville. Copper implements and ornaments from the Hopewell group, Ross County, Ohio; W. K. Moorehead. The ruins ef southern Utah, id. Demonstration of a recently discovered cerebral porta. Pueblo myths and ceremonial dances, F. H. Cushing. Ancient hearth in stratified gravels on Whitewater River, Indiana, A. W. Butler. Skull of a pig having an arrowhead imbedded in the bone, E. W. Claypole. Ruins of Tiahuanaco, A. EK. Douglas. Involuntary movements, Joseph Jastrow. Pottery from a mound in Peoria, Ill., J. Kost. A definition of anthropology, 0. T. Mason. The Department of Anthropology at the World’s Columbian Exposition, F. W. Putmam. Model of serpent mound, Ohio, id. The address before Section I by its vice-president, Lester F. Ward, should not be overlooked in this connection. The subject is, *‘ The psychologic basis of social economics.” The active co-operation of Sec- tion H in anthropology at the World’s Fair was secured, and the association was adjourned to Madison, Wis., So as to be near the city of Chicago. Plans were laid to have the Association and the Congress of Anthropology continuous. At the British Association for the Advancement of Science, held in Edinburgh, August, 1892, the following committees reported work done along the lines of American anthropology: Report of the committee appointed for the purpose of editing a new edition of “Anthropological Notes and Queries.” teport of the committee for investigating the ruins of Mashonaland and the habits and customs of the inhabitants. Report of the committee appointed to report on the pre-historic and ancient remains of Glamorganshire. Highth report of the committee appointed to investigate the physi- cal characters, languages, and industrial and social condition of the Northwestern Tribes of the Dominion of Canada. Remarks on linguistic ethnology, introductory to the report on the Kootenay Indians of Southeastern British Columbia. Report on the Kootenay Indians of Southeastern British Columbia. Report of the committee appointed to investigate the habits, customs, physical characteristics, and religions of the natives of India. . tt Daan ll raha 0 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1892, 467 Report of the committee for the purpose of carrying on the work of the anthropometric laboratory. The address before Section H—Anthropology—was delivered by President Alexander Macalister, M. D., F. R. S., professor of anatomy in the University of Cambridge. The following papers were read: (1) On the organization of local anthropological research, by Ek. W. Brabrook. (2) Discovery of the common occurrence of paleolithic weapons in Scotland, by xev. Frederick Smith. (3) Notes on cyelopean architecture in the South Pacifie Islands, by R. A. Stern- dale. (4) On a fronto-limbic formation of the human cerebrum, by Dr. L. Manouvrier, protessor at the School of Anthropology, Paris. (5) The Indo-Europeans’ conception of a future life andits bearing upon their religions, by Prof. G. Hartwell Jones, M. A. (6) Exhibition of photographs, weapons, etc., of the Toba Indians of the Gran Chaco, by J. Graham Kerr. (7) Exhibition of pre-paleolithie flints, by J. Montgomerie Bell. (8) The present inhabitantsot Mashonaland and their origin, by J. Theodore Bent. (9) On the value of art in ethnology, by Prof. A. C. Haddon. (10) Similarity of certain ancient necropoleis in the Pyrenees and in North Brit- ain, by Dr. Phené, 1. s. a. (11) A contribution to the ethnology of Jersey, by Andrew Dunlop, M. D., F. GS. (12) On the past and present condition of the natives of the Friendly Islands, or Tonga, by R. B. Leefe. (13) Damma Island and its natives, by P. W. Bassett-Smith, surgeon R. N., F. R. M. 8. (A discussion on anthropometric identification was opened by Dr. L. Manouvrier, of Paris. ) (14) Some developmental and evolutional aspects of criminal anthropology, by T. S. Clouston-M. D., F. BR. S. EF. (15) On a coiffure from the South Seas, by Sir W. Turner. (16) On the articular processes of the vertebrie in the gorilla compared with those in man, and on costo-vertebral variation in the gorilla, by Prof. Struthers, NED LED. (17) On the probable derivation of some characteristic sounds in certain Jan- guages from cries or noises made by animals, by J. Mansel Weale. (18) On the prehensile power of infants, by Dr. Louis Robinson. (19) The integumentary grooves on the palm of the hand and sole of the foot of man and the anthropoid apes, by David Hepburn, M. p., C. M., F. R. Ss. E., senior demonstrator of anatomy, University of Edinburgh. (20) On the contemporaneity of man and the moa, by H. O. Forbes. (21) A discussion on human osteometry was opened by Dr. J. G. Garson. (22) Exhibition of composite photographs of United States soldiers, by Dr. J. G. Garson. : (23) Observations as to physical deviations from the normal as seen among 50,000 children, by Francis Warner, M. b. (24) On the brain of the Australian, by Pref A. Macalister. (25) On skulls from Mobanga, Upper Congo, by Prof. A. Macalister. (26) On some facial characters of the ancient Egyptians, by Prof. A. Macalister. (27) On some very ancient skeletons from Medum, Egypt, by J. G. Garson, M. pb. (28) On a skull from Port Talbot, Glamoreanshire, by C. Phillips, B. a. (29) On trepanning the human skull in prehistoric times, by Robert Munro, m, A,, M. D, 468 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1892. (30) On the use of narcaties by the, Nicobar Islanders, and certain deformations connected therewith, by E. H. Man. (31) Exhibition of the philograph—a simple apparatus for the preparation of lecture diagrams, by G. W. Bloxam, M. A. (32) Exhibition of photographs representing the prehensile power of infants, by L.. Robinson, M. b. The strong point for anthropology in the British Association is its eminent committees, which have guided exploration in many directions. In the French Association for the Advancement of Science, held at Pau under the presidency of Dr. Magitot, September 15-21, the following papers on the program are of interest to anthropologists in general: Affinities between the Basque language and certain idioms of the two continents Charency, Vinson, Manouvrier, Azema, Guillibeau, Guido Cora, and Dodgson; Ler Tziganes, Guido Cora; archeology of the Pyrenees, Cartailhac; depopulation of France, Chervin; prehistoric finds in the valley of the Vézére, Girod et Masserrat; anthropology and the archeology of the Pyrenees, a discussion, proposed by M. Piette; Le Tonkin, Barbier. The question of the Basques, their anthropological characters, their history, their language, their traditions, and folklore consumed the bulk of the time, The twenty-third annual session of the German Anthropological Society was held in Ulm, August 1-3. The following important mat- ters were discussed : Bin Bild aus Sechwabens Vorzeit, E, von Tréltsch. Wissenschaftlicher Jahresbericht, J. Ranke. Die Schiidel von Cannstadt und Neanderthal, v. Hélder. Die anthropologische Stellung der Juden, F. von Luschau. Die Menschenrassen Europas und die Frage nach der Herkunft der Arier, J- Kollmann. Anthropologisches aus Malacca, R. Virchow. The German Anthropological Society devotes all its time to this one subject. In their national congress of naturalists and physicians, topics relating to man are also discussed by German Anthropologists. At the eleventh session of the congres internationaux Warchéologie préhistorique et Wanthropologie, convened at Moscow, the following papers were read: What is the most ancient race of central Russia? Anatole Bogdanoy. The races of men in Europe and the Aryan question. Dr. Kollmann. The anthropometric types of great Russians in the central governments of Russia. Zograt. New classification of human crania. Prof. Sergi. On ancient skulls in Russia artificially deformed. Dr. Anoutchine. Review of the anthropometry of peoples of Transcaucasia. Ernest Chantre. Race in anthropology. Paul Topinard. Proposal for a reformed nomenclature of the peoples of Asia. Ernest Chantre. Anthropometric methods practiced in Russia. Zograf. Three commissioners were appointed during the congress, upon craneometry, on anthropometry, and on the nomenclature of the peo- ples of Asia. PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1892. 469 The first named under the chairmanship of Virchow, reported at the meeting, as follows: , 1. Norma or orientation of the skulls. Fach one is free to take the one which he prefers. The norma horizontalis or auriculo orbitaire is recommended for drawings ‘and for photographs. Il. Great diameters.—The maximum leneth and the maximum transvere width according to the French method are adopted to the exclusion of other analogous diameters. Whenever these last are employed they must be announced. Il. Frontal diameters.—To the minimum frontal width, adopted only in Germany, is added the maximum width, which ought to be measured on the Stephanie point, of Broca. IV. Total height of the skull.—This measure should be preserved, but it ought to be taken or it will fall into disuse. The committee prefer for this purpose the compass of Virchow. If this instrument is not adopted the legs of Broca’s sliding compass must be lengthened. The utility of this modification is perceived in mensurations on the living. It is only with a compass with long branches that the total height of the skull can be taken through the auricular points. V. The curves.—The curves inust be taken with a steel metrie ribbon. The hor- izontal should pass around the supraciliary arches and the most salient points, The transverse by the auditory openings and the bregma. VI. The face.—The width ought to be taken no longer on the jugomaxillary sutures, but upon the two points that give the maximum width. The height of the nasion ought to be taken at the upper alveolar point. The total height of the nasion on the mentonal points. VII. The orbits.—The diameters of the orbits ought to be measured on the internal borders. For the width the dacrion should be abandoned. VIII. The ophrio-naso-alveolar angle ought to be taken with the facial goniometer of Ranke or with that of Broca. In this, as in all measures, the instruments and the methods should be stated. In his paper before the tenth congress of archeology and anthro- pology, Ernest Chantre made a report on the measurements of the peoples of the Caucasus, of which the following is the abstract: (1) Armenians, brown, brachycephalous, mesoprosopic, leptorrhine, and above the medium in stature. (2) Aderbeijanis, brown, dolichocephalous, dolichoprosopic, leptorrhine, and above the medium stature. (3) Kurds, generally brown, with elongated faces, eyes never bridged, dolicho- cephalous, leptorrhine, and above the medium stature. (4) Aissori, brown, wtra-brachycephalous. There is also to be remarked among them mesoprosopism, leptorrhinism, and a stature below the mean. (5) Tadjiks, very brown, mesoprosopic, leptorrhine, dolichocephalie, tall. (6) Hadjemi Persians, very brown also, leptorrhine, dolichocephalic, dolicho- prosopic, and of medium stature. (7) Jews, medium color, ultra-brachycephalic. They are distinguished by their mesoprosopism, their leptorrhinism, and medium stature. (8) The Afghans are brown, brachycephalic, mesoprosopic, leptorrhine, and tall in stature. (9) The Kalmucks are brown, mesorrhine. The eyes are bridged, the face wide. They are brachycephalic and of stature above the mean. (10) The Lesghians are chestnut in color, ultra-brachycephalic, mesoprosopie, leptorrhine, and very tall. 470 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1892. This is by far the most important assemblage of anthropologists in Kurope. Through their increasingly closer co-operation it is hoped to unify methods of research that reports from one country may be taken ap and utilized in another. This in some lines has been hitherto im- practicable. At the Australian Association for the Advancement of Science, held January 7 to 14, the president of the section of anthropology was the Rey. Lorimer Fison. The fellowing is a list of subjects and authors : The story of Tie and Rie, Hervey Is., Dr. Gill. 4 The omens of pregnancy, Mangaia, Dr. Gill. New Britain and its people, B. Danks. Sydney natives fifty years ago, W. B. Clarke. Group marriage and relationship, L. Fison. Nair polyandry and Dieri Pirauru, L. Fison. Sanioa and Loyalty islands, 8, Ella. Cave paintings of Australia, J. Matthews. New Hebrides, D. Macdonald. Notes on the Taunese, W. Gray. At the eighth annual meeting of the Indiana Academy of Science, held in Indianapolis, December 28 and 29, the following papers of anthropologic interest were read : Evidences of man’s early existence in Indiana, from the oldest river gravels along the White Water River, by A. W. Butler. The Crawford mound, by H. M. Stoops. Notes on archieology in Mexico, by J. T. Scovell. Ancient earthworks near Anderson, Ind., by IF. A. Walker. Archeology near Tippecanoe County, by O. J. Craig. Some Indian camping sites near Brookville, by A. W. Butler. Remarkable pre-historic relic, by E. Pleas. The mounds of Brookville Township, Franklin County, Ind., by TH. M. Stoops. Remarks on archeological map making, by A. W. butler. The preparation for the World’s Columbian Exposition occupied the time of most of the American anthropologists in 1892. A classification of the material was first made upon a purely anthropological basis, and in its completed form made fall provision in Department M for this subject under the topics: Ethnology, Archeology, Progress of Labor and Invention. The exhibit was bound by the law creating the Exposition to. be double—the Government portion and the Exposition portion or depart- ment. - In order to avoid all conflicts it was arranged that the first-named display should set forth the resources and metheds of the Government in the prosecution of anthropological work. The completion of the great linguistic map furnished the key-note, and ail the national ex- hibits were set up around the ideas there set forth. The area covered by the Department M was of a much wider scope. Somatie and functional anthropology were to have the widest range, and tribes of living peoples were to encamp on the grounds to give em- phasis to the exhibits. A separate building was provided for, in which PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1892. A471 the phases of the subject should be separately treated and the different countries might make their displays. The following is the scheme of the display: GROUP 159. VIEWS, PLANS, OR MODELS, OF PRE-HISTORIC ARCHITECTURAI MONUMENTS AND MWABILATIONS. Class 939.,—Caves, natural, artificial; dwellings, natural, artificial. Class 940,—Lacustrine dwellings, dolmens, tumuli, menhbirs, cromlechs, alignments, cupstones, graves, cists, crematories, Class 941.—Clift and other dwellings, models of dwellings, shelters, skin lodges, yourts, huts (of bark, grass, etc.), wooden houses. Class 942.—Appurtenances. Sweat houses (models), totem posts, gable ornaments, locks. GroupP 160.—Furniture and clothing of aboriginal, uneivilized, and but partly civilized races. Class 945.—Uousehold utensils and furniture. Class 944.—Articles serving in use of nareoties. Class 949.—Articles used in transportation. Class 946.—Clothing and adornment. Group 161.—Implements of war and the chase. GRouP 162.—Tools and implements of industrial operations. Class 947.-—Gathering and storing food other than game. Water vessels. Class 948.--Articles used in cooking and eating. Class 949,—Apparatus for making clothing and ornaments and of weaving. Group 165.—Athletic exercises. Games. Group 164.—Objects of spiritual significance and veneration. Group 165.—Historie archeology. GrRovuP 166.—Models of ancient vessels. Group 167.—Re-productions of ancient maps. Group 168.—Ancient buildings, cities, and monuments of the period anterior to the Discovery. Group 169.—Habitations, ete., built since the Discovery. Group 170.—Originals, copies, or models of notable inventions. Group 171.—Amelioration of life and labor, GROUP 172.—Woman’s work. Group 173.—State, national, and foreign government exhibits. Group 174.—The North American Indians. GRovuP 175.—Portraits, busts, and statues of great inventors and benefactors. Group 176.—Isolated and collective exhibits. By act approved May 2, 1892, the Congress of the United States au- thorized a representation in the Exposition of Madrid to commemorate the quadrocentennial of the discovery of America. The various De- partments and the National Museum were authorized to participate. In addition to this Government display, the Hemenway Expedition, the Peabody Museum, the University of Pennsylvania, the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia took part in the exhibits from the United States. The South American republics were well represented, as well as Mexico and Central America. The Exposition, lasting six months, was held in the new museum and library building in Madrid. It afforded the rarest opportunity of bringing together a great variety of art products from the two Americas. 472 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1892. A great deal of the material mounted in Washington for the World’s Fair in Chicago was exhibited in Madrid, adding to the interest of the exhibit. The catalogue was prepared by Mr. Walter Hough, of the U.S. National Museum, and an account given by the same author in the American Anthropologist for July, 1893, 271-277. Dr. Brinton assumed control of the current notes on anthropology in Science (New York), enabling the reader to profit at small expense by a vast amount of research, especially into European literature inac- cessible to most. The method pursued is to devote short paragraphs to the comprehensive statement of the author’s aim and a short analy- sis of the work. An extensive catalogue of anthropological literature is to be found in each volume of Archiy fiir Anthropologie, classified as follows: TI. Pre-history and Archaeology: 1. Germany ; II. Austria; 1. Switzerland; rv. Great Britain; vy. Denmark; vi. Sweden; vil. Norway; vill. France; 1x. Belgium; x. Italy; x1. America. II. Anatomy: 1. 1888; 11. 1889; 117. 1890. Ill. Voélkerkunde (1890): 1. Sourees; 1. Ethnology (1. Methods, history of the science; 2. General anthropology; 3. Intluence of climate and environment; 4. General sociology; 5. Special sociology). Ill. Ethnography: 1. General ethnography ;u. Special ethnography (A. Europe, with 15 subdivisions; B. Asia, with 13 divisions, each with several subdivisions; C. Australia, with 4 divisions; D. Africa, with9 divisions; E. America, with 4 divisions), IV. Zoology: Account of zoological literature in connection with anthropology for the year 1890. (A. Mammals and human remains from the diluvium and pre- historic times; B. Mammals from the diluvium, with no near association with man; C. Mammals from the Tertiary and Mesozoic times; D. Recent mammals, both systematic study and distribution. ) There are many things to be said in favor of the classified bibliogra- phy, but the tendency nowadays is to a single alphabet. The title col- lection of the Archiv is excellently done, and frequently a brief review accompanies of great value. The only drawback to the handy use of such a bibliography is the impracticability of carrying so long an analysis in the memory. The list is especially full by reason of its in- cluding only works that are two years behind the date of the Archiv. I. BIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY. Dr. Friedrich Ratzel’s Anthropogeographie at the close of 13891 reached the end of its second volume. In the first volume the physiographical and the climatological differences were discussed as conditioning the varied forms of settlement and civilization and the endless varieties of mankind. The second volume is devoted to bio-geography, including a graphic picture of human distribution, a sketch of the peopling of the earth as a whole (the wkumene of the Greeks) and the effect of position in this ekumene. In the second part of this volume some important matters are taken up, namely, the significance of the density and the distri- bution of populations, the want of progress in some peoples, their ex- PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1892. 473 tinction when brought into contact with higher culture, and their self- annihilation. The earth as modified by human action is an old theme, but with the new light of modern science the books of Guyot and Ritter and Marsh may be re-written. The author of this series has qualified himself for this task by a series of lectures, the repetition of which has made him quite familiar with all phases of the subject. Anthropometry.—Dr. R. Collignon, of Cherbourg, France, issued a Projet @Entente Internationale pour arréeter un Programme Commun de Recherches Anthropologiques. The object of this projet is to bring about uniformity everywhere in the matter of bodily measurements. In reading up the action of the several national associations and inter- national congresses the reader will see that the old struggle for agree- ment concerning Common measures and method goes on. The convie- tion is continually strengthened that no good results can precede such agreement. M. Etienne Rollet published in Revue Scientifique in August (vol. 50, p. 170-175) a table of coefticients for deducing stature from the measurement of the long bones. Femur. Tibia. Fibula. |Humerus. Radius. Ulna. | Minimum: 2... -: 3. 66 4,53 4.58 5. 06 6. 86 6.41 Maximum] 2222-2 ail 4. 61 4, 66 5.22 | 7.16 6. 66 Multiply the length of the long bone named by the coefficient in the table to obtain the stature. The worth of the publication is greatly enhanced by a multitude of references to authorities, In his work entitled L’ Homme dans la Nature (Paris, 1891, Balliére), Paul Topinard makes the following résumé of his studies: First Sub-order— Man. First family, Anthropoids. | Second family, Pithecide. ) Third family, Cebidie. Fourth family, Arctopithecide. Third Sub-order— The Lemurs. [ Nature, Lond., Mar. 17, 1892. Second Sub-order, The Monkeys. In comparing woman’s brain with man’s, Prof.-Crichton Browne con- firms the inferiority of the former, amounting to thirty grammes, cor- rection made of the coefficient of stature. He has proved that the frontal lobes are not so well irrigated by the blood, and that, on the contrary, the circulation of blood is more active in the posterior and superior portions. The posterior parts of the encephalon, cervelet, and occipital lobes are more developed in women, and that their left brain weighs less than their right brain. The convolutions are less compli- cated than in men. The caliber of the internal and the vertebral car- otid present marked differences in the two sexes. Whence it results that the distribution of blood in the brains of the two sexes differ ATA PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1892. greatly. The internal caroted with its principal branches (cerebral, anterior, and intermediate), which are distributed among the suborbital convolutions of the insula, of the Rolandic region, and of the first sphe- noidal convolutions, are larger, absolutely and relatively, in men than inwomen. On the contrary, the vertebral carotid, which is distributed among the occipital and temporo-sphenoidal lobes, are larger in women than in men, and the basilar trunk, which is only a continuation of the vertebral, is also larger, its mean diameter being 28™" in woman and 26™™ in man. ~ Il. PSYCHOLOGY. Prof. Ward, in his vice-presidential address before Section I of the American Association, says that the doctrines of physiocracy laissez fairé and Spencerian individualism and the biologie economy gener- ally are not sustained, and that the facts which society presents are for the most part the reverse of those which were promised by them. The explanation is that the old political economy is true only of irra- tional animals and is altogether inapplicable to rational man. Darwin modestly confesses that he derived his original conceptions of natural selection from the reading of Malthus on Population. But he did not, perhaps, perceive that in applying the law of Malthus to the animal world he was introducing it into the only field in which it holds true. Yet such is the case, and for the reason that the advent with man of the thinking, knowing, foreseeing, calculating, designing, inventing, and constructing faculty, which is wanting in lower creatures, repealed the biologic law or law of nature and enacted in its stead the phycho- logic law, the law of mind. In the American Journal of Psychology (1892, tv, 491-502) communi- cations are made to the editor of courses in experimental psychology as follows: In London the present examiners in mental science are Dr. James Sully and Prof. Knight. In University College (Gower street) Prof. Croom Robertson conducts the instruction. King’s Col- lege, Bedford College, and the City of London College affiliated with the University provide teaching in psychology. But there is no labora- tory in any of them for experimental psychology and research, indeed the only one in England is at the University of Cambridge. In Copenhagen there is at the university a psychological labora- tory under the direction of Dr. Lehman. The instruction in philoso- phy is under the direction of Prof. Harold H6ffding. In 1891, a chair of experimental psychology was created in the faculty of sciences of the University of Geneva, but without a labo- ratory. Wladimir vy. Tschisch presents a brief report on the clinie for nervous and mental diseases in Dorpat. Yale University has provided a course of study in experimental phil- osophy with reference to the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Three courses of psychological instruction were pursued in Harvard. PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1892. ATS A department of psychology was opened in Cornell University in connection with the Susan Linn Sage School of Philosophy. In the German universities the following lectures were reported: Leipzig. —Wunat, special investigations and exercises in the psychological labora tory; Kulpe, introductory course; Gléckner, pedagogical psychology; Flechsig, psychiatrical clinic, forensic psychiatry. Berlin.—Dalthey, lectures on psychology and pedagogy; Lazarus, lectures on psychology; Ebbinghaus, lectures and experimental psychology; Jolly, pathology and therapeutics of mental diseases. Bonn.—Elements of psychology; Pelman, mental disturbance that borders on in- sanity; Kochs, hypnotism, sleep, and the narcotic condition. Gottingen.—G. E. Miiller, lectures and experimental psychological investigations ; Meyers, psychiatric clinic. Heidelbery.—Kraepelin, physiological psychology and psyehiatrical clinic. Dr. William O. Krohn spent nine months working in the celebrated university centers of Europe, Heidelberg, Strasburg, Zurich, Freiberg, Munich, Prag, Berlin, Halle, Gottingen, and Bonn. In each of these the laboratories were carefully inspected and in some of them the doctor carried on experimental work. (See Am. J. Psychol., 1V, 585-594.) The Institute Psycho-Physiologique de Paris was founded in 1891 for the theoretical and practical study of the psychological and thera- peutical applications of hypnotism. The Société @Hypnologie of Paris heid monthly meetings. Prof. E. W. Seripture proposes in the psychological notes of the American Journal of Psychology (Iv, 584) a list of terms with defini- tions for psychological use, according to the meanings attached to them: (1) Feelings are the indivisible elements into which mental phenom- ena are composed. Every fact of consciousness that has not been proved to be a combination of other facts is to be called a feeling. (2) Sensations are those feelings which are regarded as coming from without; they are passively experienced feelings. (3) Impulses are those feelings that are regarded as originated in the mind itself; they are actively experienced feelings. (4) Ideas are compounds of feelings of any kind. (5) Percepts are those ideas that are composed mainly of sensations. (6) Volitions are those ideas that are composed mainly of impulses, The American branch of the Society for Physical Research was held in Columbia College, New York, February 10. Prot. James gave a com- munication on the census of hallucinations, and B. F. Underwood one on experiments in automatic writing. M. Binet contends that asso- ciated with the same physical individual there may be two or more personalities, both of which are conscious. They may be co-existent or successive. Anesthesia is the barrier which separates co-existent personalities; amnesia the barrier which separates successive person. alities. ‘En wun mot, il peut y avoir chez un menu individu, pluralité de mémoires, pluralité de consciences, pluralité de personalites; et A476 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1892. chacune de ces consciences, de ces personalités ne connait que ce qui se passe sur son territoiré. (Nature, Lond., July 7.) In La Revue Scientifique (XL1x, 797) M. Lacassagne, director of the faculty of medicine in Lyon, publishes a questionnaire on physiological psychology. The object is to stimulate statistical researches on the relations between the sensorial apparatus, the quality of memory, and the mode of functioning of the centers of language and of ideation. Mm. H. Beaunis and A. Binet follow up this subject in the succeeding volume (L, 340-343) with a questionnaire addressed to painters, seulp- tors, and designers relative to a visual memory of color and form, the chief points of the inquiry being the distinctness of visual recollee- tions, the qualities of visual memory, distinction between form memory and color memory, fidelity of this characteristic, the role of visual mem- ory in the art of design, peculiarities. Dr. Riccardi’s ‘Anthropologia e Pedagogia is a study in the science of education founded on a basis of experimental psychology and anthropology. He has collected during the last seven or eight years, with the help of teachers, some hundred thousand observations on two thousand children of Modena and Bologna, and in this first part of the work he presents the data concerning this psychological and sociological condition. He divides the pupils into good, middling, and bad, and investigates the characters of these classes with reference to family life, number in a family, healthiness of the family stock, social position, etc., in each case first taking the sexes together and then considering boys and girls separately. Italian child- ren, to a large extent, live under bad conditions and are decidedly below the anthropometric standards of other nations. There is a marked contrast between the children of the poor and of the well-to- do classes, to the advantage of the latter. [Rev. in J. Anthrop. Inst., XXIT, 281.] The second International Congress of Experimental Psychology con- vened in London on Tuesday, August 2. The third Congress of Criminal Anthropology was held in Brussels from the 20th of August to the 3d of September. A laboratory was established in the University of Toronto. Prof. Angell occupied the chair of psychology at the Stantord Uni- versity. Dr. Edward Pace, a pupil of Wundt, organized a laboratory in the Catholic University in Washington. Dr. Edmund Delabarre organized the study of experimental psychol. ogy in Brown University. The following isthe program of the International Congress of Ex- perimental Psychology held in London, August 1: Introspection and experiment in psychology, Alex. Bain. Suggestion and will, M. Baldwin, Psychological questioning, Prof. Beaunis. Hypnotic suggestion and education, Prof. Bernheim. Psychology of insects, M. Binet. PROGRESS OF ANTHROPQLOGY IN 1892. ATT Appreciation of time by somnambulists, M. Delboeuf. Laura Bridgman, Dr, Donaldson. Psycho-therapeuties, Dr. Van Eeden. Theory of color perception, Prof. Ebbinghaus. Muscular sense of the blind, Dr. Goldscheider. Psychology of the skin, Stanley Hall. The visual center in the cortex of the ealearine tissue, Prof. Henschen, Inhibition of presentations, Prof. Heymans. The degree of localization of movements and correlative sensations, Prof. Horsley. Loss of volitional power, Prof. Janet. A law of perception, Prof. Lange. The female poisoner of Aiir Pezza, Prof. Lugeois. Relation of respiration to attention, Prof. Lehmann. Direct and associative factors in judgments of esthetic proportion, Dr. L. Witmer. Sensibility of women, normal, insane, criminal, Prof. Lombroso. Parallel law of Fechner, Dr. Mendelssohn. Limits of animal intelligence, Prof. L. Morgan. Experimental investigation of memory, G. E. Miitter. Psychophysical basis of the feelings, Prof. Miinsterberg. Experimental induction of hallucination, fF. W. H. Myers. Characteristics and conditions of the simplest forms of belief, W. R. Newbold. The origin of numbers, Prof. Preyer. General ideas, Prof. Ribot. Phe future of psychology, Prof. Ricket. Anatomical and physiological relation of the frontal lobes, Prof, Schiifer. Experiments in thought transference, Mrs. Sidgwick. Binocular after-images, E. B. Titchener. Relation of reaction time to the breadth of perception, Dr, Tschisch. Physiological basis of rythmic speech, Dr. Verriest. Functional attributes of the cerebral cortex, Dr. Walle [ Nature, London, July 14, August 11. The following subjects are treated in the American Journal of Psy- chology: Knee jerk (The) in sleep in a case of dementia, Noyes. Memory in school children, growth of, Bolton. ZoMneis figures and other related illusions, Jastrow (studies). Involuntary movements, Jastrow (studies). Smell, absence of the sense of, Jastrow (studies). Classification time, Jastrow (studies). Finding time, Jastrow (studies). Anthropometric and psychologic tests on students, Jastrow (studies). Natural realism, psychological foundation of, Fraser. Nervous system, psychological literature, Donaldson. Association, Cattell Reaction, Cattell. Hypnotism and suggestion, Jastrow. Suggestion, hypnotism and —, Jastrow. Sight, psychological literature, Sanford, Seripture. Physiological psychology, Sanford, Laura Bridgman, Donaldson. Visual area of the cortex in man, Donaldson. = 478 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1892. Voluntary movements, rapidity of, Dresslar. Attention, phenomena of, Angell. Contrast, effects of, Kirschmann. Musical expressiveness, Gilman. Regular variations, pitch, intensity, ete., Scripture. Unconscious suggestion, Forel, Disturbance of attention, Swift. Pseudo-chromesthesia, Kohn. Psychiatry, Noyes. Taste and smell, Bailey. Touch, pain, internal sensation, Bailey. ~ Linguistic psychology, Chamberlain. Voluntary motor ability, Bryan. Training of animals, Rossignol. Judgment of angles, lines, etc., Jastrow. Unconscious cerebration, Child. Action and volition, Baldwin. Ill. ETHNOLOGY. Prof. Alexander Macalister, in his vice-presidential address before Section H of the British Association, regrets that there is not in our literature a more definite nomenclature for the divisions of mankind, and that such words as race, people, nationality, tribe, type, stock, and family are often used indiscriminately as though they were synonyms. There are several collateral series of facts, the terminologies of which should be discriminated: (1) Ethnic conditions whereby individuals of mankind are grouped into categories of different comprehension, as clans or families, as tribes or groups of allied clans, and as nations, the inhabitants of restricted areas under one political organization—Eth- nology. (2) Individuals regarded as descendants of a limited num- ber of original parents, each person having his place on the genea- logical tree of humanity. As the successive branches were subjected to diverse environments, they have differentiated in characteristics. To each of these subdivisions is applied the name of Race. [Haeckel terms this study anthropogony.| (3) The third category is that of lan- guage, sometimes conterminous, put it is as absurd to speak of an Aryan skull as of a brachycephalic language.—Nature, London, 1892, August 18, p. 379: . The British Association appointed a committee to organize an eth- nographical survey of the United Kingdom. The committee, in pur- suance of the object for which they had been delegated by the Society of Antiquaries of London, the Folk-lere Society and the Anthropolog- ical Institute, and appointed by the British Association, propose to record for certain typical villages and the neighboring districts, (1) Physical types of the inhabitants; (2) current traditions and beliefs; (3) peculiarities of dialect; (4) inonuments and other remains of an- cient culture; (5) historical evidence as to continuity of race. Dr. Georg Geoland has published through Justus Perthes, Gotha, PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1892. A479 an Atlas der Volkerkunde. There are in it fifteen folio maps, to wit: 1. Distribution of skin and hair; 11. Density of population; 111. Distri- bution of religions; Iv. Distribution of diseases; Vv. Clothing, food, dwelling, and occupation; vi. Locations of peoples in 1500 and 1880; VII. Europe in 1880; vitt. Asia in 1880; 1x. Southeast Asia; x. Oceanica; x1. Africa; x11. Aboriginal America; XI. America in 1880; xtvy. Lin- euistic map; XV. Europe about 100-150 after Christ. The charts are preceded by descriptive text and an alphabetic catalogue of all tribes mentioned, with reference to the latitude and longitude of their habitat. The origin of the Manchu race, to which the reigning dynasty in China belongs (see Nature, London, 1892, xLy, 523, quoting from North China Herald, Shanghai), is thus set forth: The Tungus tribes, to which the Manchu belong, are scattered about, in Siberia and Manchuria in rather small communities. They appear in history in the Chow dynasty. The Mongols as a race are probably an offshoot from Tungus stock. The consanguinity that exists between Manchu and Mongol is greater than that which is fonnd to prevail between Mongol and Turk, and therefore it may be concluded that the Tungus, either in Siberia or in Manchuria or on the Amur, threw off a branch whieh became Mongol. Genghis Khan and his tribe started on their conquest of the Asiatic continent from the neighborhood of the gold mines in Nuehinsk, and the Mongols are not fishermen by preference nor hunters of the sable, martin, and beaver. They are rather keepers of sheep and riders of horses and camels. They might easily develop their language in the vicinity of the Altai mountains and the Baikal. As to the Manchus, they have forgotten their early occupation since coming to China, and they attend now only to the duties of the public service or to military training. The language like the Mongol is rich with the spoils of antiquity. All the various forms of culture, whether belonging to Shamanism, Confucianism, or Buddhism, with which they have become successively familiar, have contributed a share. To these must be added the vocabulary of the huntsman, the fisherman, and the shep- herd, and all the terms necessary to feudal relationship as well as those of the trades and occupations of the old civilization. Ethnology of Mahgreb.—Dr. Brinton proposed to adopt the Arab name, Mahgreb, for that portion of Africa west of the Nile Valley and north of the southern boundary of the Sahara. From time immemorial it has been the home of the Berber, or Hamitie, or Protosemitic peoples. (For the prehistory of this region consult A. Chatelin, in Revue Seien- tific, April 9, 1892.) Paleolithie man is said to have been here, sue- ceeded by neolithic communities and megalithic structures, erected by ancestors of the Berbers. The same Berber stock has possessed Mahgreb from the very earliest times to the present day. Celts. —An instructive discussion on the origin and migration of the Celts was begun by Dr. Brinton in Science (March 11) and continued through subsequent numbers. This discussion is not only valuabie for what the authors of the notes say, but for the excellent works quoted. Prof. Sergi published in the Bolletino della R. Accademia Medica di Roma, Ann. XVUI, fase. 11, a paper on the varieties of mankind in Melanesia, which is reprinted in Archiv fiir Anthropologie, XX, 339- 384. The essay is remarkable, among other excellences, for the ex- 480 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1892. tensive list of connotive terms for measurements of the head. Many of these words are old but quite a number are new: Index of length.—Dolichocephal, mesocephal, brachycephal, hyper-dolichocephal, hyper-brachycephal. Index of height.—Hypsicephal, orthocephal, chamecephal. The face.—Leptoprosop, mesoprosop, chameprosop. The nose.—Leptorrhine, mesorrhin, platyrrhine. The eye cavity.—Hypsiconch, mesoconch, chamieconch. Cranial. capacity. —Microcephal, elattocephal, oligocephal, metriocephal, megalo- cephal. a The jaws.—Prognathic, orthognathic, mesognathic. For alveolar prognathism, prophatnic; for the upper face, chamzlognathic; for zygomatic width, euryzygie. The shape of the skull.—Steno-cephalic, eu-cephalic, stenoteric, lopho-cephalic, spheno-cephalic, tetragonic, poikilo-cephalic, chomato-cephalic, pro-ophryo-cephalic, rhomboido-cephalic, ovoid, ellipsoid (dolicho-ovoid, brachy-ellipsoid, etc.) The forchead.—Brachy metopic, brachyclitometopic, leiometopic, hypsistenome- topic, eurymetopic, stenometopic, eurycletometopic, clitoplatymetopic, clitobrachy- stenometopic, eumetopic. Parietal bones.—Eurybregmatic, euryhomalobregmatic, hypsistegobregmatic, eury- oncobregmatic, oxyoncobregmatic. ? Occipital bone. —Opisthocranion, cremnopisthocranial. In the text the Greek roots are given and the etymologies worked out. IV. GLOSSOLOGY. The Seventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the Smith- sonian Institution by J. W. Powell, director, bears the imprint of 1891, but was really made public in 1892. This is in one sense a jubilee volume, the crowning glory of American linguistics, commenced sys- tematically by Gallatin and ended by Powell. The names of American Indian tribes have been in very great con- fusion, each tribe having many names. This confusion, as for example with the Mohawks, arose by having the spelling in three languages, by having their own real name confounded with terms of reproach gathered from neighboring tribes, by imperfect and conflicting systems of translit: eration. But in combining the North American tribes into one system rules were necessary, theretore Maj. Powell laid down the following: I. The law of priority relating to the nomenclature of the systematic philology of the North American tribes shall not extend to authors whose works are of date anterior to the year 1856. If. The name originally given by the founder of a linguistic group to designate it as a family or stock of languages shall be permanently retained to the exclusion of all others. IIT. No family name shall be recognized if composed of more than one word. IV. A family name once established shall not be canceled in any subsequent diyi- sion of the group, but shall be retained, in a restricted sense, for one of its constituent portions. V. Family names shall be distinguished as such by the terminations ‘‘an” and Sesleniieus VI. No name shall be accepted for a linguistic family unless used to designate a tribe or group of tribes as a linguistic stock, PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1892. 481 VII. No family name shall be accepted unless there is given the habitat of tribe or tribes to which it is applied. VIII. The original orthography of a name shall be rigidly preserved except as provided for in Rule 111, and unless a typographical error is evident. As fixed in Powell’s last revision the families stand thus: Algon- quian (Eastern North America); Athapascan (Northwest North Amer- ica); Attacapan (Louisiana); Beothukan (Nova Scotia); Caddoan (Three groups, northern, Arikara, middle, Pawnee; southern, Caddo); Chi- mukuan (Puget Sound); Chimarikan (Trinity River, California); Chim- mesyan (British Columbia); Chinookan (Columbia River); Chitimachan (Louisiana); Chumashan (Santa Barbara, Cal.); Coahuiltecan (Texas) ; Copehan (northern California); Costanoan (Golden Gate to Monterey, Cal.); Eskimauan (Arctic coast); Esselenian (Monterey Bay, California) ; Lroquoian (Great Lakes); Kaloopaian (Washington State); Karankawan (Texas); Keresan (New Mexico); Kiowan (upper Arkansas); Kitunahan (Columbia River); Koluschan (southeast Alaska); Kulanapan (Mendo- cino, Cal.); Kusan (Oregon); Lutuamian (Oregon); Mariposan (Califor- nia); Moquelumnan (Calaveras County, Cal.); Muskhogean (Southern States); Natchesan (Mississippi); Palaihnihan (Pit River, California) ; Piman (Gila River, Arizona); Pujunan (Sacramento River, California) ; Quoratean (Salmon River, California) ; Salinan (Monterey County, Cal.) ; Salishan (Washington and British Columbia); Sastean (Northern Cali- fornia); Shahaptian (Fraser River); Shoshonean (Interior Basin) ; Siouan (Missouri River); Skittagetan (Queen Charlotte Islands); Takilman (Rogue River); Tanoan (Rio Grande River); Timuquanan (Florida); Tonikan (Red River, Arkansas); Tonkawan (Texas); Uchean (Georgia); Waiilatpuan (Wallawalla River); Wakashan (Vancouver Island); Washoan (Carson Valley, California); Weitspekan (Klamath River); Wishoskan (Eel River, Oregon); Yakonan (Umpqua River, California) Yanan (Pitt River, California); Yukian (Round Valley, California) Yuman (Colorado River, California); Zuhian (New Mexico). Finns.—Dr. Theodor Koppen (Archiv f. Anthrop., Xx) defends the unity of the Finnie and the Aryan linguistic stock, alleging the an- cestral home to have been on the middle Volga. The separation into eastern and western branches took place on the river Don, at which time also arose the Aryan and the Ugro-Finnie division. The publication of Middendort’s sixth volume on the Peruvian Jan- guages completes a most yaluable series, The languages considered are the Kechua, the Aymara, and the Chimu (Muechik or Yunea), with an appendix on the Chibcha. The work was issued by Brockhaus, Leipzig. (Brinton, Science, XX, 6.) In Philadelphia has been established the de Laincel fund for the study of the graphic system of the ancient Mayas, by collecting vocab- ularies of the language and its dialects and photographs of the ruins and inseriptions and manuscripts, Dr. H. T, Cresson has chargeof the explorations. hike H, Mis, 114-31. ’ ; 482 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1892. VY. TECHNOLOGY. A remarkable contribution to the natural history of zstheties, which the author of this summary has elsewhere called wsthetology, is the address of William H. Holmes, as vice-president, befere Section H of the American Association. The science of the beautiful was exam- ined in order to study the phenomena of the beautiful as the botanist studies the real flowers of the field. “The science of the beautiful must deal with actual phenomena; with faets as hard, with principles as fixed, and laws as inflexible, as do the sciences of biology and physics.” The author takes up the subject from the phenomenal side and ignores the purely metaphysical element altogether, which is alleged to have woven about it a dense and very subtle web of transcendental fancy! The author’s appreciation of the amount of time and energy given to this field of human activity is charming. “We totally fail to real- ize how much time and thought are given to ewsthetic considerations, and what a large place they really fill in the thoughts and activities of the world. This would come home to us if by some sudden change in the constitution of things all that is esthetic should be rudely torn from us and banished from the world. - - - To make this clear, let us suppose that some dire disease should destroy our perception of the beautiful, a world of useless things would encumber our existence. The fine arts would fall into disuse. Painting, sculpture, architecture, poetry, music, romance, the drama, and landscape gardening would dis- appear utterly. No picture would grace the wall of gallery or dwelling. Temples and halls would be without statuary and books without illustra- tions. Architecture would degenerate into the merest house building, without projections, moldings, carving, painting, frescoes, hangings, or carpeting. Churches would be but the plainest barns without arch- ways or columns, or steeples, or towers, or stained glass; the organ and the choir and the singing of hymns as though they had never been. All artists, sculptors, architects, poets, authors, composers, and drama- tists, and all the multitude that depend upon them, decorators, engrav- ers, carvers, musicians, actors, book-makers, manufacturers of all that pertainsto the polite arts, and all merhants who deal in esthetic things would turn to other callings. The ships and railways that transport the products of esthetic industry, silks and rugs, and laces, and orna- mental goods, and furniture, and tiles, and paints, and dyes, and porce- lains, and brasses, would cease to plow the sea and girdle the land. The range of human livelihood would be reduced to a dangerous degree, and existence—a burden without art, would be overwhelmed with poverty and distress. Now, there was a time when this picture was a true one, and men had no great results in «esthetie art toshow. From then to our day, Mr. Holmes declares to be a question of evolution. PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1892. 483 By passing up through the scale of culture stages from savagery to enlightenment, we see that each succeeding period has a larger share of art and a correspondingly larger share of the esthetic, each stage being prophetic of the succeeding stage. The last stage, that upon which the nations of the world are now entering—the enlightened— is also necessarily prophetic of a still more advanced stage; and by adding to the number of wsthetic groups those yet to be conceived and prolonging the expanding lines of each group indefinitely, we are led to comprehend the true relations of the present to the marvellous future, and to form some notion of the magnificent sum total of the wsthetic that future generations will be privileged to enjoy. VI. ARCH HOLOGY. In the Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society (Lond., 1892, XIV, 273-309) and in other journals will be found an account of the marvellous ruins of Mashona-land, in the water-shed of South Africa, between 18° and 20° south, by Theodore Bent, the explorer. There are many ruins on the Limpopo and elsewhere in this area, but the author confines himself to those on the Great Zimbabwe, situated 20° 16’ South, and 31° 10’ East. They cover a vast area and consist of a large circular building with a network of smaller buildings extending in the valley below, and a labyrinthine fortress on the hill, about 400 feet above, naturally protected by huge granite bowlders, and by a precipice running round a considerable portion of it. The lower build- ing is constructed of small blocks of granite broken with the hammer into uniform size and laid up without mortar. The encircling wall is 30 feet high in parts and 16 to 17 feet thick. There is a long narrow passage between walls conducting to what Mr. Bent calls “the sacred inclosure” in which are standing two towers, one of them 32 feet high, a wonderful structure of perfect symmetry, and with courses of un- rarying regularity. The principal part of Mr. Bent’s work and his most interesting dis- coveries took place on the hill fortress, the labyrinthine nature of which is explained in the plans. The approach is protected at every turn with traverses and ambuscades, and then commences at the bottom of the precipice a flight of steps leading up. In fact, the redundancy of fortification all over this mountain, the useless repetition of walls over a precipice itself inaccessible, the care with which every hole in the bowlders through which an arrow could pass is closed, prove that the occupants were in constant dread of attack. Pottery and iron objects oceurred in abundance, but the most interesting find was connected with the manufacture of gold, crucibles, broken quartz, and furnaces, These ruins are in no way connected with the African race. They _ formed a garrison for gold workers in antiquity, who came, doubtless from the Arabian peninsula, in the pre-Mohammedan period. One of the results of the Congress of Archeological Societies, in 484 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1892. union with the London Society of Antiquaries, is the issue of an index of archeological papers, published in 1891. There is a list of 45 societies and journals in all, and 33 pages of titles, succeeded by an alphabetic list of places, subjects, authors, and societies with their publications. The secretary of this congress of societies is W. H. St. John Hope, Burleigh House, London. M. A. ©. Chatelier contributes to La Revue Scientifique (XLIX, 457- 461) a résumé of prehistoric studies in North Africa. To the work of codification is added a bibliography of 70 titles upon the same subject. M. Zabarowski calls attention to the doubtful antiquity of the Can- stadt skull. It was discovered in 1700, but, according to Dr. Hervé it was really seen first in the vitrine of the museum of Stuttgard a hun- dred years after the digging from which it is supposed to have vome. Dr. Brinton also reverts to the same question in Sevence. Indeed, the year 1892 marks an epoch of decline in the belief that man has had an exceedingly high antiquity in Europe or America. The result of such questionings will be a review of the grounds of belief, with a strength- ening of the foundations of knowledge. The article of Louis Theureau, in La Revue Scientifique (L, 364-369) on alimentation in India, calls especial attention to the fact that it has been from time immemorial a country whose food was essentially vege- tal, ander the influence of an idea on which is founded a philosophic and religious system, belief in metempsychosis or migration of the soul. About fifty titles bearing on the subject are quoted, adding great value to the article. An epoch-making investigation for archzeolgoists was that of William H. Holmes upon ancient quarries in the United States. The result of the first investigation into the quarry site on Piney Branch near Wash- ington, is givenin the American Anthropologist, (111, 1-26). Dr. Brinton zalls attention sharply to this work in a short paragraph on ‘quarry subjects,’ in Science (November 4, 1892). Since then a controversy, characterized by no little acrimony, sprang up between what might be termed the old school and the new school on this subject. Two distinet questions are involved in the controversy, namely, whether the objects are paleolithic implements or the rejected pieces of the aboriginal quarryman; and, secondly, whether they are geologically situated to denote very great antiquity. The trustees of the British Museum printed an album containing autotype facsimiles of the Tel-el-Amarna tablets. A review of this work will be found in Nature, vol. xlvi, pages 49-52. During the sum- mer of 1887 a woman belonging to the household of one of the ‘an- tica” dealers, who live at or near Tel-el-Amarna in Upper Egypt, set out to follow her usual avocation of digging in the sand and loose earth at the foot of the hills for small antiquities. The exact details of her search will never be known, but it is certain that in a small cham- ber at no great depth below the surface she found a number of clay PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1892. A485 ~ 4 tablets, the like of which had never before been dug up m Egypt. There were over three hundred of them, of which number the British Museum secured 82, the Gizéh Museum 60, the Berlin Museum 160. The Tel-el-Amarna tablets are unique as an archeological *‘ find,” and they are also unique as a means of weaving together the threads of the histories of two or three of the greatest nations of antiquity at a erit- ical period. They were all written between the years 1500 and 1450 B.c. Those in the British Museum consist of a series of dispatches written from Kings of Babylonia, Alashiyah, Mitana, Phoenicia, Syria, and Palestine to Amenophis IIT, and to his son, Amenophis TV. Many of them are also of a personal or private nature. Alfred P. Maudslay, who spent seven winters in Central America studying and photographing the ancient ruins, announced the forth- coming of a work on this subject, the gist of which is given in Nature of April 29. A map on page 618 lays down graphically the limits of Maya inscriptions. The orientation of buildings is considered by Dr. Brinton in Science (xx, 6), and the orientation of the sides as in Kgypt brought into con- trast with that of the corners as in Mesopotamia and Zuni. At Zim- babwe a series of ornaments on the walls of the great temple are so disposed that one group will receive directly the sun’s rays at his rising and another at his setting at the period of the winter solstice, when these points in that latitude were respectively 25° south of east and west, while a third series of ornaments faced the full midday sun. Prof. W. O. Atwater, in the Forum for June, discusses the scientific study of food as one of the most important problems in anthropology. At present the poorer classes the world over are scantily nourished and the majority of mankind live on a low nutritive plane. The com- ing man will not buy as expensive foods because some of the least expensive are most nutritive and palatable. He will value foods for their nutritive qualities. Much less food of the proper quality will be required to keep a man in his best estate. There will be a revolution in cooking, which is both wasteful and primitive. Payne’s History of the New World called America is a philosophical treatment of a historical subject. It is a history of America written by a trained anthropologist. In the author’s own words, he has *tunder- taken the unusual course of explaining the facts under investigation by a theory of human advancement not only not generally recognized but not hitherto formally enunciated. Some may find it paradoxical, to assign to advancement no loftier origin than the organized provision of the food supply on an artificial as distinguished from a natural basis. The organization of food provision on the artificial basis has been combined with that of defense, and communities in which these combined organizations have been fully elaborated have extended their boundaries at the expense of others whose social arrangements were less advanced.” The author sets himself ‘to restore, if possible, the A486 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1892. true features of the advanced communities of the New World, to analyse their social structure and economy, to measure by some definite standard the degree of progress they had attained, and to trace their history, so far as it can be recovered, distinguishing what can fairly be accepted as fact, from what can be shown with reasonable certainty to be fabulous.” Vil SOCIOLOGY: The Quarterly Journal of Economies, published for Harvard Univer- sity, in Boston, is valuable to the student not only for the papers and original investigations which it reports, but for its bibliography of economics. The titles are classified under (1) general works, theory, andits history; (2) production, exchange, and transportation; (3) social questions, labor, and capital (4) land; (5) population, emigration, and colonies; (6) international trade and customs tariffs; (7) finance and taxation; (8) banking, currency, credit, and prices; (9) legislation; (10) economic history and description; (11) statistics; (12) not classified. Native fairs in Alaska were reported to the Numismatic and Anti- quarian Society of Philadelphia by Lieut. Gorgas, U.S. Navy. Begin- ning at the south a fair is held in June at Port Clarence, just south of the narrowest part of the straits. It is numerously attended by Chukehis ef Siberia, the natives of St. Lawrence island, south of the straits, and by others from Cape Prince of Wales on the American mainland. ‘The second fair is held at Hotham inlet, on the north shore of Kotzebue Sound. It Jasts through July and August, and is attended by about 1,500 people, some Siberians, but mostly natives, especially from Point Hope, these being the principal traders of the coast. A third fair is at Point Lay, and a fourth at Camden Bay, not far from the mouth of Mackenzie River. The trading boats make a regular round of these fairs, carrying articles in demand from one to another; so that some from the far in- terior of Asia will in a few years be transported along the shores of the Arctic Sea and southerly indefinitely into the center of the conti- nent. (Brinton, Science, X1x., 287.) Galton’s work on finger prints is thus briefly reviewed in the Jour- nal of the Anthropological Institute: f The author considers the subject under the following divisions: (1) Introductory. (2) The previous employment of finger prints among various nations, which has been almost wholly confined to making daubs, without paying any regard to the delicate lineations with which this book alone is coneerned. (3) Various methods of making good prints from the fingers are described at length, especially those used at Mr. Galton’s anthropometric laboratory at South Kensington. (4) The character and purpose of the ridges whose lineations appear in the finger print. (5) The various patterns formed by the lineations. (6) The question of persistence ; whether the patterns are so durable as to afford a sure basis for identification. (7) An attempt to appraise the evidential value of finger prints by the law of probabil- ity. (8) The frequeney with which various kinds of patterns appear on the differ- PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1892. A87 ent digits of the same person, severally and in connection. (9) Methods of Index- ing. (10) Practical results of the inquiry. (11) Heredity. (12) Use in indicating race and temperament. (13) The nine fundamentally different patterns are con- sidered as different genera or species. Gustave le Bon having affirmed that higher races can not impose their civilization upon lower races, undertakes, in an address before the Congres international, institué par le Gouvernement francais pour Vétude des questions coloniales (Rev. Scient., Paris, 1889, aotit 24 and 1892, Oct. 1) to show that to change the civilization of a people it is necessary to change their souls (ames). Centuries and not conquests ‘an accomplish a task like that. The empire of the world has always belonged to the convinced, whose great force consists in their slavery to an idea, and in their complete incapacity to reflect and to reason. Without these, perhaps, no civilization would have been born and humanity would not have arisen above barbarism. Lombroso and Ferrero discuss, in @ work entitled ‘La, Donna delin- quente,” the subject of the criminality of women. To their view the crimes of men and those of women are two quite different maladies, having certain symptoms in common but many more in which they differ widely. Women commit fewer crimes than men, all statistics are agreed on that. M. Guillat estimates the criminality of men to be six times greater than that of women and, according to Quetelet and Tarde, the tendency to crime is five or six times more developed in men. Leaving out of view difference in legislation as to the sexes, M. Proal attributes the freedom of women to their greater religious spirit, their indoor life, the smaller number of employments which provoke to crime, like forgery and defalcation. Women go about less, and drink less, than men. From the evolutionist’s standpoint, according to Ferrero, the female has been less exposed to the struggle for existence. The sexual strug- gle does not exist for her at all and in higher civilization her degenera- tion produces crime in men. Ferrero sums up the causes of woman’s smaller susceptibility to crime as follows: (1) Women are physically weaker and more timid. (2) Feebler sexuality, strong maternity and pity. (3) The intelligence of woinan is less. Migrations.—Dr. Sophus Miiller, of Copenhagen, published in Mém. Soc. Roy. des Antiq. du Nord a study upon cutting implements in the Stone Age, drawing the conclusion that parts of France and the Ibe- rian peninsula were inhabited first. The argument is based upon the ruder forms of the southern tools. M. Bertrand’s work ‘Nos Origi- nes,” holds to the opinion, however, that about 1200 B. C. the Liguri- ans came southward, finding central France and Spain occupied by Iberians who were driven westward by Celts. Pre-historic commerce.— In the Verhandlungen der Berliner anthro- 488 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1892. pologische Gesellschaft the subject of ancient commerce is discussed by G. Schweinfurth and Merensky, the former dealing with the influ- ence of western Asia and India upon Egypt, the latter with India as affecting even the industries of Central Africa. The archeologists are also able to bring some noteworthy contribu- tions to this enquiry. In America certain types of basketry and pot- tery are known to have been peculiar to certain linguistie stocks. But examples of these are found elsewhere in ever-decreasing numbers as they depart from this source. VIII.—RELIGION AND FOLK-LORE. On the 16th of April there was publicly opened in the Museum of Archeology of the University of Pennsylvania a loan collection of objects used in worship. It was divided into sections, that devoted to the religions of Egypt being in charge of Mrs. Cornelius Stevenson, that of India was arranged by Suamee Bhaskara Nand Saraswatee; that of China by Chinese scholars, and’ so on, each section being as- signed to some one specially fitted to the task.* The American Folk-lore Society was organized in December, 1892, for the ensuing year, as follows: President, Horatio Hale. Vice Presidents, Aleée Fortier and D. P. Penhallow. Council, Franz Boas, H. Carrington Bolton, D. G. Brinton, A. F. Chamberlain, J. Owen Dorsey, Alice C. Fletcher, George Bird Grinnell, Otis T. Mason, Frederick W. Putnam. Secretaries, W. W. Newell, J. Walter Fewkes. Treasurer, John H. Hinton. Curator, Stewart Culin. The organ of this society is the Journal of American Folk-lore, issued quarterly. In addition to the original papers and proceedings of the society and its branches contained in this journal, there is a résumé of folk-lore throughout the world, and an extended bibli- ography, which is especially good in periodical literature. The fourth annual meeting of the American Folk-lore Society was held at the Thorndike Hotel, Boston, Mass., on December 28, and at the Peabody Museum of American Ethnology and Archeology, Cam- bridge, Mass., on December 29, Prof. Edward S. Morse presiding. The following papers were read: Two Biloxi tales, J. Owen Dorsey. Relation of the tales of Uncle Remus to the animal stories of other countries, Adolph Gerber. Survival of fire sacrifice among the Indians of Maine, Miss A. L. Alger. Folklore of the Azorian Colonies, H. R. Lang. A modern oracle and its prototypes, H. Carrington Bolton. Tales of the Abenakis, A. R. Tisdale. Chippewa tale of the end of Hiawatha, H. H. Kidder. Pawnee mythology, G. B. Grinnell. ee *See printed catalogue, and Science, N. VG5 8b. APS: PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1892. 489 Blackfoot mythology, J. Maclean. The Algic Manabozho, J. C. Hamilton. Medicine men and certain Indian myths, Henry Mott. Doctrine of souls among the Chinook, Dr. Franz Boas. Christ in folklore, A. F. Chamberlain. Animal and plant weather proverbs, Fanny D. Bergen. Customs and traditions of the Ainos of Japan, D. P. Penhallow. The permanent results of the Folk-lore Congress held in London in 1891 are given to the public in a volume of 472 pages, entitled “Papers and Transactions.” The material is arranged under the four sections called Folk-Tale; Mythology; Custom and Institution; General Theory and Classification. The president of the congress, Mr. Andrew Lang, and the vice presidents of the sections delivered addresses, and papers of great merit were read. The most important discussion was that con- cerning the independent origin of folk incidents. Under the title “ Biblebtheque de Carabas,” David Nutt has issued seven volumes which are of especial delight to folk-lorists, to wit: Cupid and Psyche, by William Adlington; Euterpe, the Second Book of Herodotus, Englished by B. R., 1584; The Fables of Bidpai, or the Morall Philoso- phie of Doni, Englished out of Italian by Thomas North, 1570, now edited by Joseph Jacobs; The Fables o> Esopas printed by W. Caxton in 1484, edited by J. Jacobs; The Asus of Caius Valerius Catullus, translated, etc., by Grant Allen; Plutarch’s Romane Questions, trans- lated in 1603 by Philemon Holland. Plutarch’s Romane Questions, translated in 1603, by Philemon Hol- land, M. A., of Trinity College, Cambridge, has again been edited by Mr. Jevons, of the University of Durham, with additional dissertations on Italian cults, myths, taboos, man-worship, Aryan marriage, sympa- thetic magic, and the eating of beans. Plutarch’s Romane Questions is said to be “the earliest formal treatise on the subject of folk-lore.” Plutarch was the first “to make a collection and selection of dates, and to give them a place of their own in literature.” Plutarch’s answers, however, are not in the modern vein, for they are framed on the assumption “that the customs that they are intended to explain were consciously and deliberately instituted by men who possessed at least as much culture and wisdom as Plutarch himself.” The current literature on the scientific study of religions is to be followed up in the Annales du Musée Guimet, and especially in the Revue de l’ Histoire des Religions, published on the Guimet foundation under the direction of M. Jean de Reville, with the co-operation of sarth, Leclercq, Decharme, Hild, Lafaye, Maspero, Renan, and Tiele. The volume of La Reyue for the year 1892 contains the following original papers: . Le dieu romain Janus. J. 5S. Speyer. Les hymnes du Rig Véda, sont-ils des priéres. Paul Regnaud. Sulletin de la Religion Juive. Le dénombrement des sectes mohametanes. I. Goldziher. Bulletin archéologique de la Religion Ramaine, Aug. Adollent, 4X0 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1892. Contes Boudhiques: 1, La Légende de Cakhupala 2. La Légende de Maddha- kundale. Vallée-Poussin et Godefroy de Blonay. Esquisse des huit sectes boudhistes de Japon, Gyau-neu (1289 B.C_) trans. Alfred Millwud. Ernest Renan, Albert Réyille. Bulletin archéologique de la Religion Greeque. Pierre Paris. Garci Ferrans de Terena et le juif Baena. Scenes de la vie religieuse en Espagne A la fin du XIV siécle. Lucien Dollfus. Fragments d’évangile et d’apocalypses découverts en Egypte. Ad. Lods. In each number is a review of books, a chronicle of what is doing along the line of the scientific study of religions, abstracts from peri- odical articles and from the transactions of learned societies, and a classified bibliography. For some reason the date of publication is omitted in every case, which detracts much from the value of the book lists; butin the abstracts from periodicals an indispensable list of jour- nals and their contents will be found. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ANTHROPOLOGY, 1892. ABBOTT, C. C. Paleolithic man in North America. Science, N. Y., xx, 270. Recent archeological explorations in the valley of the Delaware. Bost., Ginn, 11+ 30 pp. Ill. 8vo. [Univ. Pa. Ser. in philol., lit., and archeol., 11, No, 1.] ABERCROMBY, J. Samoan tales. Folk-Lore, Lond., 111, 158-165. ApAMs, OscaR Fay. The presumption of sex. Boston. ALEMANNIA, BONN. Vol. xx. [Devoted to Folk-Lore. ] ALEXANDER, W.D. Brief history of the Hawaiian people. N.Y., Am. Bk. Co. 341 pp. 8vo. ALLISON, Mrs. 8.8. Account of the Simielkameen Indians of British Columbia. J. Antrop. Inst., Lond., x x1, 305-318. 5 ALLEN, G. A. Manners and customs of the Mohaves. Wash., 1891 [1892]. Gov't Print. [From Smithson. Rep. 1890.] 2 pp. 8vo. ALVIELLA, GOBLET dD’, Lectures on the growth of the idea of God as illustrated by anthropology and history. N.Y., Seribners. Hibbert Lectures for 1891. 8vo. L’influence des astres dans la destinee des morts. Un chapitre d’astrologie primitive. Resume. Bull. Soc. wanthrop. de Brux., 1891-2, x, 1892, 171. American anthropologist. Organ of the Anthropological Society of Washington. . Vol. v. Judd & Detweiler. American Antiquarian. Bimonthly. Mendon, Ill. Vol. xrvy. American Antiquarian Society, Proceedings of the. Worcester, Mass. Vol. VIII. American Institute (The) of Civics. W. E. Sheldon, Boston. Sec. founded 1885, | American Journal of Archeology. Boston, Ginn & Co, Vol. vm. American Journal of Psychology. Worcester, Mass., 1892, Clark Uniy, Vol. v. Am. Ur-Quell. Lunden in Holstein. Vol. mt in Monatschrift fiir Volkkunde. Ammon, 0. La selection naturelle chez Vhomme. Anthropologie, Par., 1892, 11, 720-736. ANDERSON, ELIZABETH G. Sex m education. Brit. M. J., Lond., 1, 1048. ANDRIESSEN, W. F. Miinzen und andere Tauschmittel in Africa. Das Ausland, Stuttgart, 21-23; 41-46; 65, 5-9. Annales de la Société d@’archéologie de Bruxelles. Yol. vi. = ead PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1892. A91 Annual archeological report and Canadian Institute (session 1891). Being an appendix to the report of the minister of education. Ontario. Toronto, 1892. Warwick. I’ Antropologie. Paris. Vol. 11. Monthly. APPLEGARTH, ALBERT C. Quakers in Pennsylvania. Johns Hopkins Univ. Stud. in hist. and polit., Balt. 10th ser., vimr-1x. 84 pp. 8vo. Archeological and ethnological papers of the Peabody Museum, Cambridge, Mass. Archiv fiir Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte. Braunschweig, Vieweg. Vol. xx1, Parts 1-111, with Correspondenz blatt. Vol. Xxrt. Archiy fiir Slavische Philologie. Berlin. Vol. xy. Archives de Vanthropologie erininelle. Paris, v1. Archivio per |’ antropologia, etnologia e psicologia comparata. Organ of Societa italiana di antropologia e la etnologia. Florence, Vol. Xxt. Archivio per lo studio delle tradizioni popolari. Palermo. Vol. x4. ASHMEAD, ALBERT S. On the absence of cow’s milk from Japan; its beneficial con- sequences. Science, N. Y., xx, 211-212. AuBry, P. Une famille de criminels; note pour servir & Vhistoire de Vhérédité, Ann. méd.-psych., Par., 7.s., xv1, 429-441. AupIBERT, A. Dela condition des fous et des prodigues en droit romain. Arch. de Vanthrop. crim., Par., vi1, 593-608. Das Ausland, Vol. Lvt. AUSLAND, DAS. Vol. LXxv. BaBIN, C., and F. Houssay. A travers la Perse méridionale. Le Tour du Monde Paris, LXIV, 65-128. (Illustrations of ancient monuments and rock inscriptions. ) BADEN-POWELL, B. F. S. In savage isles and settled lands: Malasia, Australasia, and Polynesia, 1888-1891. Lond., Bentley. BADEN-POoWELL, B. H. The land systems of British India. Oxford, Clarendon Press. 3 vols. xXx-+699;-771; 632 pp. Maps. 3vois. 8vo. BaiLtty, E. H. 8. Psychological literature. Taste and smell. Am. J. Psychol., Worcester, v, 94-99; Space, Time, 99-104; Tonch, Pain, Internal Sensation, 104- 107. BaLFouR, HENRY. Stone implements from the Malay peninsula in Pitt Rivers Museum. Archzeologia Oxoniensis. BALDWIN, JAMES Mark. Handbook of Psychology: Feeling and Will. N. Y., Holt. Infants’ movements. Science, N. Y., X1x, 15. Psychological literature, action and volition. Am.J.Psychol., Worcester, v, 272. BaNcCALARI, G. Vorgang bei der Hausforschung. Mitth.d.anthrop. Gesellsch. in Wien, XXII, 57-67, BANDELIER, A.F. An ontline of the documentary history of the Zuni tribe. J. Am. Ethnol.and Archeol., Boston, 11. : BarbBeER, H.M. The perforated stones of South Afriea. J. Anthrop. Inst., Lond., xx1, 302-304. BARDELEBEN, K. VON. Ueber 600 nene Fille von Hyperthelie bei Miinnern. Ver- handl. d. anat. Gesellsch., Jena, vr, 199-202. Baret, L. Un hivernage dans la Chine du nord (1890-1891); notes de géographie et Vethnographie médicales, Arch. de méd. nay., Par. LVtrt, 241-342. Barrows, S. J. The evolution of the Afrie-American, New York, Appleton. 315-345 pp. (Hvolution ser. No. 28.) BARTELS. Ein junger Mann mit abnormer Behaarung. Verhandl. d, Berl. Gesellsch. f. Anthrop., Berl., 215. l7jihrige Zigeunerfrau mit einem grossen Pigmentmal. Verhandl. d. Berl. Gesellsch. f. Anthrop., Berl., 215. Nordamerikanische Steingeriithe. Verhandl. d. Berl. Gesellsch. f. Anthrop., XXIV, 98-104. 492 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1892. BARTELS, Notiz tiber einen neuen Fall yon Schwanzbildung beim Menschen, Ver- handl d. Berl. Gesellsch. f. Anthrop., 1891, xx, 725. BASSETT, FLETCHER S. Sea phantoms. Chicago, Morrill & Co.505 pp. BastTIAN, A. Ideale Welten nach uranographischen Provinzen in Word und Bild- Ethnologische Zeit- und Streitfragen nach Gesichtspunkten der Indischen V6l. kerkunde. Berlin, Felber. 3 Bande, 22 Tafeln, fol. BaTCHELOR, Rev. J. The Aino of Japan. N.Y.and Chic., Revell. v1-336 pp. Ill. 12mo. BaTEs, HENRY WALTER. The naturalist on the river Amazons. [Ed. by Edward Clodds |) Nee, DrAcs Con Map: Sl 396i pp. ovo: BraucHamep, W.M. Iroquois notes. J. Am. Folk-Lore, Bost. and N. Y., v, 223-229. The early religion of the Iroquois. Am. Antiquarian; Rhymes on old pow- der horns. J. Am. Folk-Lore, Bost., v, 284. Bewck, W.,u.C. F. Lehmann. Ueber neuerlich aufgefundene Keilinschriften in rus- sisch und tiirkisch Armenien. Ztschr. f. Ethnol., Berl., xx1y, 122-152. BENEDIKT, M.,et H. BENEDIKT. Etude anthropologique des cerveaux et des crAnes de la collection Hoffman. Arch.deVanthrop. erim., Par., vil, 237-263, 1 pl.; also Mitth. d. anthrop. Gesellsch. in Wien, xx11, 101-105. Les suggestions criminelles et la responsabilité pénale. Arch. de Vanthrop. erim., Par., Vil, 555-557. BENT, J. THEODORE. The ruins of Mashonaland. Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc. Lond., XIV, 273-298. Ill.; J. Anthrop. Inst., xxi. 124-136. The ruined cities of Mashonaland, ete.; with a chapter on the orientation and mensuration of the temples, by R. M.W.Swan. N.Y., Longmans & Co. I11.; pl. Maps. 8vo. BrRARD, A. Les hommes et les théories de Vanarechie. Arch. de Vanthrop. erin., Par., 1, 609-636. BERGEN, F. D. Popular American plant names. J. Am. Folk-Lore, Bost. and N.Y., v, 89-106. Some bits of plant-lore. J. Am. Folk-Lore, Bost. and N. Y., v, 19-22. 3ERGNER, RupoLpPH, Zur Topographie und Ethnologie Siebenbiirgens. Das Aus- land. 9325-328; 340-344; 358-263. (The peoples of Transylvania. ) BERNIER, FRANCOIS. Travels in the Mogul Empire, A. D. 1656-1668. Westminster, 1891. Constable & Co. 1, 500 pp.; maps and ill. Revised and improved. BERTILLION, A. Tableau des nuances de Viris humain. Bull. Soe. Vanthrop. de. Par., 1892, 4. s., 111, 384-387. BERTRAND, A. Cours municipal de sociologie. Areh. de Vanthrop. erim., Par., v1, 656-678. Berrany, G. T. Mohammedanism and other religions of Mediterranean countries, etc. N. Y., Ward & Co. v-322 pp. [The World’s Religions.] 12mo. BIELENSTEIN, A. Die Grenzen des lettischen Volksstammes und der lettischen Sprache in der Gegenwart und im 13. Jahrhundert. St. Petersb., 1892, xv1, 548 pp.; Atlas. Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indié. By the Koninglijk Instituut vor de, ete. Haag. Vol. vu in current year. BILFINGER, GusTAV. Pie Mittelalterlichen Héren und die Modernen Stunden. Stuttgart. 279 pp. BINET, ALFRED. Les altérations de la personalité. Bib. scient. internat., Paris, Germer-Balliere & Co. [Rey. in Nature, July 7. | BINGER, Capitaine. Du Niger au Golfe de Guinée, etc. Paris, Hachette. 2 vols. 513 and 416 pp., ill. and maps. 8vo. BisHop, Mrs. ISABELLA Birp. Journeys in Persia and Kurdistan, ete. N. Y., Put- nam. 2v. Ill. 8vo. Brack, J. WiLuiaAM. Maryland’s attitude in the struggle for Canada. Johns H. Univ. Stud. in hist. and polit. se., 10th ser., yu, 75 pp. 8vo. PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1892. 493 Boas, FRANZ. The Chinook jargon. Science, N. Y. Mar. 4, p. 129. Anthropologie in Amerika. Correspondenzbl., xxii, 114-116. The growth of children. Science, N. Y., xrx, 256, 281. Boletin de la Sociedad de geografia y estadistica de la republics Mexicano. Vol. 2. 3olletino di paleontologia italiana. Viit. Bots-REYMOND, E. pu. On the relation of natural science to art; an address before the Roy. Acad. Sc., Berlin. Nature, Dec. 31, 1891, and Jan. 7, 1892. Boiron, T. L. The growth of memory in school children. Am. J. Psychol., Wor- cester, 1891-2. rv, 362-380; 3 charts. BONVALOT, GABRIEL. De Paris au Tonkin a travers le Tibet inconnu. Paris, Hachette. 510 pp.; maps; ill’s. Borprer, A. Lemilieusocial. Rev. meus. de l’Ecole Vanthrop., Paris, 1892, 11, 1-11. — le sifflet chez les peuples primitifs. Bull. Soc. Vanthrop. de Par., 1892, 4. s., 111, 15-24. - (Discussion) 28. BouLr, M. Notes sur le remplissage des cavernes. Anthropologie, Par., 1892, 11, 19-36; separate 1-18 pp. Une excursion dans le quaternaire du nord de la France. Anthropologie, Par., U1, 426-434. Brazier. La lutte pour la vie suivant les doctrines transformistes. Science biol. XIx* siecle, Par., 1893, 264, 337, 464. BRETON, RayMOND. Dictionnaire Caraibe-Frangais. (Tuxerre, 1665.) Facsimile. Leipzig, Teubner. 480 pp.; plates. 4to. BREWSTER, C. E. The symmetrical development of our young women. Pop. Se. Month., N. Y., 189293, x11, 217, 226. BRINTON, DANIEL G. The Chinantec language of Mexico and on the Mazatie lan- guage of Mexico, ete. Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., Phila., vol. xxx, 22-40. European origin of the white race. Science, N. Y., x1x, 360. Further notes on the Betoya dialects. Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., xxx, 271-278. Further notes on the Fuegian languages. Proc. Am. Philos. Soc. Phila., xxx. The nomenclature and teaching of anthropology (with discussion by J. W. Powell). Am. Anthrop., Wash., v, 263-271. Proposed classification and international nomenclature of the anthropologic sciences. Proc. A. A. A. S., Salem, vol. xii, 257-258. The question of the Basques. Science, N. Y., xx, 60. Reminiscences of Pennsylvania folk-lore. J. Am. Folk-Lore, Bost. and N. Y., Vv, 177-185. Studies in South American native languages; from MSS. and rare printed sources. Phila., MacCalla. 67-+-20 pp. 8vo. (Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., xxx.) The tribute roll of Montezuma. Trans, Am. Phil. Soe., Xvi, 53-61. The written languages of the ancient Mexicans. Proce. Am. Philos. Soc., xxx. Brown, Mrs. W. WattAcr. Chief-making among the Passamaquoddy Indians. J. Am. Folk-Lore, Bost. and N. Y., v, 57-59. Brown, Sir J. C. Sex in education. Tr. M.Soce. Lond., 1891-92, xv. 405-436; Lan- cet, Lond., 1, 1011-1018; Brit. M. J., Lond., 1, 1046-1048. BrowNE (C.R.) Some new and anthropometrical instruments. Proc. Roy. Irish Acad., Dubl., 1891-2, 3. s., 11, 397-399. BROWNING, Oscar. The evolution of the family. Trans. Roy. Hist. Soc., Lond., Longmans & Co., n. s., VI, 87-107. Brown-Stquarp. Hérédité Vune affection due A’ une cause accidentelle. Arch. -de physiol. norm. et path., Par., 5. s., IV, 686-688. 3RUNTON (T.L.) The correlation of structure, action, and thonght. Lancet, Lond., 1893, 1, 3-9, 1 pl. Also Pop. Sci. Month., N. Y., 1892-3, xii, 749-764. Bryan, Wm. L. On the development of voluntary motor ability. Am. J. Psychol., Worcester, y, 125-204, Bibliography and plates, 494 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1892. Bryce, J. The migrations of the races of men considered historically. Scot. Geog. » Mag., vin, 401-421. Bulletin archéologique du comité des travaux historiques et scientifiques. Paris, Ministere de instruction publique et des beaux-arts. Bulletin de Folk-lore. Liége. Premier semestre. Bulletin of the American Geographical Society, New York. Quarterly. Vol. 1-xx111; Db v3 b] to 1891. . Bulletin do la Société Vanthropologie de Lyon. Bulletin historique et philologique du comité des travaux historiques et scienti- | 1 g1q | fiques. Paris, Ministére de Vinstruction publique et des beaux-arts. Bulletin de la Société impériale des naturalistes de Moscou. Burnett, 8. M. The modern apothesis of nature. Am. Anthrop., Wash., v , i —p:, nena 247-262. BuscHAN, GEORG. Die tertiiren Primaten und der fossile Mensch Siidamerikas. Das Ausland, Stuttgart, 1892, Lxv, 698-700. Review of French anthropological literature. Archiy f. Anthrop., Braunsch. ] g p , XX1, 471-502. GaInE, Hatt. The little Manx nation. N. Y.; Lovell. wy, 159 pp. 12mo ) , = Calabria (Monteleone) (La). Vol. v. [Devoted to Follk-Lore. ] CALDERWOOD, H. The relation of mind and brain. Lond., Macmillan, XX11--552 pp. CAMPBELL, CoH. W. A journey through North Korea, etc. Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc., Lond., 141-160. CAMPBELL, J. Siberian inscriptions. Tr. Canad. Inst., Toronto, 11, 261-283. ] , Capus, GuILLAUME. A travers le royaume de Tamerlan (Asie centrale). Paris ? © , Hennuyer. Xvi-+434 pp.; maps, ills. 8vo. Carnier, G. Des rapports de la taille avec le bien-étre; étude faite dans Varron- ; ] ; dissement d’Evreux. Ann. @hyg., Par., 3.s., XXvilI, 294-344. JD°) ; Carrara, M. Di aicune anomalie scheletriche nei criminal, Gior. d. r. Acead. di med. di Torino, 3. s., XL, 549-563. CARTAILHAC, B. L’Age de la pierre en Afrique. L’Anthropologie, Par., 111, 405-425. , g i 1 pologie, , It, Monuments primitifs des iles Baleares. Toulouse. X1I--80 pp.; plates. dto. CaTTety, J. McK. Psychological literature. Association, reaction. Am. J. Psy- chol., Worcester, 1v, 460-470. Cesky Lid. (The Tzech people.) Devoted to the study of the Tzech people in y peo} ) peoy Bohemia. Prague, Simacek. Cryp, A. J. Astronomie and Zeitrechnung der Perser. Das Ausland, Stuttgart, 1892, LXV, 534-538. CHAMBERLAIN, A. F. Some points in linguistic psychology. Am. J. Psychol. ’ ] s psy 8) , v, 116-119. [Experiments m onomatepoia]. The language of the Missisagas of Skugog. Phila. Trans. Am. Phil. Soce., x, 84 pp. A Mississaga legend of Nan mboju. J. Am. Folk-Lore, Bost. and N. Y., 1892, v. 291. CHANTRE, Mme. B. A travers ’Arménie Russe. Tour du Monde, Paris, 1891, LX1, 369-416; LXI1, 225-288; 1892, Lx11i, 177, and Lx1y, 161-192. CHAPIN, FREDERICK H. The land of the Cliff Dwellers. Boston, W. B. Clarke & Co. 185 pp., maps and pls. 12mo. Cuarin, H. D. The survival of the unfit. Pop. Se. Month., N. Y., x11, 182-187. CHARRIN et GLEY. De l’hérédité. Compt. rend. Soc. de biol., Par., 9.s., Iv, 818. CHAUVIN (Jeanne). Etude historique sur les professions accessibles aux femmes, ete. Paris, 1892, Giard et Briere, 296 p. 8vo. CHILD, CHARLES M. Statistics of unconscious cerebration. Am. J. Psychol., Wor- cester, V, 249-259. CHOLET, Compte DE. Arménie, Kurdistan et Mésopotamie. Paris, Plon & Co. 394 pp. 8vo. Maps and ill. — PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1892. 495 Curisty, MILLER. Why are the prairies treeless? Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc., Lond., xIv, 78-99. [Examines the theory of forest fires. ] Church Missionary Society. Proc. of the Ch. Mission. Soc. for Africa and the East, 93d year, 189192. Lond., LXxrx-+258 pp. CLEVENGER, 8. V. Brain and skull co-relations. Science, N. Y., xx, 230. CoLENSO, HArRImTTE E., and A. WERNER. White and black in Natal. Contemp. Rey., Lond. (N. Y.), LxX1, 205-213. CoLEeNsO, W. Reminiscences of the Maoris. Tr. N. Zealand Inst., xxtv. [Rev. in Nature. ] Collection of the State Historical Society of Wisconsin. Edited and annotated by Reuben Gold Thwaites. Madison, Wis., vol. x11, 498 pp. 8vo. [Bib. list of pub’s 1850-92, pp. IxX-xv.] COLLIGNON, R. Considérations générales sur l’association respective des carac- teres anthrovologiques. Anthropologie, Par., 111, 43-54. —-— Les races tunisiennes. Sciences biol. 4 la fin du XIx°® siécle, Par., 1893, 128-139. Projet @entente internationale pour arréter un conseil de révision. Paris. CoLuinEAu. Le sourd-muet (état mental). Arch. de Vanthrop. crim., Par., Vit, 1-17. Congres international des Orientalistes. Lisbon, Sept. 25 to Oct. 1, 10th session. Conway, W. M. The dawn of art in the ancient world. Lond. Cook, JAMES. The voyages of discovery of Capt. James Cook, ectc. N. Y., Ward & Co. 2vols. 1176 pp.; maps; ill. 8vo. Cosmos. Revista ilustrada de artes y ciencias. Fortnightly, Mexico. Vol. 1. Semimonthly ed. by Fernando Ferrari Perez. CouDREAU, HENRI. Dix ans du Guyane. Bull. Soc. de géog., Paris, x11, 447-480. CouTAGNE, H. De Vinfluence des professions sur la criminalité. Arch. de l’an- throp. crim., Par., Vu, 387-392. Covet?, Ricuarp. James Gilmour of Mongolia. Lond., Tract Soc., 336 pp. 8vo. CRANE, AGNES. Ancient Mexican heraldry. Science, N. Y., xx, 174-176. Cresson, H1inporNE T. Report upon pile-structures in Naaman’s Creek, near Clay- mont, Del. Cambridge, Peabody Mus. Papers 1, No. 4. The antenne and sting of Yikilcab as components in Maya day signs. Sei- ence, N. Y., Xx, 77-78; also 101. — The alphabet of Landa. Proc. A. A. A. 8., Salem, vol. x11, 281-283. —— The graphic system of the ancient Maya. Science, N. Y., Xx, 25. CRICHTON-BROWN, Harou_p. Dwarfs and dwarf worship. 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A proposito del processo Notarbatolo; i processi indiziari e I’ an- tropologia criminale. Anomalo, Napoli, 1891, m1, 329-339. Degenerazione e delinquenza,.saygi di antropologia criminale. RaeswhHh adi’ osservazioni. Napoli, 1891,,A\. Toorvoe. 64 pp. 8vo. Da deficienti ad idioti;:studio mettico-legale. Napoli. 189H!Téecors 48 ppp 8vor-. Un delinguente-zato ed il sentimanto di vendetta.nei idegenerati.. Anomalo. , Napoli, tv, 1-6.. : THE ADVENT OF MAN IN AMERICA,* By ARMAND DE QUATREFAGES. One of the chief problems of anthropologists in regard to America is that of the origin of its inhabitants. Were the original American people related to those of the Old World? Or were they indigenous to America and without ethnologic relation to other populations? Both these views, as you are aware, have had their partisans. I have al- ready made known my opinion upon this subject, which is that America was originally peopled by emigrants from the Old World. I propose to give a brief résumé of the grounds of this conviction. I recall two rules which I have constantly followed in the solution of questions sometimes so ardently contested, which are raised in the history of Man. The first rule is, to put aside absolutely every con- sideration borrowed from dogma or philosophy, and to invoke only science, that is, experience and observation. The second rule is, not to isolate man from other organized beings, but to recognize that he is subject (in all that is not exclusively human) to all the general laws which govern equally animals and plants. Hence no doctrine or opin- ion is to be regarded as true which, considering man as an animal, makes him an exception among organized beings. Let us apply these principles to the question before us, but more broadly; for it is but a special case of a still more general problem. Man is everywhere now. Did he appear everywhere in the beginning? If not absolutely cosmopolitan in its origin, did the tiuman race origi- nate at an indefinite number of points; or, originating at a single and limited spot, has it gradually taken possession of the whole earth by migration? At first thought, we might suppose the answer to these questions would be different according as we admit the existence of one or many human species, but this is an error; for we shall see that on this point, at least, the Polygenists may shake hands with the Monogenists without being involved in any contradiction with the facts. Let us take first the Monogenistie view. Physiology, which leads us to recognize the unity of the human species, teaches us nothing relative to its geographic origin; it 1s “Presidential address delivered before the Eighth International Congress of Americanists at its session in Paris, 1890. (Proceedings of the 8th session: Congr. Internat., pp. 43-55. Eee inisan 4 == 35 518 514 THE ADVENT OF MAN IN AMERICA. otherwise with the science that is occupied concerning the distribu- tion of animals and plants over the surface of the globe, The geography of organized beings has its general laws, which it is neces- sary we should know and interrogate if we would solve the problem of the peopling of the world. The first result of this study is to show that true cosmopolitism—as attributed to man—does not any where exist either in the animal or in the vegetable kingdom. In support of this proposition it is proposed to cite some testimony. On the subject of the vegetable kingdom, Candolle says: ‘‘ No phanerogamous plant extends over the whole sur- tace of the earth. There are not more than eighteen of these plants which extend over an area equal to half the earth, and no tree or shrub is among those plants which has the greatest extension.” In my lectures upon this subject, I have cited the best scientific au- thorities’ respecting the principal groups of marine animals, either of salt or fresh water. I have reviewed the fauna of the air, beginning with the insects, and I have dwelt to some extent on fishes and rep- tiles. Omitting all the rest of the birds I notice the Peregrine falcon, the area of whose habitat is the most extended, occupying, as it does, all the temperate and warm regions of the Old and New World, but does not reach the Arctic regions or Polynesia. Anatomatically and physiologically, Man is a mammal, nothing more, nothing less. This class interests us more than the preceding, and furnishes us with knowledge more precise. Permit me, then, to enter upon certain details, taking for my guide the great work of Andrew Murray, which became classic upon its appearance. By reason of their strength, their great power of locomotion, and by the expanse and continuity of the seas which they inhabit, the Cetaceans would seem to have both the greatest capacity and opportunity to become cosmopolitan, but such is not the case. Each species 1s restricted to an areamoreor lessextended, from which afew individuals occasionally make excursious, but always soon return to their proper limit. Two exceptions have been claimed to this general rule. A Rorqual, with large flippers [the “humpback ”|, and a boreal Balenop- tera [“finback” whale], natives of temperate and frigid seas, have been found, the first at the Cape of Good Hope, the second at Java. But even these are said by Van Beneden and Gervais, the two greatest authorities on Cetology, to be at least doubtfui; but accepting them as true, it yet remains that neither species has ever been found in the seas that border America or Polynesia. Among other animals than the Cetaceans, there is nothing to be found approaching even a narrow cosmopolitism. Here again I am to spare you details. It is familiar to all, that Edentates and Pachyderms have their respective countries clearly defined, and if the horse and the hog are to-day in America, it is because they were imported by Europeans. The number of Ruminants which inhabit the north of the two con- THE ADVENT OF MAN IN AMERICA. 515 tinents is very smal]. The Reindeer and the Caribou are generally regarded as only varieties of one species. Brandt, with some reserva- tions, Says the sameof the Bison and the Auroch, the Argali (Asiatic wild sheep), and the Bighorn (Rocky Mountain sheep), But none of these species are found in the warm regions of these two hemispheres, nor in all Oceanica. The Carnivora offer similar facts to the preced- ing; but when we come to the Cheiroptera and the Quadrumana we do not find a single species common to both continents, or to the rest of the world. Thus among all organized beings, whether plant or animal, there is not a cosmopolitan after the manner of man, Now it is evident that the area of the actual habitat of any animal or vegetable species in- cludes the center where that species first appeared. By virtue of the law of expansion the center should likewise be less in extent than the oceupied area. No plant and no animal, therefore, originated in all the regions of the globe. To suppose that in the beginning man appeared everywhere that we now see him would be to make an exception of him which would be unique. The hypothesis therefore can not be ae- cepted, and every monogenist will reject the supposition of the initial cosmopolitism of the human species as a false conclusion, The Polygenists must accept the same conclusion unless they refuse to apply to man the laws of geography, botany, and zoélogy that govern all other beings. In fact, to whatever extent they have multiplied the species of man, whether they assume that there are two with Virey, fifteen with Bery Saint-Vincent, or an undetermined but considerable number with Gliddon, they have always united them into a single genus; and they could not do otherwise. Now a human genus can be no more cosmopolitan than a human species. Speaking of plants, Candolle says, ‘* The same causes have borne on genera and on species,” and this is as true of animals as of plants. Restricting ourselves to mammals, among the cetaceans, Murray thinks that the genera of the rorqual and the dolphin are represented in all the seas. Van Beneden and Gervais dispute this. We will how- ever admit it; it does not all weaken our conclusion, for, excepting the cetaceans, there can be no question of generic cosmopolitism, Of the ruminants, the genera of the deer, the ox, etc.; of the carnivora, the cat, bear, etc,, have representatives in both worlds, but none in Aus- tralia or Polynesia. As we examine the higher groups, we see the number of these genera of large area diminishing, until finally not a single genus of monkey is known to be common to the Old and the New Continent; and the Simian type itself is wanting in the greater part of both worlds and Oceania. Thus, whether we regard animals by species or by genera, the area of their habitat becomes more restricted as the animals are higher in the zodlogic scale. It is the same with the vegetable kingdom. Can- dolle says: ‘“ The mean area of species is as much smaller as the class 516 - THE ADVENT OF MAN IN AMERICA. — to which they belong has a more complete, more developed, or in other words a more perfect organization.” The greater restriction of the area in proportion to the increasing perfection of the organism is then a general fact, a law applicable to all organized beings, and which is easily explained by physiology. Now this law is in direct opposition to the hypothesis that there can exist a human genus comprising several distinet species which have appeared in every quarter of the earth, wherever we now find men. In- voking the authority of Murray, and the universality of habitat which he attributes to the genera of the rorqual and the dolphin, polygenists might be tempted to say, ‘* non-cosmopolitism already presents two ex- ceptions. Why may there not bea third? Two genera of cetaceans are represented naturally in all the seas. Why may not the human genus have appeared at the start in every land?” This reasoning is faulty at its foundation. The rorqual and the dolphin belong to the lowest order of mammalia. Man, if we regard the body alone, is of the highest order. Unless we constitute them a single exception, they must obey the laws of the superior group; consequently they can not escape the law of increasing restriction of area. It follows therefore that a human genus, as the polygenists under- stand it, must have occupied, in its origin, an area no more extended than that which has comprehended some genera of monkeys. But among the monkeys themselves all naturalists recognize a hierarchy; all place at their head the order of anthropoid apes. It is then from the secondary groups of this family that polygenists should ask for indications of the possible extent of area primarily accorded to the human genus; and it is well known how ineonsiderable is the area oceupied by the genera Gibbon, Orang, Gorilla, and Chimpanzee. Whatever our point of view, we have either to assume that man alone escaped the laws which have regulated the geographical distri- bution of all other organized beings, or else adimit that the primitive tribes were domiciled upon a very restricted space. Judging from present conditions, making the largest concessions, neglecting the in- contestable superiority of the human type over the Simian type, all that the polygenistic hypothesis permits is to regard that area as having been nearly equivalent to that occupied by the different species of Gibbons which range on the continent from Assam to Malacea; in the islands from the Philippines to Java. Monogenism of course tends to restrict this area still more, and to make it equal at most to that of the Chimpanzee, which extends nearly from the Congo river to the White Nile. I would be the first to recognize that we may perhaps have to enlarge these limits at some later time. I consider the exist- ence of ian during the Tertiary geologic epoch to be demonstrated ; and only the geographical distribution of the monkeys, his contempo- rary, can furnish more precise information upon the primary extension of the center of man’s appearance. Paleontology has taught us that THE ADVENT OF MAN IN AMERICA. 51 the area formerly occupied by the Simian type was evidently more considerable than it is now. It may have been the same with the an- thropoid apes, but down to the present time, no fossil is connected with that family. The extinct dryopithecus, long regarded as belonging to them, has been shown by the examination of the best preserved remains to be nothing more than an inferior ape. The general laws of the geo- graphic distribution of beings, and especially that of increasing restric- tion of area, with superiority of organization, permit us to affirm that man primarily occupied only a very limited part of the globe, and that if he is now everywhere, it is because he has covered the earth by means of his emigrant tribes. I am aware that this ideaof the peopling of the globe by migrations has disquieted many persons. It puts directly before us an immense unknown; it raises a world of questions, a large number of which may appear inaccessible to our investigations. It has been often said, “Why create all these difficulties? It is more natural to confine ourselves to the popular movement attested by history, and accept autochthonism, especially among the lower savages. How could the Hottentots and the Fuegiens reach their present country starting from some undeter- mined point posited in the north of Asia? Such voyages are impossible ; these peoples were born at the Cape of Good Hope and at Cape Horn,” These suggestions may be answered by an anecdote borrowed from Livingston, the bearing of which will be easily comprehended. This iliustrious traveler relates how in his youth he with his brothers made long excursions devoted to observations in natural history. ‘In one of these exploring tours,” he says, ‘before the study of geology had become as common as it did later, we went into a limestone quarry. It is impossible to express with what joy and astonishment I set myself to picking out the shells which we found in the Carboniferous rocks. A quarryman looked at me with that air of compassion which a kindly man takes on at the sight of a person of feeble mind. LTasked him how these shells came in these rocks, he answered, ‘When God made the rocks, he made the shells and put them there”” Livingston adds, “What pains geologists might have spared themselves by adopt- ing the Ottoman philosophy of that workman.” It may be asked, in turn, where would geology have been if men of science had adopted that philosophy? I ask the anthropologists to imitate the geologists: I invite them to inquire how and by what way the most distant peoples have radiated from the center of the first appearance of man to the ex- tremities of the globe. Iam not afraid to predict brilliant discoveries to those who will set themselves seriously to the study of the numerous and well-established migrations. In this the past permits a glimpse into the future. Some years since, when objectors used the language I have just recalled, they did not fail to add Polynesia to the list of regions whieh man, then destitute of all our perfected arts, could not have reached, 518 THE ADVENT OF MAN IN AMERICA. Itis now known how completely such assertions have been contra- dicted. Adding his personal researches to those of his predecessors, Hale first drew a map of Polynesian migrations. Twenty years later, aided by the documents subsequently collected, I was able to com- plete the work of the learned American. Now, as has been said by the lamented Gaussin (so competent to speak in all that relates to Oceanica), the peopling of Polynesia by migrations starting from the Indian Archipelago is as clearly demonstrated as the invasion of Europe by barbarians in the Middle Ages. Like Polynesia, America was peopled by colonies of emigrants from the Old World. Their point of departure is to be discovered and their tracks to be followed. The labor will indeed be more difficult and longer upon the Continent than in Oceanica, principally because the migrations were more numerous and go back to a higher antiquity. The first Indonesian pioneers who, departing from the Island of Bouro, landed in the Samoan and Tongan archipelagos, probably made the passage near the end of the fitth century, or about the time of the conversion of Clovis. The peopling of New Zealand by emi- grants from the Manaias goes back at most to the early years of the fifteenth century. Thus the peopling of Polynesia was all accom- plished during our Middle Ages, while the first migrations to Americé date from geological times. Two savants, to whom we owe precious discoveries, Ameghino and Whitney, have traced the existence of man in America back to the Tertiary age. It is true that this opinion has been contested by men of equal repute; but I believe that the view of these men is confirmed by a comparison of the fossil faunas of the pampas of Brazil and the California gravels. Judging by what little we know, man reached Lombardy and the Cantal before he had penetrated to America. It is necessary here, without doubt, to‘make the most formal reserves in favor of future dis- coveries; but if the fact is confirmed, it would seem to admit of easy explanation. Everything leads me to believe that the separation be- tween America and Asia as now existing took place before the Quar- ternary epoch. If it was otherwise the species of mammalia common to the north of both continents would have been more numerous. The men and land animals on the shore of the Bering Sea and Strait have been stopped there. But when the great geologic winter substituted the polar temperature for a climate similar to that of California, the ancient Tertiary tribes were forced to migrate in every direction. A certain number of them may have embarked upon the ice extending between the two shores, and thus have arrived in America with the reindeer, as did their western congeners in France with the same animal. From that time the era of immigration was opened for America; it has never been closed since. Each year the winter re- builds the bridge which unites East Cape with the Cape Prince of Wales; each year a road—relatively easy for the hardy pedestrians, THE ADVENT Ol MAN IN AMERICA: 519 stretches from one continent to the other; and we know that the pop- ulation of the two opposing shores take advantage of it to maintain communications with each other. Whenever one of those great social agitations of Asia made its waves felt in distant countries; whenever revolutions, political or social, over- whelmed them, is it not evident that the fugitives or the vanquished would often have taken this route, of the existence of which they were aware? To reject the idea of suck migrations over the frozen seas, it would be necessary to suppose that since the commencement of the Quarternary period all neighboring regions have enjoyed a perpetual peace; but we all know that such a peace is not of this world. This sea may not have been the only route tollowed by American immigrations. The chain formed by the Aleutian islands, and Alaska further to the south, opened a second route to tribes which possessed a little skill in navigation. The Aleuts oceupy in Prof. Dall’s ethnological chart the whole extremity of the peninsula. By these ways, what we might call the normal peopling of America nay have taken place. But bathed on either side by a great ocean, this continent could not fail to profit by the hazards of navigation, and we can recognize more and more how it may have been done. It may now be said, that with Europe and Africa on one side and Asia and Oceania on the other, these have sent to America a number of invol- untary colonies more considerable perhaps than might be supposed. Immigrations in America as well as in Europe have been intermittent, and separated sometimes by centuries. America has been peopled as if by a great human river, which, rising in Asia, has traversed the conti- nent from north to south, receiving along its course a few small tribu- taries. This river resembles the torrent streams of which there exist examples in France. Usually, and sometimes for years at a time, their bed is nearly dry. Then a great storm comes and a liquid avalanche descends from the mountains where their sources rise, covers and ray- ages the plain, turning over the ancient alluviums, disturbing and ming- ling the old and new material, carrying farther each time the débris eroded on its passage. Suchhas been the career of our ethnological river. Its floods moreover have often been diverted to the right or left, and it has opened new channels. It has also had its eddies; but its general direction has not changed, and we can trace it down to the present. One of the most agreeable tasks for the students of American pre- historic anthropology will be to retrace this river up to its source; to determine the suecession of its floods; to distinguish the origin and nature of the elements which it has swept down; to follow those ele- ments from stage to stage, and to thus recover the route each one of them has taken to the point ofits arrival; in other words, to write the history of these migrations of the different people of America. The accomplishment of this task, as has already been said, is indeed much more difficult in America than in Polynesia. Those who undertake it 520 THE ADVENT OF MAN IN AMERICA. will encounter nothing corresponding to the historic songs and the geneologies composing the oral archives and traditions so religiously preserved in all the islands of the Pacific. But modern science has resources, the power of which we are better and better coming to un- derstand, combining the data furnished by the study of geologic strata and their fossils, of comparative craniology, of linguistics, and of ethnography. We may hope to enter upon this group of problems and to foresee their solution. Serious efforts have already been made in this direction, which have not been unfruitful. One can even now in- dicate upon the chart a considerable number of itineraries, even though as yet only partial and local. They are scarcely more than fragment- ary traces, similar to those which the predecessors of Hale found in Oceania. Possibly it will be a long time thus; nevertheless, the Amer- icanists should not lose courage; each new discovery, of however small importance it may at first appear, is some progress toward the general end. Year after year these fragmentary traces, now so isolated and scattered, will be consolidated and coérdinated with each other, and then will come a day when a map of American migrations can be con- structed showing the movement of early man from Asia to Greenland, and to Cape Horn, similar to the map already made of Polynesian mi- gration from the Indian Archipleago to Kaster Island, and from New Zealand to the Sandwich Islands. PRIMITIVE INDUSTRY.* 3y THOMAS WILSON, LL. D. The modern signification of primitive industry is the art work of primitive man, and as such is a test of his civilization. As we know of the earliest man only by his industries, it is justifiable under this head to consider man in the highest antiquity. The origin of man and his first known appearance upon earth have always been interest- ing subjects and have attracted the attention of all men throughout all time. It is mysterious, unknown ; it awakens curiosity; it excites that portion of man’s nature which desires to trace things to their origin, and to find a rational and satisfactory explanation of the cause and manner of man’s appearing. It has been studied from various points ; by biology, by paleontology, linguistics, history, psycho-phys- ics, and by archeology. There are various branches of science by which the history of man can be studied, but they are all modern. The ancients knew nothing relating to the antiquity of man. Until the times of Copernicus and Gallileo it was believed that the earth was the center of the solar system, and that the sun, moon, and stars revolved around it. Until the time of Michael Angelo, and Ber- nard Pallissy, fossil shells found in the earth were believed to be the fragments of stars fallen from the heavens. One hundred and fifty or two hundred years ago the science of geology commenced to be studied, and the formation of the earth, with its proper place in the solar system, began to be understood. At the beginning of the nineteenth century it was an accepted theory that man’s appearance upon earth dated only about six thousand years ago. This theory was accepted for want of any better; those who rejected it did so @ priori, and not because they had another or juster theory to propose. In the early part of this century, the Government of Denmark organized a commis- sion, composed of a geologist, a zodlogist, and an archeologist, charged with the duty of investigating that country on the lines of their respective sciences, in the course of which they came upon the art works of primitive man. They pursued their investigations for nigh thirty years before the first publication was made, which resulted, “A Saturday lecture delivered in the lecture hall of the U. §. National Museum, under the auspices of the Anthropological Society of Washington. 521 522 PRIMITIVE INDUSTRY. after many disputes and much consultation, in the establishment of the Pre-historic Ages of Stone, Bronze, and Iron. This commission found various monuments and implements, evidently of human origin and manufacture, which being unlike anything belonging to the his- toric man of that country, were decided to be the evidence of an earlier and pre-historic man. The most important of these were the Dolmen, which was his tomb, and the stone hatchets. These discoveries were published in 1836 by Thomson, archeologist, and founder of the Pre- historic Museum at Copenhagen, of which he continued curator for fifty years. They were recognized throughout western Europe, and they accounted for similar monuments and implements which theretotfore had been unexplained, or if so, were attributed to supernatural means; the hatchets especially being believed to have descended from heaven in a bolt of lightning or clap of thunder, and they were called by those hames respectively, ** Lightning Stone” or “Thunder Stone,” and were euarded as amulets for the protection of property against fire. This was the first step in the discovery of primitive industry. In 1859 Darwin published to the world his theory on the Origin and Evolution of Species, and thus he sought to establish and explain the antiquity of man. Contemporaneous with this was the discovery of Paleolithic implements by M. Boucher de Perthes in northern France, The place of their original and first discovery was St. Acheul on the river Somme, but afterward they were found in other places,—Chelles, on the river Marne, near Paris, being one of the principal. The latter station gave its name to the implements, and they have since been alled Chellean. So far as can now be asserted with confidence, these implements are the earliest made or used by man. They may have served as axes, hatchets, or knives, spear-heads or what-not. They appear to have been a tool for every use, just as a sailor would use his jackknife if he had no other tool or weapon. They have been called in England ‘drift implements” because they were found in the river drifts or deposits. Their positions when thus found indicated for them an antiquity equal almost to the river valleys themselves, and as belong- ing to that geologic period called by the French geologists “ Quarter- nary,” by the English “ Pleistocene,” and by American ‘* Post-pliocene.” There was a geologie period when the waters of the earth were en- gaged in carving out the river valleys, eroding and cutting them out between the bluffs on either side. In that time the rivers filled the valleys from the hills, pouring down their waters with a rush and carry- ing the greatest quantity of water tothe sea. As time progressed the waters subsided more or less and the current became slower and less powerful. At the close of the Pliocene and at the beginning of the Quarternary period, the sand and gravel which had before been carried out to sea, began to be deposited here in this bend and on that point until the deposit came to the surface of the water and formed what is now the highest terrace. Thus the river was narrowed and the terrace became a new river bank. This process was repeated again and again PRIMITIVE INDUSTRY. 523 until the river finally receded to its present bed, leaving sometimes three terraces, each one higher, deeper, and more distant from the river than the other. These terraces may not exist on the rapid mountain streams of the Atlantic slope, but they are plainly to be seen upon the longer rivers of the western slope of the Alleghenies. They are plainly manifest in the Mississippi river and its tributaries. One who has had the opportunity for inspection of these gravelly terraces, can see at once how the material was brought down by the water and here de- posited. It is dependent upon amount and velocity of the water and the size of the pebble whether the deposit is of the finer debris or made up of pebbles only. Its layers or strata are plainly marked, and the volume and rapidity of the current can easily be surmised if not actually caletilated. In France and ngland bones of animals belong- ing to that period, animals extinct in modern times, the mammoth, even its ancestor elephas antiquus, the rhinoceros merkii, the hippopot- amus, the cave bear, the saber-toothed tiger, had been caught in the whirls of water, carried down and deposited with the pebbles. In these gravels, and associated with these animals, have been found these chipped stone implements called chellean. If these implements had been found as isolated specimens, only a few in number, they would not be nearly so convincing as when found as they have been in almost every river valley of Western Europe by the thou- sands if not the tens of thousands. They are there usually of flint, probably because flint was the material easiest procured and best suited to the purpose. In localities where flint was not indigenous, quartzite has been used, and there are in the U, S. National Museum specimens of this material from England, France, and Asia. They were made altogether by chipping, that is, by being struck with the hammer; it may have been another pebble; and so flakes knocked off, first from one side and then from the other, until the implement was reduced to an irregular but sharp edge and point. They are made sometimes of a bowlder, whether of flint or of quartzite, and the crust of the original pebble is shown and part left for the grip. They are of a size to be held in the hand and used as tools or weapons. There is no evidence that they were ever hafted, but on the contrary, their form is such as to render them most difficult for satisfactory handling. An envelope of hide, grass, leaves, moss, or something similar probably served to protect the hand. They have two or three peculiarities, which it is proper to notice, other than being chipped and having a grip. They are always of appropriate size for use; they are thicker in pro- portion to their width than any other stone-cutting implement; they are usually almond-shaped, and their cutting-edge is at the point, The conclusion that the implements were of human manufacture, and are evidence of the antiquity of man, was not admitted until after much discussion and investigation. The first of them was found in 1836. M. Boucher de Perthes soon after published his belief that they were 524 PRIMITIVE INDUSTRY. evidence of what he called “ Antedeluvian Man.” It was disputed, first, that they were not of human manufacture. M. Mantel, an English geologist of some celebrity, once read an extended paper before one of the scientific societies of London to prove they were not. The fact of their discovery was disputed, the location had to be identified and established ; and it was not until 1859 (thirteen years or more), that the conclusion as aforesaid was accepted, and then only after the investigation of a joint committee of fifteen prominent scientists, half from England, half from France, which met on the ground and were fortunate enough to find some specimens in situ. Since then the belief in the genuineness of their evidence as high antiquity of man has been accepted by all men. It was soon after the discoveries of M. Boucher de Perthes and those of M. Lartet of the caves of southern France, that Sir John Lubbock, noting the difference between this industry and that of the dolmens and polished stone hatchets of Denmark and other countries, and that they all belonged to the Stone age, took upon himself the division of that age into periods, of which he named the former Paleolithic, that is, the early period, and the other the Neolithic, or the later period of the Stone age. Thus it will be perceived that the existence of a Paleolithic period, the evidence of the occupation of that country by man in a period of time earlier than the Neolithic, was as much opposed, and required as long a time to secure a favorable settlement as has the discoveries of Dr. Abbot of similar implements in the Trenton gravels. From France and England the new evidence concerning the antiquity of man spread to other countries, and it was found that similar implements existed in nearly every country in the world. They have been found in Spain and Portugal. Mr. H. C. Mercer, a gentleman from Philadelphia, while at Madrid during the last exposition in 1892, visited one of the gravel beds of the neighborhood, San Isadore, where these implements were said to have been found, and he discovered one in place which he declares impossible to have been other than an original deposit. He secured all evidence by photographs, plaster casts, ete. So also of Italy. They have been found in various locali- ties and are to be seen in the museums of different cities. Prof. H. W. Haynes, of Boston, found the same kind of implement on the left bank of the Nile, not in the alluvial deposit, but in an eroded gully or water- way in the original gravelly deposits. Christian missionaries to the Holy Land have found and reported similar implements, and they are de. posited in the museum at Paris. Two great stations in Hindostan were also disclosed,—one near Madras, in southeastern Hindostan, and the other in Nerbudda, on the northwest coast. In many of these cases such implements were deposited deep in the gravel together with the bones of extinct animals, accompanied only by their neces- sary débris of chips, hammers, flakes, ete.; and except certain im- plements, the hammer, scraper, and leaf-shaped blade, which, from their nature, belonged to both periods, nothing was found which PRIMITIVE INDUSTRY. 525 had any relation with the Neolithic or polished stone period. So it has come to pass that throughout the world, whatever differences there may have been between the scientists as to the antiquity of man, or the locality of his original appearance, manner of his civilization, use of implements (and these differences have been almost infinite), nearly all of them have agreed upon the existence of this Paleolithic period, and that it was anterior to the Neolithic period. It is not therefore for me to continue in this country a discussion of matters which belong to other countries, and which have been fully investigated for years by the scientists of those countries and been accepted as settled. If the evidence as to Paleolithic man in America be developed, arguments made and investigations required, it will be nothing more than what was required in France and England at the time of the original discov- ery; but Lam not without the belief that it will be finally acknowledged to be true in our country, as it had been in other countries. sw Se : ~ ¢ ne i | } y j ~ ( — 75 fi 4 i ae Z } ~ : } =~ Rae we en nw sr ee aoe ~~ —s rs — ‘ Pox oe t © ewww = — = eee we & AD Srna tg -a a= ie . -< te war ea i PREHISTORIC NEW MEXICAN POTTERY. aon I found in some rooms very large old dead junipers that were larger than the surrounding trees. Some of the ruins are miles from any water. They are scattered at short intervals of a hundred yards to a mile or more apart in different directions, as the ground lies favorable, and at times on higher rising ground. From these conditions it would appear that the population was at one time numerous in these valleys. I found some extensive ruins on a branch canyon a long distance from water. The ruins I excavated in were 60 feet, plainly traceable, with appearances of extending 100 feet further, by 117 feet. The 60 feet was divided into the widths of three rooms—the first 16 by 20 feet, the second 18 by 24, and the third 15 by 18, which, with the width of walls 2 to 3 feet, made the distance. There were three other rooms which I could trace, adjoining the ends of these rooms, as seen in Fig. 1, and a small middle room 8 by 5 feet, but the walls were not accurately laid bare. Theoutside walls were laid up with roughly hewed stone, worked into squares of about 14 inches and about 3 inches thick. Some of the partition walls were laid with uncut bowlderstones. The walls were laid inclay cement smoothly plastered inside; most of the loose stone on the surface was uncut stone. Thedepth of walls was from 5 to8 feet, with clay floors at the bottom of rooms. In rooms 16 by 20, on the outside wall, were two openings, one apparently each for door and window; they were blocked up with rough stone laid without cement. ‘This would make it appear that the floors of the rooms were once about the level of the earth outside. Below these floors, and close to or under the founda- tions, were skeletons of adults, but so far decomposed that only the large bones and skulls were generally traceable; very few of these can be exhumed whole. Nearly all the teeth are very sound. I found in one room two skeletons in a doubled position, partially under the foun- dations, as Shown in Fig. 2. There was a hearth made of four long pieces of square-dressed stone forming the frame, filled up with cement inthe middle. Under this hearth I found the skeletons of two children. There were pots about the heads of the adults. Under the chin of one I found eleven shell rings and a turquoise bead. All the skeletons are not accompanied with pots; some have nothing with them, while others have several pieces; Some contain bead necklaces, charred corn, beans, pumpkin seeds, fragments of woven fabries, cord, braids, and human hair, etc. Also bone implements in a perfeet state of preservation are found near the human bones that are so decomposed. The pottery con- sists of several kinds; there are the coil pots, as are found in mounds and cliff dwellings, but many are of a much finer ware. A red, smooth, glossy ware without ornamentation, all of a bottle or vase form. But the chief interest centers in the white or rather light gray and black ware, finely decorated and glazed. The designs are unique, both in form (which is various), and the style of figure in decorating, much of which is like steps in endless variety of changes, curves, and lines ina maze-like intricacy in some, with geometrical figures in others, but the 538 PREHISTORIC NEW MEXICAN POTTERY. equally well-distributed balance of color and forms mark this peculiar pottery. It is of a rather soft majolica-like material in body, while the glazed surface is hard and brittle, but it is thin and light in weight. Another ware, red and black, is found in the form of bowls and pitch- ers; this differs somewhat from the white and black, and is very fragile. Fig. 2. y ‘ 4 ) I have seen no whole specimens, but some are easily repaired and be- come harder after being exposed to the air for a time. A great many bowls are found of a drab or yellowish-brown color, smooth inside, with plumbago worked into the clay and made very smooth. These are often found blackened outside from fire, and inside a black charcoal-like dust. These were probably cooking utensils. Stone implements are quite PREHISTORIC NEW MEXICAN POTTERY. 540 PREHISTORIC NEW MEXICAN POTTERY. PREHISTORIC NEW MEXICAN POTTERY. HAL 542 PREHISTORIC NEW MEXICAN POTTERY. PREHISTORIC MEW MEXICAN — — fa om, -- - -~ MOD RE ee 6 ae eme = a ee ge | OF One i] ! ! ' t ft f POTTERY: Fig. 7 544 PREHISTORIC NEW MEXICAN POTTERY. ee 4 POTTE MEXICAN EW 1 4 PREHISTORIC “6 SMT od H. Mis. 1143 — 546 PREHISTORIC NEW. MEXICAN POTTERY. PREHISTORIC NEW MEXICAN POTTERY. 547 7) PREHISTORIC NEW MEXICAN POMBORY Dy) Fig. 1 550 PREHISTORIC NEW MEXICAN POTTERY. Wee err CF we we © err . oe 4 ‘ ¢ Fig. 14 J © . ee el ee ee al at Sg 2 ee PREHISTORIC NEW ant PREHISTORIC NEW MEXICAN POTTERY. s tel eh BS = PREHISTORIC NEW MEXICAN POTTERY. 553 plentiful,—metatas, mortars, axes, hammers, and most of the usual ar- ticles of the kind, except spear-heads, or war implements, which I did not see. The little obsidian arrow points, very fine and small, are found all through the soil; I saw some crude smoking pipes, and two leneths Taree ne - C7 Oe te SON OOS OO Teeitiae See o—- rere oe en yO of what appeared to be water pipes; also a bell of bronze similar to Fie. 44, Sixth Annual Report of Bureau of Ethnology, but having the shoul- der more like the triplet bells, Fig. 43. It is 3 inches long and 2 broad. Lalso saw some finely carved small figures of animals not over an ineh long, of a greenish stone, resembling jade. Some pebbles I tound were 554 PREHISTORIC NEW MEXICAN POTTERY. polished on one or more sides. A few were of black, fine-graimed stone, which the Mexicans called moist stones, for after holding them in the warm hand and using a little friction they feel moist. In some of the rooms charred parts of beams of pine were found; all the raw wood fiad undoubtedly rotted away. Many were the speculations of the inhabi- tants [ heard expressed about the race of people, and why they left, none of which gave any solution to the difficulty. It is evident that only a very few bodies were buried under the houses, or they would be much more numerous after along continued occupation. It seems a ereat mystery how these buildings became filled up and have fragments of pottery through the earth from top to bottom. The earth in most localities is quite hard, and can be removed only by a pick-ax. If an archologist had an entire building cleared ont and laid bare inside and out, a better solution might be arrived at. RELICS OF AN INDIAN HUNTING GROUND, IN YORK COUNTY, PA. BY ATREUS WANNER. York County is assumed to have been only occasionally visited by Indians and reputed to be comparatively barren of relics. In a re- ceutly published history of the county, it is said that— “Tt | York County] was, as it appears from the Indian complaints, preceding its settlement, a hunting ground, or on the way to hunting grounds, nearly all woods, and claimed by the Indians to have been ex- pressly reserved for them by William Penn. The original settlers here found immense tracts of land entirely denuded of timber by the annual fires kindled by the Indians for the purpose of improving their hunt- ing grounds.” Such a statement concerning the Indian occupation, without calling into question its accuracy, is too general and vague. It conveys to us no conception of the extent, character, location, and number of Indian settlements in the territory. Desirous of learning more about these aboriginal settlements, the author selected a limited area of the county and then proceeded to care- fully search the ground. The object was to ascertain just what evi- dences of Indian occupation could yet be found strewn over the fields, many of which have been cultivated for more than a hundred years. That the search was well rewarded is proven by the number and variety of specimens collected. The region selected extends along the Codorus Creek, having a breadth of two miles, and a length of six, with the city of York, (York County, Pa.,) in its center. The area thus located reaches from the forks of the creek, above the city, to two high hills, between which the Codorus flows. The surtace of the land is undulatory and well watered by numerous runs. It is now a thickly settled and highly cultivated part of the county. All the relics described in this paper have been found along the Codorus and its tributary runs, since 1882. All the implements herein described were collected from the surface in various fields. 556 RELICS OF AN INDIAN HUNTING GROUND. Leaf-shaped implements.— Whether the specimens illustrated were used as lanceheads or not is, of course, mere Speculation. In addition to “the absence of a notched or stemmed base or both,” by which Dr. Abbott separates lance from spear-heads, these specimens are of com- paratively great thickness. The accompanying illustrations will more clearly serve to point out the difference between lance-heads and spear- heads, whether such differences are enough to warrant the inference that they were used for different purposes or not. LANCE-HEADS.—(Halt-size. ) Tin D) Oy Ny fh = ‘4 yf ay pee CU ed “\ So Ll (1) Gray compact sandstone: Length, 45 inches; width, 1% ins. ; thickness, 3 ins. (2) Felsitic rock, purple: Length, 44 ins.; width, greatest, 2} ins. ; thickness, + in. (3) Quartz, gray: Length, 34 inches; width, 12 inches; thickness, 4 inch. (4) Quartz, gray: Thickness, } inch. Spear-heads.—All of the specimens illustrated under this head have bases so fashioned as to provide for the attachment of a shaft, whilst the preceding bearno evidences of having been so wrought. Figs. 9, 10, 11, 12, and 13 may have been used for “ fishing spears.” At anyrate, owing to their shape, they would haveanswered that purpose better than any of the other stone implements we have found. The shallow Codorus, with its generally clear water, along the banks of which all of these slender spear-heads were found, must have been a good stream in which to spear fish. Only one point, Fig. 12, is represented, though we have a number of them, to which we referred when outlining the supposed shape of the basal pieces—6, 9,10, 11, and 13. Figs. 9 and 11 bear some resemblance to perforators, but their appearance and better finish seem to indicate a different use. Fig. 10 has on each side, just below the notch, a row of prominent teeth, a peculiar variation of the usual form. Other specimens not described are like the ones illustrated. All those deseribed were found in different fields. > RELICS OF AN INDIAN HUNTING GROUND. 5DT Arrow-heads.—Several hundred arrowheads have been picked up within this area. They seem to be generally distributed over the fields adjacent to the Codorus and along all the various runs emptying into the same. There are five or six localities where more fragments and more whole specimens have been found than elsewhere; but in several of these the washing away of the soil and the conseauent exposure of the stones account for the greater ‘ find.” SPEAR-HEADS. —(Half-size.) (5) Slate, purple: Length, 4% inches; width, 1; inches; thickness, $ inch. (6) Slate, gray: Width, 2 inches; thickness, { inch. (7) Felsitic rock: Length, 3b inches; width, 12 inches; thickness, 2 inch. (8) Felsitic rock: Length, 3 inches; width, 1% inches; thickness, ¢ inch. (9) Felsitie rock: Width, greatest, 14 inches; thickness, + inch. (10) Slate, black: Width, § inch; thickness, ~ inch. (11) Felsitic rock: Width, gr., § inch; thickness, (°; inch. (412) Quartz: Width, 74% inch; thickness, »8; inch. (13) Felsitie rock: Width, gr., 2 inch; thickness, 3 inch. The specimens selected for illustration are samples of the best wrought arrow-heads, showing variety in shape. They are far superior in work- manship to the average arrow-head. Before one such fine specimen ean be picked up a dozen or more primitive ones will be found. The minerals of which they are made are limestone, slate, quartzite, 558 RELICS OF AN INDIAN HUNTING GROUND. ordinary white quartz, a felsitic rock, jasper, agate, and chert. The first four of these substances oceur within the region; the others do not. Were the arrow-heads of the other materials made here, or were they brought here already made from elsewhere? We shall refer to that question under the head of ‘ Stoneworkers’ Chips.” ARROW-HEADS.—(F ull size. ) (14) Felsitic rock, gray: Length, 22 inches; width, 12 inches; thickness, 3 inch. (15) Felsitie rock, gray: Length, 22 inches; width, greatest, 2 in.; thickness, ¢ in (16) Felsitic rock, gray: Length, 2} inches; width, 12 inches; thickness, ~ inch. (18) Felsitic rock: Length, 12 inches; thickness, +8 inch; width, + inch. (19) Quartz, milky: Length, 12 inches; width, greatest, § inch; thickness, }inch. (20) Chert: Length, 1} inches; width, % inch; thickness, } inch. (21) Quartz, milky: Length, ——; width, 1 inch; thickness, inch. RELICS OF AN INDIAN HUNTING GROUND. 559 ARROW-HEADS.—(F ull size.) (22) Quartz, milky: Length, 13 inches; width, 1 inch; thickness, + inch. (23) Quartz, milky: Length, 1} inches; width, 14 inches; thickness, + inch (24) Felsitic rock, gray: Length, ; width, % inch; thickness, } inch. 25) Jasper: Length, 1% inches; width, } inch; thickness, } inch. (26) Felsitie rock, gray: Length, 14 inches; width, { inch; thickness, $ inch. (27) Jasper: Length, 14 inches; width, 1} inches; thickness, 4 inch. (28) Felsitic rock, gray: Length, 14 inches; width, { inch; thickness, 4 inch, (29) Quartz, red: Length, 1} inches; width, 2 inch; thickness, } inch. 30 31 32 30 (30) Felsitie rock: Length, { inch; width, ¢ inch; thickness, } inch. (31) Quartz, milky: Length, }ineh; width, g inch; tbickness, ,%; inch, 32) Quartz, milky: Length, } inch; width, 4 inch; thickness, } inch. (33) Quartz: Length, { inch; width, § inch; thickness, } inch. 560 RELICS OF AN INDIAN HUNTING GROUND. Knives.—Fig. 35 is a curved and somewhat angular piece of yellow and red jasper. Along its entire concave margin is a serrated cutting edge. It looks as though it had been originally a part o: some larger implement and had been rudely chipped after detachment to its present shape. KNIVES.—({ Half size.) wie it A 34) Felsitic rock, gray: Length, 5 inches; width, 12 inehes; thickness, 2 inch. ID c oD ; b4 b] 7 8 35) Jasper, yellow: Leneth, 32 inches; width, — inch; thickness; } inch. De he) z 5 5 , I +e hj 36) Felsitic rock, gray: Length, 24 inches; width, ® inch; thickness, 2 inch. bp t=) d oD , 2 b) be} b, (37) Felsitic rock, gray: Thickness, } inch. The base of Fig. 37 is broad, concave, and not chipped. The rest of its margin is chipped to a cutting edge. Fig. 36 is a flake of felsitie rock with a somewhat blunt, serrated edge. Fig. 34 has been chipped to a remarkably good edge, with the exception of the basal end and a small flat area at the convex margin. By placing the forefinger on this flat surface and the thumb on the side a firm grip can be had which will enable one to make excellent use of the entire concave edge. This edge is decidedly the better of the two. We have nothing else from here like this specimen, but a knife of chert, from Ohio, in our collee- tion resembles it. Perforators.—One of these perforators, Fig. 41, of felsitie rock bears unmistakable evidences of having been used to drill holes. The point is worn smooth and more or Jess even, whilst above it, on both sides, the serrated edges are sharp and angular. Figs. 38 and 39 have broad bases and can be easily and firmly held between the thumb and finger. The points are cylindrical and stout. Figs. 40 and 42 might have answered very well for several purposes. Their shape is an excellent RELICS OF AN INDIAN HUNTING .GROUND. 561 one for drilling holes, yet both are so well wrought as to suggest that perhaps they may have been spear- or arrow-heads. The five illustrated are the only whole implements of the kind that we have found in this region. We oceasionally pick up points that are cylindrical, but can not of course decide whether they belong to drilling stones or not. PERFORATORS.—(Iull size.) (39) Felsitic rock, blue: Length, 2 inches; width, 1 inch; thickness, } inch, (40) Felsitic rock, gray: Length, 2 inches; width, 2 inch; thickness, } inch. (41) Felsitic rock, blue: Length 14 inches; width, 4 inch; thickness, % inch. (42) Felsitie rock, gray: Length, 12 inch; width, “% inch; thickness, + inch. Celts.—Figs. 43 and 44 are so much alike in general outline as to justify the opinion that both were designated for the same purpose. Neither is pecked or sharpened, but both are chipped. Fig. 45 is made of quartzite and is rudely fashioned. The other, of slate, is much more symmetrical. The margins of both are very blunt. Either if sharpened would serve every purpose for which Figs. 45 and 46 might be used, and hence with- out speculating as to what they were intended for, we have called them chipped celts. Fig. 45*, of slate, is chipped and sharpened along the lower margin. Fig. 46*, nade of trap, is smooth over its entire surface, and posesses a moderately sharp edge. There is no evidence of chip- ping or pecking, but the entire surface plainly shows that it was worn to its present shape by rubbing. Nearly all the celts from the Susque- “In collection of Mr. George Miller, H. Mis, 114——36 562 RELICS OF AN INDIAN HUNTING GROUND. hanna are chipped and pecked, or if smooth are simply water-worn stones that have been sharpened. The fact that itis made of a very hard and tough rock makes it all the more difficult to understand why this celt should have been laboriously rubbed to its present shape, and CELTS. (Half size.) CHIPPED. (43) Felsitic rock, gray; Length, 5 ins.; width, greatest, 22 ins.; thickness, 1 in. (44) Slate, brown: Length, 42 inches; width, 2% inches; thickness, ? inch. PECKED, OR GROUND. (45) Slate: Length, 44 inches; width, 1{ inches; thickness, } inch. (46) Trap: Length, 3 inches; width 14 inches; thickness, 4 inch. also suggests that this specimen may have been used to dig in the ground and that the striz on its surface may have resulted from some such use, . as Ta RELICS OF AN INDIAN HUNTING GROUND. 563 A.ves.—The axes as arule are small, with a groove extending around the stone. Most of those that come from the Susquehanna, near the mouth of the Codorus, where numbers are found, have one ungrooved side. Tully three out of every four are thus fashioned. Moreover, the AXES.—(Half-size. ) (47) Trap: Length, 5} inches; width, 2} inches; thickness, 1 inch; weight, 15 oz. (48) Trap: Length, 7} inches; width, greatest, 4 inches; thickness, 2 inches. (49) Quartzite: Length, 34 inches; width, 3} ins. ; thickness, 1 inch; weight, 8 oz. groove often extends obliquely across the stone, yet I have not seen a single ax from this region with an oblique groove, and only one (in the collection of Casper Louks) that was not grooved entirely around the stone. Now, why should the predominating type of a region dis- tant only about ten miles, and within easy access, be represented here 564 RELICS OF AN INDIAN HUNTING GROUND. by but a single specimen? The most plausible inference is that the two types were intended for different purposes; probably the axes found here were carried about for general use, whilst the heavier ones form the Susquehanna, often differently grooved, as stated, were designed for some special use as boat-building. One of the axes, weighing only one pound (Fig. 47), has two parallel grooves extending entirely around. Of course, it is hard to assign the reason for two grooves in such a light stone, when other axes weighing much more, as Fig. 48, are provided with only one. This ax is slightly battered at the back, and has also a small piece out of one end of the moderately sharp edge. There is one noticeable difference between the edge of this specimen and that of Fig. 48. Fig. 47 bears transverse striw on its smooth sides near the edge, which evidently were made in sharpen- ing it, whilst Fig. 48 is marked with rather coarse longitudinal stric. The latter looks very much as though it had been used as an agricul- tural implement and had been scratched through such use. It has a blunt edge, and, being of tough and hard material and of a pointed shape, would have made a good digging tool. Fig.49 is made of quartz- ite. Itis well wrought, and with the exception of a slightly broken back, is without a flaw. We were not able to collect many axes, and we do not know of more than 14 from the region in question. Of these, the illustrated ones are the best specimens. The number found seems comparatively large when the circumstances are considered. Axes, being conspicuous objects, are amongst the first specimens picked up. And in a region cultivated for more than a hundred years, such as this, it is quite probable that many of them were found and carried away. Moreover, it is the custom of our farmers to collect the stones from the fields and throw them into low and waste places. Several of the axes were picked up in the public road, where they had been thrown into mud holes along with other stones from the fields. Along the Susquehanna it is not an unusual thing for the fishermen to use these axes, on account of their convenient grooves, as sinkers for their fish nets! Of course, whenever the strings with which they are tied break, which often happens, the axes will be left amongst the water- worn stones at the bottom of the river. Hammers.—F¥ig. 50 is a water-worn and smooth sandstone. It has been slightly roughened on each side, near the center, by pecking. The marginal area is less smooth than the rest of the surface, having been evidently roughened, but not battered by use. The evidences of its use by the Indians, whilst unmistakable, are very slight, and show that this particular stone was selected because it naturally possessed the desired shape. No doubt other worn pebbles were used as picked up by the Indians; at any rate, we occasionally find a spherical stone with a battered margin that looks exactly like a much-used hammer, only there are no pits pecked into it. RELICS OF AN INDIAN HUNTING GROUND. 565 Fig. 51 isa close-grained sandstone, and was both hammer and polish- ing stone. The margin is quite rough and indented from its use as a hammer—a use also indicated by the presence of a shailow pit near the center of one side. Almost the entire surface of one side, the one shown in the illustration, is very smooth. It bears unmistakable evidence of having been so worn after the pit had been pecked. The stone is HAMMERS.—(Half-size. ) (50) Quartzite: Length, 44 ins.; width, 32 ins.; thickness, 1? ins.; weight, 14 lbs. (51) Quartzite: Length, 3} ins.; thickness, 2 ins.; width, 3} ins.; weight, 14 lbs. (52) Sandstone: Length, 24 ins.; width, 13 ins.; thickness, 14 ins.; weight, 4 Ib. hemi-spherical, and when held in the hand is found to be well adapted for polishing purposes—a use also likely to have been suggested by the grit of the stone. It is a type common along the Susquehanna. Very few hammers have been collected in this region. Fig. 52 is a water-worn oval pebble somewhat battered at one end, Very rough notches have been pecked into the opposite sides to provide for the attachment of a handle, incident to some subsequent use of the stone. It was found half a mile from the Codorus, near a spring, in a field plentifully strewn with “chips.” Was it a “pogga-moggon” stone? 566 RELICS OF AN INDIAN HUNTING GROUND. Pestles—Even fragments of pestles are scarce. I know of only one, Fig. 53, that has been found whole. It may not be out of place to state here the origin of such specimens, as given by one not accustomed to collect relics. A very smooth and cylindrical section, about two inches long, of a pestle was shown to a farmer, near whose house it had been found. He immediately pronounced it a thunderbolt! PESTLE. (One-sixth size. ) (53) Quartzite: Length, 15 inches; thickness, 2 inches. Pottery.—We found a few fragments of pottery in four widely separated localities. In two of these localities pieces of soapstone, parts of dishes, were also picked up. The pieces of pottery, made out of clay and broken pebbles, materials easily obtained here, are similar to pieces trom the Susquehanna. The impressions are evidently of two kinds, those made by a stylus of some sort in the hands of the ancient potter and those which resulted from the structural irregularities of some receptacle within which the plastic clay was first shaped. POTTERY, SOAPSTONE DISH. (Haltf-size') 57 (54) Pottery Fragments: Thickness, ;3- inch. (55) Pottery Fragment: Thickness, } inch. (56) Pottery Fragment: Thickness, 4 inch. (57) Soapstone Dish: Thickness, 2 inch. Soapstone dishes —Fragments of soapstone dishes were collected iu four or five separate localities. The “ear” piece illustrated is one of eight pieces found near together and evidently all parts of the same vessel. The largest of these fragments is six inches long and eight inches wide. The dish originally must have been a foot in length and nearly as broad, with a depth of five or six inches, Soapstone is not : RELICS OF AN INDIAN HUNTING GROUND. 567 found in situ in this locality, but it occurs plentifully in the adjacent county of Harford, in the State of Maryland. Implements of unknown uses.—Fig. 59 has been broken so that its original form is a matter of conjecture. However, it is so strikingly like another strange specimen (Fig. 58) from the Susquehanna, which is entire, that we have no hesitancy in concluding that both were designed for the same purpose. Both are nade out of chlorite, and are not inthe least battered. They could not have been used as weapons or as agricultural implements, since the stone is very brittle and is moreover so soft as to be easily scratched with the finger-nail. These are the only specimens of this shape, or of chlorite, that I have ever seen from this or adjacent localities. We think they were probably used as ceremonial implements. IMPLEMENTS OF UNKNOWN USES.—(Half-size. ) 58 68a 59 (58) Chlorite: Length, 4 inches; width, greatest, 2} ins; thickness, greatest, lin. (59) Chlorite: Length, 3} inches; thickness, 1 inch. Figs. 60, 61, 62, and 63, are pieces of slate. The holes in all of them were, apparently, made with stone drills, since they are irreg- ularly grooved and taper towards the center of the stone from both sides. These pieces are so fragmentary as to prevent any attempt at restoration. No. 60 is worn quite smooth, with rounded edges, and has a slight polished depression extending a short distance from the inner margin of each hole along the surface of the stone. This polished surface was doubtless produced by a cord passing through both holes, from which the slate was suspended. The holes in Fig. 61 are polished, the result of friction. Figs. 64 and 65 are both well wrought implements. From the care with which they have been finished they were evidently designed for some special use. They are the only specimens of the kind that we know of from this locality. They might have been used as teeth in 568 RELICS OF AN INDIAN HUNTING GROUND. war-clubs, but whether they were so used or not is of course mere speculation. Among our implements of unknown uses, perhaps the most interesting and valuable one is Fig. 66. So far as I have been able to ascertain, it is the only one that has thus far been found. It is a triangular prism of slate, with sides three fourths of an inch wide, IMPLEMENTS OF UNKNOWN USES.—(Half-size. ) (60) Slate, black: Width, 2? inches; thickness, + inch. (61) Slate, brown: Thickness, 4inch. (62) Slate: Thickness, 75; inch. (63) Slate: (Split). 66 of Yla: Section Showing hole, Wh idl (64) Felsiticrock: Length, 24 inches; width, greatest, 14 inches; thickness, 2 inch. (65) Felsiticrock: Leneth, 34 inches; width, greatest, 14 inches; thickness, $ inch. (66) Slate, brown: Width of each side, ¢ inches. originally about 5 inches long, and having at each end two holes that meet. The one hole is bored with a slant of about 45 degrees (see section «) from near the end of one side till its junetion with a hole bored from the end of the prism. The other end of the specimen, though much broken, was evidently fashioned in the same way. The holes are funnel-shaped and are such as would be produced by a stone drill. Two sides of the prism bear symmetrical scratches, evidently once of some significance, now in part defaced by wear and in part by the ancient use of the stone for whetting purposes. RELICS OF AN INDIAN HUNTING GROUND. 569 Fig. 67 is a gneissoid rock, very rudely flaked and somewhat pecked. It is hard to conjecture to what use it may have been put, though there is no question about its having been worked into its present shape. Fig. 68 is made of green slate. It is either an unfinished implement, or if completed, a very rudely fashioned one. The fact that it is made of slate, as well as its shape, incline us to call ita banner stone. IMPLEMENTS OF UNKNOWN USE—(Half size.) (67) Slate: Leneth, 5 inches; thickness, 1 inch. (68) Slate: Leneth, 6 inches; thickness, 12 inches. Stone Worker's Chips.—¥ lakes of felsite rock, of jasper, and of agate, are found well distributed along the Codorus and its tributary runs. The fact that the rocks of which these flakes are pieces are not natu- ‘ally found here is very significant. The presence of these “chips” proves that implements were here wrought out of the rough stone into desirable shapes. But these minerals, felsite rock, jasper, and agate, are not found in situ inthis region. The felsite rock occurs fully thirty miles distant, in the South Mountain. Where the agate and jasper were brought from has not been determined. Occasionally flakes of white quartz cover a small area in a field containing in another part a spot rich in flakes of felsitie rock. The presence of such spots seems to indicate that each ancient stone-worker confined his labors to ehip- ping a particular mineral. Conclusion.—J ust what conclusions as to the Indian occupation of this part of York county can safely be drawn from the number and 570 RELICS OF AN INDIAN HUNTING GROUND. variety of specimens found is not so easily determined. One thing is certain, that as the result of persistent search, almost a complete ‘“series” of relics has been collected. Though the author found nearly all the objects here illustrated and described, yet any one else, had he as thoroughly and persistently searched the same region, would have been equally successful. This is proved by the fact that several others (Casper Loucks, George Miller, and John J. Frick) interested in the subject have found specimens in the same territory. The discoveries here made lead us to infer that other places, in the eastern portion of the United States, now thickly settled, would be just as productive of specimens. We do not believe that this region is more favorable to the production of relics than other localities similar in natural features. Attention is called to a few difficulties that beset the care- ful searcher. Fields that now yield few relics may have them deeper down. The building of dams has materially changed our streams. Places that once were high and dry on the bank are now covered by every freshet. As a consequence, the sediment has accumulated, and the relies have been buried beyond the reach of the plow. Occasionally a field is washed bare of all the loose soil. In that event, you can not reasonably conclude that the number and variety of specimens found there indicate a more dense settlement than elsewhere. Taking these and other circumstances into consideration, in connection with the relics found, the author believes that this region was oftener frequented, and longer occupied, by larger bands of Indians than the historian leads us to infer. This place may have been the site of a well estab- lished settlement; a settlement in which much the same primitive occu- pations were engaged in as characterized well-known and more exten- sive settlements along the Susquehanna. If this region is an average sample of supposed “barren” lands, may we not conclude that Americe was more thickly settled, or Teer inhabited (perhaps both), by the Indian than is generally Hea ? ABORIGINAL BURIAL MOUNDS, EDEN TOWNSHIP, SENECA COUNTY, OHIO. By RUSSELL J. THOMPSON. These mounds, three in number, are, or were, located about 4 miles east of Tiffin (NE. 4 of section 4, township 1 north, range 15 east, Eden Township, Seneca County, Ohio, and on the west side of the Morrison State road where it crosses Rock Creek). (Map, Fig. 1.) Concerning their origin, the Mohawk * Indians then inhabiting that section could give the settlers no information. The Indians had no theory or tradition accounting for the presence of the landmarks. Large forest trees covered these monuments then, and among them were cherry trees 20 inches in diameter. Before the cultivation of the soil after the removal of the forest had peas eee altered the proportions of the mounds, Se . | Fa they were well rounded, and the largest, Stee ll was perhaps 6 feet or more in height and — Pie va es about 40 feet in diameter. Two, the | \, es : largest and the smallest, were near each Ne cant ; other on the south side of the stream. YY Be eae ; (See map.) The former was slightly ~~ ee less than an eighth of a mile from the JL_— ae ae ren bank, and the smaller one about half : eon ‘i that distance. The third was on the other side, about as far as the lat- ter from the creek and a third of a mile from the largest. It was but a short. way beyond the culmination of a gentle rise of about 25 feet above the creck valley. The banks on thé south side were rather steep and 50 to 40 feet high. The large mound was located on the rounded border of an elongated depression tributary to the creek. The mound on the north side of the creek was crossed by the fence dividing the road from a modern graveyard, and when a grading was made, not long prior to 1886, for the convenience of standing teams driven to the church, human remains were unearthed on the roadside of the fence. The other half probably still remains intact. In 1886, the ground over the site of the smallest mound was on a * The Seneeas inhabited the region to the north and the Wyandots that to the south, aT1 572 ABORIGINAL BURIAL MOUNDS. level with the general surface. It was tentatively excavated by one who had seen it before being plowed down and a small excavation, made in search of the charcoal and ashes, whose presence would con- firm the hypothesis of position, discovered human remains. These however had been once exhumed and were reinterred in a confused heap. They were preserved by the writer, but no further search was made then. It was at the largest of the mounds, and the one least dis- turbed, that the systematic, though partial exploration was under- taken. This was in the summer of 1886, and then the mound was hardly, if any, more than 4 feet above the general surface, and 60 feet in diameter. (Fig. 2.) Hurried excavations brought to light the charcoal and ashes, clean shells, broken bones of animals, and broken pieces of primitive dark pottery. Another unorderly opening resulted in the discovery of the two smaller human skeletons, but they were not secured entire. The skull of one of these “individuals” probably remains in the mound.* yy Sree > ace Ca a PROT ‘ Ls * i ise x es wali a7 bifetiie CAMs. eas race Mir y ; jit Veh maa =A ayia ‘ ARSE EIN ES Fic. 2.—View of largest mound, looking southward. Human remains were found in all of these. The largest mound con- tained three skeletons (Fig. 3) that were uncovered, and a complete excavation might be expected to reveal more. Feasting accompanied the interment. Fires were built on the un- completed funeral pile, with which meats were cooked. Good sized pottery vessels were brought to the grave, probably for use in the feasting, and at least some of them were either accidentally or inten- tionally demolished and the fragments seattered with the ashes and charcoal and broken bones of animals over the half-built mound. The fires were probably burning during the burial. The feasters en- joyed the meat of the deer, beaver, raccoon, squirrel, hare (7), turtle, birds, fish, and clam. The marrow was a much relished portion of the meat; every bone was broken so that the marrow was uncovered. The need of something with which to accomplish this breaking may account for the presence of moderate sized limestone bowlders a few feet apart “This description well illustrates the detriment and sometimes irreparable dam- age to science arising from ill-informed opening of mounds. A mound once dis- turbed is valueless to science. Its evidence as to the life history of its constructors is destroyed. Circular 49, issued by the Smithsonian Institution, No, 730, explains this and contains directions for mound and caye explorations. ABORIGINAL BURIAL MOUNDS. 573 among the ashes and other stones of the size of a fist in great abun- dance. A foot or two of earth was spread over all this charcoal and ash layer. The soil of the structure was even, light, and easily worked. The hard unmolested clay was 4 feet or so below the top, as the mound existed after the field had been under modern cultivation. A slight excavation was made in this hard soil to receive the remains. = scene NN ae 5 See Mies or 7 \ ‘ eee : s = } \ f | re? / ness = \ i \ 7 J ae cme) We | , wh g j | fe 4 9 : Me . a \ /} He iW " yy) % \ JAI SSS Seas Se er Fic. 3.— Exeavations of largest;mound. (See map.) About 60 feet in diameter, 44 in height. The heads were laid to the northeast and the bodies flat and straight on their backs, at least so with the largest and what may be called the principal skeleton. This body lay furthest to the northwest and a few steps from the center. Nothing whatever of a durable nature in- closed the remains. A few pieces of charcoal were found under the bones of the principal corpse. These, an elegant pipe (Fig. 4), and a few canine jaw fragments and fragments of the jaws of some small ‘arnivorous animal, were the only objects found with the skeleton. - A bone turkey call, 3 inches long, and artificially grooved on both sides at the end, was found on the ground about one of the skeletons. The jaw fragments were laying beside the right shoulder; the pipe was on the same side next to the neck vertebrie. The condition of the bones of the principal individual gave no evidence of violence having been inflicted upon his body. At the time of the excavations, the charcoal layer was met froma foot or two feet beneath the surface, The fragments of animal bones 574 ABORIGINAL BURIAL MOUNDS. and pottery were scattered promiscuously, with the ashes and char- coal patches, through a vertical range of more than a foot. The lime- stone bowlders were about 6 inches in diameter, and lay with a rude uniformity a few feet apart throughout the layer. The underlying rock of the section is limestone (cornstone), the boundary between the outerop of this and the water line is near, and the southwestward moving glaciers have made this element strong in the drift products of the country. In the chareosal layer the most numerous bones were those of the at deer. A good number of only partially ua ea broken lower jaws were found, and a few iN decayed horn fragments. Several speci- eS ‘ mens of fragmentary beaver skulls, retain- ing the teeth, and a tew raccoon jaws, are in the collection, but some of the clam shells were not broken; these showed the effect of fire. Making exception of the two small pot- tery prpes unearthed from the charcoal layer, no entire specimens of pottery were discoy- ered. The pottery was rude, blackish, and gritty, Minute feldspar crystals formed part of the material. The surfaces were roughened by perpendicular striations which could be imagined to have been impressed by bark. By projecting the curve of one of the rim fragments, the opening of the jar of which it was once a part, was found to have been 8S inches in diameter. A dark blush or greenish slate, hard, tough, and fine, was the material of which the large pipe, buried with the largest skeleton, was made (Fig. 4). It is the same stone as that from which most of the fine mound ornaments were cut. Erosion revealed a kind of enamel, perliaps due to chemical action on the surface. “The erosion occurred where the stone had been stained, presumably by the acids of the dead body. The finish was excellent. The form might suggest that the maker had intended the relic for a phallic emblem. The pipe is 3%inches inlength. Little difference in size Fig. 4. Pipe (full size). : Aes ; 2 a, end view; b, side view. between the individual interred in the “ leyv- elled mound” and the principal male buried in the large mound, was shown by the remains. The bones of the two skeletons to the south- east of the latter were perceptibly lighter. ABORIGINAL BURIAL MOUNDS. 5 15 These bones were found in the center and a little more than 4 feet below the top. Not satisfied with this method of proceeding, the writer himself soon after spént three days in the field. A narrow trench was made to approach the mound until the charcoal was reached, and then with a width of 3 feet was extended to the center (Fig. 3), After the earth had been carefully removed from over the body, an entire afternoon was occupied in picking out the bones, Their condition was such that even then a number were broken. The occiput fell apart when the skull was lifted. The lines of fracture indicated a recent breaking. INDIAN REMAINS ON THE UPPER YELLOWSTONE.* By Col. WM. 8S. BRACKETT. If you look on almost any large map of Montana and Wyoming you will note the source of the Yellowstone River near a mountain marked on the map as ‘“‘Youth’s Peak,” and lying about 25 miles southeast of the Yellowstone National Park. The river flows from an immense snow-field on this mountain, in a northwesterly direction, and empties into Yellowstone Lake, which lies wholly within the park; then it flows out of the lake at the lower or northern end and leaping down- ward a sheer depth of 360 feet, over the Great Falls of the river, it rushes still northward for a hundred miles—one of the most beautiful streams of the Rocky Mountains. The real name of the mountain where the Yellowstone rises is Yount’s Peak, so called after a trapper who lived tor a long time along the banks of the river in the early days of Montana’s settlement. Perhaps the fine new maps of this region now being made by the United States Geological Survey will not rob Yount’s Peak of its true name. About 25 miles north of the park is a widening of the valley of the Yellowstone, where there are a number of fine ranches, and on one ot them, opposite Emigrant Peak, where I am writing, there are interest- ing remains left by the Indians who lived and hunted in this now fertile valley as late as the year 1876. Just above our ranch house is a mesa, or tableland, from whose flat top can be seen the green fields under irrigation along the river, and the lofty mountains hemming in the valley on every side. Only ten years ago there were no cultivated fields in this valley, and the elks and buffaloes found here their favorite feeding ground. The plain on this mesa is almost rectangular in shape, and at the corner, overlook- ing the whole region, are stone structures that we have named the ‘Tndian Forts.” We donot know whether the Indians, who undoubtedly built them, used them as forts for defending their village or camp up on the mesa, or whether they were used as watchtowers for their sen- tinels. Sometimes we think the Indian hunters used them to creep into and to spy out the large game feeding among the hills and in the valley below. ~ *From The American Field, Feb. 11, 1893, vol. XXXIXx (No. VI.), pp. 127, 128. tote’ Ora H. Mis. 114 9o”"7 ob 578 INDIAN REMAINS ON THE UPPER YELLOWSTONE. These forts are semicircular in form, and are built of selected square stones, piled up in a parapet or breastwork about four feet in height. They are open on the inner side of the plateau, and have space for two or three men to le concealed and protected within. The forts must have been built many years ago because the stones are now pretty well covered with moss and lichens, and these do not grow as rapidly in this dry climate as in the Eastern States. No one is permitted to dis- turb these monuments of a race now almost departed, and I hope that some careful student of American archeology may hereatter explore this region and explain the ancient use of these so-called “Indian Forts.” Fig. 1.—The Indian forts, Park County, Montana. Just below one of the forts and at the bottom of the cliff I found, last summer, a buffalo skull and horns, over-grown and almost concealed by a wild rosebush. Perhaps the buffalo was shot by an Indian lying in the fort above. This made me think the forts might have been used for watching large game. But when you are up on the mesa you can easily see how well adapted the place is to prevent surprise and for military defense. The sides are perpendicular precipices of voleanic¢ rock. At only one place can you go up on horseback; there are only two or three places where you can climb up on foot. On the level top a thousand men could be placed in camp. The forts may have been used, like watchtowers on the corners of a feudal castle, by the wild chivalry once inhabiting these mountains. About half a mile from this mesa is a little sheltered valley, back in the foothills, where the Indians used to pass the winter one of the pioneers of this region tells me. The place is sheltered from the winds and the snow seldom drifts there. In a level spot in this valley are three circles of smooth flat stones laid on the ground, each circle being about 15 feet in diameter. Washed by the rains of many seasons, these stones are now partly imbedded in the ground. We do not know exactly the purpose of these water-worn rocks laid so regularly in cir- cles, but one of our neighbors, an ‘old timer” in Montana, tells us the INDIAN REMAINS ON THE UPPER YELLOWSTONE. 5T9 Indians used them in winter to lay around the bottom or lower edge of their tepees to keep out the cold. Most Indian tepees are conical in shapeand circular at the bottom, with a hole at the top where the poles meet tor the escape of smoke from the fire built in the center of the structure. In the old days, when the buffalo and other large game were plenty, the Indians made their tepees of smoke-tanned hides. Now the buffaloes are entirely gone, and other large game is so scarce on the Indian reservations that the tepees are covered with cloth, gen- erally thin white calico. The Indians have but few skins left and their calico tepees are very cold in winter. ED BAEZ: ERG 1 LIM pe Pit LU MTG Fig, 2.—Tepee rings, Park County, Montana. The most interesting of the Indian remains on our ranch is at Buf- falo Bluff, where there is a remarkable game drive. Under the cliff, which is about 40 feet high, the ground is white with the splintered bones of large game animals that have been driven over the precipice— buffaloes, elks, and deer. Above is a level plain stretching back for several miles into the foothills. The cliff is only about a hundred yards wide at the steep part where the game was driven over. How did they manage to make wild animals run to this narrow cliff and leap over? You can see at once how this was accomplished when you climb to the plain above. There can be seen two long lines, composed of piles of stones, stretching out on the plains, each line about half a mile long and diverging from the edge of the cliff like the two arms 580 INDIAN REMAINS ON THE UPPER YELLOWSTONE. of an open fan. The piles of stones are about 10 feet apart and each stone heap is 2 or 3 feet in height. When the Indians last used this game drive, which was about fifteen years ago, they set up wooden stakes about 4 feet long in each stone pile. Irom stake to stake were stretched lines of stout buckskin cord, like wires on a barbed EF ne = et Sivan ies Ceanee ee ots sae Ay — i: i ——— ~= i ‘ " y H wi WA, TA ih 2 cee, i ed Pine WAC) Fig. 3.— Ancient game drive in Park County, Mont. wire fence, and from these cords were hung at short intervals feathers, strips of bright cloth, and scraps of white buckskin, fluttering in the wind. Of course this fence could be easily broken through, but the frightened animals always turned back from the fluttering rags, feathers, and other objects hanging from the Jong lines of cords. / INDIAN REMAINS ON THE UPPER YELLOWSTONE. 581 A heard of buffalos or deer was carefully surrounded by the Indian hunters, and then gradually driven toward the opening of the drive, which was over half a mile wide. Once within these lines, the hunt- ers drove the herd toward the bluff, waving their blankets as they rode forward. The terror-stricken animals rushed toward the precipice, keeping away and turning back in fright from the lines of ‘“fenee,” which gradually converged toward the cliff. At last, in a wild stam- pede, the frantic animals were driven over the edge of the precipice, where those who were not killed outright were dispatched by another party of hunters below. Only spears and arrows were used below the cliff, because the noise of firearms would frighten back the animals approaching the edge of the bluff. Among the mass of crumbling white bones beneath this Buffalo Bluff (as it is called here), where so many wild animals have been slaughtered, you can to-day occasion- ally find spear and arrow heads, beautifully formed of shining black obsidian, or volcanic glass, the material being, found in large quanti- ties on the great plateau of the Yellowstone National Park. PRIMITIVE NUMBER SYSTEMS. By Levi L. Conant, Ph. D Among the speculative questions which arise in connection with the study of mathematics from a historical standpoint the origin of num- ber is one that has provoked much discussion and has led to extensive research among the primitive and savage languages of the human race. A tew simple considerations will however show that such research must necessarily leave the question entirely unsettled, and will indi- cate that it is, from the very nature of things, a question to which no definite, or at least no final, answer can be given. Among the barbarous tribes whose languages have been studied, even in a most cursory and imperfect way, none have ever been dis- covered which did not possess one or more words indicating familiarity with the number concept. Some tribes have been found in which knowledge of number was so shght that the statement has been made that their language contained no numerals. The Chiquitas, of South America, for example, have no word even which we can accept as a distinct substitute fer “one.” That numeral they express by a word meaning nearly the same as “alone.” Here the number sense appears at its lowest ebb, but still it does exist; and going lower yet, one would be rash, indeed, if he were to assert that the higher animals can not distinguish between land 2. Not a few tribes have been found who could not count beyond two; more yet with 3, 4, or 5 as their number limit, while 10 marks the boundary of the numeral sys- tems of a very great number of the primitive races of the world. The assertion would seem then to be a safe one that the number sense is never wholly jacking. It is evident also that numerals must be among the earliest words to be formed in any language. They express ideas which are wholly conerete, which precede human intelligence, and which are in many ways manifested by the higher orders of the brute creation. The origin of number therefore must be conceded to lie beyond the proper limit of inquiry, and the primitive conception of number to be fundamental with human thought. Historical investigation must begin not with number itself, but with modes of expression of number. Here, in precisely the same manner as in the expression of all forms of thought, desire, and emotion, the sign language preceded words. We are all familiar with the manner Ko9 iyors) 584 PRIMITIVE NUMBER SYSTEMS. in which a child when learning to count makes use of his tingers. Children have for ages done the same; and the children of the human race, the savages of pre-historic times, unquestionably counted on their ten digits just as the African, the Eskimo, and the South Sea Isl ander do to-day. So universal has the finger method of counting always been that many investigators, prominent among whom is Grimm, have laid it down as an axiom that all numeral words arise from names of the fingers of the hands. Savage races employ, as might be expected, a great variety of methods of recording their count- ing—as splints, pebbles, shells, kernels of grain, knots, ete. Then come simple scratches, notches cut in a stick, Robinson Crusoe fash- ion, and other similar devices. But back of all these, and forming a common origin to which all may be referred, is the universal finger method of counting, the method with which all begin, the method which is too convenient to be entirely relinquished, even by civilized ‘aces. This universal recourse to the fingers often resulted, as might be ex- pected, in the development of a more or less extended pantomime number system in which the fingers were used in much the same way as in the deaf and dumb alphabet, though the signs actually employed were very different from those employed by mutes. A system of this kind was much in vogue among the ancients, by means of which any number up to 10,000 could be expressed: units and tens by inflections of the fingers of the left hand, hundreds by similar inflections of the fingers of the right hand, and thousands by a repetition on the left hand of the signs used to denote units and tens. The Chinese still employ a finger method of expressing numbers less than 100,000, and among nearly all Eastern peoples a digital arithmetic of one sort or another is to be found. Of so common use is this sign language that traders are said to communicate to each other the price at which they are willing to buy or sell, and at the same time to conceal their offers from bystanders, by putting their hands under each other’s cloaks and touching each other’s fingers. Recent anthropological research has developed many interesting facts respecting the limits to which the number systems of the various uncivilized races of the world extend. As a matter of course, all races can indicate numbers as high as 10, the fingers serving aS a means of showing what they have no words to express. In nearly all cases we find this limit extended to 20, the second 10 being told off on the toes, or on the fingers of a second man. But savages have in very many instances no words for numbers higher than 2,5, or 4. The Botocudos have no definite number beyond 1. For 2 they say ‘‘uraht”, many. * The Puris and the Watchandis stop at 2. The former express 3 by “ prica”, many, and the latter express the same number by the combi- nation 2,1.¢ The Andamans have only two numeral words, though *Tylor: Primitive Culture: vol. 1, p. 243. t Lbid. PRIMITIVE NUMBER SYSTEMS. 585 they count as high as 10 by means of their fingers. * Ten they express by their word for “all.” The Bushmen have the same number limit, expressing any number greater than 2 by the equivalent word for “many.” The Veddas of Ceylon count “ekkamai,” 1, “dekkamai,” 2, and then continue by repeating again and again the word “ otameekai,” meaning “and one more.” t Numerous as are the instances in which two stands as the number limit for savage tribes, three is thus used still more frequently. The New Hollanders have no names for numbers greater than three.t The low forest tribes of Brazil commonly express any number greater than three by their equivalent for “many.”§ The Australians of Herbert River do the same.|| The Fuegans are supposed to have counted tor- merly to ten, but at the present time their entire number system is com- prised in the tiree words: “kaoncli,” 1; ‘“compaipi,” 2; ‘maten,” 3.** The Campas, of Peru, count: “patrio,” 1; “pittem,” 2; “mahuimi,” 3. Beyond this they can express no number except by some such expres- sions as Land 3, 1 and 1 and 3, ete., shewing the total indicated by hold- ing up the proper number of fingers. As a definite number anything beyond ten is to them inconceivable, and they refer to it as ‘to haine,” “many.’tt The Australian tribe of the Wiraduroi have no numerals which enable them to count beyond 3. With them four is ““many,” and five “very many.” Almost exactly the same statement may be made of the Dippil, the Kamilaroi, the Adelaide, the Turrubul, the West Aus- tralia, the Encounter Bay, the New South Wales, and the Tasmania tribes.ti Some of these indicate four by expressions such as ‘ two-two,” or “two pair,” and five by “two-three,” or “two-two-one.” The Eneoun- ter Bay tribe uses an analogous reduplication for six even, saying “kuko-kuko-kuko,” that is, ““two-two-two.” The Yaucos, of the Ama- zon, express the munber three by the astounding word ‘“ poettarraror- incoaroac,” at which La Condemaine duly remarks: §§ ‘Happily for those who have dealings with them, their arithmetic goes no further.” The general limitation of the number sense existing among the low races of the world now begins to become apparent. Specific words exist for one, two, three, ete., and beyond that anything is ‘‘many.” The en- tire number systein of a tribe may be “one,” “‘many,” or it may be ‘one, two, many.” More numerous yet are the cases where the counting goes one step farther, and gives ‘one, two, three, many,” as the scale through which the savages’ number sense can conduct him. In the same way *Miiller: Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft. V3. 1v, p. 47. +t Dechamp’s L’ Anthropologie, 1891, p. 318. t Tylor Primitive Culture, vol. 1, p. 2438. § Op. Cit., p. 242. || Lumholtz, C., Bulletin de la Socité @ Anthropologie de Paris. *~ Op. Cit., 1887, p. 340. tt Weiner, Perouw et Bolivie, p. 560. tt Miller, Grundriss der Spr., B. 1v., Abteilung 1, multa loca. §§ Voyage de la Riviere des Amazons, p. 64. 586 PRIMITIVE NUMBER SYSTEMS. we might expect to find the cases where counting stops with four more numerals than those where three is the limit, just as three is a much more common limit than two. Such is not the case, however. Investi- gation shows that if counting extends beyond three, it is almost sure to reach five, the commonest limit among races whose number sense is very weak. the auxiliary fractions % and }. Such being the case it needs no argu- “Encyclopedia Metropolitana, article ‘*Arithmetic,” PRIMITIVE NUMBER SYSTEMS. 589 ment to prove that the most convenient base is that which will admit of division without a remainder by the numbers 2, 3, and 4. Ten can be divided by but one of these numbers without remainder; hence the confusion of fractions is at once introduced. Twelve, on the other hand, is an exact multiple of each of the three numbers. It offers, then, to the mass of mankind an enormous advantage over 10 or any other small number as a base for computation. With the growth of business in its many forms, the civilized world has long since come to recognize this fact, and in many ways to make practical use of it. The word ‘“dozen,” and its equivalent in other languages, has been coined as a noun to express the number 12, and in a very great number of the commercial transactions of the world the dozen and its square, the gross, are the common units of measure. So palpable are the advan- tages of 12 from this point of view that some writers have gone so far as to advocate the entire abolition of the decimal system and the sub- stitution of a duodecimal system in its place. Charles XIJ, of Sweden, may be mentioned as an especially zealous advocate of this change, which he is said to have had in actual contemplation for his own dominions at the time of his death. The adoption of the duodecimal notation would involve the introduction of two new symbols, for 10 and 11, respectively. Twelve would then be represented by 10, thirteen by 11, fourteen by 12, twenty-four by 20, one hundred and forty-four by 100, etc. No such change can ever meet with general favor, so firmly has the decimal scale become intrenched; but it is more than probable that the world of trade and commerce will continue to use the dozen, its fractions and its multiples in many of its transactions in the future, as it has for centuries in the past. It was thus used by the Romans, and it has been and is used among all Teutonic nations at the present day. It is more than probable that the English divisions of weights, measures, and money were influenced by the ease with which mental computation is effected when fractional parts of 12 are involved. The duodecimal is not a natural scale in the same sense as are the decimal, the quinary and the vigesimal; but it is a system which is brought into use at a later day and at a higher stage of development, solely through its convenience when applied to the everyday transactions of business life. Humboldt,in discussing the number systems of the various peoples he had visited in his travels, remarked that no people had ever used exclusively that best of bases, 12. A possible exception to this has since Humboldt’s time been noted by Robert Flegel, in the Aphos of Benué, who count by simple words to 12, and then proceed with 12 and 1. 12 and 2, 12 and 3, etc.* Remarkable as it may at first glance seem, the number 2 has in a few scattered instances been made to do duty as the base of number system. Thirion sayst it was thus employed by Egyptian surveyors; “Schubert, H., in Neumayer’s Anleitung zu Wissenschaftlichen Beobachtung auf Reisen, p. 290. t Histoire de Varithmetique, p. 5. ! 590 PRIMITIVE NUMBER SYSTEMS. in our own language we find an occasional hint of the same thing in the words “pair,” *‘brace,” “couple,” ete.; obscure traces of a binary number system appear on some of the early Chinese monuments, but we have no real evidence that such a system was ever definitely and exclusively used by the Chinese. Certain savage tribes, however, count exclusively or in part by twos. The Bacecaraaibi, a South American tribe of the Xingu region, count only to 6. But they eall 4, 2 and 2, 5, 2 and 2 and 1, and 6, 2 and 2 and 2. The least developed of the Australian tribes are in many cases found to reckon in the same way.* The structure of the Arikara numerals would indicate that this people counted at first exclusively by pairs, the odd numbers being in- terpolated afterwards.t The lowest of the native tribes of the East Indian Archipelago couit upon a binary scale, if indeed they can prop- erly be said to use any.t Examples of this kind might be multiplied to a very considerable extent. But it should not be overlooked that these are hardly to be considered as fair examples of the use of any system. The tribes mentioned have no form of notation other than re- peating scratches or piling pebbles: and their numeration is of the rudest kind. All that can be said is that, as far as any system is used among them, that system is the binary. Making the same qualifica- tion, we may note that the Cuchaus of Colorado count with a mixed ternary and quaternary scale, expressing 6 by the phrase ‘2 3’s,” 9 by “3 3's,” and 8 by “2 4’s;”§ and that the Lulos of South America, the Triton Bay and the Endé Polynesians count with a quaternary scale, expressing numbers as far as 4 by simple words, and then counting 4-1, 4-2, ete. The last-named tribe gives a further indication of the use of the quaternary scale by using for 8 a word signifying 62 4’s.”|| Oceasionally we come, in the midst of some other well-de- fined system, upon sporadic traces of reckoning upon 4, 6, 8, or 9 as a base. The Wallachians, for example, say ‘‘deu-mnaw,” 2-9 for 18. The Bretagnes call 18 “trionche,”’ 3-6. But otherwise these languages contain no trace of the senary or octonary scales. Pott states** that the Bolans of West Africa appear to use 6 as their number base; but aside from this solitary instance we know of no tribe which employs 6, 7, 8, or 9 for that purpose. The most remarkable example of tribal ee- centricity in this particular is that of the Maoris, of New Zealand, whose number base is 11. To that number they count by means of simple words; 12, 13, 14, etc., are with them 11-1, 11-2, 11-3, ete.; the multiples of 11, as 22 and 33, are formed directly on the word for 11; and the square and eube of 11, or 121 and 1331, are expressed by simple words having no connection with the names of smaller num- bers.tt Occasionally a rude number system occurs which shows no *Letourneaux, Bull. Soc. Anthropol., Paris, 1886, p. 91. i Trumbull, J. H., Proc. Am. Antg. Soc. 1875, p. 76. t Marre, A. De Varithmetique dans Varchipel Indien, ). 7. § Trumbull, J. H., Trans. Am. Phil. Ass’n, 1874, p. 46. || Marre, A., op. cil., p. 7. ** Die Sprachvershiedenheit, p. 30. tt Neumayer, op. cit. B. 11, p. 229. PRIMITIVE NUMBER SYSTEMS. 59OL trace of a base, the nuinbers, as far as they extend, being independent of each other. Such cases are, however, necessarily rare. The only remaiming example that need be mentioned of the use of an unusual number as the base of a system, is the Babylonians. As 1s well known, the base of their number system was 60, the largest number ever used for such a purpose. To the modern world, the fact that the Babylonians used 60 as their unit of reckoning is most im portant, for that fact has entailed upon us a sexagesimal system of astronomical computation, With the exception of a small number of isolated cases, such as those mentioned above, it may be laid down as a universal law that every language containing a number system extending beyond 5 reveals the use of one of the three numbers, 5, 10, or 20, as the base of that system. Hach of three numbers requires extended mention. One of the most interesting points to be met with in connection with the study of numeral words, is the resemblance found to exist in many languages between the words for ‘‘hand” and “five.” Count- ing as they do, by means of their fingers, savage races naturally use for five some expression like ‘sone hand,” or ‘a hand finished,” or simply ‘“‘hand.” Then, proceeding with their count, they begin to build on this as a base, using for 6, 7, 8, etc., the expressions, “hand one,” “hand two,” “hand three,” etc. In such a system, 10 is, of course, **two hands.” Counting above 10, we find two common meth ods practised. The fingers beimg finished by the count up to 10, re- course nay be had either to the toes or to the fingers of a second man. In the former case, 11 would be ‘‘one on the foot.” Twenty, complet- ing the tale of both fingers and toes, is called ‘one man.” Beyond this point there is less uniformity in the method of counting than be- fore, but examples are numerous of tribes which use exactly this method up to 100, calling 40, 60, 80, and 100, * two men,” “three men,” ‘‘four men,” and ‘five men,” respectively. But, as will be noted later, the use of the pure quinary scale above 20 is rarely if ever found. With tribes having a limited number sense, however, tribes whose sys- tems do not extend beyond 10 or 15 or 20, this scale is almost as com. mon as the decimal. The naturalness of this scale is very evident, and, as compared with the decimal, the wonder is, not that the quinary seale 1S So very common, but rather that it is not more common than the decimal. The reason for this will appear when we come to con- sider the latter. Examples of the use of the quinary scale are common in all parts of the world.* It is the scale of many of the native North Siberian tribes, of the Aleuts, the Kamtschatkans, and at least three of the tribes of the New Hebrides. In Africa we note the Wolofs and Bullorns, which were visited by Mungo Park, the Kanuris, the Teinnes, the *'The numerals of the tribes here mentioned, but for which no specific reference is made, are found in Miiller, op. cit., or in Pott. Die Quinare und vigesinals zahl- methode bei Volkern aller Welttheile. 592 PRIMITIVE NUMBER SYSTEMS. Hifiks, and two tribes visited by Stanley; the Ki-yaus and the Ki- Nyassas.* These and anumber of others use practically a pure quinary scale. The Dinkas, the Fulbes, the Pigmies,t and others use a mixed quinary and decimal scale, while the Nupes and one or two other tribes employ a quinary-vigesimal system. Among the Australasians and Polynesian islands abundant traces are found of quinary number sys- tems, but they are in almost all cases nothing more than traces. Throughout that part of the world the quinary system has been super- seded by the decimal. This has been widely spread through the islands of the Pacific and Indian Oceans by the Malays, who in turn obtained it from the Hindus. But the home par excellence of the quinary, or rather of the quinary-vigesimal scale, is America. It is practically universal among the Eskimo tribes of the Arctic regions. It prevailed among a considerable portion of the North American Indian tribes, and was almost universal with the native races of Central and South Amer- ica. So numerous are the examples which might be given, that mention will be made rather of the exceptions, that is, of those using the decimal base. It is interesting to note also that a considerable number of lan- guages show that the quinary system was once in use among peoples which, with the development of civilization, discarded that system for the decimal. The Greeks of Homer’s time used a system in which traces of the quinary base are observable. The common Roman nota- tion shows clearly that the ancient Romans made at least a limited use of the same base, as did also the Persians. The exclusive use of 5 as a number base is never found in any sys- tem of any considerable extent. Whenever the quinary system is ex- tended beyond the narrowest limits it invariably runs into either the decimal or the vigesimal. ‘Touching this point Hankel saystt that no race, even though it began its number system on the quinary base, ever expressed 10 by 5-2 or 2-5, but always by a simple word; and hence that the system passes immediately ito the decimal. This statement is only partially correct. The quinary 11 many instances runs into the vigesimal, no trace whatever of a decimal base appearing. Further more, even though 10 is never expressed by 5-2 or 2-5, it 1s often ex pressed by ‘two hands” or “both hands.” Mungo Park observed this among the Yolots and Foulkas of Africa; Humboldt and others among the Omaguas, the Zarmiscas, the Tamanaes, the Tonpmambos, and many more of the South American tribes; and Russian explorers found the same method common among the native Siberian races. Hence the statement as the German historian makes it needs impor- tant qualification. Vigesimal-number systems are less common than quinary, but as the two are so persistently interwoven together it is difficult to sepa- rate them from each other. The use of a base as large as 20 must t Op. cit. 11, p. 492. tt Geschithte der Mathematik, p. 20, PRIMITIVE NUMBER SYSTEMS. 593 prise that either 5 or 10 should in general be preferred for that purpose. It is a matter of some surprise, however, that the quinary should in so many cases merge into the vigesimal rathe rthan the decimal system. The vigesimal system is never found entirely pure. Examination always shows some trace either of the quinary or the decimal system subordinate to it. Among the native races of America it is almost as common as the quinary and is more common than the decimal, but it is there always found mixed with either the one or the other. The same commingling is observed among Asiatic and African tribes. The elaborate Aztec system is the most perfect known example of the vig- esimal-number system, but it contained both the quinary and the dee1- mal scales subordinate to the vigesimal. The Muyscas of Bogota possessed an exceedingly elaborate and extended vigesimal system, but the decimal is used to supplement it. The same is true of the Bas- ques of northern Spain. For some unexplained reason vigesimal-number systems are rare in the Old World. The only European example I am able to cite is the Basque system. The Ainus of northern Siberia reckon by twenties, and a number of the tribes of the Canecasus do the same. In Africa this mode of counting is almost unknown, only two or three examples of it being on record, It is only in America that vigesimal-number systems have flourished and held their own. But it is a noteworthy fact that in ancient times 20 was the number base used in many parts of Europe, as is attested by abundant traces in the modern European languages. The Phoenicians, and presumably the Carthagenians, also used this method of reckoning, and through contact with them the Celtic nations of western Europe gradually became familiarized with it. From using it in commercial intercourse with these traders from the Mediterranean they may have adopted it as their own seale. Cer- tain it is that the vigesimal-number system was a strongly marked characteristic of all the Celtic races, as their eevee: unequivocally prove. The Bretons still say ‘unnek ha tringent,” 11 and 5 20’s, for 71. The French say ‘quatre vignt” for 80, and from that point to 100 count upon a pure vigesimal seale, as far as the names of their numbers are concerned. The Welsh, the Erse, the Gelic, the Manx, and other Celtic races show in their languages similar traces of a former use of the vigesimal base. Singularly enough, like traces are to some slight extent found among Teutonic languages also, but they are so infrequent as to indicate but little and to prove nothing. A hundred consisting of 120, and known as “the great hundred” or ‘long hundred,” was formerly in use in England, and was legal for eggs, spars, and certain other articles. That this was a common use would appear from the popular old distich quoted by Peacock :* Five score of men, money, and pins, Six score of all other things. * Encyclopedia Metropolitana, vol. 1, p. 381. H. Mis, 114——38 594 PRIMITIVE NUMBER SYSTEMS. The very word “score,” and one or two happily preserved expres- sions, as ‘three score and ten,” show that an unconscious flavor of the vigesimal scale was to be found in the England of a few centuries ago. The Danish and other Teutonic languages contain words and expres- sions which indicate that the same was true of other north European countries. But here the reckoning by 20’s seems always to have been restricted to material objects rather than applied to pure number; so that the Teutonic number systems can not be said ever to have been vigesimal systems. Ancient Palmyra possessed a number system of ereat extent which was almost purely vigesimal. But scanty traces of it remain however. We have last of all to consider the decimal seale. However great the number of examples that may be given of races that have used or now use the quinary or the vigesimal scale, the fact remains that by far the greatest number of uncivilized people perform their reckon- ing by tens; and that, with five or six exceptions, all civilized peoples have done the same. The decimal scale is universal in Europe; in Africa it is almost universal; in Polynesia the same is true; in Asia all civilized peoples and the great majority of the uncivilized tribes count with this base; in North America it is used by the greater num- ber of the Indian tribes; and in South America it is sometimes found, though the prevailing base is quinary or quinary-vigesimal. The sim- ple and undoubtedly the correct explanation of the origin of this sys- tem is the laying aside of the counter, or the scoring of one mark on the completion of each tale of 10 on the fingers. This develops into a perfect decimal system, and needs only the device of characters for the representation of number to become a written number system like the Roman; or with value of place like the Arabic system of the present day. That it is preferable to either the quinary or the vigesimal scale is a fair inference to be deduced from the numerous instances in which it has superseded the one or the other. As a number base 5 is too small and 20 is too large. Probably no single-number scale would serve the needs of mankind better than the decimal with the single ex- ception of the duodecimal. But the advantages of 12 as a base never be- come apparent until the arithmetic of a people has reached a degree of development such that a change in the scale used would be attended with difficulties so great as te render such a thing altogether impracti- eable. Civilization is apparently wedded to the decimal system; and though it may continue to barter by 12’s and to perform its astronomi- zal computations by 60’s, it will always continue to use the arithmetic of 10’s in preference to any other. It seems probable also that the deci- mal scale, already in use among all civilized nations and among the native races of so large a portion of the world, will tend more and more to displace the quinary and the vigesimal scales, and to become at last in reality what it was in the minds of the ancients, the universal number seale of the world. Ph ANLEROPOLOGY OF THE BRAEN, * By D. KERFoot SHUTE, M. D. By ‘anthropology of the brain” we understand several distinet, but closely related, sciences, viz, the anatomy of the brain, its physiology, psychology, ethnology, ete. In the short space at my disposal it will be impossible to do anything more than briefly mention the more important facts bearing upon this interesting subject. We will refer briefly, in the first place, to the more salient features of the anatomy of the brain. This complex viseus may be- looked upon as a hollow bag, with sev- eral constrictions at different places, whose wall is trilaminar, the inner- most layer of which is named ependyma, the middle one the nerve tissue, and the external layer the pia mater. The inner (ependyma) and outer (pia mater) layers are quite thin, and may be said to maintain a uniform thickness; but the middle (nerve- tissue) layer possesses very varying degrees of thickness at different points in the wall of this hollow bag—the brain. The nerve-tissuelayer may be very thick at some places, and it may be entirely absent:at other points. In this latter case the integrity of the cavity of the-brain is maintained by?the ependyma and pia mater coming in contact, this. bilaminar portion of the brain wall taking the general name. of velum. In order to give you.a necessary outline, idea of the anatomy of the brain, it will be best to refer rapidly, but suecinetly, to the more salient features of the embryology of the brain. At an early stage of pre- natal growth the. brain consists of three primary vesicles; soon these three, by additional growth and constrictions, become. five vesicles, all In a series, one in. front of thesother (ashollow bag with four constrie- tions and trilaminar wall). The technical name. for brain being encephalon, these vesicles are designated from before backward, pros-encephalon, thalam-encephalon, ines-encephalon, ep-encephalon, and met-enecephalon. The prosencephalon, at first the smallest and most anteriorly (pre- axially) situated of all the segments, is destined to grow out of all pro- portion to the other segments. It grows in all directions, upward, | -A Saturday lecture delivered in the leeture-hall of the U. S. National Museum, under the auspices of the Anthroplogical Society of Washington. 595 596 THE ANTHROPOLOGY OF THE BRAIN. forward, backward, and downward, and more or less completely hides trom view the remaining and, morphologically considered, more funda- mental segments. This great increase in size of the prosencephalon is due to the tremendous growth of its middle layer—the nerve-tissue layer. The cavity of the prosencephalon is called the prosencephalic cavity (lateral ventricles of adult human anatomy); that of the thalamen- cephalon, the thalamencephalic cavity (third ventricle of human anat- omy), the point of communication between the two cavities being known as the foramen of Monroe. The cavity of the mesencephalon is called mesencephalic cavity (syL Vian passage, or iter a tertio ad quartum ventriculum of human anat- omy ). The cavity of the epencephalon is known as epencephalic cavity (pre-axial half of the fourth ventricle); that of the metencephalon is the metencephalic cavity (post-axial half of the fourth ventricle). The ‘fourth ventricle” thus becomes a cavity common to two seg: ments of the brain. Along the “floor” of the prosencephalic cavity (lateral ventricle), in the form of a double horse-shoe, is a portion of the brain wallin which the middle (nerve-tissue) iayer is wanting. At this place the epen- dyma and pia mater come in contact, forming the prosencephalic velum (erroneously called, in human anatomy, “transverse fissure”), by which the integrity of the encephalic cavity, at this place, is preserved. Likewise there is a thalamencephalic velum (velum interpositum of human anatomy) in the “roof” of the thalamencephalon: a metenceph- alic velum in the ‘“‘roof” (dorsal surface) of the metencephalon. In the latter velum is found the foramen of Magendie, the opening by which the cerebro-spinal fluid in the encephalic cavities communicates with that in spaces on the outside of the pia mater known as sub-arach- noidian spaces. The nerve tissue-of the prosencephalon (cerebrum) consists of “inner” or “white matter” and “outer” or ‘gray matter,” the individual ele- ments of which are bound together by a tissue called neurogla. The gray matter, otherwise called cortex, is about 3 millimeters in thick- ness. The-cerebrum has numerous fissures and convolutions on its surface—these for the purpose of increasing the area of gray matter without unduly augmenting the bulk of the brain. The superficial area of the cortex is about 200,000 square millimeters. Two of the most important fissures of the brain are the fissure of Rolando and the fissure of Sylvius. In relation with the former fis- sure are found the great “motor areas” of the brain, and in relation with the ‘‘forking” of the latter is ‘“‘ Broca’s center” (the center for speech). In the adult the cerebrum is the largest portion of the brain. ‘The rext largest portion of this viscus is theecerebellum, which constitutes the great bulk of the epencephalon. : THE ANTHROPOLOGY OF THE BRAIN. DOM In the brief space at my disposal I can but mention two of the great physiological processes connected with the brain. Probably two of the most conspicuous activities of a human being are those of intellection and locomotion; and, in consonance with this fact, we find the two por- tions of the brain presiding over these functions, the most conspicuous and bulky segments of it. The cerebrum is the physical basis of intel- lectual processes and the cerebellum of locomotion, in that the latter is the great codrdinating center of the brain. Whether we extend our studies along the lines of phylogeny or ontogeny, we will observe that the rule is very general, almost univer- sal, that those animals having the largest cerebra possess the greatest degree of intelligence, and those with the largest cerebella are capable of the most varied and complicated motions. - - - From an ethnological standpoint the size and weight of the human brain are facts of great interest and importance. The size and weight of the brain are capable of being estimated by two methods, viz, the direct and indirect. The direct method is to weigh the brain when it is accessible. The indirect is to ascertain the cubical capacity of the cranium, and then deduce the weight of the brain that once occupied it. This latter method is particularly appli- cable in the study of the brains of ancient peoples, the skulls of which have been preserved to this time. The average weight of the luman male adult brain is 1,390 grams. That of the female is 1,250 grams. The average cranial capacity of any race can only be determined by careful examination of a large number of skulls classified according to sex; for sex exercises a most potent mfluence over cranial capacity, often exceeding the difference of race. The following are some of the principal modifying conditions which influence cranial capacity and thence brain weight, viz, age, weight of body, stature, sex, race, vigor of intellect, and education. The earlier anatomists believed that the human brain attained its maximum development at 7 years of age. We now know that this is incorrect; yet from extensive researches it has been found that the male brain does actually reach five-sixths of its ultimate weight by theeend of the seventh year, and in the female ten-elevenths its ulti- mate weight at the end of the same period. The average weight of the brain undergoes a progressive increase up to aw point between the twentieth and fortieth years. The greatest ave- rage weight for the male brain is reached at from 30 to 40 years. Women reach the full average brain weight from the twentieth to the thirtieth year. There is a slight diminution in weight from 40 to 50 years of age, and a still greater diminution from 50 to 60 years. The rate of decrease is much greater after 60 years. In the eightieth year the brain weight has decreased by from 80 to 90 grams. ‘In the aged, brain weight and intelligence decrease pari passu” (Thurnam). 598 THE ANTHROPOLOGY OF THE BRAIN. It has been truly said that there are many exceptions to this general law, especially among people of culture and learning, ‘‘ who often pre- serve to extreme old age all the fullness and vigor of their faculties. “The brain of such men, as the late Prof. Gratiolet observes, remains ina state of perpetual youth, and loses little or none of the weight which belonged to it in the prime of life” (Thurnam). The ratio of brain weight to body weight varies. In lean persons the ratio is often as 1:22 to 27; in stout persons as 1:50 to 100. The human brain is Smaller in comparison with the body the nearer man approaches to his full growth. As to stature, the weight of the brain, in both sexes, is relatively smaller in short persons than in tall ones. The difference between the two is about 5 per cent, 7. e., the brain of a man of short stature being represented by 95, that of a tall man would be 100. The average weight of the adult male brain is about 10 per cent greater than that of the female. Nor is this difference due to the difference in stature of the sexes. The difference, as was shown by M. Parchappe, is greater than can be accounted for in this way. While the stature of woman is only 8 per cent less than that of man, her brain weight is 10 per cent less. In relation to this question of the difference of cranial capacity due to sex, it is very interesting to note the remarkable fact, pointed out by Vogt, that the difference increases in favor of the male as the de- velopment of the race proceeds, so that the male European excels much more the female than the negro the negress. In the words of Vogt, ‘The lower the state of culture, the more similar are the occupations of the two sexes. Among the Australians, the Bushinen, and other low races, possessing no fixed habitations, the wife partakes of all her husband’s toils, and has, in addition, the care of the progeny. The sphere of occupation is the same for both sexes; whilst among civilized nations there is a division both in physical and mental labor. If it be true that every organ is strengthened by exer- cise, increasing in size and weight, it must equally apply to the brain, which must become more developed by proper mental exercise.” Le Bon has pointed out that the difference existing between the cranial capacities of the male and female modern Parisians is almost double that which obtains between the cranial capacities of the male and female inhabitants of ancient Egypt. These facts show the inti- mate, and mutually reacting, relations of civilization and brain weight ; advancing civilization leading to increased development of the brain, and the enlarged brain making the people capable of higher and broader culture. The average brain weight in different races of men has mostly been studied by the indirect method, ¢. e., by the investigation of cranial capacities. Skulls having a cranial capacity of 1850-1450 cubie centi- meters are classed as mesocephalic; those under 1350 cubie centimeters THE ANTHROPOLOGY OF THE BRAIN. 599 are microcephalic; those above 1450 cubic centimeters are mega- cephalic. 3elow are given average brain weights in male adults of different people: Grams. scotch (Peacocks) mec.) soos sae ciseiecis ce Saye eee Des leaes ose eee se 1,417 ne lishy (Reacocla) tier. a... scm scan ce tetns seme ene Sees 1,388 ne lisha(Boyd)) eee sce esters a hoses ree memes aaah a emeees SS e 1,354 Germans @Wiaener) sees arenas bee Senge aerate ce ee maeeee 1397/1 ren che Geanch ape) ese wase en cee ieee a eee ise elscin meters cee 1,358 INGrroesy (ReacCOCks) fesse ace < ee eeee oo eyes meses eee metas. Saeed 1,255 Thurnam says that the average brain weight of the male negro is the same as that of the female European. - -— - What kind of brain weights are found among men of great mental powers and acquirements? The following table will show: Brain weights of distinguished men (Thurnam). Name. Occupation. Age. Weights. Grams. Cuvieceens ee eater iINatunalishees semen 63 1, 830 | Abercrombie ...-.-.--- Ph ySiclanyeemese reece | 64 1, 785 | Schillom=ss2 eee te Roni Aes etree nc seta 46 1, 785 | Daniel Webster. ..--.-. Statesmaneee: see eee ee | 70 | 1,516 | LEP ERI S5e8gpescpenac Naturalist)........---:| 66 1,512 Doe piorwanteess esse =e Mathematician ....--- | 48} 1, 496 (Gp) Sat naceeaaopassos ISUISUOMEN pecan scoedad yah 1, 410 | \Wihewielleesee ee eee Philosopher -s=s2- o=- 71 1,390 | Hermann ere eee ene Philolocist=-a-sesesoeee | 51 1, 358 | Hughes Bennett ..---. Rhy sicianeeessseeeeeee | 63 1, 332 | Miedema ~--5-----.- Am atOMistmeancssonciee | 80 1, 254 | Hansmaneess en nee Mineralogist. ......--- | 77 | 1, 226 | The above-named men have been among the foremost representatives of human intelligence. The list is very interesting, not only from the fact that it includes some very high brain weights (which we would naturally expect from their high intellectual attainments), but also from the fact that it in- cludes brain weights of four distinguished men which fall distinetly below the average (1390 grams), even when allowance is made for atrophy consequent upon age. These facts, and many others that can be mentioned, naturally raise the question, “Is there any invariable connection between intelligence and mere weight or size of brain?” Before answering this question we desire to cite a few additional facts. Very high brain weights are not only found among men of great in- tellectual attainments and culture, as noted in the above table, but also among very ordinary sane individuals and among epilepties and insane persons. Dr. Bucknill records a brain weight of 1830 grams for 600 THE ANTHROPOLOGY OF THE BRAIN. a male epileptic. This was the brain weight, it will be observed, of the celebrated Cuvier. Dr. Spae records the heaviest female brain weight on record that I ean find. The patient was not epileptic but ‘labored under a mono- mania of pride,” dying at the age of 39. The brain had, for a female, the astounding weight of 1743 grams. The heaviest human brain on record, as far as I have been able to ascertain, belonged to a man who was perfectly sane and healthy, but of very outers mental attainments. The man from whom it was taken was 38 years of age, a bricklayer, and died from blood poisoning, after a surgical operation, in a London Hospital in 1849. Dr. James Norris says of this brain: “The weight of the brain, taken immediately on removal, exceeded 1945 grains. This we eighing was most carefully made, and was wit- nessed by several students. The brain was well proportioned; the convolutions were not flattened, though the surface was fairly moist; it only lost about 52 grams weight after the usual dissection and drain. ing for two hours. The man’s height was 5 feet 9 iz 2ches, and he was of arobust frame. It was difficult to obtain any satisfactory history of him—his wife and his landlady gave different accounts. It seemed, however, that he was a native of Sussex, England; that he had left his native village and changed his name on ace ount of some poaching troubles; that he was not very sober; had a good memory and was fond of politics. He could neither read nor write.” Saget Fs How are these facts to be reconciled with one another? In this way. It is now universally held that it is the gray nerve tissue in the front portion of the cerebral hemi-spheres (prosencephalon) that has to do, more particularly, with the intellectual activities, the white nerve tis- sue consisting, essentially, of nerve threads that conduct impulses to and from the gray matter. The nerve elements, as stated above, are bound together and held in place by a form of connective tissue cz Aled neuroglia. The neuroglia has no connection, whatever, with the gener- ation or conduction of nerve impulses—it is merely a supporting tissue. If this tissue, in consequence of disease, increases much in quantity it may add very much to the weight of the brain—as occurs in epileptics— without increasing the gray matter which is concerned with mental processes. In reality the increase of neuroglia decreases the gray matter and thus deteriorates the mind. Or, if thereis no increase in the neuroglia, there may be, with a large brain, an unduly small amount of gray cortex on account of a compara- tively small number of fissures and convolutions. Or, again, the cortex of gray matter may not reach the average thickness. Or, the texture of the brain may be poor—its microscopic elements feeble and poo:ly related and correlated. Thus it may be understood that a comparatively small brain—one below the average brain weight—may be capable of vastly finer and better work than a much larger one. So, in answer to the question, “Is there any invariable connection THE ANTHROPOLOGY OF THE DRAIN. 601 9° between intelligence and mere weight or size of brain?” we answer, decidedly, ‘ no.” Should the question be asked whether a larger number of mega-ce- phalic brains is likely to be found among races of high intelligence and culture, we have the answer of Le Bon emphatically in the affirmative, and it is in this direction, as Le Bon has taught us, that we must look for evidences of social superiority. As illustrating this proposition, the following table of percentage of Le Bon will prove very interest- ing and instructive: Percentage of cranial capacity in different human races (Le Bon). 3 { Parisians of; cance Paiste: | the twelfth eee: Negroes. | 4ustra | C century. . | |\Cubic centim eters.) | | 1200-1300... .. ONO etl 0.0 © | 0.0 7.4 45.0 | 1300=1400sseee 10.4 7.5 12.1 5.2 | 25.0 | 1400-1500. -...---) 14.3 37 42.5 3.4 20. 0 | 1500-1600. ....... | 46.7 29.8 36.4 aii 10.0 | 1600=170022 522-2 | 16.9 20.9 9.0 9.3 0.0 WelO0=18002 cee ace 6.5 4.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 | 1800-1900. .....-. | 5nd 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 In connection with this table if is interesting to remember that Le son says: * The cranial capacity of the gorilla often reaches 600 cubie centimeters, so that it follows that there are a large number of men more allied by volume of brain to the anthropoid apes than they are to some other men.” Among other things, this table reveals the interesting fact that in the course of seven hundred years of advancing civilization the aver- age Parisian cranial capacity has distinetly increased in volume. -— - It may be well to state, in conclusion, that Broca estimated that a brain in the male, weighing 1,049 grams, is the lowest limit compati- ble with ordinary human intelligence; in the female 907 grams. Human beings with brain weight’s lower than Broca’s figures are idiots, ete. PAihee ae THE BIRTH OF INVENTION. * By Oris T. MAson. In this apotheosis of invention and inventors, to me has been assigned the pleasing task of leading you back for a few moments to the cradle of humanity. Those are happy hours to most of us when we recall the days of childhood. To trace the lives of celebrated men and women to the springs of their moral and intellectual power brings never-fading delight. To study the rise and progress of a nation or any social unit is worthy of exalted minds. But the most profitable inquiry of all is the search for the origin of epoch-making ideas in order to comprehend the history of civilization, to conjure up those race memories in which ach people transmits to itself and to posterity its former experiences. Every invention of any importance is the nursery of future inven- tions, the cradle of a sleeping Hercules. But my task is to speak of primitive man and his efforts. It willaid us in prosecuting our journey backward to orient ourselves with reference to the present. For two days we have listened to the eloquent papers of my predecessors, written to glorify the nineteenth century. Through this faculty of invention the whole earth is man’s. There is not a lone island fit for his abode whereon some Alexander Selkirk has not made a home. Every mineral, plant, and animal is so far known that a place has been found for it in his Systema Nature. Every creature is subject to man; the winds, the seas, the sunshine, the lightning do his bidding. Projecting his vision beyond his tiny planet, this inventing animal has catalogued and traced the motion of every star. sut his crowning glory (which always fills me with admiration) is his ever increasing Ccomprehensiveness. After centuries of cultivating acquaintance with the discrete phenomena around him, he has now striven to coordinate them, to make them organic, to read system into them. He has learned by degrees to comprehend all things as parts of asingle mechanism. Sir lsaac Newton and Kepler conceived all objects and all worlds to be held by universal gravitation. And thus, in our century, von Baer and Humboldt taught that the world, in all its forces the U. 8S. Patent Office; delivered in Washington. Proceedings and Addresses, 1891, pp. 403-412. 603 604 THE BIRTH OF INVENTION. aud materials, is an integrated cosmos. Anyone who is the least familiar with the progress of philosophy will recall that since the dawn of written history the thoughts of men were tending to this unifica- tion. Shortly after this first effort at comprehensive unity Mayer, Rumford, and Joule invented the methods of demonstrating the oneness of physical forces, the conservation of energy. Wollaston, Kirchoff, and Bunsen devised the delicate apparatus to prove the chemical identity of all worlds. Lamarck, Geoffroy St. Hilaire, and Darwin taught the consanguinity of all living beings. Helmholtz and Meyer coordinated nervous excitation with mental activity. Comte and Spencer grasped the unity of all sensible phenomena. Newton, Leibnitz, and Hamilton projected their minds beyond phenomena and invented mathematics of four or more dimensions, conceiving of worlds and sys- tems that under the present order of nature can have no objective reality. Over all this, into many great souls, have come the notions ot infinite space and time and causation. The idea of limitation to thought or achievement no longer enters the imagination. The depth of the sea, the distances of the stars, the concealment of the earth’s treasures, the minuteness of the springs of life and sense, the multiplicity and complicity of phenomena are only so many incitements to greater achievements. The daring souls of this decade are determined at any risk to answer the inquiry of Pontius Pilate, What is truth? With sympathetic enthusiasm we wave them on, bidding them God-speed. But, I ask you now to forget all this and go with me to that early day when the first being, worthy to be called man, stood upon this earth. Ifow economical has been his endowment. There is no hair on his body to keep him warm, his jaws are the feeblest in the world, his arm is not equal to that of a gorilla, he can not fly like the eagle, he can not see into the night like the owl, even the hare is fleeter than he. He has no clothing, no shelter. He had no tools or industries or experience, no society or language or arts of pleasure, he had yet no theory of life and poorer conceptions of the life beyond. The road from that condition to our own lies next to the infinite. The one endowment that this creature possessed having in it the promise and potency of all future achievements, was the creative spark called invention. The superabundant brain, over and above all the amount required for mere animal existence, held in trust the possi- bilities of the future, and stamped upon man the divine likeness. This naked ignoramus is the father of the clothed philosopher, looking out into infinite space and time and causation. It may give you pleasure to know something about the connections between these two and the witnesses to these connections. There are five guides whose services we have to engage on our inter- esting journey. The first is history, who does not know the way very far back—not over three thousand years—with much certainty. The second is philology, the study of which in our own century has ena- THE BIRTH OF INVENTION. 605 bled us to find the cradle-land of many peoples. The third is folk-lore, the survival of belief and custom among the uneducated. The fourth is archeology, history written in things. The fifth is ethnology, which informs us that in deseribing this are of civilization some races have only marked time, while others have moved with radii of varying lengths. The result of this is that we now have on the earth types of every sort of cuiture it has ever known. At the present moment, within hailing distance of yonder most beautiful dome in the world dwell all these wit- nesses—the relics of the stone age, the Indian village of Nacochtank or Anacostia, the folk-lore of both continents, and the literatures of the world. While youare listening to the encomiums of our decade, palie- olithie man sends in the testimony of his handicraft, the Smithsonian Institution treasures the inventions of the most primitive races, and the Bureau of Ethnology unravels the mysteries of savage tongues. As the fragment of a speech or song, a waking or a sleeping vision, the dream of a vanished hand, a draught of water from a familiar spring, the almost perished fragrance of a pressed flower, call back the singer, the loved and lost, the loved and won, the home of childhood, or the parting hour, so in the same manner there linger in this crowning decade of the crowning century bits of ancient ingenuity which recall to a whole people the fragrance and beauty of its past. From the testimony of these five witnesses we learn that there never was a time when man was not an inventor—never a time when he had not some sort of patent on his invention. They affirm that every art of living and all the arts of pleasure were born in the stone age; that graphic art, sculpture, architecture, painting, music, and the drama had their childish prototypes in that early day; that language is one ot the very earliest of inventions, the vehicle of savage oratory, philos- ophy, and science. They affirm that society has been a series of inven- tions from the first; that legislation, justice, government, property, exchange, commerce, have not sprung out of the ground, but within our definition are inventions. And even the creeds and cults of mankind, whatever view you may take of the divine element underneath them, have been thought out and wrought out with infinite pains from time to time by earnestsouls. Butthey had their origin in the cradle land and in the infancy of our race. What we enjoy is only the full-blown flower, the perfected fruit of which they possessed the germ. Let me enforce this idea, as we glorify the material prosperity of the nineteenth cen- tury, that many centuries ago men sat down and with great pains and sorrow invented the language, the art, the industries, the social order which made our machines feasible and desirable. There is no conflict between the testimony of these witnesses and the doctrine commonly taught that men do not invent customs and lan- guages, but fall into them. Reflect a moment upon your own daily life and you will recognize two sets of activity, those which you origi- nate and those in which you foliow suit. Animals can learn to follow 606 THE BIRTH OF INVENTION. suit, and to a very limited extent can originate. But it is the spark of originality which underlies every thought or device in this world. As one man invents a machine and others by thousands fall into the use of it, as the musician composes a song and millions sing it, so was it in the cradle-land of humanity the inventor, touched with: fire from the divine altar, set new examples to be followed. If we were to inter- rogate our five witnesses, particularly with reference to the ancestry, the family tree of the notable inventions of the nineteenth century, their answer would be somewhat as follows :* The ancestor of the steam plow is the digging stick of savagery, a branch of a tree sharpened at the end by fire; the progenitors of the steam harvester and thresher were the stone sickle, the roasting tray, or, later on, the tribuluin. The cotton gin and power loom are among the wonders of our age. Yet in that day of which we are speaking human fingers wrought the textile from first to last. They gathered the bark or wool, colored them to suit the primitive taste, spun and wove them with simple apparatus, and left upon the fabric patterns that are the despair of all modern machine-makers—patterns that are a pleasure to the eye by their infinite variety, replaced in modern fabrics by a dreary monotony that awakens pain instead of pleasure. The first sewing machine was a needle or bodkin of bone, with dainty sinew thread from the leg of the antelope, and for thimble a little leather cap over the ends of the fingers. Coarse, indeed, the appara- tus, but the hand was deft, the eye was true, the sense of beauty was there, and so that needlewoman of long ago wrought in fur from the mammals, feathers from the birds, grasses from the fields, shells from the sea, wings from the beetle, and skins of snakes with tasteful geometric figures. You do err who think those ancient needle-women had no taste. It would be hard to invent a pattern now that was unfamiliar to them. The first engine was run by man power, then man subdued the horse, the ass, the camel, and invented engines for those to propel. He next domesticated the winds, the waters, the steam, the lightning, but the first common earriers and machine power were men and women. The first burden train was women’s backs; the first passenger car was a papoose frame. The poetry of to-day is the fact of yesterday; the dream of yesterday is the fact of to-day. When the savage woman a century or two ago, upon this very spot, strapped her dusky offspring to a rude frame, hung it upon the nearest sapling for the winds to rock, or lifted the unfor- *We ought to remember, however, that an inyention is not always a thing; but that it may be any series of actions conducing toward some new end. We should keep in mind, also, that all our activities involve materials and their qualities; human, animal, and physical forces; tools and machines; processes, and products; and that invention may take place in any or all of these. THE BIRTH OF INVENTION. b07 tunate suckling from the ground to which it had been huried by the bending of an unsafe bough, that was a fact, a stage in the history of invention. In our now-a-days couches of down, swung from gilded hinges, we have got far ahead of the papoose cradle, the memory of which we perpetuate in nursery rhymes sung to children, who wonder why babies should be hung in the tops of trees and think, doubtless, that the faling cradle was a just retribution on the silly parents. What is more beautiful than an ocean steamer, with skin of steel drawn over ribs of steel and closed above against the intrusion of the waves? Have you never seen the picture of the Eskimo, still in the stone age, who, over a framework of driftwood or whale’s rib, stretches a covering of sealskin and learned therein to defy the waves hundreds of years ago? Only now and then the angry sky was lighted for the primitive man by electricity, and even then it filled him with terror. But it was he that invented the apparatus for conjuring from dried wood, by a rude sort of dynamo, the Promethean spark. It was our Aryan ancestors that paid their devotions to the rising sun by kindling fresh fire every morning as the orb of day flashed his first beam across the earth. Who has not read, with almost breaking heart, the story of Palissy, the Huguenot potter? But what have our witiesses to say of that long line of humble creatures that conjured out of prophetic clay, with- out wheel or furnace, forms and decorations of imperishable beauty which are now being copied in glorified material in the best factories of the world? In ceramic as well as in textile art the first inventors were women. They quarried the clay, manipulated it, constructed and decorated the ware, burned it in a rude furnace, and wore it out in a hundred uses. He had no printing press, but he could tie knots in a marvellous fashion and write letters on bark or on bits of raw hide and leave memorials of himself in the book of stone. He made words and sen- tences, invented language, developed artistic forms of speech handed down to us in the eloquent harangues of his sages. He breathed his thoughts in poetry, a kind of childish rhythm. In the time of which we now are speaking the telegraph was a series of signal fires and a wonderful code of signs, which a distinguished scholar of our city has just unravelled. Primitive man developed the art of war, means of offense and defense; weapons of percussion, for cutting and thrusting; projectiles, armor, fortification, strategy. Nowhere has man pressed his hand so effeetively upon nature as in the domestication of animals. It is almost incredible that ravening wolves and merciless felines should become faithful dogs and purring ‘ats; that the wild sheep and goat should descend from their inacees- sible fastnesses, and yield their fleece and flesh and milk; that horses, asses, camels, elephants, should be induced to lend their backs and 608 THE BIRTH OF INVENTION. limbs to lighten the loads of the first common carrier. This process of impressing his own qualities on wild creatures began very early in his- tory, and has continued uniterruptedly from first to last.* His affairs of state were managed through his patent system. The great inventors were made the rulers of the people, and his highest title to nobility was a most puissant and ingenious one. He had courts of justice, heard witnesses, executed his laws. It is true that the methods were summary, when a chancery suit was settled by execution on the same day as the death of the devisor. But out of his struggles came our methods, and the greatest drawback to secur- ing justice now is the survival of his antiquated customs into our new practices. He invented philosophies and sciences, explained the universe and himself to himself. This seems puerile now, but it was the beginning of all our own speculations, necessary to us at present, but which will to-morrow become folk-lore. Over and over again, those who preceded me on this platform have pointed to James Watt as the true deliverer of mankind. Far be it from me to take one leaf from his laurel crown; but the inventor of the alphabet, of the decimal system of notation, of representative government, of the golden rule in morality were greater than he. For the dream in stone and carving and decoration called a cathedral, ‘“Where, through Jong-drawn aisle and fretted vault, The pealing anthem swells the notes of praise,” that early day has only to offer wild shouts in unison under the starlit dome, touched by the first childish aspirations after the divine, or hopes of immortality. While you look with admiration upon these panoramas of progress you can not have failed to observe on the canvas that the art, the proc- ess and rewards of inventing itself, have undergone the very same development and improvement as the thingsinvented. There is in this a marvellous similarity to the life processes of animals and plants. The homogeneous yolk of the egg during incubation becomes wonderfully complex and heterogeneous; but all of these diverse parts come together into a higher unity, in which each organ ministers to the good of all. author sought to combine the result of Morgan’s culture stages, Deing seven, with the work of Klemm, Tylor, Lane Fox, and Spencer, who had treated separate arts from an evolutionary or, I should say, an inventional motive. This any one may repeat for himself by ruling a broad sheet of paper into eight columns. At the top of the several columns write the words of Morgan, or, better, the first.sseven Roman numerals. In the.lines down the left-hand margin write any words you choose to examine, say music or weapons. The seven stages of music or of weapons would appear by reading across the sheet from ieft to right. Care should be taken not to confound the species of the same thought, for example, bruising, piercing, or slash- ing weapons; or string music, with reed music or horn music. IN MEDICINE, SURGERY, ETC. 617 sion: from the which, as men of course do seek to receive countenance and profit, so ought they of duty to endeavor themselves by way of amends to be a help and ornament thereunto.” The rule, however, is not always adhered to by physicians, the most notable exception having been, perhaps, the use of Koch’s lymph before its composition was revealed. As regards the patenting of sur- gical instruments and apparatus, the opinion of the great majority of physicians is in accordance with the rule just stated, but there are some who question its propriety, although they obey it—and there are few who would not use a patented instrument in a case to which they thought it was applicable. The total number of surgical instruments and appliances patented during the past decade has been about 1,200, the patents having been in almost all cases taken out by manufacturers. With these may be classed dentists’ tools and apparatus, of which about 500 have been patented during the last ten years, and in this field of invention the United States leads the world. The same may be said with regard to artificial limbs, of which our great war gave rise to many varieties. As you know, the law prescribes that a patent may be given for a ‘new and useful art, machine, manufacture or composition of matter.” T used to think that the word ‘ useful” in this law had its ordinary meaning, and therefore wondered exceedingly as to why the Patent Office examiners allowed patents to certain things which came under my notice. One day, however, I received an article from the Patent Office, with the request for a report as to whether it was useful in the sense in which that word was used by the office, namely, Not per- nicious or prejudicial to publie interest—capable of being used ”—and then for the first time I understood one of the first principles of the patent law of the United States, that is, that it does not take into con- sideration the degree of utility in the device, or, in other words, that ‘useful ” means ‘ harmless.” Ifa patent is granted to a medicine, it must be as a composition of matter as a special article of manufacture. The practice of the Patent Office in these matters is not generally understood. It does not now consider that medical prescriptions are inventions within the mean- ing of the law, or that a mere aggregation of well-known remedies to obtain a cumulative effect is a patentable composition of matter. A certain number of claims for Government protection in the form of patents or trade-marks are made for medical compounds or for apparatus under false pretenses; that is to say, the claim is for a new remedy for rheumatism or dyspepsia or displacement, with a warning against their use under certain conditions, the real design being that they are to be used under precisely these conditions in order to procure abortion, ete. These are sometimes difficult cases for the Patent Office to treat prop- erly, for the law does not allow a large discretion for refusal on mere suspicion, and where there is ostensible and possible utility (in the 618 AMERICAN INVENTIONS Patent Office sense) it can hardly reject the claim on the ground that the invention might be used for immoral purposes. I said in the beginning that [ can not on this occasion give any suf- ficient account of the progress of invention and discovery in medicine and sanitation during the century just gone. The great step forward which has been made has been the establishment of a true scientific foundation for the art upon the discoveries made in physies, chemistry, and biology. One hundred years ago the practice of medicine and measures to preserve health, so far as these were really efficacious, were in the main empirical—that is, certain effects were known to usually follow the giving of certain drugs or the application of certain measures, but why or how these effects were produced was unknown. They sailed then by dead-reckoning, in several senses of this phrase. Since then not only have great advances been nade by a continuance of these empirical measures in treatment, but we have learned much as to the mechanism and functions of different parts of the body and as to the nature of the causes of some of the most prevalent and fatal forms of disease, and, as a consequence, can apply means of preven- tion or treatment in a much more direct and definite way than was formerly the case. For example, a hundred years ago nothing was known of the difference between typhus and typhoid fevers. We have now discovered that the first is a disease propagated largely by aerial contagion and induced or aggravated by overcrowding, the preventive means being isolation, light, and fresh air; while the second is due to a minute vegetable organism, a bacillus, and is propagated mainly by con- taininated water, milk, food, and clothing; and that the treatment of the two diseases should be very different. The most important improvements in practical medicine made in the United States have been chiefly in surgery, in its various branches. We have led the way in the ligation of some of the larger arteries, in the removal of abdominal tumors, in the treatment of diseases and injuries peculiar to women, in the treatment of spinal affections and of deformities of various kinds. Above all, we were the first to show the uses of ansthetics—the most important advance in medicine made during the century. In our Jate war we taught Europe how to build, organize, and manage military hospitals; and we formed the best museum in existence illustrating modern military medicine and sur- gery. Our contributions to medical literature have been many and val- uable; and our Government possesses the largest and best working medical library in the world. We have more doctors and more medi- cal schools, in proportion to the population, than any other*country, and, while this is not good evidence of progress, I am glad to be able to say that the standard of acquirements in medical education has been and is now rising, and our leading medical schools are now being equipped with buildings, with apparatus, with laboratories, and, most important of all, with brains, which enable them to give means of practical instruction equal to any to be found elsewhere. —_e IN MEDICINE, SURGERY, ETC. 6Lg As regards preventive public medicine and sanitation, we have not made so many valuable contributions to the world’s stock of knowledge, chiefly because, until quite recently, we have not had the stimulus to persistent effort which comes from density of poprlation and its com- plicated relation to sewage disposal and water supplies; nor have we had the information relative to localized causes of disease and death, Which is the essential foundation of public hygiene, aud which can only be obtained by a proper system of vital statisties. We can, however, show enough and to spare of inventions in the way of sanitary appli- ances, fixtures, and systems for house drainage, sewerage, ete.; for the ingenuity of inventors has kept pace with the increasing demands for protection from the effects of the decomposition of waste matters as increase of knowledge has made these known to us. The total number of patents granted for sanitary appliances during the last decade (1880— 1890) is about 1,175. If good fixtures necessarily involve good pluinb- ing work we could easily make our houses safe so far as drainage is concerned; but a leaky joint or a tilted trap makes the best appliance worthless. The impulse to improvements in this direction has come mainly from England, where most of the principles of good work of this kind has been developed; but we have devised some details better adapted to our climate and modes of construction, and while many of the patent traps and sewer-gas excluders are only useful in the patent-law sense, and some not even in that, it is nevertheless true that the safety, aecessibility, and good appearance of plumber’s work has been largely increased during the last few years by patented inventions. Much the : same may be said with regard to heating appliances, including venti- lating stoves and fireplaces, radiators, ete., but I am unable to express any enthusiam with regard to what are commonly called patent venti- lators. No doubt the greatest progress in medical science during the next few years will be in the direction of prevention, and to this end mechan- ical and chemical invention and discovery must go hand in hand with increase in biological and medical knowledge. Neither can afford to neglect or despise the other, and both are working for the cominon good. If the American patent system has not given rise to any spe- cially valuable inventions in practical medicine, in law, or in theology, it ust be due to the nature of the subjects, and not to any fault of the system, ENDOWMENT FOR SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH AND PUBLI- CATION.* 3y ADDISON BROWN. Twenty years ago Prof. Tyndall delivered in New York and in other cities of this country a series of lectures upon light. The last of the Series was an impressive plea for a more thorough prosecution of original research in pure science; and incidentally, for the need of en- dowments to maintain it. I was fortunate in having the opportunity to listen to that remarkable course of lectures, and to that plea for science. {ts impression has never left me. The impression was the deeper, because Tyndall set upon it the seal of self-denial. Some $30,000, nearly the entire net proceeds of his lectures in the United States— money for which he undoubtedly had abundant use in his own affairs, or at leastin the prosecution of researches in his own country, and which by all precedent and the example of other lecturers he would have taken with him—this he has given to the science of this country, endowing therewith, in 1885 three scholarships for the prosecution of original research in physics, one under the direction of Columbia College, one under Harvard, and a third at the University of Pennsylvania. The truths uttered and the example set by this self-denying master have already many times borne fruit. The late President Barnard, of Columbia College, who was a warm supporter of Prof. Tyndall when here, bequeathed to Cotumbia upon his decease a few years since the sum of $10,000 for the endowmeut of another fellowship for the encour- agement of scientific research, upon substantially the same terms as those of the Tyndall scholarships. In other parts of the country there have been some other endowments for similar purposes. In the last year Columbia has also received $100,000, the munificent bequest of Mr. Da Costa, for the establishment of the departmentof biology. Although this bequest is not primarily for the prosecution of original research, it is not restricted by hampering conditions, and will to some extent, it is hoped, admit of a direct and continuous support of the highest and most advanced studies. “Address at the first joint meeting of the Scientific Alliance of New York. November 15, 1892. (Pamphlet Report, pp. 18-41.) 621 622 ENDOWMENT FOR SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH, The appeal made by Tyndall has been often renewed by scientific men; by the heads of universities; by the presidents of scientific asso- ciations, here and abroad; and by none, perhaps, more eloquently than by Dr. Edwin Ray Lancaster, in his address before the biological] sec- tion of the British Association at Southport, in 1883. What shall we say to the call and the examples of such men? Was the gift of Tyndall based only upon an idle fancy? Or was it the result of a clear perception of a profound truth, viz, America’s need of that money as a Stimulus and support to more scientific research; the call on him being felt to be the more imperious, because the need of it was so plain to him, while obscure to others; and making his aet, therefore, a noble instance of self-renunciation in an unappreciated cause ? “To keep society as regards science in healthy play,” he says, ‘“‘three classes of workers are necessary : “1, The investigator of natural truth, whose vocation it is to pursue that truth and extend the field of discovery for truth’s own sake, with- out reference to practical ends. 2, The teacher, to diffuse this knowledge. —- - “3. The appher of these principles and truths to make them availa- ble to the needs, the comforts or the luxuries of life. - -— - ‘These three classes ought to co-exist and inter-act. The popular notionsofscience - - - oftenrelate, not to science strictly so called, but to the application of science.” The great discoveries of scientific truth, he continues, are ‘‘not made by practical men, and they never will be made by them; because their minds are beset by ideas which, though of the highest value im one point of view, are not those which stimulate the original discoverer.” In a chance conversation, a few weeks since, | received a confirma. tion of these words, so direct and unexpected, that it may bear citation. I was talking with an electrical expert who had made several very in- teresting and important inventions. IL asked him of how much impor- tance he conceived that the scientific men of the closet, the original investigators, so-called, had been in working out the great inventions of electricity during the last fifty years—the telegraph cables, tele- phones, the electric lighting, and the electric motors; and whether these achievements were not in reality due, mainly, to the practical men, the inventors, who knew what they were after, rather than to the men of science, who rarely applied their work to practical use? ‘Not at all,” he said, “the scientific men are of the utmost impor- tance; everything that has been done has proceeded upon the basis of what they have previously discovered, and upon the principles and laws which they have laid down. Nowadays we never work at random. Look at that electric light! Of the energy expended in producing if, only 7 per cent appears as light; the rest, 95 per cent, is wasted, mainly in heat. We are all now trying to prevent this enormous waste. I want to reverse that proportion; but if I call reduce the waste to only ENDOWMENT FOR SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH. 623 35 per cent, a patent of my invention will be worth millions of dollars for its economy in production. In seeking this we do not work at ran- dom. I go to my laboratory; study the applications of the principles, facts, and laws which the great scientists like Faraday, Thompson, and Maxwell have worked out, and endeavor to find such devices as shall secure my aim.” This is but an expression, in another form, of what Tyndall said twenty years ago: ‘“ Behind all our practical applications, there is a region of intellectual action to which practical men have rarely con- tributed, but from which they draw all their supplies. Cut them off from that region, and they become eventually helpless.” What is true in one department of natural science is, | apprehend, equally true inall. The practical men do not work at random, but upon the basis of what scientific research and publication have previously put within their grasp. It is evident therefore that not only the advancement of knowledge itself, but all possibility of any continuous advance in those great im- provements which are to mitigate the sorrows, and promote the health, the conveniences and the comforts of men, is vitally dependent upon the progress of scientific research, in recent years how marvellous have these improvements been! Besides those that are most common and familiar to all, what miracles, almost, have been achieved through the photograph, the spectroscope, the microscope; by the discovery of the sources of fermentation and of putrefaction; by the discovery of anesthetics and the application of antiseptic methods in surgery, and in the treatment of other lesions! These latter discoveries alone have ameliorated beyond expression the sufferings of man; they save more lives than war and pestilence destroy, surpassing even in that regard the safety lamp of Sir Humphrey Davy—an invention which, at the time it was made, was said to have exceeded every previous discovery aS a means of saving human life, except, possibly, inoculation for smallpox. This vital relation between the advancement of knowledge and the welfare of man furnishes an all-sufficient reason for the continuous and never-ending prosecution of original research. Of necessity the original work of discovery must always lead; that must always precede the practical applications. The necessity for such research must, there- fore, continue, so long as science and human society endure. As there isno linit to the advance of knowledge, so there can be no limit to the benefactious it is capable of conterring upen mankind. The more rapid the advance, the more speedy the enjoyment of its fruits. In this relation alone, the need of ample provision for scientific progress is one that addresses itself equally to the nation, to the state, to philan- thropists, and to all who would advance the welfare of man, on the broadest and most enduring lines. How shall such research be maintained and extended? The investi- 624 ENDOWMENT FOR SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH. gator of pure science does not work for profit. His discoveries are not marketable. The law allows no patent upon a principle of nature or the discovery of a new truth. Newton could not patent the law of gravitation, nor Volta the galvanism of the voltaic pile; nor Ehrenberg and Schwann, the discovery of the widespread influence of bacteria; nor Faraday, nor Henry, electro-magnetism; nor Joule, his correlation of forces; nor Jackson, his anesthetics; nor Lister, his antiseptic treat- ment; nor Koch nor Pasteur, their discoveries of the bacilli, the destruction of which may lead to the cure or amelioration of terrible diseases. To the practical men and to the inventors, on the other hand, who apply to the specific wants of men the truths and principles which the scientists have made known to them, the law, in the form of a patent, gives a monopoly of from fourteen to twenty-one years. They thus obtain, as a rule, a reasonable, and, in some cases, even an exces- Sive, pecuniary reward. In this country alone nearly 500,000 patents have been issued; they are increasing at the rate of about 25,000 per year. In the extreme multiplication of patents affecting a large part of everything we use, the whole world, it might almost be said, is paying tribute to the inventors and practical men; while to the original dis- coverers who have made so much of all this possible, there is no promise of pecuniary reward. . This is not said by way of complaint. In the nature of things, it is searcely avoidable. The aims, the motives, the methods, and the genius of the two classes of minds, are and ever must be widely distinet. Orig- nal discoverers can not be turned aside from their special work to be- come mechanics and inventors without infinite loss. Prof. Henry had one form of the electric telegraph in actual use some years before Morse conceived it.* But how great would have been the loss to science, without any corresponding gain, had Prof. Henry in 1850 turned away from pure science to do the subsequent work of Morse in adapting the telegraph to common and valuable use! Research in pure science can never be made a self-supporting pur- suit. It can never therefore be carried forward broadly, and contin- uously, and effectively, except through men sustained by some form of stipend or endowment. Occasionally, it is true, men of independent fortune, like Harvey, and Darwin, and Lyell, and Agassiz, have de- voted themselves to original research upon their own means, and have accomplished most important results. But these instances are rare. Many other persons, too, with aptitudes and tastes for research, though not following a scientific career, have carried on private researches im the intervals of leisure, stolen from the exacting demands of profes- sional or business hfe; and these have, in the aggregate, added no small amount to the common stock of knowledge. It is no disparagement however of these subordinate workers to say ENDOWMENT FOR SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH. 625 along the lines of knowledge, have been achieved by men who in the main have devoted their lives to the work, and have been supported through institutions or endowments which made this devotion possible, Government appointments, professorial chairs, or salaried positions in scientific Institutions of some kind, have been and must continue to be our chief dependence. And it is manifest that these can only be main- tained by Government aid, or by the bounty of private individuals. The former 1s mainly the European system; the latter, in the main, is ours. There, universities are founded by the government; here, chiefly by the people. In Germany there are twenty-one universities maintained by the Gov- ernment. In each of these, as Dr. Lancaster states, there are five in- dependent establishments in the department of biology alone, viz, in physiology, anatomy, pathology, zodlogy, and botany. At the head of each of these establishments there is a professor, with two paid assist- ants, making altogether about 300 for biological research in Germany ; and he estimates about one-quarter of that number in the same depart- ment in England. In all the sciences, therefore, there would probably be found in Germany from 800 to 1,000 persons of high scientific attain- ments, supported by the Government in the universities, who are regu- larly and systematically engaged in the discovery of new scientific truth. For it is there made both the object and the duty of the professors of natural science to carry on original investigations by work in the lab- oratory. Their positions are obtained through previous distinction in such investigations, and it is for this work that their small but fixed stipend is paid by the Government. In the College de France, also maintained by the Government, there is the same requirement, though with a larger salary to the professors, and with the added duty imposed on them to deliver to the students about forty lectures yearly upon the subjects of the professors’ re- searches; while in Germany the professors also receive from each stu dent who attends their lectures, a moderate fee, which serves to in- crease their meager stipend, as well as to stimulate their activity and usefulness. Under this system, Germany has become the greatest school of science, and the resort of the whole world. In this country the opposite system prevails. The colleges and uni- versities are mainly private foundations, dependent on private gifts and endowments. ‘The colleges are unwisely mutiplied. All are more or less cramped for money. This limits the number of professors and assistants appointed for instruction, and crowds them with routine work. The result is that in all but a few colleges, and in these until comparatively recently, the duties of instruction have left to the pro- fessors but little time or opportunity for the prosecution of original in- vestigations; and these with but poor equipment and inadequate means. In not one of all our colleges and universities, so far as | have been H, Mis, 114 40 626 ENDOWMENT FOR SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH. able to ascertain, is there a single professorship endowed or founded, even in part, for the avowed object of original scientific research. In- struction, not discovery, is the only avowed object. It is to the great credit of American professors and teachers that, with so much routine work on their hands, and so little leisure for research, they should have accomplished by purely voluntary studies so much as is Shown in their contributions to our scientific publications. To what is said above, perhaps a virtual exception should be made as respects our astronomical observatories, in which, the labors of in- struction being less, original work has been perhaps expected, and has been accomplished with most signal success. To some extent this may possibly apply to our medical schools also. And in other depart- ments, generally, wherever time and opportunity have been afforded, much original work has been done by our professors; some of it of the first class. This is attested, not to mention living instances, by the work of Prof. Henry at Princeton, Dr. Torrey at Columbia, Dr. Silli- man at Yale, Dr. Gray at Harvard, and many others that might be named. Ina number of the States, also, and at Washington, there have been maintained by the State or Nation a number of scientific men, in connection with certain State or national interests, who have accomplished most important results; of these, Dr. James Hall, of this State, is a conspicuous instance. At Harvard and at other colleges some noble opportunities for special study have been also provided in their scientific schools and museums; notably in the zodlogical museum, the Jefferson Physical Laboratory, and the Peabody Museum of Archee- ology at Cambridge, and also in the department of hygiene at the Univer- sity of Pennsylvania. But in most of these the great complaint is the lack of neccessary endowments to make possible the active advanced work in original discovery for which those institutions are designed. In the Peabody Museum there was in 1891 a gift of $10,000 by Mrs. Hemenway to establish a post-graduate fellowship; and also a gift of like amount by Mr. Wolcott, for the general support of the museum’s work. New York also has within a few years past seen spring up al- most as by magic, through the efforts of a single leading spirit, sec- onded by other public spirited men and women, and by municipal aid, a museum of natural history that bids fair to stand in the front rank of scientific opportunities; but the endowments of fellowships and pro- fessors necessary to make its opportunities available in active re- search are as yet wanting. England holds a position midway between the United States and Germany. Her scientific men lament her deficiencies. They are striv- ing to increase their means for scientific work, and are doing so yearly. If experience teaches anything, it is that no broad and general de- velopment of scientific work of the first class is possible, except either through independent establishments for special work, or else by the university system, in which professors in science and their assistants are first selected on account of their previous distinction in original ENDOWMENT FOR SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH. 627 research, and are then appointed to continue that work, and in the teaching of students, to transmit to them the zeal of discovery and the true methods of advance. It matters little whether the support of the university or of special institutions for research comes from the Government or from private endowment, provided the provision is adequate and constant. The difficulty with us has been, and still is, that funds are insufficient, the means and equipment inadequate, and the time allowed to the pro- fessors for research insufficient. There has been too much of the schoolmaster, and too little of the real professor. Too great absorption of the professor’s time in the work of instruction is injurious to both teacher and pupil. The most stimulating of teachers is he who by daily experiment is in vital touch with Nature,—he who brings from the fires of the laboratory the warmth, the illumination, and the inspiration of his own researches. This is now well recognized; and so far as their means will permit, the leading colleges are by degrees relieving their professors of the work of elementary instruction, so that they may the better prosecute original researches, and at the same time become best qualified for the highest work of imstruction. This system will doubtless demand watchfulness and discrimination. To prevent abuses, regulation and responsibility may have to be imposed. But it involves the appoint- ment of additional instructors. It requires added means. And this is_ indispensable as a part of the transition of our leading colleges to the university system. It is indispensable, also, if we are to have in this country any considerable systematic prosecution of original research. We must use existing instrumentalities and existing institutions. And all experience shows that outside of the few Government positions, and in the absence of special institutions for research, the professorial chairs are best adapted to such investigations. No greater service could be done to science than to make such endowments as should insure sys- tematic and continuous research by the professors as a part of the new university system. Endowments for the same object, and operating in the same line, might also take a different form, viz., the endowment of several pro- fessorial fellowships, each, say, of $1,000 annual income; to be con- trolled and awarded by some independent scientific body (such as this Alliance might afford) for distinction in active scientific investigations, either within the country or within the State. I know of no more quickening impulse to original scientific research than such as would be given to it by those means. How backward we have been in this country, through the lack of proper endowments, in making use of the best existing opportu- nities for research, may be illustrated by a single instance. Some twenty years ago a school was established at Naples for the prosecu- tion of marine biological research. It is most thoroughly equipped, and, being a general resort, is the most advantageous for study in 628 ENDOWMENT FOR SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH. the world. It is maintained by a charge of $500 per year upon each table occupied, each occupant being entitled to all the ad- vantages of the institution. Of these tables, the German States for several years have taken thirteen; Italy, eight; Austria, Russia, Spain, and England, each three; Switzerland, Belgium and Holland, each one; the United States, until 1891, none, except one table supported by Williams College for two years, and one by the University of Penn- sylvania for one year. Prior to that time about fifteen other American students in all had obtained places at the tables taken and paid for by other nations. In 1890, this arrangement was prohibited by the admin- istration of the institution; and the right to a table in 1891, was secured to Americans, only through the private benefaction of Maj. Alex. Henry Davis, of Syracuse. For the year 1892, the use ofa table has been secured through a subscription started by the American Associa- tion for the Advancement of Science, toward which the Association itself granted out of its scanty funds $100 and was the means, I be- lieve, of procuring the rest.* We have not however been wholly without some such means of study in this country through the marine biological laboratories estab- lished some years ago at Newport and at Wood’s Holl, by Prof. Alex. Agassiz. The former has been now enlarged so as to accommodate eight advanced students, besides the professor and his assistant.+ The Johns Hopkins University also has supplied some opportunities of this kind by its summer school, formerly at Beaufort; later, at Jamaica; but at present, as I understand, it is without any permanent location. Our neighbor, the Brooklyn Institute, has organized similar investi- gations, on a minor scale, during the summer months at different places on Long Island. But what is needed for the most effective work, is suitable endowments for professors and advanced students, in éonnec- tion with an adequate biological laboratory, such as the Newport one enlarged might afford, equal in means and equipment to that at Naples, or at least to that recently completed, largely through private enter- prise, at Plymouth. England. *See Proc. American Association A. S. 1891, vol. xu, p. 449-451, t Report Harvard Col., 1891, p. 182. tIn his address before the American Association for the Advancement of Science, in 1891, President Prescott, referring to this general subject, said: “To nurture investigation in science is the largest opportunity before the American people. Research, systematic and wisely directed, requires good organization and strong support, the support of many powers. It must have the support of able and persistent men. It needs the conference of workers, and the dissemination of knowl- edge in societies like this. It wants the interest and the confidence of the public. It asks and will always obtain the constant, helpful use of the press. It requires distinct provision in colleges, and in the institutions of higher education. It ought to be sustained expressly by the Government, both in the several States and under the United States, and sustained on broad and permanent foundations. Still, it needs private henefactions. Research is the growth of years. Letit be the demand ofall, and let this call find utterance every where.”—Proceedings Am, Assoc.,1891, vol. XL, p. 440. . ENDOWMENT FOR SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH. 629 IT: Immediately connected with our colleges and universities is another field, in which additional endowments are greatly needed, viz: for fel- lowships in science for post-graduate studies. Upon the post-graduate workers, the future of science, and the re- cruits for future teachers and professors, must necessarily depend. In that view the importance of post-graduate endowments in science can searcely be magnified. The great majority of the young men from whom all the new recruits must be drawn have little or no pecuniary means. After graduating, often through many difficulties, they must face the question of their future calling. They must consider what promise of a reasonable and comfortable support a life devoted to sei- ence affords. If this risk should not deter them, still there are many with talents of a high order who would be absolutely unable to proceed further in the advanced scientific studies necessary to qualify them to enter upon remunerative scientific work, or to obtain situations as pro- fessors or assistants, except by the aid of substantial endowments for their support, during the three or four years more of necessary assidu- ous study. In the stress of modern life, and in the allurements towards more certain pecuniary results, nothing but such endowments can avert the withdrawal from scientific pursuits of many young men of high promise, whose genius and tastes and ambition strongly incline them to science, and who would be secured to it if this temporary support were afforded. The endowments of our colleges and universities in aid of post-gradu- ate work in science are much less, | suppose, than is commonly imagined. I find no such support for post-graduate work in science, either at Cornell University, at the University of the City of New York, at Brown University, at Amherst, or even at the Johns Hopkins University. No statement of the endowments of the new Clark Uni- versity at Worcester has as yet been published. Princeton, though having a hundred under-graduate scholarships, has but one post-gradu- ate fellowship for science; Yale but two,—the Silliman and the Sloane Fellowships. Columbia College has two fellowships expressly restricted to science, viz.: The Tyndall Fellowship of $648 annually, and the Barnard Fel- lowship, before referred to, of about $500 annually. Besides these, however, twenty-four general university fellowships have been estab- lished, of $500 each, for post-graduate study, of which eighteen are in present operation. About one-third of these are assigned to science; making now eight for science at Columbia, with probably two more in 1893 or 1894. In architecture, moreover, there are three additional noble post-graduate fellowships at Columbia, the Schermerhorn of $1,300 annually, and the two McKim Fellowships of $1,000 each, to support study in foreign travel. In the Medical Department, also, there are five valuable prizes for proficiency. 630 ENDOWMENT FOR SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH. The University of Pennsylvania has the Tyndall Fellowship, before referred to; and, in the Department of Hygiene, an admirable labora- tory fitted up by Mr. Henry ©. Lea, with a fellowship of $10,000 en- dowed by Mr. Thomas A. Scott, at present applied to original research in bacteriology. At Harvard, besides the three Bullard Fellowships of $5,000 each, established in 1891, to promote original research in the medical school, there are two post-graduate fellowships restricted to science exelu- sively; namely, the Tyndall Fellowship of about $500 annually, and the income of the recently established Joseph Lovering Fund, the prin- cipal of which is now about $8,000, There are also eleven other gen- eral fellowships, viz: The Parker, the Kirkland, and the Morgan Fel- lowships, available for promising graduate students in any branch, of which about five have been usually assigned to science. These fellow- ships give an income of from $450 to $700 a year. Harvard has also forty-six scholarships available for graduate students, varying in in- come from $150 to $300 each, of which about seventeen are assigned to science. During the last year, according to the report of Prof. Pierce, the dean, there were 195 applications for those post-graduate fellowships and scholarships, Seventy-one of which were in science. Only one-third of the applicants could receive the aid. The Dean adds: “The number of appointments is still very insufficient to meet the demands of promising students who wish to enter the graduate school and are unable to do so without assistance.” * The tables published by him indicate that a considerable number of those not aided with- drew from science; and that many others who were entered for the first year in the graduate school, would, if not aided, afterwards leave. It is gratifying to observe the further fact, so encouraging also for the young graduates who wish, if possible, to enter upon a scientific career, that all who had enjoyed these fellowships for the full term of three years, and did not continue their studies further abroad, at once received honorable positions. From the above synopsis it appears that in all these colleges (and I know of no other similar fellowships elsewhere) there are only about twenty-six adequately endowed post-graduate fellowships in science. As these should be continued for at least three years, there is provision altogether for only about nine per year—not one-fourth the number required to supply the annual loss in our 150 colleges, to say nothing of the increasing demand through the growth and improvements in the colleges themselves. As it is from such specially trained students that the great professors of the future must be drawn, the need of much greater endowments for new recruits is apparent. In England the aids afforded by fellowships in their universities are familiar to all. Sir Isaac Newton, who is to modern science, what Shakespeare 1s in literature, was sustained from his student days sue- * Report Harvard Col., 1891, p. 92. ENDOWMENT FOR SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH. 31 vessively in a scholarship, a fellowship, and as professor at Trinity College at Cambridge. Besides those aids, The Royal Commissioners of the Exhibition of 1851 instituted last year (1891) ‘Exhibition science scholarships” for advanced students, to which $25,000 yearly is to be applied in sums of $750 each. Last year sixteen appointments were made, to be held for two and probably for three years by students who show capacity, and ** who advance science by experimental work.”* Ox this subject a most interesting discussion took place last year in the French Academy of Science. On April 27, 1891, the Secretary read the following extract from the will of the late M. Cahours, a de- ceased member of the Academy : *“T have frequently had the opportunity of observing, in the course of my scientific career, that many young men distinguished and en- dowed with real talent for science found themselves obliged to aban- don it, because before beginning they had no effieacions help which provided them with the first necessities of life, and allowed them to devote themselves exclusively to scientific studies. “With the object of encouraging such young workers, who for want of sufficient resources find themselves powerless to finish works in course of execution, - - - I bequeath to the Academy of Sciences - - - 100,000 frances, - - - the interest to be distributed yearly by way of encouragement to any young men who have made them- selves known by some interesting works, and more particularly by chemical researches; - - - as far as possible to young men with- out fortune, not having salaried offices, and who, from want of a suffi- cient situation, would find themselves without the possibility of follow- ing up their researches. These pecuniary encouragements ought to be given for several years to the same young men, if the Commissioner thinks their productions have sufficient value; - - - to cease when they shall have other sufficiently remunerative positions.” M. Janssen, then addressing the Academy, said: “This affords an example to all who hereafter may desire to encour- age the sciences by their liberality. M.Cahours, who knew the urgent necessities of science, had, like most of us, become convinced of the need of introducing a new form of scientific recompenses. “Our prizes will always continue to meet a great and noble necessity. Their value, the difficulty of obtaining them, and the eclat they take from the illustriousness of the body that grants them, will always make them the highest and most valuable of recompenses. But the value also of the works it is necessary to produce in order to lay claim to them, forbids them to beginners. It is a field only accessible to ma- tured talents. But there are many young men endowed with precious aptitudes, inclined to pure science, but turned very often from this envied career by the difficulties of existence, and taking with regret a direction towards more immediate results. And yet many among “Per Sir William Thompson, Proceedings, Royal Society, 1891, vol. L, p. 225. 632 ENDOWMENT FOR SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH. them possess talents, which, if well cultivated, might do honor and good to science. - - - These difficulties are increased every day by the marked advance of the exigencies of life. ‘We must find a prompt remedy for this state of things, if we do not wish to see an end of the recruitment of science. This truth is begin- ning to be generally felt. The Government has already created insti- tutions, scholarships, and encouragements, which partly meet the neces- sity. Some generous donors are also working in this manner. I will mention specially the noble foundation of Mlle. Dosne, in accordance with whose instructions a hall is at this moment being built, where young men, having shown distinguished aptitudes for high administra- tion, for the bar, or for history, will receive for three years all the means of carrying on high and peaceful studies. Let us say then plainly (and in speaking thus we only feebly echo the words of the most illustrious members of the Academy), that it is by following the way so nobly opened by Cahours, that the interests and prospects of science will be most efficaciously served.”* Huxley is said to have once stated that ‘‘any country would find it to its interest to spend $100,000 in first finding a Faraday, and then putting him in a position where he could do the greatest amount of work.” It is the post-graduate endowments that must first find and retain to science the Faradays of the future. A notable instance of the need and value of such aid is found in the recently appointed head of a great university, who by such endowments alone, here and abroad, itis said, was enabled to prosecute his studies for ten years successively, reaching thereby the front rank in his chosen department of philosophy. EET: Another department in great need of pecuniary support is that of the learned and scientific societies. In these England is pre-eminent. Our own societies have endeavored to follow, so far as they could, their English models. The English societies have rendered to science inval- uable service in three main lines: 1. In providing ample means for the publication of scientific papers, showing the progress and the results of their scientific work. In this every society has taken part. 2. In the direct maintenance of original research, in which the Royal Institution has been most conspicuous. 3. In the award of prizes for scientific distinction; but still more important, in the distribution of pecuniary aid, for the prosecution of special scientific researches. (1) Of these, I regard publication as, perhaps, the most important; not only because it puts the world in possession of what has been done by investigators; but because the very fact that there are means of * Nature, May 7, 1891; vol. xf1v, p. 17. ENDOWMENT FOR SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH. 633 publication, is one of the greatest incitements to complete and thorough original scientific work. Of the English societies the Royal Society is the oldest, having been chartered in 1662. It has published 181 volumes of Transactions and about 50 volumes of Proceedings. For these purposes, in 1881 the expenditure was between $11,000 and $12,000, It has property to the value of about two-thirds of a million of dollars, more than half of which is in trust funds, held for scientific uses. The income on the trust funds in 1891 was about $17,500.* In 1828 Dr. Wollaston in giving it $10,000 in 3 per cent. consols ‘‘to promote scientific researches,” charged upon the society “not to hoard the income parsimoniously, but to expend it liberally for the objeets named.” The Royal Institution of Great Britain was founded in 1779, largely through our countryman James Thompson, of Rumford, Vt., afterwards Count Rumford. In 1888 it had property and invested funds for general purposes to the amount of $350,000, and about $40,000 of invested funds for the maintenance of its three professors. In 1887 it expended about $2,000 in publications, and it has issued about 40 volumes.t The Linnean Society, now furnished by the Government with per- manentaccommodations in Burlington House, free of rent, was founded by Sir James EK. Smith in 1788, and is devoted to botany and zoodlogy. Its property amounts to about $52,000, but it has no endowed funds for scientific investigation. For some years past its receipts, mainly from contributions, have been about $16,000 a year, of which one-half, about $5,000, is spent on its publications, which now number nearly 50 volumes of Transactions in quarto, and as many more of its Journal. In 1888 $7,000 were expended in publication.¢ Next in order of time is the British Association for the Advancement of Science, founded in 1831. It is sustained chiefly by yearly contribu- tions. Its invested funds amount to about $62,000. Its income and contributions are about $10,000 annually, out of which it appropriates from $6,000 to $7,000 per annum for the encouragement of scientific investigations, and about $1,800 annually for its yearly volume of pro- ceedings. Its publications now number twenty-five volumes.§ The Ray Society was founded in 1844, It was named after the Rey. John Ray, who lived from 1628 until 1705, Haller, himself one of the greatest scientists of his time, writing in 1771, in the full light of Lin- neus’ fame, calls Ray “the greatest botanist within the memory of man.” || The society has published about fifty volumes of scientific works of the highest importance. I have not seen any statistics concerning its means or acquisitions; nor have I found any financial report of the scientific societies of Edinburgh or Dublin. * Proceedings, 1891, vol. L, p. 235. t Report, 1888, p. 13. } Proceedings [May 4, 1888], 1890, pp. 15, 45. § Report, 1891, pp. Ixxxvii toc. 76. | Bibliotheca Botanica. 634 ENDOWMENT FOR SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH. (2) Of these societies, only the Royal Institution directly supports professors for scientific research. It has two laboratories, one chemical and one physical. These were re-built in 1872, “in order that original discovery might be more effectively carried on.” The society was founded for the declared purpose of “promoting scientific and literary research.” It has three professors,—one in chemistry, one in physics, and one in physiology. Davy, Faraday, Tyndall, and others who have spent their lives there, have made its annals immortal. (3) In stimulating research by the appropriation of moneys for spe- cific objects, the Royal Society and the British Association are the chief agencies. Besides some of its own funds, the Royal Society distributes annually £4,000, or $20,000, granted by the Government ‘for the ad- vancement of science.” This has been done by applying it to numerous purposes; in 1891, for fifty-seven different scientific objects, in sums ranging from $25 to $3,000 each; not confined to natural science alone, but including ethnology and magnetic surveys. Most of the grants were in sums of about $350 or less.* The British Association has disbursed annually for the last forty years from $6,000 to $7,000 per annum, upon the same system of dividing it up for numerous specific purposes; usually from thirty to forty objects yearly, the grants being in sums ranging from $25 to $1,000. The grants are called for and expended for the specific purpose named, and under the direction of some prominent scientific man. Scientists like Sir William Thompson, and others of like renown, have had the administration of many of these grants. These have included for the last six years (save in 1890), the appropriation of $500 per year for a table in the Naples Marine Laboratory.t We have no single society in this country, save the Smithsonian, that can rival inimportance those that I have named in England. And the Smithsonian is not a society, but an institution, established by one man, and hean Englishman. This Institution, based upon the bequest of James Smithson, was founded by act of Congress of August 10, 1846. I doubt whether in any country or in any age the bequest of half a million of dollars has ever been followed by such beneficent results, or has ever so profoundly effected the life of science in any country, as the Smithsonian Institution has done in America during the last forty- four years of its existence. This has been owing (1) to the wisdom and the profound scientific insight of Prof. Henry, its first secretary and director; and (2) to the corps of able assistants and successors whom his spirit and policy have inspired. Its publications number 26 quarto volumes of Contributions to Knowledge, 40 volumes of Miscellaneous Collections, and 44 volumes of Annual Reports. Its Contributions to Knowledge rival, if they do not excel, in rarity and importance, the publications of any other society during the same period. Its expendi- * Proceedings, 1891, vol. L, p. 242. + Report, 1890, p. 90. ENDOWMENT FOR SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH. 635 ture in publications is about $12,500 a year. Under Prof. Henry a good deal was done in research. Under Prof. Langley, the present director, astro-physieal research is carried on. Besides the direct scientific work of the Institution, however, its influence has been very great, especially in its relations with the other departments at Wash- ington, and as a medium for the prosecution of other scientific enter- prises, under authority of Congress. Many of the appropriations of Congress for scientific expeditions for researches in ethnology, palweont- ology, chemistry, and physics have been due to the presence and co-op- eration of the Smithsonian Institution. For ethnologic researches alone, during the last twelve years, under the administration of the Smithsonian, Congress haS appropriated $400,000; to palontologice researches within the last three years, $160,000; to chemical and phys- ical research, $68,000; and to astro-physical research, $10,000. Be- sides these, there have been for many years appropriations for main- taining the important investigations of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, and of the Weather Bureau in Meteorology; and for the great scien- tific work of the Naval Observatory, and of the various scientifie divis- ions of the Agricultural Department and of the Geological Survey. Our Government has been by no means inactive In science. The principal American scientific associations, omitting those of comparatively recent origin, are the American Philosophical Society of Philadelphia, originally founded in 1744; the American Academy of Arts and Sciences at Boston; the Boston Society of Natural History; the Academy of Natural Sciences, and the Franklin Institute, at Phil. adelphia; the latter founded in 1824 (see Journal, vol. t, pp. 71, 129); the New York Academy of Sciences (a continuation of the Lyceum of Natural History); the National Academy of Science at Washington, founded in 1865; and the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Of these, the Philosophical Society has published 29 vyol- umes of its Transactions; the American Academy, 26 volumes of Transactions and 9 quarto volumes of Memoirs; the Boston Society of Natural History, 25 volumes, at a cost of about $600 per year; the Academy of Natural Science of Philadelphia, 48 volumes of Proceed- ings and 12 quarto volumes of its Journal, at an average cost of about $1,000 per year; the Franklin Institute, 155 volumes of its Journal; the New York Academy and its predecessor, about 50 volumes of Transactions and Annals; the National Academy, 3 quarto volumes of Memoirs and some volumes of Proceedings; and the American Associ- ation for the Advancement of Science, about 40 volumes of Proceed: ings. The latter society had in 1891 a ‘‘ Research Fund” of $5,254. (Pro- ceedings 1891, p. 441.) None of the other societies, so far as I can find, has any fund specially devoted to research, or makes any specific appropriations therefor. The National Academy and the Academy of Philadelphia have each some funds for their support, and the latter also 636 ENDOWMENT FOR SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH. the Jessup Fund for students in science, on which the income is about $550 yearly. The Philosophical Society from time to time awards the prize established by John Hyacinth de Magellan in 1786, an oval gold plate, “‘for the most useful discovery or invention in navigation or science.” One of the earliest awards of this prize was for painting lightning rods with black lead. The American Academy of Arts and Sciences awards a gold and silver medal from a bequest of $5,000, made to it by Count Rumford, who in 1796 made a similar bequest to the Royal Society. In 1888 this prize was most worthily awarded to Prof. Michelson for his researches in light.* The Boston Society of Natural History has a general fund, of which the income is about $6,000. It has also a small Walker prize fund and a grand prize fund, from which in 1854 it awarded a grand prize of $1,000 to James Hall, of Albany, ‘‘for his distinguished services to science.” It also administers the expenditure of about 82,700 a year for instruction in laboratory work, drawn from the Boston University, and $1,500 from the Lowell fund for the instruction of teachers.t From this comparison of the voluntary associations, it appears that the property, endowed funds, and equipment of the English societies named are nearly tenfold greater than the American, and their publi- cations double; while for direct original research, our societies main- tain no laboratories and no professors, as is done by the Royal Institu- tion. The English societies distribute yearly from $25,000 to $30,000 for from sixty to seventy-five different scientific ptirposes, while ours make no suchsappropriations, simply because they have no funds. To supply this deficiency there is need of large endowments. The publications of our societies are valuable; the papers have often been of a high character, rivaling those published abroad. But the funds available for publication are insufficient; it is always a question of means. There are a press and surplus of valuable scientific matter, which either is not printed at all, or only gets printed by special sub- scriptions for the purpose. This ought not to be. After valuable original matter has been produced with great pains and without hope of pecuniary reward, nothing is more discouraging to future research than thac even publication can only be had as acharity. This I know, from repeated personal applications, is the condition of things in New York at this moment. It is not creditable that in a State and country like ours there should be practically nowhere adequate provision for even the publication of the researches of those who work for nothing but their love of science and its progress. There is very great need of a considerable publication fund, in the hands of some scientific body, through which every valuable contribution to science, not otherwise proved i for, might be ensured a every pubheaiiens after it has been sore Wareeine ee Pr ee mar SXLY,. Pp: 380. t Proceedings, vol. Xx1v, p. 14. ENDOWMENT FOR SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH. 637 found worthy, as in the practice of the Linnwan Society, first by a critical expert in the particular department, and then by the council of publication.* The stimulus moreover to scientific research that would be imparted by the distribution of comparatively small sums, such as are given by the Royal Society and by the British Association, would also be very great; nor is there any reason why the founding of professorships for the express purpose of prosecuting original research in our scientific societies, after the model of the Royal Institution, should not in time be followed by results equally brilliant, and equally beneficial to man- kind. I have endeavored to point out three main directions in which there is urgent need in this country of pecuniary endowments, (1) In relief of professors during the transition of the colleges from the school-master system to the university system, whereby all profess- ors inscience shall become actively enlisted in the prosecution of original discovery as a part of their duties. (2) In providing for the future recruits in science, by more endow- ments for post-graduate study. (3) By endowments of our scientific associations, both directly to promote original research, and especially also to supply larger means of publication. It is gratifying to perceive what beginnings have been recently made in response to the needs of science. Only a short time since, in 1885, Mrs. Elizabeth Thompson, of Stamford, Conn., gave $25,000 to a board of trustees of which Dr. Bowditch, of Boston, is president, for the “advancement of scientific research in its broadest sense.” The in- come is annually distributed in sums of from two hundred to five hun- dred dollars. Mr. Hodgkins, of Setauket, Long Island, has recently bequeathed to the Smithsonian Institution $200,000, the income of one-half of which is to be devoted to research into the properties of atmospherie air. Columbia College has, during the past year, received from Mr. De Costa’s estate, before referred to, $100,000 for biology; Harvard, the Joseph Lovering fund, above stated; $10,000 from Henry Draper for the photography of stellar spectra; the endowments in archeology, above named; and some smaller gifts for various scientific purposes, The University of Chicago and some other institutions have also received important gifts, not to mention those yet to be realized to other colleges from the estate of Mr. Fairweather. By a recent bequest of Charles Lenning, the Academy of Sciences of Philadelphia will, in time, receive $20,000; while half a million of dol- lars will go to the University of Pensylvania in aid of instruction in theoretical and practical mechanics, and $200,000 to maintain scholar- ships. At this University, also, a superb structure for the ‘ Wistar “President Carruthers, Proceedings, Lin, Soc., May, 1890, p. 39. 638 ENDOWMENT FOR SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH. Institute of Anatomy” is now building “by Gen. Isaac J. Wistar, ata cost of about $200,000, including endowments designed for original re- search.* Our reliance in this country must be mainly upon private endowments and an intelligent appreciation of the needs of science. The national Government has done, and is doing, much in certain directions. But aside from the dispositions of legislators, it is restricted by the provi- sions of the Federal Constitution, and by debated questions of constitu- tional right. State aid is not thus hampered; but State aid is difficult to obtain, to any adequate degree, on account of the previous habits, prejudices, and political training of the people. No doubt this ought not so to be. The State of New York ought, abstractly considered, to maintain one university of the first class equal in every department to any in the world. But the multiplication of institutions already exist- ing, local jealousies, and aversion to State taxation, make this now probably impracticable. The remedy is with the people, and through their own voluntary methods. It is the people who have made our Government, its insti- tutions, its methods, and the great aggregate, whatsoever it is, such as we see it to-day. Wealth is rapidly accumulating; much of it in the hands of those who, springing from the people, bear the love of the community in their hearts; and when they and the people at large shall come to see that the cause of scientific advance and the discovery of all new truth are in the deepest sense their cause, responses will, I be- lieve, come to every urgent need; until the work of the people, by its own methods, shall, even in science, be able to confront, without shame, the best work of the inonarchies of the Old World. “Since the above was written an additional million of dollars has been given by Mr. John D. Rockefeller to the University of Chicago, making $3,600,000 given by him alone to that institution within less than three years, a munificence hitherto unexampled in private endowments, some portions of which, it is hoped, will be available for the maintenance of original scientific research. —* THE INVENTORS OF THE TELEGRAPH AND TELEPHONE.* By Prof. THoMAS GRAY, F. R.S. E. The word telegraph was introduced about one hundred years ago as a name for a means of conveying intelligence to a distance by means of signs. The signs were produced in a variety of ways, as, for example, by the shapes or positions of bodies placed on high poles, or by letters or words of sufficient magnitude similarly exposed. The meaning of the word telegraph, interpreted by its original use, would thus be to write or make signs at one place in such a way that they could be read or interpreted at a distant place. It appears, therefore, that so long as we confine our attention to early methods of telegraphing, the signs or signals were made at the sending station and read from the receiv- ing station. Modern usage gives a slightly different meaning to the word, namely, a means of producing visible, audible or written signs at a distance. That is to say, the signs are to be produced at the re- ceiving station. This was first accomplished on an extensive scale and at great distances by means of electricity. Methods of transmitting sounds, or even speech, to moderate distances by means of tubes and by means of what we now call string or mechanical telephones have however been known for several centuries. Methods of conveying intelligence to a distance have been known and used from very early times. Fires seem to have been the earliest means employed for giving signals, and we find such signs referred to in the writings of the Prophet Jeremiah, of Eschylus, of Polybius, and others. Schottus, in his Technica Curiosa, proposes the application of the telescope to view posts erected on an eminence at a distant station, and on which signs were to be placed. The Marquis of Worcester, in his Century of Inventions, enumerates a day and anight telegraph; and Kessler, in his Concealed Arts, proposes to eut out letters in boards and make them visible at a distance by placing them over the end of a cask in which a light is burning; the letters or other characters being ex- posed in proper succession any message can be transmitted. One of the earliest telegraphs of which we have now a direct repre- sentative was the flag signals introduced about the middle of the sev- * An address on the occasion of the Centennial celebration of the organization of the United States Patent Office, deliveredin Washington. (Proceedings and Addresses, 1891, pp. 175-198.) 639 640 THE INVENTORS OF THE TELEGRAPH AND TELEPHONE. enteenth century by the Duke of York (afterward James I1,of England), who was at that time admiral of the English fleet. This was the beginning of the flag telegraph still used for communicating between ships at sea, originally introduced for the purpose of directing the manceuvers of the fleet. In 1684, Dr. Robert Hook communicated to the Royal Society of London a proposal for a telegraph. In this method the signs were to consist of bodies of different shapes placed on high poles in an exposed position. Some years afterwards a similar method was proposed to the Academy of Sciences by M. Amontons, a French natural philosopher. In 1767 Mr. Rh. L. Edgeworth proposed to telegraph by means of the arms of a wind-mill, the positions of the arms of the mill to be used to indicate the signals. In 1784, the same author proposes to make the signals indicate numbers, and to interpret by means of vocabularies of numbered words. In 1794, the semaphore telegraph of M. Chappe was adopted by the French Government. This telegraph consisted of a high post and two bars of timber, the middle one pivoted to one end of the other, and the free end of this second bar pivoted to the top of the post, so that the whole of the motions could take place in a vertical plane. The positions, relative to the vertical or horizontal, of the two arms indicated the signal. These and other modifications of the semaphore have been at various times used, and are still used on railways for train signals. The chief interest of these early telegraphs—a great many forms of which might be enumerated—is in illustrating the fact that some means of conveying intelligence to a distance quickly and without a messen- ger has, from the earliest times, been recognized as of great importance. It is well also to keep before us the things that have been done in earlier times when we attempt to judge of the advances which have been made by modern invention. The telegraph of to-day is almost entirely electrical, and in its pres- ent form it is of comparatively recent growth. It may be well, how- ever, in this branch also to glance briefly at the early history of the subject. To begin with what we may call the fable period, we find in the year 1617 an allusion in one of Strada’s Prolusiones Academice to the belief that there existed a sympathy between needles which had been touched by a species of loadstone, which caused them always to set parallel to each other if they were free to take up such positions. Two such needles, it was said, could be used to convey intelligence to any distance, because if they were pivoted on cards marked with let- ters or words and the card properly placed, so that corresponding letters occupied similar positions, when one needle was made to point to any letter or mark the other needle would immediately point to the corresponding mark on its card. The same belief is referred to by Galileo in one of his dialogues in 1632, and again by the Abbe Barthelemy in a work entitled “Voyage du Jeune Anarcharsis,” pub-- lished in 1788. So far this may be said to be mere fable, but it THE INVENTORS OF THE TELEGRAPH AND TELEPHONE. 641 gives an idea what were then looke i upon as possibilities in magnet- ism, and we can hardly help comparing with these ideas some almost equally extraordinary ones which are occasionally expressed at the present day with respect to electricity. The discovery of Stephen Gray, in 1729, that the electrical influence could be conveyed to a distance by means of an insulated wire, is prob- ably the first of direct influence in connection with telegraphy. As aresult of this discovery, and the investigations which followed it, we find a considerable number of proposals to use electrical forces for the transmission of intelligence. The first of these of which there is any record was made by Charles Morrison, of Renfrew Scotland, in a let- ter to The Scots’ Magazine, Edinburgh, for February 17, 1755, and signed **C. M.”* As many insulated wires as there were characters to be signaled were to be erected between the two stations. At the re- ceiving station the ends of the different wires were to be connected toa series of balls, underneath which the characters, printed on light preces of paper, were to be placed. If any one of the wires became electri- fied by the distant end being put in contact with the source of clectric- ity, the character under the ball on the end of if would be attracted and thus indicate the signal. An interesting modification was sug- gested in the same letter, namely, to replace the balls by a series of bells of different pitch, arranged in such a way that when the wires became electrified they would discharge into the bells and cause them tosound: - - - ‘the electric spark, breaking on bells of different size, will inform his correspondent by the sound what wires have been touched; and thus, by some practice they may come to understand the language of the chimes in whole words without being put to the trouble of noting down every letter.” A similar telegraph was invented in 1767 by Joseph Bozolus, a Jesuit and a lecturer on natural philosophy in Rome. (See a Latin poem, entitled “Mariani Parthenii Kleetrocorum,” in Vi Libros, Roma, 1767, p. 34.) In 1774, a telegraph on the same prin- ciple was established by Le Sage. In this system each wire termi- nated in a pith-ball electroscope, and the signals were read in accord- ance with the indications of these eleetroscopes, of which twenty-four were used. This telegraph was improved upon by Lomond in 1737, one wire only being used, and a code of signals forming the means of interpretation. A similar proposal was made by Betancourt in the same year and again by Cavallo in 1795. The latter proposed to use combinations of sparks as a code of signals. In 1794, Reizen proposed to cut letters out of tin foil, leaving a series of short interruptions of the tin foil at short distances apart, so that a discharge of electricity around the tin foil would illuminate the letter by a series of sparks. This method of producing illuminated patterns is still a comraon Class- room expernnent in physical lectures. The next to propose the use ot “The question of the identity of “ C. M.” is disenssed in ‘A History of Electric Telegraphy,” by J. J. Faure (London, 1884), pp. 68-77. H. Mis. 114 +1 642 THE INVENTORS OF THE TELEGRAPH AND TELEPHONE. static electricity for telegraphic purposes seems to have been Ronalds, of Hammersmith, in 1816. In this telegraph the letters were printed on a disk which was mounted on the seconds arbor of a clock, One of the clocks was placed at the sending and the receiving stations, and arranged to bring corresponding letters simultaneously opposite a small window in the dial of the clock. When the proper letter was exposed a signal was sent by means of a pith-ball telegraph. This telegraph was more complicated than several which have been mentioned above, and required two clocks going synchronously. In the year 1767 an important observation was made by Sulzer. He found that when two plates of different metals were placed one above and the other below the tongue, a peculiar sensation and taste were felt when the metals touched each other outside the tongue. Sulzer failed to find the explanation of this phenomenon, and no further advance was made until the well-known frog experiments of Galvani gave fresh impetus to the subject. The discoveries of Volta and the invention of the voltaic pile shortly followed. In the same year (1800) an attempt to close the circuit of a voltaic battery by means of a drop of water led Nicholson and Carlisle to the discovery that water is decomposed by the galvani¢ current. This gave rise to the galvanic or electrolysis telegraphs of Sommer- ing. Coxe, and Sharpe, and is the basis of all the chemical printing and copying telegraphs which have in more recent times been produced. Sémmerine’s telegraph was invented in 1809, and was similar in prinei- ple to that of Morrison, except that the decomposition of water and consequent accumulation of gas in a series of tubes gave the necessary indications. To call attention, it was proposed in connection with the telegraph to liberate an alarm by means of an accumulation of gas. Prof. Coxe, of Pennsylvania, described a similar telegraph in 1810, and proposed to use either the decomposition of water or of metallic salts. Mr. J. R. Sharpe proposed a voltaic telegraph in 1813, and exhibited it before the Lords of the Admiralty, ** who spoke approv- ingly of it, but added, that as war was over and money scarce, they could not carry it into effect. (See Repertory of Arts, Second Series, VOI XML 0.20") Perhaps the most important electrical discovery in its influence on telegraphy was made by Romagneési, of Trente, in 1805, but received little attention and no development until it was re-discovered by Oersted in 1819.) This was the discovery that a wire conveying an electric current is capable of deflecting a magnetic needle. In the Nowing year Schweigger discovered that the deflecting force was increased when he wound the wire several times round the needle. These two discoveries formed the foundation for the construction of the galvanoscopes and galyanometers since so much used in connection with electrical appliances and measurements, One of the most exten- sive applications has been to telegraphy, THE INVENTORS OF THE TELEGRAPH AND TELEPHONE. 643 Galvanoscopic, or, as they have been more commonly called, needle telegraphs resulted very shortly from these discoveries. In this field of invention we find, prominent among the early workers, the distin- guished nanies of Ampere, Gauss, and Weber. Ampere proposed a multiple wire telegraph with galvanoscope indicators in 1820. A modi- fication of Ampere’s telegraph was carried out by Ritchie, and after- wards exhibited in Edinburgh by Alexander. In this telegraph thirty wires were used, twenty-six for the letters of the alphabet, three for signs of punctuation, and one for the end of a word. The galvanoscope needles each carried a small screen which in its normal position cov- ered the letter, but which, on the passage of a current through the wire, was drawn aside, exposing the letter to view. The transmitting keys were arranged like the keys of a piano-forte. With the execep- tion of the use of galvanic instead of static electricity this telegraph was not much in advance of the proposal of Morrison. A single cir- cuit telegraph was invented in the year 1828 by Tribaoillet, who also used a galvanoscope as the indicator. In 1852, a five-needle telegraph was invented by Schilling, who also used a single needle and single circuit telegraph, using reverse cur- rents and combinations of signals for an alphabet. Models of this telegraph were made and exhibited betore the Emperor Alexander and others, but Schilling unfortunately died before any practical result was attained. In 1833, Schilling’s telegraph was developed to some extent by Gauss and Weber, who used it for experimental purposes, The chief modification introduced by these experimenters was the sub- stitution of induced currents, produced by the motion of a coil of wire surrounding a bar magnet, for the galvanic currents used by Schilling. The following translation of a part of a report of the magnetic observa- tions of these physicists given in Poggandorf’s Annalen, XXXII, p. 568, is quoted from Sabine’s Hlectric Telegraph: ‘ There is, in connec- tion with these arrangements, a great and until now in its way novel project, for which we are indebted to Prof. Weber. This gentleman erected during the past year a double-wire line over the houses of the town (Gottingen) from the Physical Cabinet to the Observatory, and lately a continuation from the latter building to the Magnetic Observa- tory; thus an immense galvanic chain (line) is formed, in which the galvanic current, the two multipliers at the ends being ineluded, has to travel a distance of nearly 9,000 (Prussian) feet. The line wire is mostly of copper, of that known in commerce as + No. 3,’ of whieh one meter weighs eight grams; the wire of the multipliers in the Mag- netic Observatory of copper, + No. 14, silvered, and of which one gram measures 2.6 meters. This arrangement promises to offer opportunities for a number of interesting experiments. We regard, not without admiration, how a single pair of plates, brought into contact at the further end, instantaneously communicates a movement to the magnetic bar, which is deflected at once for over a thousand divisions of the 644 THE INVENTORS OF THE TELEGRAPH AND TELEPHONE. scale.” And further on in the same report: ‘The ease and certainty with which the manipulator has the direction of the current, and there- fore the movement of the magnetic needle, in his command, by means of the communicator, had a year ago suggested experiments of an application to telegraphic signaling, which, with whole words and even short sentences, completely succeeded. There is no doubt that it would be possible to arrange an uninterrupted telegraph communication in the same way between two places at a considerable number of miles distance from each other.” The method of producing the currents in Gauss and Weber’s exper- iments was an application of the important discoveries of Faraday and Henry in the induction of currents by currents and by magnets, which have since borne so very important fruit in the field of dynamo- electric machinery. On the recommendation of Gauss this telegraph was taken up by Steinheil, who, following their example, also used induced currents. The important contributions of Steinheil were the discovery of the earth circuit, made while attempting to use the rails of a railway as telegraphic conductors; the invention of a telegraphic alphabet and a recording telegraph. Of these the discovery of the earth circuit, made in 1837, has proved of great value. An interesting deseription of Steinheil’s telegraph, together with illustrations of the magneto-electric and recording apparatus used on the line erected in 1837, between Munich and Bogenhausen, will be found in Sturgeon’s Annals of Electricity (vol. 111). This account, written. by Steinheil himself, shows that he had at that time an excellent appreciation both of the mechanical and electrical properties which a good practical electric telegraph should have, and also that he was well versed in the knowl- edge then existing of electrical science. The relative merits of scopic, acoustic, and recording telegraphs are discussed, and the advantages, which experience has since brought into prominence, of the acoustic telegraph is pointed out. A very good discussion of the most econom- ical method of arranging signals for a telegraphic alphabet will also be found in this paper. Schilling’s telegraph, which we have just seen, was the model on which Gauss and Weber’s, and, therefore, also Steinheil’s telegraphs were based, was, as we shall see presently, also the basis of Cooke’s, and of Cooke and Wheatstone’s needle telegraphs. Previous to the date which we have now reached (1837), another epoch-making discovery had been made, which has had great influ- ence on telegraphy. This was the discovery of the magnetizing influence of the current. The discovery of Oersted was followed by Ampere ina long series of researches, in which, among other thing's, he established the mutual attractions and repwlsions of wires carrying currents, the fact that the voltaic element itself acts on a magnet like any other part of the circuit, and that a spiral of wire forming part THE INVENTORS OF THE TELEGRAPH AND TELEPHONE. 645 of a cireuit, would magnetize steel needles, In the same year M, Arago found that a wire conveying an electric current attracted iron filings, and in 1824, the law of the variation of magnetic force with varying distance from the wire was investigated by Barlow. In 1825, Sturgeon found that a bar of soft iron was rendered temporarily mag- netic if surrounded by a helix of wire through which an electric cur- rent was passing. In the year 1827, Ohm propounded his celebrated law of the conduction of currents. In 1831, Faraday in England, and Henry in America, discovered the induction of currents by currents and by magnets. We see from these leading facts that in the twelve years succeeding Oersted’s discovery the knowledge of electricity and of magnetism in the directions important for telegraphic application Was very great, and we shall see that it quickly bore fruit. Schilling’s telegraph was exhibited at a meeting of German natu- ralists held at Bonn in 1835, and was there seen by Prof. Muncke, of Heidelberg, who, after his return to Heidelberg, made models of the telegraph and exhibited them in his class room. These models were seen by Cooke in the early part of 1836, and gave him the idea of introducing the electric telegraph in England. Cooke immediately set to work to construct a telegraph on a similar plan, and worked out a three-needle system of signals, which has been to some extent con- founded with the five-needle telegraph afterwards patented and introduced by him im conjunetion with Wheatstone. While arrang- ing for experiments on the London and Manchester Railway, Cooke was introduced to Wheatstone, and afterward consulted him as to difficulties he had met with in his experiments. A partnership soon followed, which led Wheatstone to devote considerable attention to the subject. The result has been the production of a considerable variety of telegraphie apparatus of great value and ingenuity. Steinheil was anticipated in the idea of making the electric tele- eraph self-recording by Morse, of New York, who, according to a con- siderable amount of evidence brought forward by Morse himself, thought out some arrangement as early as 1832. Exactly what Morse’s first ideas were seems Somewhat doubtful, and he did nothing till 1835, when he made a rough model of an electro-magnetic recording tele- eraph. This telegraph consisted essentially of a pendulum, which carried a marking pencil on its lower end, and which could be deflected by an electro-magnet. ‘The deflections of the pendulum were recorded on a band of paper, which was moved forward by clockwork under the pendulum, and simple combinations of deflections were to repre- sent numbers. The interpretation of the message was to be made by means of a telegraphic dictionary, in which the words, phrases or sen- tences were to be numbered. There was no hint at this time of the alphabet with which we are now so familiar as the ‘‘ Morse Code” or the “Morse Alphabet.” This alphabet now almost universally used and which has probably done more than anything else toward perpet- 646 THE INVENTORS OF THE TELEGRAPH AND TELEPHONE. uating the name of Morse, being that which perpetuates the name ‘« Morse System,” was not invented by Morse but by Vail, who was associated with him in the development of the telegraph.* The dic- tionary of numbered words proposed by Morse was proposed by Edgeworth in 1794, in connection with his semaphore telegraph. The model made in 1835 shows little mechanical ingenuity. The method of transmitting the signals, which was by means of type moved thiough a contact-making device, was somewhat crude and much less convenient than the simple make-and-break circuit devices of several previous workers; and the electro-magnet used to deflect the pendu- lum showed almost complete ignorance of the principles then known of electro-magnetism. The chief points of interest in connection with the early history of the Morse telegraph le in the proposal to use electro-magnetism as the motive force to move the recording pendulum and the idea of making the telegraph self-recording. Morse made positive claims to have been the first to do both of these, and it seems proper that his claim should be examined. After the discovery of Sturgeon in electro-magnetism became known among scientific men the subject was taken up by Prot. Henry, who was then teaching physics in Albany Academy. An account of part of Henry’s experiments was published in Silliman’s American Journal of Science, tor January, April, and July, 1831. The tollowing, among other things, were subjects of investigation in these experiments: The laws which govern the magnetizing effect of a helix under varying conditions as to number of turns in the helix, na- ture or arrangement of the battery, and length of the external circuit; the carrying power of magnets having different kinds of winding and different lengths of wire in the coils; the construetion of an eleetro- magnetic engine. The transmission of power to a distance by means of his electro-magnetic engine. Among the applications were the clos- ing of a distant electric circuit by means of the armature of an electric magnet, the coils of which were included in another circuit passing through an operating or transmitting station, and the transmission of signals to a distance by causing the armature of an electro-magnet to strike a bell each time a enrrent was sent through the coils of the mag- net from the transmitting station. The latter of these applications was illustrated by means of a model apparatus included in a long cireuit of wire taken several times round one of the rooms in Albany Academy. The following claims made in this connection by Professor Henry are well founded, and deserve quotation: (1) Previous to my investigations the means of developing magnet- ism in soft iron were imperfectly understood, and the electric magnet which then existed was inapplicable to the transmission of power to a distance. (2) 1 was the first to prove, by actual experiment, that in order to *See Smithsonian Report for 1878, p. 341-344. _ THE INVENTORS OF THE TELEGRAPH AND TELEPHONE. 64°7 develop magnetic power at a distance a galvanic battery of ‘intensity” must be employed to project the current through the long conductor, and that a magnet surrounded by many turns of one long wire must be used to receive this current. *(3) Twas the first to actually magnetize a piece of softiron at a dis- tance, and to call attention to the fact of the applicability of my exper. iments to the telegraph. “(4) LT was the first to actually sound a bell at a distance by means of the electro-magnet. (5) The principles I had developed were applied by Dr. Gale to ret- der Morse’s machine effective at a distance.” It is to Henry, undoubtedly, that is due the credit not only of first pointing out the application of electro-magnetism to telegraphy, but also of supplying the requisite knowledge of how to make magnets suit- able for the transmission of signals through long distances, whieh ren- dered the practical application possible at that time. Besides this, we see that Henry actually constructed an experimental line and made the first electro-magnetic sounder, which consisted of a receiving magnet with a polarized armature, one end of which was attracted by a mag- net and the other end to sound a bell. Again, in the method of closing one circuit by means of a magnet in another circuit, we have the elec- tro-magnetic relay, afterwards re-invented by Morse and others, and now very widely used on long telegraph circuits both for closing ‘local circuits” and for * translation.” The eredit of inventing the electro-magnetic telegraph was claimed by, and has usually been, popularly at least, given to Morse. There has been some dispute as to who first suggested the electro-magnetic tele- graph, the idea of it having arisen out of a conversation among the pas- sengers on board the ship Sul/y during a passage from France to New York in 1852. Dr. Jackson, of Boston, claimed to have been the originator of the idea, and it seems not unlikely that information which he is said to have given with reference to the early experimental telegraphs then being worked on and exhibited in various parts of Europe did originate the idea. [tis notelear however that the use of the electromagnet was suggested by Jackson, and there issufticientevidencetoshow that Morse had had opportunities of seeing a copy of Sturgeon’s magnet in Prof. Dana’s laboratory in New York. The magnet made by Morse was itself almost an exact copy of this, and it was only after failure with it: that he appealed to Dr. Gale for assistance. Dr. Gale gave the necessary in- formation and supplied the materials for making the change, afterwards informing Morse that he had learned how to arrange such an apparatus from the writings of Prof. Henry. Probably the idea of using an electro-magnet was original with Morse. He did not know of Henry’s work or indeed anything about the subject beyond the few experi- ments in which he had seen Sturgeow’s magnet used, and would natu- rally turn to that means of obtaining motive force. It is not necessary, 648 ‘THE INVENTORS OF THE TELEGRAPH AND TELEPHONE. however, whengiving Morse due credit for his originality, to ignore the fact that, although unknown to him, the scientific part of the invention had already been worked out by Henry, and besides that, through Dr. Gale, Morse actually made use of Henry’s discoveries before he sue- ceeded in making his scheme practicable. Morse afterwards objected to Henry’s claims, which were brought before the public by enforced testimony in the law courts, and not by any individual motion on Henry’s part. The public have lauded Morse and have paid him liber- ally for the little he actually did, while it was with great difficulty that Congress could be persuaded to make a petty allowance to Henry’s family, although he had been for imany years a public servant, and besides had probably added more than any other man to the scientific reputation of the United States. Many people think that scientific men ought not to patent their discoveries. Which is the better known name, Henry or Morse? Would not Henry have gained both in popu- larity and in scientific reputation if he had patented and made the public pay liberally for his discoveries? From the brief sketch just given it will be seen that in looking over the history of the early endeavors to produce a telegraph many ideas have been brought forward as to codes of signals, alphabets, telegraphic dictionaries, methods of calling attention by alarm apparatus, methods of arranging and operating the circuits, and so on, that only required an efficient motive force to render them practical and reliable systems. In reviewing the subject, therefore, we are forced to the conclusion that the telegraph was not the invention of any man, but the result of a gradual growth toward which many minds, some of them the ablest the scientific world has known, have contributed. We have now reached a stage in the history of this subject when in- ventors may be said to have had the fundamental principles of the sub- ject, as it now stands, before them and we have simply to look for de- velopments. These developments have been great and of a very varied character. It is impossible in this address to do more than sketch a few of their leading features. As already stated, the telegraph of Schilling, through a model exhibited by Prof. Muneke, of Heidelberg, gave the ideas of an elec- trie telegraph to Cooke in the year 1836. It appears, also, that Wheat- stone was aware of these early experiments, and had himself paid some attention to the subject. His experiments on the velocity of elec: tricity, made in 1834, are sufficient to show that he was at that time. aware that signals could be produced at the end of long circuits of wire by electrical means. The joint work of Cooke and Wheatstone led, within a few years, to cousiderable improvements in the needle telegraphs. The various forms of needle telegraph used by them, resulting in the final adoption of the single-needle system, for a long time extensively used in England, were passed over in a few years. Various modifications of the needle telegraph were, somewhat THE INVENTORS OF THE ‘TELEGRAPH AND TELEPHONE. 649 later, patented by the brothers H. and E. Highton, including an inter- esting form in which the current was passed through a strip of gold leaf placed in front of the pole of a magnet. Each time the current passed the gold leaf was deflected, and thus served in place of an judex needle. A patent was granted to Wheatstone and Cooke in 1540 for improve. ments in giving signals and sounding alarms at distant places by means of electric currents. In this patent the first form of the letter- showing, dial, or A, B, C telegraph, as it has been variously called, is described. Improvements were subsequently made in this apparatus by Wheatstone, and several modifications have been made by other in ventors, of which the best known are Brequet’s, Froment’s, Siemens’, Chester’s, Kramer’s, Siemens and Halske’s, and Hamblet’s. The first apparatus devised by Wheatstone was actuated by voltaic electricity, but in the later forms magneto-electricity was applied. One or other: of these methods has been used in the other forms of apparatus for the same purpose. Wheatstone also worked on a type-printing tele- eraph, which was a modification of his A, B, © instrument, but it never came into practical use. Probably the greatest achievement of Wheatstone, judged at least by its practical results, was his automatic recording telegraph, which is so largely used for press and other long dispatches in England, and which has attained to marvellous speeds: for a mechanical recorder. Morse’s telegraph first came before the Patent Office in the form of w caveat filed by him on the 3d of October, 1837. The following inven- tions were specified: First, a system of signs by which numbers, and consequently words and sentences, are signified; second, a set of type,, adapted to regulate and communicate the signs, with rules in whieh: to set up the type; third, an apparatus called the port rule, for regu- lating the movement of the type rules, which rules, by means of the: type, regulate the times and the intervals of the passage of electricity ; fourth, a register, which records the signs permanently; fifth, a die- tionary, or vocabulary of words, numbered and adapted to this sys- tem of telegraph; sixth, modes of laying conductors to preserve them from injury. This caveat gives a good idea of the invention by Morse of the re- cording telegraph previous to his partnership with Vail. The partner- ship was agreed upon in September, 1537, and according to it Mr. Vail undertook to construct at his own expense and exhibit before a com- mittee of Congress one of the telegraphs “ of the plan and invention of Morse;” that he should give his time and personal services to the work, and assume the expense of exhibiting the apparatus and of pro- curing patentsin the United States. In consideration, Vail was to re- ceive one-fourth of all the rights in the invention in the United States. Provision was also made for securing to Vail an interest in any foreign patents which he might furnish the means to obtain.* A large amount * Goa ]o , a | s ‘yo . ~} , , rr e.N 9 pia See 1°. L. Pope in the Century Magazine, vo . XXXv, p. 924 ef seg 650 THE INVENTORS OF THE TELEGRAPH AND TELEPHONE. of doctunentary evidence bearing on the development of the telegraph exists In the possession of Mr. Vail’s family, and in the National Mu- seum at Washington. From this evidence there seems no doubt but that Morse assumed and las been accorded very much more than his share of the credit of the invention of the telegraph as it is now known. The patents taken out in Morse’s name included many important im- provements which were entirely due to Vail, and for which Morse promised to give him credit, a promise which was never publicly re- deemed. The alphabet now used was, as I have already said, worked out by Vail, who, it appears, first began its formation by an attempt to classify the letters of the alphabet according to frequency of occur renee, with the view of giving these letters to simplest signs. After working on this for some time, it occurred to him that valuable imfor- mation might be obtained ima printing office, and a visit to an adja- cent newspaper office showed him the whole problem solved in the printers’ type tray. The alphabet which he afterwards formed is still used in this country and also, with some simplifications, as a European and international code. The modification of the recording apparatus from the vertical pendulum and recording pencil to the compact instru- ment with a horizontal lever and metallic stylus, marking by indenta- tion, used on the first telegraphic line between Washington and Baiti- more, was also due to Vail. Many other things might be mentioned to show that in the early stages of this invention, which has marked: so wide a step in our modern civilization, the name of Vail deserves a prominent place. It is very unfortunate that his own modesty, to- gether with his confidence in Morse’s promises to do him justice, pre- vented the matter from being publicly ventilated during the lifetime of the inventors. After several unsuccesstul attempts to induce Congress to assume the expense of building a line of sufficient length to practically test the proposals of Morse, an appropriation of $30,000 was made in March, 1843, for the purpose of building a line from Washington to Baltimore. This line was completed and successfully opened on the 24th of May, 1844. The system practically introduced with the opening of this line, modified in some of its mechanical details, has continued to be the principal one used, and is the basis of most of the recording telegraphs in all countries. One important modification should however be men- tioned, that is the wide use of the click of the armature for reading the message in preference to the recorder. This is a return to the electro- magnetic acoustic telegraph of Henry. It gives one of the simplest possible receiving instruments, and as was long ago pointed out by Steinheil, possesses the great advantage that it leaves the eyes of the operator disengaged. Of other forms of telegraphic apparatus, the most important are the type-printing telegraph. Among the early inventors of these we find Vail, who invented a type-printing telegraph as early as 1857, and Wheatstone; but the first instrument practically THE INVENTORS OF THE TELEGRAPH AND TELEPHONE. 651 used was invented in 1546 by Royal E. House, of Vermont. This instrument was used for some time in the United States, and was brought to a considerable degree of perfection. It worked on the step- by-step principle and was patented in 1846. Another type-printing telegraph of great ingenuity was invented by D. E. Hughes, of Ken- tucky. This apparatus embodies many of the features of the appa- ratus used at present in this country, which is a modification of Hughes’s instrument due to Mr. Phelps. The Hughes instrument is still largely used in France and to some extent in other European countries. The Hughes patents in this country were purchased in 1856 by the American Telegraph Company, and the apparatus has under- gone successive modification at the hands of Mix. Phelps, tending towards simplification, accuracy of working, and increased speed. One of the latest modifications is known as the Phelps’s Electro-Motor Telegraph, in which the mechanism is driven by means of an electro- motor which, running at a high speed, allows the clock-work train to be short and light. The principle here used is the synchronous move ment of a transmitting shaft on the transmitter and type-wheel of the receiver. Sychronism is obtaimed by a governor, and continuous rapid motion is kept up. The letter printed is regulated by the position of the transmitting shaft when the cireuit is closed, this position being under the control of the operator. Phelps is also the inventor of stoek telegraphs and private line printing telegraphs, and, besides his simi- lar instruments have been invented by Laws, Calahan, Gray, and others. These instruments work on the step-by-step principle and all of them are beautiful specimens of mechanism and scientific ingenuity. Another system of recording telegraph messages requires notice— that 1s the chemical method. We have seen that very early in tele- graphic history the decomposition of liquids and of solutions of salts were made the basis of telegraphs. It was soon found that a ribbon of paper or cloth saturated with certain chemicals could be very read- ily marked by the passage through them of the electric current. One of Morse’s first plans appears to have been a chemical telegraph, but that, I believe, was never worked out. The first: patent for such a telegraph was given in England to Edward Davy in 1838, but the sys- tem never came into practical use. It was complicated in construc- tion and required four line wires. One interesting feature was the use of an electro-magnetic escapement for moving the paper, an idea which had occurred to Cooke and to Wheatstone some years earlier. The first successful chemical telegraph was due to Bain, of Edinburgh, and was patented in 1846. In this system if was proposed to transmit the message by.an automatic transmitter, using a punched slip of paper to regulate the contacts. Some difficulties with the mechanical operation of preparing the necessary stencil slips prevented this being very successfully used, but the chemical record was used for some years both in England and America. With the apparatus now available 652 ‘THE INVENTORS OF THE TELEGRAPIL AND TELEPHONE. for transmission, very high speeds can be attained by this method of recording the signals. The chemical method of recording has been mostly used for copying or autographic telegraphs, and of these a considerable number have been devised. The automatic method of transmission has been brought to a high state of perfection. Among others who have worked at the subject are Wheatstone, Siemens and Halske, Garnier, Humaston, Little, Edison, Park, Thomson. The next important step in telegraphy was the employment of one line-wire to convey more than one message at the same time. A solu- tion of the problem of sending two messages, one in each direction, was attempted by Gintt of Vienna, in 1855, and in the following year by Frischen and by Siemens and Halske. These methods were not very suecesstul, but they were mechanically sufficient for the purpose. They however left out an important item in the account, namely, the electrostatic capacity of the line. The proper solution of the difficulty was given by J. B. Stearns, of Boston, in 1871, who solved the problem completely,-so far at least as land lines were concerned. The same principle is sufficient for all purposes, but some importantmodifications in detail are necessary for submarine cables. These modifications were successfully made by Muirhead, of London, and at the present time duplex working is an ordinary accomplishment. ‘The chief work- ers in this field were Frischen, Siemens and Halske, Stark, Edlund, Gintt, Nystroin Preece, Fur Nedden, Farmer, Maron, Winter, Stearns, and Muirhead. Next the problem of sending two messages in each direction was worked out. This involves the additional problem of the simultaneous sending of two messages in the same direction. The solution of this problem was attempted by Dr. Win. Gintt, of Vienna, in 1853, and during the following ten years it was worked at by Borscha, Kramer, Maron, Schaak, Shreder, Wartman, and others. The first to obtain success was Edison, in 1874; and his method, with some modifications, is still used. Systems of quadruplex were also invented by Gerrit Smith, in 1875 and 1876, of the Western Union Company, and a modification of Edison’s method was made by Prescott and Smith. Smith’s 1876 method is known as the Western Union Company’s Standard Quad- ruplex. A system of multiple transmission was devised by M. G. Farmer, of Salem, in 1852, in which, by a commutation arrangement, the line- wire was put successively in contact with a number of local circuits. A similar system was exhibited by Meyer at the Vienna Exposition in 1873, and an improved form was introduced a few years ago by Delany, which is in use in several countries. These systems are of use if the line-wire is capable of doing more work than any one of the stations is capable of supplying, and may be likened to one of the main wires from the central to a district telephone exchange, with this exception, THE INVENTORS OF THE TELEGRAPH AND TELEPHONE. 653 that all the correspondence goes on simultaneously, and there need be no difficulty as to precedence. Distinctive from these is the har- monic telegraphs of Elisha Gray, Edison, and Bell. In this system, which has been most completely worked out by Gray, any number of messages mmay be sent simultaneously, without reference to speed of transmission. In principle, the method consists in causing each of a number of vibrating reeds at one end to pruduce pulsations of the cur- rent flowing through the line, which have the same period as the vibra- tions of the reed. A corresponding set of reeds at the receiving end of the line are arranged so as to be acted on electro-magnetically by the current. Each of these receiving reeds will respond only to the pulsa- -tions of its own natural period, and hence only to the vibrations of the corresponding reed at the sending end. The continuity of these vibra- tions may be broken up by means of a sending key, and thus a mes- sage transmitted in the ordinary ‘“‘ Morse” alphabet. The autographic or writing telegraphic apparatus, which has been developed of recent years, is of great interest, both from the fact that the handwriting of the sender is reproduced in facsimile, and from the great ingenuity of the apparatus employed. The writing telegraph of Cowper and the telautograph of Elisha Gray are good examples of this mode of transmitting messages. In Cowper’s system two rectangular components of the motion of the pen are made to vary the resistance, and consequently the current, in two line wires. These currents act on two electro-magnets at the re- ceiving station, and the armatures of the electro-magnets are arranged to produce two rectangular components of the motion of the receiving pen. Bands of paper are kept moving at approximately the same rate under each of these pens, and hence the characters traced by the motions of the transmitting pen are reproduced with considerable accuracy by the receiving pen in consequence of the varying positions of the arma- tures of the receiving magnets, caused by the variations of the current. In Gray’s apparatus two rectangular compotrents of the motion of the transmitting pen send pulsatory currents into the line wire. These pulsatory currents cause corresponding movements of the armatures of two receiving magnets, which are made to move the receiving pen in corresponding directions, and through proportionate distances. Sepa- rate electro-magnetic arrangements lift the pen off the paper between the words and at the end of the lines, and allow the receiving pen to be moved backwards or forwards without marking the paper. Still another electro-magnetic arrangement is used to move the paper for- ward between the lines. The whole apparatus is exceedingly ingenious, but much too extensive and complicated to admit of clear description tere: Although the mere extension of telegraphs from land to submarine lines can hardly be called an invention, yet very many new problems presented themselyes for solution in this extension, Many of these 654 THE INVENTORS OF THE TELEGRAPH AND TELEPHONE. problems were of a more purely scientific character than those presented in the developments which had been in progress, and consequently tested the knowledge then existing of the laws of electricity much more severely. It was very soon discovered, for example, that the rate at which signals could be transmitted, and the battery power or other electro-motive force necessary to effect the transmission, did not, as in land lines, depend almost entirely on the size and length of the con- ductors used. The electrostatic capacity of the line immediately began to play an important part, and signals were found not to be transmitted so instantaneously as they were on existing land lines. Again, there Was no opportunity of using relays, so as to effectively shorten the lon- ger lines, and the investigations of Thomson led him to point out that the rate of signalling would be inversely as the square of the length. Such difficulties as these, combined with the very evident difficulties involved in manufacturing and submerging a cable in deep water, were, to say the least, discouraging. Experiments on short lengths in the English channel and elsewhere proving successful, faith in the possi- bility of longer cables grew, and very soon, through the enterprise of a few American and English business and scientific men, an attempt was made to lay a cable across the Atlantic. The history of that undertak- ing and its various failures are almost common knowledge, but perse- verance conquered all the difficulties, and to-day no one thinks of the probability of failure when a long cable is proposed, The laying of long cables brought out the fact that, as had been an- ticipated, existing telegraphic apparatus was not of great enough sensi- bility to render moderately rapid signaling possible. This difficulty was almost immediately met by the mirror galvanoscopic receiver of Thomson, followed some years later by his siphon recorder, which is undoubtedly by far the most sensitive recording telegraph known. Improved methods of working cables soon followed, among which, in the early days, probably the most notable is the introduction of con- densers between the ends of the cable and the earth by Varley. The successful duplexing of cables by Muirhead has already been referred to. but it is Somewhat curious to note that although the electricians interested in cable working were familiar, as early as 1856, and per- haps earlier, with the difficulty which had prevented success on Tand lines. no one seems to have thought of applying the remedy. As early as 1858, a patent was taken out by Thomson, in which he proposed to overcome the difficulity of duplexing a cable by a mechanical arrange- ment for varying the compensating currents at the same rate that the signaling current varies. He has since said that he did not propose the use of condensers, because a means of producing a sufticiently good model cable was not then known. Such a model cable was not ayail- able for nearly twenty years after the above date, and was finally pro- duced by making practically a copy of the actual cable, using tinfoil THE INVENTORS OF THE TELEGRAPH AND TELEPHONE. 655 strips for the conduetor insulated from an earth plate by means of thin paratfined paper, so as to give electrostatic capacity. The invention of the telephone constitutes one of the greatest ad- vances that have been made in telegraphic communication. This is an acoustic telegraph, which has the very important merit that the audi- ble signals are spoken words, and hence the instruments can be used by anyone who can hear and speak and who understands the language in which the message is transmitted. It is well known that sound is transmitted through the air from the source to the hearer by waves of condensation and rarefaction, which affect the drum of the ear. Wheatstone, as early as 1831, showed that these waves could be transmitted from one place to another, at a mod- erate distance, through wooden rods and afterward conveyed to the sar by the vibrations given to the air by the end of the rod. Similarly, Vibrations given to one ¢iaphragm can be conveyed to another, at a considerable distance, by connecting the two diaphragms together by a stretched cord or wire. This appears to have been known for several centuries in the central districts of India, and a similar apparatus was described by Hook in 1667. A similar apparatus is now used and known as the mechanical telephone. To cause the vibrations of one diaphragm to produce corresponding Vibrations in another diaphragm at a distance, through the agency of an electric current, was the problem of the electric telephone. The first to propose this seems to have been Charles Bourseul, who, in 1854, sug- gested the use of two plates—one at the transmitting station, which, by the varying pressure of the air due to the sound waves, would open and close an electric circuit; while the other was to be acted on at the receiving station by an electro-magnet, through which the coils of the electric current passed. The varying strength of the electro-magnet, due to the rapid succession of currents, was thus to be taken advantage of to give the proper succession of impulses to the receiving diaphragm. In 1861 Philip Reis, of Friedrichsdort, proposed, in a lecture delivered before the Physical Society of Frankfort, to use an instrument, which he called a telephone, for the reproduction at a distance of music and human speech. The apparatus consisted of a stretched membrane forming part of one side of a box, into which, by means of a mouth- piece, the sounds could be directed. This membrane was made to open and close an electric ciremit at each vibration. At the receiving end an electro-magnet, consisting of a thin red of iron surrounded by a coil, was placed. The successive interruptions and closings of this electrie current was, in accordance with a discovery made by Dr. Page, of Salen, Mass., in 1837, to produce sounds of the saine pitch as those of the sound directed into the box of the transmitter. This method failed for speech, for the simple reason that speech has more characteristics than pitch; and it was only partially suecessful for musical sounds, from its 656 THE INVENTORS OF THE TELEGRAPH AND TELEPHONE. inability to produce, with any approach to accuracy, the necessary variations of loudness and quality. To produce not only the frequency of vibration, but also the loudness and quality of the sounds evidently required a transmitter and a receiver which did not depend for its action on simple interruption of the current, but which varied it in an undulating manner, similar to the variations of pressure to which the diaphragm receiving the sound vibrations was subjected due to the sound waves. Such an apparatus ofa very perfect type was produced by Graham Bell in 1876, who, in thedescriptions of his apparatus given in his patent specifications and elsewhere, shows that he thoroughly understood what had to be done. We all know from actual experience that the instrument which he pro- duced did it. Since the publication of Bell’s invention a great many modifications have been produced. Most of them have, however, been held to embody the same essential principle as that of Bell, the varia- tion being simply one of mechanical arrangement. One field of inves- tigation has, however, been fruitful of improvement. In the original patent of Bell, and also in a caveat filed almost simultaneously by Elisha Gray,it is pointed out that the variations of the current may be produced by causing the vibrations of the diaphragm to vary the resistance of thecireuit. This idea has proved of great value in increas- ing the loudness of the sounds given out by the Bell telephone when used as a receiver. A great many forms of these ‘‘microphone” trans- mitters have been invented. Among those who have made im- portant contributions we may mention Berliner, Blake, Edison, Gower, Gray, Hughes and Hunnings. ; Another form of telephone has been proposed by Prof. Dolbear. In this telephone system one diaphragm of the receiver is made to form one plate of an electric condenser, and the varying electric force - on this plate, due to the fluctuations of the charge, causes it to vibrate in response to the varying electro-motive force produced by the trans- mitter. This condenser telephone can evidently be used either as ¢ transmitter or as a receiver, and, as Dolbear has pointed out, may be rendered sensitive by keeping one plate of the condenser at a high potential. Another interesting discovery in this subject should be mentioned, namely, the transmission of speech from one place to another by means of beams of light or radiant heat. This was based originally on the discovery by May and Smith of the variation of the electric resistance of selenium when exposed to light or radiant heat. Many other sub- stances have since been found to have the same property in a greater or less degree. The experiments of Bell and Sumner Tainter have shown that if a beam of light be reflected from a thin mirror, and, by means of lenses or otherwise, made to pass as a parallel beam from the transmitter to the receiving station, and there received on a bar or series of bars, or a coil cf a substance having the properties of selenium, THE INVENTORS OF THE TELEGRAPH AND TELEPHONE. 657 the resistance of the selenium will be affected by vibration of the mirror. If, then, the mirror be used as a transmitting diaphragm, like that of a telephone transmitter, words spoken to the mirror will be repeated by a telephone in the circuit of which the selenium, is placed and through which an electric current is kept flowing. In this address an attempt has been made to sketch very briefly the development of the application of electricity to the transmission of intelligence. Many important applications (as, for example, fire-alarms and railway signal systems, etc.) have not been referred to, and a host of important contributors -have, as a matter of necessity, been entirely ignored. To go into detail and do justice to everyone who has con- tributed to the present state of the electric telegraph was an impossi- bility and has not been attempted. H. Mis. 11442 EXPLORATIONS IN MONGOLIA AND TIBET. By W. WOODVILLE ROCKHILL. On the Ist of December, 1891, I left Peking for a journey in Mon- golia and Tibet, proposing, if possible, to traverse the latter country from north to south and reach British India—Sikkim or Nepat. i was well provided with scientific apparatus, and very scantily with money, and so I started out with the anticipation of having to endure many discomforts, and possibly see ny chance of ultimate success lost for want of a few hundred dollars and my collections poor for lack of funds and means of transportation. This is the one insurmountable difficulty a traveller can have to contend with; nearly every obstacle can be overcome or turned, but how to travel on an empty money bag (and an empty stomach, as it turned out in my case), in a strange land, is a more difficult problem for most men than the quadrature of the circle. I will pass over the first few stages of my journey, which led me through Chang-chia k’ou to the great emporium of eastern Mongo- lia, Kuei-hua Ch’eng, where I arrived on the 18th of December. This town was known in the T’ang period (A. D. 618-907), and how long before that I can not now say. Col. Yule* thinks it was Tenduc, the capital of Prester John; but in this I can not quite agree, as I believe the latter town is to be identified with the present Tou Ch’eng (in Mongol Togto), at the mouth of the Hei-ho, which flows by Kuei-hua and empties into the Yellow River (Huang-ho) at the former place. Father Gerbillon visited Kuei-hua Ch’eng in 1688, in the suite of the great Emperor K’/ang-hsi. He describes the place as follows: ‘C’est une petite Ville qu’on dit avoir été autrefois fort marchande, et d’un grand abord, pendant que les Tartares d’Oiiest étoient les maitres de la Chine: a présent cest fort peu de chose: les murailles baties de briques sont assez entieres par dehors; mais il n’y a plus de remparts au dedans: il n’y a méme rien de remarquable dans la Ville, que les Pagodes et les Lamas.” + * See his Book of Ser Marco Polo, 2d edit., 1, 277. t Du Halde, ‘* Description de ’! Empirede la Chine,” rv, 103. The Mongol name of this town is Koko hutun, or ‘‘Blue town.” Chinese histories of the seventh cen- tury mention it under the name of Tung-shou Chiang. 659 EXPLORATIONS IN MONGOLIA AND TIBET. a =A suey TS, (ee Sli mani Sheae act rere aney N| 69RI we anoy | “TROP OY eT ITAPOOM * M jo skauanol ayy Sutmoys LAGIL NUALSVA INV VNIHO 06 a7 Oreo ad 2 fie eeemninn | oven EXPLORATIONS IN MONGOLIA AND TIBET. 661 In 1844, Father Huc, when on his way to Lh/asa, stopped for a while at Kuei-hua Ch’eng. He says of it: ‘* With the exception of the la- maseries, which rise above the other buildings, one only sees an ag- glomeration of houses and shops huddled together without order, the one against the other. The ramparts of the old city still exist in their entirety, but the overflow of the population has been forced to cross them. Little by little numerous houses have been built outside the walls, vast quarters have been formed; and now the extra muros has acquired more importance than the city itself.” * Fifty years hardly count in the life of an inland city in Asia, and Kuei-hua to-day is what it was in the days of Huc—an irregular mass of tumble-down houses built around a small central walled town. Dirty, muddy, unpaved streets, innumerable small. shops, crowded streets along which loaded camels and mules and clumsy carts are moving, and where an occasional Mongol, very often much the worse for liquor, is seen accompanied by his women folk in green satin dresses and much jewelry of silver and numerous strings of coral beads orna- menting their hair, neck, and ears. The chief industry of the place is, and has been for at least a cen- tury, the preparation of sheep and goat skins. Tallow is also an im- portant article of trade, and sheep and camels in vast numbers are annually sold here to supply the Peking market. The population, ex- culsively Chinese, of this place is probably between 75,000 and 100,000. On the 25th of December, having completed arrangements for con- tinuing my journey to Ning-hsia Fu in Kan-su in commodious carts like those which had brought me thus far on my way, I left Kuei-hua and in two days reached the Yellow River at Ho-k’ou,t where it makes a Sharp bend southward. Crossing the river—here about 400 yards wide—on the ice, we first travelled over a country with sand dunes intersecting it here and there, and finally entered the vast alluvial plains which stretch westward to Alashan and are bounded to the north—on the left bank of the river, by a range of mountains of an average altitude of some 1,800 feet. This chain is called on European maps the Inshan (a corruption, I believe, of Ch’/ing shan, a name given to the eastern part of it) and is locally known by a variety of names—as are all ranges in eastern Asia—Ta ch‘ing shan, Wula shan, Lang shan, ete.{ For thirteen days we travelled through the sandy waste, now and then passing a small village of Chinese colonists settled in these Mon- gol lands, where they cultivate the soil after a great expenditure of labor on vast irrigation ditches, which are necessary to water the parched soil and which the sands, driven before the nearly incessant * Hue, “Souvenirs d@’un voyage damns la Tartarie et le Thibet,” (12mo. edit.) 1, 164. +t Hue’s Tchagan Kouren, See op. cit., 1, 215. a t Timkowski,“ Voy. a Peking,” 1, 265, 267, says this range is called Khadjar Khosho (Khajar hosho), or Onghin oola. 662 EXPLORATIONS IN MONGOLIA AND ‘TIBET. ~ westerly winds, are continually filling up. We saw but few Mongols; they live remote from the route, or when they have remained in their former haunts, now settled by Chinese, have adopted Chinese modes of dress and of living, and too frequently their vices. . Some antelope, a few hares, and vast flocks of sand grouse (Syrrhaptes Pallasii) were occasionally seen; but what a sportsman’s paradise these plains must have been in the days of K’ang-hsi, when Father Gerbillon came here with him to hawk and shoot, and the great Em- peror never failed to return to camp with scores and scores of hares and other game killed by his arrows! i Father Hue has so fully and graphically described the Ordos country that I will not venture to try and improve on what he has.said, especially as one forms a more agreeable opinion of the country from his narrative than one would from what I might say of it. It has, I fear, changed for the worse since his time. Fig. 2.—Baron gomba or Hsi Kung miao Lamaiss Temple in the Ordos country. The only place of any importance we saw was the palace of one of the Orat Mongol princes, the Hsi Kung or “ Duke of the West,” and near itasmall but very handsomely built lamasery, the temple itself of pure Tibetan style. It is called by the Mongols, Baron gomba, and by the Chinese, Hsi Kung miao. On the 9theef January, I reached the large Chinese Christian com- munity (some three hundred families residing in four villages) of San-tao ho-tzii, created and managed by the Belgian Catholic foreign mis- EXPLORATIONS IN MONGOLIA AND TIBET. 663 sions. Here I remained two days and was most hospitably enter- tained by the bishop and fathers of the mission. This locality is in the domains of the Mongol prince of Alashan, colloquially designated by the Chinese as Hsi Wang or Western Prince. His people, so Ts’aidam Mongols have told me, inhabited in old times the country west of Hsi-ning Fu in western Kan-su, and are of the same stock as the Ts’aidam Mongols. This agrees with what Timskowski tells us, who says this tribe of the Eleuts came to the country they now inhabit in 1686.* Following the course of the Yellow River in a southerly direction, I passed successively through Shih-tsui (Hotun jeli in Mongol), the first town on our route in the Province ot Kan-su, Ning-hsia Fu, Chung-wei Hsien, and finally reached Lan-chou Fu, the capital of the Province of Kan-su, on the 51st of January, where I joined the route I had followed in 1888-89 when on my way to Tibet for the first time. Ning-hsia Fu was the most important town we traversed before reach- ing Lan-chou, but it has greatly fallen from its ancient importance, having suffered terribly during the late Mohammedan rebellion.+ Father Gerbillon, while journeying with the Emperor K’ang-hsi in 1697, visited this city. He says it was then one of the largest and most famous along the whole length of the Great Wall. It was densely populated, the houses built so closely together that there was no room even for court-yards. He also noted that “building timber is here very cheap, because they go to get it in that chain of mountains which is to the northwest, some 60 or 70 lys from the city,i where it is so abundant that from the neighboring localities, more than 400 or 500 lys away, they come to buy it at Ning-hia.”§ At the present time not a forest tree is to be seen, only a few poplars recently planted along the irrigation ditches. The father says further on (p.372): “They presented also to his majesty several foot rugs, resembling enough our Turkey carpets, but coarser; they are made here, and the emperor had the curiosity to have the work done in his presence, as also paper which is made at Ning-hsia, with hemp beaten and mixed with lime water.” Now the town is, for half of its area, a desert of brick-bats, but rugs and paper making are still the chief—or rather the only—industries of the place. I arrived at Lan-chou the day after Chinese New Year and on the fifth of the first moon. I witnessed the ying-ch’un festivities, in *Op. cit., 1, 279. See also Du Halde, op. cit., 1v, 375, where we learn that the first Eleut prince of Alashan bad only the rank of Beileh and was named Baturn Ts’o- nam. A Beileh is a prince of the third order, a Wang the second, and a ch’in Wang of the first. t This city is called Irgé hotun by the Mongols, and is the Irghai of Mohammedan writers and the Egrigaia of Marco Polo. t This range is called Hsi shan by the Chinese, but on our maps it is usually desig- nated by the name of Alashan Mountains. § Du Halde, op. cit., 1v, 370. 664 EXPLORATIONS IN MONGOLIA AND TIBET. which the local magistrates go outside the east gate of the city to “welcome spring” (ying-cl’un). A huge cow made of wicker-work and coated over with mud was dragged along by scores of men, and fol- lowing it was the image of the god T’ai-sui. A man disguised as a woman led the procession on foot and following him was another, in like disguise, riding a donkey. This one impersonated, I was told, the princess who introduced into China the practice of compressing women’s feet. The cow was painted of a reddish brown color, a portent that con- Fic. 3.—Kokonor Tibetan pony (Konsa stock). ‘Tibetan mastitf (Panaka stock). flagrations would take place in the year now beginning, for the colors used on this occasion are symbolical,—yellow means plentiful crops; white, floods; black, sickness; and blue, war. In like manner, if the image of T’ai-sui is bare-headed it is symbolical of heat; with his cap on, of cold; if he wears shoes it portends much rain and if he is bare- footed, dry weather.* * See G. Carter Stent, ‘‘ Chinese and English Vocabulary,” p. 714. ee EXPLORATIONS IN MONGOLIA AND TIBET. 665 Theatricals, a banquet at the magistrate’s office, and merry-making followed. On the morrow the cow was broken to pieces and farmers began to till their fields. This feast is‘observed over most of China. Having engaged mules to carry me and my luggage to the lamasery of Kumbum, or rather the contiguous village of Lusar, some 20 miles South of Hsi-ning, [left Lan-chou on the 5th of February and follow- ing up the Yellow River and the Hsi-ho, a route I had taken previously in 1889,* I reached my destination on the 11th, and took up my quar- ters in an inn in the lower part of the village and at once began prep- arations for the journey into Tibet. I secured the services of the men who had accompanied me on my first journey, bought six stout ponies and a supply of provisions— parched barley-meal (tsamba), rice, flour, vermicelli, tea, ete.—enough to last, if used with economy, for about five months. While my head man, Yeh Chi-cl’eng, was buying pack-mules, fitting the saddles to their backs, and purchasing all the thousand and one little things re- quired on a long journey in a country devoid of every necessary of life save a few varieties of very coarse food, I went for a tour through the portion of country along the Yellow River due south of Lusar, a region of great ethnological interest, inhabited by tribes of Tibetan, Mongol, and Turkish descent; those of the latter called Salars or Salaris, being particularly interesting, as they have retained their original type and language though residing on Chinese soil for the last four hundred years and surrounded by Chinese and Tibetan peoples.t They number some 40,000 souls and are the most fanatical Mohammedans in western China. The Salar priests (ahons) began the late Mohamme- dan rebellion in or near the little town of Bayanrong. Fortunately for the Imperial Government, dissensions arose among the Mohammedans and they were soon fighting among themselves. It was this way: One said smoking was permissible (he was a Ho-chou teacher), another said it was forbidden, and so they came to blows. At the town of Tankar, 30 miles west of Hsi-ning, these two factions fought so savagely that the authorities made use of this quarrel to rid the place of them. All the male Mohammedans were invited to the mosque to talk over the matter in the presence of the colonel commanding the town. When all had assembled in the court-yard, there came men who called them out one by one, and as they issued out of the gate they were beheaded, and in this way 3,500 were made away with. Their wives and daughters t The principal branch of this people forms now one of the Turkoman tribes un- der Russian rule residing around Old Sarakhs. It numbers about 5,000 families. “The three nations of the Salars are named Yalawach, Githara, and Karawan. They have an evil reputation even among Turkomans, and are said to be generally hated.” See Lieut. A. C. Yate, Travels with the Afghan boundary commission, p. 301-302. See also on the Chinese Salar, Rob. B. Shaw, Journ. Roy. As. Soc., new ser. X, p. 305-316 and Deniker, Bull. Soc. @ Anth. de Paris, 3e Serie, x, 206-210. 666 EXPLORATIONS IN MONGOLIA AND TIBET. were sold or otherwise disposed of when good-looking, and Tankar, with a remaining population of a few thousands or so, enjoyed quiet once more. At Hsi-ning, for several years after the rebellion had been suppressed, no Mohammedan was allowed to enter the city (none of them could live in it) without having a stamp impressed on his cheek by the guard at the gate; and even now, after twenty years of peace, none of them may have a knife, even the usual small one which is carried by all travelling Chinese in a little case with their chop-sticks.* On the 29th of February, I was back in Lusar, but though I used all diligence and expended a vast amount of energy, it was the 14th of March when we made our final start for the Kokonor country, the first stage of our journey to Tibet. Fia. 4.—Chinese composing Mr. Rockhill’s party. My party, as finally organized, comprised four Chinese, three of them frontiersmen from near Lusar, and one, a cook, engaged at Kuei- hua Ch’eng, and a native of Tung-chou, near Peking. We had two small blue cotton tents, and our saddle blankets formed the bulk of our bedding, for the very heavy sheep-skin garments we wore were enough covering for the coldest weather. “In the narrative of the journey of Benedict Goés (1603-1607) it is said that the Mohammedans at Su Chou (northwest Kan-su) were shut up every night within the walls of their own city, which was distinct from that inhabited by the Chinese. See H. Yule’s Cathay and the Way Thither, p.582. EXPLORATIONS IN MONGOLIA AND TIBET. 667 In order to keep the pack-mules in good condition for as long a time as possible, I had the greater part of their loads carried by donkies from Lusar to the Muri-Wahon country, east of the Ts’aidam. Thence to Shang, yaks relieved them, and in the Ts’aidam, camels did their work toa great extent, so that when we started into the wilds north of Tibet my mules were still in fairly good condition—though very little fed— and stood well the terrible fatigues of the journey, but they finally gave out from foot-soreness and none reached the journey’s end, I began a survey of the road at Kalgan, north of Peking, and car- ried it on about 2,400 miles, to Bat’ang, in eastern Tibet, where my route joined that surveyed in 1877 by Capt. William Gill.* The method I followed in my work was to run the traverse by prismatic compass and aneroid, taking the distance between consecutive points by my watch and controlling frequently the distances thus obtained by pacing them off. Every day the altitude of one point at least was determined by the temperature of boiling water, and all adjacent points, where aneroid readings were taken, were corrected by this and the one taken the day before. Sextant observations were made whenever possible for posi- tion, and thus the inevitable errors on my survey could not accumulate, but were divided over the whole length of the line. Besides the work of surveying I had to take photographs, note the general characteristics of the country, keep an eye on the packs to see that they were not awry, and attend to innumerable details connected with the everyday life of the party. The animals gave me less trouble than the men (this is usually the case in this world, and how true is the saying, ‘“‘ Plus je vois les hommes, plus j’aime les bétes”) ! In 1889, I had, when going to the Ts’aidam, taken from Lusar the route leading along the north side of lake Kokonor. This time I de- cided to follow a new trail leading through an unexplored country (that of the Panaka living south of the Kokonor), and thence directly by the mountains to Shang, in the southeast corner of the Ts’aidam. I was most anxious to re-visit this place so as to be able to go once more to the Tosu nor (lake) and determine by actual observations its position and altitude. The nature of the country to the south of the Kokonor lake is more mountainous than that to the north, but the climatic conditions are the same—violent westerly winds, great dryness, usually a clear sky, and though the nights are invariably cold, the temperature rises very high during the day. These peculiar conditions result from the high altitude of this region, which is over 11,000 feet above the sea level. The route we took was as follows: Leaving the province of Kan-su at Sharakuto, on the southern main feeder of the headwaters of the Hsi-ho (which flows by Hsi-ning Fu), we traversed in a general west- *See his River of Golden Sand: ‘The narrative of a journey through China and eastern Tibet to Burmah,” 2 vols. 8vo., 1880. 668 EXPLORATIONS IN MONGOLIA ANIX TIBET. southwest direction the country of the Panaka or Panakasum, as the Tibetan tribes inhabiting these regions are called. These tribes, which were in past centuries located principally south of the Yellow River all the way from the Chinese frontier to its sources at Karmat’ang, have within the last hundred years pushed northward and dispossessed the Mongol owners of these rich pasture lands, driving them either into the foothills around the swampy Ts’aidam or nearer to the Chi- nese borders. The Tibetan tribes which first came to the Kokonor were eight in number and all bore the word Na in their names, hence the Fic, 5.—Panaka Tibetan camp in mountains near Shang. mixed Chinese-Tibetan name of Panaka by which they are now known and which they use in speaking of themselves.* The Panaka may number in all a hundred to a hundred and twenty- five thousand souls. I have described elsewhere the dress and mode of living of these tribes,t so will not dwell on these questions here, and *Panaka (i.e., Pa, Chinese “eight,” Na, patronymic, and k’a or chia (Chinese) “family” or ‘‘clan”). They also call themselves Panakasum; the last word, mean- ing in Thibetan “three,” is added on account of three great divisions of these clans at the present time. The Arik (about 10,000 families), the Konsa (2,000 families), the Bumtok (2,000 families), are the largest of these tribes living north and west of the lake; the principal tribes of the Panaka south of the lake are the Chamzri, the Tubchia, and the Wutushiu. +See ‘‘ Land of the Lamas,” p. 73, et passim. EXPLOBATIONS IN MONGOLIA AND TIBET. 669 the illustrations will: enable the reader to form a better idea of their camps and general appearance than could a long description. Crossing a high and very difficult pass in the southwest corner of the Panakasum’s country, we entered the basin of the Tsahan ossu, an important river of the Ts’aidam, the existence of which was not here- tofore suspected; and on the 4th of April I reached the Mongol village of Shang (or Shang-chia), on the upper Bayan gol (or Yogoré gol), the main river of the Ts’aidam, which has its source in two lakes called Tosu-nor and Alang nor. Fia. 6.—Foot of Wahon Jamkar Pass leading intothe basin of the Tsahan ossu. Sending the bulk of my baggage to the camp of a former acquaint- ance, the chief or Dzassak of Baron Ts/aidam, I went with two men and a Mongol guide to explore the Tosu-nor, reaching that large sheet of water (about 13,500 feet above sea level) on the 12th of April. Dowé, the Mongol guide, the same who had led me in 1889, by the sources of the Yellow River to Jyiikundo, told me one even- ing while we gossiping over the camp fire, that he had heard at Sa- chou of wild men (gérésun kun). Two had been captured by some Mohammedan Sifan (or Huang fan), but one soon died and the other made his escape. These savages live between Sa-chou and the 670 EXPLORATIONS IN MONGOLIA AND TIBET. Lob nor,* make their dwellings of reeds and feed on wild grapes, which they dry. From this description I have no doubt these people are the half-wild inhabitants of Turki origin seen by Prjevalsky and other travellers in the marshes and canebrakes of Lob-nor. On the 14th of April, I started back for Shang. Crossing the Yogoré my pony broke through the ice and was drowned, I nearly sharing the same fate. The next day my saddle was recovered, also my notes and papers in my saddle-bags. On the 18th I joined my other men with the pack animals in the valley of Oim, where the Dzassak of Baron was Fic. 7.—Scene in Mongol village of Shang (S. E. Ts’aidam). *See ‘‘Land of the Lamas,” p.159. Douglas Forsyth, Journal Roy. Geo. Soc., XLVI, _ p. 6, says: ‘‘There are numbers of encampments and settlements on the banks of the marshy lakes and their connecting channels; perhaps there are as many as a thou- sand houses or camps. These are inhabited by families who emigrated there about one hundred and sixty years ago. They are looked upon with contempt by true believers as only half Musselmans. The aborigines are described as very wild people—black men with long, matted hair, who shun the society of mankind and wear clothes made of the bark of a tree. The stuff is called “luff,” and is the fiber of a plant called “‘toka chigha,” which grows plentifully all over the sandy wastes bordering on the marshes of Lop.” Wild men are said to live on the lower Tsangpo, in Tibet. The Mongol Lama Sherab jyats’o says that in Pemakoichhen (north of Mira Pedam) the Lh‘opa “kill the mother of the bride in performing their marriage ceremony when they do not find any wild men, and eat her flesh.” See Report on the Explorations in Sikkim, Bhutan, and Tibet, from 1856 to 1886, p. 7; also pp. 50 and 52. EXPLORATIONS IN MONGOLIA AND TIBET. 671 camped. Here I was detained for eleven days trying to make arrange. ments with the chief to supply me with pack animals and a guide to go to Shigatsé, in Ulterior Tibet. After a vast and reckless expenditure of my limited store of patience, I failed to get more than four camels and a guide as far as Tengélik, a Mongol encampment in the marshes of the Ts’aidam, not a hundred miles away. On the second day out from Oim we left the village of Baron (or Baron kuré) and travelling through sand and mud and brush for four days came to the pools of Tengélik. Life in camp in this horrible Ts‘aidam is miser- g he = | a ~- able indeed, and though I was used to the : if dirt and misery of such an existence, I had daily to use all my persuasive powers to keep myself in the belief that I would be able to stand it for six months more. The Mongols of the Ts’aidam have a saying that a Mongol eats 3 pounds of wool with his food yearly, a Tibetan 3 pounds of gravel, and a Chinese 3 quarts of dirt. Living in a Sinico-Mongolo-Tibetan style, I swal- lowed with my miserable food the dirt, the wool, and the grit, portioned by a harsh destiny to these peoples, and I verily be- lieve that I found enough wool in my tea, my tsamba, my meat, and my bread while Ml: ; - iy in Mongolia and Tibet to stuff a pillow. I: The dirt and the sand could be easily swal- i; lowed, but the wool—nothing could be q done with it, no amount of mastication he could dispose of it. " Leaving Tengélik on the 7th of May |'¥ . . Bul with four pack ponies, three oxen and a @ camel, the latter loaded with leather jars =! | : fee i eae filled with water, we reached the Naichi a gol in five days, travelling all the time ies through sand or swamp. Fig. 8.—Prayer-wheel turned by wind On the Naichi gol I stopped for afew — Erected over Mongol and Tibetan days to engage a famous guide of whom [ “W"ll'ms had heard tell in Shang, and also to replenish my store of provisions as far as possible in this poverty stricken country. We got a supply of fairly good tsamba, but the butter we here bought, made of sheep’s milk, was the strongest smelling and the vilest I ever tasted in my life, but such as it was I had to eat it and be thankful till I reached the in- habited parts of Tibet in July. Leaving this place we turned south and following up the Naichi River, entered the mountains which all along the south side of the | Ts’aidam mark the northern edge of the great tableland dividing this 672 EXPLORATIONS IN MONGOLIA AND TIBET. country from Tibet, and is some 200 to 400 miles wide. Usually this re- gion is called Northern Tibet, and though physically it belongs to that country, from a political point it is a no-man’s land, a desert waste over which at rare intervals wander some robber bands that prey on pass- ing caravans. It would take me too Jong to describe this part of my journey, in which we crossed four chains of mountains of an average altitude of about 16,000 feet. Between each of these, in broad valleys running from west to east, flow shallow rivers over beds of soft sand or gravel in which we were forever getting bogged, we, our horses, and mules. Though we were in May and lovely June we had snow-storms and hailstorms daily, the nights were bitterly cold, and in the middle of the day the thermometer rose to the nineties. With no fuel but the droppings of wild yaks, with hardly any grass for our animals, to which we had daily to feed balls of our parched barley meal, it was no wonder we made slow progress, or that before we had neared the inhabited regions of Tibet our supplies gave out and we had to subsist for five days on tea alone. On the 7th of July we saw for the first time black tents and I learned, on sending two of my men to one of them, that we were among the Namru in Namru dé, a dependency of Lh’asa at the northwest corner of the great Tengri nor (or, as the natives call it, Dolma Nam-ts’o). My plan had been to go around this lake to the west, and had our provisions held out a fort- night longer I have no doubt we would have succeeded, so sparce is the population of this region, and reached our goal, Shigatsé, the capital of Ulterior Tibet. To accomplish my plan it was necessary to make detours around every camp we sighted, for I knew of the stringent orders issued by the Lh’asa government against admitting foreigners onto their soil, and I entertained no hopes of seeing them modified in my favor. Unfortunately our supplies did not hold out and so, when we made these first Namru tents and asked for food we got only a few handfuls of tsamba and a little cheese. The news rapidly spread that a small, but very suspicious looking party, had arrived from the northern desert. The next day, after making some 12 miles more in a southerly direction and reaching a broad valley dotted all over with tents, we were stopped by the local headman and ordered to re- main camped where we were until the officers of the Lh’asa govern- ment, who resided about a day’s ride away, could come and cross- question us. This was on the 8th of July. By the 13th it had been decided that I was to go under escort of a detachment of soldiers, not the way I had planned, but by a circuitous route (of considerable geographical interest however), to the high-road leading to Lh’asa from Hsi-ning, joining it a little to the north of the first Tibetan station, Nagch’u or Nagch’u-k’a, where there was a high official, a warden of the borders, who would settle about my further movements. For ten days my escort took me in a general easterly direction over a EXPLORATIONS IN MONGOLIA AND TIBET. 673 the foothills of the great Dang la chain, which we frequently saw to the north, its peaks covered with eternal snows reaching far down their flanks (the snow line in this country being at about 17,500 feet above sea level). We crossed a number of streams, all flowing in a southeasterly direction and probably forming the head waters of the Jyama-nu ch’u, the upper Salween, it is believed. The rain fell daily in torrents, the spongy, tussocky ground was soaked, and dry fuel no- where to be found, so that finally we had to burn our pack saddles to Fic. 9.—Tibetan boys from Jyadé. boil our kettle. In an utterly exhausted condition, we reached, on the 22d of July, the highroad to Lh’asa in the Dang ch’u valley, a day and a half’s ride north of Nagch’/uk’a. Here the Namru men left me, but I was soon espied by some of the guards stationed along this road for the very purpose of arresting for- eigners, and requested to remain where I was till the officer in command at Nag ch’u could come and see me. Before this I had been obliged to give up all idea of carrying out my original plan of getting to India, and I had now solely in view reaching China by some heretofore unexplored route which would keep me in H. Mis. 114——43 674 EXPLORATIONS IN MONGOLIA AND TIBET. the inhabited parts of Thibet, so that my ethnological researches could be successfully carried on. While waiting here on the Dang ch‘u for the arrival of the Nag ch’u officials, I was visited by some natives from the left bank of the river, and I learned from them that they and the tribes to the east of them were not subject to Lh/asa, and that by traversing their country (called Jyadé or “Chinese Province”) I could reach the important town of Ch’amdo, on the highroad to China, whence I would be able to continue my journey commodiously to Tachien-lu in Sst-ch/uan. Tat once made up my mind to follow this route, only waiting to see the Nag ch’u officials to satisfy my curiosity, and possibly pick up some interesting details concerning them, their country, and its customs. On the 27th of July, I crossed the Dang ch’u and was kindly received by the chief of the Péré band, who, on the following day, introduced me to one of the big chiefs or Débas of the country, Nor jyal-tsan by name, who was about to start for his home, a fortnight’s ride to the east and on the road to Ch’amdo. It was arranged, after a short consultation and the presentation to him of some presents (50 ounces of silver, some knives, red lacquer rice bowls, ete.), that he would take me with him, and see to all my wants on the way. On reaching his home he would further supply me with a guide as far as Mér djong, the first locality on Ch’amdo terri- tory, beyond which neither he nor his people ever went; and he gave, among other reasons, for this that, while the Ch’amdo people professed lamaism, he and the people of Jyadé foliowed the Bonbo religion, the modern and corrupt form of the old pre-Buddhistic shamanism, which has, at one time or the other, prevailed over all Asia. Since leaving the Ts’aidam in May, I had continually travelled over country with an average altitude of about 15,800 feet above sea level, frequently crossing ridges and plains considerably higher. On leaving the Dang ch’/u we very gradually descended till we reached near the Rama-ch’u, the timber line on the 12th of August, something over 13,000 feet above sea level. At this altitude cultivation also be- gan, barley and turnips being the only crops. These are eked out by the use of seeds of several kinds of plants found growing in profusion on the hillsides. Above this altitude the people subsist entirely on what their flocks and herds of yaks can supply them, the neces- sary tsamba and tea, being procured by them at Lh‘asa or from traders, who annually visit these regions. The principal article of trade of the Namru and other adjacent tribes is salt, procured by evaporation from some of the large lakes to the west of the Dang la and brought thence on the backs of sheep, each one carrying about 25 pounds. All the salt I have seen in these parts is of a brick-red color and very impure. On the 20th of August, we reached Mer djong gomba on Ch’amdo territory, having traversed the whole of Jyadé without any mishaps, and having met everywhere with the greatest courtesy and kindness from the chiefS and people. The country round Mer djong is, where- EXPLORATIONS IN MONGOLIA AND TIBET. 675 ever possible, well cultivated, barley and wheat are the principal crops, and near each of the houses is a little garden-patch, where we saw with delight cabbages, onions, peas and turnips, but we noticed no domestic fowls; these are found only in the Chinesified portions of the country. From Mer djong, we went to Riwoché (a dependency of Lh’asa) on the Tsé ch/u, passing through some beautiful alpine country (along the Ké ch’u), the mountain sides covered with fine forest growth and the valley bottom a mass of flowers of every hue. Frequently we saw large bunches of silver pheasants (Crassoptilon tibetanum, in Tibetan Saga), moving rapidly about in the thickets of rhododendrons and laurel-like plants, calling their young with a ery peculiarly like that of the guinea fowl. Very few varieties of birds were noticed however here, or, in fact, anywhere along the route, singing birds being especially rare. Fia. 10.—Half-breed yaks with loads. Riwoché is a place of some importance commercially, but from a pic- turesque point of view it is especially noteworthy for its peculiar temple, with walls of white and red, and gold spires rising from its green-tiled roofs. Around the temple are the dwellings of some three hundred lamas, near which are the houses of perhaps a hundred families of lay- men. The village is at the base of steep, forest-clad mountains, and before it flows the swift river. This place is one of the few in Tibet which can boast of a wall around it; it was built by the Chinese, in all probability, about 1717. Two stages down the Zé ch’u valley brought us to Nyulda, a Chinese post station on the highroad to Lh’asa, where the soldiers supplied us with the first eggs and vegetables we had had for many a long month. 676 EXPLORATIONS IN MONGOLIA AND TIBET. We were now about two and a half days journey from the town of Ch’amdo, which I was not however destined to see, for when I had advanced towards it another day’s ride, I was stopped by the lamas of ST RaSOANNY ea RTT aos ae zs S \erTwaeawe CS yy ell ba NT i we an Ft@. 11.—Tibetan prayer mill, turned by water. A, Section of water-wheel and cylinder. that place, and requested to take a cross road leading around the town at some distance and joining again the highway to China near a piace called Pung-dé. I refused to follow this road and finally obtained permission to take 4 EXPLORATIONS IN MONGOLIA AND TIBET. 677 another trail over the mountains to the south, which brought us out, after four days of travel through the most beautiful scenery | know of anywhere in Tibet, at the post station of Pung-dé, the Pao-tun of the Chinese. The worst part of my long journey was now over, for from this point I travelled in comparative comfort, with an escort of Chinese soldiers, relays of pack and saddle horses, and houses every night to put up in; though I still frequently preferred my tent, where I could enjoy some privacy and escape the attack of the fleas which swarm in all Tibetan dwellings, to say nothing of rats and other vermin. The first town of any importance we came to after leaving Riwoché was Draya, or Chamdun Draya as it is also called, the capital of an ecclesiastical, semi-independent state, on an affluent of the Om ch/’u, which flows by Ch’amdo. The town is prettily situated on a gentle slope, the lamasery, as usual, occupying the higher part of it, with a little plain in front, beyond which flows the Ombo ch’u, here met by two other streams, ot considerable size. The crops were ripening and fields of barley and wheat covered every little patch of ground susceptible of culti- vation. On high frames, with which every country house is provided, grass twisted in cables was drying for the winter’s forage, and in some places, where the high precipitous mountains did not over- shadow the fields too much and the crops were early, barley, wheat, and turnips, were already hanging on these frames, which are used everywhere in Tibet for this purpose. Though I was very roughly received at Draya—in fact, in lieu of fire-crackers I had a volley of stones let off at me as I entered the town—I remained here for two days and gathered a good deal of inter- esting information bearing on both the country and the people, which it is not possible to convey here, and for which I must refer the reader to my complete report now in preparation. On the 6th of September, I left Draya, and after an interesting jour- ney of five days, up hill and down dale, reached the important town of Gartok, or Chiangka as it is called by the Chinese, the chief town of the province of Merkam belonging to Lh’/asa. It is curious in this con- nection to note that vassal states, governed by officials sent by Lh/asa, are found scattered all over Tibet; the Nyarong or “arable lowlands of the Nya River,” the Tsarong, Riwoché, and innumerable localities in southern and southeastern Tibet belong to this class. These districts have frequently given in their allegiance to Lh‘asa (or “tied their head,” go-ta-wa, as they say) on account of similarity of re- ligious beliefs. Sometimes, however, Lh‘asa has got possession of them through intrigues or open aggression. Gartok is an important center for the musk trade, which of late years has taken considerable extension. It has a native population of about seven hundred, besides some two hundred or three hundred lamas. 678 EXPLORATIONS IN MONGOLIA AND TIBET. From a hundred to a hundred and thirty Chinese also reside here, all, or nearly all, of them having native wives. Wheat, oats (wild?), and barley are grown here extensively, and the gardens supplied us with cabbages, turnips, and several other kinds of vegetables, one, called in Chinese o-sung, I found especially pala- table. Cats, pigs, and fowls were seen in every house, and I was pre- sented by the Chinese officer in command of the little garrison here with grapes, peaches, and apricots (wild varieties, I believe), brought here from the Rongmi, or “terres chaudes,” as the French missionaries call them, some two days’ distance down the River of Golden Sands (Chin-sha ho or Chin chiang ho). For the first time in Tibet I saw house sparrows (cheuba, in Tibetan) at Gartok. Leaving Gartok onthe 12th of September, we reached Bat/ang on the 15th, and here the geographical portion of my work was at anend. The people between Gartok and Bat/ang are Chinesified to a considerable ex- tent, and have also a few customs introduced among them from inter- course with the tribes living south of them, Lissus, Mosso, and others. Among other things borrowed from these tribes is a peculiar jew’s-harp, carried by every woman of this region, and consisting of three different toned harps of bamboo; two or three women often play together, and to this accompaniment they dance a slow, shuffling step in which grace and beauty are conspicuously absent. I remained at Bat/ang four days, and then proceeded to Lit/ang, which I reached on the 24th, and finally arrived at Ta-chien-lu, on the Chinese frontier, on the 2d of October. ‘From this locality to Shanghai, where I arrived on the 1st of November, I followed the route taken by me in 1889, and for a description of which I must again refer the reader to the published account of my first journey. | Before closing this brief account of my journey I must mention that in July, when on the Dang ch’u (and even earlier, when in Namru), I heard that some foreigners had passed through the country some six months previous, coming, it was supposed, from the west. In August I again heard vaguely of these travellers, and on the 18th of that month, while camped near the Zé ch’u at Lah/‘a in Nar peihu, I was shown by a native a note he had received from a foreigner commanding an expedition which had passed through here several months before. It was signed Capt. Henry Bower, of the Seventeenth Bengal Cavalry, and he had come, I learned later, from Ladak by way of the deserts to the northwest of Tibet Since then I have had the pleasure of meeting Capt. Bower in Lon- don, and we have been able to compare notes. From this compari- son it results that after the 10th of August (I had then reached the I ch'u Valley), our routes were very nearly parallel till we arrived near Ch‘amdo, after which point they were identical. Finally, I would like to call attention to the rich fields of research China and its dependencies afford the explorer, be he geographer, bota- nist, geologist, or ethnologist. Though volumes enough to fill a goodly EXPLORATIONS IN MONGOLIA AND TIBET. 679 library have been written about the Chinese Empire, a great deal re- mains to be done. Our geographical knowledge of China is still based on the surveys of the Jesuits, executed in the seventeenth century, to which a few itineraries have since been added. Pumpelly, Richthofen and a few others have only studied the geology of a part of this vast re- gion; its botany is less well known perhaps than that of any other part of ——— . —7 Fya. 12.—a, b. Tibetan jews’s-harp (K’a-pi); Bamboo. c, Bamboo case of same. the globe. Its ethnology, though it has been more or less studied by hun- dreds of writers, has never, as far as I know, been systematically treated, and the scientific study of the languages of China is only just begun, Of the scientific results of my journey I will here say nothing; they will be submitted in the report which I am at present preparing, to- gether with a route map on a scale of 16 miles to an inch, reduced from my original survey. The illustrations accompanying this paper are from photographs taken by me on the journey, and of which I secured some two hundred fairly good ones. PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMY FOR 1891 AND 1892. By WILLIAM C. WINLOCK. A review of the progress of astronomy for the years 1879 and 1880 was contributed by Prof. E.S. Holden to the Smithsonian Report for 1880, and reviews for each succeeding year were continued by him in the annual reports of the Institution up to 1884; the reviews for 1885 and 1886, and for 188788 and 1889-90 were prepared by the present writer, the publication since 1886 being biennialinstead of annual. The arrangement of the review for 1891-92 is essentially the same as in previous years and, in its compilation as hitherto, notes in recent jour- nals have been freely drawn upon without specific citation. It should be borne in mind that the review is intended for those having a general interest in astronomy rather than for the professional astron- omer who has access to a large working library. To the latter the bibliography appended may be found convenient as a reference, and will supplement the text in giving a general idea of recent publications on any special subject. Many very important papers are of such a nature that they do not lend themselves readily to condensation for the purposes of such a summary as the present. Within the last few years many new aids have been provided to facilitate reference to the constantly-increasing volume of the litera- ture of the subject. The most comprehensive of these is to be found in the Bulletin astronomique, published under the auspices of the Paris Observatory and the able editorship of M. Tisserand. In addi- tion to extensive critical reviews of important memoirs, there is a brief summary of the contributions to other astronomical periodicals, and the whole is made easy of reference by an admirable index (wherein most journals are defective) at the close of the year, which, in fact, to a large extent, supplies a bibliography of astronomy for the year. The Journal of the British Astronomical Association contains a sum- mary of current periodical literature, the value of which to the mem- bers is abundantly vouched for. The Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific contains a great number of admirable reviews or notes, and this department is receiving increased attention in Astren- omy and Astrophysics. The Observatory has perhaps the most com- plete notes, without an attempt at a systematic summary of current 681 682 PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMY FOR 1891 AND 1892. - literature, to be found in English, while the excellent reviews in Nature and the more popular notes of the Atheneum need no special comment here. The Astronomische Nachrichten and the Astronomical Journal contain occasional notices of important works. The ‘‘ Notes on some points connected with the progress of astron- omy during the past year” in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astro- nomical Society have been increased in scope and fullness, and as the reviews in different branches of astronomy are furnished by specialists, these notes form a most valuable commentary on the year’s work. The Vierteljahrsschrift der astronomischen Gesellschaft is, of course, the crit- ical astronomical review, and is the recognized authority for summa- ries of cometary and planetary discoveries. STELLAR SYSTEMS. The Milky Way.—The independent researches of Prof. Pickering at the Harvard observatory and of Dr. Giil at the Cape of Good Hope have led to the conclusion that the stars of the Milky Way form a veritable sidereal system, separate and individual. This conclusion is entirely opposed to the views Sir William Herschel reached from his earliest observations (1785) which are still generally received by those who have not given much attention to this special question. Miss Clerke points out in the Observatory for September, 1891 (p. 302), that ‘“‘the study of nebular distribution might alone, and long ago, have driven out of the field every form of ‘projection theory’ of the Milky Way. For it showed the great majority of gaseous nebule to be embraced within its circuit, and this alone amounted to a demonstration that a physical reality, and not simply a geometrical appearance, was in question.” A brief statement of the arguments of Prof. Pickering and of Dr. Gill is contained in a lecture by the latter delivered at the Royal Institution of Great Britain, May 29, 1891. Dr. Gill said: I pass now to another recent result that is of great cosmical interest. The Cape photographic star-charting of the Southern Hemisphere has been already referred to. In comparing the existing eye estimates of magnitude by Dr. Gould with the photographic determinations of these magnitudes, both Prof. Kapteyn and myself have been greatly struck with a very considerable systematic discordance between the two. In the rich parts of the sky, that is, in the Milky Way, the stars are systematically photographically brighter by comparison with the eye observations than they are in the poorer part of the sky, and that not by any doubtful amount, but by half or three-fourths of a magnitude. One of two things was certain, either that the eye observations were wrong, or that the stars of the Milky Way are bluer or whiter than other stars. But Prof. Pickering, of Cambridge, America, bas lately made a complete photographic review of the heavens and by placing a prism in front of the telescope he has made pictures of the whole Sky. . . . He has discussed the various types of the spectra of the brighter stars, as thus revealed, according to their distribution in the PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMY FOR 1891 AND 1892. 683 sky. He finds thus that the stars of the Sirius type oceur chiefly in the Milky Way, whilst stars of other types are fairly divided over the sky. Now stars of the Siriws type are very white stars, very rich relative to other stars in the rays which act most strongly on a photographie plate. Here then is the explanation of the results of our photographic star-charting, and of the discordance between the photographic and visual magnitudes in the Milky Way. The results of the Cape charting further show that it is not alone to the brighter stars that this discordance extends, but it extends also, though in a rather less degree, to the fainter stars of the Milky Way. Therefore we may come to the very remarkable conclusion that the Milky Way is a thing apart; and that it has been developed perhaps in a different manner, or more probably at a different and probably later epoch from the rest of the sidereal-universe.* NEBULA. In a paper by Prof. Keeler, communicated to the Royal Society by Dr. Huggins on March 19, 1891, the question of the position of the chief nebular line seems to be definitely settled. Prof. Keeler has not only made a series of sixteen complete measures, obtained on eleven nights, of the chief line in the spectrum of the Orion nebula, thus defining its apparent position when corrected for the earth’s motion, as 2 5006.22 0.014, but has supplemented these by ten measures of the green hydro- gen line on seven nights. The latter show the nebula to be moving relatively to the solar system with a motion of + 10.7 + 1.0 miles per second, and oblige us to fix the true position of the chief line at 2 5005.93. The chief line is therefore 0.43 tenth meter more refrangible than the lower edge of the magnesium fluting, and as it has no resemblance to a fluting in appearance, and as flutings and lines of magnesium, which could not fail to appear at the same time with the fluting at A 5006.36 are entirely absent from nebular spectra, the incorrectness of the view that the nebular line is the remnant of the magnesium fluting appears to be demonstrated. . Mr. Burnham has made a set of measures of the nebula in the Pleiades close to the star Merope. He remarks that it is one of the most singular and interesting objects in the heavens. With respect to its nearness to a bright naked-eye star (the distance between the centers is less than 40’) it is unique. There may be other examples, but certainly no other has ever been discovered, and this close asso- ciation of a faint nebula and one of the prominent stars of the Pleiades is an interesting fact, whether such association 1s accidental or other- wise. The accurate measures made by Mr. Burnham and Mr. Barnard will enable this point to be ascertained when others shall have been made sometime hence, and it will be possible to determine by compar- ison whether the new nebula is drifting in space with Merope and the other stars of this famous group. We have, of course, many examples of large stars involved in widely diffused and extended nebulous masses, *Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 19. 684 PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMY FOR 1891 AND 1892. but no instance has hitherto been known of a star bright enough to be visible to the naked eye having a small definite nebula within even sey- eral times the distance of this from Merope. ASTRONOMICAL CONSTANTS. The Constant of Aberration.—Prot. Comstock, of the Washburn Ob- servatory, has been making careful trial of a modification of the method of determining the constant of aberration first suggested by M. Loewy. The essential feature of M. Loewy’s method is the introduction of reflecting surfaces in front of the objective of a telescope, by means of which images of different portions of the heavens are simultaneously produced in the focal plane of the objective. By means of the microm- eter the apparent distance between the images of two stars thus pro- duced may be measured, and the angular distance between the stars determined from a simple relation involving the measured quantity and the angle included between the reflecting surfaces. It is obvious that great difficulties would attend the determination of this angle, and M. Loewy avoids these difficulties by measuring the distances of two pairs of stars and taking the difference of these distances, thus eliminating the angle between the mirrors. Prof. Comstock has found it advan- tageous to place before the objective three reflecting surfaces instead of two, making approximately equal angles among themselves, and to employ successively each pair of surfaces in measuring the distance between two given stars. If the normals to these surfaces all lie in the plane passing through the two stars and the earth, the mean of the three dihedral angles formed by the surtaces will be exactly 120°; and by taking the mean of the results furnished by the three pairs of surfaces the distance between a pair of stars may be determined in- dependently of the angles between the mirrors. Prof. Comstock’s pro- visional result for the constant of aberration is 20.494 +0/.017. MM. Loewy and Puiseux’s work on the Constant of Aberration is summarized as follows in a communication to the Comptes Rendus for March 16, 1891. 1. Struve’s value 20/.445 is very near the truth. It would, in our Dee be premature to alter it. . M. Fizeaw’s result, that reflection does not affect the behavior of rays with regard to aberration, is confirmed. 3. The new method for determining aberration can be regarded as satisfactory and definitive. STAR CATALOGUES AND CHARTS. The Star Catalogue of the Astronomische Gesellschaft.—The zone under- taken by the Harvard College Observatory +50° to 455° declination has been published as the fifth part of the great catalogue. The obser- vations were made with the new meridian circle in the years 1870~78 and 188384, chiefly by Prof. W. A. Rogers; under whose direction PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMY FOR 1891 AND 1892. 685 the reductions have also been made. The right ascensions were observed chronographically over eleven vertical wires, and the declina- tions also chronographically over an inclined wire, the circle being read by two microscopes. The probable error of an observation in 187078 is +0.5054 in right ascension and +0/.55 in declination, and is rather greater for stars fainter than the eighth magnitude than for brighter stars. The fifth volume of the Annals of ne Leyden observatory contains the second half of the zone sbservations between + 30° and + 35°—em- bracing ten thousand observations. The Paris Catalogue.—The second part of this work, containing the places of stars from 6® to 12" of right ascension, has recently been issued, the first part having been published in 1887. There are really three catalogues, the first comprising observations from 1837 to 1853 reduced to 1845.0; the second, those made from 1854 to 1867 reduced to 1860.0, and the third from 1868 to 1881 reduced to 1875.0. The stars are arranged in the order of right ascension at 1875.0. A valuable memoir on the proper motions of the stars contained in the catalogue has been prepared by Bossert. Second Munich Catalogue-—A second catalogue, containing 13,200 stars for the epoch 1880.0 has been published under the direction of Prof. Seeliger supplementary to the larger catalogue recently issued. The stars are from the seventh to tenth magnitude within 25° of the equator, and were observed with the meridian circle during the years 1884 to 1888. The positions depend upon Auwers’s Fundamental Cata- logue. Pulkowa Catalogue.—The Pulkowa catalogue of 5,634 stars for 1875 is deduced from observations made with the meridian circle during the years 1874—’80, and prepared for publication by Herr Romberg. The stars are of various classes, including many of the Struve double stars. A comparison is made ou the places of several other catalogues. Ocltzen’s Catalogue.-—A new editon of Oeltzen’s catalogue of Argel- ander’s southern zones, —15° to —31°, has been published by Prof. Weiss. The total number of stars is 18,2 76, the positions being given for 1850.0 with the amount of the precession necessary to bring them to 1875.0. The places of stars north of —23° have been compared with Schénfeld’s Southern Durchmusterung, and south of that limit with other catalogues, thereby eliminating a considerable number of errors from the Sete places. Beddicker’s map of the Milky Way.—Dr. Boeddicker, of the Earl of Rosse’s observatory at Birr Castle, has been at work since 1884 upon an elaborate map of the Milky Way from the North Pole to 10° south declination, and has at length finished this very laborious task. His plan has been to exhibit the ramifications of the Milky Way as it ap- pears to the naked eye, a necessary first step to the knowledge of the structure of the sidereal universe. No optical help has been used. 686 PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMY FOR 1891 AND 1892. STELLAR PARALLAX. Prof. Pritchard has continued in Part Iv of the publications of the Oxford University Observatory his work upon the photographic deter- mination of stellar parallaxes. He has concluded “from actual and prolonged experience that an accuracy, amply sufficient in the present condition of astronomy, is secured by observations of each star made on twenty-five nights advantageously selected throughout the paral- lactic year, four exposures being usually made on each night.” The general result of the investigations of the parallax of thirty northern stars of the second magnitude is that the average parallax of a star of the second magnitude is 0.//056; and comparing with this the result of Drs. Gill and Elkin for the average parallax of fourteen first magnitude stars, viz, 0.//089 we see that there is distinct evidence that the brighter stars are nearer—though it should be borne in mind that the heliometer was used by Drs. Gill and Elkin, and the photo- graphic method by Prof. Pritchard. Following is a tabular statement of the Oxford results. Two results a and b are obtained, from two comparison stars; the probable error of each result is about +0./025: | | Parallax. | Star. = | | a b | | ne : | Mt a, Andromed#=-——a-5-- 52 +0. 0565 -+ 0.0600 lB -Andromedter- seeps ar | + .0610 | + . 0860 a Arietisa ae acer + .0880 | + .0715 aePorseiea tn tee ee ene + .0996 | + 0738 | BoP erscie eee seer + .0642 | + .0529 fojed Mob a ee ies ee + .0736 | + . 0529 | Be Auniow yy. ekoree pees ict .0591 | + . 0652 VGeminorume--s-ee ses oe | == Wile | UBER lan UirsseuMiay ovis: --o2ec eee | + . 0486 | + .0436 | 8 Urse Majoris...---- Yeates + .1177 | + .0434 jy Wmrsse Majorisss- 2. 22-5. - | + .0768/-+ .1206 | « Urse Majoris..----.:---.. |} -+ .0832|) + .0792 n Urs Majoris.......------ |. — .0309'| — .0628 BelieoniSa-o= secs eee eee ee , + .0490 | + .0087 Belirssey Minorisis-c--=— =: |; — .0200|} + .0644 an COTON GB se =o. oo ee eee {Pe O2 50M imme 0493 VeWTaCONIS tse = seme e eee + .0625 | + .0371 OL On atlas -Bebadaseescsecs5 sc + .1107 | + .0931 euCyenivn=--ee-ne eee n aces + .0927 | + .1629 a, Pegasi....-.-..-------.-..| + .0913 | + .0719 | @ SRC Pash Seer ae neste eeinsiee + 0693 | + .0919 Yale heliometer determinations of stellar parallax.—Dr, Elkin pub- lishes the following preliminary results of his investigations of the parallaxes of the first magnitude stars in the northern hemisphere, proposing to continue his observations until he has secured one hun- PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMY FOR 1891 AND 1892. 687 dred sets of measures of each of the ten stars—that number being required in his opinion to furnish parallaxes with probable errors not much above 0/.0L: | No. of Star. | Parallax. | Baobable compari- Nore + “json stars.) ° E Ws | WI | GLAU en cr ewes cae sees +0. 101 +0. 022 6 65 Oye ee 40.095 0,021 5M) | |p5i G.OTiIONISit=. Sse s eee ae ee +0. 022 | 0. 022 6 48 a Canis Minoris ..-----..--.. +0. 341 | 0.020 | 6 | 48 g Geminorum..........----- | -£.0..057 | 0. 021 6 | 48 Gilteonish ee ee eke | +0.089| 0.026| 10 | 43 Puss Ressece see e Se ee +0. 016 0.018 10 89 BER yes oe hee ee a 40.092, 0. 019 aed 67 (3 INTIME cece soto scconcesss +0. 214 0. 023 10 46 @ Oni coo sesosséoncsovees = —0. 012 | 0. 020 | 7 49 . Determination of stellar parallax with a transit instrument.—Prof. Kapteyn has published a paper of much interest, upon the determina- tion of relative stellar parallax by observations of the differences of right ascension between the selected star and neighboring comparison stars made with the transit instrument and chronograph. The compar- ison stars are selected of about the same declination as the star whose parallax is to be determined and symmetrically situated at slightly greater and less declinations. The differences of right ascension and of magnitude should be small. Special precautions are taken to elimi- nate all ordinary instrumental errors, particularly the error of clock rate, which has an important effect. The following are the results published by Prof. Kapteyn. The prob- able error given in each case is not far from +0./03: Star. | Parallax. Star. Parallax. Bonn VII 81...--. | +0.074 || Bonn VII 104..... +0. 428 | @ Urs Majoris...| + .052 LOSER + .168 BonnaweLlsae--2-- + .064 Gl) seeee + .030 20 Leo Minoris. --. + . 062 | Uh Paes + .016 | Bonn VII 89....-. + .176 ib pee ees | += 139 Bonnell 9sie-e + .101 1142s. + .038 Bonn VII 95 .--.-.. + .038 |) fe Deer +0. 056 |, IGE oe see sade (| | Parallax of 6 Herculis.—Prot. Leavenworth has found a parallax of + 0.050 +0./014 from his own observations of this star; and from a series of observations published by Dembowski in his ‘‘ Double Star Observations,” +0.//030 +0.//015. Parallax of P Urse Majoris.—Dr. Franz finds from heliometer ob- servations of this star at Kénigsberg from 1883 to 1890 a parallax of 688 PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMY FOR 1891 AND 1892. . +0./10 with a probable error of 0.01. As the annual proper motion is 3/’, this parallax implies that the star is moving through space at a rate of 88 miles a second. Dr. Franz’s result is considerably smaller than that obtained by Prof. Geelmuyden from transit observations, a=0.'27 from differences of right ascension, and 0./’24 trom differences of declination. DOUBLE AND MULTIPLE STARS. Gores catalogue of binary stars.—Mr. Gore has compiled a useful catalogue of binary stars, for which orbits have been computed, givin ae besides the elements, date of computation, ete., the magnitudes, colors, spectra, hypothetical parallax, observed parallax, relative brightness, and the constants A and B for use in Mr, Rambaut’s method of com- puting the parallax from the orbital motion of the star in the line of sight. The more recent measures are given in a series of notes. The catalogue was originally communicated to the Royal Irish Academy, in June, 1890, and has been reprinted from the Proceedings. Prof. Asaph Hall has made a further discussion of the relative motion of the two components of 61 Cygni and the question whether there is anything in the nature of a physical connection between the two. His conclusion is in favor of such connection, but although accurate obser- vations of the mutual distances and angles of position date from 1825, and Prof. Hall includes in the discussion those made by himself up to 1891, it is not possible to reach any result with regard to the period of revolution, except that it is long. Two lists of double stars discovered by Mr. Burnham, most of them with the 36-inch refractor, have appeared during 1892, bringing Mr. Burnham’s double star discoveries up to 1264. Most of his measures are of the more difficult or interesting doubles, a measurement of 0/’.1 being apparently quite a simple matter. Mr. Burnham has also published a number of investigations of double star orbits, and collected lists of measures. Among lists of recently published measures of double stars should be mentioned the series of observations of 950 stars by Prof. Hall made from 1880 to 1891, with the 26-inch equatorial, of the United States Naval Observatory. With reference to the reduction and discussion of double star measures, Prof. Hall says: “The formule and corrections for personal equation of observation seem to me of doubtful utility, and a better way is to compare the measurements of the same star by different observers. ” Discovery of double stars by means of their spectra.a—In the review of astronomy for 1889-90 attention was called to Prof. EK. C. Picker- ing’s discovery of the duplicity of € Urse Majoris and # Aurige through pecularities in their spectra which indicated differences in the motions of supposed components. s PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMY FOR 1891 AND 1892. 689 Prof. Pickering has more recently called attention to another interesting class of ‘invisible double stars,” detected in a somewhat similar way by peculiarities in their spectra. Of many double stars the brighter component is red or yellow, while the fainter component is green or blue. The spectroscope shows that this is due to the fact that the spectrum of the brighter component is of the second type, like our sun, while the spectrum of the fainter compo- nent is of the first type, traversed by strongly marked hydrogen lines. If the stars are near together the spectrum of the combined light re- sembles that of the sun, except that the hydrogei lines ave all strong. Stars like 6 Cygni give such a spectrum, but the components are so far apart that the separation of their spectra is clearly shown. Several stars hitherto supposed to be single have been found whose spectrum is of the class described above, and the question arises whether they may not really be double with components so close that they can not be separated by ordinary means. Inthe detailed examination of the spee- tra of the brighter stars made by Miss Maury upon the Harvard photo- graphs, stars occupying all intermediate grades from the first to the second type have been found, and it is difficult to determine whether there are really two spectra or merely changes in the spectrum of a sin- ele star due to physical causes. Upon the hypothesis of duplicity the hydrogen lines would probably show a periodic displacement, and in fact an examination of four photographs of the speetrum of Procyon does show a displacement of the lines which, if the phenomenon is due to the relative movement of a faint component, would seem to indicate that it is receding at the rate of 20 kilometers per second as compared with the bright component. The evidence of duplicity is pot con- sidered conclusive by Prof. Pickering, but, from an examination of ten other stars having a similar composite speetrum, five are well-known doubles, two have distant companions, leaving three, z Persei, € Aurigie, and 6 Sagittarii, which it would seem from the above consid- erations may possibly be double. VARIABLE STARS. Algol.—Mr. Chandler has published the results of an interesting investigation of the variable star Algol, the periodicity of which ap- pears to have been first discovered by Goodricke, at York, in 1752; and the explanation suggested by him of the periodic diminution of the brightness, that it is produced by the interposition of an opaque sat- ellite, is now generally accepted, confirmed as it has recentiy been, by the investigations of Prof. Vogel. Mr. Chandler, after an elaborate investigation of the inequalities in the period, and also of the ivegularity in the observed proper motion of Algol, has found that they may be satisfactorily accounted for by supposing that both Algol itself and the satellite which revolves round it in about 2 days 20.5 hours have a common revolution round a third, large, distant and opaque body, in a H, Mis, 114—~44 690 PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMY FOR 1891 AND 1892. period of about 150 years. The size of this orbit around the common center of gravity is about equal to that of Uranus around the sun. The plane of the orbit is inclined about 20° to our line of vision. Several interesting cases of variability have been detected in the examination of the photographs of stellar spectra at the Harvard Ob- servatory all showing the bright hydrogen lines; the change in bright- ness exceeding two magnitudes. The director of the Harvard Obser- vatory has called for the codperation of astronomers provided with tele- scopes of moderate power and not otherwise engaged, for the observa- tion of a list of seventeen circumpolar variables of long period. The methods to be followed are set forth in a circular issued by the observa- tory, and accessible to all who are interested. Nova Aurige—One of the most remarkable outbursts of “new stars” or “nove” that has ever been recorded, occurred during the year 1892— a phenomenon of double interest in that it afforded an opportunity of study under improved astronomical apparatus. On February 1, 1892, an anonymous postal card was received at the Royal Observatory, Edinburgh, announcing the presence of a new star in the constellation Auriga. It subsequently turned out that the dis- coverer was Dr. Thomas S. Anderson, an amateur astronomer living in Edinburgh, that the discovery had been made by the help of a star-atlas and a small pocket telescope, and that the star had been seen by him for some days previous to February 1; it wasof about the fifth magnitude. In the first observations at Edinburgh it was found to be of a yellow tint and about the sixth magnitude, its position for 1892 being right ascension 5" 25™ 38; declination +30° 21’. Very fortunately system- atic photographs of this region had been made for some time by Prof. Pickering at the Harvard Observatory, and the Nova was in fact found to have been photographed on thirteen plates taken between December 10, 1891, and January 20, 1892; while it does not appear upon a plate taken at Heidelberg on December 8, which shows stars down to the ninth magnitude. The outburst, at least above the ninth magnitude seems, therefore, to be pretty well fixed between December 8 and 10, 1892, : The Nova remained of the fourth or fifth magnitude till the end of February, then diminished somewhat rapidly, and by the end of March it was of the twelfth to fourteenth magnitude. In August it was again easily visible. At the Lick observatory it was found to be of 10.5 magnitude on August 17, and 9.8 on August 19, and further fluctuations in brightness have occurred. The spectrum was of the greatest interest. The chief characteristic was a brilliant array of bright, broad lines, attended by dark compan- ions on the more refrangible sides. Numerous finer details were then added, dark lines crossing the broad, bright bands, and bright lines marking the dark companions, PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMY FOR 1891 AND 1892. 691 “hree lines have attracted more especial attention on account of their intimate connection with the suspected physical constitution of the star. ‘‘ These are (1) the bright-green line near b,, and the less refran- gible edge of the hydrocarbon band; (2) the line near the chief nebular line A5006, and (3) the line near the pair of chromospheric lines A4923 and A4921. When the wave length of these lines, as quoted by the observers, are corrected for motion in the line of sight, and arranged in a table, the mean values come out very close to the wave lengths of three notable pairs of solar chromospheric lines ; while mag- nesium and the hydrocarbons, as possible origins of line (1), are ex- cluded by the absence from the lists of their inseparable companion lines and flutings. Line (2) is claimed by four observers for the chief nebular line, but the weight of evidence seems to be against its nebular origin, and the outburst would seem to be a vast chromospheric disturbance, a view confirmed by Dr. Huggins’ observation of the complete series of bright hydrogen lines in the ultra-violet-—the same that Hale and Deslandres found in the solar chromosphere—but each with its dark companion. An interesting article advocating the meteoric theory in explanation of the outburst is given by Prof. Lockyer in Volume 31 of the Nine- teenth Century. The chromospheric theory ef the near approach of two stars is given by Dr. Huggins in the June number, 1892, of the Fortnightly Review ; Seeliger’s modification of the meteoric theory is translated in Astronomy and Astrophysics for December, and a single- star chromospheric theory is offered. by Sidgreaves in the October number of the Observatory. STELLAR SPECTRA. OT Draper catalogue of stellar spectra.—Volaume 27 of the Harvard An- nals contains a catalogue of the photographic spectra of more than ten thousand stars north of 25° south declination. The photographs were taken with an 8-inch Voigtlander lens, in front of which was placed a prism 8 inches square, with a refracting angie of 13°. The edge of this prism was so fixed that the star’s light was dispersed in declination, the length of the spectrum being about a centimeter, and the star being allowed to trail slightly gave the spectrum a width of about a millimeter. Each plate covered 10° square and the spectra of all stars to the sixth magnitude were photographed. The spectra are divided, for conveni- ence, into a large number of classes—A BC D indicating varieties of the first type; E to L, varieties of the second type; M, the third type; N, the fourth type; and O P Q spectra that do not resemble any of the preceding types. One of the most important features of the work is the method by which photographic magnitudes have been assigned. “The quantity measured in each case is the intensity of the speetrum in the vicinity of the G line. Accordingly, when stars having different spectra are compared, the results will not be the same as if the entire 692 PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMY FOR 1891 AND. 1892. light of the stars were measured. In the latter case, the results will (differ with the color of the star, according to the method of measure- ment employed. This is a serious defect in the measures of the bright- ness of the stars in catalogues hitherto published. Since the present measures relate to rays of a single wave-length, the same result should be obtained whether the method of comparison was by the photographie plate, the eye, or the thermopile.” The Draper catalogue gives the approximate positions of the stars for the year 1900, with their reference numbers in the Bonn Durchmusterung and the Harvard Photometry; their class of spectrum by letters; their photographie magnitudes and the differences of these from the magni- tudes of the Durchmusterung, the Argentine General Catalogue and the Harvard Photometry. A well arranged table gives the details of the measures of magnitude on the various plates on which each star appears. The whole sky to 25° south declination was photographed twice with plates overlapping. Volume 26, part 1, of the Harvard Annals gives additional details respecting the photographs, their measurement and reduction not con- veniently included in the catalogue volume itself—a complete history of the Draper Memorial. A point brought out in the various matters discussed in this volume is the predominance of the first type spectra in the Milky Way elsewhere referred to, and the systematic underval- uing of the brightness of the Galactic stars by about one-fifth of a mag- nitude, by the “Durchmusterung” and ‘* Uranometria Argentina” as compared with the Harvard photometric and photographic magnitudes. A third volume is to follow devoted to the work of the 38-inch Draper telescope during the years 1889 and 1892 and to the discussion of stars of peculiar spectra. A fifth type of stellar spectra.—Prot. EK. C. Pickering has proposed to class in a ‘fifth type” stars whose spectra resemble those of the stars discovered by Wolf and Rayet. In general, his photographic survey has confirmed Secchi’s fourfold division of stellar spectra, but many stars in Orion and the neighborhood differ considerably from the ordinary first-type stars, the additional lines, instead of being faint as in Vega, being nearly as intense as the hydrogen lines, while two classes of objects, the planetary nebulze and the stars, the spectra of which consist chiefly of bright lines, are left unprovided for. Prof. Pickering points out the close similarity of the grouping of the lines in these three classes and also the striking character of their distribution. While stars of the second and third types are about equally divided between the Milky Way and the regions remote from it, two-thirds of the first-type star lie in or near the Milky Way and of the Orion stars four-fifths are found in the Milky Way. A similar distribution of the planetary nebule has long been recog- nized, and Prof, Pickering shows that, of thirty-three stars known as —=— ——F PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMY FOR 1891 AND 1892. 693 the “ Wolf-Rayet,” or as he suggests the “ fifth type,” every one lies within 10° of the Galactic equator, two-thirds within 2° of it. a Virginis.—Dr. Vogel’s more recent observations of @ Virginis at Potsdam accord with his earlier observations of the same star, show- ing that it is a close binary. The method of observation is quite interesting : The spectrum of the star and of terrestrial hydrogen are photographed together, and the displacement of the star lines on the photograph in the neighborhood of Hy is afterwards measured under a microscope. Stars with spectra of the second and third types give results of considerable accuracy, as the lines in such stars are numer- ous and sharp. In the case of a Virginis the difficulties of observation were greater, the hydrogen lines being broad and diffuse, without any definite maxi- mum of intensity, and there were no distinct lines in the vieinity of H y to which the measurements could be referred. Dr. Vogel’s meas- urements of twenty-four photographs showed that the star lines were displaced alternately toward the upper and the lower end of the spee- trum in a compiete period of about four days, the maximum displace- ment toward the violet indicating a motion of the star toward the sun of 65.9 English miles, and that toward the red a receding motion of 47.5 miles per second. ‘These observations are completely explained by supposing that Spica isa binary star having a period of one compo- nent about the other or the common center of gravity of about 4 days, (the orbital velocity of the larger component being 56.7 miles per sec- ond) and that the system is approaching the sun at the rate of 9.2 miles per second. On the assumption of a circular orbit, equal mass of the components, and the data given by observation, the mass of the system 1S 2.6 times that of the sun, and the distance between the components 6,260,000 miles. In commenting upon Dr. Vogel’s work Prof. Keeler says, ‘‘A won- derful picture of stellar motion is presented to our mind, and one to which the whole visible universe as revealed to us by our greatest tele- scopes offers no parajlel. The spectacle of two great suns like our own, revolving around each other in only four days, ata distance no greater than that which separates the sixth satellite of Saturn from its primary, is one which the inadequacy of our optical powers will proba- bly ever forbid us from actually beholding, but the indirect evidence that such extraordinary circumstances of motion exist is so complete that we must admit their reality.” fi Aurige.—The Potsdam observations furnish a complete confirma- tion of Prof. Pickering’s discovery of the duplicity of this star. The lines in the spectrum of the star appear double on every second day, and the component, in the line of sight, of the motion of the system can amount to nearly 150 miles a second, while the whole system has : motion relatively to the solar system of —4.03 miles; that is, a motion of this amount per second towards the solar system. 694 PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMY FOR 1891 AND 1892. € Urse Majoris.—The duplicity of € Ursie Majoris is not so satisfac- torily confirmed. The maximum relative velocity of its two com- ponents seems to amount to about 100 miles per second. a Bootis.—Mr. Keeler’s recent measures upon the D line of the spee- trum of Arcturus show that the velocity in the line of sight is not 80 kilometers per second, the value hitherto accepted, but 6.4 kilometers, which accords with the result obtained by Dr. Vogel. The mean of the ineasures at Potsdam trom October 5, 1888, to May 23, 1890, is —7.1 -- 0.3 kilometers. The Lick observations from April 20, 1890, to August, 15, 1890, give —6.9 kilometers. ASTRONOMICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. The photographic chart of the sky.—The third* meeting of the perma- nent committee, appointed by the Astrophotographic Congress at Paris in 1887, was held at the Paris observatory from March 31 to April 4, 1892. Admiral Mouchez presided, the members of the committee pres, ent being Baillaud, Bakhuyzen, Beuf, Christie, Denza, Donner, Giil- Henry (Panl), Henry (Prosper), Janssen, Kapteyn, Loewy, Mouchez, Pujazou, Rayet, Ricco, Tacchini and Trépied. The following astrono- mers were also present by invitation, Messrs. Abney, Andoyer, Belo- polsky, Bouquet de la Grye, Cornu, Knobel, Gautier, Maturana, Plum- mer, Scheiner, Tisserand, and Wolf (C). Drs. Bakhuyzen and Gill were elected vice-presidents and Prof. Kapteyn and Trépied secretaries. From reports of progress made at different observatories the follow- ing notes indicate the advancement of the work: Some delay had been experienced in securing the plates containing the reference lines or “véseaur,” but provision was finally made to furnish them at an early day, as well as the photographic plates which it was necessary should be of a specially good quality of plate glass. Algiers.—Instruments ready and only awaiting the plates and ‘“ réseau.” Bordeaux.—Photographie installation has been ready for about a year; a number of experimental photographs have been taken and the work can commence as soon as a supply of plates is secured with the necessary ‘‘ réseau.” Cape of Good Hope.—Instrument practically ready. Catania.—The instrument has been completed. Helsingfors.—The instrument has been ready for several months and a considerable number of photographs have been taken. La Plata.—Instrument ready. Melbourne.—Instrument ready and a number of experimental plates have been secured. Oxford.—Instrument ready and a number of plates submitted to the committee. * The first meeting of the committee, for organization, etc., was held at the time of the Congress in April 1887, the second meeting or the first regular meeting for dis- cussions, in September, 1889 (not 1890, as stated by a misprint in the review of As- tronomy for 1889-90). _ PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMY FOR 1891 AND 1892. 695 Paris.—Instrument ready. Potsdam.—Instrument ready and a number of plates submitted to the inspection of the committee. Rio de Janeiro.—The photographic equatorial has been received and will be mounted at the new site of the observatory. Rome ( Vatican).—The instrument has been completed. San Bernando.—The instruments are mounted and work can be begun as soon as the réseau is received. Santiago.—The instrument is finished, but, owing to political disturbance in Chile it is impossible to fix a day for beginning the work. Sydney.—Ready except for the “réseau.” Tacubaya.—Instrument ready and a number of experimental plates submitted. Toulouse.—The instrument was one of the first to be mounted; the réseau” and photographie plates are only needed to begin the work. Following is a summary of the resolutions adopted at this meeting: (1) No change is made in the conditions of distance and magnitude of the stars that have formed the different parts of the catalogue of guide stars. If, however, the guide star of the catalogue is not bright enough, a brighter one may be selected up to a distance of 40/ from the center of the plate. (2) The “réseau” is to be photographed upon each plate by parallel ‘ays of light. (To replace resolution 15 adopted at the meeting of 1559.) (3) The orientation of the plates in zones above 65° declination will be arranged for the equinox of 1900; for other stars the parallel will be referred to the apparent equinox. (4) The work decided upon by the congress of 1887 comprises two series of negatives made with different exposures. The committee, while urging special activity in securing plates -of shorter exposure (negatives intended for the catalogue), would suggest that the best nights be also taken advantage of for plates of longer exposure (for the chart). (5) Negatives from which the catalogue is to be formed will have two exposures for the same plate, one showing faintly the images of stars of the eleventh magnitude, the other with an exposure twice as long, the distance of the two images being 0.2 to 0.5 of a millimeter. (To replace resolution 25 of the meeting of 1339.) (6) MM. Abney and Cornu are added to the committee on reproduc- tion of the negatives. (7) With reference to the production of the chart, purely photo- graphic methods will be used, to the exclusion of all manual interven- tion. (8) For the chart proper (long exposures) a series of negatives with single exposure will be taken, having an even degree of declination in the center of the plate. Further study will show whether it is desir- 696 PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMY FOR 1891 AND 1892. able that in the second series (those with an odd degree at the center) there should be two or three exposures. (9) To make it possible to pass uniformly and with certainty from Argelander’s ninth magnitude to the eleventh magnitude desired for the negatives of the photographic catalogue there will be distributed among the observatories fine wire-gauze screens, absolutely identical, which, when placed over the object glass of the telescope will diminish the magnitude of a star by two units (adopting the coefficient 2.512 tor the ratio between two consecutive magnitudes). Mach observatory will from time to time make type negatives of certain specified regions. (10) The committee suggests forty minutes as the length of exposure of the plates for the chart (the series of even declinations) under the ordi- nary atmospheric conditions of Paris, and with the Lumiere plates used. Thecommittee on metallic screens will furnish the Messrs. Henry with a screen with which they will determine the time ¢ for obtaining the eleventh magnitude stars of Argelander’s scale. Then for each obser- vatory provided with an identical screen, the ratio 40 :¢ will be the factor by which to multiply the time of exposure necessary to secure satisfac- tory images of eleventh magnitude stars, in order to obtain the proper exposure for the chart plates. (11) The questions of the number ot reference stars for each nega- tive for the catalogue, the choice of the stars, and the necessary steps to secure meridian observations are referred to a special committee, con- sisting of Messrs. Auwers, Bakhuyzon, Christie, Ellery, Gill, Kapteyn, and Loewy, with full powers. (12) As soon as convenient each observer will prepare, or will have prepared by any observatory or bureau he may seleet— (a) Measures of the position of each star on the catalogue referred by rectilinear codrdinates to the nearest lines of the “ réseau.” (b) Measures necessary for the determination of the stars’ magnitudes. The different observatories will publish the separate results of these measures and the Permanent Committee will undertake their reduction as soon as a sufficient number of meridian observations of the reference stars Is at hand. (13) The work upon the chart will commence at each observatory as soon as the metallic screen reducing the stars by two magnitudes 1s re- ceived, involving probably a delay of twomonths. Each observer may, however, begin before receiving the screen if he is confident that he can get all stars of the eleventh magnitude upon the catalogue plates. (14) Without adopting a formal resolution, the committee would recommend as a separate and personal investigation, that a special series of negatives with long exposures be madeof theregion near the ecliptic. PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMY FOR 1891 AND 1892. 697 The following distribution of the zones amoung the different observa- tories was definitively adopted in place of that previously published: Observatories. Latitude. Zone. No. of plates. Greennvich ye esas ccs ss +51 29 -+90 to +65 1149 ROMO SS25 sae) sa seen lo =e 41 54 +64 +55 1040 Watamiaz ten os noses ss oe +37 30 +54 AT 1008 GI SIN DLOLS ts eee 60 9 +46 +40 1008 LEC Gy Nea oeneSoee steed cee 52) 237) 4-389) 4-33 1232 Oxford! eyncckrascice aoe eeeich or +51 46 +31] 25 1180 [PATS eer oes act l seek +48 50 42 +18 1260 jEOLGCaU Ket sas ere een ae +44 50 17 11 1260 ROUIOUSOS eo ease see sees aby BY/ Sh} S65 L080 BA oi erak ces se sat ee ke ae 36m 48 ied 8) FOG ipSantmernandor eee enero. TERR GING) BI x) 1260 Macwbayatess-en se -ecea = 19 24 —i0 —16 1260 ANGI AIO aes eae epee tens raat sh} Py ili ee ey 1260 Wiarelapate «- soos meet. cone 8 Bb) A 1360 LOG AN elLOns eee eee — Pp) oy —32, —40 1376 Cape of Good Hope-..--.-..-- = 38) pial) 25 —i 1512 Sydneyes sie seco eee eeac: —33) o2))) 02, ~—6¢4 1400 Melbourne. ---..-.- seats oe —37 50 ==) -96 1149 | (16) Every year before the end of January a report upon the progress of the work will be made to the bureau of the Permanent Committee. (17) The thanks of the conference were voted for the courtesy of the Academy of Sciences in printing the Bulletin, and the hope was expressed that the different governments would provide the necessary means for the observations themselves and for the publication of the chart. The sixth fasciculus of the Bulletin contains papers by Prof. Kap- teyn and M. Sautier on the parallactic micrometer, and upon photo- graphic magnitudes by Profs. Wolf and Dunér. The latter subject has also been discussed by Dr. Scheiner in the Astronomische Nachrichten, by Prof. Pritchard in the Comptes Rendus, and by Mr. Christie in the Monthly Notices. Photographs of the Pleiades.—Rutherford’s photographs of the Plei- ades taken in 1872 and 1874 have been selected for measurement by Mr. Jacoby as offering an opportunity for comparing the accuracy of the photographs with that of heliometer and micrometer measures. Kach plate contains two impressions of the cluster, both of which were meas- ured. Mr. Jacoby’s method consisted of measuring the position angle and distance from the star 24 p, and he finds the probable error of the mean of the twenty exposures to be about + 0.//05 in each element. A comparison between these photographic places and the places resulting from the Yale and Koénigsberg heliometers shows that the photographs are fully entitled to be taken into consideration in making a study of the proper motions or in forming a definitive catalogue of the group. Dr. Max Wolf, of Heidelberg, with a portrait lens of 24 inches aperture, has not only discovered new nebule on his long exposure pho- tographs, but new minor planets; several meteors which crossed the field left perfectly distinct records. 698 PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMY FOR 1891 AND 1892. COMETS. Ina series of papers in the Bulletin Astronomique M. Schulhof has de- veloped in an interesting way the relations existing between the elements of a comet’s orbit before and after it suffers perturbation by a planet. That the periodic comets of our system have been captured through the perturbing action of planets appears established; and Mercury has four comets assigned to it, Venus seven, the Earth ten, Mars four, Jupiter twenty-three, Saturn nine, Uranus eight, Neptune five, and a further group of comets appears to give a feeble indication of an ultra-Neptu- nian planet at a distance from the sun of about seventy times that of the earth. The search for new comets has been systematized by the cometary sec- tion of the British Astronomical Association under the direction of Mr. W.F. Denning. The aims of this section are to secure observations of comets, to discover new comets and nebulie, to record telescopic me- teors, etc. It is intended to sweep the sky regularly for new comets, a definite region being assigned toeach observer according to convenience , and choice. The following notes, relating chiefly to the comets of 1891 and 1892, will complete the list of comets published in these ‘‘ Reports of Progress,” from 1883 to 1892. It is hardly necessary to remark that the most complete and authoritative annual summary of cometary phenomena is that published by Dr. Kreutz in the Vierteljahrsschrift der Astronom- ischen Gesellschaft. The arrangement adopted below is the order of perihelion passage, except in the case of well-known periodic comets, such as Encke’s, Winnecke’s, etc., which are arranged alphabetically by their recognized names. The table of elements appended is to be regarded as only approximate, but is sufficient to furnish an idea of the general form and position of the orbit. Comet Encke: _ The return of Encke’s well-known periodic comet; —Comet 1891, UI. first found by Barnard, from the ephemeris, on Aug- ust 1,1891. It was then exceedingly faint, but in September it had increased to a nebulous mass of about the sixth to seventh magnitude. The comet was unfavorably situated for observation after the end of September, the last observation reported being October 11. It is note- worthy that its path at this return was almost the same as in the return of 1858, and a comparison of the brightness on these two occasions would seem to indicate that it has not undergone any material change in physical condition during the interval. Comet Tempel.—Yempel’s first periodic comet, and of rather unusual interest, was unfortunately missed at its return in 1892, being unfavor- ably situated for observation. Comet Tempel,-Swift: This periodic comet returns to the sun —Comet 1891 V. | once in every five’ and a half years, but un- PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMY FOR 1891 AND 1892. 699 der conditions alternately favorable and unfavorable for observation. It was originally discovered by Tempel in 1869, was picked up again in 1880 by Swift, and again upon this return by Barnard. At its inter- mediate returns in 1875 and 1885 it was so situated with reference to the earth and sun as to have been entirely invisible. A very carefully prepared ephemeris by Bossert, taking account of the perturbations from 1880, enabled Barnard to find the comet on September 27, 1891, and it was independently found by Denning at Bristol on September 30. It was deseribed as a faint, shapeless nebulosity, with slight con- densation about the center, but even at its brightest, towards the end of November, it was a difficult object for precise observation, a fact all the more to be regretted as Its position would render it of especial value for the determination of the distance of the sun. Comet Winnecke: Winnecke’s well-known periodic comet was picked —Comet 1892 IV. | upat this return, through the help of von Haerdtl’s ephemeris, by Spitaler at Vienna on March 18, 1892; it was then an exceedingly faint and small nebulous mass with stellar nucleus of the sixteenth magnitude. It increased in brightness towards perihelion (on June 30), and after perihelion was observed in the southern hem- isphere till the end of September. Comet 1886 IV,* which was discovered by Brooks on May 22, 1886, was expected to make its first return to perihelion in the latter part of 1892, but was not found. The orbit is somewhat uncertain. Comet 1889 V.—To quote from the first of a series of masterly papers on the orbit published by Mr. Chandler in the Astronomical Journal: “The vicissitudes in the history of this comet give it an interest exceeded, perhaps, by no other in astronomical annals; and the settle- ment of the problems connected therewith promises to illuminate our knowledge of cometary mechanic¢s in various important particulars. While the manner in which the comet became separated into several parts, by its encounter with Jupiter in 1886, may possibly require for its precise exposition the observations which will be obtained at the next appearance in 1896, we may hope for an approximate answer in the careful discussion of those made in 1859 alone... To begin with, it is necessary to notice some of the physical phe- nomena presented by the companions. The notation used will be the letters assigned by Barnard, BC Dand # in order of the.distances from the main comet A. As is known, B and C were detected by him on August 1, with the 12-inch, D and Lon August 4, with the 36-inch. It is desirable to remark here that the reason for their not having been discovered in the previous month, on July 5,9 and 10, can not have been superposition by perspective, at least in the case of C and the more distant companions; for the orbit of C . . . shows that * See Smithsonian Report 1887, p. 123. TOO PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMY FOR 1891 AND 1892. such superposition occurred two months previous to discovery of A by Brooks, and gives for July 8 a distance of 190” at 62°.5 position angle. That the companions were not seen in July, may be naturaliy ascribed to interference of moonlight up to about July 20, and after that either to the fact that the attention of observers was not suffi- ciently directed to the phenomenon, or to the fact that the objects had not yet become bright enough to be easily discernible. We have the evidence of Spitaler that on July 50 and 31 nothing abnormal was noticed with the 27-inch; the slight elongation on those dates, seen by him in A having no relation to the matler in hand. Two nights after, at the time of discovery, Barnard estimated the brightness of C at about one-fifth that of A. It then gradually increased in brillianey, also becoming less diffused and developing a strong condensation and nucleus, until at the end of August it was actually brighter than A al- though only one-third its size. In early September it was about equal in brightness to A but from the middle of that month faded, and be- came larger and more diffuse until it disappeared, late in November. The faint nucleus of B, in the beginning appears to have been a little brighter than that of C, and its coma smaller and less diffused. About the middle of August it had grown to be larger and fainter than at first, later more rapidly so, being excessively difficult to see or measure in the first few days of September, and invisible immediately there- after. D and H were measured only on the night of discovery, and were seen only at rare intervals until the last time on August 29. Such, briefly described, are the main features as to brightness and visibility of these objects. I beg courteously to dissent from the view which has been confidently expressed, that the diffusion and disappear- ance of B, while it was theoreticaliy inereasing in brightness, indicate ‘that it actually dissipated itself into space and absolutely ceased to exist, if indeed it were not absorbed into the main comet.’ Such acon clusion is inherently improbable, unwarranted by any knowledge we possess as to the process of cometary light development, and contr dicted by inferences drawn from other cases, of which only the most analagous need be cited, namely, that of the two nuclei of Biela’s comet, the capricious action of which affords a strict counterpart to the present instance. It will be recollected that fitful alternations of visibility occurred in 1846, and especially ii 1852, when they repeated theniselves alnost from day to day. The two companions were not habitually seen at the same time, but sometimes one, Sometimes the other; so that ob- servers could not tell which they were looking at, without comparison with the ephemeris. Thus, in the space of one week, for example, 1852, September 15 to 22, both nuclei were visible, then only the southern, then only the northern, then both together; again only the southern, and, finally, only the northern, on successive nights, respectively. It may be added that there appears to be little reason for interpret- ing these remarkable variations of brilliancy as standing in any rela- tion of effect with cause which produced thedisruption, either in Bie- PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMY FOR 1891 AND 18992. TOL la’s comet or in 1889 V; but much more for supposing that similar be- havior may be common, in greater or less degree, escaping attention ordinarily from the difficulty of photometric comparisons in the case of isolated comets, but easily attracting the eye, by contrast, when two objects nearly alike are in the same field.” Mr. Chandler’s discussion of the orbits of these companions establishes the important proposition that the force wnich led to the separation of the components A and C, whatever its nature, operated in the plane of the comet’s orbit, and produced no change in that plane or in the form of the conic section, but only in its size, and in the direction of its major axis. With reference to the identity with Lexeil’s comet, Mr. Chandler sees no sufficient reason in the differences of the period of revolution (28.18 years, according to Mr. Poor, instead of 27 years) to reject the supposition; it is necessary to carry the computation of the perturba- tions a little farther back. Comet 1890 1{.—The last observation in 1891 was on May 29 by Spit- aler at Vienna; but it was again favorably situated in January and February, 1892, and was observed at Nice up to February 4, 1892. Comet 1391 IL: Discovered by Barnard at the Lick Observatory on Comet a 1891. | March 29, 1891, and independently by Denning at Bristol on March 30. It was quite bright, tenth to eleventh magnitude, about 1/in diameter aud with a tail 10’ to 30’ long. At the time of dis- covery its position was a==-15°, d—-+4 45°; it moved rapidly south, increasing in brilliancy, and was followed after perihelion till July, the last observation having apparently been obtained at Cordoba on July 9, 1891. Comet 1891 II: First detected upon this its second appearance by —Comet > 1891. Spitaler, of Vienna, on May 1, 1891, and by Bar- —Comet 1884 IT. | nard on May 3, its position agreeing closely with —Wolf’s comet. the ephemeris. It was at first small and faint, but in August it had a bright nucleus of the eleveuth magnitude, with coma of 3/ to 4/ diameter; it decreased in brightness again after the middle of October, but was observed till March 31, 1892. Early in September the comet passed over the group of the Pleiades, and the circumstance was taken advantage of by a number of astronomers to determine whether the light from these stars underwent any refraction in passing through the material of which the comet was composed. The results obtained were for the most part negative, with the possible exception of an observation by Burnham on September 2, when the difference of declination between 21 and 22 Asterope seemed to show some change as the comet passed over them. The orbit of this comet may bring it at times close to Jupiter, and indeed the perturbations by that planet in 1575 were so great that an altogether new orbit resulted, The period of revolution is about six and three-fourths years, 402 PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMY FOR 1891 AND 1892. Comct 1891 III: | See comet Enceke. —Comet ¢ 1891. =Encke’s comet. | Comet 1891 IV: A telescopic comet of the twelfth magnitude, dis- —Comet¢ 1891. | covered by Barnard at the Lick Observatory on October 2, 1891. At the time of discovery it was in the constellation Argo; it moved farther south and was not seen at all in the northern hemisphere except at the Lick Observatory, where it was followed up to October 9; in the southern hemisphere it does not seem to have been followed beyond October 11. Jomet 1891 V: See comet Temple;-Swift. —=Comet Tempels-Switt. =Comet 1869 IIT. —Comet 1880 IV. —Comet d 1891. Comet 1892 I: Discovered by Swift on March 6, 1892, at 17% —Comet @ 1892. Rochester mean time, or 5 o’clock on the morning of March 7, in 30° south declination; the brightest comet seen in the northern hemisphere since the great September comet of 1882. At the time of its greatest brilhancy, which was at perihelion, April 6, it was as bright as a star of the third or fourth magnitude, with a bright, round head and nucleus of 10” to 15’’ diameter. The tail, on the other hand, was exceedingly faint, and was variously estimated at from 1° to 20° in length. Barnard reported it on April 3 as double. The photo- graphs of the tail were of unusual interest, especially those taken in March at Sydney and in April at Mount Hamilton. On the morning of April 5 a photograph, made by Barnard at Mount Hamilton with a 6-inch lens, showed three main branches to the tail, each being sepa- rated into several others, so that in all at least a dozen could be counted. At a distance of two degrees from the head, along the northern side of the middle tail, there was a sudden bend southward. On the 7th ‘the southern component, which was the brightest on the 5th, had become diffused and fainter, while the middle tail was very bright and broad; its southern side, which was the best defined, was wavy in numerous places, the tail appearing as if disturbing currents were flowing at right angles to it. At 42’ from the head the tail made an abrupt bend towards the south, as if its current was deflected by some obstacle. In the densest portion of the tail, at the point of deflection, is a couple of dark holes similar to these seen in some of the nebule.” The comet was visible to the naked eye till the beginning of June, and was still under observation with the telescope at the close of the year. The spectrum as observed by Konkoly on April 1 and 2 consisted of a continuous spectrum and five bright lines, while Campbell, at the —_—" PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMY FOR 1891 AND 1892. 703 Lick Observatory, whose observations extend from April 5 to June 13, saw, in addition to the continuous spectrum, the three usual com- etary bands, the less refrangible sides of these bands being sharply defined and the middle one, in fact, terminated by a very bright line. The orbit of the comet is undoubtedly elliptic, belonging to the inter- esting group of comets with a period of about two thousand years. During this appearance, as it was for a considerable time in the neigh- borhood of Jupiter, its path may be considerably changed. Comet 1892 If: | Discovered by Denning, at Bristol, on March 18, =Comet ¢ 1892. | 1892, in 23" right aseension, and 59° north declina- tion; it was then at its maximum brightness, small, round, with central condensation of from eleventh to twelfth magnitude, and no tail. It remained small and inconspicuous, but was under observation for sev- eralmonths. The orbit is parabolic, without specially interesting pecu- liarity. Comet 1892 ILL: | Discovered by Mr. E. Holmes, at London, on Novem- =Comet f 1892. ber 6, 1892, near the great Andromeda nebula, and —Holmes's comet. | also independently on November 9, by Davidson, at Mackay, Queensland—a round nebulous mass 5’ in diameter with a central condensation, but no tail; the suspicion that it was a return of Biela’s comet was shown to be unfounded as soon as sufficient obser- vations were available for a determination of its orbit, though the orbit proved to be elliptie and of short period. A short faint tail was seen soon after discovery, and upon a photograph taken by Barnard, on November 10, it can be followed for half a degree, while about a degree from the head and beyond the tail there is a diffused nebulous object, apparently belonging to the comet, and this connection seems sub- stantiated by Campbell’s spectroscopic observations. The comet was visible to the naked eye to the end of November and in telescopes of medium power during the first part of December, and then diminished very rapidly in brightness, not following at all the computed scale of brilliancy, but showing a remarkable and inexplica- ble outburst about the 16th of January, 1893. The spectrum was also peculiar in that it seemed to be purely continuous. According to the elements computed by Schulhof the comet passed perihelion on June 13, 1892, and its period is 6.9 years; the orbit seems to lie entirely within that of Jupiter, the nearest possible approach of the two being 0.4, (the mean distance of the earth from the sun being 1,) but since 1861 the two bodies do not seem to have been very close at any time. The small eccentricity, not far from that of Tempel’s first periodic comet, brings it quite near to the upper limits of the eccen- tricity of the asteroid orbits. But with such a short period, as it can not have experienced great perturbations since 1861, the reason for its never having been seen at a previous return, is a imystery which seems to be connected in some way with the very great and abnormal variation 104 PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMY FOR 1891 AND 1892. in brightness actually detected while under observations, the cause of which still lies beyond us in the unknown characteristics of cometary inaterial. Comet 1892 IV: | Found by Spitaler, at Vienna, on March 18, —Comet b 1892. | 1892. —Winnecke’s comet. | See Comet Winnecke. \ + >> Tie 1 : . . : 5 Comet 1892 V: Kspecial interest attaches to this comet, as it Is _=Comet ¢ 1592. the first discovered by photography, if we except the single case of the “Tewfik comet,” shown near the sun on a plate exposed during the total eclipse of May 17, 1882. The present comet was detected as a suspicious looking object upon a plate exposed near a Aquila on October 12, 1892, by Barnard. On the following evening the cometary character of the object was confirmed by the 12-inch refrac- tor. It was faint, 1’ in diameter, and from twelfth to thirteenth mag- nitude, somewhat condensed toward the center. It changed but little in appearance and was last seen in December. Dr. Krueger’s elements give a period of revolution of only 6.3 years and show a remarkable resemblance to those of Wolf’s comet—so great, in fact, as to suggest a common origin for the two, as in the case of Biela’s comet and Brooks’s comet, 1889 V. Comet 1892 VI: Discovered on August 28, 1892, in the constella- —Comet 41892. | tion Gemini, by Brooks, a quite bright, round nebula, with distinct nucleus and short faint tail; it was visible to the naked eye in November, and the tail could be followed, upon a photographic plate, November 26th, for 5°; after the middle of December the comet was observable only in the southern hemisphere. The spectroscope showed a continuous spectrum with the three usual cometary bands. Comet 1893 I: This comet was also discovered by Brooks, at =Comet g 1892. | Geneva, N. Y., in the constellation Bootes, on the morning of November 19, 1892; it was then quite bright for a telescopic comet, but showed no tail, while its increase in brightness and north- erly motion made it an easy object for observation during the rest of the year. In chronicling the comets of the year 1892 mention should be made of a suspicious object detected by Prof. M. Wolf upon photographic plates exposed on March 19 and 20, 1892. It could not be found upon a photograph of March 22 nor in a later search with the great Vienna retractor. The announcement of a comet discovered by Freeman on November 26, 1892, proved to be erroneous. A comet announced by Swift en December 23, 1889, has been identi- PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMY FOR 1891 AND 1392. 705 fied by Dreyer with a nebula discovered by Herschel, and is, therefore, to be stricken from the list of lost comets. Approximate elements of the comets of IS9L and 1892. Perihelion Av Designation. (Greenwich Q a) t q e mean time). fa 1 1 | 1591 | a 3 SE 2d a SAA SRO oes 1891, Apr. 27.56 193 56 178 48} 120 31 ONSOT eS are Mt ccna ea Seacobe coRsocsOnHSne | 1891. Sept. 3.46 206 22 172 48 | 20) 15, 1.592 0. 557 IDC 22 eh ch pee eS 1891, Oct. 17.98! 334 41| 183 57] 12 55. 0.340! 0.847 Ieee tata ae ee 1891, Nov. 12.94 | 217 39 | 268 33] <7 43| 0.977 }.--...-- Mean ac A AAA AeA oe Se | 1891, Nov. 17. 34 296 31) 106 43 o 23 | 1. 087 0. 653 [RA Ua censanséucoacon sptecedcec 1892; Apr. 6.69} 240 54] 24 31 38 42 1.027 0. 999 103, be Sle eas Breese eta Caer he 1892, May 11.22} 253 26) 129 19| 89 42 | IOI eee i see oe ae eee | 1892, Fume 13.27 331 42] 14 11) 20 47 | 2.140) 0.410 TOV an wees Seb siict oclocaerneee | 1892, June 30. 89 LOSES tO ae liicn eG: 14 32] 0.886 0.726 Rite ae cats Oba Ne dee | 1892, Dec. 11.05) 206 39] 170 14) 31 12| 1.429 0.581 pele tetate ore a atthe in sie [sareret cles ta ots 1892, Dec. 28. 09 | 264 28 252 41 | 24 48 ORY AN ara ao ce 10ST Ve ul UA eer SC oar aera 1893, Jan. 6.52 185 39 85 14 | 143 32 VN Ks a ie A Designee Discoverer. of eae Synonym. | Remarks. ery. | 1891 | 1891 TO SB armand i. cersce eat Mar. 29 91a Lae Spitalersyeerc cst cee tarsce sare | May 1 1891} Wolf'scomet. Period 6.8 years. ile Barnard eeeosc se ee ee Aug. 1 1891e¢ Encke’s comet. Period 84 years. Vee Barnaranr sme eco eee Oct. 2 1891 ¢ Wid Teena Sebeoce Seto cobcoone | Sept. 27 1891d | Tempel,-Switt. Period 5.5 years. 1892 | 1892 We MeoiyWaliti aeestenet ors onisisiatate teat ore Mar. 7 1892 u II NTNU A 6 se oe eCD sees anaes | Mar. 18 1892 ¢ IIT | Holmes ...-- See eee | Nov. 6 1892 f | Period 6.9 years. Vi |eSpitaler 2.2 cee sss = spencers --| Mar. 18 | 1892b Winnecke’s comet. Period 53 years. IBArnaneeer seca e pee eee Oct. 12 | 1892 e Period 6.3 years. VI STOO K See ois seo ccieeice | Aug. 28 1892 oC LE BLOOKS emcee cea ss oetes | Nov. 19 18924 METEORS. A fine shower of meteors, radiating from the neighborhood of jy An- dromedie, was seen in the United States and Canada on the night of the 23d of November, 1892. There seems to be no doubt that it was a part of the great stream connected with Biela’s comet, which was en- countered on the 28th of November, 1872 and 1885. On these two oe- casions the earth probably passed through the main swarm, while in 1892 it passed some days earlier through an associated branch of if. From a comparison of the positions of the comet and of the dates of the meteoric showers in 1798, 1838, and 1872 Prof. Newton was long ago led to conclude “that along, extended group of meteor particles must accompany the comet in its periodical revolution, preceding it to H. Mis. 114——-45 706 PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMY FOR 1891 AND 1892. a distance of 300,000,000 miles in front, and following it to a length of 200,000,000 miles in the rear of its actual position, or occupying, if there is no reason to suppose the elongated meteor current discontinuous, fully 500,000,000 miles in its observed length along the comet’s path.” SOLAR SYSTEM. Motion of the solar system.—Prot, Porter has discussed the proper motions of 1,540 stars contained in publication 12 of the Cincinnati observatory. Adopting Dr. Schénteld’s method of dividing the stars into four groups, according to the magnitude of their proper motions, he has confirmed Dr. Stumpe’s result that the proper motion of a star is an index of its distance from us. The mean position of the sums way” from his figures is 281°.2 right ascension and +40°.7 declination. Dr. Vogel has also published the results of an mquiry on this subject based on the measured velocities of stars in the line of sight. The motion of fifty-one stars has been determined at Potsdam, and the proba- ble error in the measurement is below 1.16 geographical miles, but the resulting value of the apex of motion, though the observations have been discussed in various ways, 1S not in very satisfactory accord with other investigations. If the stellar motions be treated either with equal weights, or weights approximately proportional to those assigned by Dr. Vogel in his catalogue of proper motions, the coordinates of the apex are 206°.1 + 12°.0 in right ascension, and + 45°.9 +9°.2 in dec- lination, with a velocity of 11.60 + 1.85 geographical miles. SUN. Diameter of the sun.—A large number of heliometer measures of the diameters of the sun and Venus made by the German transit of Venus parties in 1874 and 1882, incidental to the more important determina- tion of the solar parallax, have been discussed by Dr. Atwers, who finds for the mean result of the sun’s diameter (thirty-one observers) 1,919/7.3, which differs considerably from that adopted in the various ephemerides; the Berlin Jahrbuch, for instance, uses 1,922/.4, the Con- naissance des Temps and British Nautical Almanacl, 925/.6, and the American Ephemeris 1,924/.0.. Dr. Auwers remarks that if the value he finds is affected by irradiation it can only be too large, while the adopted diameters are larger still, He announces that a change will be made in the value used by the Berlin Jahrbuch in the volume for 1895. Temperature of the sun—The numerous attempts that have been made to determine the temperature of the sun have led to the most discordant results, the figures varying from 1,500° to 5,000,006°. The method employed, however, has always been the same (that of Pouil- PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMY FOR 1891 AND 13892. 107 let), and the experimental determinations have been sufficiently con- cordant in themselves, the divergencies arising from the different laws adopted to connect the radiation of incandescent bodies with their tem- perature. Newton's law, which holds only for an interval of a few degrees, gives for the temperature of the sun millions of degrees. Dulong’s, which is only exact over a range of 150° at most, gives 1,500°. Rosetti’s law, established by experiments made between 0° and 300°, gives 10,000°. A more recent series of experiments has been made by M. H. Le Chatelier, and is published in the Comptes Rendus tor March 28, 1892, in which the temperatures employed cover a range of 1,100° (700° to 1,800°). The “effective” temperature that he finds tor the sun is 7,600°, which he thinks may be subject to an uncertainty, on account of errors which may effect the law of radiation, not ereater than 1,000°, the * effective” temperature being that temperature which a body of emissive power equal to unity must have in order to send us radiations of the same intensity as the sun. The actual temperature of the photosphere is higher, tor a part of its radiations are absorbed by the less highly heated solar atmosphere, and perhaps also (although this seems hardly probable) because the emissive power of the sun may be less than unity. Solar activity in 1892.—The development of the solar activity during 1892 was no less marked with regard to prominences than with regard to sun spots. On April 6 Trouvelot reported an arched prominence extending some 90,000 miles along the limb of the sun and attaining a height of over 57,500 miles. Two days later an enormous protuberance rose to a height of 71,970 miles, extending in a little over half an hour to 105,550, and a week later another extending over 255,000 miles along the circumference, The great sun spot group of 1892.—1t appears that the original forma- tion of the group took place on the farther side of the sun, and it first came under obser vation on November 15, 1891, when it was seen as a spot of considerable size close to the east limb. On November 16 the group consisted of three spots, and by November 18 it had assumed the appearance so typical of the more important disturbances, of along procession of spots of various sizes, the spot in the van and that in the rear being the largest. During the December appearance (De- cember 12-24) it was throughout one well-detined circular spot. One spot, roughly circular in shape, alone appeared on January 7. It is not quite clear whether it represented the principal group of the November appearance or the little group which formed in advance of it and which became prominent during December. It seemed to oc- cupy a position nearly midway between the two, though the two are practically to be regarded as one disturbance. Before its appearance at the east limb on March 4 a great change had taken place. The group, which on February 15 had covered more 7108 PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMY FOR 1891 AND 1892. than 3,000 millionths of the sun’s visible hemisphere, did not cover one-fifteenth of that area on March 5, though it revived somewhat be- fore it was last seen at the west limb on March 17, but did not survive to make a sixth appearance at the east limb on March 31 or April 1. According to Mr. Maunder the great spot, the largest on record at Greenwich, was 92,000 miles long and 62,000 miles broad, while the entire group of which it formed the principal part was 162,000 miles long and 75,000 broad. ‘The area of the spot on February 13, 1892, was 2,940 million square miles, and the whole group 3,530 million square miles. This is about eighteen times the area of the earth, and seventy globes as large as ours could have lain side by side in the im- mense hollow. Ma. Maunder thinks that the effect upon the weather of a spot even of such enormous size must be very slight, if apprecia- ble. The magnetic needle, however, undergoes violent disturbance upon their appearance. In an article in Knowledge for April and May, 1892, Mr. Maunder brings forward some important evidence in regard to the connection between sun spots and magnetic storms. The article concludes as fol- lows : In a period of nearly nineteen years, therefore, we have three mag- netic storms which stand out preéminently above all others during that interval. In that same period we have three great sun spot dis- plays—counting the two groups of April, 1882, together—which stand out with equal distinetness far above all other similar displays. And we find that the three magnetic storms were simultaneous with the greatest development of the spots. Is there any escape from the con- clusion that the two have a real and binding connection? It may be direct, it may be indirect and secondary only, but it must be real and effective. Consider that the period in question is practically some six thousand eight hundred days. A magnetic storm does not last many hours; a sun spot soon declines from its greatest development, or soon passes away from the center of the apparent disk. Suppose we take an out- side limit, and give a period of two days to a giant spot to exercise its influence or a magnetic storm to expend its violence e; what are the prob- abilities against 3 out of : 3,400 of such periods of the one phenomenon agreeing with 3 out of on 400 of the other, if they are not related? If 3,460 numbers were placed in one box and : 3,400 more in a second, and one from each box were drawn at a time, what is the chance that the three highest numbers would be drawn from the one box simultane- ously with the three highest from the other, each to each, if the matter had not been prearranged ? Indeed, we sue legitimately call the coincidence of April, 1882, a double one, and ask the odds against the four highest numbers from each box being so Aaa Between sun spots and storms of the second magnitude it is more difticult to make a satisfactory comparison, because it 1s not so easy to frame a satisfactory definition as to what constitutes a secondary dis- turbance. Nevertheless, the following brief table of large sun spots seen since the beginning of 1881, which were coincident with consider- able disturbances, may prove of interest. The spotted area is given in millions of square miles: PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMY FOR 1891 AND 1892. 709 Spotted area. Spotted area. Date. | Entire Largest Date. Entire Largest } sun. group. sun. group. 1881—January 31..........-.. , 290 686 || 1883—November 1.-.-....... 2, 100 784 September 12 ---..----- 2, 089 7 NovenrberniObece: --e--. 3, 682 1, 600 1882—October 2..-..-...----- 2, 480 Ie234u S84 Marchi2s ccs seo. s 1,510 609 Octohberio assess tee 2, 065 1,198 PASO Yalb2aetesrs ta a 2,348 510 T883—— Atrio esac one ee | , 045 607 ANDTSO Neer eee cea kee 1, 746 897 /Xyiyed MB a So 4oocenec 2,170 670 || 1885—January 23 .....---.-.. 1, 687 592 DUNE OU) caso ee ee aoe 3, 650 2,210 | IN Nb bAVes) Bes enenonne 1, 845 571 PUL YA eee 3 | 1, 887 1, 009 NG Wea? IB} -ooascensad | 1,569 480 Dillyeode eee eee | 1, 425 1, 264 Ww Pit 285 ao Gop somacodee 1, 923 647 Séptemberwir essa | 2, 017 1, 263 alah es) 2k ee aoc bananas 2, 348 1, 681 OctobertlGen =e. 7-2 - 4, 730 1, 733 din al ees s aeecoe Sa aeae 1, 835 504 Otlober?20e es 1, 650 1369) || 1891 —=“November 22%)... ec... 1, 966 BERYL Some of the above, those marked with an asterisk, may fairly be taken as confirming, though with less definiteness, the conclusion drawn from the correspondences between the greatest spots and the greatest storms. But with the others it is not so. Spots as impor- tant have been seen upon the sun, and the magnets have scarcely thut- tered, and storms as distinct have eccurred when there have been only few spots, and those but small, upon the visible disk of the sun. The table is important, therefore, not as adding to the weight of the evi- dence in favor of the connection between sun spots and magnetie dis- turbances, but as emphasizing a point which must not be forgotten. Though the diurnal and annual changes of terrestrial magnetism con- clusiv rely prove the solar influence upon it, though the conclusion be- tween the general sun-spet cycle and the general magnetic cyle is clearly established, though even in minor irregularities the two curves closely correspond, and though unusually large sun spots are answered by unusually violent magnetic storms, we can not, as yet, proceed fur- ther and express the magnitude or charac ter of the magnetic disturb- ances in terms of the spotted area of the sun or of its principal groups at the time of observation. The conclusion to my own mind seems to Ne that though sun spots are the particular solar phenomenon most easily observed, we must not infer, therefore, that their number and A ieee afford the truest indication of the eh: anges in the solar activity which produce the perturbations we remark in our magnetic needles. Solar prominences.—Especial attention has been given to the pho- tography of solar prominences by Prof. G. E. Hale of the Kenwood observatory, Chicago, and by M. Deslandres of the Paris observatory. Prot. Hale suggested two plans for the purpose; the first was to allow the image of the sun to drift across the radial shit of a powerful spee- troscope, the driving clock of the telescope being slowed to produce the drift. If then there were a prominence on the sun’s limb the length of any bright line at the focus of the spectroscope would define the height of the prominence, and as the sun drifted across the slit this line would continually change in length. Tf now the line in use were made to pass through a slit just within the focus or the observing telescope of the spectroscope cali xd the “second slit,” so as to be in focus on a plate beyond the slit, all that is required to photograph the prominence is to move the plate slowly at right angle to the second slit. Fresh portions of the plate are thus exposed to corresponding portions of the promi- 710 PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMY FOR 1891 AND 1292. nence, and the prominence image is built up from a succession of bright line images of the slit. In the second method proposed, the clock of the equatorial is so adjusted that the image of the sun is kept in a fixed position. The plate on the end of the collimator which carries the slit, is then slowly moved across the suns limb at the point where the prominence is present, and a second slit moving at the same speed before a stationary plate excludes the light from the spectrum on either side of the line in use, and reduces fogging to a minimum. In April, 1891, Mr. Hale secured the first photograph of the spectrum of a prominence obtained without an eclipse. ‘This showed two very strong, bright lines nearly at the centers of the dark solar bands H and K. The same lines were photographed on subseqent occasions, but it was not until June 25, that any new lines were discovered. On this occasion four lines were obtained in the ultra-violet—a number since increased to six. Of these six, 5 lines belong, unmistakably, to the se- ries of hydrogen lines discovered by Dr. Huggins, in the ultra-violet of the spectra of Sirian stars. The sixth line forms a close double with one of these hydrogen lines (a) but its origin has not yet been accounted for. Mr. Hale’s conclusion that H and K are not due to hydrogen, is abund- antly confirmed by Prof. Young and also by M. Deslandres, since the measures have shown beyond a doubt that the ‘companion line to H,” and not H itself, is the one really due to hydrogen. Myr. Hale and M. Deslandres ascribe these two giant bands of the solar spectrum to calcium. Mr. Hale has also met with considerable success in photographing the forms of solar prominences, some of the photographs showing a satisfactory amount of detail. In one instance a prominence photo- graphed at Kenwood was being sketched by Herr Fényi at Kalocsa at the same moment of time, and drawing and photograph are in close accord. A suggestion by M. Deslandres that it might be possible to photograph the entire chromosphere at a single exposure has been carried into effect by Mr. Hale, by means of a ‘spectroheliograph,” in whieh the slit of the spectroscope is made to travel across the image of the sun, and a precisely similar motion, but in an opposite diree- tion, is given to a second slit nearly in the focus of the view telescope, and so arranged that the i line of the spectrum of the fourth order falls upon it. Since the K line is always bright in the spectrum of the chromosphere and prominences, it is easy, by shutting off the image of the sun by means of a diaphragm, to build up a complete picture of the entire chromosphere and prominences, and so to produce what may be deseribed as an “artificial total solar eclipse.” The discovery which Mr. Hale has made that the H and K lines are always reversed in the facule has enabled him to extend the application of this prin- ciple. If the diaphragm covering the image of the sun be discarded a photograph will be obtained, not merely of the chromosphere and prominences, but of the dise of the sun itself, showing the spots and PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMY FOR 1891 AND 1892. aly: the facule, the latter being depicted, not merely when near the limb of the sun, but wherever they occur, even in the very center of the dise. In this manner it has been discovered that faculee, invisible to the eye frequently float above the spots, and one series of photographs in particular, show how, on July 15, a luminous outburst formed, spread, completely hid a large group of spots, and passed away, all in a few minutes of time. The double reversal of the H and K lines from faculae, a phenomenon shown upon photographs taken at Kenwood, Paris, and Stonyhurst, is a discovery of special interest as bearing upon the interpretation of the enigmatical spectrum of Nora Auriga, and Prof. Hale has supplemented this discovery by obtaining a similar resuit with an integrating spec- troscope, the sun being treated as a star would be, its light asa whole, and not only from special regions of the disc, being subjected to exam- ination. M. Deslandres has been making further experiments upon photo- graphing the corona without an eclipse. The principle upon which he proceeds is to obtain photographs of the sun from light of limited refrangibility, not by using colored media or stained plates, but by means of two prisms, the second of which is arranged so as to recom- pose the light dispersed by the first. But only certain rays from the first prism are allowed to fall on the second; the resulting image of the sun is, therefore, confined to those rays which can be selected at pleas- ure. M. Deslandres’ purpose is, therefore, to find out for what rays the corona has the greatest brightness as compared with that of the sun, and to photograph the sun and its surroundings by their aid alone. (See Month. Not., 52: 292; 53:277.) ECLIPSES. Helipse of the moon, 1888, January 28.—In number 23 of the Publica- tions of the Astronomical Society of the Pacifie is an unusually satis- factory drawing by Prof. Weinek, showing the delicate shades of color exhibited by the eclipsed moon. Helipse of the sun, 1889, January 1.—Proft. Pritchett’s report of the Washington University party, which was stationed at Norman, Cal., is illustrated by an excellent artotype, a composite reproduced by hand from four negatives. The evidence given by these photographs upon the structure of the corona is thus summarized “The marked structural features of the corona are (a) the so-called filaments, and (b) the stream- ers extending approximately in the direetion of the ecliptic. The fila ments extend over a region of 20 degrees or more on each side of the poles. They are straight lines of light arranged somewhat like the spines of a fan, and are not radial. The dark spaces between them are not entirely free of coronal matter, but can be traced in some cases to within a short distance of the sun’s limb, The broad and. strongly marked equatorial belt stretches directly across this mass of filaments, Tile PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMY FOR 1391 AND 1892. apparently cutting off the filaments at the somewhat irregular line of separation. The impression conveyed to the eye is that the equatorial stream of denser coronal matter extends across and through the fila- ments, simply obscuring them by its greater brightness. There is noth- ing in the photographs to prove that the filaments do not exist all round the sun. Helipses of 1891 and 1892.—In the year 1891 there were two eclipses of the sun, an annular eclipse on June 6, and a partial eclipse on No- vember 30-December 1; and two eclipses of the moon, May 23 and November 15, both total. In 1892 there were also four eclipses, two of the sun and two of the moon: a total eclipse of the sun April 26, and a partial eclipse of the sun October 20; a partial eclipse of the moon May 11 and a total eclipse November 4. Kelipse of the moon, 1891, May 23.—A total eclipse, visible throughout the western part of the Pacific Ocean, Australia, Asia, Africa, and Europe. No observations of special importance. Eclipse of the sun, 1891, June 6.—Visible as an annular eclipse only in the northern part of Siberia and the Arctic Ocean. A few observ ations of contacts were secured in the western part of the United States. Eclipse of the moon, 1891, November 15.—The total eclipse of the moon on November 15, 1891, was visible generally throughout North and South America, Europe, Asia, and Africa. The whole of the eclipse was visible in the eastern and central parts of the United States while in the western part the moon rose eclipsed. Dr. Dédllen selected from photographic plates made at Potsdam some 138 stars to be occulted at established observatories, but the weather seems to have been gener- ally unfavorable. A few contact observations were secured. Helipse of the sun, 1891, November 30.—A partial eclipse, visible only in the Antarctic ocean. Helipse of the sun, 1892, April 26.—Total eclipse, visible only in the Southern Pacific: no observations of importance reported. Helipse of the moon, 1892, May 11.—The phenomenon of the partial eclipse of the moon on May 11, 1892, was studied at Greenwich and elsewhere, and the occultation of a considerable number of small stars was observed. Helipse of the sun, 1892, October 20.—Partial eclipse, visible in North America; a few observations of contacts reported. Eelipse of the moon, 1892, November 4.—Total eclipse visible gener- ally in Europe and America. No observations of special importance. SOLAR PARALLAX AND THE TRANSITS OF VENUS The United States transit of Venus observations.—In a report dated September 21, 1891, the Superintendent of the United States Naval Observatory states that no provision has yet been made for publishing PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMY FOR 1891 AND 1892. (Oe: in detail the work of the American parties upon the transit of Venus in 1882—a tact greatly to be regretted. The publication of the work upon the 1874 transit is only partly completed and considerable work still remains to be done upon the reductions for 1882, though results for the solar parallax and certain elements of the orbit of Venus, which are practically final, have been published. Some occultations of stars by the moon, telegrapic determinations of differences of longitude, tidal observations, and pendulum experiments still remain to be reduced, for which, however, no funds seem to be available. Dr. Auwers’ result* for the German heliometer measures of the transit of Venus in 1874 is a solar parallax of 8/’.877 + 0/7043, there being in all 508 measures at four different stations; in 1882 four sta- tions were occupied and 446 measures were obtained, the resulting par- allax being 8/’.879 + 0//.057. Dr. Battermann, of the Berlin Observatory, has deduced a value of the solar parallax from 250 occultations of stars between April, 1354, and Oetober, 1885, having by careful observation been able to utilize the occultations of a considerable number of faint stars near new moou. The resulting solar parallax is 8/.794 + 0/.016, The determination of the solar parallax by means of meridian ob- servations of Mars at opposition was attempted in 1862, and again in in 1877, but the results obtained were generally considered by astron- omers as too large, there being indications of a systematic error in the observations of Mars, or of the comparison stars, or of both. A slight modification of the previous methods of observation was suggested by Prof. Eastman, and a circular was issued by the U.S. Naval Observa- tory requesting the codperation of other observatories in the observa- tion of Mars during the opposition in the summer of 1892. PLANETS. MERCURY: Diameter of Mercury.—A new determination of the diam- eter of Mercury has been made by Mr. Ambronn from heliometer obser- rations at Gottingen, the mean result being 6/7.580, comparing favor- ably with the generally adopted value. Transit of Mercury, May 9, 1591.—A transit of Mercury over the sun’s disk took place on May 9, 1891, the first since November 7, 1881. The observation of these transits no longer possesses special importance, as the determination of the solar parallax, for which they are theoretically valuable, can now be made more accurately by other means. Ob- servations of the contacts between the disks of the sun and planet are useful in determinations of the planet’s orbit and the physical phe- nomena are sometimes of interest. The transit on May 9, 1891, was only Astron. Nachr. 3066. 714 PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMY FOR 1891 AND 1892, partially visible in the United States. On the Pacific coast the sun was two or three hours high at the time of the first and second contacts; it had set in most places on the Atlantic coast before the first contact, and in Washington was only ten minutes high. Reports from twenty- five observers in the United States have been forwarded to the Naval Observatory for reduction. The whole transit was visible in China, Japan, eastern Siberia, and the Malaysian Islands, while in England egress took place soon after sunrise. No phenomena of special impor- tance seem to have been noted. In Europe several observers saw the “black drop” or ligament. At the Lick Observatory a careful series of observations was made, both visual and photographie, and the planet was looked for, but without success, before it entered upon the sun’s disk. For more than an hour after ingress the planet was also carefully ex- amined, with the 56-inch Lick telescope, by Profs. Holden and Keeler. It ‘was perfectly round, and in the best moments sharply terminated - - - . Not the slightest trace of a satellite was seen; and both observers were confident that no such body could then be on the sun’s face and escape detection unless it were exceedingly minute.” VENUSs.—The conclusion reached by Schiaparelli that Venus rotates very Slowly upon its axis, in fact in about the same time that it rotates about the sun, has been challenged by several observers. MM. Niesten and Stuyvaert, of the Brussels Observatory, have given the matter careful study, and M. Trouvelot has published a series of observations and sketches from 1876 to 1891, from which he concludes that the rota- tion does not differ ereatly from twenty-four hours. An exhaustive diseussion of recent publications coneerning the physical appearance of Venus is printed by Dr. Wislicenus in the Vierteljahrsschrift, v.27, pp. 271-302. It is quite evident that further accurate observations are necessary. The value of the diameter of Venus, deduced by Dr. Auwers trom the heliometer measures by the German Transit of Venus parties, in 1874 and 1882, is 16’’.80. THE EARTH: Variation of terrestrial latitude.—One ot the most im- portant subjects that has been under discussion during the past two years—important to astronomy and geodesy alike—is the variation of terrestrial latitudes, the strong suspicion of which has been confirmed by recent very accurate observations, and when once admitted is abundantly fortified by the discussion of older observations. There seems to be now distinet evidence of a rotation of the geo- graphical round the astronomical pole in 427 days. ‘The problem has of course attracted the attention of the ablest astronomers and mathema- ticians, but the eredit for the ablest discussion and the most satisfactory solution is undoubtedly due to Mr.S.C. Chandler. The following sum- mary of his work is taken from a review in the Monthly Notices (v. 53, No. 4). PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMY FOR 1891 AND 1892. (Gls) Mr. Chandler’s observations with the almucantar, in 1884 and 18s), first sugvested to him, not only the possibility of a variation in latitude, but the law of the variation. Twelve months’ observations were of course not sufficient to establish a periodicity of fourteen months, though they might suggest it; confirmation was, however, furnished by Dr. Kiisther, who, in his determination of the aberration from a series of observations coincident in time with those of the almucantar, came upon similar anomalies. Further evidence bearing on the question was forthcoming in the parallel determinations at Berlin, Prague, Potsdam, and Pulkowa, which showed changes in apparent latitude, not only strikingly sympathetic among themselves, but of the same range and periodicity as those noticed in 1885; and Mr. Chandler ‘was led to make further investigations on the subject, which seem to establish the nature of the law of these changes, and proceeded (1591, November) to present them in due order.” The consequent series of papers in the Astronomical Journal can hardly fail to take its place as one of the astronomical classies. The following summary is made purposely very brief because the series is not yet complete, and no doubt much still remains to be said on sueh an important subject. But it will be seen that during the year 1892 (including perhaps the end of 1891) a most important advance has been made in fundamental astronomy. The first paper (regarding that already mentioned as preliminary) deals with the observations with the Pulkowa vertical cirele (1865- 1875), ‘which have been provocative of so much inquiry, so far without any solution of the anomalies which they show in regard to the ques- tion of latitude variation,” and the Washington prime vertical obseryva- tions (1862-1867), “the most accurate determinations of declination ever made at the Naval Observatory,” which yet “resulted in anomalous values of the aberration constant in the different years and a negative parallax in all.” Mr. Chandler finds that a 427-day period in the lati- tude “furnishes the true key to the troublesome discordances in the Pulkowa latitudes,” and “traces to their origin the anomalies in the Washington observations.” Further, the comparison of the two series leads to the same conclusion as that already shown from the simul taneous series at Berlin and Cambridge (United States) in 1885 as to the direction of the polar motion. In the next paper it is mentioned that observations at Melbourne (1865-1884) and Leyden (1863-1867) ‘are in complete accordance with those made at the same time at Pul- kowa and Washington; and that the 427-day period accounts for the contradictory results obtained by Dr. Van Hennekeler at Leyden. The motion of the earth’s pole for the period 1860-1870 is thus fairly estab- lished. The author proceeds to consider earlier observations. In the papers numbered 5 and 4, the systematic errors of Bradley’s observa- tious, which were reduced afresh for this purpose, are discussed, particu- larly the collimation error. It is then coneluded that the observations 716 PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMY FOR 1891 AND 1892, indicate a rotation of the pole in little more than a year and with a larger radius than that of 1860-1880, the range being about 1’. In the saine paper Mr. Chandler states that Brinkley’s observations at Dub- jin (1808-1813 and 1818-1822) are found to indicate arotation in about a year, with range more than 1”, “wherein lies the solution of the hith- erto unsolved enigma of Brinkley’s singular results which led to the spirited and almost acrimonious dispute between Brinkley and Pond with regard to stellar paraliaxes.” The details were promised in a later paper, but have not yet been given, owing doubtless to the ne- cessity of attending to a vitally important point which will presently appear. In papers 5 and 6 are presented the results of an enormous mass of reductions extending from 1837 to 1891, made at no fewer than seven- teen observatories. The whole is broken up into forty-five series, or short groups, for the purposes of this particular discussion; and the result of this minute inquiry, confirmed (or perhaps suggested) by the observations of Bradley and Brinkley above mentioned, seemed clear, viz, that the “instantaneous rate of angular motion of the pole has been diminishing during the last half century at a sensibly uniform rate, by its one-hundred-thousandth part.” Mr. Chandler was led to modify this statement in a remarkable manner and within a few weeks. Astronomers had hesitated to accept the 427-day period, even in face of the very strong evidence of the 1860-1880 observations, owing to the difticulty in accounting for it theoretically. It had been pointed out by Euler that, treating the earth as a rigid body, the period of rotation of the pole must be 306 days. Prof. Newcomb, however, happily pointed out that a qualified rigidity (either actual viscosity or the composite character due to the ocean) afforded an explanation of this longer period; and after this suggestion Mr. Chandlers 427-day period was well and even warmly received. But the further elabora- tion of this hypothesis by a changing period was a new difficulty. Prot. Newcomb, who had reconciled the first article of the hypothesis with theory, was not slow to declare that the second was irreconcilable. Mr. Chandler’s reply, in paper 6, is a model of controversial courtesy and skill. He says: “It should first be said that in beginning these investigations I deliberately put aside all teachings of theory, because it seemed to me high time that the facts should be examined by a purely inductive process; that the nugatory results of all attempts to detect the existence of the Eulerian period probably arose from a defect of the theory itself; and that the entangled condition of the whole subject required that it should be examined afresh by processes unfettered by any preconceived notions whatever. . . . The ap- peal to observation, treated irrespective of theory in the present series of papers, shows that a rotation of the pole really exists, but (a) at a daily rate of but 0°.85 (for 1875), and (b) that this velocity is PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMY FOR 1891 AND 1892. a ~i subject to a slow retardation, which in its turn is not uniform The result (@) was at first pronounced impossible, and it is even now so regarded in some quarters. Prof. Newcomb, however, soon after found the defect in the theory, and is now as cordially in favor of the result given by observation as he was originally against it.. - - > Now, may it hot reasonably be asked, if the direct deduction from observation has led to the correction of the theory in the first par- ticular, is it beyond hope that it may do so in regard to the second ?” Such a truly scientific attitude inspires confidence that the search is being rightly conducted; but the most sanguine could hardly be pre- pared for the reconciliation of observation and theory in the very next paper of the series, published six weeks later. By this time Mr. Chandler had rearranged his material, and found, not one variable rotation of the pole, but fico constant rotations (with a qualification), one in 427 days and the other in about a year. The qual- ification is that the amplitude of the latter is apparently variable, not the period. The superposition of these two rotations is almost exactly equivalent, for the observations available, to the law (or summary of observation, as it might fairly be called) previously announced. To make clear the novelty of this discovery it may be remarked that, although fluctuations in zenith distances of annual period have long been recognized, they have generally been ascribed to temperature etfeets, in which case the maxima and minima for all stations in the Northern Hemisphere should occur at the same epoch—say, midsummer and midwinter. But this is not the case with the annual term now revealed. The epoch changes with the longitude, showing that the pole moves just as in the case of the 427-day term. It is somewhat remarkable that two formule differing so much in form should be found to represent the observations almost equally well. Apparently this is to be attributed chietly to the varia- bility in amplitude of the annual term, and as yet this variability has not been accounted tor. But to have advanced the work to this stage in such a short time is a great achievement, and much may confidently be expected from Mr. Chandlers future work. He points out, in a paper dated January 2, 1893, that the discovery of these periodic in- equalities in the latitude makes it necessary to go over much old work afresh, and is himself leading the way with a discussion of the aberra- tion constant. In the same paper he shows that the recent results obtained at Ber- lin, Prague, Strasburg, Pulkowa, Rockville, and Honolulu give a meat correction to his final formula of only five days in the epoch; ‘and the accordance of the separate values is high testimony to the skill of the observers, to whom astronomers owe a deep debt of gratitude for their laborious and conscientious work.” Standard time.—In veviewing the recent progress made in the intro- duction of uniform standards of time M. Pasquier states that in Can- 718 PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMY FOR 1891 AND 1892. ada Parliament has declared as legal the normal hours from Green- wich adopted since 1883 by railways and later by a great number of towns. In England a commission has reported favorably upon the system of hourly meridians, and the Government has strongly recom- mended it to the colonies. In France, Paris mean time is used for all the country, including Algeria. In Belgium a commission has recom- mended the hourly meridian system, with Greenwich as the starting point. In Holland the Government has authorized the adoption of Greenwich time for interior railway service. ly Prussia mean Kuro- pean time (mitteleuropiiische Zeit or M. EK. Z,) which is one hour greater than Greenwich time, replaced Berlin time from the Ist of June, 1891, for the railway service of the interior. Bavaria, Wiirtemberg, and Baden have also decided on M. KE. Z., which will also be used in Al- sace-Lorraine. Austria and Hungary adopted M. KE. Z. from October 1, 1891, for railway, post, and telegraph service, and there is a strong feeling for its adoption in civil life. In Italy, at the instance of the Academy of Sciences of Bologna, which favors the meridian of Jeru- salem, there was a plan for assembling a new congress at Rome, but this however, seems to have been abandoned. There is here as well as in Switzerland a strong sentiment in favor of Greenwich as the standard. At the Cape of Good Hope the extension of railways brought about the adoption of a single-standard time throughout the colony in Feb- ruary, 1892.) The meridian one and one-half hours east of Greenwich is in use for all purposes in Cape Colony and the Orange Free State, and all time signals are given at Greenwich noon. Sky glows.—The after-glows that attracted so much attention in 1883 and 1854 showed some signs of return, though in lesser degree, in the early part of 1891. The tint and general appearance are reported to have greatly resembled the auroral displays. The systematic study of these ‘luminous night clouds” has been taken up by Prof. Foerster and Herr Jesse, of the Berlin observatory. The Moon.—A valuable contribution has been made to the study of the moon in ** An essay on the distribution of the moon’s heat and its variation with the phase,” by Mr. F. W. Very, of the Allegheny Ob- servatory—a paper which gained the prize proposed in July, 1890, by the Utrecht Society of Arts and Sciences. Mr. Very’s investigation was made with one of Langley’s ‘bolometers,” and the principal results may best be described in the author’s own words : First, that visible rays form a much larger proportion of the total radiation at the full than at the partial phases, the maximum for light being much more pronounced than that for the heat. Next, as has been foresecn from the eccentricity of the heat areas, their greater ex- tension toward the western limb, and the greater steepness of the sun- set than of the sunrise gradient, the diminution of the heat from the full to the third quarter is slower than its inerease from the first quarter to the full. Finally, there is a fair agreement between these results and those of Lord Rosse, which extends even to some minor details, such as the attainment of the hignest heat at littlesybefore the full, PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMY FOR 1891 AND 18992. 19 In a discussion of the moon’s atmosphere Mr. Ranyard expresses the opinion that the moon can not have an atmosphere one two-thou- sandth part as dense as that of the earth at sea level. It must, how- ever, be remembered that, were our atmosphere transferred to the moon, its density would only be one-sixth what it is on the earth. Professor Weinek, of Prague, who has been making a special study of the Lick photographs of the moon, has detected several new rills and craters on the negatives. MARS.—Mars was in opposition to the sun on August 3, 1892, and though the planet was also at this time very favorably situated as re- gards its proximity to the earth, its great southern declination was a serious Hnpediment to observation in the northern hemisphere. At the Harvard observatory station, Arequipa, Peru, the planet was, how- ever, almost in the zenith, and full advantage was taken of this by Prof. W.H. Pickering and his assistants. Many of Schiaparelli’s canals were identitied: some were seen double, and marked changes were detected in progress in various parts of the planet, especially in the neighborhood of the Lacus solis or Terby sea. Prot. Pickering and other observers detected a number of bright white spots besides the polar snow cap. In an article in the March number of LD’) Astronomié, 1891, Flammarion describes various changes in the topography of Mars, the most striking of which are also in connection with the Terby sea. Drawings are given of its appearance in 1877, 1879, 1881, and 1890; brietly, it seems to have undergone cleavage, and while some former * affluent canals ” have disappeared, other new ones have developed. The strait called Herschel 11 has been transformed into a straight double canal. JUPITER: Discovery of a fifth satellite—The most interesting as- tronomical event of the year 1892 was the discovery by Barnard, with the 36-inch Lick equatorial, on September %, of a fifth satellite of the planet Jupiter. Following is Prof. Barnard’s own account of his discovery, in deserib- ing his search for new objects in the Astronomical Journal: Nothing of special importance was encountered until the mght of September 9, when, in carefully examining the immediate region of the planet Jupiter, | detected an exceedingly small star close to the planet and near the third satellite. [at once measured the distance and po- sition angle with reference to satellite 1m. I then tried to get meas- ures referred to Jupiter, but found that one of the wires had got broken, and the other loosened. Before anything further could be done the object disappeared in the glare about Jupiter. Though | was positive the object was a new satellite, I had only the one set of measures, which was hardly proof enough for announcement, I replaced the wires the next morning. The next night with the great telescope, being Prof. Schaeberle’s, he very kindly gave the in- strument up to me, and I had the pleasure of verifying the discovery, and secured a good set of measures at elongation. Just what the magnitude of the satellite is it is at present quite im- possible to tell, Taking into consideration its position, however, in the 120 PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMY FOR 1891 AND. 1892. glare of Jupiter, it would perhaps not be fainter than the thirteenth magnitude. The satellite has been seen and its position observed at the University of Virginia, at Princeton, at Ealing, and at Evanston; the 184 inch re- tractor at Evanston being apparently the smallest instrument with which it has thus far been seen, and it was then reported as being a much more difficult object than Ariel or Umbriel, the satellites of Uranus, though Mr. Reed with the 23-inch Princeton glass found it an easier object than Ariel. The new satellite’s orbit seems to lie sensibly in the plane of Jupiter's equator; the distance of the satellite from the center of the planet is probably over 110,000 miles and its period of rotation about 11" 57™ 37s, Diameter of Jupiter.—An admirable series of measures of the diam- eter of Jupiter, by Dr. Schur, with the Goéttingen heliometer, is pub- lished in No. 3075 of the Astronomische Nachrichten. The effect of per- sonal equation was eliminated by the use of a reversion prism eye- piece. Dr. Schur finds the disk a sensibly true ellipse with diameters 37/4 and 35.0, a flattening of 1-154. Mr. Burnham communicated to the November meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society, in 1891, a paper on the spots and markings of Jupiter as observed with the 12-inch equatorial of the Lick Gbservatory. Noting the decided changes of color in the different markings on the planet’s surface, he expresses the opinion that the red color is an indi- cation of age, or, in other words, when a spot or marking other than the whitespots first appears itis dark or black, but after some time turnsred. During the year 1891 the planet was extremely interesting, owing to the remarkable amount and variety of detail displayed on its surface. The two hemispheres were, as usual, strongly in contrast in their individual markings. In the southern hemisphere, besides the great red spot, new spots appeared, and a great number of round white spots were visi- ble. These white spots are quite characteristic of the southern hemis- phere, though individual white spots have at rare intervals been seen in the northern hemisphere. In the latter a system of small dark spots appeared, with very short periods of rotation. Mr. Burnham reports that the great red spot liad regained much of its former distinctness, both in color and form. SATURN.—On September 22, 1891, the earth passed through the plane of Saturn’s rings. From the 22d of the month to October 30 the earth was above the plane of the rings, while the sun was below that plane and, consequently, shining on the southern side of the rings. After October 30 the sun was again shining on the north side. The phenomenon of the disappearance of the rings was described by sev- eral observers. UraNnus.—A search for new satellites made by several observers at the Lick Observatory from 1889 to 1S9L has resulted negatively. The. PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMY FOR 1891 AND 1892. 721 observers were satisfied that no new satellite half as bright as Ariel at elongation exists within the orbit of Umbriel. It is not likely that any such object exists within the orbit of Titania.” NEPTUNE.—Mr?. Asaph Hall, jr., finds that observations of the satel- lite with the 26-inch Washington refractor from October, 1891, to March, 1892, confirm the reality of the slow motion, nearly proportional to the time, of the orbit plane of the satellite with respect to the orbit of Neptune, to which Mr. Marth called attention and which M, Tisse- rand shows may result from a slight flattening of the planet. MINOR PLANETS. Asteroids of 1891.—Of the asteroids announced in the last report, No. 286 has been named Iclea, 296 Phaétusa, 297 Caecilia, 298 Bap- tistina, 299 Thora, 500 Geraldina, 301 Bavaria. An asteroid, discov- ered on November 14, 1890, by Charlois, at Nice, and subsequently found to be a new one, has been named Clarissa, To No. 525, photographed by Dr. Wolf November 28 (the first asteroid discovered by photography), he has given the name Brucia, in honor of Miss Catherine W. Bruce, who has contributed so generously for the advancement of astronomy. In 1891 twenty-two new asteroids were added to the group revolving between Mars and Jupiter, and photography now having become a powerful aid in the detection of these small bodies, the number still likely to be found seems almost limitless. The last on the list for 1891, No. 323, was discovered by Dr. Wolf upon his photographie plates. Another asteroid was, infact, found upon the same plate, but it proved to be identical with 275 (Sapientia). Palisa, on August 14, 1891, discovered what was for a time supposed to be a new planet, but it was found to be identical with 149, Medusa, discovered in 1875; 275, which had not been seen since the opposition of its discovery (1888), has been found again by the aid of photography; 518 is interesting from the almost exact commensurability of its pe- riod with that of Jupiter. No. 502, Clarissa (discovered November 14, 1890), was not included in the last list published, and is, therefore, introduced here to make the lists complete. List of minor planeis of 1891, Date of a UD Name. | Discoverer. | dis- | covery. | | 1890; BO2M Clawissayac-2 seer ote se ce MGhrarloraraten ica=s21 to. ot pee ee ee Nov.14: | 1891 SURE Wid yey ob Vase yore pena ce Mallosewie bya ON Gs t- eee ata, eens eee ae Feb. 12 BIN WO) ly Seon Bane See eereoaces PSM EON OCMC rece = Gocogna bon Sama arh SORE SE ese cee | Feb. 14 stom ON CLOMNI pe teapot era a tare oe | Charlois, at Nice-.....-.- SESE BOSS OEE DPS oman ae Feb. 16 BUG MUMDAUARS ssn tsa Serna s aro | Millosevich, at Rome ......---- Hic RARSeeS Stare en OLS Mar. J] Sit Wigs pte he ee ee Charloist aban Gesees a mee teetet one oe 2 aes eee Mar, 5 SOS RR Oly x0 se ei sc asee Bem aeri | Horelly.atiMarsenlesiees 28s, =) keno 5 .-b soko Sas es 2b Mar. 31 309 | Hraternitas................ Baliga, atmVlen nan =p tetcte ceo ota Sas Sate ae cece aise | Apr. 6 H.. Mis.. 111 ——46 22 PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMY FOR 1891 AND 1892. List of minor planets of 1897—Continued. ND Name. | Discoverer. | Teer : | covery | | 1890. 310 Mar antes = a= eee eee = or Charlois, at Nice ...--- Fale, MEAGRE «ae mioe EE ee May 16 Sle Olan daaetee see ee eee Stn ALO! Fee oe oe ee ee eee oe ee eeoae eee | June 11 74 (OU tea) Bas) O ROL Ree ae Sey 5c eel aie itm ea elena Anne Seth: eee nei ey Pe Sed tS Aug. 28 313 Cnalddcataesses- ee eereee 4) ebalisaabuvaennatee ee mar er renee Sas sa sie ene | Aug. 30 2 ey ee emaaee psa feytaN acetal eye oie Charloisiaitp NiC Cierra eee Ere =: eee eee eer eeeeeee Sept. Pils Un (Ohonicgohanatinsncooecesssescaes | SP BTS 3/2 GMVALOMTN Sos aere ae ene ee eer soe etans el roers | Sept. 4 BIG ee ts Sone Sen eer Seema Is@harlois tat DNiGOss <6 sa-5. 2 aoe oo a eee ee see eee | Sept. 8 DN | UNOene) Js os cclscoosoessosse Je azole (WO soca docketoopndsscteonousoneascSsces sackemos bee | Sept. 11 RG Meee kets Coe tela Saat bobs GM lean fy Ose 23.5 sees ela ac sea ate tae lc tale ape ts ete stop oars | Sept. 24 319 (Pei Seek eth et on ee | Beate QO ere ase s Se Sa ee eee ET eT | Oct. 8 SOOM SIMAG NALIN Aes nee te veers aeee | PARA ah VA enIla oa ee ee oe eee ee ee eee Oct=oll SOT | ban jee eeetesea eee feaes | (Oy Rar aes oacan DoS SO OESeA amen bodancrsseoncnoacres Oct: 15 322 RhaeOr se ateeee crestor sone | Bore liyeptbp ams Cll OS ame oe eee eee Nov. 27 B20 MBLUCl eer sack asa eeem eee | Mov be Feh i 18 hel loyesifens ec ac co poomsaoecsodseseses =o | Nov. 28 Asteroids of 1892.—The further and very successful application of photography to the discovery of asteroids by Dr. Wolf, at Heidelberg, and by M. Charlois, at Nice, resulted in such rapid additions to the list that the notation of these bodies was thrown into the utmost con- fusion. Hitherto the simple numbering in the order of discovery had been a rule easily applied by the discoverer, but where several aster- oids were found upon a single photographic plate it was not always possible to determine until later observations and computations whether they were really new asteroids or not, and when the planetary char- acter of the object was recognized it was frequently found imprinted upon some earlier photograph. It was accordingly suggested, in No. 266 of the Astronomical Jour- nal, that as a temporary omission of the number is attended with less inconvenience than is caused by the employment of an erroneous one, the numbers for the asteroids after number 322 should be omitted until the difficult task of fixing a definite enumeration should be delegated by common consent to some one authority to which all could defer. Common consent seemed to point to the Berlin Rechen-Institut as the only place actually in possession of the needful resources for solving the questions of identity continually arising, and it was agreed that to avoid further confusion Prof. Krueger, director of the Kiel observatory, the EHuropean ‘“Central-Stelle,” and editor of the Astro- nomische Nachrichten, should assign to each asteroid a provisional notation (1892 A, 1892 B, 1892 C, ete.) in the order of its announce- ment to the “Telegraphische Central-Stelle;” and that the definitive numeration should be subsequently undertaken by Prof. Tietjen, director of the Rechen-Institut, in Berlin. In this definitive assign- ment of numbers those asteroids will be omitted, for which sufficient material is not available for a determinationsof the orbits. PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMY FOR 1891 AND 1892. 723 The first asteroid to which the new notation was assigned was that discovered by Wolf, at Heidelberg, on August 22, 1892; it was pro- visionally known as 1892 A, and subsequently received its more per- manent designation, number 333, from Prof. Tietjen, and its name, Badenia, from the discover. In 1892 thirty new asteroids were announced; one of these, 1892 B, has already proved to be identical with Erigone, 163; and it is possible that further study will identify some of the others. Some slight discrepancies are still found in the different lists of as- teroids for the year, but as the new system of notation becomes estab- lished they will probably disappear. In the following list all the discoveries were by photography except 324, 326,327, and 331. In the case of the photographie discoveries tne date given is that of the earliest photograph on which the planet ap- pears. It was in many eases not noticed on the plate till considerably later, which accounts for the departures from chronological order in the ‘date of discovery ”: List of minor planets of 1892. | Letter. Num Name. | Discoverer. Daten covery. Soe eos: SPN eRe Gnascadaoe sopoaeaadcne seco ba et ENA Oy he haere Ae ee Ge ge ee eH IOP NY Doles soon ces 325 Heidelberga .....-..--------| Wolf, at Heidelberg .....-............:-...2..- Mar. 4 Seo OBne Bie | Obehathdn we eneSoeeeceadsoone sald Prbchs Pin MOG ase oat ee UBL Boones all Ny iye gl) ear soa GOMUIM Dae aerate eile OA OIS aboNiGelee sce hoes ae ane alle Maan oD) eae WWes2StiGudnunes-eeee=- a ea WW alitatiteidelbernmsss see oan ee aoe eee Mar oes ee SPADA SND aoe Sec ep coset been 55 Sac Brocan(\ Nes esACcamsoscos sen dee oes een Bon ae rere) aN 0 2 ee (esc 0Nellmatar sere chess teas se doe eid guia ewseteemy se tle eRun duh aoa 8h tae Nader Bese | Bod eretetattetaiaays acme nnicininlnm a == ONATIOIS§ Ati NAGO in (- ses os ee nod ches aoe ose relat, all ses 332 Sinipeetaaeenan as. ct es. Wolfiat HHeidelberty.s-e- serene. fees eee seen Ear eg ASOIMAS | OS0) PAC eMLAns ce clin ices eee mere eee CLO ore eee Lean od Sone een Aug. 22 TERR 12) IGE POI Nee oas cokasecEoeeeseoe | Laas CO nopadecctecnt soos sn eeacdaey san cee seeped: | Sept. 1 1892 © | 335 | Roberta..--..-.....-........ | Stans atiHeidelborgics 2 -\tes soso = pans eerie | Sept. 1 TSO TD ee RSG ocean cstemetincmecaocechss MCharloisiatwNicesencs ee ee eee ere Ree ee Sept. 19 W892 | 387 |i --- 20-25 ne een en =| omen UMA dSie ceasn eas ot coe Ae amestrssees coase | Sept. 22 1 Pl ek a ae [ee ae Cease Te ees end Aa | Sept. 25 TEI 2 Gel spl MM OLOCHON, 2 .cecesec he. scece ce VOWiOliatiterdelberers 35 2hecs scab eee eee ce Sept. 25 TRG Patel || BY eocc aocogsmsoac adadasacseae [ccoese Caton Rene Aeiee i ae, ee RS See Sept. 25 1892 J oil ta eter cotta et oa enact alata taal alte verare caters [Exacta do Se eee Oa ape ses Sept. 25 UES EPA oll BED ee nos Som BRAS ODAC Hep Rann iE Miers (en rneericecece Sees Se IS TAME ince oee Oct. 17 WNP Wil) GEES ecco s6c6 ae Sern cespouneaee peed lasreee CO Rts te ae, ere es eee ee Aug. 23 1892 M Sid ie nes Sak 2 oe kek ew GNarloisw at Ni Ger ae cs aoe ces aoe cee ee Nov. 15 1892 N BE BMS oa Bab fee ets ee eee Wiolt at Heidelbertiee=--+--0--. -<- BE MIC Nov. 15 NSO 2A Oa ree were || Sano clare ee tit sice ore Spee es @harloissaGiNices. saeseeace ce cieae eee Brees Nov 23 P91 22 ee ese COSC OSeE HOC rar eens to (Ce eesic CO on ies Cas eas BAe eters eee Nov. 25 LLP Aantal Ss. ce rerisdesciac WEEE Ee ee tee sto ee COR eee eecee en eee nie te Sees Loret melee ene Nov. 28 USO Lamu MW sccetacsta sarnte alos seiatate ete role, cl niate, 51™ 25° E, + 41° 42/4). It is 4,500 feet above sea level and is equipped with a 9-ineh telescope by Repsold. ADELAIDE: Todd.—Reobservation of Weisse stars; observations of Jupiter; weather service. ALABAMA UNIVERSITY.—An astronomical observatory attached to the University of Alabama, near Tuscaloosa, was completed in the sum- mer of 1844. The building was originally 54 feet in length by 22 in breadth in the center. In 1858 another apartment, 40 feet in length by 20 in width, was added to the east wing. The instruments consist of a 4-inch transit circle of 5-feet focus by Simms, the circle being 3 feet in diameter, divided to five minutes, and read by four microscopes to single seconds; a clock by Molyneaux; an equatorial, also by Simms, of 8 inches aperture and 12 feet focus, provided with a filar micrometer and double image micrometer, the hour circle being divided to one second of time and the declination circle to five seconds of are, read by opposite verniers. As an accessory to the equatorial there is an excel- lent clock by Dent. There are also two portable achromatic tele- scopes—one by Dolland of 7 feet focal length and 4 inches aperture, the other by Simins of 5 feet foeal length and 3 inches aperture—and reflecting circle by Troughton, of 10 inches aperture, read by+three verniers to twenty seconds. The observatory was built and the instruments purchased and mounted under the supervision of Prof. &. A. P. Barnard. A woodcut of the building is given in number 15 of the publications of the Astro- PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMY FOR 1891 AND 1892. 15 nomical Society of the Pacific, taken from the report of the United States Commissioner of Mdueation for 1889. ALLEGHENY: Meeler.—At a meeting of the board of trustees of the Western University of Pennsylvania on May 11, 1891, J. ©. Keeler, of the Lick Observatory, was elected professor of astrophysics in the university and director of the Allegheny Observatory, Mr. F. W. Very being associated with him as adjunct professor of astronomy. Through the generosity of Mrs. William Thaw the observatory has been provided with a very powerful spectroscope by Brashear; a new driving clock was presented by Mr. William Thaw, jr. ARMAGH: Dreyer.—Micrometric measures of nebulae; physical ob- servations of Jupiter. ATHENS: Hginitis.—The National Astronomical and Meteorological Observatory at Athens has been reorganized under the directorship of Prof. Eginitis. BAMBERG: Hartwig.—The large heliometer of 184 inillimeters aper- ture has been brought into regular use. Observations of variable stars and of a few occultations have been made, besides observations for the determination of change of latitude. BASEL: Riggenbach.—-listruction of students. BERLIN: Foerster.—Transit circle observations, measures of double stars, ete. BERMERSIDE (Halifax): Crossley—Measurement of double stars; observation of the phenomena of Jupiter’s and Saturn’s satellites. Me- teorological observations. Bipston: See Liverpool. BiRR CASTLE: Harl of Rosse.—Observations for lunar heat. Mete- orology. Bonn: KKiistner.—Prot. Deichmiiller was sueceeded as director on October 1, 1891, by Dr. Kiistner. Observation of the zone + 40° to + 50° was completed. 30STON UNIVERSITY.—A small observatory has been erected for purposes of instruction. Lat. 4+42° 21’ 32/5; long. 4" 44™ 15° west of Greenwich. The chief instrument is an equatorial of 7 inches aperture and 8 feet 1 inch focus, objective by Clacey and mounting by Saegmuller. BRESLAU: Galle.—Time service and meteorological observations. The one hundredth anniversary of the observatory was celebrated in 1891. BRUSSELS: folie.—Cloudy weather, an insufficient personnel, and the disturbance incident to the removal of the observatory to Uecle greatly interfered with the work of 1890, M. Niesten has continued his observations on the physical aspect of Mercury, Venus, Mars, and Jupiter, with the 58-ceitimeter (15 inches) equatorial. Since the death of M. Fievez the spectroscope has been in charge of M. Spée. BuvArest: Konkoly.—The new observatory of the Royal Meteoro- logical Reichsanstalt consists of a transit room 64 meters (21 feet) by 726 PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMY FOR 1891 AND 1892. 4 meters (13 feet) and a room for the refractor with a dome 43 meters (15 feet) in diameter. The instrumental equipment is very meager, consisting chiefly of a 44-inch telescope, a transit, clock, chronometer, chronograph, electrical and other subsidiary apparatus. The director reports but little astronomical work accomplished. CAMBRIDGE (England): Ball.—Prof. Adams has been succeeded as director by Sir Robert Ball. Considerable progress has been made upon the zone work. The 25-inch Newall refractor has been used for physical observations of planets and photography of stellar spectra. A spectroscope has been provided from * the Bruce fund.” CAPE OF GooD Hope: Gill.—Transit circle observations of the sun, Mercury, Venus, and of stars for a new ten-year catalogue, stars oc- culted by the moon, stars employed for latitude determinations, ete.; with the heliometer, measures for stellar parallax and measures of Jupi- ter’s satellites have been made, and with the zenith telescope, after its renovation, observations for an investigation of the constant of aberration. The photographic work has consisted of miscellaneous photographs of stars and planets, in addition to regular astrophoto- graphic charting. The catalogue of the Southern Photographie Durchmusterung has been made ready for the press. CARLETON: See Goodsell. CHAMBERLIN: Howe—The building has been completed at a cost of $25,000. CHIcAGO—See Kenwood, Yerkes. COLUMBIA (Missouri): Updegraff—The observatory of the University of Missouri (lat. + 58° 56’ 50” ; long. 15 1™ 68.4 west of Washington) was first built in 1853, and then consisted of a small wooden structure in which were mounted a 4-inch Fitz equatorial, a 2;;-inch transit by Brunner, a sidereal clock, and other smaller instruments. It was used for the purpose of instructing students in astronomy, and few changes or additions were made till 1880, when a 74-inch equatorial by Merz & Mahler was bought. The building was then removed to another part of the college grounds and enlarged by the erection of a brick tower, with a dome, for the newly acquired telescope. Soon after a sidereal clock, a chronograph, and spectroscope, all by Fauth & Co., were pur- chased. 186. Astron. Jour, 112: 418712) 189K: —. Orbit of 612. Astron, and Astrophys, 11: 46. 1892. GorE (J. E.) Orbit of OS 269. Month. Not., 52:550. 1892. Orbit of y Corone Australis. Month. Not., 52: 503. 1892. ——. Orbit of y Centauri. Month. Not., 52: 505. 1892. —. Orbit of 37 Pegasi (= 2912). Astron. Nachr., 131: 137. 1892. —.° Orbit of © 2525. Month. Not., 53:44. 1892. Hatt (A.) Notes on double stars. Astron. Jour., 12: 4,33. 1892. ——. Relative motion of 61 Cygni. Astron. Jour., 11: 140. 1892. LEAVENWORTH (F. P.) Personal error in observations of position angle. Sid. Mess., 10: 116-9. 1891. Lewis (T.) Orbit of 36 Andromedz (2 73). Month. Not., 51: 462-6. 1891. PICKERING (E.C.) Discovery of double stars by means of their spectra. Astron, Nachr., 127: 155. 1891. PowkE.t (EK. B.) Noteon the orbit of aCentauri. Month. Not., 52: 506-8. 1892. Str (T. J. J.) Origin of the stellar systems. Obsry., 14: 115-22. 1891. —. Great excentricities of the stellar orbits. Obsry., 14: 92-5. 1891. SELLoRS (R. P.) Orbit of y Corone Australis. Month. Not., 53: 45-7. 1892. VoGcEL (H. C.) Remarks on Mr. Fowler’s note on the duplicity of a Lyre. Month. Not., 51: 104-8. 1891. Periode von a Virginis. Astron. Nachr., 127: 255. 1891. Double stars (Orbits of). RampBavur (A. A.) Determination of double-star orbits from spectroscopic obser- vations of the velocity in the line of sight. Month. Not., 51:316-30. 1891. ~ Geometrical method of finding the most probable apparent orbit of a double star, 4 p.,2 pl.,8vo. Dublin 1891. Repr. from Proce. Roy. Soc. Dubl. Barth. Cornu (A.) Researches on the mean density of the earth. Month. Not., 51: 446. 1891. FLAMMARION (C.) Comment arrivera la fin du monde. L’Astron., 11: 416, 457. 1892. Haupt (P.) Momentanbewegungen der Erdaxe. Astron. naclir., 129: 249-58. 1892. Earth (Orbit of). Hatt (A.), jr. Secular perturbations of the earth produced by the action of Mars. Astron. Jour., 11: 25-8. 1891. Innes (R. T. A.) Secular perturbations of the earth’s orbit by Mars. Month. Not., 52: 80, 479. 1891. on —_ BIBLIOGRAPHY. (i Eclipse of the Sun, 1889, Jan. 1. Reporr of the observations made by the Washington university eclipse party at Norman, Cal....39p. 7 pl. 4to. Cambridge, 1891. Upron (W.) and Rorcn (A. lL.) Meteorological and other observations....at Willows, Cal. 34 p. il. 4to. Cambridge, 1892. Ann. Harv. Coll. Obsry., Vazo NOs: Eclipse of the Sun, 1893, April 15-16. Prircuetrr (H. 8.) [Observing stations available.] Astron. and Astrophys., 11: 454-7. 1892. Topp (D. P.) Data (chiefly meteorological) bearing upon the selection of [observing] stations. 24 p. 8vo. [n. p. 1892]. Repr. from Am. Meteorolog. J. Eclipses. TISSERAND (F.) Movement de Ja lune et les plus anciennes éclipses. il. L’As- tron., 11: 161-71. 1892. Eclipses of the Moon. HartMANN (J.) Vergriésserung des Erdschattens bei Mondtinsternissen. Abhandl. d. math.-phys. Cl. d. k. siich. Gesellsch. d. Wissen., 17: 365-553. 1891. Rev. by Seeleger (H.) Vrtljschr. d. astron. Gesellsch., 27: 186-206. 1892. Eclipses of the Sun. Gruby (lL. J.) Formules éeliptiques de Hansen simplifiées et démontrées géo- métriquement. il. Bull. Astron., 9: 233, 286. 1892. Electrical illumination. Marcuse (A.) Einrichtung zur elektrischen Beleuchtung astronomischer Instrumente. Astron. Nachr., 130: 41. 1892. Errors. CzuBER (E.) Theorie der Beobachtungsfehler. 12+418 p. 8vo. Leipzig 1891. Rev. by Borseh (A.) Vrtljschr. d astron. Gesellsch., 27: 4-12. 1892. LEHMANN-Frtués(R.) Wahrscheinlichste Fehlervertheilungen. Astron. Nachr., 127: 305-15. 1891. VELTMANN (W.) Theorie der Beobachtungsfehler. Astron. Nachr., 131: 1-16. 1892. FPlexure. Gruby (lL. J.) Mesure directe de la flexion du limbe d’un cercle méridien par ses propres microscopes. il. Bull. Astron., 8: 67-72. 1891. de Gasparis (Annibale) [1819-’92. ] FERGOLA (E.) Necrologia. Astron. Nachr., 129: 247. 1892. Gautier (Emile) [1822-91]. Wo tr (R.) Necrolog. Vrtljschr. d. astron. Gesellsch., 26: 185-92. For biojraphy se. also, Astron. Nachr., 126: 383. 1891. Por Portrait, see Vrtljschr. d. astron. Gesellsch., 26. Gegenschein. BARNARD (E. E.) Observations... made at Mount Hamilton, 188891. Astron. JOUra lO SOF Goodsell Observatory. WILLIAMS telescope of Goodsell Observatory. Sid. Mess., 10: 354, 876. 1891. Grant (Robert) [181492]. C. (R.) [Biographical sketch] Nature. 47:36. (1892, Nov.10.) Also: Astron, and Astrophys., 11: 878-80. 1892. Gravity. MENDENHALL (T. C.) Determinations of gravity with half-second pendulums on the Pacifie coast, in Alaska and at Washington, D. C., and Hoboken, 62 p. 8vo. Washington, 1882, App. 15. Rept. U.S. C, and G, Surv, 1891. 152 ASTRONOMICAL Harvard Coliege Observatory. EXPEDITION to the Southern hemisphere. Pub. Aston. Soc. Pacific, 3: 128. 1891. FLEMING (M.) Harvard College Observatory astronomical expedition to Peru, Pub. Astron. Soc. Pacific, 4: 58-62. PICKERING (E. C.) A large southern telescope. Astron. and Astrophys., 11: 783-5. 1892. ——. [Suggesting subscription for] a large southern telescope. 3p.4to. Cam- bridge, 1892. PICKERING (W. H.) Mountainstation... [at Arequipa, Peru]. il. Astron. and Astrophys. 11: 353-62. 1892. von Haynald (Ludwig) [1816—91.] Finyi (J.) Todesanzeige. Astron. Nachr., 128: 15. 1891. Heliometer. GiLt (D.) Reduction of distances from heliometer observations. il. Astron. Nachr., 131: 185-92. 1892. LoRENTZEN (G.) Untersuchung der Scalen eines Heliometers. Astron. Nachr., 131: 217-38. 1892. Scour (W.) Systematisehe Correctionen von Distanzmessungen am Heliome- ter. Astron. Nachr., 131; 381. 1892. Interpolation. FRISCHAUF (J.) Genauigkeit interpolirter Zahlen. Astron. Nachr., 130: 123. 1892. Rapavu (R.) Etudes sur les formules (interpolation. Bull. Astron., 8: 273, 325, 316, 425. 1891. Jupiter. BaRNaArRD (E. E.) Observations of the planet Jupiter and his satellites during 1890 with the 12-inch equatorial of the Lick Observatory. Month. Not., 51: 543-55. 1891. Observations of the spots and markings... Month. Not., 52: 7-16. 1891. CLERKE (A. M.) Jupiter and his system. 44 p.8vo. London, 1892. Exeer (T. G.) Recent disturbance in the northern hemisphere of Jupiter: Obsry., 15: 109-12. 1892. FLAMMARION (C.) Découvertes récentes sur Jupiter. il. L’Astron., 11: 81-93. 1892. HovupeEn (E. 8.) and CAMPBELL (W. W.) Negatives of Jupiter made with the great telescope of the Lick Observatory during 1891. Month. Not., 52: 499. KEELER (J. E.) Red spot on Jupiter. J. Brit. Astron. Assn., 1: 435. 1891. LANDERER (J. J.) Les dimensions et la latitude jovicentrique de la tache rouge de Jupiter. Bull. Astron., 9: 246-8. 1892. LEVEAU (S.) Determination de la masse de Mars et de la Jupiter par les obser- vations méridiennes de Vesta. Compt. Rend. 112: 332-5. 1891. PLASSMAN (J.) Der Planet Jupiter. Darstellung der wichtigsten Beobacht- unesergebnisse und Erkliirungsversuche. 116 p. il. KéIn 1892. Scnur (W.) Untersuchung tiber die Figur des Planeten Jupiter. Astron. Nachr., 129: 10-14. 1892. Witiiams (A. 8.) Notes of a preliminary examination of photographs ... taken at the Lick Observatory in 1891. il. Pub. Astron. Soc. Pacific, 4: 166-76. 1892. Outburst of spots in the northern hemisphere of Jupiter. Obsry., 14: 361.) 1891 —. Red spot on Jupiter. J. Brit. Astron. Assn., 1: 436, 1891, BIBLIOGRAPHY. 153 Jupiter—Continued. Reduction of measures of the photographs ... taken at the Lick Ob- servatory in 1890. il. Month. Not., 51: 402. 1891. Jupiter (Orbit of). DOWNING (A. M. W.) Note on Damoisean’s ‘‘ Tables écliptiques des satellites de Jupiter.” Month. Not., 52: 573. 1892. Hitt (G. W.) Additional terms in the great inequalities of Jupiter and Saturn. Astron. Jour., 11: 49-51. 1891. Jupiter (Satellites of). BARNARD (KE. E.) Discovery and observations of a fifth satellite to Jupiter. Astron. Jour., 12: 81-5.. 1892. Also: Astron. Nachr., 131: 73. 1892. Note on the period of the fifth satellite. Astron. Jour., 12: 108. 1892. ——. Note on the period and distance of the fifth satellite of Jupiter. Month. Not., 53:36: 1892. —. Some further observations of the fifth satellite ... Obsry., 15: 425-7. 1892. [Discovery of a fifth satellite.] Pul. Astron. Soc. Pacific., 4: 199. 1892. ENTDECKUNG eines fiinften Jupiterstrabanten durch Barnard, 1892, Sept. 9. Astron. Nachr., 130: 375. 1892. FREEMAN (A.) Siderial period of the new satellite of Jupiter. Month. Not., 53: 37-9. 1892. VON Harpri (E.) Inegalité du quatriceme ordre provenant de Vaction mutuelle des deux derniers satellites de Jupiter. Bull. Astron., 9: 212-6. 1892. Lynn (W.T.) Nomenclature of the satellites of Jupiter. Obsry. 15: 427-9, 1892. Marry (A.) Data for computing the positions of the satellites of Jupiter, 1891; with tables of the inequalities. Month. Not., 51: 505-41. 1891. —. Data for computing the positions of the’ satellites of Jupiter. 1892. Month. Not., 52: 574-80. 1892. MicuEeLson (A. A.) Measurement of Jupiter’s satellites by interference. il. Pub. Astron. Soc. Pacifie, 3: 274-8. 1891. Karlsruhe Observatory. VEROFFENTLICHUNGEN .. . 4. Heft. 11-307 p. 4to. Karlsruhe, 1892. Kenwood Observatory. HAE (G. 8.) [Description]. Pub. Astron. Soc. Pacific, 3: 30-4. 1891. —. [Description.] il. Sid. Mess., 10:321-3. 1891. YounG (C. A.) [Address at the dedication.] Sid. Mess., 10: 312-21. 1891. Kepler's problem. Prrers (C.F.W.) Bemerkung zum Kepler’schen Problem. Astron. Nachr., 126: 291. 189r- Kleiber (Joseph). [ 1865-92. | GLASENAPP (S.) ‘Todesanzeige. Astron. Nachr., 129: 151. 1892. Ladd Observatory. RoGers (W. A.) Address at the dedication ... Sid. Mess., 10: 491. 1891. Upton (W.) [Description of building and instruments.}] Sid. Mess., 10: 502-5. 1891. Lamp (Johannes Christian). [1&57-’91]. AUWERS (A.) Todesanzeige. Astron. Nachr., 128: 239. 1891. 3ATTERMANN (H.) Nekrolog. Vrtljschr. d. Astron. Gesellseh., 27:2. 1892. Latitude. sECK (A.) Anwendung eines Objectivprismas zur Zeit- und Polhébenbestim- mung. Astron. Nachr., 130: 81-96. 1892. Corti (J.S.) New method for the simultaneous determination of latitude and azimuth. Sid. Mess., 10: 189-94. 1891. Marcusr (A.) Anwendung photographischer Methoden fiir Polhéhenbestim- mungen. Yrtljschr. d. Astron. Gesellsch., 27: 308-13, 1899, MT. Mis, 114——48 754 ASTRONOMICAL Latitude (Variation of). D’ABBADIE (A.) Fluctuation des latitudes terrestres. Bull. Astron., 9: 89-102. 1892. ALBRECHT (T.) Provisorische Resultate der Beobachtungsreihen in Berlin, Potsdam und Prag. Astron. Nachr., 126: 145-58. 1891. Resultate der fortgesetzten Beobachtungsreihen in Berlin und Prag. Astron. Nachr., 128: 129-36. 1891. Resultate der Beobachtungsreihen in Berlin, Prag, Strassburg und Honolulu betreftend die Verinderlichkeit der Polhéhe. il. Astron, Nachr., 1S 1GO S92: BAKHUYZEN (H. G. van de Sande). Variations of latitude deduced from the observations of Polaris made at Greenwich, 1851-1889. il. Month. Not., 51: 286-506. 1891. BRENDEL (M.) Einfluss von Polschwankungen auf die geographische Lage der Erdorte. Astron. Nachr., 131:59. 1892. CHANDLER (S. C.) Variation of latitude. Astron. Jour., 11: 59, 65, 75, 83; 18915 12:17, 57, Go, 97. 1892: ——. Supposed secular variation of latitudes. Astron. Jour., 11: 107-9. 1892, ——. Note on secular variation of latitude. Astron. Jour., 11:154. 1892. —. On the Washington prime-vertical observations. Astron. Jour., 11: 174. 1892. Comstock (G. C.) Relation of the periodic and secular variations of the lati- tude. Astron. Jour., 11:92, 116. 1892. ——, secular variation of latitudes. Astron. Jour., 12: 24. 1892. Also Am, J. Se., 142: 470-82. 1892. ——. Variations of latitude observed at the Washburm Observatory. Astron. Nachr., 127: 97-104. 1891. DooLITTLE (C. L.) Latitude of the Sayre Observatory. Astron. Nachr., 128: 213-8. 1891. FLAMMARION (C.) Variabilité des latitudes. L’Astron., 10: 139-15. 1891. GouLp (B. A.) Periodic variation of the latitude at Cordoba. Astron. Jour., HE 29 137-2 892: He~mMert (FP. R.) Erklirung der beobachteten Breiteniinderungen. Astron. Nachr., 126: 217-24. 1891. Herz (N.) Herrn Folie’s tiigliche Polhjhenschwankung. Astron. Nachr., 127: 273. 1s9l: —. Jiihrliche Veriinderung der Polhéhen. Astron. Nachr., 126: 529-54. 1891. JACOBY (H.) German variation of latitude work. Astron. and Astrophys., 11:471-7. 1892. KostTinsky (S.) Variations de la latitude de Poulkovo en 1891-1892. Astron- Nachrs 10325). 1892: Lamp (J.) Niveauschwanknungen der Oceane als eine mégliche Ursache der Veriinderlichkeit der Polhéhe. Astron. Nachr., 126: 223-6. 18:1. Marcusk (A.) Resultate der fortgesetzten Berliner Beobachtungsreihe betr. die Veriinderlichkeit der Polhéhe. Astron. Nachr., 127:37. 1891. —. Ergebnisse der Expedition nach Honolulu zur Untersuchung der Pol- hoéheniinderune. Astron. Nachr., 131: 297-302. 1892. NEWCOMB (S.) Dynamies of the earth’s rotation with respect to the periodic variations of latitude. Month. Not., 52: 336-41. 1892. Law and the period of the variation of terrestrial latitudes. Astron. Nachr., 180: 1-6. 1892. —. Periodic variation of latitude and the observations with the Washington prime-vertical transit. Astron. Jour., 11:81. 1891. —. Remarks on Mr. Chandlers law of variation of terrestrial latitudes, Astron. Jour., 12: 49. 1892. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 195 Latitude (Variation of )—Continued. THACKERAY (W.G.) and Turner (H. H.) Variation of latitude as indicated by recent observations at .. . Greenwich. Month. Not., 538: 2-11. 1892. THOMSON (W.) Variations of short period in the latitude. Nature. (Dee. 3, 1891.) Abstr: Pub. Astron. Soc., Pacific, 4: 33. 1892. WanacH (B.) Schwankungen der Polhéhe von Pulkowa, 1890 und 1891. il. Astron. Nachr., 129: 329-34. 1892. ——. Ableitung der Polhéhenschwankungen aus iilteren Pulkowaer Beobach- tungen im ersten Vertical. Astron. Nachr., 180: 245-52. 1892. Lenses. BURNHAM (S. W.) New enlarging photographie lens. Astron. and Astrophys., 11: 558-62. 1892. HOLDEN (E.8.) Who discovered the optical properties of lenses? Pub. Astron. Soe., Pacific, 3: 133-40. 1891. Levels. Hat (A.) The spirit level. Sid. Mess., 10: 187. 1891. TURNER (H. H.) New forms of levels. Month. Not.,52: 52-6. 1891. Lick Observatory. HOoLpEN (E. 8.) Note on the early history of the Lick Observatory. il. Pub. Astron. Soc., Pacific, 4: 139-50. 1892. —. The great telescope; its accomplishments for science during the past year. il. San Jose Daily Mercury, Jan. 1, 1892. SHINN (M. W.) The Lick astronomical department of the University of Cali- fornia. 22p. il. 8vo. San Francisco, 1892. Repr. from: Overland Month., Nov., 1892. Light. LANGLEY (S. P.) Energy and vision. il. Mem. Nat’l Acad. sec., 5: 7-18 (V. 5, 1 mem.). 1891. Lunar theory. Brown (E. W.) Determination of a certain class of inequalities in the moon’s motion. Month. Not., 52: 71-80. 1891. —. Note on the lunar theory. Month. Not., 52: 408. 1892. CaYLeEy (A.) Note on the lunar theory. Month. Not.,52: 2-5. 1891. Danckvoortr (A.) Die vom Monde verursachte atmosphiirische Ebbe und Fluth in Bezug auf Entfernung und Stundenwinkel des Mondes. 54 ». Svo. Magdeburg, 1891. GORDON (J.) Corrections to Hansen’s Tables de la lune. Month. Not., 53: 17-19. 1892. RabDaAu (R.) Notes relatives a quelques points de la théorie de la lune. Bull. Astron., 9: 361-74. 1892. —. Remarques sur certaines inégalités & longue période du mouvement de la lune: Bull: Astron., 9: 137,185, 245., 1892: STOCKWELL (J. N.) Mean and secular motion of the moon’s perigee. Astron. Jour., 10: 145. 1891- STONE (E. J.) Verilication of the expressions given in Delaunay’s lunar theory by a direct differentiation and substitution in the differential equations. Month. Not., 52: 68-70. 1891. TISSERAND (I*°.) Note sur Vétat actuel de la theorie de la lune. Bull. Astron., 8: 481-508. 1891. # Accélération séculaire de la lune et sur la variabilité du jour sidéral. Compt. Rend. 115:667-9. 1892. TURNER (H. TT.) Systematic errors of the moon in right ascension. Month. Not., 53: 11-16. 1892. 756 ASTRONOMICAL Mars. BARNARD (E. E.) [Remarks on observations of 1892 at the Lick Observatory. ] il. Astron. and Astrophys., 11: 680-4. 1892. Comstock (G. C.) Observations... at the Washburn Observatory. Astron. and Astrophys., 11: 679. 1892. FLAMMARION (C.) [Dessins de] la planete Mars. L’Astron., 11; 321-31. 1892. —. La planéete Mars et ses conditions @ habitabilité: synthese générale de toutes les observations. 4toil. Paris, 1892. —. Nouvelles observations sur Mars. il. L’Astron., 10: 162-70. 1891. —. Nouvelles observations sur la planete Mars. il. L’Astron., 11: 367, 441. 1892. ——. Retour de la planete Mars. il. L’Astron., 11: 201,288. 1892. —. Saisons sur la planete Mars. il. L’Astron., 10: 323-42. 1891. ——. Variations certaines observées sur la planete Mars. i]. L’Astron. 10: 88-102. 1891. HOoupeEN (E. 8.) Note on the Mt. Hamilton observations. .. June—Aug., 1892, il, Astron. and Astrophys., 11: 663-8. 1892. PERROTIN (J.) Observations de la planete Mars. Compt. Rend., 115: 379-81. 1892. PICKERING (W.H.) [Changes on] Mars. il. Astron. and Astrophys. 11: 668-75. 1892. Colors exhibited by the planet Mars. Astron. and Astrophys., 11: 449, 545. 1892. —. [Summary of observations at Arequipa, 1892.] Astron. and Astrophys., 11: 849-52. 1892. SCHAEBERLE (J. M.) Preliminary note on the observations of the surface features . . . during the opposition of 1892. Pub. Astron. Soc., Pacific, 4: 196-8. 1892. STONE, (E. J.) [Solar parallax from meridian observations of Mars, 1892.] Month Not., 52: 538-41. 1892. TrerBy (i°.) Physical observations of Mars. Astron. and Astrophys., 11: 478-80. 1892. 555-8. Wiison (H. C.) Observations . . . at Goodsell Observatory. il. Astron. and Astrophys., 11: 684, 1892. WIsiickNnus(W.F.) Physiche Beobachtungen des Mars wihrend der Opposition, 1890: il. Astron. Nachr., 127: 161-8. 1891. YOuNG (C. A.) Observations ... at... Princeton. Astron. and Astrophys., 11: 675-8. 1892. Mars (Diameter of). TISSERAND (F.) Sur le diametre de Mars. Bull. Astron., 9: 417-22. 1892. Mars (Orbit of). Von Harrptt (E.) Note sur trois inégalités 4 longue période du mouvement de Mars. Bull. Astron., 9: 409-17. 1892. Mars (Satellites of). SOPELAND (R.) ~Pretended early discovery of a satellite of Mars. Month Not., 52); 493. 1892. Mechanics (Celestial). LEHMANN-Fituts (R.) Zwei Fiille des Vielkérperproblems. Astron. Nachr., 197: 137-44. 1891. Poincaré (H.) Méthodes nouvelles de la mécanique céleste. 2 vol. 8vo. Paris, 1892. : : ——. Developpement approché de la fonction perturbatrice. Compt. Rend., 112: 269-73. 1891. SEELIGER (H.) Ueber allgemeine Probleme der Mechanick des Hummels; 29 p.4to, Miinchen, 1892. BIBLIOGRAPHY. T57 Mechanics (Celestial )}—Continued. Wanpb (T.) Integration der Differentialgleichungen welche die Bewegungen eines Systems von Punkten bestimmen. Astron. Nachr., 127: 353-60. 1891. 130: 377-90. 1892. Mercury. Trouve or (E, L.) Observations sur les planétes Vénus et Mereure. 87 p. il. 8vo. [Par. 1892?] Mercury (Diameter of). AMBRONN (L.) Beitrag sur Bestimmung des Mercurdurchmessers, Astron. Nachr., 127; 157-62. 1891. Mercury (Orbit of). HarzeER (P.) Bewegung des Mereurperihels. Astron. Nachr., 127: 81-8. 1891. Meridian circle observations. Sarrorp (T. H.) How to make good meridian observations. Sid. Mess., 10: 1135209; 401. 1891. Meridian marks. Gruey (L. J.) Transformation des mires meridiennes. Bull. Astron., 8: 321-5. 1891. Meridian (Vrime). New origin for terrestial longitudes. Sid. Mess., 10: 269-71. 1891. Meteors. CALLANDREAU (O.) Theorie des étoiles filantes. Compt. Rend., 112: 1503-5. 1891. CoakLeEY (G. W.) Probable origin of meteorites. Astron. and Astrophys, 11: 753-63. 1892. DENNING (W. F.) Meteor radiants. Sid. Mess., 10: 234. 1891. —. Physical nature of shooting stars. and aerolites. Astron. and Astrophys, 11: 481. 1892. Keiser (J.) Displacement of the apparent radiant points of meteor showers due to the attraction, rotation and orbital motion of the earth. Month Not., 52: 341-54. 1892. Opredelenije orbit meteornych potokof. [On the determination of orbits of meteor streams.] 8-322 p. 8°. St. Petersb., 1891 Rev. by Harzer (P.) Vrtljschrd. Astron. Gesellsch. 26: 193-219. 1891. Monck (W. H. 8.) August meteors. Pub. Astron. Soc., Pacific, 3: 114. 1891. ——. Orbits of meteors. Sid. mess., 10: 328-31. 1891. —. Radiant points of meteor showers. Pub. Astron. Soc., Pacific, 4: 217-24. 1892. PLASSMANN (J.) Zweites Verzeichniss von Meteorbahnen. 30p.8vo. Koln, 1891. von Niessu(G.) Periheldistanzen und andere Bahnelemente jener Meteoriten deren Fallerscheinungen mit einiger Sicherheit beobachtet werden konnten, 17 p. 8vo. 1891. Micrometers. Fapritius (W.) Kreuzstab-mikrometer. Astron. Nachr., 129: 51-56. 1892. HaMy (M.) & Boquerr (F.) Flexion des fils micro métriques. Bull. Astron., 8: 97-101. 1891. PoYNTING (J. H.) Parallel plate double image micrometer. Month. Not., 52: 556-60. 1892. Scuur (W.) Bemerkung zu dem Aufsatze von Dr, Wislicenus. Ueber den Ein- fluss von Ring-und Scheibenblenden auf Mikrometer messungen . ._. Astron. Nachr., 129: 241. 1892. WELLMANN (V.) Neue Form des Ring-und Ranten-Mikrometers, Astron. Nachr., 127: 265-70. 1891. 158 ASTRONOMICAL Micrometers—Continued. WISLICENUS (W. F.) Einfluss von Ring-und Scheibenblenden auf Mikrometer Messungen. Astron. Nachr., 128: 345-58, 1891. Milky Way. BOEDDICKER (O.) The Milky Way from the north pole to 10° of south declina tion . ; . folio. - London, 1892. Rev: J. Brit. Astron. Assn. 2: 200. 1892. Marti (A.) Galactic longitudes and latitudes of the brighter stars in a zone of the heaven, containing the Milky Way. Month. Not., 53: 74-109, 1892. Mirrors. i ComMon (A. A.) Silvering glass mirrors. Astron. and Astrophys., 11: 852-9. 1892. WauGH (W. R.) Dewingof mirrors. J. Brit. Astron. Assn., 2: 130. 1891. Mont Blanc Observatory. JANSSEN (J.) [Note sur l’observatoire de Mont Blane.} Compt. Rend., 113: 179,571. 1891; 114: 195. 1892; 115: 914-9. 1892. Moon. (See also Lunar theory.) BoreppICcKER (QO.) Lunar radiant heat measured at Birr Castle observatory dur- ing the total eclipse of January 28, 1888. 32 p.il. 4dto. Dublin, 1891. Repr. from Trans. Roy. Dubl. Soc. 2. s. 4; 481-512. Everr (T. G.) Lunar work for amateurs. Pub. Astron. Soc. Pacitic, 3: 162-72. 1891. The lunar walled-plain Ptolemaus. il. J. Brit. Astron. Assn., 1: 305- IISiy - Aksheh ke FLAMMARION (C.) Lalune a 48 kilometres. L’Astron., 11: 389-91. 1892. H[oLpEN] (E.8.) -Examination of the Lick Observatory negatives of the moon. Pub. Astron. Soc. Pacific, 3: 249, 252, 285. 1891. 4: 78, 96. 1892. —. Photographs of the moon made with the great telescope at the Lick Ob- servatory. 6p. il. 8vo.[n.p.n.d.] Repr. from: Overland Month. Jan. 1892. ——, The lunar crater Copernicus. il. Pub. Astron. Soc. Pacific, 4: 114-20. 1892. Marrn (A.) List of published lunarsketches and photographs arranged accord- ing to the sun’s position. Month. Not., 51: 164-76. 1891. Peau (S. E.) Comparative selenology. J. Brit. Astron. Ass’n., 1: 244-9, 1891. PICKERING (W. H.) Are there at present active volcanoes on the moon. il. Obsry., 15: 250-4. 1892. Investigation of the systems of hright streaks visible upon the full moon. Astron. Nachr., 130: 225. 1892. Lunar atmosphere and the recent occultation of Jupiter. il. Astron, and Astrophys, 11: 778-82. 1892. SPRAGUE (R.) Notes on the Lick Observatory lunar photographs. Obsry., 15: 254-6. 1892. Very (F. W.) Prize essay on the distribution of the moon’s heat and its varia- tion with the phase. 45 p. [ll pl.] 4to. The Hague, 1891. WEINEK (L.) Enlarged drawings from lunar photographs taken at the Lick Ob- servatory. il. Pub. Astron. Soc. Pacific, 3: 333-45. 1801. Neue Rille und neuer Krater entdeckt auf den Mondphotographien der Lick Sternwarte. Astron. Nachr., 128: 139-42. 1891. . Photographische Entdeckung eines Mondkraters im Mare Nubium, und optischer Nachweis desselben. Astron. Nachr., 181: 159. 1892. Photographic discovery of a new crater. Pub. Astron, Soc. Pacific, 4: 177-9. 1892. Youna (C. A.) Index map of the moon. il. Pub. Astron. Soe, Pacific, 3: 20. 1891. ’ BIBLIOGRAPHY. 159 Mouchez (Amedée Ernest Barthélemy ) [1821-’92. | KLUMPKE (D.) [Biographical sketch.] Obsry. 15: 305-7. 1892. For Biography, see also Bull. Astron.,9: 281-5. 1892. Also: L’Astron. 11: 281. 1892. For Portrait see Bull astron. 9:281 (Jullet 1892.) Nadirinstrument. Beck (A.) Neues Instrument zur Zeit-und Polhéhenbestimmung. il. Astron. Nachr., 126: 385-95. 1891. Nebula in Andromeda. Roperts (1.) Photographie evidence of variability inthe nueleus of the great nebula in Andromeda. Month. Not., 51: 116-8. 1891. Nebula in Lyra. Keeler (J. E.) Central star of the ring nebula in Lyra. Astron. Nachr., 130: 227. 1892. Nebula in Orion. AMBRONN (L.) Ausmessung des Trapezes im Orionnebel. Astron. Nachr., 130: 97-112. 1892. HoupEN (E. 8S.) The nebula of Orion. 8 p. il. 8vo [San Francisco, 1*92.] Repr. from: Overland Month. Apr., 1892. NAEGAMVALA (K. D.) Character of the chiefline of the nebulain Orion. Month, Not., 51: 442. 1891. Nebule. ARCHENHOLD (F. 8S.) Ausgedehnter Nebel bei © Persei. Astron. Nachr.. 129: 153-8. 1892. BARNARD (E. E.) Two probably var.able nebule. Astron. Nachr., 130:7. 1892. BrGOURDAN (G.) Observations de nebuleuses et d’amas stellaires. Paris, 1891. Rev: Astron. Jour., 11: 128. 1892. ——. Sur une nébuleuse variable. Compt. Rend., 112: 471-4. 1891. BuRNHAM (S. W.) Measures of planetary nebulie with the 36-inch equatorial of the Lick Observatory. Month. Not., 52: 31-46. 1891. ——. Observations of nebulwe with the 36-inch ... Month Not., 52: 440-61. 1892. DENNING (W. F.) Variations in nebule. Obsry., 14: 196. 1891. ——. Supposed variable nebulw. Astron. Nachr., 180: 231. 1892. Dreyer (J. L. BE.) Note on some apparently variable nebulie. Month. Not., 52: 100-3. 1891. Wor (M.) Note on anebula surrounding ¢ Orionis discovered by photography. Je Brite Astron. Assi, li 25254. 297." 189i. Nebule (Catalogues of). BiGOURDAN (G.) Nébuleuses nouvelles découvertes & Vobservatoire de Paris. Compt. Rend., 112: 647, 703, 848. 1891. Swirr (L.) Catalogue No. 10 of nebule discovered at the Warner Observatory, Astron. Nachr., 129: 361. 1892. Nebulz (Motions of) in the line of sight. KEELER (J. E.) Motions of the nebulw in the line of sight. Obsry., 14: 52. 1891. Nebule (Spectra of). HALE (G. E.) Researches on the magnesia fluting in connection with the spec- tra of the nebulee. Sid. Mess., 10: 23-30. 1891. KEELER (J. E.) [Chief line in the spectrum.] Sid. Mess., 10: 264-9. 1891. Chief line in the spectrum of the nebulw. Proc. Roy. Soe., 49: 399-4038. 1891. Also, Reprint. Nebular hypothesis. KEELER (J. E.) [Lecture on] the nebular hypothesis. il. Astron. and Astro- phys. 11: 567, 768. 1892. 760 ASTRONOMICAL Webular hypothesis—Continnued. THOMSON (W.) Commentlesoleila commencé abruler. il, L’Astron., 11: 361-7. 1892. Neptune. ; Ho.LpEN (E. 8.) Historical note relating to the search for the planet Neptune in Eneland in 1845-6. Pub. Astron. Soc. Pacific, 4: 21. 1892. Normal equations. Herz(N.) Auflo6sung der Normalgleichungen, Astron. Nachr., 129:353-6. 1892. Nova Aurigz, 1892. CAMPBELL(W.W.) Spectrumof Nova Aurigae. il. Pub. Astron. Soc. Pacitic, 4: 231-47. 1892. ——. Recent observations. Astron. and Astrophys., 11: 715-9. 1892. Spectrum... in Feb.andMar.,1892. il. Astron. and Astrophys., 11: 799-811. 1892. ——. [Observations Sept. & to Oct. 13, 1892.] Astron. and Astrophys., 11: 820. 1892. ——. [Motion in the line of sight.| Astron. and Astrophys., 11: 881. 1892. CLERKE (A. M.) ‘Tbe new star in Auriga. Astron. and Astrophys., 11: 504-13. 1892. From: Contemp. Rev. Apr., 1892. —. Nova Aurige and its suggestions. Obsry., 15: 286-9. 1892. —. Nova Aurigwe. Obsry., 15: 334-9. 1892. COPELAND (R.) [Discoveryand spectrum.] Astron. and Astrophys., 11: 593-602. 1892. . Crew (H.) Visiblespectrum of the new star in Auriga. Astron. and Astrophys., 11: 231-3. 1892. Espn (T. E.) Spectroscopicobservations and ight curve... J. Brit. Astron. Assn., 2: 328-32. 1892. HOLDEN (E. S.) The new star of 1892. il. Californian. Il. Mag., 1: 404-9. [Apr.] 1892. HuaGeins (W.) Spectrum of Nova Aurigwe. il. Astron. and Astrophys., 11: 571-81. 1892. HwuaGains (W.), Lockyer (J. N.), and others. The new star in Auriga. Obsry., 15: 136-43. 1892. PICKERING (E. C.) Nova Aurige. Astron. and Astrophys., 11: 417. 1892. ——. The new star in Auriga. il. Astron. and Astrophys., 11: 228-31. 1892. SCHAEBERLE (J. M.) Theoretical photographic magnitudes. Astrom. Jour., 12: 36-9. 1892. SEELIGER (H.) Neuen Stern im Sternbilde Auriga. Astron. Nachr., 189: 393-406. 1892. ——. [Results of observations] on the new star in the constellation Auriga. Astron. and Astrophys., 11: 904-17. 1892. SIDGREAVES (W.) Spectrum of Nova Aurigie. Astron. and Astrophys., 11: 604-7. 1892. ——. Note on the revival of Nova Aurigwe. Astron. and Astrophys., 11: 882-4. 1892. VoGEL (HH. C.) Motion of Nova Aurig in the line of sight. Astron. and Astrophys., 11: 391-3. 1892. YounG (C. A.) and ReEep (T.) Observations . .. at Princeton. Astron. and Astrophys., 11: 289-91. 1892. Nova of 1006. SCHGONFELD (E.) Neuen Stern von 1006. Astron. Nachr., 127: 153. 1891. WNutation. Four: (F.) Formules correctes de la nutation initiale. Astron. Nach., 128: 6-12. 1891. HERZ (N.) Zudem Aufsatze des Herrn Folie. Astron. Nachr., 128: 47. 1891. a BIBLIOGRAPHY. 761 Object Glasses. Cooke (T.) & Sons. Adjustment and testing of telescopic objectives. 64-49 p. il. 8vo. York, 1891. Sprrra (E. J.) Note on some photometric experiments connected with the appli- cation of the law of limiting apertures to small object-glasses. il. Month Not., 52: 48-51. 1891. Observatories. GiiL(D.) Astronomer’s work in a modern observatory. Obsry., 14: 535, 570, 408. 1891. JAHRESBERICHTE der Sternwarte fiir 1890. Vrtljsehr. d. astron. Gesellseh., 26: 83-169. 1891. JAHRESBERICHTE der Sternwarte fiir 1891. Vrtljschr. d. astron. Gesellsch., 27: 72-166. 1892. NEWALL (H. F.) Notes on visits to some American observatories. Obsry., 14: 15251885227. 1891. PICKERING (W.H.) Astronomical possibilities at considerable altitudes. Astron. Nachr., 129: 97. 1892. Astronomical possibilities at considerable altitudes. Obsry., 15: 283-6. 1892. PROCEEDINGS of observatories [1890]. Month. Not., 51: 208-36. 1891. Same, 1891; Month. Not., 52: 243-69. 1892. Urron (W.) Ancient and modern observatories. Sid. Mess., 10: 481-9. 1891. Optics. STEINHEIL (A.) and Voir (E.) Handbuch der angewandten Optik. 1 Band. 314 p. 8vo. Leipzig, 1891. Rev. by Crew (H.) Pub. Astron. Soc. Pacific. 4:31. 1892. Orbits. FaBRITIUS (W.) Leichte Methode der Bahubestimmung mit Zugrundelegung des Princeps von Gibbs. Astron. Nachr., 128: 225-8. 1891. Verhiiltniss des Dreiecks zum Sector der Kegelschnitte. Astron. Nachr., 129: 49. 1892. Weitere Anwendungen des Gibbs’ schen Princips. Astron. Nachr., 128: 321-8. 1891. Rapau (R.) Remarques relatives & la théorie des orbites. Bull. Astron., 9: 3821-40. 1892. SeuuirTz (E.) Anwendung der Hamilton’ schen partiellen Differentialgleichung bei der Bahnbestimmnung eines von einem homogenen Sphiroid angezogenen Punktes. Astron. Nachr., 127: 265-90. 1891. SEARLE (G. M.) Computation of places in eccentric ellipses and hyperbolas. Astron. Jour. 11: 89-92. 1892. VoGEL (R.) Methode fiir Bahnbestimmung, Astron. Nachr., 129: 37-44. 1892. Parallax (Solar). AuUWERs (A.) Sonnenparallaxe nach den Heliometerbeobachtungen der deutschen Venus-Expeditionen von 1874 und 1882. Astron. Nachr., 128: 329-38. 1891. Hau (A.) Solar parallax and the mass of the earth. Astron. Jour. 11: 20. 1891. HARKNESS (W.) Solar parallax and its related constants. 169 p. 4to. Wash- ington. 1891. Washington observations, 1885 app. 3. Stone (E.J.) Note on some values of the sun’s mean horizontal parallax which have been deduced from the transit of Venus observations made in 1882. Month. Not., 52: 124. 1892. 162 ASTRONOMICAL _ Parallax (Stellar). Boss (L.) Bestimmung von Parallaxen durch Registrir-Beobachtungen am Meri- diankreise von Dr. J.C. Kapteyn. Pub. Astron. Soc. Pacific, 5: 346-53. 1891. Harti (A.) [Method of reduction.] Astron. Jour., 11:7. 1891. KAPTEYN (J.C.) Bestimmung von Parallaxen durch Registrir-Beobachtungen am Meridiankreise. 128 p.4to. Haag. 1891. Rev. Astron. Jour., 11:8. 1891. KLEIBER (J.) Mittlere Entfernung derjenigen Sterne deren eigene Bewegung im Visionsradius bekannt ist. Astron. Nachr., 127: 209-12. 1891. LEAVENWORTH (F. P.) Parallax of 0 Herculis from observations made by Dem- bowski. Astron. Jour., 11: 169-72. 1892. Proper motion and parallax of 6 Equulei. Astron. Jour. 12:41. 1892. PRITCHARD (C.) Parallax of 8 Aurigw. Month. Not., 51: 310. 1891. Parallax ot 3 Aurige. Astron. Nachr., 127: 201-8. 1891. ScHur (W.) Bestimmung der Parallaxe von 3 Orionis. Astron. Nachr. 127: 14 ee USO Paris Observatory. BassoT (—.) and DEFFORGES (—.) Détermination récente de la longitude Paris-Greenwich. Month. Not. 51: 407-13. 1891. DesLANDRES (H.) Transformation du grand télescope...pourl’ étude des vitesses radiales des astres. Résultats obtenus. Compt. Rend., 115: 783-6. 1892. RAPPORT annuel -.. 1890. 32 p.4to. Paris, 1891. RAPPORT annuel... 1891. 39p.4to. Paris, 1892. TURNER (H.H.) Note on the recent determination of the longitude of Paris. Month. Not., 51: 155-63. 1891. Recent determination of the longitude Paris-—Greenwich: reply to Col. Bassot and Commandant Deftorges. Month. Not., 51: 413-9. 1891. Pendulum. MENDENHALL (T. C.) Use of a free pendulum as atime standard. Am.j. Se., 143: 85-90. 1892. VoN REBEUR-PAscuwitz (E.) Horizontalpendel-Beobachtungen in Wilhelms- haven, Potsdam, und Puerto Orotava auf Teneriffa, Astron. Nachr., 130: 193-216. 1892. Personal equation. CHRISTIE (W. H. M.) Preliminary note on the change of personal equation with stellar magnitude in transits observed with the transit circle... Green- wich. Month. Not. 51: 455-8. 1891. GONNESSIAT (F.) Quelques remarques 4 propos des recherches expérimentales sur l’équation personnelle. Bull. Astron., 9: 374-9. 1892. Sur l’équation personnelle dans les observations de passages. Compt. Rend., 112: 207-9. 1891. STROOBANT (P.) Recherches expérimentales sur ’équation personnelle dans les observations de passages. il. Bull. Astron, 9: 146-60. 1892. See, also, Compt. Rend., 113: 457-60. 1891. ——. Nouvelles recherches expérimentales sur ]’équation personnelle dans les observations de passage. Compt. Rend., 115: 1246-50. 1892. Perturbations. DE Batu (L.) Bemerkung iiber die Differential Quotienten der Stérungsfune- tion. Astron. Nachr., 128: 107. 1891. Bemerkung iiber die Coefficienten einer Reiheder Stérungstheorie. Astron. Nachr., 128: 339-42. 1891. LAska (W.) Berechnung der absoluten Stérungen. 7p. 8vo. Prag, 1891. Masa (H.) Formeln und Tafeln zur Berechnung der absoluten Stérungen der Planeten. 31 p.4to. Stockholm [1891]. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 763 Perturbations.—C ontinued. TISSERAND (F.) Equation différentielle relative au caleul des perturbations. Compt. Rend., 114: 441-4. 1892. Wetter (A.) Allegemeinen Stérungen des inneren Planeten. Astron, Nachr., 128: 49-108. 1891. —. Allgemeinen Stérungen des jiusseren Planeten. Astron. Nachr., 128: 257- 927 13891- WELLMANN (V.) Tafeln zur Berechnung der Stérungsfunetionen, der kleinen Planeten. Astron. Nachr., 127: 257-66. 1891. Photochronograph. HaGen (J. G.) VPhotochronograph angewandt auf Doppelsternmessungen. Astron. nachr., 128: 177-86. 1891. [HAGEN (J. G.) and Farais (G. A.)] The photo-chronograph and its applica- tion to star transits. 3536p. il. 4to. Washington, 1891. Photographic Congress, Paris. BULLETIN du comité international permanent pour lexécution photographique de la carte du ciel. Tome2. 1. fascicule, 124 p. 4to. Paris, 1892. [ProGRress of] the astro-photographic chart. Obsry, 14: 184-8. 1891. REUNION du comité international permanent pour l’exécution de Ja carte pho- tograhphique du ciel & Vobservatoire de Paris en 1891. 135 p. 4to. Paris, 1891. Photography (Astronomical). BarnarbD (E. E.) Photographing with «a non-photographic telescope. Sid. Mess., 19: 331-5. 1891. —. Simple and rapid method of detecting changes on celestial photographs due to motion or variability of the celestial bodies. Astron. Nachr., 130: 77. 1892. BURNHAM (S. W.) The camera for celestial photography. Sid. Mess., 10: 325-8. 1891. HaAarKNEss (W.) Astronomical photography with commercial lenses. Astron. and Astrophys, 11: 641-8. 1892. SCHAEBERLE (J. M.) Preliminary note on terrestrial atmospheric absorption of the photographie rays of light. Astron. Jour., 12: 115. 1892. Photography (Stellar). CHARLIER (C. VY. L.) Anwendung der Sternphotographie zu Helligkeitsmessune der Sterne. 29 p.4to. Leipzig, 1889. Pub. d. Astron. Gesellsch. 19, CHuristre (W. H. M.) Relation between diameter of image, duration of ex- posure, and brightness of objects in photographs of stars taken at... Green- wich. Month. Not., 52: 125-46. 1892. ——. Notes on the preparations for the work of the astro-photographie chart at... Greenwich. Month. Not. 51: 278-86. 1891. Dunkr (N. C.) Photographische Versuchs-Aufnahmen von Sternen. Astron. Nachr., 127: 365. 1891. HARZER (P.) Ueber Steynphotographien. Astron. Nachr., 130: 113-20. 1892. Jacoby (H.) Reduction of astronomical photographie measures. Astron. Jour., 10: 129-31. 1891. LoEpwy (M.) Détermination des coordonnées équatoriales des centres des clichés constituant la carte du ciel. Compt. Rend., 112: 1393-9. 1891. PRITCHARD (C.) Further experience regarding the magnitude of stars as ob- tained by photography in the Oxford University Observatory. Month. Not., 51: 430-5. 1891. Rees (J. K.) Catalogue of Rutherfurd’s photographic plates of the sun, the moon and the stars. 8 p. 8vo. [New York. 1891.] Repr. from: Ann. N.Y, Acad. Se., 6. 764 ASTRONOMICAL - Photography (Stellar)—Continued. Preliminary notice of the reduction of Rutherfurd’s star-plates. Obsry., 15: 49-55. 1892, WELLMAN (Y.) Hiilfsmittel zur Erkennung von Bewegungserscheinungen auf Photographien des Sternbuumels. Astron. Nachr., 131: 31. 1892. Wo.ur (M.) Photographische Messung der Sternhelligkeiten im Sternhaufen. G. C., 4410. Astron. Nachr., 126: 297-310. 1891. Photometer. WILson (W. E.) New photographic photometer for determining star magni- tudes. Month. Not., 52: 153-5. 1891. Photomeiry. ABNEY (W. de W.) Estimation of star magnitudes by extinetion with the wedge. Month. Not., 52: 426-9. 1892. Gore (J. E.) Intensity of the images of stars as affected by wire-gauze screens placed before object glasses. Obsry. 15: 106-8. 1892. SCHEINER (J.) Photographisch-photometrische Untersuchungen. Astron. Nachr., 128: 113-22. 1891. Planets. FLAMMARION (C.) Idée dune communication entre les mondes: A’ propos dun testament astronomique. L’Astron., 10: 282-7. 1891. Planets (Figure of.) CALLANDREAU (O.) Mémoire sur la theorie de la figure des planetes, 84 p. 4to. (asp. mde] Repr. from: Ann. de l’Obs. de Paris Mém, 19, 1891. [ ?] Pleiades. BARNARD (EK. E.) Nebulosities of the Pleiades, and on a new Merope nebula. il. Astron. Nachr., 126: 293. 1891. JacoBy (H.) The Rutherfurd photographic measures of the group of the Pleiades. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Se., 6: 237-330. 1892. Also Reprint. Rev. by Scheiner (J). Vrtijschr. d. Astron. Gesellsch., 27: 206-13. 1892. PRITCHARD (C.) Newly discovered Merope nebula. Astron. Nachr., 126: 397. 1891. RoGcers (W. A.) Division errors of the graduated scale used in the Rutherfurd photographic measures of the Pleiades. Astron. Jour., 12: 129-33. 1892. Pogson (Norman Robert). [1829-’91.] For Biography, see Month, Not., 52: 255-8. 1892. Potsdam Observatory. LEUSCHNER (A. O.) [Description of buildings and instruments.] Pub. Astron. Soc. Pacific, 4: 40-5. 1892. Precession. KrEUTZ (H.) Hiilfsgréssen zur Berechnunge der Praecession nach Strnve fiir mehrere 6fters vorkommende Epochen. Astron. Nachr., 128: 250. 1891. Precession (Constant of). RISTENPART (F.) Untersuchungen iiber die Constante der Praecession und dic Bewegung der Sonne im Fixsternsysteme. Veréffentl. d. grossherzog. Strnwrt Karlsruhe, 4: 197-288. 1892. Procyon. STRUVE (L.) Unregelmissige Eigenbewegung von Procyon nach. O. Struve’s Mikrometermessungen. Astron. Naechr., 180: 177-86. 1892. Prominences (Solar). EVERSHED (J.) jr. Distribution of the solar prominences of 1891. J. Brit. Astron. Assn., 2:174-7. 1892. FrEnyi (J.) Eine am 3 Oct., 1892, beobachtete grosse Protuberanz. il. Astron. Nachr., 131: 213. 1892, : BIBLIOGRAPHY. 765 Prominences (Solar)—Continued. Fizeau (H.L.) Influence que Vaberration de la Jiumiere peut exercer sur les observations... Compt. Rend. 115: 553-6, 189i. Hate (G. E.) Photography and the invisible solay prominences. Sid. Mess., 10: 257-64. 1891. ——. Results obtained in photographing solar prominences and their spectra. Astron. Nachr., 128: 109. 1891. ——. Solar-prominence photography. Astron. Nachr., 127: 211-4. 1891. ——. Ultra-violet spectrum of the solar prominences. Astron. and Astroplhys., 11: 602. 1892. Ultra-violet spectrum of the solar prominences. Aim. J. Se., 142: 459-67, 1891. ——. Photographic investigation of solar prominences and their speetra. il Am. J. Se., 142: 160-6. 1891. TrROUVELoT (BE. lL.) Protubérances solaires remarquables. il. L’Astron., 11: 249-52. 1892. Proper motions. 30ss (L.) Proper motions of 27 southern stars. Astron. Jour., 11: 105-7. 1892. 30SSERT (J.) Détermination des mouvemeuts propres des étoiles du catalogue de Vobservatoire de Paris. Bull. Astron., 8: 369-76. 1891. Détermination des mouvements propres de quelques étoiles. 3ull. Astron., 9: 216-9. 1892. BURNHAM (S. W.) Proper motion of 2 1605. Astron. and Astrophys., 11: 549. 1892. ——. Proper motion of the components of 61 Cygni. Sid. Mess., 10: 1-5. 1891 ——. Proper motion of = 1604. Astron. and Astrophys., 11:870-2. 1892. ——. Proper motion of H 1968. Month. Not., 51: 108-10. 1891. : Proper motion of 2 547. Obsry., 14:56. 1891. DoouttrLe (C. L.) [List of ] proper-motion stars. Astron. Jour,, 12: 103. 1892. DREYER (J. L. E.) Proper motions of 20 southern stars. Month. Not., 51: 466-71. 1891. Monck (W. H. 8.) [Connection between proper motions and spectra. | Astron. DOULA Ail oo oe Proper motion of the stars. Astron. and Astrophys., 11: 874-8. 1892. PORTER (J. G.) Catalogue of stars with proper motion of half a second and upwards. Astron. Jour., 12: 25-30. 1892. —. Catalogue of proper-motion stars. 254p.4to. Cincinnati, 1892. Publns Cincin. Obsry., 12. THACKERAY (W.G.) Approximate proper motions of some Groombridge stars Month. Not., 51: 397. 1891. Refraction. CHANDLER (S. C.) Refraction correction of photographic measures. Astron Aomirs UNS atria abet hile —. Rigorous computation of differential refraction. Astron. Jour., 10: 181 1891. ——. Device for eliminating refraction in micrometric or photographic meas- ures. Astron. Jour., 12:51. 1892. ITAUSDOREFF (I*.} Zur Theorie der astronomischen Strahlenbrechung 86 ». 8vo. Leipzig, 1892. Jacosy (H.) Correction of photographic measures for refraction. Astron. Jour., 10: 163, 183, 191. 1891. NyYrEN (M.) Refraction im Beobachtungsraume. Astron. Nachr., 131: 291, 1892. Rapau (R.) Essai sur les réfractions astronomiques. 8) pp. tto, Paris, 1869. Rev. by Rauschinger (J.) Vrtljschr. d. Astron, Gesellsch., 27; 12-20. 1892. 766 “ASTRONOMICAL Refraction—Continued. RaMBAuT (A. A.) Corrections for refraction to measures of stellar photographs. Astron. Nachr., 131: 65-74. 1892. SEELIGER (H.) Notiziiber die Strahlenbrechung in der Atmosphiire. Sitzunesb. d. K. Bayer. Akad. d. Wessensch. 21: 239-46, 1891. Rev. by Safarik (A.) Vrtljschr d. Astron. Gesellsch., 27: 238-43. 1892. ——. Extinction des lichtes in der Atmosphiire. Sitzungsb. Math.-Phys. Cl. d. k. bayer. akad. d. Wissensch., 21: 239, 247. 1891. Rev. by Safarik (A.) Vrtljschr. d. Astron. Gesellsch., 27: 288-48. 1892. Rutherfurd (Lewis Morris). [ 1816-92. | Rees (J. K.) [Biographical sketech.] Astron. and Astrophys., 11: 689-97. 1892. For Portrait, see Ibid. For Biography see also Astron. Jour., 12: 32. 1892. Saturn. BARNARD (EK. E.) Transparency of the crape rine... . : Astron. and Astrophys., 11: 119-23. 1392. DENNING (W. F.) [Drawings of] Saturn. il. Obsry., 14: 366-70. 1891. FLAMMARION (C.) Disparition apparente des anneaux de Saturne. il. L’Astron., 10: 121-39. 1891. FREEMAN (A.) Illumination of Saturn’s rings during sunrise; and on recent observations of their reappearance. Month. Not., 52: 494-9. 1892. HouLpEN (E. 8.) Observations and drawings of Satvrn, 1879-1889. il. Pub. Astron. Soc. Pacific, 3: 11-19. 1891. PickERING (W. H.) The planet Saturn and its satellites. Astron. and Astro- phys., (1: 649-52. 1892. 'TROUVELOT (E. L.) Phenomena observed ....in 1877—’78. Sid. Mess., 10: 74, IGG) arate Aes aL WILLIAMS (A. 8.) Recently discovered spots on Saturn. il. Astron. Nachr., 128: 33-8. 1891. Saturn (Satellites of). EICHELBERGER (W.S.) Orbit of Hyperion. Astron. Jour., 11: 145. 1892. Haut (A.) Orbit of Iapetus. Astron. Jour. 11: 97-LO2. 1892. SAFARIK (A.) Durehmesser des Saturnsatelliten Titan. Astron. Nachr., 127: 365. 1891. Sayre Observatory. Doo.uirrLE (C. L.) Latitude. Astron. Nachr., 128: 213-8. 1891. Scheiner (Christoph). VON BRAUNMUHL (A.) Christoph Scheiner als Mathematiker, Pliysiker und Astronom.,6-+ 92 p. 8vo. Bamberg, 1891. Rev. by Giinther (S.) Vrtljschr. d. Astron. Gesellseh, 26: 229-35. 1891. Schonfeld (Eduard). [1828-"91. | KRUEGER (A.) Todes-Anzeige. Vrtljschr. d. Astron. Gesellsch., 26: 172-85. Also, Astron. Nachr., 127: 151. 1891. Also, transl.: Pub. Astron Soe. Pacific. 3: 255. 1891. Also, abstry.: Month. Not., 52: 239-42. 1899. For Biography, see also Astron. Jour., 11:16. 1891. For Portrait. see Vrtljschr. d. Astron. Gesellsch., 26. Schultz (Per Magnus Herman). [1823-—90. ] For Biography see Vrtljschr. d. Astron. Gesellsch. 26:3. 1891. For Portrait see Ibid. Seydler (August.) [1849-91. | LAska (W.) Todes-Anzeige. Astron. Nachr., 128:15. 1891. Sirius. AUWERS (A.)_ Leitriige zur Kenuntniss des Sirius-Systems. Astron, Nachr., 129: 185-252. 1892. See, also, L’ Astron., 11: 410.1, : BIBLIOGRAPHY. 767 Sirius—C ontinnued. BuRNHAM (8. W.) (Observations and orbit]. il. Month. Not., 51: 378-85. 1891. GorE (J. E.) [Inherent light of] the companion of Sirius. J. Brit. Astron. Assn.,1:3i8. 1891. Howarp (C. P.) Orbit of the companion of Sirius. Astron. Jour., 10: 149-50. 1891. SEE (T. J. J.) History of the color of Sirius. Astron. and Astrophys., 11: 269-74; 372-86; 550-2. 1892. Sky Glows. ForRSTER (W.) and Jesse (O.) Aufforderung zu Beobachtungen der leuchten- den Nachtwolken. Astron. Nachr., 130: 425-30. 1892. -—. Request for observations of night clouds. Astron. and Astrophys., 11: 859-63. 1892. Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. [DescriPTION of the building and instruments.] Sid. Mess., 10: 271-3. 1891. (INSTRUMENTS, and work proposed.] Obsry., 14: 224. 1891. LANGLEY (S. P.) [Established as a department of the Smithsonian Institu- tion.] Astron. Nachr., 127: 319. 1891. Solar System. PLAN du systéme solaire. il. L’Astron., 11: 301. 1892. Solar System (Motion of). Monck (W. H.S.) The sun’s motion in space. Pub. Astron. Soc. Pacific, 4: 70-7. 1892. Porter (J. G.) Motion of the solar system. Astron. and Astrophys., 11: 764. 1892. Also, Astron. Jour., 12:91. 1892. RisteNPART (F.) Untersuchungen iiber die Constante der Praecession und die Bewegung der Sonne im Fixsternsysteme. Verdffent]. d. grosshezog]. Strnwrt. Karlsruhe., 4: 197-288. 1892. Spectra (Stellar). Eserin (T. E.) [List of ] stars with remarkable spectra. Astron. Nachr., 126: 361-6. 1891. —. List of stars with remarkable spectra. Astron. Nachr., 129: 297-302. 1892. FLEMING (M.) Stars having peculiar spectra. Sid. Mess., 10:7. 1801. HuGains (W.) and Hueerins (Mrs. W.) Wolf and Rayet’s bright-line stars in Cygnus. Sid. Mess., 10: 49-65. 1891. See, also, Obsry., 14:45. 1891. Monck (W. H. 8.) Spectra and proper motions of stars. J. Brit. Astron. Assn., 2; 440-3. 1892. ——. Spectra and proper motions of stars. Astron. and Astrophys., 11: 389-90. 1892. PICKERING (E. C.) Distribution of energy in stellar spectra. Astron, Nachr., 128: 577. 1891. ——. Fifth type of stellar spectra. Astron. Nachr.,127:1. 1891. ——. Spectrum of #8 Lyrae. Astron. Nachr., 128: 39. 1891. ——. The objective prism. il. Astron. and Astrophys., 11: 199-2038. 1892. Spectroheliograph. HALE (G. li.) Solar photography at the Kenwood Astrophysical Observatory. il. Astron. and Astrophys., 11: 407-17. 1892. Spectroscope. JAMPBELL (W.W.) Reduction of spectroscopic observations of motions in the line of sight. Astron, and Astrophys., 11: 319-25, 1892. 768 ASTRONOMICAL Spectroscope—Continued. KEELER (J.E.) Elementary principles governing the efficiency of spectroscopes for astronomical purposes. Sid. Mess., 10: 433-53. 1891. —. The modern spectroscope 2: the star spectroscope of the Lick Observa- tory. il. Astron. and Astrophys., 11: 140-4. 1892. Also, Reprint. NEWALL (H.F.) Diagram useful as a guide in adjusting a diffraction grating spectroscope. il. Month Not., 52:510-12. 1892. YounG (C. A.) New spectroscope of the Halsted Observatory. il. Astron and Astrophys., 11: 292-6 1892. Spectroscopy. HALE (G.E.) Pending problems in spectroscopy. Sid. Mess., 10: 89-914. 1891. Spectrum analysis. Huaains (W.) On spectroscopic astronomy. 35 p. 8vo. London, 1891. Repr. from: Brit, Assn. Ady. Sc. 61 (meeting): 3-37. 1891. SCHEINER (J.) Die Spectralanalyse der Gestirne. 8+474 p.8vo. Leipzig, 1890. Rev. by Ebert (H.) Vrtljsehr. d. Astron. Gesellsch., 27: 28-36. 1892. Berichtigungen zu “ Die Spectralanalyse der Gestirne.” Astron. Nachr., 1297157. 1892. Spectrum (Solar). ABNEY (W.de W.) Limit of visibility of the different rays of the speetrum. Also Astron. and Astrophys., 11: 296-305. 1892, Repr. from: Proc. Roy. Soc. 49: 509-18. 1891. CortTi&£ (A.L.) Some recent studies on the solar spectrum. Astron. and Astro- phys., 11: 393-407. 1892. Star—Catalogues. AUWERS (A.) Supplement a histoire céleste de Lalande: Catalogue de 3950 etoiles ... par M. J. Bossert. Vrtljschr. d. Astron. Gesellsch, 11: 255-70. 1892. BERICHTE iiker die Beobachtung der Sterne bis zur neunten Grosse am nord- lichen Himmel. Vrtljschr. d. Astron. Gesellsch., 26: 284-301. 1891. BERICHTE iiber die Beobachtung der Sterne bis zur neunten Grésse zwischenn— 2° und—23°. Vrtljschr. d. Astron. Gesellsch., 26: 302-5. 1891. CatTaLoG der Astronomischen Gesellschaft. Erste Abth., 5. Stiiek Zone-+-502 bis --55°, Catalogue of 8,627 stars ... from observations .,.at the Astronomi- cal Observatory of Harvard Cullens ... 1870 to 1884 by W. A. Rogers. 39+176 p. 4to. Leipzig, 1892. CATALOGUE de l’observatoire de Paris. Tome 2. Paris, 1891. DowninG (A.M.W.) Apparent places of close polar stars. Month Not., 52: 378-85. 1892. EASTMAN (J. R.) The reglected field of fundamental astronomy. Proc. Am. Assn. Ady. Sc., 41: 17-32, 1892. Also Reprint. HILFIKER (J.) Catalogue d’étoiles lunaires. 58 p.4to. Neuchatel, 1891. ROMBERG (H.) Catalog von 5634 Sternen fiir die Epoche 1875.0 aus den Beobach- tungen am Pulkowaer Meridiankreise.-.. 1874-1880. 22+142 p. 4to. St. Petersb., 1891. (Snp. IT aux. Obsns. de Poulkovya.) ScHuR (W.) Stern-Catalog enthaltend 6900 Sternérter fiir 1860.0. Nach den von Klinkerfues in den Jahren, 1858-63 angestellten Zonenbeobachtungen abgeleitet, 28+77 p., Ipl. 4to. Gottingen, 1892. (Astron. Mitth. Sternw.) Star-Charts. WEIss (E.) Bilder-Atlas der Sternenwelt. 41 pl. fol. Esslingen, 1891. Star—Clusters. HAuN (R.) Mikrometrische Vermessung des Sternhantens © 762... 144 p., 1 pl. 8vo. Leiprig, 1891. Repr. from: KK. Sach. Gesellsch, d. Wissensch. v.17, No, 8. 1891. Rev. Astron, Jour., 11: 80. 1891, BIBLIOGRAPHY. 769 Star—Clusters.—Continued, OERTEL (K.) Neue Beobachtung und Ausmessune des Sternhanfens, 38 h. Perseit. 92p.,2 pl. 4to. Miinchen, 1891. Pini. (O. A. L.) Stellar cluster y Persei micometrically surveyed. 107 p., 2 pl. 4to. Christinia, 1891. Star-Piaces (Reduction of). Four (F.) Formulae of reduction to apparent places of close polar stars. Month Not., 52: 551-6. 1892. Stare. LOCKYER (J. N.) Causes which produce the phenomena of new stars. 52p. il. Svo. London, 1891. WHITMORE (E.B.) [Disposition of certain stars in space.] 20 p., 2 pl. 8vo- Rochester, 1892. Stars (Motion of) in the line of sight. MAUNDER (E. W.) Potsdam observations of motion in the line of sight. Obsry. 15: 393-8. 1892. SPECTROSCOPIC results ...at..-Greenwich ...1890. Month Not., 51: 136. 1891. VoGcer (H. ©.) Iron spectrum as a comparison spectrum in spectrographic determinations of stellar motion in the line of sight. Astron. and Astrophys., 11: 151-7. 1892. Transl. from: Sitzunesb. d. Berl. Akad. Wissensch. 28: 533 (4 June, 1891.) —. Untersuchungen iiber die Eigenbewegungen der Sterne im Visiousradius auf spectrographischem Wege. Potsdam, 1892. (Pub. d. Astrophys., Obs. zu Potsdam, Bd. 7, Th. 1 (No. 25). 4-+-166 p. 4to. Rev. by Ebert (H.) Vrtljschor. d. Astron. Gesellsch., 27: 302-7. 1892. —. Spectroscopic method of determining the velocity of stars in the line of sight. Month Not., 52: 87-96. 1891. Also Astron. and Astrophys., 11: 2038-12. 1892. —. List... of 51 stars. Month. Not., 52: 541-3. 1892. —. Ueber ( Aurigae. Astron. Nachr., 127: 251. 1891. Strassburg Observatory. HoipEN (E. 8S.) [Description of the building and instruments.] il, Pub. Astron. Soc. Pacific., 3: 279-82. 1891. Sun. BrRowN(E.) Hints to beginners in solar observation. Pub. Astron. Soc. Pacific, apalieaae key )le DESLANDRES (H.) New researches on the solar atmosphere. Astron. and Astro- phys., 11: 314-5. 1892. See, also, Compt. Rend. 114: 276. 1892. FERREL (W.) Measures of the intensity of solar radiation. Am. Jour. Se., 141: 378-86. 1891. Frost (EB. B.) Observations on the thermal absorption in the solar atmosphere. Astron. Nachr., 130: 129-46. 1892. Observations on the thermal absorption in the solar atmosphere made at Potsdam. Astron. and Astrophys., 11: 720-37. 1892. Haute (G. i.) Condition of the sun’s surface in June and July, 1892, as com- pared with the record of terrestrial magnetism. Astron. and Astrophys. 11: 917-25. 1892. —. Photographs of solar phenomena obtained with the spectro-heliograph of the Kenwood Astrophysical Observatory. il. Astron. and Astrophys., 11: 603. 1892. A remarkable solar disturbance, 1892, July 15. Astron and Astrophys., 11: 611-3. 1892. Some results and conclusious derived trom a photographic study of the sun. Astron. and Astrophys., 11: 811-5. 1892. H. Mis. 114-49 770 ASTRONOMICAL Sun—Continued. ——. Recherches sur l'atmosphere solaire. Compt. Rend. 114:1406. 1892. Harzer(P.) Rotationsbewegung der Sonne. Astron. Nachr., 127: 17-84. 1891. KEDZIE (J. H.) Speculations, solar heat, gravitation,and sun spots. 2d ed. [5+75 p.] 8vo. Chicago, 1891. MAUNDER (E. W.) Solar activity in 1890. J. Brit. Astron. Assn., 1: 321-5. 1891. SIDGREAVES (W.) Solar disturbances of July, 1892, and the accompanying magnetic storms. Astron. and Astrophys., 11: 817-9. 1892. TROUVELO? (E. J..) Phénomeéne lumineux extraordinaire obseryé sur le soleil. Compt. Rend. 112:1419-21. 1891. Also, Reprint. WILSING (J.) Rotationsgesetz der Sonne und iiber die Periodicitiit der Sonnen- flecke. Astron. Nachr., 127: 233-52. 1891. Worer (A.) Comptes rendus des travaux de... I. Wolf dans la domaine de la physique solaire. Arch. d. Sc. Phys. et. Nat. Geneva, Dec., 1891. Rev, Astron. Jour., 11; 120. 1892. Sun-dials. GUILLAUME (C. E.) Cadrans solaires portatits. il. L’Astron., 11: 383-9. 1892. Sun (Diameter of). Auwers (A.) Sonnendurchmesser und der Venusdurchmesser nach den Beobach- tungen an den Heliometern der deutschen Venus-Expeditionen. Astron. Nachr., 128: 361-76. 1891. Sun (Rotation of ). DunkR (N. C.) Recherches sur la rotation du soleil. 78 p.4to. Upsal, 1891. Rev. by Scheiner (J.) Vrtljschr. d. Astron. Gesellsch., 27:36-51. 1892. Sun spots. Brown (£.) Note on the recent large groups of sunspots. il. J. Brit. Astron. Assn., 2: 210. 1892. [CurisT1E (W. H. M.)} On the large sun spot of 1892, Feb. 5-18, and the asso- ciated magnetic disturbance. Month. Not., 52: 354-7. 1892. Cortin (A. L.) Large sun-spot group of Aug. 28-Oct. 4, 1891. Obsry., 14: 363-6. 1891. Spectra of sun spots between B and D. J. Brit. Astron. Assn., 1: 175-84. 1891. Notes on the spectra . . . Astron. and Astrophys., 11: 587-93 Crew (H.) Spectrum of the large sun-spot group of February, 1892. il. Astron. and Astrophys., 11: 308-10. 1892. Fenyi (J.) Phenomena observed on the great spot-group of February, 1892. il. Astron. and Astrophys., 11: 430-3. 1892. HALE (G. E.) Spectroscopic observations of the great sun-spot group of Feb- ruary, 1892. il. Astron. and Astrophys., 11: 310-4. 1892. LANDERER (J. J.) Mesure des coordonnées héliographiques des taches solaires. il. L’Astron, 10: 231-5. 1891. ; MAuNDER (E. W.) Earlier appearances of the great spot-group of February, 1892. J. Brit. Astron. Assn. 2: 386-9. 1892. Note on the history of the great sun spot of 1892, February. Month. Not., 52: 484-93. 1892. Perkins (T.) Modified method of using Thomson’s disks. il. J. Brit. Astron. Assn., 1: 492-5. 1891. ScumMout (A.) Dernier minimum des taches solaires. L’Astron., 10: 583-91, A409. 1891. TrouveLor (E. L.) Chute dune protubérance solaire dans ouverture d’une tache. L’Astron., 10: 407. 1891. Also: Compt. Rend., 113:437. 1891. . ——. Fall of a solar prominence into the opening of aspot. Astron. and Astre- phys., 11: 124. 1892. BIBLIOGRAPHY. T71 Swathmore College Observatory. CUNNINGHAM (S. J.) [Description of the observatory and instruments.] il. Pub. Astron. Soc. Pacific, 3:21. 1891. Tables. SMITHSONIAN meteorological tables. (Based on Guyot’s meteorological and physical tables.) City of Washington, published by the Smithsonian Institu- tion, 1893. 8vo. 59+ 262 pp. From Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, Vol. 85 (No. 844.) WisLtecenus (W. F.) Tafeln sur Bestimmung der jiihrlichen Auf-und Unter- Giinge der Gestirne. 55 p. 4. Leipsig, 1892. Pub. Astron. Gesellsch., 20. Telegrams. ENGLISH center for the distribution of astromical telegrams. Month. Not., 52: 406-8. 1892. Telescope. BicELow (EF. H.) Simple mounting for a large telescope in the field during eclipse observations. il. Astron, and Astrophys., 11: 257-68. 1892. Common (A. A.) Two large telescopes. Obsry., 15: 389, 437. 1892. Gruey (L. J.) Lunette harizonto-zerithale. Bull. Astron., 8: 5-10. 1891. Hastines (C. 8.) History of the telescope. Sid. Mess., 10: 335-54. 1891. KNIGHT (W. H.) Some telescopes in the United States. Sid. Mess., 10: 393-9. 1891. MAunbeER (E. W.) Adjustment of a small equatorial. il. J. Brit. Astron. Assn., 2: 219-22. 1892. Micuerson (A. A.) Application of interference methods to astronomical meas- urements. il. Mem. Natl. Acad. Se., 5: 579-90. (v.5,5 mem.) 1891. VALLANCE (P.) Form of alt-azimuth mounting for telescopes. il, J. Brit. Astron. Assn., 2: 335-41. 1892. > Telescopes (Reflecting). CALVER (G.) Notes on the reflecting telescope. J. Brit. Astron: Assn., 2. 446-8, 1892. Common (A. A.) Best form of mounting for a large reflector. Month. Not., 53: 19-22. 1892. Hotmes (E.) Notes upon retlecting telescopes. J. Brit. Astron. Assn., 2: 269-72. 1892. Jones (G. 8.) Alt-azimuth mounting for a small reflecting telscope, il. Sid. Mess., 10: 506. 1891. Three Bodies (Problem of). CALLANDREAU (O.) Quelques applications des théories concernant les solutions particuli¢res périodiques. ... Bull. Astron., 8: 49-67. 1891. ——. Cas particulier du probleme des trois corps. Bull. Astron., 9: 113-18. 1892. CocuLesco (—) Stabilité du mouvement dans un cas particulier du probleme . Compt. Rend. 114: 1339-41. 1891. PoIncARE (H.) Probleme des trois corps. Bull. Astron., 8: 12-24. L891. —. Application de la méthode de M. Lindstedt . . . Compt. Rend. 114: 1305-9. 1892. Wreiver (A.) Arbeit des Herrn Poinearé das Problem der drei Kérper betreffend. Astron. Nachr., 127: 359, 1891. Tides. TENNANT (J. F.) Address... on presenting the gold medal to Prof. G, H. Darwin. Month. Not., 52: 316-35. 1892. Time (Determination of). secK (A.) Anwendung eines Objectivprismas zur Zeit und Polhéhenhestim- mung. Astron. Nachr., 130: 81-96. 1892. 772 ASTRONOMICAL. Time (Determination of )—Continued. Comstock (G. C.) Efficiency of a small instrument. Sid. Mess., 10: 406-9. 1891. HeprIck (J. 'T.) Probable error of the clock correetion when both the clock rate and the instrumental constants are found by a least squares solution of a é single night’s observations. Month. Not., 53: 22-7, 1892. Time (Universal). Wo.Lr (C.) Temps local et Vheure universelle. L’Astron., 11: 49-56, 1892. Tisserand (Félix). For Biography sce Lo Astron., 11: 344. 1892. For Portrait see ibid., 345. Transit Instrument. Herz (N.) Theorie eines mit einem Verticalkreise versehenen Passage-Instru- mentes im ersten Verticale. 18 p. dto. Wien, 1891. ° Transit Observations. BECKER (E.) Versuche von Durchgangs Beobachtungen nach dem neuen Rep- soldschen Verfahren. Astron. Nachr., 127: 185-90. 1891. Jacoby (11.) Reduction of transit Observations by the method of least squares, Month. Not., 52: 114-7. 1891. Sarrorp (T.H.) Observation of north polar stars in the vertical of ‘Polaris. Astron. Nachr., 128: 379-82. 1891. Trans-Neptunian Planet. Roperts (f.) Photographic search for a planet beyond the orbit of Neptune. Month. Not., 52:501. 1892. Unites States Naval Observatory. BILL defining the positions and salaries of assistant astronomers. 52 Cong., L Sess. S024. Wee. ld sor: [BILL to provide a more perfect organization.] 52 Cong., sess. 8. 1793. 1892. Boss (L.) An irrepressible conflict. Sid. Mess., 10: 161-8. 1891. —. Proposed reform in the management of the new Naval Observatory. A statement in respect to the U. S. Naval Observatory and its organization. 68 p. 8vo. Albany, 1891. CHANGE of management required for the United States Naval Observatory. 15 Dame OVOn aD elisa. HoLpeN (E. 8.) [Policy of its administration.] Pub. Astron. Soc., Pacific, 38 (i abel REPORT... June 30, 1891. Rept. Sec. U.S. Navy, 1891; 122-31. Also, Reprint. REPORT. . . 1892. Rept. See. U.S. Navy, 1892: 133-40. Also, Reprint. Uranus. HOLDEN (E. 8.) and others. [Observations, 1889-91.] il. Pub. Astron. Soe. RAciie: yor 2oou Logie Variable Stars. DE Baty (L.) Veriinderlichen stern BD + 1°,4359 im Sternbilde Aquarius. Astron. Nachr., 130: 367. 1892. CHANDLER (8. C.). Contributions to the knowledge of the inequalitics in the periods of the variable stars. Astron. Jour., 11: 14,113, 1891; 11; 121 , 1892" Period of U Orionis. Astron, Jowr., 10: 183. 1891. DungER (N.C.) Hauptursache der Anomalien im Lichtweechsel yon Y Cygni. Astron. Nachr., 129: 313-22. 1892. ——. Chief cause of the anomalies in the light variations of Y Cygni. Astron. Jour., 1215132 13892. GonreE (J.E.) Period of U Orionis. Astron. Jour., 10: 174. 1891. =—, Probable distance of Algol. J. Brit. Astron, Assn., 2: 443. 1892, BIBLIOGRAPHY. 173 Variable Stars—Continued. PLASSMANN (J.) Wahre Gestalt der Algol-Curve. Astron. Nachr., 128: 437. 1891. True form of Algol’s light curve. Astron. and Astrophys., 11: 419-24. 1892. ——, ParkHurst(H. M.) Period of 466 U Piseium. Astron. Jour., 10: 146:11; Tee ike H ks —. Period of 3567 V. Leonis. Astron. Jour., 11: 126. 1892. TOWNLEY (8S. D.) Variable stars of long period. Pub. Astron, Soe. Pacitie., 4: 203-13. 1892. —. Observations of telescopic variable stars of long period. 148 p. tto. Madison, 1892. (Pub. Washburn Obsry v. 6., pt. 3. YENDELL (P.S.) Note on the elements of some of the more recently discovered variables. Astron. Jour., 12:89. 1892. Vatican Observatory. Corrig (A. L.) Papal brief on astronomy. Obsry., 14: 226-8. 1891. PUBLICAZIONI della Specola Vatieana sotto la direzione di P. Denza. Kase. 1. Ito. Roma, 1891. Tarry (H.) [Réorganisation de] Vobservatoire du Vatiean. L’Astron., 10: 345-9, 1X91. Venus. TROUVELOT (1. .j} Observations sur la planete Venus. il. W’Astron., 11: ZV4—23. - 1892. ZONA (T.) and Maseari (A.) Observazioni di Venere. il. Astron. Nachr., 131: 121. 1892: Venus (Diameter of). AuWeERrs (A.) Sonnendurechmesser und der Venusdurchmesser nach den Beo- bachtungen an den Heliometern der deutschen Venus-Eixpeditionen. Astron. Nachr., 128: 361-76. 1891. Venus (Rotation of). BOUQUET DE LA GRYE (J. J. A.) Rotation de la planeéte Vénus. T’Astron., 10: 261-8. 1891. LOSCHARD? (F.) Die neuesten Hypothesen iiber die Rotation... Situngsb. d. k, akad. d. wissensch. Berl. Math. Naturw. el. bd. 100 Abth, 2: 573-60. Wien, 1891. 24p. 8vo. Rev. by Wislicenus (W. EF.) Vrtljschr. d. Astron. Gesellsch., 27: 271-302. 1892. NiESTEN (L.) A proposdelarotation ... 18p. 8vo. Bruxelles, 1891. Repr. from: Bull. Acad. Roy. de Bele. 3. .,21:452-70. 1891. Bev. by Wislecenus (W.¥.) Vrtlischr. d. Astron. Gesellsech, 27:271-302. 1892. TrouveLor (i. L.) Observations surlaplanete Vénus. &4p. Svo. Par. 1892. Rev. by Wislicenus (W. i.) Vertljschr. d. Astron. Gesellsch., 27: 271-302. 1892. Soe. As- tron. d. France, 3 Feb., 1892. WISLICENUS (W.F.) [Review of recent publications] Vrtljschr. d. Astron. Gesellsch., 27: 271-302. 1892. Venus (Transits of). UpprGcrarr(M.) Elementary method for calenlating transits of Venus and Mer- cury. Sid. Mess., 10: 225-33. 1891. Washburn Observatory. Comstock (G.C.) Latitude. Pub. Washburn Observatory, 6: 78-148. 1882. (Vv. 6, pt. 4.) TOWNLEY (S. D.) Notes from the time service of the Washburn Observatory. Astron. and Astrophys., 11: 467-70. 1892. West Point Observatory. Hartow (F.S8.) [Description ofinstruments.| Pub. Astron, Soe. Pacitie, 3: Lio Looks UT4 ASTRONOMICAL BIBLIOGRAPHY. Yale University Observatory. Report . . . 1890-91. 23 p. 8vo. [n.p., n. d-] REPORT .. . 1891-92. -26p. 8vo. [m. p., n.d.] Yerkes Observatory. Hae (G. E.) [Equipment of] the Yerkes Observatory of the University of Chicago. Astron. and Astrophys., 11: 790-38. 1892. Zenith Telescope. Jacosy(H.) Calculation of star places for zenith-telescope observations. Trans N. Y. Acad. Sc., 10: 86. 1891. Calculation of star places for Jour. 10:172: 1891. Table for weighting zenith-telescope observations. zenith-telescope observations. Astron. ——— Astron. jour., 11: 142. 1892. Zodiac. BROWN (R.) jr. the zodiac. Remarks on the Kuphratean astronomical names of the signs of Proc. Soc, Biblical Archeol, 13: 246-71. 1891. TING TD Ea Se A. Pace Abbott, Dr. W. L., collections made by....-.-- Se eee eet ne oe staat ree 10 Aboriginal burial mound, Eden Township, Seneca County, Ohio, paper on, by Reed abo mmpSoOM eases ase ree aeio es Bree tS ee ae es eee eee 571 pottery collection of Museum, increase im........ 2.2... -2+-0.---- 29,23 remains in the Valley of the Rio Verde, Arizona, paper on....---- 54 Academic publications received. ..............- ST Se Dy er ee Pe Yee 75 NCCESSTONS VOY OO LO DUC Alig aN seer eee re ate ed aera ate stare ase ree a eee 14, 70, 73 ACCOMM Of PLOCTESS al, anturopolooy ine SOZe ee ee eee a aoe ee se eee Ao ACCOUNT OL ProcressimraStLONO Moras sees ist eee ia ae eens ern eee eee ers 681 Neknowledomenti duevex chance erat ents sess e sams = eee se ae ee bt AEMuelin? Nailed iD) /AO oyeaeny I Bane eee Sac SsonS saecosee so Jose ses cn Sone ceaocs 73 Acting manager of the Zoological Park, report of_---..22-- _-----..--=.------ 69 TASTER POLO OVER ES pices ck Ne ger ets EPS See rae en i em enn Xv, Xvi xvid, xviii, xix APPOLMUMEeN Ol Te CentSh-see se a= ec iae ase elo see ents ee xly Improvement of Smithsonian erounds.--...---.------------ xlv MAGNO Ap PLOPLUUL ONS ea see aaa sais as xlv, xlvi, xlvii, xlvili relative to Columbian Historical Exposition at Madrid. -.--- xlvili relating to the Smithsonian Institution....xlv, xlvi, xlvil, xlviii, 8&3 relative:to World’s Columbian Exposition ........-..------ xlvili Additional Congressional appropriation for Zodlogical Park....-.--.-.-..----- 70 Additions to the collections of the Zoolosical Park. =). ---- -222.-.22-5-22---- 45 LEDS aid ores ees ee See es ye = ae eg ea etare cso er 7d Adelaide, South Australia, exchange agency im-.-....--.:.---..--.------..--- 66 Administration of Institution, resolution by Board of Regents relative to.-xvill, xix SecretaLys Leporuoue see see eas oe ee eee 2 Zoblogical Park, difficulties encountered in........---.---- 29 Adventiof manain America, by A. de Quatrefages! -2°-- 22-22 ce eee ec ee 513 ACiviSOLyACOMMIUb GES Om ELOd odes) func cee cen seon sesso oons 53 shave Ke ONE) ORS SKEoURKCL TO) AKON Moe OMMIIEMWE Gees So celsee conse Seccc a bee sce 72,73 Oriental Society, room granted for mecting.......2-.--...-..------ 16, 17 OG ET AACE Ce OWZ1 OO) 0 Col Cea Use BAT Ka em 73 PAmmondsen, Consul, orantsaree treet. 2-2) Wee) ee eee tee ee eens 6 AMAGONC Ara Cd edstO) AOOLO Cr Gaul ai es ale one ee ere are ee eee SO 73 Anatomy, comparative, collection of Museum, increase in...--.--..---.---<- - 22,23 AMICLEN bt WoOLkKs in! Olivo; vEsttLVsyaOle eae soap eae ee eee eee 49) 50) di copper minesior islewkoyalle,sexaminationiot= = ees. see ee eee 50 Anchor Steamship Company ‘rant free frei@ht=:=.-2-- [42- $22522----- 2-5 ene 6 AICIStrOdon contoLinesadded! to: Zoolocical, Panky 9.250 2e= ee ee eee 73 DISCUVOTUS ace decOwZ, OO CG call aaa see ee ae Te PATICIERSOMiyn © eupiUe Oren S ase DIEOS CLUE Ch Orel zillivcatty © 2k ee alee ee well ATIC el VE On amMeseD. ACOs: Ol, ras EO ON sae cette a esses ee ape pee = Seee tg ee eee Ne OTN ATI COLRA, COAL atl Me dibO; OOO ONC Ble am ee ee pe ta ae ee ee eae ee 73 AMMA ECOMEChOnTOt ViUSGUMaIMeGre sSe@: nie seems a0 meets pees le eee eer OR e2S Jaanuisvers) anny Aon royen ions Bye ee eye = ee en ee RES aseo os ee ale} (Oo, 7) producis, collectiono£ Museum, increasesie= 52 = a= eee ele Amimnalsyadded torZoolocicals Parkes = seen eee e ose reaeiee eee seen 73 fromm Vellowstone ark or 00lOo1Ga!leie al koncert e aes ae eee 30,3 DAO OLO CICA RAE le = esac aie spe oats om or See ee eS Oe 70 presented tombe: Aoolooical Panic lis b/0 tam se eee = ae eee 70, 71, 72 recently extinet paper by Eredericks A. Incas 9-4-2 oes eee s1 AMMIIAlTIVereas ey Os mlresNaiiy Om ale Mise Ue ees en ree ee ee nee 21; 22,23 report of the Secretary accepted by Board of Regonts.....-..-.-------- xvi Boardiofichiee ents. scent oe sae ee eee geen) SacI ee i JEUNE RT OCoN Ee Oy row NNKoyCA a SS SN aoe oe ee OR ess ao does 27 PuUblicehlons Oieeseeeeee hese eee 57 UNE UEI ACLCLE Gb OyZi Oi] OCC aN een Kerman ee ea ee oe eee eee ree 73 JNA NO RAMAN iO ACO OeNCrMl ehudke Sa eh aca ooetsacees=saeerusdeAcchenséocencs 73 J UOMITELS MARR Onl, Canesten 85 caepibaea soda doe Gane aoe soeSsne soSte 53 Anthropolocy, bibliography, of, in 1/892) by, O, Ds Mason == 222-225-0222) 490 collectionsof Museum) eiinenease@ me see eee eee ee ee 22).23 ofthe brains paper by, Kerftoot Shute-sesss= aso aeons 5M progress of, in 1892, report on, by O. T. Mason ...--..--------- 405 An Mlocapraaunericana added to Zoolo@icalmean ke eee nae ee eee eee 73 Antiquities: collection of Museum imcerease im: s-— see es eee eee tec 220 AM PENCE TONNE Se CREtALyssSAle) Olbieste ate = | ae ee en ee eee eee 49 ANT (KORE MAAK ey ONE) bear KEKE CNOA Se oe a Rn eal) i Ee Se chsadese vee ee Xiv, 2 Appointment of suitable persons to act in the absence of the Secretary and INS SIS bein by SO CT OE yes sre sce a lee vege ate a ays om mS eee XIX Appropriations, Congressiowial acts providine...............--. xiv, xlvi, xlvii, xlvin1 disbursement Of cae ses ae eee ere ees 5 LOT AMUeTMAttONAl = exchane css. yess see eee xxiii, 5, 15, 14, 60, 61 National Museum ......-- FOU XO. BMUY I OUP Gy) LO:O:65 9.0.5 .G.0-01), XXX1i1, XXXIV, XXXV, XXX#i, XXXVil, ¥XXVili, XXxXix, 7 ° tive to INDEX. (17 Page. ' Appropriations, for National Zodlowical Park _.._.-xxxviii, 29, 32, 34, 35, 36, 37. 38. 39 NordimAmerican ethnolooy oe -- =.) 1b & EASA SMVoTSOMLAM il dino mepait=es--5- 55-02. 52.8 22. soll sll CUSDUESHVENZOL- aU Voie ENC ae ese eee Cee xliti Appropriation of Smithsonian income, resolution by Board of Regents rela- Sach Sob oSoctO nes + SAGE SSH etc SSS BEE one eae A toc BES Se Seen apres Sail Aquatie animals, pond for, contemplated in Zodlomieal Park... ....2. 2228. 70 Aquila: chrysxtos added to Zovlogical Park -2... 5-22: 2.22. 2.02 colts 73 ATA ANOGS ayLSULC CD VN UG. NLOOME yperin apr Pa nen see oe teen en ee 52 Archeological exploration organized by F. H. Cushing. .........._.......-.. 5D field work of the Bureau of Ethnology ..................2.... 49 Archeology of tide-water region, paper on..............-- : 53 ATHICErOxTACdeuabo ZOolocicaliban kas =. ee eens ees aie en chee 73 Aretomys monax added.to Zodlogical Parks 2-28. 25. 3. oe acs Ae sees. 73 ATeeniinevepublic exchanceaCencyed li oe ee oe ee ee ge 65 exchan@e LrAnSMMISStoMbO seer Os ae ee ne ee ie 6b, 68 PATIZONA AT ChLOlLOCTeAlLexDLOTAGIONNO leaps ae = et ee ete 50 Collechionsmad omiksee ee as see es ees eee ee lee 10 oTay squinrel presented: to Zoolocicalubaric. 22559254) 42ers Talsir(s3 Valley of Rio Verde, aboriginal remains in, paper on ...........-.. 54 ARM AdiloOsspreasentiendetOrZOOlogicalsbanhwecssss 2254 522 2 ee oe lewis Arkansas, NOvaculite quarriesin, examination Of 2). .5:..5..02..2-2.5 =e 50 Arnie Medicaulelaibrany, books deposited miss 223.222. fan. ese oe es 74 Misenmaexchancesiolbe sce ee a ee el ees 62 to be accessible to scientifie investigvators .......... xl vil Art and industry, collections of Museum, imerease in =... .---.-. 22... 2 _ ie Rh We NSiaracollecions mad Gane emecees a hs ee oie iere Saye he eters et Pe OMe s Sanh 10 Aspidonecies ferox, added to Zovlowical Park... -2.22-52222.-)..2. 2002S. 73 ABO TMMEN TAO t LO OMSEORIS CLEM ULL GVO Kes Serer ee oy ee ie 16 INGEISTALICe Co UVEnuhOMMVeStICATOUSese aos snag on ee eee ee eee ae uf JNESPISRM STSCI EME Ie THe) NOEL Oan, aye IestShS) ie Sees eens eee ea 82 Astronomical Journal, subscription for copies of ........ 2.2... .....222.222.. a AStrononiy,. bibliography -Of,. tor 16Ob and IS920o5s Sen eee ae See 745 Proonesssinytor esol andm S92. bys Wie. WinlOCke = te eS 681 Astro-physical Observatory, acts of Congress relative to...............-....-- xl vii Congressional appropriations for ...............- 5 details:of expenditures for. ..9)0- 222.20. Ses Leese eESbIMAteS SOR SION AS 8 es has eh etl ne 6 OXCHAMO'ESNO Lava tere eae ee oe cle te ees ale 62 resolution by Board of Regents relative to ...... xvi NecCretarwWe reno tones ess 5 5 425 One e eeeee 8 ASUNCIOMN PALAU OXCHAMNOe aCe Cy: Il =a ees sek ete) ene ee 65 Athapascan languages, bibliographical work on............-..2....222222-- 5b ADHONS wGneece ch 65 Brown, Addison, paper on endowment for scientific research and publication. — 621 Wiermonypulnria@ On com att ROO mir Ol ON bese rertncts mie aia aya = eet sac ae nye ae 6 bronzes colleciionior MuscuMmeinCLease dist 54-225 o-oo oie eee 217,22 Brusselsjexchanvrenreaty, partiallyiexecuted’...52---.-.2- << 2-2 = oes oe 14 bubo Virginians added: torAoologicalibark= ==. . 22. sce.) - >= see = = ee 73 BUC ONAN LES ONCHal Serae CNC VEIN mere tease © a tories oon oes = -n1a) sie omens ret alae 65 GovernmMen ve tlAansMIsslONsibOe ee sei eee a ee ee ee 68 Building, Smithsonian, details of expenditures............-.---.-------- xl, xli, xlii repair, Congressional appropriation for.........--....-..-.----xl, xi, xl 780 INDEX. : Page. Buildines, estimates for L893 Aa ssa ee etal ee ee eee ee nae 5 of National Museum, details of expenditures for......._-- OOF .O.0-Qipo. J in, ZoolomicaliPanks, COSt; Oleec= a. 2 ee ek eee ee eee 43 of Zodlogical Park, Congressional appropriation for...-..-..-..-- 5,295 30 estimates for893 Sees ee ee ee eee 6 Secretary 7s TEPOR’ OMS zac 2c ciecn= spe ee are era eee 6 Bullay. Ni Js oramits treectrer clit: 22 se cee ens See e eee ee eee ee 64 snlletimsror Natrona Mis Cuma) eee = ee ee ee eee 27 thesBureaw ot Ethnolocy 222225 se4532 sere aoe ere eee 57 Bureau of Education to be accessible to scientific investigators _.........._.. xlvii exchanges Of. .o=2 Aci. Soe oe cltne Sate SSeS ee eee ae ea Ethnolooyexchiampes:0f sis ae esas eee en es See ee 62 to be accessible to scientific investigators --..2-:....._- xlvii LEPOLb Ok Ime ChOL asec ie ate oes ae ee eS oR ee 28, 49 Secretaryis Teport Oms asses ae ere eee 27 International Exchanges, report:of Curator. 2222-2 98528 sss 59 COLLESPOMMEN COs et ee ete ee ae ee ee aes eee ae a 61 exchanererot of claledocumentS= set. a= oe se eee eee 61 exchanGes:Ofs2225 222 e scree Seas as tee eyoe ae te eee ee eee 62 NST) OTS CS Bec re 60 ROCOLPUS Heme He « scsieraess Serie roe a ee ral ee eg 60 disbursements, S522 ssa 5 = Soe See ee ean et es ee 60 efficiency Of 'SCLVices 34 see 2 os Se nS e ee eee oor eee eee 62 ISR EGOE [MovH oy ONG GARI S556 se = SS a oS bos sos csacone Sse 64 list ofsdistripmbin co saoemts sess Sse 2 eee ae ee eee 65 jabulanstabemend ot worl. se se = Sees ae eee 59, 60 SLANMSTNISSVON SS seis aes oe ee eas Se ee ee 66, 67, 68 Wanlockky Wis@s; curator 2555.25 Sree ee eee 6S Medicinevandsurcery-exchanoes Ofes = ene eter ee eee eee ee 62 Naaicablonie xe aig Os! Ole ea. te eee el mentee ee eee ee 62 Ordnance jexchan es Onesac oes eee nee = eemeete eat er nee ees 52 Hbabishics vexchanees-Ote se shea e77p eee eS ays Screen ae eee ere 62 Sbeam) EnoineerimorexchantessOk sees eee eee eee eee 62 the Minty exchanoés of. (canes: Bate ee a aie e ane eee 62 Bureaus, repayment by, on account of exchanges.--2--2----=-=-=--~- === 13, 60, 61 Burgess, H. E., employés of, presented great horned owl ...........-....---- 72 Burial mounds, ancient, in Ohio, paper on, by R. J. Thompson. ....---------. 571 Buteo borealis addedito: ZoolocicalsPanke ss. ease se eee= eee era a eee 73 SULNKeTeS Ds es IB aa pest euleVe El Ait anes a eeno ode eee Bo esas pebaoo es osSo ees 71 Builerc\We ©. presented GurassOw senses oe ee re ee ee ee W2 Butterworth, Hon. Benjamin, expiration of term as regent. ...-....---------- 2 letter to, relative to money advanced for ex- Chan@es, Seek cia soe eee oe SEE EE ee eee 15 TOO OMe coe Se SRS ae as rea Made eee xi Cs Wale lina @erern Ori eyls ote eZ eraerans low CUS ee ra ee ear oD Chinook) nominal, CoenimanhyOnMhOieea og nSa5e5 obo sss sss Sees soe eoedeogse sasass- 51 Caimanepresenved GOeZ OO LO iCall skeet eae erase ieee ee 12,13 Crea), Seay, enced aes XSI es Bas eee Sie 5 OR ee Be Sao Sha oe cooso' 65 Calderon; Consul-General @limaco, grants free frei@hti.----.----.--.--.-.--.. - 64 COMGlay, (COSMAS (Cin, CaaMMNSahReey NEON Bee oe Se AE Roe eed S coe Sa osc aes = 64 Caldwell, S: D., presented opossums +2572 <2. Sec ae ae = eee eee re California, ethnoloercalimeseanch(es mae set eee a eee eee 52 CallaheGes presembe di pieeon ai css a eres tps eae eee ee 71 INDEX. TS1 Page. CanreronwehraWesce CO. ObanUsntree Lele Gases. acsearle soeceesias « 64 Canadas Government transmissions GOeea- omc oasis oe oa es see le we GS Canismanransrad dedstoroolocdcal har ket ares ees oe ne ne ee eee 73 Cape Colony, exchange agency in ..-.--. -- S- yticoaa sodas os ona on Seo b awa SRAat 65 GLANS MUSSTO NS uUO tesa tetous oer eee rey a era er res Dae oc Soe rnoee 66, 6S Capevhown gexec hancreruoen Gy ilit =). ye fot aeee eres te 2 s)2 es eee 65 Capra hircus angorensis added to Zoological Park --.-...--..-2.--.--...-.-.. 73 Capron collection, purchase of, Congressional appropriation for---- 2.2.22... . 5 Capuchin monkey presented. to: Zo0lopical park 22 5—. 28a eee eee 71, 73 Capwbaraaddedeto: Zo Olo sicalaP arly es ae sets eis ee 28 oe ee 73 @aracasesCnezuelan exch aioe AGEN Cy lMeseas ae eee er eee 66 Caniacus virginianus added to Zoolocieal)Park -22>-. 22 5225 52-2 2-2e-- sees 73 CasaiGrandes ruin Of mestorublonyoOlis == cases ears = = 4 ee ae ae 28 > LUIS LepParmed= ly Cosmos WVhin del etieess= se eo ee ee 54 Gasesishippedaliys Pxeliam pews Ue ves sole eee eee lee ei rene gees seas eee 59, 60 Castomcanacdensis ad dedstorZoolocical iP anksess see sees te oe ee eee 73 Catalogue of prehistoric rocks east of the Rocky Mountains --.....-....-.---- D0, DA Catlin eallery collection of Museum, increase im .:+...-22.--.----.:-25----.-- Dees CanrdisonaamiliarisaddedstorZooloricaleParise s2s= 4 3. ee eee 73 Gaveuny stone: County= Wore xcmain vuln Ole =e ae es rete 50 Gaviarapercaradde dior OO Oone allele ails sary prs ore oer eel see ees 73 Gebusicapucinusiadded to; ZoolomicaliParkese- 322 452 o a ee eee eee eee 73 DD OL CUS uLeLeds GOs ZOOLO Oe e> an ke see eerie ee ae ee 73 Cevihalancuace; paper on, by'J. Owen Dorsey 22. - 222225... esc ee 57 Cenozoic fossils collection of Museum, increase in.......-.-......--.---.----- 2223 Gengus iO fice vexchan oC esuoios fyi eer es aise no ee resi ete eiere oe ae Seema soe ae 62 Cercoleptes caudivulvus added to Zodlogical Park... .... ..2... 2-22-2222. =... (a Cercopithecus cianaaddeds to Zoclocical Parle sess 22 oes ce ele fis Chancellor announced election of new member of executive committee -....-- xvi ChaneesmiieR card) otaive Memts sere siete eit oot See ASA ons ee ree D Chantsirecéeined> bi bherlilbramyaenceccetec ec cee tee eet eee levee oe afin rey Sela 15.74 Whelydraserpentina added to ZodlocicaltParks 222 422355 ese - 2 se ee eee eee 73 Chemical compounds, physical action of, investigations of... .-...22.-...-- id products collection of Musewm, increase in -....--.--...--.-.....-.- 21,23 Chenanlin GO spresenteduh ald) eae essere ses seen ce Ooo eee eeeeee 71 GOMGI=NUIN EARS eee Saat eel een tons chine Soe roe 71 LULU LC eye renee ean nes tere gees. ese 4. A ey pa eae 72 Cherokees, sacred formulas of the, paper on, by James Mooney --....---..--- 57 Chesapeake Bay, shell deposits of, examination of ........-...--:....2.-.-:-- 49 Chevennesavisibea Diva lr wVLOONe yee ee ens oho ferinin, sacs SA ac ae Ao ee 59 Child, Co @., assistant im-Astro-physical Observatory, --2s-22- s+ -.s-- 4-2 2-252 10 Ghilevexchamneea men yp iiemet eer ee eee aes cs cee s eee Uae cre ee 65 CLAM STIMSSLOUN GLO meee ete teen eae eee he Se dc ene ook take, ee ee 66, 68 Ghulicovheawonrke OlmoresimmeyeOlete ss. tye Aaya tits = as sta verse erosctors | retepoete 49, 50 Ghinamcollechlonswmnademnss- eee ee ee hey is Be oe Sole ee ok se eee 10 CLIO ORV CTT CVA iene fee = eer fon a, cis Sievert ay nfata tele Se ata Fe, tare 65 LAL SION SSUOMS sO see emer eee reicla) Civica cic Sys) s tals steed ape cent o\eenieey orale eee 66, 68 (Chimmcaikern jal plhenaeoliy, yA ONG or oes See SAB acne es ApoB aan s- 55 Gseaaa4 56 Craxialectomaddedsto:Zoolovical Park. 25. 22/2 2 oso atnn eeeies Selene 73 Christiania NonwiurexclWan Ce agency inl. .s..2-c2 qs ela ah ewe cece eicne eee 65 Uiniversityot senu PUDIGAUIONS= sa=- see acces sees oo eee eeee 7a Chinysempyssplcuaraadeduvo ZOolOpical banks = 2-2 soe cece oe acai 73 Ciirysotbniaaacimeus added to Zoclomicali bank es -- sear aes eee ees leeers 73 Chuck-molly added to Zoological Park von... 2c cc vjcnwcerccn esd ene cnr cseaen ne 73 782 INDEX. Page. @hiuqiuisaca, exchange asenc yan e-em aeieeicrs sie aie tieion eu Sele ewe Ae aie 65 Cinnamon bean presented) torZoolomicall Wares soe ne = alee le ree 1,73 Circus hudsonius addedito:ZoolocicalsRanke ess) eee = ee ae ee 73 Clarks; HABE presentiedsimanshy hawile= 22-4 ee eee ra eee oe een 71 Clarke, Prof. F. W., a member of the Hodgkins fund committee. .........--. 20 Glenicaletorceiom National eMusewimiajes Seen oe oo oe eee eee ee eee 25 MOLKeIN HE xclioam Oe UBT Caw ketene aes ieee ee eee 63 Woassus addedito ZodlogicalePark=*— ses beeen ae eee eee 73 Coustiand Geodetic survey. exchanoes Ofeens sees. sees eee =e eee ~ 62 to be accessible to scientific investigators....... xlvii Woati-mundispresented sto Zoolocical Barks" See. 5. eee neers see eee eee Ties Calogenys,paca added to Zoological Park 2220-22 20-2 cei San oye ee 73 Codices;:study, of-by-Cyrus Mhomas? 8 ee eae eees ee eee eee 54 @oimmcollectrontimy Museums CLE as eptnieeste tere ey ere ere ores Dih22) Colapter auratusadded to ZoologiealsRark =. -2= ecm eee cs eee 73 @olemanwG-s Bs-spresembe di maans ine lvaswelce apse ese) ses reeset rain eee ee 71 Collections of the Zoélogical Park, additions to ............-.222. 2-2 S42 eee 45 policy/of Government with reference toree. +-—- oc seas eee 16 preservation of, Congressional appropriation for............-.---- 5 estimates fond S93 2ee soereiscs Sere eee eee 6 Colomibianvexchan ee acene yin e se eee a ae ee eee ee ete ae 65 LanSMUsslOns*t0; 22-5 coe tet ess Be eo eee oes See Cee eases 66, 68 Columbian }xposition, collections made fors25 2- eee Dl, 52953, 545 55 for, made by officers of Bureauof Ethnology. 27, 28 Museumvexhibitfiorsiss222 ces as cs er acs oe aeneee eee 27 Historical Exposition at Madrid, Congressional act relative to. .-.- xlvili Commissioniof kish) and Hisheries; exchane@esiOf ee sss eetee- e eee a 2 @ommiussioner of Patents exchaneesiotes ss) sse- ae = see = se eile 62 Weights and Measures, exchanges of. ---..---.-.--..--:---- 62 Committee appointed on matters relating to the Hodgkins fund..........-..- 20 Compagnie Générale Transatlantique grant free freight..-...--.-.----.---.-. 64 Comparative anatomy collections of Museum, increase in..-..----..--------- 22, 23 Compensations paid for exchanges 2e-o< ore e-ee oe 2 af eee 61 Completionof bridgean Zoological Park-7-22.\-2- mars saat er ae leer 69 @omptroller of the Currency, exchanges of .-...--..--. 2. 3--.---=-- ------ --=- 52 Conant, Levi L., paper on primitive number systems ------.--.-.-.----..--.- 583 Condition of exhibition halls of National Museum. .-.---..........-.-...-... 24 Smithsonian’ funds sso... She See esas esse see eeine eee XX1ii Congress asked to refund money advanced for exchanges ....-....----..----- 14, 15 exchanoésjofs -s.222) 245 ec sa sac oe eee te SE ee eee 62 letter to, accompanying annual report for 1892 ..-....-...---..-.-- 3 ili Congressional acts and resolutions relative to— JNSiHO ONS ASHI | CONSE AVAUKOIN GE ee cake conse soo aoD Gconde coos soso mcodeaecEs xlvii [soul Gre IBA IUMO OYA yoe ooo Caen eecas Seo too doo sh. bb Sooo Sacessesnaeos xvii Columbian) Historical Pxpositioniat Madrid's. 22e-= Se-—i eee te see xlviii lIatteriationalexchan Ges. 222. =. Secs oc dace Soe Daas eee eee ees xlv INR GMO ENY Tey Cee SoS CS oe eee SENSORS Oah sos obama osOO8 7 OOS RS xlvi INehomAN “ACrol@anceMl 1eWe Coes Soecse sa coco oop oer dees coscse pesasucasens xvii Smithsontamn Institution o-- --<.o sc > em ene cts eye cep eerie xlv Worlds: ColumbiansEashibition sabi Chicagoces. esses. ee eee eee eee xlviii Congressional appropriations for— Burean of Ethnology. (See North American Ethnology). Astro-phyvsicalvObservatory 2=ss]2< ae a ie ee ee ee xIvii Columbian Historical Exposition at Madrid....,,..--..------- See ete xlviil INDEX. 783 Congressional appropriations for— Page. Interna tionalvexchan@esis-=- sec seme cee. e XXL XXV, xlit, xlv, 13, 14, 60, 61 National Museum -- -- -- -- -XXV, XXVil, XXVili, XXX, XXX, XXX1, XXXIl, XXXII], XxxXiv, LOO.AYH LAMM NAD AM HAO Oa MU xOowbed-dlilyed hiato-xd hiah oY NativonveZoolosicalianke eens sss eee Ab S.o'd hGO.gplih-cogb gol Sebbi ad haut 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39 NorthrAnnerican: Bohnolomy ass 252. s5 5 Sue oe Gaeeneeece XRV, SXVI, Ki, xl vii, 7 Renken stcolllecbionprsacge cs tater ee An ie ee eee ee Sire +2-.5.--4- 222. 22s 2 sseee ee esse 64 Construchiono£ animalhousesan) Zoolocical Bark 2522+ 252--- +25 seo soe eee 69, 70 Contentsrofeammualerep ort or hS 2st arama aie eee eee ee aes eee Vi Continentaliproblemsot ceolosy by. G.) Ke Gilbert=2.- 5-2 sess+ =e =e oe 16 Continuation of researches among North American Indians .............----- 27 Contributions to Knowledge published during 1892.................-.....--- 80 SKEOIRELE IAS IRE) DON OLY Go aan padoso aaaees OnbEEO eae 10, 11 North Amevican Ethnelogy, volumes ii, vi, and vii ...-....-- 57 Copenhacen Denmark vexchameeiamency Ilse. aes socis- see ne eae ne oe ie oe 65 Coppée, Dr. Henry: ACIS Of aS Te OMb es e.. s oer tes cepa eine cee sae tee oie aioe XM) RLV, XV, eX, Sox INGER Ho Conor HAN HONEHIS THEREIN So Sao Sock en eek ode coos esegebac Sunes bas- XIV, 2 Mentberion the Execmtives© ommiltiheees += ase espera oe one ee ax ETeSenved LepOLmoil Secubivier Commi teer= pee eee See e eee eee eee xvl Resolutions offered hy— RElALIKe LO AMUMIStrAabion of public iunds=ss-s5 0-24 242-22 ae eee eee REX: appointment of suitable person to act in the absence of the Secretary AIGEASSIS GAMO CLE LAL Ysa ae cere Sen Seay arate aro Perera ee Sa XIX NS ELOY SUCalO)Setiy dit OL yaem ar am Savas eerie sek seis ac ee xvi income and expenditures of the Institution.....-.---............-.-- XV. Obiouarysoimunelate General Melos: ye. see eee <-> sae aa eel eee Xiv Copperhead presented. to Zoological Park:-.-....2- 2-202.25.-22- s2ss0e- 25sec ee 12, 13 Copper mines, ancient, of Isle Royale, examination of ......................- 50) Copper-mining (Pre-Columbian) in North America, by R. L. Packard... ..-. 175 Correspondence;ol bh xChan@enbuneali-2 4-2-2 ==. seas 255 ok. Sees teeeeee 61 Goriespondents of. Wxchange: Bureau == 12-20 25< oses o5 2 ok aoe ae alk 13, 59, 60 Cortez, Daniel, presented golden-winged woodpecker............-.2.-.-.---- 99 (Consists 3 Rand fon Aen MSP B Re Kea NLS, oo St a Ree en oes ee ee 64 Corvus americanus added to Zoological Park....-........- 2222.22. -c2-- 2 eee. 73 WOstar ica jONCNAN OG Aen eye = aeons C2. ed cies a Ose sie Pee oe eee 65 BRABUS TOUS DOs eee eek ta le a aah oa Se ee i ee 66, 68 Cove Creek, Arkansas, ancient quarry, examination of ..............---.-..- 50 CovOvesipnresenucd wOrO0loorcalibarks -~ 5 .-2--ece> eases cee Soe Soe eee To 7 CoypusaddedstosZoolopicallapam kee sete. Yee eS ei ee ee 73 (Snanespesembe UabOee/OOLo cl Callens sys ceisler eee ee eae 2) (2 Cranford, D. M., presented blue and yellow macaw...............--.---.---- 72 184 INDEX. : Page Creekevocabulary, work on. 22. sassete ee ae Se See dre ee 56 Crisp, Hon. Charles I’., letter to, transmitting annual report for 1892 ..._._.- ili Crocker) Dr. M., Mo) presented: ticer rattlesnake = =22 sone see ee ee 2 chuck-mollyalizar diese eae aes 72 Crofton. Cn, presenteds aula: iss soe aes ee ea ee ee (2 Crotalus admanteus;addedsto Zoolocicalobaries -—- oases oe eee eee 73 Groralussvorricdasead dedeio27/0 01 0 Calls ariel comer ee ees 73 Crowapresemtedsto-Zoolomicale Parks: sae = eee aan eee eee : 72 Cromaacency, Montana collections am ad Chi == ae a ee ee ae 51 Chaysienlhizen avons joni ING 5 ID IephwenNer ss oe. oo eb Sole oso keeoes sonaee See Ss - 26) Crystals, rejuvenescence of, paper by Prof. John W. Judd].-22-2---_-_ 2) 281 CUINDES. CxO ha Nee CMe NC STN Ges eceee toe needs conse clanecoe SES aSS sass oe Sees cous 65 transmissions! 2606: 35.2 see eees Se Sees see oe nee Oe Ee eee ae 66, 68 CulinvationioteZoolocical barker Cost: Ole essere ee ee eee eee 39 Cunard Royal Mail Steamship Company grant free freight..........-.....-.- 64 Cullom akon ShelbyeMs, srec ences ss sete eyo ee eee LG AGE Oh EDO on acceptance ot Hodekins donation: -°--=-=--2--4--2---. . xii SUrasson; presented to, Zoolocical, Parke se sae eee eee ee eet aes 72) 43 Cuiratorot Exchanoes “rep orntio te sa oe = 2 ey eer ee ees ee eee eee 59 Curators lips amy Naber) Minas evra a cee eee eee 24 Current expenses of Zodlogical Park, deficiency appropriation for .....-.--.. 33 Curtis, G. E., prepared Smithsonian tables for publication. ......-....-..-.--- 12 Cushing, Frank H., appointed ethnologist of the Bureau of Ethnology. -.---- 5d archieoloorc alaworl<(Otie sae eee eee eae ree ee 51 COMMUN HIRO ONY “AWD ORY CIS Soke ates Se aoe ec kos SSeS 55 organized Southwestern archeological exploration -....- 5D Cynomys lndovicianus added: to: Zoological Pars 22a. sane) secie ee 73 BD. Dakota-English dictionary, by Stephen Return Riees----.~..22 252-2. 22. -2-- 57 Dall, William I., 2 member of the Hodgkins fund committee --.---....-..--- 20 Damages oceasione:! to Zodlogical Park by undue reduction of force .......-- 33 DancensioyZoulocicalsParkeatrometreshetSecsctese ese eee eae eee reer Soe 31, 32 Daniels Dr.-Z, D., presented sing snake passe ss a ene eee ae ee eee 72 Masyprochawcouchy added to: Zosloeiucaleatkis=- assesses aeeee eee eee aeeee 73 ATOUbIMd ded TOeZo ollo wale all seven kee ee ee ee 73 IDAs dig dbayaekeernnecl mace en NOL Tis Se Sa sek soso os Looe sooen nesses Ti Weare nC appibes Gren C7, mpLESGmbe CC Oiyge = se eee til WeerspresenteditorZoolocicallyear ke = ps eee eee ee ee ee ee 71, 13 WMedoheorvecents) 0b ask ce De ey. cee ae at Nee a ye oe on pec 2 Deductions from the gaseous theory of solution, paper by Prof. Orme Masson. — 289 Detcency-appropmuabions tom Zoolocical ear ==s see sees = see ee 32,00 Den Helder Holland. - 32 3522s 3 cei 229 Hlephants in Zoological Park, condition of.--.....---...----.------ Soalaieia setae 70 Eleventh annual report of Bureau of Ethnology, ready for printer.........-- 27 HilkshouseineZzoolocicaleePark. Wlustratiloniotesss see sea eee ane eee eee Ad Elkins, Hon. Stephen B., member ex officio of the Establishment.-....-........ ix Eihiotth. Masse essie,ppresenteg sraccoone ase... see eee =e =e ee eee nie 71 mipire ofthe ain paper byauecr. Moullatde <2 52.524 ee) ae meee a 397 Hmiployésiotexchanie bumeant enlicTe m GiyaO le oe aise ela le eee 63 Endowment for scientific research and publication, paper by Addison Brown. — 621 mMeimeering collection of Museum, increase in.._.....-.-.---.---<--------<- 21, 22 Hueimeer Bureau, exchanCes Ole. <2. - --me eie emai ae aie eee eee Bis 62 English-Klamath dictionary, by A. 8. Gatschet ..-..........----:--------s--- 57 Hniomolorical Commission, exchanges Of.see pees epee eee eae ieee 62 Eiphemeris, exchanves' Ole s5s 5-0 mses eos ae bee coe one male ie et ie aie tec 62 Erlancen- WUmiversiby: of. senbaolblicatlonsiee sees ease ele ae 75 Espriella, Consul Justra R. de la, grants free freight .......-..-.------------ 64 Estimates for Coneressional appropriations! =-2---. s2------ 22> - me Se eee 5 Exchange SERVICCL Las ose cise cme eee Ras eee eee ee 14 Estimated expenselot exchamoe: servic Cesare see see ete ts eae ie 14, 61 Ethnological researches, Congressional appropriations for ....---.---------- 5, 26, 27 Ethnologic researches among the North American Indians......-...---.----- 49 Ethnology collection of Museum, increase in .-..------------------------- soe OEE IHREN Oib, XOMEWOGRTS OE soo Soh 5 Sos cccesoesecgs sees SSes Senseo 62 IRE PLONE Olt CULAMNOUCIE 5 ea sooo do cose cou Sons case ones Sass 28, 49 SOCIROUPTAV SaRe] NON Ol een S666 cots BSaG ones reer ane enseSG= 27 NortheAmernilcan estimabestornlovaceecereeceeee a seisee ieee 5 Hunectes murimus added! to»Zoclomical Parks eas sects ae eleaa = eas ees 73 Hubeemia Ssuctalissad ded sto ZOO) o ox ceil ae ar kee aes ya eas ta aera ee lara ee 73 Evolution and heredity, present problems in; paper by Henry Fairfield Osborn — 31k Ewing, Prof. J. A., on molecular progress in magnetic induction ......-.----- 255 Hxcavation of pond im Zoological Parks scem..see =i a See 70 Exchange bureau, report of curator..-....--------------------- ese eatttessee 59 Gorrespondence.. 22!2-. S205 sake ee a 2 cee ee eee See ee eee 61 Bxcham ce on Oteralsc O CUMMON US pete ete rete) = ee re ated tol 61 IBS DOWNES c 35 5 355 oseoc pocos ecop cecous coeceheEcea O500 = RECN aOUCS anos 60 THINNING, OIE KEIN ODS Aas oes5a0 soos cco opecer ces eve oet esse ieee "62 Di bMERVeN NS ote Soe eoee eden ndoaos EEOnoo pas oS0Sos coos sons oedeSeudec 60 JUS Oe Chisel NUE PRR oa See 5 a6 a 5oso0 cocb cane coos Somme ats cads Se 2 65 ILiksin One Sloulny MNS MERU Gaon ce eos so6p 55 cd55 S5hs soscesccseesgs 92500 ces= 64 Mabulanishabememb Ot wiOrle--. > saec css soe eee sesieee eee eee Sele eee 59, 60 IAN SMUASSTONS teetane e saseeie tes oc oe = cE ence et: eee ee eee eeeneee 66, 67, 68 \Wwwammlaveles Wiig (Cho Cine ti es Be oaesncasoSocadsns GaaoGe sono DatouoSousss bsaene 68 pxolhenies Gi Osler GloimIn MIs a5 oS5 cocGos cecm ososae sone cge0S5 Sesee seas 13, 61, 62 SeLVICe. wecketalyss LEpOLb OD) soso nee (eee ieee eee 15 treativaObsbMMBSCIS: 22-22. ona e = meen lacae cane eee ree ees eee ee aU! Exchanges, Congressional appropriations for..--.-.-.-------- Xxiii, xxv, 5, 13, 14, 60, 61 estimates ford SO5 1 eee Sense micreloeieiee BBO oOo be aA Sac oioe ges 5 money advanced for, by Institution .........-.-.------ re eiaae! 9 3) INDEX. 187 Pxecutive Committee, election of new member ....-..--.......-.-5...-.------ XVi empowered to appoint suitable persons to act in the absence of the Secretary and Assistant Secretary.... xix examined vouchers and accounts .-............-...-.- xiii, 5 report accepted by Board of Regents....-............. Xvi report of, on appropriations for international exchanges. xxiii National Museum. -. xxvii, XXvili, XXix, XXX, XXxxi, SOU SoOCII BOSAL OOK E DOC Qh Be eayill, XXXVIii, XXXix National Zoological Park .........-----. .Xxxvili North American Ethnology .......-...-.-- XXVi Smithsonian building repair .s.--.-..----- xl, xli Conditionyote une stn dee eer ee XXili expenditures for the year .-..-_....--. Xxiil, XxXiv incoine available for ensuing year... xli, xlii, xiii RECCN US HOR UNORye Ala eae eee XXlil, XXiV salestandsrepavimentss- sae ree ae eee XX1V Exhibit of work of American articles, room assigned for................--.. 17 Uxhibition halls of National Museum, condition of-......-........2.222.------ 24 Prropjicronmembers ot therstaplishmenthissa. 4-see eee oer a sae ix Expenditures, detailed statement of, for— Internationalrexchane esa. ese santas cee semen ecient Cae EE xxv, 13, 60 National Museum........XXVli, xXXViil, XxXix, Xxx, Xxxi, XXxxii, Xxxiii, XXXIV, XXXV, XXXVi, XXXVIi, XXXVili, Xxxix NOLtheAINerIcang Er GhiiOl Opera mreete te nal sae re = eee eee rete XXV1, XXXvii Siniti WsOniienn ) oul lines sYey Enno. eee Ge aed cu oeoec sacs caesouedor cease Scee x1, xli Experiments im aerodynamics) bys. ©) luangley. 5-5. asec ce sees ce seco 11, 80 Explorations in Mongolia and Thibet, by W. W. Rockhill.................... 659 NE Clelaby-SeLeporu Olp-ee ese aaiaaser eee e eee oe Sat ees emer aoe 10 . Fairfax County, Va., ancient soapstone quarries in..--..-.-----.-.-........- 49 Halcorcolombarinssad ded: to) Zoolooical@Panl sss = - ae22-one- cows cs aes eee 08: spanverlusiadded to: Zoological iParksee sees 9 se eciee ee see ee see 73 Kelisileoradded toyioologicall, Pat kere = ete = esc aa ain, a's 2 eens See ee ee LE HelisiparvalisiaddedstorZoolosicals Barks seaseas = taeee Mere e se cone Sec eee 73 Bibernbeckicusaddedsto)A00lockcaltPanke senses eeese so - 2 see See ee 73 Brel dino saoteoieabinea lot eb MmnOlLO tye sae ee eee rac see cision oes te eee 49 BingNces te KCCULIVeIe OMMIUL LESS RepPOLUOM seam ass. ane ea tees Xxili Hinan Ges MSCChe LAL yee pOn b Olea te eras sae oe ore ors oie orice s si sa see 5) BEQUGE Li Ole VAM eS MENATON OME ea ype tae as = Se = aS crete siapsinicis ws ise sae es 4 Bequesitobe sim onib abelesect septa pies fates aa elas el A wins ees So eee ae 4 Beques mote amesns Meus OM ser eme coe eis cis= ree eno selaie cio cree Siete 4 Congressional appropriations— ASOLO IV SICAly@)SELyaLOLVee, os ape cielo. Fela eie Soa ae fee epee eee ee 5, 6 thnolocicalgresearchesesase. a2 aoe eee oe aa eae ae eee 5 IntermmatonaliencChanoeseeaxsese case oc Seine <2 Sow eie Sais meee e oie ere 5 INU LOMA SE UM 2 yer se cies 2) seer teisiet ayes afte wa Stne ocewie eo mete oe ee 5, 6 OO) OPEN adil: Wess aces an a enn ls ale Re lS ate ean itiaps ee tite ee aU SNe 5, 6 Deposipunominnocced sot saleioL DONS 2. se erecta. es ee een ee ere ae ere eee 4 DG NOSIUREL OI SAVIN OSS mew aeys ae mei > com porclas See Aly tooo fa porepskeytc onsets 4 DondionromaloxandenGraham spell» oer ea sce ee eee eee Xvi, 4 ENO CUS ISU BLU CL etter ee ee ete eee ere ee ete Ae af Sect PS el oh Sh 3,4 IRSSTOHET AG IRS ENC\ZO) Pts) LOND N (0) oceeces Glee eee BOCs COE DEE Saoe nebo Soeonnor q 188 INDEX. Page Fireproofing of Smithsonian building continued -..... .........-....---.---- 7 imhshicollectionso& Museum sin crease cnet eect ete aera 22, 23 DTA OC in os OMe ecelNEVaeERs Oliersdoe aves cs oS wenlsd. ooeaudeenonadoes déas 62 to be accessible to scientific investigators..-............--- xlvii Hisherresscollectionsot. Musuem 1ncreaseaneesess eee = eer eae eee eee 2 2 II OMAR ARIES, OlUIOS WADA Pass set oso sicusemoooeoEGe cones d Top Uesas one 49 Flint quarry in Indian’ Lerritory, examination) Of 2524-37. -=] = ee see meee 50 Flooring for Museum building, Congressional appropriation for ........---..- Bs Ul Mionoskubatvinoy bine .oranbearee rere libs see eeisete eee eet 64 Tallies 1D. Ilha, Byelonoysdle leaping Ol) — 25525555 Sces sobs sooo cons cnbaesoe ewes 64 Flying squirrel presented to ees PAD KS? eis sehen = cere nie eee eee Tis Ton Kawe vocabulary, work on- SUN She aed costo hae Hace neal eee 56 Hoods collectionioh Museum, imcGrease mls sess a aatee eerie eee eee oe oe 21, 22 Horeionrexchan ge sbTamSmMissl OM Serre see = eee ere ea ee etre a atere etre eee 66, 67 individuals in correspondence with Exchange Bureau. -.--.-.-...--- 13, 59, 60 societies in correspondence with Exchange bureau. ......-..-..-..- 13, 59, 60 IGE Seb Aree LANUUS DTCC ER ONO ING eer eae ee ye eee ay eer eet ae ora Peterlee are tee ee 64 Kootwaysin Zoolocicalsbark constructiom Of = see eee eels ee ee 70 Hossis-collectioniof in» Museum, increase ins Yess. ase eee oe eee ace 22, 2: Hossil plants; collectionsof Museum, jam crease ans sees elec esa se ee PPAR Foster, Hon. Charles, member ex officio of the Establishment -..........-.--. 1X Foster, Hon. John W., member ex officio of the Establishment....-.....-.--.--- ix Hoxwikes Gerard: archesoloolcallitrel danwior later = acts sae ae eee eee 49, 50 ollie wir lejolssiense Sais tm sis Besse es eee ee ae eee 55 moe, Ceo aon jameson dbineiatth uirelue studies: Of. 2922. 22a ae Nee ee ee oe 53 Kamath dictionary. 2222s eeee Basen core eae eet 57 OficCeANWorRK Ofsscce. Soe MiSs Pee Ee ee SSR ee eee 56 Geikie, Sir Archibald, on geological change, and time. .....- Be tc IR Od Se ee INDEX. 789 Page. Genenuleappendixsuo tae animal) report tOVelS922 52 ecstatic ae 85 Archeolocysor Wde-water, rectOn,, Papel OMs. =. c 2-5 oe ses 5D Hands@treevexcham Sesion soe oe etn a ees ony eee see eee 62 NAO Mr NeW ACTH REY ee eco samods See ane aoa Baaneca Soeeeoc 10) SU DGOUS Ole TNs erable ONS Aes aso shares Fae aco os spee daas oe iv Cecoraphoicalsunvey, OXCWan CS Oba. = aa cies = see eee eee cmales ae See e ice ees - 62 Geological change, and time, paper by Sir Archibald Geikie ..............-.. 111 history of the Yellowstone National Park, by Arnold Ilague ....-- 135 SULVeyappLropriahions) tomormexchanoesin-g mere --— sce ee aes see xlvi CBO Noy eens peel Re Sehr ete ete Bete Re EN ieee Se ped 62 to be accessible to scientific investigation ...............- xIvii Geolopy-collection, of Museum, imeréaseyin = 55-52-52 <<) .ace 65 PRAMS MATSSTOMS WOO) 6 seers Sela aie ee eee ea ee Cries 67, 68 Hales, Henry, paper on prehistoric New Mexican pottery.......-........-... 535 Halizectus leucocephalus added to Zoolopicale bares. ss selene ere 73 alle mUmniversiiuy Ole Sen tap WDD AbiONS) Sesser se teal eee pee 75 Hallock, Dr. William, appointed senior assistant in Astro-physical Observatory 9 PESVOT AH ONKOL ae sos ee eee ee ee Sa a ees eee eee 10 Hamburg American Packet Company grant free freight.................-... 64 HE Heeesrna tt; OIA HD. CYA OS ra eVNHN OO WU AS Oey rt ee ee eee 4, xxiii Hamilton James, bequest of, added to Smithson fund..........---.---..----- XNiii Hapale jacchus added to Zoological, Park<- <2 252.2 see eee eee eee 73 Harrison, Hon. Benjamin, member ex officio of the establishment ...........-- ix HArrisonee bresid ent, presenuedgo OSS UN sets ese apa e e ae ere U1 Hastings, C. S., paper on the history of the telescope...............---..--.- 95 Hawks presented to Zoological) Park: * 222 <2 seem ern c eee = ee ee ok 78} HiavesOs se, presembed: black eat oye cx ate cere ae rape ce ee eee aterey erate here eeat 7a Meatine and lig htinl ovo Nationa MMs eu 5 oe 2 creer ere oer na ee eee 26 ConeresslonaleappLopmiav lO MOT eye eyelet ea ee eee tee 5, 26 Details: omexpenditures for =. 4-42-42 oe ee LOOT MSOONY, LOGUE, Koray, Selly estiniabes TOM M SO Ses se eerste oes See see ee eee 6 Heidelberg, University of, sent publications.....-..-...--..------.---------- 75 Helsingfors, University of, sent publications .-..--......--------------.----- 7D Hemenway Archeological Exploration, organized by F. H. Cushing... .------ 5d Henderson, Hon. John B., appointed regent --.- =--.=22----- =---.------------= 2 ACiSIOT asm Tem ener peer eee eee ee Brey TAYE, SAV OID member of Executive Committee -2-- =2.- >. 8. ---- x elected member of Executive Committee. --..----- evil Hendersoniccs Drovers eRanibplceeeune lo ltr eee tee ti ele eee eee 64 Hendrickson, Mrs., presented capuchin monkey .......-.---...---.---------- fal Hensel, Bruckmann & Lorbacher grant free freight........--...--.-.---.---- G4 Henshaw, EH. We, cenemal treldistatloniol 2222 -. eee ees eae 52 OfliceawOrls Of: <5.555 pao ee Dee eee eee eee Dd paperion tribalisymonomye- sess se eee eee 53 prepared exhibit for Columbian Exposition... ---.-.-.-------- 53 » Heredity, evolution and present problems in, paper by Henry Fairtield Osborn 318 INDEX. 791 ELGLONEPLESOMLEde tO: AOOLO OTC Uebel Ke memese.e eayee tate are re aistaala olernsimjelei= Soe ain a = 72, 73 Elentzsexperiments= paper Olvsas assem eis ne =f Se nf oh ce nie Oe ce eens dese 203 Heleodon platyrhinms, added to ZodlocicalsParlk«. 22.22 - 2a: ee see a= 73 fe vaitbsp dee Mis s5 (OLLC ON ONIcy Oe. artis see ae ete a. he se es Serie 56 Hieroglyphic character of Maya codices, discovery of key to..-.....--...---. iy Highland County, Va., archeolocicad explorauiomOle-s4e- 4s oe oes s se] cos See 50 Hill, Rrotekaviere pResented.arm a dll Oj erence ecset oes a ee) ores mere sees se 71 Hillers seeker phobo crap lice works Of Sessa sese se ee ee ee eee eae ae a 57 Historic relics collection of Musemn, inerease in. ..............-...-----.---- 21.99 village sites examined by Bureau of Ethnology..........-.-.-......- 19 Hastoryonwhe Lelescope, by Prof./C.1S. Hastmies =... 22 22s. s/c se 95 Hobart, Tasmania, GxChame erage en Cy: Tins ee eee ee hs cone ee 66 od Ger Ue DD AOMlCO WOLGOL tein canes ss nomsman = 2 Sou opt e es Naean eee a ae 53 Hodgkins, Thomas G., CpnenCouts ANA Kexd Peo) Simubh spot svoynaneavile Bee Nee ee XXili communication of, laid before the Board of Regents.... xxii Hodgkins donation, resolution by Board of Regents relative to... --.. 2.22... Sieeei POCA aimns ok, SCCLOUUya Sele POT br OMe eee eee erent arated er en Bw aly CINCULATSU SST eC Ghat ee a aso ee oc aes, te ek 18.19 ACLS OT ar OTITINT ee Ce APO) OL TNL pee ee 20 Hoffman, Dr. W. J., paper on grand medicine societies of Ojibwas and Menom- RODS) eos era eee CE EME to BOS Gro Sommerer ees eee DD, OD ATE AS tidlleSkOie easy ee cae ert eee eee eae 51,52 special agent for the World’s Columbian Exposition... -. fl Hoo=nosedicnalke-presented to Zovlogical Park. 22.220 520 5 2022. seoces eo dcee 72. 73 EGlmesa\\elie anchzeolocical field worksolees. sce aan eee cee ea gacee cee 19. 50. 51 OPA ELEY AV AONE) kee CON in eer Sas es ort eee ee a ae ie EE eS ee Se) Pe 53 PApeLIONApPotrelyeamdashelliwOnlkeereseiseee sea sae ee ees eee 53 EDU ROMER UNINC re een 8 Shee Sob OCC SEER Ete DOES oabe 53 Rlonduras+ OxchancOracenc vail s-mepy ere eae oe eee aie oe yee ese ee 65 ELAN SMIMSSVONS lOc eee ee ieee ee ae toto aw cia eee erties oan 67. 68 Honpkongr,,C hina, exchange agency 1172 2r, 0-2 28 i paises nesses haa a 65 RON OLMIS ELaw alle xoh ANG ence en Cyl sees eee ee aie eee aes oe 65 Horned toad presented tor Zoc0locieali Parle 222 o= ees eee icne 22-2 ase eee 72,73 Efouse of ILepresenhailvie, OxChan res OL las poe sla sectacte = ae, + 2s aie oie catene ooe 62 Howard County, Md., ancient soapstone quarries in..........-...-.-.---....- 49 OwileutooaWe apresen tednOpOSSUMS nem -eeeei si el sspias $52 o lee cine sees ese {(l BETTER Gy, CRAG TR Oy 0 Sa ee oe IE OE ee a eee LS nie S65 MGCUITSTVNESS TOT Seay O esc pete tee terse cece eee sake ee wre ee CS Se ee 66, 68 Hunting ground, Indian, relics of, paper on, by A. Harner............-..-.-- 5DD Hutchins, Prof. C. C., acknowledgment of valuable assistance....-......-..- 9 Hydrocherus capybara added to Zodlogical Park ...........2.........-2...-. 73 EVArOeen WGensiLyEOl CeucnininailOny Oke ae feiss 35s Sloe n sn 20 lenses oe ke 7 ley movin ye (Obine), Gavel MEMES) ON sooo ecec dnceos Sees Se oe cue aE pe eon coseseoe 62 ie MOISwPLEseMuedetOc7OOlosicalMe ake Sa. ao) -jste~ os vale n miewi- 2 =) sa oy oe Poco see 712, 73 leg inngl ae ClnTinVEs ORIN, ITS a ooaSe Sauer RS HOSS RE SAEED RD EAA ERS an arin Sac monn 65 Hino OUMNd Sex AM ALOM Ofeeees tee eee ae Sasa ee =m = acl ries eee 51 RARE) SMO Asoo Oka oo Roerao BORA eee oc SoC oeGn SSH eae Sees son aoee viii prepared by Bureau of Ethnology ...-.....-.-... SSpeice Berea 57 Importations by Museum, Congressional appropriations for...-........------ 5 CACM AES TOM Soma oem ate toas cele s e Onisreciewc ote ier 6 Improvement of Zodlogical Park, Congressional appropriation for ...---...--- 5, 29 deficiency appropriation for ............... 32, 33 792 INDEX. Page Improvement of Zodlogical Park, estimates for 1895 ....-..-..--.------------ 6 Inadequacy of appropriations made for Zoblogical Park ....--..-------.----- 30 Inadequacy of watch force in Zovlogical Park --.--:-.-.-2.+.---.+-----+--=-=- 59 Imclosures/ im ZoolowicaliParks Cosh ,Ofes-=<- cess. = =) er eee er Sia tke 43 Income available storensuimomie ar =o 9 see eer ser ae ae eee ree Sell poke NTRP NSLITY ANCES Oil Ceol NANI GRS SR WGOs saso55 558 soe es boosh sadoos 2sedebessadseessae 15, 59, 60 [AEG Naaore SI VOC TS ee ret ee eset te rs tere ee ee 63 Cool dP Ner KO ieee ary Sn eon Se KB eeeSaeoo cbecau oooh seasngereaesac 13, 63 Of tlrediiralyn bivge clic oes) Siemens tee eere aeeeeeeetete 15, 74 THER RATT SECLE LAVAS! AMO tee ase see een ree ee er ees 15 Andliexa Mie ditess: Ox Cleo eS 1 Oli eee secrete nearer ete re tae soe 62 Indian Mian Clee Ole Cools Wiis 3 db aoe coe e sb oes coneeses2seeuo coc 62 hunting ground, relics of, paper by A. Warner...-.-..----.--- BP Sao ee 5DD linguistic families of America, paper on, by J. W. Powell. .--...------- 57 remains on the Upper Yellowstone, paper by Col. W.S. Brackett ~~~ -- 577 ANS anOnays ihyenG Olena? Nin, xcrnunMPh NOM ies Ao) Sane Coe ea soso dee ae- 50 Mnrditanaacun Cle mibawi OL Ns mln SUIWe Via Olesen pet sige ae ree ee 51 Indians, American, picture writing of, paper on .----..----.---:-------+:----- 53 INoriheAMericany reseanclves ann OM Oe se ernest ae er mal Individuals in correspondence with Exchange Bureau -.--.---.-.-------- 13, 59, 60, 61 Induction, magnetic, molecular progress in, paper by J. A. Ewing. -.---.---- 255) lnmialirice Out Walsitiores wo) omleniow | eee 2 BS hae oo Shoo soon socesc vsaeae sessac 32 Injury to the Zoblogical Park by rain storms ..-...-....-----------.---------- 69 Inman Steamship Company grant free freight. -.-- 22. --.2--+-- 2-522 == 22 64 Imsecnecollection-oteN ns cum CKGASO ieee ees heya eee ere DP). PS} IMsuniicrenbiclenicaleroncemimelé scheme es 13 ume aus eee eee eet 63 Interior Department, appropriation to for exchanges........-.--------------- xlvi CuO NSS Ol 55555 esos Snes Sooo css cdc sssoso ests ase 62 International exchanges, acts and resolutions of Congress relative to- --.---- Xv, xlvi Congressional acts making appropriations .. ..-.-.xlv, xlvi ApPPLOpLiaulOnetOR ase as ease XOX detailstotvexpendibunres 22 eeee oe aie eee eee xxv, xlil ESbLNA ESOL eI ama ete eee eee et ees 5 exchange of official documents. --..-.....-.-..--- 13, 61, 62 THEO Cll GUUNOI, Gsgeaccu, castis cos son dances seco eens 338) (COIPREAS) NOMEN Se cee acoocou web soosseacese secs conc 61 disbmrsements 2 eee eee tee leer sete oe clare ten eee 60 C&G NSEC Semee HOA er on GMSe crue Guo KEEccen sUnoobos, Sen 60 Strom is irl mbine ac ents essa =ce eee eee eee eee 65 LiSit-Oigs Lip PING ACeNLS seee see eee eee eee 64 oficlaldocwumentiha. essere reese aero 61 GAUL ETS tarGe mM tin Ose vy Ine ee ere eres 59, 60 transmissions 2: 2225-22 e Pee eee ee eee 66, 67, 68 Wianlocke= WiesCieccunatot ss Seseesee mene eee eee 68 International exchange service, Secretary’s report om -.-----=---------------- 15 LN EMNOM, ANN. ly eeu yy Oe hs MGEOMNES Saou 2555 sce eGeco soos cccsesee dec sone 605 Inventors, the, of the telegraph and telephone, paper by Thomas Gray. ------ 639 DNS OY Obes > MISSVSNP MINES) CANYOHN, W056 Goaaco coda sdadcesc cock secucs SeaoesaecdNs 25 7 ITGGUOlamlAN OS UAe eS WOR oOMes seo feelers «ors sok a saeiieisise Alar ena ee tle 56 Isle Royale, ancient copper mines of, examination of .......-.--...2--------- 50 italy wexchanoe a Cen Gye lhiie == ates ene eer ee een eee 65 transmissions to..-....-.. ae te ce ene A er ee ee LAE Sa ed Oud 67, 68 NDEX. 793 J. Page Jacare sclerops added to, Zoolosical Park... 22....22-.2..-. 2-22 Bi Ante AD 5 Se 73 James River, archological exploration of.............. Sy a Sa teres ne D0 DNA TEX chanc era Cenicyal eres + eh ees ees ee ee pe ke oe ear 65 GAN SMMSSTONS tote aes ese ee fee Pees os Sans weiyray OX CHAN Sia COM CyelNGssmeicey cine emis ea ye ee ee eee yl aed ee eae 65 Jetia MN Versivy Ot, Sern puUulleablons' ss. ue sec oe e225. ee eee se ees i) Johnston, President William Preston, appointed regent. -.........--.2 22... 2 JOHNSTON Lm Walllvamele wa Cts ote as reo en ties eee ame ene ee A ELV; OUMSO Maser presen Ged parred, OWS... tac secs ea eens lt een Bees 71 Journals and Proceedings of the Board of Regents, 1890...............__..-- xi OUyee cr. COMeGHONS MaACCDyiss see seve ees ate oe eee a2 see ee eee 10 Jira TrowOMiMAWs, ~OnyLe | MVelleSsceNCC Olscrystallss eee sm yee eee nee 281 VUSUICS, COS NALIMeNt Ol exChamoes Olea eer ee ae ne ee eet 62 IK, Karr, William W., disburses all appropriations under the Smithsonian Insti- EULER ea pe TE Re Caan Menace Rr eee ate, SERA Se nee on UAT, ee xiii ashmnmncoll ection senadesimereee eres oe eae ernie epee ole eye ah Pee yy ee 10 iain, “[Whairhycevevtiny Ovicctskeyain | QUUIKERN MOMS oo5> Seance sess > aa55 So 5es545ccese see 75 KieepersninZoolosicalsParis, duties Of 5 so 25s a ayo lois seit ee 32 Key to the hieroglyphic characters of Maya codices, discovery of. ........---- Rail EVCUCLE TBD CQRVES USS AIM. O Mab: Ole mer) eras =) teeters eps eee Ws ot ee cee Xxili, 4 employment of, explained by the Secretary..............___- Xvi KLE RU MEVSTSibiys Of, Se MUL UDC ALON Sie sea = seers eee a eee eee eee rp) Kiewit, Miss; Marcaret,, presembediraccoons:ss5.-.222 2222242 5525--25- 252s 71 King snake Presenveds 50) AOGLO cuales ain kere mera ee ey ee We ee tie 72. 73 mmkajou added stoi ZoblogicalyRark 2s 22 25) oh eeet ee Bate on ee 73 [srowencollectioneatiuhe ni Obldcswh aiie= sep eee so ae See pune es GOW APL aMS Sty: Obese = ere ieeet eae ee Se nee ener | Ae 52 Kdamath-Pnelish dictionary; by A. S. Gatschet.--- 2.5. 22..... 2-25 --.--._... dT Mamaiheinidians ot souphwesh Orecony papenona- = )= ese. 5 -cs 224s eae 57 Kawa vex arraMe Smemt Ol Vad Ose DOLSeye- seer see ease cee eee ee DD L. aboriveparinvent sexchangesnot. 2: a4 csc cece, ase oars hears seis eee Saseeeee 62 MACOM pe wlaae evaSUuah Olney eee ae Re ee eee Ie As om aaer ne cee OEee 52 Lagothrix humboldtii added to Zoblogical UPS rae ot poe Renee Soe ee oe 73 Lake Superior, ancient copper mines of, examination of............-.....-..- 50 and @ rice mex Chole SwOle aes oe ee ee oe ee Te ee oe ae a 62 Langley, S. P., Secretary of Smithsonian Institution. ......................-- ix EXP ELIMENUS HIME VOTO Cyan CITC Spee ee ean ee eee a 11 letter to Congress transmitting annual report for 1892 -...___- ili of, transmitting estimates for Zoblogieal Park .......-. 38, 39 to President of Senate relative to appropriations for HOGLO UC AMI ARIGS sere ccher es aie ci eee eee ee ee 36, 37 to Secretary of Treasury on urgent needs of Zoélogical 1 St Tid ph So Ee Oe aged OA ee EEE ee ee raed i A) 34, 35 LEP OM GM OT MSI pars terslge ereieny orale ee pa hee Pak eee ee L Leech Lake, Minn., ethnological collections made at...............-.....--- ; 51 Bedeciaccounts on Uschamee urea. soo ee ce sesso cs Seen ae eee 15, 59, 60 Cards Me watOriMnl adoptedsm EXGlimMeG SGIVICe-..2-. 2-o5-45-e ees. See 61 ie ermiiee Mi EUR OM CECCONOUR =o tees ho tia elo o Ne ee etal ae ou eA Oe le 71 (9A. INDEX. EH pKOMGle Teas Daly ouecrsremmiurerlersimea} oy NUMyEp MMR KeN Sos Coa ce Sopp ess sae Sosa 72 Ibenhiivales, CoelnG nner) AOA NN 232 5556 So see meses coc se cod see cSeeSa ess Sofa gews 65 Uaniiversibyxo fies erat pout lili cata OS ee Sere eee eater 75 IL Anan, Seehodlenal Oy, GleuceriwiinehNOm: Ole a 5— So sco sae Ss5s Sons cee ees eee Socio 7 Hepusrcuniculusradded torZoolooucalll We ane eee eee sera a eee 73 Letter of Secretary to Hon. Benjamin Butterworth relative to money advanced for exchan@ess soos - F422 e oo ns See eee em nat Sees 15 to Congress submitting annual report for 1892_...---...-- iii to President of the Senate relative to appropriations for Aoolocicall Parle sss soe sees eee eee epee nae 36, 37 to Hon. Leland Stanford relative to new museum building 6 to Secretary of Treasury on urgent needs of Zodlogical Pa ee ee oi Ie ee Re RE i Seas op Se Bb. Bin transmitting estimates for Zodlogical Park.......---.---.- 38, 39 Teeurerne Latte xbOmle wav S em Tre Ut LIAO eee ere elon rae ree 6 Wettersineceived? by lxchian oe sR umeatiases 2 se sistas sete ery eee ee ete 59, 60 WLIGbEMAD aX ChAANoe. DIL C AM ee ere ane oe =e ete eee = ee 59, 60 Libbey, Prof. William, jr., assisted in editing Smithsonian tables..---..-.--- 1? ILA, GXEMAINGE AINE I ee Sona Bees Sooo cs Onde nao eos Seow sagen cosse- 65 CLANSMIUSSLONGSbO= ac See ees oS oe = Sie Sad ween ee ae Se eee 67, 68 ILEANA Ns ARE NOME Ol Bos. Seen. Sas mE nae sabe Gancr caneioe Ub Seceios oGUa ee. oue 74 [DRA yeeINeReASeTOt. \SeCLe CAR YZS s[Levied Oe oes st eee. te ste teyeap ie eee 15 Sécretary sme portiOnseses 2s sake aeo sea Seca eee eee ee eee 15 oC@onoress exchancesof — 2 A eee a ee ae ee eee eee eee 62 appropriation for, on account of exchanges. ....-..----- xiv to be accessible to scientifre investigators.........----- xlvii Lick Observatory, grant to, for continuance of experiments...-.....-..----.- 7 Licking County, Ohio, great flint quarries in, visit to.......----.-.---.----.- 49 Li M ST AOMS) BCMA CoxClNE MER ONS ES 2 Sooo boob so goa cso sce eee sas Goo" 62 ima menue excham Oc raoency lle 235225 saree tee ein coin eae eee 0d iimesomaevelopmen tion Zo00l0 clCalelan ks se snes ase eee mee eee eer eee 69 Linguistic families of America, paper on, by J. W. Powell .....--.-- eat) eee 57 Juitomn erdloleel tio. AACN OVER VOBINI EHV Ee 25 es ee So eee So cee osesc ees apcoby soc 73 ono HUNG OARS, en Tere Why ANG lenOnsehy Cees eeh cs Sale eee so es cescoasee Soe 308 This) byonay learner al Gaol nen Nexo TMs aoe ee eo Seek os eoo bosons eescao ce 65 List of accessions to the National Museum —.-22.2 252-5. -2--- =- Pe ema er 82 LOO CICMU Parke ies ae Sane nee cee ee oe le ere a aeeioe is animals presented to the Zoological Parkias sss. sees = ee. oes 70, 71, 72 Cs(ol MANNE) CHUAN) osGae awa aAnaos occas suono obo oeoUrEceocos LaSa ees eet 65 UStraAtiONS) 2.36282 eS cc Sc SS eee ee lee eee aie Bese eee eee vill shipping agents granting free freight........-...--- Liits saa eee ese 14.6 thology collection on Musewm)y imenease ie seme oes =e eae ee ee eae 22. 23 ities ealls Minn... quactz.obyeetsmiromlse s=se-4-2 re eens eee e eee 50 JUmyenive, (Eis Das yay eer @im CipySR MUAH INO I So ec acco aco es base Soc ces seb= saooorSe 269 Livinevanimals collection of Museum) increase im! =22-o4-s-— 2224s 2-2 ee ae 22, 2 lhnizard=epresented to Zoclogical, Parkscoe -feene san seees ceenl eee = ee G2 iizardsiaddedktorA00locicalsPark:: 2225. se eeee rere eee eee Seer see 73 Loan exhibit of works of American artists, rooms granted for .........---.-- 17 odgve, Hon. Henry Cabot, reappointed regembes 35.0 esses se ee eee eee XLV, 2 actsof: asirerent, kaon ae eee ee eee KGa EE IWondon Em clandyexchaneeracencyaltie: ashe = eae eee ene Sea 65 Louvain, University of, sent publications -.....--:-..--.-- Solon Se Sema re sar 75 buna photography, continuance ot exp erinventsiee eee seers ae eee 7 photogcraphs) Secrevaty7s Lepokb oversees sseeeesea =) eee ee il Lund, University of, sent publications .......-. su geet Sy 32235. s See eae s 75 INDEX. 195 Page. aouGanNadensis:.ddet co Zoological Pamles aes = = syne in Sense eee ele ie 73 VIN Use Cedi ton OOO ocala eae memes = fae cies Stefanos Bet oe yeas yee 73 yons sh. presented black-crowmed miohtlveronm = 22.----25--4-22225)- 223 72 M. Mic Georee beeen sp Leseniue (ain ans eM UNGlce sere Sa ae rs ees ee 71 NMacawvapresenitedstor 00 Ost Cals kat se aars eee eee Pie Seen oe ee (2.3 Madeiratexclam certo en y i sec Sees ete ey ee eters ae ects ara yee eee eee 65 Madison ounity- lhl; mounds: examin athlon Ole see seem a 28 eee ase ee 51 Winalanal.. SippMim, Caxol me wnyh CaN oo hous 5 Bese cobeae codon wee a ae boee poeok 66 Magnetic induction, molecular progress in, paper by J. A. Ewing .......----- 255 Malo pile presente dastorZo0lo crue an kee een ee seer oe eis eyes ee eee ee 72, 13 Mah oneyer Jed). pLesenoods sence CANO wil sepa) sone = ot eaters ieee eee 72 Wehbe Areal Myomse: gin A ooloyssen Iie. Wn eee on soos ceonec cuetiee ne osne akeccs: 69 Meanmiienanic erotee70 0 lo micelle ama see ress ee = eee eee 28 Congressional appropriation for .......------ O29 deliciencysapprepilation tom s4-2 22sec 02, 33 CSoUMALESMOL LSI oe ee eee eee eee 6 Mealleny ColeGarnick voice ORK0 fesse =o les ee ea ee eye ee 53 paper on picture writing of American Indians ....-.--- 53 WViallitarre xchat oes VO OING Vile eres ope ees oe ean eect ey tee ny ene eae eee 65 Mammealsicollectiomot Museum, 1merease seen = eee ee eee ee eee aa eee 22, 23 YA COLO fone Ll etry a eae 8 ee Seed enaey ne Sa aera NC me memr nee: 70 Manradivient of, TieNMenic a Dy Aende QUabrelaCessss5 seer seee sae ee el eee 513 thesascentiofepaperon by brani Bikers seee ae ase | ssa tale ae 82, 83 Manager, acting, of the Zoélogical Park, report of .:-.-...-- iG a, eer en ae 69 Manilay Philippine dslands; exchanoeacency me 2222s 45-5-2 6: 22 oss ee ee ee 65 Mantez. Consimll Jose weranivenee wire lM ibaa cl poets ore eels cern sales scien 64 Marbled polychrusiaddedito Zoolocical Rare s5225--2 4. 222222 ee ee 73 Mani niro ss UminersibyOiasenibapimbincationsi em eee eee = eae ere 75 Manine Hospiialisenvice-exchances Of sa2sssece = esse sae: 22) fees eens See 62 invertebrates collection of Museum, increase im ..---.------.--------- 22, 23 NEM OSU el deduvorAOOLOCUCa aiid sae ee er eae tear oe ee eee 7 Mars lpia wiapresentediuon/OOloolcallab an ke sem se sepee sae Seen ee ara ee 71, 73 Maryland, ancient soapstone quarries in, examination of......-.-...----------- 49 URC ee OLO PEC Ml mE LCs WO kaa Mey sere eee ree er rae ea eee 49 Mason, Otis T’., account of progress in anthropology in 1892 .........--...---. 465 bibhocraphy of anthropology m 13892----....---.+---2.------ 490 Oy TINE) nb IA Cie INMKEMUNON oes ae oceee aobee Gaabpobn So leeoN-—C 603 Masson, Prof. Orme, on deductions from gaseous theory of solutions -.--.---- 289 Materia medica collections of Museum, increase in............--...--..--.--- 21, 22 Mattpament, village site of, examination of......-....--.-..----------------- 49) Wi inberiMiNS, Coxelnehaagsy Rime Wills 5 545 S4 coaCeee Seo Been Seen coaene sone ccce 65 iNzpsineil, 1D) 18h, jo MreGl Witte ey Glee P Ase ean idagoee seer bors sao0 boca ccs- 71 Maya codices, hieroglyphic character of, discovery of key to ---.------------ 5d SuMaby Gis, yy (Chane) WmehoGhs Aesa keke ooo seo bon Sou copeeosocecosc 54 MEATS WIL do avAmCOMectlONS malades Dye oe eeteaiay> sire e- eee init 10 Medalicollection.or Museum ainereasemils >. . 2.22 20-1 - >< 2-5 easel flo o> se aieeete 21, 23 Medical dissertations transferred to the library of the Surgeon-General of the INN 2 Sn SO OBR CLC OR RE OOOO EAL CIEE Oe es Be ae eee oman cece 74 Medicine and Surgery, American inventions in, by John S. Billings....-.---. 613 BunroaneOtpexchamc es! Ofeeceeerrcec ts eee eee Ea eee 62 Medicine Society of the Menomonee Indians. -.-.........-....-.....-------- Bae} a5) COA ICL, Spey Bee Olle ee cmdele etacimme me Bodie see buat 5d, Ob 796 INDEX. - Page. Meetines ot) therB oandrote We emis 2 ron bare crates = epee eee ete ee eare ee aT NUT eel Leg MEAS COPS aslorid LedytouZOOl oon c elmo cat ley tere seers reeset eee nse 73 Meiers, Gren | MEG She aut lay oifdiie scter sent) apse te esp keke me ee nene ae ema en at ead So ae eeu ea 2 death of, announced to Board of Re@ents...._.....-2..--..- XIV INEMOLIALTOCOLMEOLe ao ae dee ep Sie ee ee ee XIV, XV NECLOMO Oy Oh aes ee eee Ce SR ae ee Ee ne eae ee 45 ACTS OTE SASITE MEM. 2 =e Sas ck a ee rere aay Bea GT ESTING resolution to Board of Re@ents relative to ..-_..--.-___--. XLV KIGSMXoRTEMNE, WaleisCoren, Edel NAWINS HOCINC WN 26 Soe a5 Sasa coos Goosen so ease nada nese 66 Meldola, Raphael, paper on the photographic imag@e----_........--......_--. 81, 83 Members cx ofjicio otetine rt stalolashine nit see see = eee ne ee ix Of Boards of ec ents 22 2 5. sees cer see eee aes er oon oe ee 2 Memorial mecordvota Gens) Me Ce Mieto sei ara es ci oe re ee ee eee XIV, XV. Menomonee Indians, Grand Medicine Society of, paper on ..-.......-.-------- 55 MedicimesSocie ny Suu diy: Ole ease eee aioe aera er reer eerneee SIvoz Mephitis maepiniiicaraddedstoyZoolocrcalikan ares ase Sean sees oe eee 73 MerrllsG corses bs shamdbooksots ce O10 oyqeuere oe Se eee ee eee eee 81, 82 Mesozoic fossils collection of Museum, increase in. -.2--: ..._.... 1-2 222. 2... Deo Messimhtofathesaiutesspontrat Olas ss. abe oe een ee ee ep nein Sea 52 Metulhirovicollectron or Miumseumsimerease ile 6 2 seen eee eee eee ee DAO}: Meteorological work of the Smithsonian Institution...--..-...--.-.--.---.-.- 89 Metlodsotrcomdiucetimore cham Sejs etaval Gers eee er ee ee a 62 Mexico mexchialioerac emcyrlntas s.c oe caiee soe Se ea eens A ae eee eee ee 65 CRATSMNIGSLOU GSH OM ee peer eee ee Oe ee cree en en i Rae wegen 67, 68 Mirelrelisom sro peAt Ac Ie sul atl ONS sO has eeke eye se ees apse ops ee eee ff aldvextemdedstos sie. eee aa ce cate ee Sere cee ee 7 Midweiwin or Grand Medicine Society of Ojibwas, paper on..--..-----.------ 55,56 MoMA ONKOL DIRS) Pep OL iON siya eA x eUUTIN GT: 5 oe aye soe elroy rel eee 375 Miller, Hon. William H. H., member ex oficio of the Establishment.--.....--- ix Mindeleti. Cosmos: ranch eolooilcal field works 01. ee se oe ee ee eee 49,50 paper on aboriginal remains in the valley of the Rio Verde, ATS, OTe SRN ecg ee a ae i ee te ee eae pcan 54 LEP ALIN miu shoOm Casan Gran lee sss ses seer ee DA Mineralcollectionote Vinee mM CRe ase elie eee ere eet re eee 2223 Minnesota ethnolosicalkobjectsicollectedin=s.sssseeceeeee oo eters 51 rede pipestonequarnyenyex eee — a eee eee eee 11 Miscellaneous objects reported on by Secretary : ASS OMIM Nt OlTPOOMS): so se 5 ses Saree ety See ee acer he Set ae ree ere ee 16 Hodokins’sidomattou—.. 32. ose cia stieeic cae ae ee Soe ee re ne oe ieee eee lie ELMS Se COME CLIOM OL COI] rau e me My Sse e eee ere 16 Statuevot Protebaird i222 Ate Soe che bel eee etre ee re tne 16 Diaierotinobert: Dale Owen se aes aoe oe ane eae eee ee eee 16 Stereotypenplabes! assets ee eee ee eee eee SAR a teen rie ee Sse 16 OMDPOL IO MUGS OMS ons Ses oc leees- oe se oe Renae oe ee eee eee eee 16 Sa USscrom Government colle ctionse--a- chee eee eee eee 16 MHS O MS (CAD Och eouNNEN MOM OiLans seeolgeeaes esl dace o asses) ea Soe case 50 Mitawit or Grand Medicine Society of Menomonee Indians, paper on---.-.----- DO Moccasim@pnesentedsto70 lo crcl ness sees sees eee ene eee eee 72, 73 Models of pueblos sent to Spain Se eee eR een 5 ae ers baton b4 Modern pottery collection of museum), increase in.--2.2-25..----.--2-----5-55 21522 INDEX. , 197 Page Molecular progress in magnetic induction, paper by Prof. J. A, Ewing ....--- 255 Mollusk collection of Musewm, increase in....--.- Sask Goda casa dnbosd open 645r 22, 2¢ Money advanced by Institution for exchanges..--..-...........--- 225-5. ---- 14, 15 Mionrolra, explorationsin, by W. W. Rockhill ~~~. - ------ 6-20. ~~. ew nee 659 Nonkeys presented to Zoological’ Park 2-<--- << 2. ecco - -ee ence nee e ne eee ene levies Nomi mioimadh Grainne Orjsoc ssoGcoedes hoo c6eDon So sp 20 SuanEeaa Guu Foor 51 Monrovia iberia,oxchaneeia Cen Gy Ieee ese ese eee circa} - amc cles 65 Montana, ethnological collections made in..---.-.....-...--------.-------..-- 51 Nontevideo, Waxnciay, exchange agency Wl! .2 22-2] seem eine ee en 66 Montgomery County, Md., ancient soapstone quarries in -.-..---------------- 49 ional Chxelnemnvey pete? Ws Seo Aon ecco eons see ree so ceSneD eeao G05 saga ncc= 65 Nigroneys Hames, ING word's Oro ob Sos oooccdeossos S456 5650 50565s SnUgescosees SoES 51 paper on the sacred formulas of the Cherokees ....--..-..--- 57 prepared exhibit for Columbian Exposition............----- 5D Niayascunmaled tio Aare Korean PPR esac coec Geos 5568 ose5 sous Soop Dose cSSechscoude 73 Morley, Prof. E. W., apparatus provided for experiments carried on by -..- -- 7 Morr) Hon usuine Sachs OlmlS ane oe Miuer ss aaa se Se ae cere ater 3. DI AY O-QMUUIy 9b RELY OOP WER Haan eo oone Hoe ebaO sdod Soaedcesacec Xiv, 2 presented bill for a statue of Prof. Baird ......---..-- 16 TREPH Dy KoVOMIEAl IRERNN aoe Soocod coos poe cee asod cae Socr X1V Mortality in Zodlogical Park caused by insufficient quarters ..-.-.----------- 70 Morton, Hon. Levi P., letter to, on appropriations for Zoblogical Park. ....-- 36, 37 transmitting ‘annual report for 1392-.----.. --...--.-- iii member ex officio of the Establishment ...-..--.------ ix CANS Glia CIS REALMS asa. = 5 eee == seer ae eee 62 LNGiaANeATTAIS exch aNe CS: O lees wae esac eye oe ee on eee 62 Neuve tell emeer exch ainees mOtissrss a ae rte rr 62 Onicenmotlsotebureaunot Hthnolotyecre- esa oe ee eee eee eee 5 OthCers Oteth OMNIS tiGWbhlOneees cee se eee ee ee Sa Saisie eee ae ese See ae eee ix Oriroraledocuments ex cham vO tener en rare ee ee 15, 61, 62 Ohio, aboriginal burial mound in, paper on, by R. J. Thompson ...-.-.-.---- 571 ONS ALE be GUMS Me VASTby b Ome aes eee ers a ort aia orn ae syne re 49 Onusscollechioneote Miu ViuNseumMednCLease, lin se. mere eee = eae 2123) Ojibyias, Grand Medicine Society of, paper On -2--------25.5--52 ese -2 = see 5d Ojibwarheservavion, collectionspmadesuti--- 26) sos 5se se 2 eee eee eee 51 Olmstead, F. L., furnished grading plan for Zodlogical Park. .--.......-.---- 70 OmaharzandePonl Se elo etate inal = alm am ela mime 62 NORVIa TOXCHANG YAP ONC ysIM = 2 c:- oes ore sla sian ele ae a nin = le olan loge ws elec ale = 66 «reeds VSPA TUS SN KOV ONS T= Oa Eno ee oe Be ES EERO nd non eR ooeeteoaeoesmeoacc 67, 6 Services of engineers of Zoédlogical Park, cost of......----.----------------- 39 Seventh annual report of the Bureau of Ethnology....-....----.------------ 27, 57 Sewerage in Zodlogical Park, cost of ......-.-.-----.---- +--+ ---2-+ 222022222 39 Shanghai, China, exchange agency in .-...-...-----.------- +++. 42-222 -2++-%- 5D Shawano wocabulary, «work Ones... 522 teases. eae = esl ein nicl nn 56 Shell deposits of lower Potomac, examination of......-.-------------+--+----- 49 Shell-work of the American aborigines, paper on .-..-..-..---..------------- 53 Shenandoah Valley, archeological exploration of .......-----.----. ---------- 50 Shipping agents granting free freight, list of -..-...--.------------+---------- 14,6 Shopmakens © Wi. translation Dy «2-222 34 sco case en eeias 2 2 =ele inset ss gemine 375 Shute, D. Kerfoot, paper on the anthropology of the brain .--...------------- 595 Simonds, Hon. William E., member ex officio of the Establishment-.-.-.---.---- ix Simpson, G. W., presented marsh hawk ...........---------------+-----+---- 71 Nigilal Ofice-exchan Ces Ob eis = sesieieeclene scien Se Ae Or eee ae 62 Skunke sdded.to Zoological, Park ....-.2 2b. 2222 sec-cre 55-2 -2- snes ese ese seine 73 Slow freight employed in exchange transmissions.......------------ --+-+-+-- 63 Snapping turtles presented to Zodlogical Park ..---.---.----------------+--- 72, 73 Snakes added to Zoological Park -... -<-..-05 2202 2-2 s2- eee eee eee eee ees 73 presented to Zoblogical Park .........-...---.----- +--+ --++ 22 -- 2 eee: 712, 7 Smithson bequest, condition of......-..- 2: SS eC SPRAD SRA Ps oie Oe 4 remains of, removal of, considered by Board of Regents ---- ---- - -- Xvil fomp.or, conditions Of. 2-- 3 == -- 9. 2 22h e+ a ene wana XVil PLESOLVALION Of o2- 2 020 = oo- 2 cw eee ee lee nee es bas ores 16 Smithsonian building, details of expenditure for ..-.--..------------+--- xl, xli, xlii repair, Congressional appropriation for -.....---- x], xli, xlii Contributions to Knowledge for the year.....----.---- 80 fi CONGIUTONE Of pene meas a eee ac eeiescrottars ICSE RODE aa cee XXxiil expenses on account of exchanges........-------------- 13, 14, 61 grounds, care of, Congressional appropriation for .......------- xlv International exchange service, Secretary’s report on --.-.----- 13 Miscellaneous Collections for the year..-..-.-------------------- 80 tables, publication of . 2.2 2... 2.02 2202 occ e- eee ees ween Sasc0e 12 806 INDEX. Page. Smuchsoniany Institution, condition: of funds a= 4-56 sees ene eee eee eee xxiii Congressional acts and resolutions relative to... .. xlv, xlvi, xl vii, xlviii OxChaniCesObe st a ese apes pe eee ee ee eee 62 expenditires or thejyealees se seers eee eeseees XNIll, XXiV income available for ensuing year.....---...--- sli, xlii, xiii ME TEOLOLO Te ailaw Oke 0 lier a ee er ee 389 A RELCCEN OLS) TOE INKY NWCA Boas Sass cond adn Suan dpoess coo ROOIh xealy LEPOLRLIOh Se Che tater eo eeeen cee ee oe oe eee ee 1 AGMINUS trations a5 ss eee See eee eye aoe 2 AStLO-plivsicale ODServyalbOR yes === sete eee 8 iBoardsokRerents; ses sees ase eee eee ee 1 Bil dit ose = 2s Sie aie att ae ree 6 Kstablishmentis- 35. eee. oo aa eee er eee one 1 x plorationse - ss. 2s.c0 ses see eee ae ee 10 Biman Ces cc paese Sew = soc ein. cere eae ee 3 Imternationalsexchanimes ses es esa oe ee 12 Tl bRAT Yew ok ae eee eee eae 15 Publications 22> S222. ee eee eo ye ee 10 Researehy. oo is so sae b Seat eres See ene es 7 Salesiandére payments se eee eee ee ee eee XXIV Soupimoyreysers,, paper on, Dys Arnolds hHaoue ss soos eee saeee eee eee ee seer 153 Soapstonequarnies, ancient. examination Ofes-= asso see ese ee eee 49 Societies in correspondence with Exchange Bureau-_......------..------ 13, 59, 60, 61 Sociolosysote/umie nai sys Ves GU ab ON O fee ei 51 Soft-shell turtle presented to Zodlogical Park.......-...-..-.---.------------ fee Solutions, gaseous theory of, deductions from, paper by O. Masson .-.-------- 286 suggestions regarding, paper by Prof. William Ramsay......----- 292 South American batrachians added to Zodlogical Park....---....-.-.---.------ 73 deer presented to Zoological Parl 222. .25222---~ == 2222-2 = 7a lizard added to: Zoological Parkes =e= =) 558 -seee ene ee eee 73 SoumbhwAtns bEalia sem cli ame Ora oem ye Ui i sess ates eae eee cee 66 transmissions to ..--.-. bs cielo sete Popa epee here ea ey eel OOS! South River, archzolosy of, studied: by, W). EH. Holimes’--- 22-2 322 -)-22-- = 49 Southwestern archwological exploration organized by Frank H. Cushing ---- 59 S]OLWIO DS Coxfol NER TOI EMER CNM o neins Do nee ee oo pone oe Eo oooe Sooeee Haas son oswecoce 66 TNIV STNAT SS ONL By: eps Ss eee ea ea Saree cmc ct ee 67, 68 Sparrow: hawk presented to Zoological Park... ..- 2.22. - 35-- 225+ =e === 71, 73 Spaulding, Hon. O. L., letter transmitting estimates for Zodlogical Park. -.-- 38 Special meeting of the Board of*Regents --.--5--2 -=2 ==. tee eee a ta xxi Specinrens: distribution of 2-22 s=ssass. oes ole eres ae aaa ita a rete 26 Spermophilus tridecim-lineatus added to Zoblogical Park. ..-..-.-..-------- > 73 Sqmirrelipresented to. Zoolocical Rarksess ae = saa e eee eee ee eee (Ale: Siyebclenasexchaneevamency sina.) oss seh) oo) er eine te = 65 Sis Johns, Newfoundland exchan ele g-em Cyst se ee eee eee ete 65 Simbetersbunc, Russia, exchange) agen ciel 22 eee ae eee 66 Stabler Je be presented blacks smike@ seers seie see eae eee Ee Lae oan es Stanford, Hon. Leland, letter to, relative to new Museum building ...-..---- 6 Stari, Hons J. He presented: Zebuessssen 445-22 eee eee as sti he (al State institutions, repayment by, on account of exchanges. -..-...---------- 13, 60, 61 Statement, tabular, of the increase of the Museum collections ......--.---- 21, 22, 23 exchange: works Jo: Gack Wee see ae ee eee ea eee 59, 60 State Department, appropriation to for Columbian Historical Exposition at WA ORIG: Ss Locicec5 oe Se capo e ee eee Se ee ee ee eee Fee Sees Asean INDEX. SOT Page State Wepariment, exchan@esiof <22.----4---5--4.22-5------ EE RSPR ey ee 62 SbapONenvelolm Osc HAanoeSOLviCesai.,- a ne seek os soe iss 22 Lis. ddousee aoe. 6 Statisuicalebureauvexchancesotys: ca 752 cleo noe oa oS eee aye 62 Stapuerotelrotsbaird plletormtalled to pass=eeses = sees e ses] sees ee eee 16 Statnestorkobert-Dalel Owen: bill for sfailedstospass=s>-ssescce 2 2222 see ee 16 Status of the mind problem, paper by Lester F. Ward..-....--............... 608 Steam: Enoineering, Bureau of, exchanges Of) ~ 2-22 2-7. eac ) oae ee ane =e 2: 62 Steamship scompaniessorancinioiree: trelohtees = sees. sess se 22 aes sees oe ee 14, 64 Shears wren cee .spresentedshormed toadeenss oe seene = Sess see aoe eee 72 Sterreuwbros.presentedeallie ator: nsec ssa e- cess see ge bse hoe. s. os eee 72 Stereotype plates, systematic arrangement of -2--=22.2.-2-..-.............--2 16 Levenson Maid aa Cee] des tudiles Ofaesame eee See ee eee eee aa eee 51 SLE RENSON MILs OM OnwiOL kc Oteereat\ ye eee eer ane aeeey ie era eee 5D Stewart, Consul Alexander, grants free freisht-..--..................-...-..- 61 SLOcKHOlm awed en yexc hanes amen Cypllee sae ee 66 SHOTS Commins MlOs, CNG i}, Chea OO AGM OV! ooo pone bee soo sosSele be dang SsnS- 50 Stone implements of tide-water region, paper on---.-.....-..................- 53 sirassbure,, University of, sent) publications: -----+--------.-5-+22--4--5---.- T5 SUM ECtsmureavedsorm anniualereport fon SO2 ss = ree ae ee as eon ee iv Subscription for Astronomical Journal j2- 222.2 2.4.02 see st Ss cee. see Se ce: 7 Suggestions regarding solutions, paper by Prof. William Ramsay......_..... 299 Smimcassana sad declborZOoLooe alii ait Kies serena ae Se eee ey 73 Sumber wuhadd cus spresented: Varomilaid cers n= ee en eee (Al Surgeon-General’s Office, U.S. Army, exchanges of -2---22:-.....2: 222222... 62 hibranyabooks deposited a. -5 = ser = seer ee eee 74 SUMO MCMV We Se INehay, CCN myes Oe os ceaasockoseedocsas Meee soso cane 62 SVURey eNews SOs Vales exchance amencyn ils s. ose. se = 255 eee ee 65 Syntheresprehensils\ added to) Zoological Park: :—----25.---2-5--22-5.--_--..- 73 Syrhium nebulosum, added to Zoological Park -........-..-................- 73 VSLEMELG Op LedeinTsexchan CISC DWC Came =a tae = eer ae. va ee eee 61 Sysuemanlcavoncoh Burned ote anol ocyesss = see aes eee eee 27 MINCE OxChan C6 AGENCY IN aise ooo Secs ane ee alas Se te eens 66 CLAN SMUISSLONS Ose eee ses Seapets eco ee eee ee ne on hy hs ee €7, 68 SiliOx pM LeSenteds FOLOOlOodCalul: AT Kaas me es ae eee ge een 71,73 Siwozerlandtexchano ema Menciy Ise creas om oe ee ee se ee ee 66 BR ANSIMTSST OWS EOS soe of rey Are Es at Lo Lee ee Se 67, 68 4c Tabular statement of the annual increase of the Museum collections... _- 21, 22; 23 exchanGemworls eee cee cee ean Reo 2 eee eS ORG) Rasmaniawexchanpenaven cya ae ercec aie ose eine. oe ee eee 66 LEQUSMISS] ONS ml Ome mee tty eee tale ke (ae Ue oe ey eee Reed ae eee 67, 68 Tatusia novemcincta added to Zodlogical Park ....................--.-.....- 73 Naxidea americana added to Zoological Park. _......--.............-.:.....-: 73 avOMAWANppPLEseMucCd@earmadallon scr came ie Rael aed ae a ee la 71 itecteespresented to Zoolooical) Park. =." 5-2-5 22252 -95 fee see oe eee ee 71, 33 Tegucigalpa, Honduras, exchange agency in.-.-.............-.-------2--2. 8 65 Telegraph and telephone, the inventors of, paper by Thomas Gray.......-.-. 639 Telescope, history of, paper by C. S. Hastings............ 2.2.2... 02222222... 95 Tenth annual report of Bureau of Ethnology in hands of printer .........-.. 27 Hextale collection of; Muséum; incréasein......<-5 2222 .2--.-= se oe ee eee 72 Walliams S.C spresented allarator: 25. sees = sess nee eee ne eeee eee 72 Walson, Wi... presented alligator =-o2 206s ans see ceeee ee nse eee eee eee 72 WinloekWalliam'@;spibliooraphiy ofsastronOmyeesrepee eee sess see eee 743 | curator iof exchanmes; 22a. te ee eee eroeree eee 68 a member of the Hodgkins fund committee.....-.-..--- 20 report on progress in astronomy in 1891, 1892........-- 681 Winnebagos,sstudyroti cn 22s diene anes eee nes oe Ole ee heer Melee uae 52 Winterquarterstoranimalsin ZoologicalgParkeas- > ss-see ese eee eeeeee eee 70 Woodchuek presented torZovlomicaleRatkis sss sss. eee eae eee eee Ty 7 Woodpecker presented ito; Zo0locicallParkesssssee- e-ene eee eee eee 72, 13 WiorksdoneanktherZo0lo oc allie ay kes see ceyere = se eee te 39 Worl: in the Zoological Park for wext fiscal year. -5 2225 -- ose s eee eee dt Wiorkoft Exchange BUureaWin. seas. oa ce see eee eee eee eee 13, 59, 60 explaime dies. Ss see Sarde See et ee Serene 63 Workspertormedin) the Zoolocicalieanles snes =se sen see eee eee 69 Workimottorceo tik excha nic es Ue atl = eet = oe ee ee ee eee 63 World’s Columbian Exposition, collections for, made by officers of Bureau of Bithnolowy: Soe se see eee eee eee eee 27, 28 at Chicago, Congressional act relative to....-- xlviil ethnological collections made for ~~. -51, 52,53, 54, 55 Museumexhibithior25-22=2eeeres-eeeee ener 27 Wright, Ho We, survey of ancientiworks= 9) 4490 ==4- oe eee eee ee eee 51 Wrcht Peter c& sons, cranbtines ireighite=--— see eee eee eee eae eee eee 64 Witirtembenos Governmenb exchanl Session = === eee ee eee ete ee ee eee 68 Wurzburg. Wniversity otmsenit pulblic ations seme ees sees cetera tener 75 AG Yellowstone National Park, geological history of, by Arnold Hague......---- 135 Indian remains on, paper on, by W.S. Bragkett-....-.....------- Bye INDEX. sll Z. Page. AAMC spresenvedew Mite Latics joc = -aeeec eee ers cs sense aac tiece sso ace 71 Aehugpresented stor/Oolocicalban ssa ee se eer yee en eee ae seeiecine es eee 3 HOOLO PIC ABE aT Ke aC COSBELO were epatar ain tee eae ee aiaare saye/acicie oe Soe 44 acts and resolutions of Congress relative to .......---.x]vii, xlviii lGbhm@Mns; tay COULECIOE ono. cocoss oso seed cscs dase XXXVil, xlii, 45 buildings. Secretarys\teport.on ses ceen 2a sae se ae oa sss eee 7 condition of, discussed by Board of Regents ......-- XVil, XVili, xix Congressional appropriations for. -....----. 29, 32, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39 damages occasioned by undue reduction of force ..........-- 33 AAG OLSsOMMAL OSH OUe ces | a ems aia oiaie eran ae oe eee 31 CEnclenGysapy PLOPlia bones ee sees ee eee eee eee 32 ESbIMALES MOM SIO pmemeteren ee eee) ae ice == nln ee ase Seca ee 6 MENSLAlS] ANVO bee ese eo eee ee esses eee See eee 40 INACEHCUACYAOL- a ppLropriablomeesss esses seee ee eee eat eee 30 bivalve Cle NA TRON eee cas con hea Jee Se eS ooo a ten COs mace ue eae 32 MAINLENAN CO) Ohms ee ese ee es eel he eee nae eee 28 ODN C by lee eres ta Se aero eee Soe Sine ks ae ee 28 plans of buildings ...... eae eater Aiea APA Ae 41, 42, 43, 44 LOPORU OM SCCLO LAP: mars cee seem ia Searels tac ae 28 resolutions by Board of Regents relative to.........-..---- xiii, Xxi special meeting Board of Regents relative to ..............- Xxi WiOLrkscdlon Chases aaa ee eee ete ee eee 2 a 39 WolLksor nextihecal: veal. - oe ccnyese- hon wcees «so ee Sees 44 (See Nationai Zodlogical Park.) Minion dans, CUSLOMS Mines tio aulONNOl see en are I ee heer ee eee 51 MyGHS, COMLIDULIONS LO; by BE. . Cushing: <2. 2. se5 5. os- seee es cae 5D DUE DIOLOL- aMOdelOt Sem tal O Ns paling eee ee ere ee errr aera Dd AUTiCh WU NiIMersivyaOr, sSenb pUblicablonsesecemerees sess cee. soe ne cise ne eee 15 aa 4 a nerd Fam “~ Ss INSTIT ee aR mere Tere Pain eet eee 2 seas : 5