ata a FA ee RR ae Mra; ' ku ro by) | f yO RNR yah) a Pcs We Va Mate x} ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION SHOWING THE OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES AND CONDITION OF THE INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30 1910 WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1911 ae Ry : ; “atv o2nTtive aur 7 AOTPUTITeEL o# esx ITIOVIIKS ,2AOITARIMIO. ART OVIWOR2 - VOLTUTIFa4! SAT IO VOITIAKOD AvA of AZUL DUIIMT KAT’ ANT HOF = ? - vt LETTER FROM THE SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, SUBMITTING THE ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1910. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, Washington, May 29, 1911. To the Congress of the United States: In accordance with section 5593 of the Revised Statutes of the United States, I have the honor, in behalf of the Board of Regents, to submit to Congress the annual report of the operations, expendi- tures, and condition of the Smithsonian Institution for the year end- ing June 30, 1910. I have the honor to be, Very respectfully, your obedient servant, Cuartes D. Watcort, Secretary. Tit i a7 7 al 4 - . MOVIN TAAL ZRIZOSZHTING ANT FO YHATIE : 4 ba a ar | emrTiinal rm 2 e @uT tO 2Tuaoas TO MHACE BHT TO THOTER TAUHMA Cfet oe 2MUt OMIGKS AATY UNF AOL WOTTUTEAAE = | wom ran was eCRR THES AD. AAGL OG yo, aookgedan H : 2 -antotaA hevinS sit Ao sevroneD Co al oul Yo Pain i fad heaivail eit Yo BOG -1oLins toiw soonbwoten a aS expel to bene off To Uadod at proaol oli avail T 29ie3 Bete jbusyzo enoitemge ollt To degen leucine of! corgaoD of toedie $% ’ has reoe off tot poiintiieal aninvesdttion® oat to wolitbaoe baum a wt | od ot sonod oft y7ad TF OFOL08 souls Qk ; funy ot beaaten airy Selielhineqesr wat a4 ta Aaee. rroo.n (CE eine ) an fi . : “> * CONTENTS. 2 Letter from the secretary submitting the Annual Report of the Regents to ‘ OEE Saeed de oe eee eneeeenee ss 2° 2 Beene ce srsrer | MBariteriaior THO FEPONG totes = 9 pcp fe sie ~ esa Ree OS nae gr sre wim tip’ < | Ce a ee ee ee a ae eee ee ees ee nee ee eee REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. (he Srathsonion flasiitution. y4).csbe 225 -Lasveerdlosbe . sdlcenetodss te osdwaree ithe, Wstsbbishmen tise: 5613 snap! vil ered beeeeetigesion-edd ae sash. The Board ou esemtat rad cco ~oo2ten!- tisietd owen avai acure eunbiuwabos General considerations. .:......-.-------+0055 Mia Purtherses 5248 5 S50 es Importance of a National Seismological Laboratory.................. EMAINGCS 692) ast anaia f F ] PAs r ate } Cs. E hw nil 7 : oF see ‘ F sy = a ve ‘ ie 4 te J ¥ . * eons ie' . 4 A : # Rs z ptt : at a, wASET co : . 7A Oe cade « op aes " ai 5 P = 3 § i i ee, toni) sh Tes 5K "= 68 " : os! if = io ane hei i ~ . } ti d etl ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITH- SONIAN INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1910. SUBJECTS. 1. Annual report of the secretary, giving an account of the opera- tions and condition of the Institution for the year ending June 30, 1910, with statistics of exchanges, etc. 2. Report of the executive committee, exhibiting the financial affairs of the Institution, including a statement of the Smithsonian fund, and receipts and expenditures for the year ending June 30, 1910. 3. Procedings of the Board of Regents for the sessions of Decem- ber 14, 1909, and February 10, 1910. 4, General appendix, comprising a selection of miscellaneous mem- oirs of interest to collaborators and correspondents of the Institution, teachers, and others engaged in the promotion of knowledge. These memoirs relate chiefly to the calendar year 1910. ail 97578°—sm 1910——1 erina HAs 0, 2TH Af 10 GstK0d SBD 8D nota i ae 1 DAG HAY BET A0% wesriyniTe va ne 5 2 " aTOaiioa > 3 2 a —< "es 5 4 - 7 . I i id “UTAIC ail} to dnyouIn OL anes UTRIAI SS aj to t10a9% leunitAé. ‘ ~~ ae a . a sao¢ oft sol comudiient ot to aortic bas eS OG saul, quibas 196% | nounetioxe to militate aii pas go F¥ cout irten’) aTitinszs 3s ta Pons Eh : ‘ f eee eae ers —. Sapneni ett puri , + r f vert! clon reg ifeteand gh} Yor 2 M H yd) JB ee qdinowdinte adi te topetetie 6 5 | tod ne De “ nL = ferbits ine? vapttt sefeli x9 DMG at nai’ DEE om ih > ~ hae * a ‘i : i ie z : ; ‘ 6 : ‘ oT 4 Irie 7. 403 5 Er gasilyoot Te a) * * al et eee a he aiew Fo enoivase 8a) Or. BAIR 8 z ) CIR) OF vimedeTD bax ,2OCr os ‘ a heat anor these mm to a ie ed ihascy o Ls 9e 4 | aovttiten! : it To 23 reat: H no) Bet ad Stele modnlios ay ragrotne | : {TOE geal anhofyoad to mortomotg at et bergapas 21 lio bee aot Tt . oo we gs ‘ OIL) tay “adraales aft ao} ffiotst is stulot ont ciesba Pe — janet a ie THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, JUNE 30, 1910. Presiding officer ex officio.— WILLIAM H. Tart, President of the United States. Chancellor.—MELVILLE W. FULLER, Chief Justice of the United States. Members of the Institution: WiL~uiAmM H. Tart, President of the United States. JAMES 8S. SHERMAN, Vice President of the United States. MELVILLE W. FULLER, Chief Justice of the United States. PHILANDER C. KNox, Secretary of State. FRANKLIN MacVEaAcH, Secretary of the Treasury. JacoB M. Dickinson, Secretary of War. GEORGE W. WICKERSHAM, Attorney General. FRANK H. Hircucock, Postmaster General. GEORGE VON L. Meyer, Secretary of the Navy. RicHarD A. BALLINGER, Secretary of the Interior. JAMES WILSON, Secretary of Agriculture. CHARLES NAGEL, Secretary of Commerce and Labor. Regents of the Institution: MELVILLE W. Futter, Chief Justice of the United States, Chancellor. JAMES S. SHERMAN, Vice President of the United States. SHELBY M. CuLttom, Member of the Senate. Henry Casot Lopcr, Member of the Senate. Avueustus O. Bacon, Member of the Senate. JOHN DALzELL, Member of the House of Representatives. JAMES R. Mann, Member of the House of Representatives. WiLitiAM M. Howarp, Member of the House of Representatives. JAMES B. ANGELL, citizen of Michigan. ANDREW D. WHITE, citizen of New York. JOHN B. HENDERSON, citizen of Washington, D. C. ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, citizen of Washington, D. C. GEORGE GRAY, citizen of Delaware. CHARLES F’, CHOATE, Jr., citizen of Massachusetts. Hzecutive Committee—J. B. HENDERSON, ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, JOHN DALZELL, Secretary of the Institution.—CHARLES D. WALCOTT. Assistant Secretary.—RICHARD RATHBUN. Chief Clerk.—Harry W. DORSEY. Accountant and Disbursing Agent.—W. I. ADAMS. Editov.—A. HowarpD CLARK. 4 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. THE NATIONAL MUSEUM. Assistant Secretary in charge.—RIcHARD RATHBUN. Administrative Assistant.—W. DE C. RAVENEL, Head Curators.—WILLIAM H. HouMEs, F. W. Trug, G. P. MERRILL. Curators.—R. S. BASSLER, A. HOWARD CLARK, F. W. CLARKE, EF. V. COVILLE, W. H. Datu, B. W. EVERMANN, J. M. Fuint, U. S. N. (retired), W. H. HoLMES, WALTER HovucH, L. O. Howarp, ALES HRDLIGKA, GERRIT S. MILLER, Jr., RICHARD RATHBUN, ROBERT RIDGWAY, LEONHARD STEJNEGER, CHARLES D. WALCOTT. Associate Curators.—J. N. Rosr, Davin WHITE. Curator, National Gallery of Art—W. H. HoLmgEs. Chief of Correspondence and Documents.—RANDOLPH I. GEARE. Superintendent of Construction and Labor.—J. S. GOLDSMITH. Editor.—Marcus BENJAMIN. Photographer.—T. W. SMILLIE. Registrar._S. C. Brown. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY. Ethnologist in charge—F. W. Honcer. Ethnologists—J. WALTER FEWKES, J. N. B. Hewitt, Francis LA FLESCHE, TRUMAN MICHELSON, JAMES MOONEY, PAUL RADIN, MATILDA CoxE STEVEN- SON, JOHN R. SWANTON. Philologist FRANZ Boas. Hiditor.—JOsEPH G. GURLEY. Illustrator.—DrE LANCEY W. GILL. INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES. Chief Clerk.—C. W. SHOEMAKER. NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK. Superintendent.— FRANK BAKER. Assistant Superintendent.—A. B. BAKER. ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY. Director.—C. G. ABBOT. Aid.—F.. EK. Fow te, Jr. REGIONAL BUREAU FOR THE UNITED STATES, INTERNATIONAL CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE. Assistant in Charge.—lL. C. GUNNELL. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION CHARLES D. WALCOTT, FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1910. To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution: GENTLEMEN: I have the honor to submit a report showing the operations of the Institution during the year ending June 30, 1910, including the work placed under its direction by Congress in the United States National Museum, the Bureau of American Ethnology, the International Exchanges, the National Zoological Park, the Astrophysical Observatory, and the regional bureau of the Inter- national Catalogue of Scientific Literature. In the body of this report there is given a general account of the affairs of the Institution, while the appendix presents more detailed statements by those in direct charge of the different branches of the work. Independently of this the operations of the National Museum and of the Bureau of American Ethnology are fully treated in separate volumes. THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. THE ESTABLISHMENT. By act of Congress approved August 10, 1846, the Smithsonian Institution was created an establishment. Its statutory members are “the President, the Vice-President, the Chief Justice, and the heads of the executive departments.” THE BOARD OF REGENTS. The Board of Regents consists of the Vice-President and the Chief Justice of the United States as ex officio members, three members of the Senate, three Members of the House of Representatives, and six citizens, “ two of whom shall be resident in the city of Washington, and the other four shall be inhabitants of some State, but no two of them of the same State.” 5) 6 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. There has been no change in the personnel of the Board since my last report, Representatives John Dalzell, James R. Mann, and Wil- liam M. Howard; and Hon. John B. Henderson, and Dr. Alexander Graham Bell, whose terms of office expired during the year, having been reappointed as Regents. Meetings of the Regents were held on December 14, 1909, and on February 10, 1910, the proceedings of which will be printed as customary in the annual report of the Board to Congress. Although occurring a few days after the close of the fiscal year, I may properly record here the death on July 4, 1910, of the Chancel- lor of the Institution, Melville W. Fuller, Chief Justice of the United States. Adequate reference to this sad event will be made in my next report to the Board. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. T have called attention heretofore to the influence that the Smithso- nian Institution has had in the development of science in this country. That its usefulness is not restricted to this country is constantly evidenced in many ways. But the achievements that the Institution might accomplish, and that the scientific world expects of it, and the general good that it might do in the promotion of the welfare of the human race, continues to be greatly limited by the lack of ample funds to carry forward worthy lnes of exploration and research that are constantly being presented for consideration. During the past year the Institution’s activities have been increased to some degree by gifts for the promotion of certain special lines of study, particularly in biological research. Among the important works that might be undertaken I would especially call attention to the great advantage to this country and to the world that would result from the establishment of a national seismological laboratory under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution. IMPORTANCE OF A NATIONAL SEISMOLOGICAL LABORATORY. NEED, The immense destruction of life and property by certain large earthquakes emphasizes the importance of investigations which may lead to a reduction of the damage of future earthquakes. The science of seismology is in its infancy and it is not always evident what lines of investigation will yield the most important results, hence the im- portance of developing larger knowledge of seismology in all direc- tions. As an example: It was not at all realized that the accurate surveys of the Coast and Geodetic Survey in California would dem- onstrate that the great earthquake there in 1906 was due to forces set up by slow movements of the land which have probably been going REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 7 on for a hundred years. We have learned that slow movements of the land must precede many large earthquakes, and monuments are now being set up in California to enable us to discover future move- ments of the land and thus to anticipate future earthquakes. This, I think, is the most important step so far taken toward the prediction of earthquakes. COOPERATION, Seismological work is too large to be prosecuted successfully by the universities, but requires some central office under government super- vision to encourage theoretical and observational studies and to col- lect and study information from all available sources. The various departments of the Government could offer material help. The Weather Bureau could furnish information regarding felt shocks and could maintain seismographs at some of their stations. Post- masters throughout the country could also report felt earthquakes. The Coast and Geodetic Survey could maintain instruments and adapt their surveys and tidal observations to the detection of slow earth movements. The army could give information regarding earthquakes felt at their outlying posts, the navy regarding earthquakes felt at sea. The Geological Survey could furnish infor- mation regarding the geological structure of earthquake regions. SEISMOLOGICAL CLEARING HOUSE AND FOREIGN COOPERATION. The seismological laboratory would collect and study all this infor- mation. It would serve as a clearing house for the whole country. It would also be the link to connect seismological work in this country with the work done in other parts of the world. Its director should represent the United States in the International Seismological Asso- ciation which this country has joined through the Department of State. GOVERNMENT WORK IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. Germany, Italy, Hungary, Roumania, Bulgaria, and Japan have maintained for some years offices for the collection and study of earth- quake material. Chile and Mexico have recently established them. The work in England is under the direction of the Royal Society. Many other countries maintain stations for seismological observa- tions. This is the only important country subject to destructive earthquakes whose government does not support the study of earth- quakes. WORK OF THE LABORATORY. 1. Collection and study of all information regarding earthquakes in the United States and its possessions. The preparation of maps showing the distribution of earthquakes and their relation to geo- logical structure. 8 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. 2. The study of special regions which are subject to frequent earth- quakes to determine as far as possible where future earthquakes are likely to occur. 3. The study of the origins of earthauakes occurring under the neighboring oceans. 4. An organization of commissions to study in the field the effects produced by large earthquakes. 5. The study of proper methods of building in regions subject to earthquakes. This will require experiment. 6. The improvement of instruments for recording earthquakes. 7. Other theoretical studies. 8. The dissemination of information regarding earthquakes by bulletins or otherwise. EQUIPMENT. There will be required an office, a laboratory, a photographic room, a work shop, and a special instrument house. The building of this latter house and the general equipment would cost about $6,000. ORGANIZATION AND ANNUAL EXPENSES. In the beginning there would be required a director, an assistant, a mechanic, a stenographer, and it would be necessary to purchase books, instruments, and material for the laboratory, etc. It is estimated that $20,000 would equip the laboratory and meet all the expenses for the first year. After that the work will probably expand and the amount applied to equipment for the first year would meet the requirements for extension for some time after. FINANCES. The permanent fund of the Institution and the sources from which it was derived are as follows: Deposited in the Treasury of the United States. Bequest or-smithson, U84G- = 28 5 ee ee ee eee $515, 169. 00 Residuary legacy, of Smithson, (867... 22 eee 26, 210. 63 Deposit trom savings Of INCOMe. 1S Oi =e ee ee 108, 620. 37 Béquest/orf James Eamiltony 1815222583 222s $1, 000. 00 Accumulated interest on Hamilton fund, 1895__________ 1, 000. 00 a 2, 000. 00 Bequest. of Simieon sHabely US80e = 500. 00 Deposit from proceeds of sale of bonds, 1881_-___________-____-____ 51, 500. 00 Gittot Lhomas GpHodskius, 1691 eee ee ee ee 200, 000. 00 Part of residuary legacy of Thomas G. Hodgkins, 1894_____-______ 8, 000. 00 Deposit, from savines.of income; 190322 = ee eee 25, 000. 00 Residuary legacy of Thomas Gabodgkings #2225 220% 7, 918. 69 Total amount of fund in the United States Treasury___---~- 944, 918. 69 Registered and guaranteed bonds of the West Shore Railroad Com- pany (par value), part of legacy of Thomas G. Hodgkins________ 42, 000. 00 Total permanent fund 2224) 226 he hee eee 986, 918. 69 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 9 The sum of $251.95 was received during the year as the first pay- ment of a bequest of $500 made by the will of Mr. William Jones Rhees, for many years an officer of the Institution. This fund has not been invested. In addition to the above there are four pieces of real estate bequeathed to the Institution by the late R. S. Avery, some of which yield a nominal rental and all are free from taxation. That part of the fund deposited in the Treasury of the United States bears interest at 6 per cent per annum, under the provisions of the act organizing the Institution and an act of Congress approved March 12, 1894. The rate of interest on the West Shore Railroad bonds is 4 per cent per annum. The income of the Institution during the year, amounting to $107,483.68, was derived as follows: Interest on the permanent Foundation, $58,375.12; contributions from various sources for specific purposes, $43,230.95, and from other miscellaneous sources, $5,877.61; all of which was deposited in the Treasury of the United States to the credit of the current account of the Institution. With the balance of $32,176.70, on July 1, 1909, the total resources for the fiscal year amounted to $139,660.38. The disbursements, which are given in detail in the annual report of the executive com- mittee, amounted to $104,295.50, leaving a balance of $35,364.88 on deposit June 30, 1910, in the United States Treasury. The Institution was charged by Congress with the disbursement of the following appropriations for the year ending June 30, 1910: International Exchanges_____________ - oP Aa Te oe eee set Ba S32 000 PAVENISS ot Gel Flee AG TATTOO = eee ene es SRR ete ees Tere eee Se 43, 000 IAS Ero piysrGale OD Servacory= = Shas. 2 ee ee ee 13, 000 National Museum: MUnMIture andy fix Lumestesi! tise cosht + fits eee Joel Jai ee ae 200, 000 Heahineta nda lich tinge ts etarenos _wpret vuiisk UE WIE iy. DOES 60, 000 Preservation} of Collections s2sesh) Jivetlereu ins Yul ee a) 250, 000 IB0OKGH? Tee Sb. sae OES Sy, ee ee ies ee enone Ane AP eae nee 75 Mota: £2. Sues a nc teks Lies Bile cree EL ehh etna eis Sees 5, 291 Thirty-four species or subspecies new to the collection were exhibited during the year, including: Kilimanjaro lion. Defassa waterbuck. Cape hyrax. Clouded leopard. Grant’s gazelle. Short-tailed eagle. Indian tapir. Muntjae. Warlike crested eagle. Hast African eland. Grant’s zebra. Coke’s hartebeest. Northern warthog. The most important losses were: Indian tapir. Dromedary. 2 jabirus. East African eland. 2 llamas. Whooping crane. 2 Rocky Mountain sheep. 2 jaguars. North African ostrich. 3 mule deer. 2 Tasmanian wolves. : Reindeer. 2 leopards. One hundred and sixty-two dead animals were sent to the National Museum. Autopsies were made by pathologists of the Bureau of Animal Industry on 99 animals, showing causes of death as follows: PETITION) oe er eee eae Or (ELV GOP MILO SIS eet ae 2, TSTIDERC IOS Sg <= te ee ere ( \WErOLeUSDaCUIOSIS: = 2.2. eee 1 Pulmonary congestion -____-___-_ 2 | Porocephalus infestation ___-~___ 1 TST pT gE KY ea acl tae etd 6 | Septicemia Gastro-enteritis ==. 3 ee 8 | Intestinal parasites —-— 22. == cE TOCA EY Chi SR ale a erat 127) Enterotoxis —-- =. 1 COSTE IDS gS n= ee re ( |-Esoroptic Mange 1 Hemorrhagic enteritis _______--__ 2 | Hiversion. of rechum — 22 == aes fi POTENT GE Sets ae ee eee So PAU SI 2 ne ae oe il Fatty degeneration of liver______- 1 | Malnutrition from faulty teeth___ 1 STROMA DIG aa oe ee ee ORS HILOGHELOM eve = een ne ee 1 fu (75% ov Ng pt Dk aunt | OUGCH Se Fane = ee ae 2 Intestinal Goccidiosis) 22 === === 2—= 5H JONG Case found — 222" 222 eee = GeTEOMONINSIS 2222-22-22 Se 5 VISITORS. The number of visitors to the park during the year was 721,555, a daily average of 1,977. This number is an increase over tke previous year of 156,816, and an increase in the daily average of 480. The largest number in any month was 156,482, in March, 1910, a daily average for the month of 5,046. During the year there visited the park 155 schools, Sunday schools, classes, ete., with 3,888 pupils, a monthly average of 324 pupils. While most of them were from the city and immediate vicinity, 34 of the schools were from neigh- boring States, and classes came from Falmouth and Haverhill, Massachusetts; Stafford Springs, Connecticut; Rochester, Dover, Exeter, and Newport, New Hampshire; Bellows Falls, Vermont; .and Sanford, Maine. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. ct Statement of the collection. Accessions during the year: IB TOSCTUC Cine oe te es eae eR eS Are ee ered Wie STS aed 87 MECRIVEGeINNe x CHa eee 2 ae or ee ae ee oy Ane 8 IBRCHAINC Gee see a eS ee ee eee SUP tots yeree >) Flops of’ 139 IDEDOSITEO aes fo. ee ES Ralepeegt eae tie ere F oeetl ie 8 hee Te 8 Born and hatched in National Zoological Park________________-_--_--- 64 Captured in National ‘Zoological; Parks. .20 22 see endo t fee 1 1 BLO Uf a i pr Se AN a Se LAV RR ES rb as eka. 2b YS 307 PRESENTED. Rhesus monkey, Miss Justine Ingersoll, Boston, Mass____________________ 2 Common macaque: Wihianm heawenzer Washington): (Cask 2 esate 2) eee es i Geel Lompiin ss. Wale CeENbOTMs sa see ae etna kee Bt el a ee at Bonnet macaque: Ge i. Kompkings: Warrenton, Vao 2) ee eee il Baboon. We ON. Mevillan,, NAITODI, British Wast VATrich. 22" 72 se sees 1 White-throated capuchin, Roland Davis, Washington, D. C____-_--_______ it HON AW eN eMC Mllat NalroObl, British’ bast Atricd = eae were ee 5 Leopard, W. N. McMillan, Nairobi, British East Africa____________-____ al BayalviTKe AGA Iuxpress CO: WiSmineton, I) Cas seme wan Ae ee 1 Mioridalynx., Howare Hlliott Washington, DiC s22 sees hs ee 1 Covoce he Neuman: Kmelewood, Kans 22 22 2e) 2h ee eee 2 CraiyetOx ae UM VELZdet. NVASHL STON: I). Oe teen aoe ee ee ee BONES Tere 1 American otter, Frederic B. Hyde, Washington, D. C____________________ 2 Kinkajou, Surg. W. H. Bell, U. S. Navy, Cristobal, Canal Zone_____________ al Common skunk. HC) Duehring, Washimeton sOi@© 2. 2 eee 1 Cinnamon bear. S. bruce, W..S:;, Honest service 2-2 == ee ee i Virsinia deer, Thos, Blagden’ Washington; dos G2 user. cee ee oe eS al Common coat, gohm Re Melean, Washington): ©2292 ee 4 Grant’s gazelle, W. N. McMillan, Nairobi, British East Africa_____________- alt Northern warthog, W. N. McMillan, Nairobi, British East Africa__________- te fel Lophiomys, G. H. Goldfinch, Asst. Game Ranger, Nairobi, British Hast TANiTT om ereramen ale = SUN BR Ee ee ee 2 ee a BY English rabbit: Mirse Sirsa Washi etm: ys eens Mike 2 a tas Fy ee eee al Nirse Stree: Washineron, ID Ciz< tr Pee ee A ee eee 2 Common opossum: Charlessias Medley aVictoriay Nios 2c 3 22 eae eee eee aft HED rOOD: “Washinton DDN Sate ee ERS 5B SEES ae ea es ee 2 ihheseresigent: “Washington, 1): C2. = os Soe ees ee ee ee 23 De eCOOMEMIVAS HIN tOle Wy Os som tem take: dire) cestel) et tree wale DUS a ee een iL Alvitid GpiutsUln donor, UNKNOWN. 2 222k 252. eee se 1 Sparrow hawk, Mrs. C. H. McAndrie, Washington, D. C_______________-___ 1 Sharp-shinned hawk, By i: Burritt, Washington, Dy C222) = 2) a al Red-shouldered hawk, T. Hanlon, Washington, D. C_-_________________=-= 1 Baldveasie, Col. RK: lh. Montague, Washington, Di Ca22 2 ere ee 1 Warlike crested eagle, W. N. McMillan, Nairobi, British Hast Africa______ 1 Hawke WeoN. MeMillan, Nairobi; British, Hast Adirical S22 => 222 eee 1 Egyptian vulture, W. N. MeMillan, Nairobi, British Hast Africa____________ alt Pileated vulture, W. N. McMillan, Nairobi, British East Africa_____________ il Great horned owl: TONNER ICKELES we L TNtOns Pea ee ee eee Soe ee eee 1 FPP) OTA Tae UT ET Lec usta ep a Se ae ee eral ok eee ee eee alt 72 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. Barn owl: R. “He Chappell, Washington, D. C___--— 25 4 has at SA eae 1 Dr. iC. N. Lenman, Washington) DL C22 22 = 2 eee al Screech owl: Raymond Campbell, Washington, Oi oe ee ee eae il Mrs; Arthur: Iuee;, Washintgon,: 1D. Clo ee eee 1 Red and yellow and blue macaw, D. S. Sheahan, Washington, D. C_________ 1 Red-shouldered Amazon, Mrs. Bicknell, Washington, D. G_________________ ll Vellow-Lronted Amazon, B. Munoz. Hondunds= 22) 222 e ee eee 7 Parrakeet : Mrs; Leigh btu Berbesda:,. Viger cee 6 ee ee ee eee 2 M. Be ubman;. Washington 0) Ce. a8 2 eae 1 Common canary: M,; Doumer, Washington; D,. ©. 2. 2s= 9 es eh ee ee af Mrs:H.-C. Steuart, Washington, 1)\\Co S22" 2 ee ee ee al Cutler Vickery, Washineton yD; Ce se a ee ne eee fi Java>sparrow, Miss M: Britton, Washington, BD: Ce = es 6 ee 4 Jungle fowl, Dr. C. B. Davenport, Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y_.--._-.-..---~~ 2 Wood ibis;“A.oMe Nicholson?Orlando, Plaw3 2 2 eee eee 2 Whistling swan; Mrs: Eitzeerald7 Washington, 1. C54. 2.2) = ee ee f. iBcanieDr:. El. (Gosling Washington, gD: C= a) > eS ee eee fi Alligator : Mark Sloane. Washing lon Wi Ol. sa se 2 ee al NiISsuC. Erarnd on, Washinetont I) (Oo 8 2e eeeeee 1 Dry Wes. -Harbans Wasnine One (a= a a 2 Ee 2 eee al Deby Larner; Washin Stony Wye Cae teres eee we eee te Ee ee 1 Mdsanr Shreve, WaASHINe TON, cl). Cs ee eee lee Se ee il MrsmViary Bartlett; Wiest Miu Ore Wee V glee ee eerie eet set ee ee ee 2 Gila. monster,Gustav. Eriebus;, Washington; D122 2 ase ee ee 1 Rattlesnake, G; H.- White, Washington, (D4 C22 =. 3) ee eee | Black snake: WeV--ComeWashinetonssD NOs ts sities ve 2 Siete al Thos,.C. Johnson, *Deanwoods) Dy C4 _ el tf ee eee ee al Houseisnake;’Thos./CJohnson;, Deanwood;, DaCz- 222 hh25__ Se _ fs eee il Garter snake Hoh, Carl, Washington; 1. C224 12 e- es ee at SUMMARY. AMIMaAls On, Hand uly U1 9092 <2 a es ee ee ee 1, 416 ANCCESSLONSOULrING: theyyear’- 3225" ess he ae eee ae 3807 Otel k= = ee ee ee ee eee at, 25 Deduct loss (by exchange, death, and returning of animals)_—_-_________ 299 CB oma ys ao Wel ah ave tecs | 0 Yeegd Wo 1} NM oe cs Se ny ot aA 8 are > ae 1, 424 Species. ieee Mammials...2. oop cecncncnoeeeceamn ccna coclsene Jace Dat teehee aattese eta aes Soeaeee 153 625 BINGE. uo once casne oe neecice ss ae oe sc dep aa ct ot aes skied setece oak ida s.cbaee meee rake ones 184 692 Reptiles’. ..j.. seccenb eRe pee See Rett oo ke Sed tae ee EPR POSE Ee cube ecee ce eeeee ees 35 107 MMe nob ces a BSA teat, cise Su aed ot ae 372| 1,424 Respectfully submitted. FRANK BAKER, Superintendent. Dr. CHARLES D. WALCOTT, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, AppEnpDIx VY. REPORT ON THE ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY. Srr: I have the honor to present the following report on the operations of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory for the year ending June 30, 1910: EQUIPMENT, The equipment of the observatory is as follows: (a) At Washington, in an inclosure of about 16,000 square feet, are contained five small frame buildings used for observing and computing purposes, three movable frame shelters covering several out-of-door pieces of apparatus, and also one small brick building containing a storage battery and electrical dis- tribution apparatus. (6) At Mount Wilson, California, upon a leased plot of ground 100 feet square in horizontal projection, are located a one-story cement observing structure, designed especially for solar constant measurements, and also a little frame cottage, 21 feet by 25 feet, built and furnished last September for observer’s quarters. It is highly satisfactory to note from the decrease in probable error of the observations secured in 1909 on Mount Wilson, compared with those of previous years, that the new cement observatory there, located as it is far from the dust, smoke, and disturbances of the other parts of the mountain, is excel- lently adapted for securing the most exact results. WORK OF THE YEAR. The present year’s results are of uncommon interest, for they appear to fix within narrow limits the value of the solar constant of radiation. When in 1902 the first attempts were made here to measure it, that first-rank constant of nature, the intensity of the solar radiation at the earth’s mean distance from the sun, was unknown within the wide range between 1.75 and 4 calories per square centimeter per minute. This range of values is given, with a preference for Langley’s value (8 calories), by Hann in his standard work on meteorology, published in 1905. It is improbable that this observatory would have continued since 1902 in solar-constant work had it not been that the results of 1903 gave strong indica- tions of considerable variability of the sun in short intervals and that later work also strongly supported this presumption. The late director, Secretary Langley, shared, with many others of the most competent judges on the subject, the impression that to determine the solar constant of radiation with any con- siderable degree of accuracy or certainty was, if not impossible, yet a thing which would probably be long deferred and would involve spectro-bolometric measurements at the highest possible altitudes at which men may exist. He did not at all believe that our results of 1903 approximated to the true value of the solar constant, but only that they might be so far independent of ordinary atmospheric changes as to be used in determining the probability of solar vari- ability. Hence, in 1905, he instructed the present writer to bear in mind, in going to Mount Wilson for the first time, that it was not the solar constant but 73 74 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. the possibility of solar variability which was the result to be determined by the expedition. This inquiry has, indeed, been the primary one in all the subse- quent work, but not to the exclusion of attempts to fix the value of the solar constant itself. There were at that time two principal and seemingly formidable difficulties hindering the determination of the solar constant of radiation. First, there was no instrument capable of absorbing fully and adapted for measuring com- pletely the energy received at the earth’s surface, excepting, perhaps, the little- known and rarely used instrument invented by W. A. Michelson, of Russia, about 1894. Second, there was grave doubt if a true estimate of the loss of radiation in traversing the air could be made. Langley has somewhere described the first obstacle as ‘‘ formidable,” the second as ‘‘ perhaps insurmountable.” As stated in previous reports, much attention was given from 1908 onward to devising a standard pyrheliometer, and thus establishing the absolute scale of radiation measurements. A considerable degree of success seemed to be attained in 1906, but the results obtained in that year were found, by comparison with instruments of the United States Weather Bureau, to differ so much from the generally adopted scale of Angstrém that further work, involving finally the construction of two additional water-flow pyrheliometers, was done. The last of these instruments, and by far the most perfect of them all, was completed and tried at Mount Wilson in October. 1909. A fairly close agreement seemed to hold between it and its immediate predecessor, but when the electrical con- stants of both instruments were determined with extreme care in February, at Washington, by Mr. Aldrich, the gap widened. A source of error, till then little regarded, was reconsidered, and painstaking comparisons of pyrheliometers were carried through at Washington by Messrs. Aldrich, Abbot, and Fowle. These were finished in June, 1910, and the two standard pyrheliometers were found to agree together well within the probable error of the highly accurate experiments. Not only so, but each instrument was found to take up and measure between 99 and 100 per cent of such various quantities of electrically introduced heat as were used as tests. Finally these definite measurements indicated that while the results published at page 46 in volume 2 of the Annals, made with standard pyrheliometer No. 1, are 4 or 5 per cent above the true scale, yet when all the experiments made with that instrument, at Washington as well as Mount Wilson, are collected their mean result is almost in exact agreement with the resuits obtained in 1910 with standard pyrheliometers Nos. 2 and 3. It may now be accepted that the absolute scale of radiation is established within three parts in 1,000, and that we may express all our measurements of solar radiation made since 1902 with this degree of accuracy in absolute calories per square centimeter per minute. Three secondary pyrheliometers, the cost of whose construction after my designs has been defrayed from the Hodgkins Fund, have been standardized and sent to Russia, France, and Italy. Two others have been sold by the Institution to the United States Agricultural Department. Thus steps are being taken to diffuse the standard seale of pyrheliometry. The new scale is about 5.2 per cent above that of new Angstrém pyrheliometers. The second obstacle mentioned above seems now less serious than the first. It was found in 1905 and 1906 that practically identical values of the solar constant resulted from good series of spectro-bolometric observations of the same day taken at Washington (sea level) and Mount Wilson (6,000 feet eleva- tion). But in August, 1909, Mr. Abbot ascended Mount Whitney (14,500 feet) with a complete spectro-bolometric outfit, and, notwithstanding many days of REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 12) unpromising weather, succeeded on September 38, under the most perfect sky and in exceptionally dry air, in making a complete and satisfactory series of solar constant measurements. A prism of quartz and two mirrors of magnalium were the only optical parts to affect the rays, so that it was possible to observe from wave length 0.29 » to wave length 3.0 ». This extended region includes not only all the visible but the ultra-violet and infra-red spectra, with sufficient com- pleteness to include in the discussion apparently within 1 per cent of all the rays which the sun sends the earth and to make the allowance for rays not observed practically sure. During the same day Mr. Ingersoll observed witb the usual complete spectro-bolometric outfit on Mount Wilson, and his results were in accord with what would be expected from his preceding and following day’s work there and agreed within 1 per cent with those obtained simultaneously on Mount Whitney. In view of the agreement of results on the solar constant of radiation obtained at sea level, 1 mile, and 2? miles elevation, it now seems highly probable that we can really by Langley’s method of homogeneous rays allow for losses in the air and get the same values that we would observe directly if we could take our instruments above the air altogether. The reduction of spectro-bolographie work to the absolute scale of pyrhelio- metry enables us to give as the average value of the solar constant of radiation for the epoch 1905 to 1909, 1.924 calories per square centimeter per minute. It is probable that observations at sun-spot minimum will tend to raise this value by rather more than 1 per cent, so that we may suppose the mean value of the solar constant for a complete sun-spot cycle will be about 1.95 calories. Experiments made in 1909 at Mount Wilson with various optical systems agree within their probable error with one another, and with the results obtained on Mount Whitney in fixing the distribution of energy in the spectrum of the sun outside the atmosphere. In the Mount Whitney work the curve of energy distribution was followed to a wave-length estimated (not very accurately) as 0.294 and it there practically reached zero intensity, although the quartz and magnalium apparatus would have been capable of transmitting the rays, had they existed, of much shorter wave-lengths. In the spectrum of the “ perfect radiator,” corresponding to the apparent temperature of the sun, the intensity of the ultra-violet rays would be of some importance for a considerably farther stretch of wave-lengths beyond this. It therefore appears that either the earth’s atmosphere, even above Mount Whitney, or else the sun’s envelope, effectually hinders the solar rays. If it is the former, then it may be that the above-men- tioned value of the solar constant should still be raised a few per cent. But the known powerful selective absorption of vapors in the sun’s envelope seems quite reasonably competent alone to produce the observed weakness of the solar spectrum in the ultra-violet. This view is confirmed by experiments of Miethe and Lehmann, who found no extension of the solar spectrum with increasing elevation, although they shifted their observing station from Berlin (50 meters) to Monte Rosa (38,500 meters), thus greatly diminishing the layer of air traversed. Their shortest wave-length was 0.2911, closely agreeing with ours. From our experiments of 1909 the apparent average solar temperature is 6430°, 5840°, or 6200°of the absolute, according as we follow Wien’s displace- - Inent law, Stefan’s law, or Planck’s law as the method of computation. But the temperature of the sun, apart from the uncertainty of terms when dealing with such high values, is probably a quantity which has very various values, from the center to the limb of the sun’s disk, depending on the depth within the sun at which the radiation originates. At Washington Messrs. Fowle and Aldrich have continued experiments on the transmission by moist columns of air for long-wave radiation, though with 76 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. many interruptions due to the difficulty of the research. The work has been carried to wave-length beyond 15y in the infra-red, and for columns of air 800 feet long. It is not yet possible to summarize the results. Messrs. Fowle and Aldrich and Miss Graves have made rapid progress with the reduction of solar-constant work of 1909. Experiments have been begun for the purpose of devising economical means of utilizing solar energy for domestic purposes. PERSONNEL. Dr. L. R. Ingersoll served as temporary bolometric assistant on Mount Wilson to September 6, 1909. Mr. L. B. Aldrich was given a temporary appointment as bolometric assistant at Washington beginning September 1, 1909. He passed a competitive exami- nation and was reappointed provisionally on January 10, 1910. His appoint- ment was made permanent, to begin July 1, 1910. SUMMARY, The work of the year is notable for the determination of the absolute scale of pyrheliometry and for the success of spectrobolometric observations of the solar constant of radiation on Mount Whitney. These agree with simultaneous observations of the same kind on Mount Wilson. Reducing these and other results to the absolute scale of pyrheliometry, we may fix the average value of the solar constant of radiation at 1.925 calories per square centimeter per minute for the epoch 1905-1909. Making allowance for the higher values which must prevail at sun-spot minimum, the solar constant may be estimated at 1.95 cal- ories aS an average value for a sun-spot cycle. No reason has been found for departing from the view heretofore held that short-interval variations of 5 per cent or more from this value occur. The energy distribution in the solar spectrum outside the atmosphere has been determined with the bolometer on Mount Whitney between wave lengths 0.294 in the ultra violet and 3.0u in the infra red. This region appears to contain full 99 per cent of all the solar energy outside the atmosphere. The apparent temperature of the sun as computed by three different methods comes out 6430°, 5840°, and 6200° of the absolute scale. Researches on the transmission of moist columns of air for long-wave rays, such as the earth emits, have been continued to wave lengths beyond 15x”, and for columns of air 800 feet in length. Secondary pyrhelio- meters, standardized to the absolute scale, have been sent to Russia, France, and Italy, and also furnished to the United States Weather Bureau and Depart- ment of Agriculture. Respectfully submitted. C. G. ABsBot, Director, Dr. CHARLES D. WALCOTT, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Apprnpix VI. REPORT ON THE LIBRARY. Sir: I have the honor to present the following report on the operations of the library of the Smithsonian Institution for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1910: The accessions recorded for the Smithsonian deposit, Library of Congress, numbered 2,653 volumes, 2,879 parts of volumes, 1,396 pamphlets, and 623 charts, making a total of 7,551 publications. The accession numbers run from 495,195 to 500,000. These publications were forwarded to the Library of Congress immediately upon their receipt and entry. In their transmission 270 boxes were required, containing approximately the equivalent of 10,800 volumes. The actual number of pieces sent, including parts of periodicals, pamphlets, and volumes, numbered 36,526. This statement does not, however, include about 2,948 parts of serial publications secured in exchange to complete sets and trans- mitted separately. The Institution has continued the policy of sending public documents presented to it to the Library of Congress without stamping or entering. The number of publications given above does not include these, nor does it include other publi- cations for the Library of Congress received through the International Exchange Service. The libraries of the Smithsonian office, of the Astrophysical Observatory, and the National Zoological Park have received 478 volumes and pamphlets and 253 parts of volumes and charts, making a total of 626 publications, and a grand total, including the publications for the Smithsonian deposit, of 8,177. The actual decrease in the number of publications entered for the Smithsonian library is not as great as would at first appear, owing to the fact that in the present report a statement has been made of the number of completed volumes accessioned, rather than, as was formerly the custom, of the number of parts constituting a volume. Special attention has been given to the checking up and completing of the Smithsonian deposit sets of publications of scientific societies and learned institutions of the world, together with the series of scientific periodicals contained in the library. The parts of serial publications entered on the card catalogue numbered 26,772, and 1,605 slips for completed volumes were made; 277 cards for new periodicals and annuals, together with 418 donor cards and 1,114 catalogue cards for separate publications were made and filed. Inaugural dissertations and academic publications were received and acces- sioned from universities at the following places: Basel. Halle an der Saale. St. Petersburg. Berkeley. Leipzig. Utrecht. Berlin. Liege. Vienna. Breslau. Lund. Wiirzburg. Graz. Paris. The establishing of new exchanges and the securing of missing parts to com- plete sets of publications in the Smithsonian library required the writing of 17 78 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. 3,251 letters, resulting in the addition of about 277 periodicals and in the receipt of about 2,948 missing parts. The library has again cooperated with the International Exchanges in sending to foreign countries lists of government documents and serial publications of that class needed to complete the sets in the Library of Congress. In addition to the countries already enumerated in previous reports, lists have been sent to Natal, New Zealand, Spain, and Venezuela. The publications in the reading room being in the main of a class not to be found elsewhere, a yearly increase is to be noted in the number of persons consulting them. The readers include scientific workers not only from Wash- ington, but from other American and foreign cities. The staff has withdrawn for office use 52 bound volumes of periodicals and 3,336 parts of scientific periodicals and popular magazines. In addition, the various bureaus of the Government continue to avail themselves of the opportunity to use these pub- lications as well as those in the sectional libraries of the institution. The mail receipts numbered 48,222 packages, and 7,117 package&S were received through the International Exchange Service. The publications contained therein were stamped and distributed for entry from the mail desk. About 5,111 ac- knowledgments were made on the regular forms in addition to the letters which were written in acknowledgment of publications received in response to the requests of the institution for exchange. The employees’ library.—The books added to this library by purchase num- bered 30, and by binding 300 volumes of periodicals were made available for circulation. The total number of books borrowed was 2,092. The sending of a selected number of books from this library to the National Zoological Park has been continued, but the sending of books to the Bureau of American Ethnolog was discontinued when the Bureau moved into the Smithsonian building in January, 1910. Bibliography of aeronautics—The manuscript for the Bibliography of Aero- nautical Literature to July 1, 1909, was completed during the summer of that year, and the work, forming volume 55 of the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Col- lections, was published during the month of April, 1910. Numerous accessions have been made to the collection of aeronautical literature in the office library. The volumes have been bound and are now available for reference. At the request of the American committee on cooperation with the Inter- national Congress of Archivists and Librarians, the assistant librarian prepared an answer to the question “Dans quel sens y a-t-il lieu de réorganiser et détendre le service des échanges internationaux?’ The reply was sent in the latter part of January for presentation to the congress convening in Brussels August 27 to 31. American Historical Association.—The arranging of new exchanges of the annual reports of the American Historical Association from the allotment agreed upon for that purpose has resulted in a number of publications of historical societies throughout the world being added to the Smithsonian deposit at the Library of Congress. UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. The library of the Museum has suffered from congestion and is handicapped in its work by lack of space. While it has continued to grow during the last ten years, no additional room has been available owing to the overcrowded condition of the Museum building. As the new building is now ready for the collections it will be possible in the near future for the library to have all the room neces- sary for expansion and proper classification. Many gifts of importance have been received, those deserving special mention being the publications presented ¥ REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 79 by Dr. Theodore N. Gill, Dr. Charles W. Richmond, Dr. Charles A. White, Dr. BE. A. Schwartz, Dr. O. P. Hay, and Dr. Marcus Benjamin. The publications are scientific and of value in completing sets and filling in of the series of authors’ separates. In the death of Dr. Charles A. White the Museum library has lost one of its valued benefactors. Doctor White was at all times ready to forward the interests of the Museum library and gave material assistance in the work of completing its series of authors’ separates and its sets of periodical publications. His gifts have been numerous and are of special value along the lines of the work upon which he was engaged. Lists of the publications in the sectional libraries of the Museum have been made, and an experienced cataloguer has been checking them up with the publications on the shelves in the sections. The work of checking is uncompleted at the close of the fiscal year, but will be continued. In the Museum library there are now 88,300 volumes, 61,858 unbound papers, and 110 manuscripts. The accessions during the year consisted of 2,056 books, 5,541 pamphlets, and 307 parts of volumes; 1,001 books, 1,055 complete volumes of periodicals, and 6,294 pamphlets were catalogued. Attention has been given to the preparation of volumes for binding, with the result that 485 books were sent to the government bindery. The number of books, periodicals, and pamphlets borrowed from the general library amounted to 28,272, including 4,148 from the collections which were assigned to the sectional libraries. The sectional libraries established in the Museum have remained unchanged, the complete list now standing as follows: Administration. Geology. Mollusks. Administrative assistant. History. Oriental archeology. Anthropology. Insects. Paleobotany. Biology. Invertebrate paleontol- Parasites. Birds. ogy. Physical anthropology. Botany. Mammals. Prehistoric archeology. Comparative anatomy. Marine invertebrates. Reptiles. Editor. ‘Materia medica. Superintendent. Ethnology. Mesozoic fossils. Taxidermy. Fishes. Mineralogy. Technology. SUMMARY OF ACCESSIONS. The following table summarizes all the accessions during the year except for the Bureau of American Ethnology, which is separately administered : Smithsonian deposit in the Library of Congress, including parts to COMPLETE LSE Sire te tt ser ee ole oe ip cme hh a ree See ED SES 10, 499 Office, Astrophysical Observatory, National Zoological Park, and Inter- TP ULOV eI PC Pra Sy Sa ee ah ee ee EE 626 United States: National Museuny library = = ee eee 7, 904 DY C2 ls 8 a tas a ES en Ee ES Oe ee 19, 029 Respectfully submitted. PAUL BrRocKEtTtT, Assistant Librarian. Dr. CHARLES D. WALCOTT, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Apprenpix VII. REPORT ON THE INTERNATIONAL CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE. Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the operations of the United States Bureau of the International Catalogue of Scientific Literature for the year ending June 30, 1910. The International Catalogue of Scientific Literature is an international co- operative enterprise having at present 32 regional bureaus scattered through- out the world, supported by the countries taking part in the work. The duties of these regional bureaus are to collect, index, and classify all contributions to pure science published within the several countries they represent. The mate- rial thus prepared is forwarded to the Central Bureau in London, there to be assembled and published. The catalogue consists of 17 annual volumes, one for each of the follow- ing sciences: Mathematics, mechanics, physics, chemistry, astronomy, meteor- ology, mineralogy, geology, geography, paleontology, general biology, botany, zoology, anatomy, anthropology, physiology, and bacteriology. The Central Bureau is maintained entirely by the funds received from the subscribers to the catalogue. The regional bureaus are in every case sup- ported by the countries taking part in the enterprise, in the great majority of cases by direct govermental grants. Since the beginning of the undertaking in 1901 the annual volumes have in- creased in size to such an extent that the cost of publication at one time exceeded the sum received from subscriptions, and it was necessary to cur- tail somewhat not only the methods of classifying the various subjects, but also the citation methods used in the subject catalogues. This is now being done without detracting in any way from the value of the catalogue as a work of reference, although the laber of preparation is in most cases much greater. The allotment for the present fiscal year was $6,000. Five persons are regu- larly engaged in the Bureau, and occasionally, when funds permit, the assistance of a specialist in some one of the sciences is temporarily employed. There were 25,082 cards sent from this Bureau during the year as follows: Initera tre no fed QO tet et 2 jy a A A. ee Le Oe eee V2 terabureion 190222" 222 eee pete Rate et. Se eee 173 Literare.or 190g. fants ey ee eee ee ee Pe oe eee 248 HOPE Rey oes BLU w= gk 0 Bel A 0 ABs gal iad ad ah SS SR Lat i Se eB a i lat 465 Terawurevol 1905. 2 ee. ee ee ee ee 1, 1638 tera bUre’ Ol LOO. ss ok ee eh ee eee es a ee ee 15502 Hiteratwre Of UDO ee ae ws ei ee 3, 160 Titerabure (Of 1908: 222 f.25 2 Meee Se ee ee ee ee ee 6, 3805 hiteraturetot $1909 .—e oie) see i Es So a tien ee eS 11, 994 AW 0) fi Sep sc oy ae Oe ee ee nO Tee ye ee eRe ney fete SB eal 25, 082 This number does not represent the actual number of citations sent, for on account of a new ruling of the Central Bureau some of the biological cards contained a number of citations each. However, the actual number of cita- 80 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 81 tions has been reduced to approximately 28,000 for the year, which is about 6,000 less than was sent in for the previous year. This decrease is not entirely due to the new methods of classifying, for as the work is each year being brought more nearly up to date fewer old papers are indexed, consequently fewer citations are required. It is estimated that when the work is entirely up to date only about 25,000 citations will be needed to completely index the yearly scientific literature of the United States. The following-named volumes of the catalogue were received and delivered to the subscribers in this country : Seventh annual issue: Meteorology, General Biology, Botany, Anatomy, Anthropology, and Bacteriology. Highth annual issue: Mathematics, Mechanics, Astronomy, Mineralogy, and Zoology. For a number of years it has been the aim to eventually prepare this cata- logue not only through the cooperation of the various countries, but through direct cooperation of authors and publishers of the papers indexed. This method was actually tried during the present year in the preparation of the volume on zoology, and though it required writing about 517 letters, the result was so satisfactory that it is proposed to gradually extend the method to other sciences. As has been pointed out before, the London Central Bureau is maintained solely by means of the funds obtained from subscriptions to the catalogue, and the necessary cost of editing and printing is so great that $85 per year has to be charged for the complete set of 17 volumes. This large figure places the work beyond the reach of many who would undoubtedly purchase individual volumes, if not the complete sets. The cost of doubling the edition of the catalogue would be comparatively small, the outlay representing only the cost of press work and paper, and it is felt that if the edition could be doubled and the price reduced one-half, the work could be placed at once within the reach of many small libraries and scientific workers who need such works of reference. At present the available funds prevent any such course being adopted, but a comparatively small endowment would not only render this move possible, but would enable the present restricted scope of the catalogue to be extended to include at first the applied sciences and then gradually the other records of human progress. A yearly income of $5,000 or $6,000 from a permanent endow- ment would enable the central bureau to take the necessary steps to first in- crease the circulation and then broaden the scope of the catalogue, and it is earnestly hoped that in the near future such an endowment may be obtained. There have been no losses of property during the year, excepting those caused by ordinary wear and deterioration. In the sundry civil bill approved June 25, 1910, $7,500 was appropriated to carry on the work for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1911. This sum is an increase of $1,500 over the appropriation of the present year. Respectfully submitted. LEONARD C. GUNNELL, Chief Assistant. Dr. CHARLES D. WALCOTT, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 97578°—sm 1910——6 Apprenpix VIII. REPORT ON THE PUBLICATIONS. Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the publications of the Smithsonian Institution and its branches during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1910: There was distributed a total of 801 volumes and separates in the series of Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, 17,560 in the series of Smith- sonian Miscellaneous Collections, 28,879 in the series of Smithsonian Annual Reports, and 2,179 in the series of Special Publications. In addition, there were 959 publications not included in the Smithsonian series distributed by the Institution, and 5,274 publications of the Bureau of American Ethnology sent out during the six months from January 1 to June 30, 1910. This makes a grand total of 55,652, an increase of 11,489 over the previous year. I. SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO KNOWLEDGE, No memoirs of the series of Smithsonian Contributions. to Knowledge were issued during the year, although progress was made in preparing for press the Langley Memoir on Mechanical Flight which was begun by the late Secretary Langley in 1904 and continued by Mr. Charles M. Manly, assistant in charge of experiments. Il. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, In the series of Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections there were published during the year (1) fifteen papers in the Quarterly Issue, which was discon- tinued December 31, 1909, completing volume 52 of the regular series; (2) one paper in volume 51; (8) seven papers in volume 54, completing that volume; (4) volume 55, Bibliography of Aeronautics; (5) and seven papers in volume 56. The Quarterly Issue papers were as follows: 1872. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections. Volume 52, part 4 (Quarterly Issue, vol. 5, part 4) containing Publications, 1873 to 1887. Published Janu- ary 20, 1910. Octavo. Pages vii, 403-514, with plates 38 to 66. (The Quarterly Issue ends with this volume.) 1878. Prehistoric Ruins of the Gila Valley. By J. Walter Fewkes. Published August 4, 1909. Octavo. Pages 403 to 436, with Plates 38 to 42. 1874. Description of a New Frog from the Philippine Islands. By Leonhard Stejneger, Curator, Division of Reptiles and Batrachians, U. S. National Museum. Published August 4, 1909. Octavo. Pages 487-489. 1875. A New Genus of Fossil Cetaceans from Santa Cruz Territory, Patagonia ; and Description of a Mandible and Vertebre of Prosqualodon. By Frederick W. True, Head Curator of Biology, U. S. National Museum. Published August 7, 1909. Octavo. Pages 441-456, with Plates 48 to 45. 1876. Notes on Certain Features of the Life of the Alaskan Freshwater Sculpin. By Barton A. Bean and Alfred C. Weed, of the Division of Fishes, U. 8. Na- tional Museum. Published August 19, 1909. Octavo. Pages 457-460. 82 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 83 1877. The Geologic Work of Mangroves in Southern Florida. By T. Wayland Vaughan, Custodian of Madreporarian Corals, U. S. National Museum; Super- vising Geologist in Charge of Coastal Plain Investigations, U. S. Geological Survey. Published September 15, 1909. Octavo. Pages 461-464, with Plates 46 to 52. 1878. Crystallographic Notes on Calcite. By J. E. Pogue, Assistant Curator, Division of Mineralogy, U. S. National Museum. Published September 24, 1909. Octavo. Pages 465-468, with Plates 53 and 54. 1879. A New Rodent of the Genus Georychus. By Edmund Heller, Field Naturalist, Smithsonian African Expedition. Published September 24, 1909. Octavo. Pages 469-470, with Plate 55. 1880. Two New Rodents from British Hast Africa. By Edmund Heller, Field Naturalist, Smithsonian African Expedition. Published November 13, 1909. Pages 471-472, with Plate 56. 1881. A Heretofore Undescribed Stony Meteorite from Thomson, McDuflie County, Georgia. By George P. Merrill, Head Curator, Department of Geol- ogy, U. S. National Museum. Published December 2, 1909. Octavo. Pages 473-476. Plates 57 and 58. 1882. On a Remarkable Cube of Pyrite Carrying Crystallized Gold and Galena of Unusual Habit. By Joseph EH. Pogue, Assistant Curator, Division of Mineralogy, U. 8. National Museum. Published December 22, 1909. Octavo. Pages 477-484, with Plate 59. 1885. A New Carnivore of British Hast Africa. By Gerrit S. Miller, jr., Curator, Division of Mammals, U.S. National Museum. Published December 18, 1909. Octayo. Pages 485-487, with Plates 60 to 62. 1884. Description of Fossil Plants from the Mesozoic and Cenozoic of North America. I. By F. H. Knowlton. Published January 11, 1910. Octavo. Pages 489-496, with Plates 63 and 64. 1885. Two New Genera of Murine Rodents. By Gerrit S. Miller, jr., Curator, Division of Mammals, U. 8. National Museum. Published January 12, 1910. Octavo. Pages 497-498. 1886. A Shelter for Observers on Mount Whitney. By ©. G. Abbot, Director of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. Published January 12, 1910. Octavo. Pages 499-506, with Plates 65 and 66. 1887. List of Publications, continued from list in Quarterly Issue, volume 5, part 8. Published January 21, 1910. Octavo. Pages 507-509. In the regular series of Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections the following were published, during the year: 1869. The Mechanics of the Earth’s Atmosphere (a collection of translations). Third Collection. By Cleveland Abbe. Hodgkins Fund. Published. 1909. Octavo. Pages 1v, 617. Volume 51, Number 4. 1870. Landmarks of Botanical History, Part I, Prior to 1562 A.D. By Edward L. Greene. Published 1909. Octavo. Pages 329. Part of volume 54. 1920. Bibliography of Aeronautics. By Paul Brockett. Hodgkins Fund. Pub- lished 1910. Octavo. Pages xiv, 940. Volume 55. 1922. Development of the Brain of the American Alligator; The Paraphysis and Hypophysis. By Albert M. Reese. Published March 1, 1910. Octavo. Pages 20, with 5 plates. Volume 54, Number 2. 1923. Constants of Nature. Part 5, A Recalculation of Atomic Weights. Third edition. By Frank Wigglesworth Clarke. Published May 6, 1910. Octavo. Pages iv, 548. Volume 54, Number 3. 1924. Five New Rodents from British East Africa. By Edmund Heller. Pub- lished February 28, 1910. Octavo. Pages 2+4, with 2 plates. Volume 54, Number 4. 84 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. 5 1925. A New Rodent of the Genus Saccostomus from British East Africa. By Gerrit S. Miller, jr. Published February 28,1910. Octavo. Pages 2+2, with 1 plate. Volume 54, Number 5. 1926. A New Sable Antelope from British East Africa. By Edmund Heller. Published March 3, 1910. Octavo. Pages 2+2. Volume 54, Number 6. 1927. Description of a New Species of Hippopotamus. By Gerrit S. Miller, jr. Published March 28, 1910. Octavo. Pages 2+3, with 4 plates. Volume 54, Number 7. 1929. The Seales of the African Characinid Fishes. By T. D. A. Cockerell. Published May 7, 1910. Octavo. Pages 2+10, with 2 plates. Volume 56, Number 1. 1930. Mammals Collected by John J. White in British Hast Africa. By N. Hol- lister. Published March 31, 1910. Octavo. Pages 2+12, with 2 plates. Vol- ume 56, Number 2. 1931. The Seales of the Mormyrid Fishes, with Remarks on Albula and Elops. By T. D. A. Cockerell. Published May 7, 1910. Pages 2+4. Volume 56, Number 8. 1933. Upper Yukon Native Customs and Folk-Lore. By Ferdinand Schmitter. Published May 26,1910. Octavo. Pages 2+380. Volume 56, Number 4. 1935. A Preliminary Study of Chemical Denudation. By Frank Wigglesworth Clarke. Published June 29, 1910. Octavo. Pages 2+19. Volume 56. Num- ber 5. 1936. The Age of the Earth. By George F. Becker. Published June 29, 1910. Octayo. Pages 2+28. Volume 56, Number 6. 1937. Description of a New Subspecies of African Monkey of the Genus Cercopi- thecus. By D. G. Elliot. Publishd June 11, 1910. Octavo. Pages 2--1. ~ Voiume 56, Number 7. Of the regular series of Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections in press at the ciose of the year, there were: 1934. Cambrian Geology and Paleontology. Number 6: Olenellus and other Genera of the Mesonacide. By Charles D. Walcott. Volume 53, Number 6. 1939. Cambrian Geology and Paleontology. Number 7: Pre-Cambrian Rocks of the Bow River Valley, Alberta, Canada. By Charles D. Walcott. Volume 53, Number 7. 1940. Cambrian Geology and Paleontology. II. Abrupt Appearance of the Cam- brian Fauna on the North American Continent. By Charles D. Walcott. Volume 57, Number 1. 1941. Notes on a Horn-feeding Lepidopterous Larva from Africa. By August Busck. Volume 56, Number 8. Ill. SMITHSONIAN ANNUAL REPORTS. The Annual Report for 1908, though partly in type at the beginning of the fiscal year, was not published until late in the fall. 1917. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institu- tion, showing Operations, Expenditures, and Conditions of the Institution for the year ending June 30, 1908. Octavo. Pages x, 801, with 101 plates. Containing publications 1855, 1856, and 1888 to 1914. The following papers, forming the General Appendix of the Annual Report of the Board of Regents for 1908, were issued in pamphlet form: 1888. The Present Status of Military Aeronautics. By Maj. George O. Squier, U. S. Army. Pages 117-144, with 23 plates. 1889. Aviation in France in 1908. By Pierre-Roger Jourdain. Pages 145-159. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 85 1890. Wireless Telephony. By R. A. Fessenden. Pages 161-195, with 20 plates. 1891. Phototelegraphy. By Henri Armagnat. Pages 197-207. 1892. The Gramophone and the Mechanical Recording and Reproduction of Musical Sounds. By Lovell W. Reddie. Pages 209 to 251, with 2 plates. 1893. On the Light Thrown by Recent Investigation on Electricity on the Rela- tion between Matter and Ether. By J. J. Thomson. Pages 233-244. 1894. Development of General and Physical Chemistry During the Last Forty Years. By W. Nernst. Pages 245-253. 1895. Development of Technological Chemistry During the Last Forty Years. By O. H. Witt. Pages 255-262. 1896. Twenty Years’ Progress in Explosives. By Oscar Guttmann. Pages 263- 300, with 9 plates. 1897. Recent Research in the Structure of the Universe. By J. C. Kapteyn. Pages 301-319. 1898. Solar Vortices and Magnetism in Sun Spots. By C. G. Abbot. Pages 321- 338, with 5 plates. 1899. Climatie Variations: Their Extent and Causes. By J. W. Gregory. Pages 339-354. 1900. Uranium and Geology. By Prof. John Joly. Pages 355-384, with 1 plate. 1901. An Outline Review of the Geology of Peru. By George I. Adams. Pages 385-480, with 5 plates. 1902. Our Present Knowledge of the Earth. By E. Wiechert. Pages 431-449. 19038. The Antarctic Question—Voyages to the South Pole since 1898. By J. Machat. Pages 451-480, with 1 plate. 1904. Some Geographical Aspects of the Nile. By Capt. H. G. Lyons. Pages 481-503, with 5 plates. 1905. Heredity, and the Origin of Species. By Daniel Trembly MacDougal. Pages 505-528, with 1 plate. 1906. Cactaceze of Northeastern and Central Mexico, together with a Synopsis of the Principal Mexican Genera. By William Edwin Safford. Pages 525- 563, with 15 plates. (A separate edition with index was also published.) 1907. Angler Fishes: Their Kinds and Ways. By Theodore Gill. Pages 565- 615. 1908. The Birds of India. By Douglas Dewar. Pages 617-639. 1909. The Evolution of the Elephant. By Richard 8S. Lull. Pages 641-675, with 2 plates. 1910. Excavations at Boghaz-Keui in the Summer of 1907. By Hugo Winckler and O. Puchstein. Pages 677-696, with 10 plates. 1911. Malaria in Greece. By Ronald Ross. Pages 697-710. 1912. Carl von Linné as a Geologist. By A. G. Nathorst. Pages 711-748. 1913. Life and Work of Lord Kelvin. The Kelvin Lecture. By Sylvanus P. Thompson. Pages 745-768, with 1 plate. 1914. The Work of Henri Becquerel. By André Broca. Pages 769-785, with 1 plate. The report of the executive committee and Proceedings of the Board of Regents of the Institution, as well as the report of the Secretary, for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1909, both forming part of the annual report of the Board of Regents to Congress, was printed in pamphlet form and published at the December meeting of the Board of Regents, as follows: 1915. Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution for the year ending June 30, 1909. Pages iii, 95. 1916. Report of the Executive Committee and Proceedings of the Board of Regents for the year ending June 30, 1909. Pages 19. 86 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. The Smithsonian Report for 1909 was partly in type at the close of the fiscal year. In the General Appendix are the following papers: The Future of Mathematics, by Henri Poincaré. What Constitutes Superiority in an Airship, by Paul Renard. Researches in Radiotelegraphy, by J. A. Fleming. Recent Progress in Physics, by Sir J. J. Thomson. Production of Low Temperatures, and Refrigeration, by L. Marchis. The Nitrogen Question from the Military Standpoint, by Charles E. Munroe. Simon Newcomb, by Ormond Stone. Solar-radiation Researches by Jules César Janssen, by H. de la Baume Pluvinel. The Return of Halley’s Comet, by W. W. Campbell. The Upper Air, by E. Gold and W. A. Harwood. The Formation, Growth, and Habit of Crystals, by Paul Gaubert. The Distribution of Elements in Igneous Rocks, by Henry S. Washington. The Mechanism of Voleanic Action, by H. J. Johnston-Lavis.. Conservation. of Natural Resources, by James Douglas. The Antarctic Land of Victoria, by Maurice Zimmermann. Some Results of the British Antarctic Expedition, 1907-9, by H. H. Shackleton. The Oceanography of the Sea of Greenland, by D. Damas. From the Niger, by Lake Chad, to the Nile, by Lieut. Boyd Alexander. Mesopotamia: Past, Present, and Future, by Sir William Willcocks. Albert Gaudry and the Evolution of the Animal Kingdom, by Ph. Glangeaud. Charles Darwin, by August Weismann. Present Problems in Plant Ecology: Problems of Local Distribution in Arid Regions, by Volney M. Spalding. The Instinct of Self-concealment and the Choice of Colors in the Crustacea, by Romuald Minkiewicz. The Origin and Development of Parasitical Habits in the Cuculide, by C. L. Barrett. Some Remarks on the Protective Resemblance of South African Birds, by Alwin Haagner. An Inquiry into the History of the Current English Names of North American Land Birds, by Spencer Trotter. Condition of Wild Life in Alaska, by Madison Grant. Recent Discoyeries Bearing on the Antiquity of Man in Europe, by George Grant MacCurdy. European Population of the United States, by W. Z: Ripley. The Republic of Panama and its People, by Eleanor Yorke Bell. Ceramie Decoration: Its Evolution and Applications, by Louis Franchet. Some Notes on Roman Architecture, by F. T. Baggallay. The Relation of Science to Human Life, by Adam Sedgwick. Intellectual Work among the Blind, by Pierre Villey. The Relation of Mosquitoes, Flies, Ticks, Fleas, and other Arthropods to Pathology, by G. Marotel. Natural Resistance to Infectious Disease and its Reinforcement, by Simon Flexner. Iv. SPECIAL PUBLICATIONS. Only one special publication, in the form of a small pamphlet, was issued during the year: The Smithsonian Institution, at Washington, for the Increase and Diffusion of Knowledge among Men. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 87 There were two special publications nearly ready at the close of the year: 1932. Classified List of Smithsonian Publications available for distribution May, 1910. 1988. Opinions Rendered by the International Commission on Zoological Nomen- elature, Opinions 1 to 25. VY. PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. Ihe publications of the National Museum are: (a@) The annual report, form- ing a separate volume of the report to Congress by the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution; (0) the Proceedings of the United States National Museum; (c) the Bulletin of the United States National Museum; and (d) the Contributions from the United States National Herbarium. ‘The editorship of these publications is in charge of Dr. Marcus Benjamin. The publications issued during the year are enumerated in the report on the National Museum. These included volume 37 of the Proceedings, containing Museum papers numbered 1695 to 1724, and volume 388, papers numbered 1725- 1749. Hight Bulletins were issued, as follows: No. 65. Dendroid Graptolites of the Niagaran Dolomites at Hamilton, Ontario. By Ray S. Bassler. No. 66. A Monographie Revision of the Twisted Winged Insects comprising the Order Strepsiptera Kirby. By W. Dwight Pierce, No. 67. Directions for Collection and Preserving Insects. By Nathan Banks. No. 68. A Monograph of West American Pyramidellid Mollusks.. By William Healy Dall and Paul Bartsch. No. 69. The 'Tzenioid Cestodes of North American Birds. By Brayton Howard Ransom. : No. 70. The National Gallery of Art, Department of Fine Arts of the National Museum. By Richard Rathbun. No. 71. A Monograph of the Foraminifera of the North Pacific Ocean. Part I, Astrorhizide and Lituolide. By Joseph Augustine Cushman. No. 72. Catalogue of Nearctic Spiders. By Nathan Banks. In the series of Contributions from the National Herbarium there appeared: Volume 12, Part 10. Miscellaneous papers, by J. N. Rose, N. L. Britton, John M. Coulter, and G. N. Collins. Volume 18, Part 2. Three New Species of Echeveria, by J. N. Rose and J, A. Purpus. Volume 18, Part 3. The Grasses of Alaska, by F. Lamson-Scribner and Elmer D. Merrill. Volume 138, Part 4. New or Noteworthy Plants from Colombia and Central America—2, by Henry Pittier. Volume 18, Part 5. Relationships of the Ivory Paims, by O. F. Cook. Volume 14, Part 1. The Lichens of Minnesota, by Bruce Vink. Preliminary pages and index of volume 12, Systematic Investigations and Bib- liography. VI. PUBLICATIONS OF THE BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY. The publications of the Bureau are discussed in detail in another appendix of the Secretary’s report. The editorial work is in charge of Mr. J. G. Gurley. The following five bulletins were published by the Bureau during the year: Bulletin 38. Unwritten Literature of Hawaii. The sacred songs of the Hula, - compiled and translated, with notes and an account of the Hula, by Nathaniel B. Emerson, A. M., M.D. 1909. Octavo. Pages 288, with 24 plates, 3 figures, and 14 musical pieces. 88 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. Bulletin 39. Tlingit Myths and Texts, by John R. Swanton. 1909. Octavo. Pages VIII, 451. ‘ Bulletin 41, Antiquities of the Mesa Verde National Park: Spruce-Tree House, by J. Walter Fewkes. 1909. Octavo. Pages VIII, 97, with 21 plates and 37 figures. Bulletin 48. The Choctaw of Bayou Lacombe, St. Tammany Parish, Louisiana, by David I. Bushnell, jr. 1909. Octavo. Pages 37, with 22 plates and 1 figure. Bulletin 49. List of the publications of the Bureau of American Ethnology, with index to authors and titles. 1910. Octavo. Pages 32. VII. PUBLICATIONS OF THE SMITHSONIAN ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY, There were no new publications issued by the Astrophysical Observatory during the year. VIIl. AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. The manuscript of Volumes I and II of the Annual Report of the American Historical Association for 1907 was sent to the Public Printer on September 10, 1908, and the volumes were published in July, 1909. Volume I contained the following papers: Report of the Proceedings of the Twenty-third Annual Meeting of the American Historical Association, by Charles H. Haskins, corresponding secretary. Report of the Proceedings of the Pacific Coast ranch, by Clyde A. Duniway. Report of Conference on the Relation of Geography and History, by Frederick J. Turner. Report of Conference on the Work of State and Local Historical Societies, by Evarts B. Greene. Reports on special conferences on Medieval European History, on Modern Huro- pean History, on Oriental History and Politics, on American Constitutional History, and on United States History since 1865, by the respective chairmen of the conferences. Proposals for an Indian State, 1778-1878, by Annie H. Abel. The Pacific Railroads and the Disappearance of the Frontier in America, by Frederic L. Paxson. The Sentiment of the People of California with Respect to the Civil War, by John J. Earle. The Relation of the U. S. to Latin America, by Bernard Moses; Legazpi and Philippine Colonization, by James A. Robertson ; Report of the Public Archives Commission ; Francisco de Miranda and the Revolutionizing of Spanish America, by William S. Robertson. Volume 2 contained the report of the Historical Manuscripts Commission, comprising Diplomatic Archives of the Republic of Texas, I, edited by George P. Garrison. The manuscript of Volume I of the report for 1908 was sent to the printer on June 17, 1909, and the manuscript of Volume II was received from the secre- tary of the association and sent to the Public Printer in April, 1910, but neither volume had been completed at the close of the fiscal year. Ix. DAUGHTERS OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. The manuscript of the annual report of the National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution for the year ending October 11, 1909, was received on April 18, 1910, and communicated to Congress in accordance with the act of incorporation of that society. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 89 X. SMITHSONIAN ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON PRINTING AND PUBLICATION. The editor has continued to serve as secretary of the Smithsonian advisory committee on printing and publication. To this committee have been referred the manuscripts proposed for publication by the various branches of the Institu- tion as well as those offered for printing in the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections. The committee also considered forms of routine blanks and various matters pertaining to printing and publication, including the qualities of paper suitable for text and plates. Twenty-five meetings were held and 106 manu- seripts were acted upon. Respectfully submitted. A. HOWARD CLARE, Editor. Dr. CHARLES D. WALCOTT, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. duil's Sana arm ona mies nm a ante Ox” Mota mm at “@ nots at ii | ; slisescett PER ng ai at wsstdeelary wid H. = : aire waar Ph hits wanna 1 at TO hy Hane bihrabihe Ba ” eS bid at : wa ate . ve sift hb at: Srrpistoat si tiofl oe. x mY ea ae ; pals fat ih) f Sit mp silt Haw ghtioat Cid : = ee z \ "he : ; x. POR re “loqir, babi be nae saeceiis ais ‘ecee wc SOSA GOT aa Ort Ae el ’ f Siete a “¥ ; er 4 . 3 Bed in 3 : od t REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION For THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1910. To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution: Your executive committee respectfully submits the following report in relation to the funds, receipts, and disbursements of the Institution, and a statement of the appropriations by Congress for the National Museum, the International Exchanges, the Bureau of American Ethnology, the National Zoological Park, the Astro- physical Observatory, and the International Catalogue of Scientific Literature for the year ending June 30, 1910, together with balances of previous appropriations. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. Condition of the fund July 1, 1910. The permanent fund of the Institution and the sources from which it has been derived are as follows: DEPOSITED IN THE TREASURY OF THE UNITED STATES. equed: Or smaineon, IAG. = ¢ siti tr ee $515, 169. 00 IReeidGary jceicyreroniinson:s LSGy* S50 en aor eee ae 26, 210. 63 Deposit ror savines of mcomes 1867-25-50. eee ee ee 108, 620. 37 Bequest of James Hamilton, 1S7oe. i327 0i 22. $1, 000. 00 Accumulated interest on Hamilton fund, 1895.............-- 1, 000. 00 ——— 2, 000. 00 Beagtiesnen pumesnsbtiabel- (8805 2: 2255.05 2... J atc cmeerere sn tans sa 500. 00 Deposits from proceeds of sale of bonds, 1881...........----.....------ 51, 500. 00 Gilt of Thomas G- Hodgkins: 160bi 2.4 e SSE ee 200, 000. 00 Part of residuary legacy of Thomas G. Hodgkins, 1894..............--- 8, 000. 00 Deposit fromna wane or Income, 1903: 22:2... settee ee tnt hae 25, 000. 00 Residuary lecacy of Thomas G. Hodgkins: .. 2... 22.0. sp ons see e sees s = 7, 918. 69 Total amount of fund in the United States Treasury..........-.-- 944, 918. 69 91 92 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. OTHER RESOURCES. Registered and guaranteed bonds of the West Shore Railroad Company, part of legacy of Thomas G. Hodgkins (par value)..............------ $42, 000. 00 A Ota erRHAMOD fy LURES ore oh el oe ee eis a2 986, 918. 69 Also four small pieces of real estate bequeathed by Robert Stanton Avery, of Wash- ington, D, C. That part of the fund deposited in the Treasury of the United States bears interest at 6 per cent per annum under the provisions of the act of August 10, 1846, organizing the Institution, and act of Congress approved March 12, 1894. The rate of interest on the West Shore Railroad bonds is 4 per cent per annum. The real estate received from Robert Stanton Avery is exempt from taxation and yields only a nominal revenue from rentals. Statement of receipts and disbursements from July 1, 1909, to June 30, 1910. RECEIPTS. CARE EPO bmnLy be COUO tae a. Pace oped oti obo cae tec cin eee $32, 176. 70 Interest on fund deposited in United States Treasury, due duilyalesS09 cand Jamuanyet a0 OLG Lies Ree ae ed $56, 695. 12 Interest on West Shore Railroad bonds to January 1, 1910... ... 1, 680. 00 Repayments, rentals, publications, etc...-...5-..25-)..---+. 5, 877. 61 Contributions from various sources for specific purposes..-.-.- - 43, 230. 95 —_——— 107, 483. 68 139, 660. 38 DISBURSEMENTS. (imlines (Care ona FepAitd.. ogous. wd seach eee Be Dee ee $4, 701. 28 Suruahire and HapUreds a5 es oe Ree Rees oan Dee ES Cate aie 420. 75 General expenses: SET AVES, ae alee ates Qe Rl AR car) Sy Pe ged See Ses $14, 125. 86 1s TET FV A a a a eae aera ai ae, eee 237. 00 PSULECH E/T) Ua ee a oa a peerage ence ope F SNR Bae 745. 60 Postage, telegraph, and telephone.......-....-.-..------ 459. 96 LEA 26a, Ms eal A tN ath cs NPs SIE SI GEO Si FES eee 29. 97 Tinerdentalss ters Soc cose ee ane ee en eae et oe 1, 066. 93 Ce ie Ft ea ata yaa Sh Aad oie Beet ERE coe 1, 899. 75 Buehand Monies sds ike oo. cn soci Gace oe ce eRe gues 180. 03 ———— 18, 745. 10 TARY as Seen saat Be Nee eel Each Sec ee aie ee 2, 055. 50 Publications and their distribution: Miscellaneous collections... .>........:-.........-.-.-..------------ 4,000. 00 24.73 JNati¢nal/ AovlopicalwParks TOOBILE: YEE. . “eC SSE SEP ee eS Sees cee 11. 41 @11.18 National Zoological Park,)1909-. - v.22. -b. sash 4. - 2-2 - Seep e teste} ---- 2, 443. 69 13.25 National Zoological Bark, VOLO. oe re ose ao ins ne ae alm = 95, 000. 00 5,276. 60 a Carried to credit. of surplus fund. b Act of March 4, 1909, immediately available. REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 95 Statement of income from the Smithsonian fund and other revenues, accrued and pros- pective, available during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1911. Batce uae con Vole. BAe. 252 0 sot. SESSA Sess AE Le gL $35, 364. 88 Interest on fund deposited in U.S. Treasury, due July 1, 1910, SOUR STP goa SA | 1H Ee a ele $56, 695. 00 Interest on West Shore Railroad bonds, due July 1, 1910, and Bommiaryi Ss MOUS S? . Cts chi si. wee 8s LP SL oe 1, 680. 00 Exchange repayments, sale of publications, rentals, etc... .-.- 5, 600. 00 MGposisiorspecifie purposes. 25228 5oo-. See: Le ow. Se 8, 000. 00 FT 97500 Total available for year ending June 30, 1911....................- 107, 339. 88 Respectfully submitted. J. B. HENDERSON, JoHN DawzzEL, Execute Committee. Wasuineton, D. C., November 25, 1910. PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITH- SONIAN INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1910. At a meeting of the Board of Regents held February 10, 1909, the following resolution was adopted: Resolved, That hereafter the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution shall hold their annual meeting on the Tuesday after the second Monday in December, and another meeting on the second Thursday in February. In accordance with this resolution the board met at 10 o’clock a. m. on December 14, 1909, and on February 10, 1910. ANNUAL MEETING, DECEMBER 14, 1909. Present: Hon. Melville W. Fuller, Chief Justice of the United States (chancellor) in the chair; Hon. James S. Sherman, Vice-Presi- dent of the United States; Senator Shelby M. Cullom; Senator Henry Cabot Lodge; Senator Augustus O. Bacon; Representative John Dalzell; Representative James R. Mann; Dr. James B. Angell; Dr. Andrew D. White; Dr. Alexander Graham Bell; Mr. Charles F. Choate, jr., and the secretary, Mr. Charles D. Walcott. RESOLUTION RELATIVE TO INCOME AND EXPENDITURE. Doctor Bell offered the following resolution, which was adopted: Resolved, That the income of the Institution for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1911, be appropriated for the service of the Institution, to be expended by the secretary, with the advice of the executive committee, with full discretion on the part of the secretary as to items. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Doctor Bell presented the report ot the executive committee for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1909, which, on motion, was adopted. PERMANENT COMMITTEE. In behalf of the permanent committee Doctor Bell reported con- cerning the Andrews estate that since the last annual meeting a writ of error had been allowed by Mr. Justice Peckham, of the Supreme Court of the United States, to the supreme court of the State of New 96 PROCEEDINGS OF REGENTS. 97 York, on the ground that the court of appeals did not give full faith and credit to the constitution of Ohio, in respect to prohibiting the general assembly of that State from passing such acts conferring cor- porate powers. The Supreme Court of the United States decided against the contention of the Smithsonian counsel, under date of May 17, 1909. Doctor Bell also reported that no change had occurred in the con- ditions existing in connection with the Avery estate and the Sprague and Reid bequests at the time of the last report. On motion the report was accepted. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. The secretary submitted his report for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1909, explaining that it had been transmitted to the members of the board prior to this meeting. On motion the report was accepted. THE LANGLEY MEDAL. The secretary stated that at the meeting of the board held February 10, 1909, the Langley medal had been awarded to Messrs. Wilbur and Orville Wright. Notification of this action was transmitted to them in France through the American ambassador, and the following acknowledgment was received: Pau, March 15, 1909. Dear Sir: We have received through the American ambassador, Mr. White, your letter of February 18, 1909, informing us of the action of the Board of Regents awarding to us the Langley medal. The honor of such recognition at the hands of an institution of such high standing and unique character is one which we naturally appreciate most highly. We beg that you will communicate to the board our very sincere thanks and remain, Yours truly, WILBUR WRIGHT. ORVILLE WRIGHT. Mr. Cuas. D. Watcort, Washington, D. C. The secretary added that the Wright brothers had accepted an invitation to be present at the board meeting of February 10, 1910, and receive these medals in person. THE LANGLEY MEMORIAL TABLET. The secretary said that at a previous meeting Senator Bacon suggested that a tablet in memory of Secretary Langley be erected in a suitable portion of the Smithsonian building, and the board had requested a report upon the subject. He presented a report which contained a recommendation that a committee be appointed with power to select the tablet and assign a 97578°—sm 1910——7 98 PROCEEDINGS OF REGENTS, position for it. On motion, the recommendation was adopted, and the chancellor appointed as the committee Senator Lodge, Senator Bacon, and Secretary Walcott. B STREET MARKET PLACE. The secretary said: ‘“‘The board adopted a resolution in relation to the objectionable features incident to the use of B street north of the National Museum as a market place. The wishes of the board to have this condition remedied were conveyed to the Board of Commissioners of the District of Columbia, and I have to report that they have acted favorably, and that the sidewalk immediately north of the new building is now free from hucksters, who have been moved over to the north side of B street in front of the vacant lot known as ‘Haymarket Square.” DARWIN CELEBRATION. The secretary said: ‘‘By resolution of the board I attended the ceremonies in commemoration of the centenary of Charles Darwin’s birth, which were held at the University of Cambridge from June 22 to 24, when I presented the Institution’s greetings in a formal address. I was honored by having conferred upon me the title of doctor of science.” CHANGE OF DATE FOR ANNUAL MEETING. The secretary brought up the matter of a suitable date for the annual meeting, stating that difficulty was experienced in selecting a day of the week that would be most convenient for all the members of the board. After discussion Senator Cullom offered the following resolution, which was adopted: Resolved, That hereafter the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution shall hold their annual meeting on the second Thursday in December and a supplementary meeting on the second Thursday in February. THE SECRETARY'S STATEMENT. Progress on the new building for the National Musewm.—The failure on the part of several contractors to properly fulfill their agreements has not only greatly delayed the completion of the building, but has so increased the cost of construction that it has been necessary to proceed with extreme caution in the effort to keep within the limits of the appropriation. The entire exterior of the building has been finished, except the laying of the main approaches, for which, however, the granite has been cut and delivered, Of the interior practically all the halls and PROCEEDINGS OF REGENTS. 99 ranges for the exhibition and storage of collections and for the labo- ratories and workshops are now in use. The moving of the col- lections was begun last summer, and the occupation of the ground floor and third story should be completed by the end of the winter. The fitting up of the two great exhibition floors will require a much greater length of time, but it is expected that some parts of the exhibition collections can be made accessible to the public before the year is ended. The heating and electrical plant already installed has developed sufficient capacity to also meet the requirements of the two older buildings. The economy thus effected will be very appreciable. Congress failed to supply means for adapting the upper hall of the Smithsonian building to the purposes of the National Gallery of Art, and a portion of one of the skylighted halls in the new building will be temporarily assigned to the paintings. Art collection.—After discussion Senator Lodge offered the follow- ing resolutions, which were adopted: Resolved, That the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution hereby author- ize the Secretary of the Institution to issue in their name invitations for a private view of the paintings of the National Gallery of Art upon the completion of their temporary installation in the new building for the National Museum. Resolved, further, That the expenses connected with this reception be charged against the funds of the Institution. Mount Whitney and Mount Wilson operations.—Under an allot- ment from the Hodgkins fund for the building of a stone and steel hut or shelter on Mount Whitney, California, at an elevation of 14,502 feet, the structure has been completed for the use of scientific observers who desire to avail themselves of the unusually favorable atmospheric conditions on that summit. On September 3 Mr. Abbot, director of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, made suc- cessful observations there for the determination of the solar constant of radiation. A small cottage has also been erected on Mount Wilson, close to the Smithsonian observatory shelter on that moun- tain, to be used as quarters for the observers. Inauguration of president of Harvard University—In connection with the inauguration of Dr. Abbott Lawrence Lowell as president of Harvard University on October 6 I visited Cambridge as the representative of the Smithsonian Institution and presented its formal greetings. International Congress on Hygiene and Demography.—The secretary stated that the International Congress on Hygiene and Demography would be held in Washington from September 26 to October 1, 1910, and he had received a communication from the secretary-general of the congress, Dr. John S. Fulton, stating that a committee of three had 100 PROCEEDINGS OF REGENTS. been appointed for the purpose of arranging for the housing of the congress, of which committee the Secretary of the Smithsonian Insti- tution had been designated chairman.. This brought up the question of a suitable building for such pur- poses. There was no place now convenient, and it had become nec- essary, if the United States Government were to continue inviting foreign bodies to hold their conventions in Washington, that provi- sion be made for their reception in suitable quarters of a permanent character. In accordance with the policy announced in the secre- tary’s report of June 30, 1907, the Smithsonian Institution was doing what it could to help in this manner. Senator Cullom remarked that if the Government were not willing to provide suitable accommodations for its guests it ought not to invite them. Representative Mann agreed with this view and said that the Gov- ernment was saved from disgrace at the time of the tuberculosis con- gress only by the fact that the new building for the National Museum was sufficiently far advanced in construction to permit its use for meetings and exhibits. He asked if the Government should provide for the erection of such a building as was being discussed and placed it under the control of the Smithsonian Institution, would it be possi- ble to prevent it from being used permanently by the various organi- zations. The secretary replied that that would depend entirely upon the policy of the Board of Regents; that if they decided against such permanent occupation the secretary would undoubtedly see that their wishes were regarded. Death of Dr. Anton Dohrn.—For over sixteen years, as detailed in the annual reports of the secretary to the board, the Institution has supported a table at the Naples Zoological Station for the use of American biologists. The founder and director of the station, Dr. Anton Dohrn, has extended many courtesies to the Institution in this connection and has always shown entire sympanthy with the wishes of the Institution in arranging for the convenience of its appointees. It has seemed fitting, therefore, to announce to the board the death of this gentleman, which occurred on September 29 last. At the request of the Institution the Department of State designated the American consul at Naples to represent the Institution officially at the funeral. Ihave already communicated the Institution’s sympathy to the son of Doctor Dohrn, and have received from him a letter announcing his ee to succeed his father and his hope to continue the rela- tions which have existed between the Institution and the station for so many years. PROCEEDINGS OF REGENTS. 101 SMITHSONIAN AFRICAN EXPEDITION. The secretary said that he was glad to report that the Smithsonian African expedition in charge of Colonel Roosevelt was proceeding on the plan originally adopted, and that it would continue until the expe- dition reached Khartoum, probably about May, 1910. He said that funds had been secured from 25 subscribers to the amount of $40,500 and that he expected to obtain about $10,000 more. The total number of skins of large and small mammals and birds taken up to December 10, was 6,663. In addition, there were many skulls and skeletons, and about 2,500 sheets of plants. Up to the present time four shipments of specimens had been received from the expedition, numbering over 3,000. The material yet to come comprised rather more than half of the collections made to date and included about 6 elephants, 2 Somali giraffes, a complete eroup of ostriches (young and eggs, as well as adults), and also many antelopes and other animals not previously taken. Iive animals for the National Zoological Park.—As a result of the expedition, Mr. W. N. McMillan, of Juja farm, near Nairobi, had presented the National Zoological Park with a collection of living lions and other African animals. A representative of the park was sent to Nairopi to receive this gift, and to arrange for the transfer and care of these valuable animals. RESEARCH FUNDS FOR THE INSTITUTION. The secretary stated that he was making earnest efforts to increase the research funds of the Institution; that there were various lines of work which the Government would hardly feel justified in taking up, but which would come within the scope of the Institution’s activi- ties, and which it would assume, provided funds could be had for them. REGULAR MEETING, FEBRUARY 10, 1910. Present: Hon. Melville W. Fuller, Chief Justice of the United States (chancellor), in the chair; Hon. James S. Sherman, Vice-Pres- ident of the United States; Senator Shelby M. Cullom; Senator Henry Cabot Lodge; Senator Augustus O. Bacon; Representative James R. Mann; Representative William M. Howard; Hon. George Gray; Hon. John B. Henderson; Dr. Alexander Graham Bell, and the secretary, Mr. Charles D. Walcott. REAPPOINTMENT OF REGENTS. The chancellor announced that on December 14, 1909, the Speaker of the House of Representatives had reappointed Representatives John Dalzell, James R. Mann, and William M. Howard as Regents. 102 PROCEEDINGS OF REGENTS. He also stated that Hon. John B. Henderson and Dr. Alexander Graham Bell had been reappointed Regents by joint resolution of Congress. LANGLEY MEMORIAL TABLET. The secretary, on behalf of the committee on a memorial tablet to commemorate the work of Samuel Pierpont Langley in connection with aeronautical science, reported that the committee recommends that there be modeled in low relief a tablet along the lines of Saint- Gauden’s work, cast in bronze, in general rectangular shape, to con- tain a bas relief of the bust of Mr. Langley, and that the last model of the Langley aerodrome, in full flight, be suggested in the background; the tablet to bear the lettering: SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY 1834-1906 SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 1887-1906 and to bear also the text of what is known as Langley’s Law as to relation of speed to power in aerial motion, as follows: These new experiments (and theory also when viewed in their light) show that if in such aerial motion, there be given a plane of fixed size and weight, inclined at such an angle, and moved forward at such a speed, that it shall be sustained in horizontal flight, then the more rapid the motion is, the less will be the power required to support and advance it. The committee further recommends that the tablet be placed in the vestibule of the Smithsonian Institution, at the left of the entrance. A suggestion was made that the tablet also carry the date of the first successful flight of the Langley model. After discussion, Judge Gray offered the following resolution which was adopted: Resolved, That the report of the committee be accepted; that the committee be increased by the addition of Dr. Alexander Graham Bell, and that the report be referred back to the committee with power to act, with the request that the tablet contain an inscription showing the date of the first flight of the Langley aerodrome model. SMITHSONIAN AFRICAN EXPEDITION. The secretary read the following letter: Narrosi, December 15, 1909. To the SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. Srr: I have to report that the Smithsonian expedition under my charge has now finished its work in British East Africa and is about to leave for Uganda. The collec- tions made in British East Africa include: Mammals, larecs in galt. oc to oc... se ee eee attics mai 550 Mammals, spialls:. Sin: 5,16 BORER Jet TA ECE, on oe dc ee 3, 379 | Sia Fg eter tence ey and MMi seh Retype Mr Sel 6 Rye i Gene Oe eee Sr 2, 784 Reptiles and! batrachians, ‘abouti2-28.. 2.52-02 2k T209 OE a 1, 500 Fresh-water and marine fish;,about:.{.. 22 ca sj4sckiesoeeee aes = - sie eise ae 250 Totals vertebrates sas. s2ts LASNAEe CT SIRIAR CARAREe OE Senco eee een 8, 463 PROCEEDINGS OF REGENTS. 1038 In addition the collections include a large number of mollusks and other inverte- brates, several thousand plants; in the neighborhood of two thousand photos; anthro- pological materials, etc. Very respectfully, THEODORE ROOSEVELT. The secretary stated further that the Associated Press dispatches indicate that the expedition had secured five specimens of the white rhinoceros, a very rare animal. This had been accomplished through the concession of the King of Uganda who had given permission for the party to hunt in his domain. The collections included many duplicates which would be useful for comparative study. SECRETARY'S STATEMENT. National Museum.—The secretary stated that it was hoped to open a portion of the new building to the public by March 1, but that the opening of the entire building would probably not take place until the close of the year. The question of opening the Museum at night and on Sundays was discussed, and after a full interchange of views, the Vice-President offered the following resolution, which was adopted: Resolved, That the secretary be authorized and directed to prepare proper regula- tions for the opening, on Sundays, for a period not longer than five hours, of such portions of the National Museum as he may deem expedient, provided that the appro- priations for the maintenance of the Museum will permit. George Washington memorial building.—The secretary spoke of the proposed movement of the George Washington Memorial Association to erect in Washington a memorial building, which would be used as a center for the scientific, literary, and other educational associa- tions. He mentioned the meeting to be held in this connection at the Hall of the Daughters of the American Revolution on February 19, and said that among the speakers would be President Taft, Senator Lodge, and Senator Burton. The secretary said that his purpose in bringing the matter before the board was merely to show that there was a prospect of securing such a building as would afford a much needed relief to the present crowded condition of the Smithsonian building, brought about in part by the accommodations which the Institution had offered to the National Academy of Sciences, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the American Historical Association, and others. The secretary added that there was great need of a building of the kind referred to; for instance, at the International Congress on Hygiene and Demography there would be 3,000 persons, and it would be necessary to scatter them through possibly eight or ten buildings. In answer to an inquiry, he said that the George Washington memorial building would be erected by popular subscription, and that it would be entirely independent of the George Washington University. 104 PROCEEDINGS OF REGENTS. Death of Ferdinand V. Berry.—The secretary announced with regret the death, on January 27, 1910, of Mr. Ferdinand V. Berry, chief clerk of the International Exchanges of the Institution. Mr. Berry entered the service of the Institution in January, 1884, as a clerk, and was advanced from grade to grade to the position he held at the time of his death. He was a capable and valuable employee. Oldroyd collection.—The secretary said that at various times bills had been introduced in Congress providing for the purchase of what was known as ‘‘The Oldroyd collection of Lincoln relics,’ now located in the building No. 516 Tenth street, NW., the house in which Lincoln died; his object in bringing the matter before the board was to call attention to the proposal to organize what might be described asa ‘‘National’’ museum for this collection; he thought that the estab- lishment of such independent ‘‘National” museums should be discouraged by the board which had under its charge the legal National Museum; he was not asking for any definite action as he thought that his object could very well be accomplished if he could enlist the interest of the congressional Regents when matters of this kind were brought before Congress. Andrews will case—Senator Henderson said that he had requested Mr. Frank W. Hackett to make a personal statement to the board in relation to the present condition of the Andrews will case, par- ticularly with regard to a proposed action for testing the validity of the Andrews bequest in Ohio. Mr. Hackett submitted his statement, and, after discussion, the Vice-President offered the following resolution, which was adopted: Resolved, That in view of the statement made by Mr. Frank W. Hackett to the Board of Regents, the entire matter of the Andrews will case be referred back to the executive committee with full power to act. PRESENTATION OF LANGLEY MEDAL TO MESSRS. WILBUR AND ORVILLE WRIGHT. The chancellor said that the next business before the meeting was the presentation of the Langley medals to the Wright brothers. Accordingly, these gentlemen were escorted to the Regents room and introduced to the board. HISTORICAL ADDRESS BY DR. ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL. Doctor Bell said: Mr. Chancellor, the award of the Langley medal to the Brothers Wilbur and Orville Wright emphasizes the fact that we are living in an age of great achievements. The twentieth century had hardly dawned when the world was startled by the discovery of radium, which has opened up an entirely "Wa3I. ASTON] 3HL shi BHE/are| "sjuadey Jo sduIp9900/4—"Q16| ‘Hoday ueiuosy}iwsS PROCEEDINGS OF REGENTS. 105 new field to science, and which has led us to modify profoundly our conceptions regarding the constitution of matter. Another new field has been revealed to us through the development of wireless telegraphy and telephony; and we now utilize the vibra- tions of the etherial medium of space for the transmission of thought. Then again we may note the most revolutionary changes going on before our eyes relating to methods of transportation. The appearance of the hydroplane boat probably foreshadows a revolution in marine architecture and propulsion. On land we see motor cycles, automobiles, and electric cars displacing the horse. Petroleum and electricity have become powerful rivals of steam, and we seem to be on the eve of a revolution in our methods of railroad transportation, through the application of the gyroscope to a monorail system. And now aerial transport has come, dispensing with rails and roads altogether. The air itself has become a highway, and dirigible balloons and flying machines are now realities. How well the predictions of Langley have been fulfilled. We now recognize that he was right when he said a few years ago (1897) that— The world indeed will be supine if it does not realize that a new possibility has come to it and that the great universal highway overhead is now soon to be opened. It has been opened, and who can foretell the consequences to man ? One thing is certain: That the physical obstacles to travel have been overcome, and that there is no place on the surface of the globe that is inaccessible to civilized man, through the air. Does this not point to the spread of civilization all over the world and the bringing of light to the dark continents of the earth ? THE PIONEERS OF AERIAL FLIGHT. Who are responsible for the great, developments in aerodromics of the last few years? Not simply the men of the present, but also the men of the past. To one man especially is honor due: Our own Dr. S. P. Langley, late Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. When we trace backward the course of history we come unfailingly to him as the great pioneer of aerial flight. We have honored his name by the establishment of the Langley medal; and it may not be out of place on this, the first occasion for the presentation of the medal, to say a few words concerning Langley’s work. LANGLEY’S WORK. Langley devoted his attention to aerodromics at a time when the idea of a flying machine was a subject for ridicule and scorn. It was as much as a man’s reputation was worth to be known to be at work upon the subject. He bravely faced the issue, and gave to the world his celebrated memoir entitled ‘‘ Experimentsin Aerodynamics.” 106 PROCEEDINGS OF REGENTS. In this work he laid the foundations for a science and art of aero- dromics, and raised the whole subject of aerial flight to a scientific plane. The knowledge that this eminent man of science believed in the practicability of human flight gave a great stimulus to the activities of others and started the modern movement in favor of aviation that is such a marked feature of to-day. Everyone now recognizes the influence ted by Langley on the development of this art. The Wright brothers, too, have laid their tribute at his feet. ‘The knowledge,” they say, ‘‘that the head of the most prominent scientific institution of America believed in the possibility of human flight was one of the influences that led us to undertake the preliminary investigations that preceded our active work. He recommended to us the books which enabled us to form sane ideas at the outset. It was a helping hand at a critical time, and we shall always be grateful.” CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE SCIENCE OF AERODROMICS. Langley’s experiments in aerodynamics gave to physicists, perhaps for the first time, firm ground on which to stand as to the long dis- puted questions of air resistances and reactions. Chanute says: (a) They established a more reliable coefficient for rectangular pressures than that of Smeaton. (b) They proved that upon inclined planes the air pressures were really normal to the surface. (c) They disproved the ‘‘Newtonian law’’ that the normal pressure varied as the square of the angle of incidence on inclined planes. (d) They showed that the empirical formula of Duchemin, proposed in 1836 and ignored for fifty years, was approximately correct. (e) That the position of the center of pressure varied with the angle of inclination, and that on planes its movements approximately followed the law formulated by Jéessel. (f) That oblong planes, presented with their longest dimension to the line of motion, were more effective for support than when presented with their narrower side. (g) That planes might be superposed without loss of supporting power if spaced apart certain distances which varied with the speed. (hk) That thin planes consumed less power for support at high speeds than at low speeds. The paradoxical result obtained by Langley that it takes less power to support a plane at high speed than at low, opens up enormous pos- sibilities for the aerodrome of the future. It results, as Chanute has pointed out, from the fact that the higher the speed, the less need be the angle of inclination to sustain a given weight, and the less there- fore the horizontal component of the air pressure. It is true only, however, of the plane itself, and not of the struts and framework that go to make up the rest of a flying machine. In PROCEEDINGS OF REGENTS. 107 order, therefore, to take full advantage of Langley’s law, those por- tions of the machine that offer head resistance alone without con- tributing anything to the support of the machine in the air, should be reduced to a minimum. CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE ART OF AERODROMICS., After laying the foundations of a science of aerodromics, Langley proceeded to reduce his theories to practice. Between 1891 and 1895 he built four aerodrome models—one driven by carbonic acid gas, and three by steam engines. On the 6th of May, 1896, his Aerodrome No. 5 was tried upon the Potomac River near Quantico. I was myself a witness of this cele- brated experiment, and secured photographs of the machine in the air, which have been widely published.? This aerodrome carried a steam engine and had a spread of wing of from 12 to 14 feet. It was shot into the air from the top of a house boat anchored in a quiet bay near Quantico. It made a beautiful flight of about 3,000 feet, considerably over half a mile. It was indeed a most inspiring spectacle to see a steam engine in the air flying with wings like a bird. The equilibrium seemed to be perfect, although no man was on board to control and guide the machine. I witnessed two flights of this aerodrome on the same day and came to the conclusion that the possibility of aerial flight by heavier- than-air machines had been fully demonstrated. The world took the same view and the progress of practical aerodromics was immensely stimulated by the experiments. Langley afterwards constructed a number of other aerodrome models which were flown with equal success, and he then felt that he had brought his researches to a conclusion, and desired to leave to others the task of bringing the experiments to the man-carrying stage: Later, however, encouraged by the appreciation of the War Depart- ment, which recognized in the Langley aerodrome a possible new engine of war, and stimulated by an allotment of $50,000 from the Department, he constructed a full-sized aerodrome to carry a man. Two attempts were made, with Mr. Charles M. Manly on board as aviator, to shoot the machine into the air from the top of a house boat, but on each occasion the machine caught on the launching ways and was precipitated into the water. The public, not knowing the nature of the defect which prevented the aerodrome from taking the air, received the impression that the machine itself was a failure and could not fly. @ A photograph of this flight was here shown. 108 PROCEEDINGS OF REGENTS. This conclusion was not warranted by the facts; and to me and to others who have examined the apparatus, it seems to be a perfectly good flying machine—excellently constructed and the fruit of years of labor. It was simply never launched into the air, and so has never had the opportunity of showing what it could do. Who can say what a third trial might have demonstrated? The general ridicule, however, with which the first two failures were received prevented any further allotment of money to give it another trial. CONCLUSION. Langley never recovered from his disappointment. He was humil- iated by the ridicule with which his efforts had been received, and had, shortly afterwards, a stroke of paralysis. Within a few months a second stroke came and deprived him of life. He had some consolation, however, at the end. Upon his death- bed he received the resolution of the newly formed ‘Aero Club of America,’ conveying the sympathy of the members and their high appreciation of his work. Langley’s faith never wavered, but he never saw a man-carrying aerodrome in the air. His greatest achievements in practical aerodromics consisted in the successful construction of power-driven models which actually flew. With their construction he thought that he had finished his work; and, in 1901, in announcing the supposed conclusion of his labors he sald: I have brought to a close the portion of the work which seemed to be specially mine—the demonstration of the practicability of mechanical flight—and for the next stage, which is the commercial and practical development of the idea, it is probable that the world may look to others. He was right, and the others have appeared. The aerodrome has ‘reached the commercial and practical stage; and chief among those who are developing this field are the brothers Wilbur and Orville Wright. They are eminently deserving of the highest honor from us for their great achievements. I wish to express my admiration for their work and believe that they have justly merited the award of the Langley medal by their magnificent demonstrations of mechanical flight. PRESENTATION ADDRESS BY SENATOR HENRY CABOT LODGE. Senator Lodge said: Mr. Chancellor, founded for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men, the Smithsonian Institution has always considered that one way in which it could most appropriately fulfill the purposes of its founder was by the recognition of great achievements in science. PROCEEDINGS OF REGENTS. 109 Identified with the science of aerodromics through the work of its eminent secretary, Doctor Langley, it has had a peculiar interest in what has been done in that field. We have just heard of the results achieved by Professor Langley, and I think it is not too much to say that his life in a measure was sacrificed to the work which he did in the establishment of the scien- tific principles of aerial flight, to which he gave so much of his life work and for which recognition is now given throughout the entire world. Nothing, therefore, could have given Mr. Langley more pleasure than to recognize the men who have successfully demon- strated the soundness of his principles by their application to actual flight in machines heavier than the air. I repeat that nothing could be more appropriate than that such a demonstration should receive the recognition of the Smithsonian Institution. We are glad to do this in the case of the Wright brothers, not only on account of their courage, their energy, and the ability they have shown, but also because we feel, I think I may say, a not unreasonable pride in the fact that they are Americans. It is peculiarly characteristic of Americans to be pioneers; pioneers across the great continent on which we live; pioneers by sea, and now pioneers by air; and to Wilbur and Orville Wright, pioneers of what Doctor Langley calls ‘‘the great universal highway overhead,” who by their achievements have added honor to the American name and nation, we now present the first Langley medal that the Institution has conferred. REMARKS BY WILBUR WRIGHT. The chancellor then presented the medals to Messrs. Wilbur and Orville Wright, saying that it gave him particular pleasure to do so. Mr. Wilbur Wright addressed the board as follows: Mr. Chancellor, at different times my brother and myself have re- ceived recognition for the work which we have attempted to do in the line of aerial research, but in no instance has such recognition given us greater pleasure than that which we now receive from the Smith- sonian Institution. This is particularly the case because the Insti- tution, through the studies and work of Professor Langley, has always taken especial interest in scientific research in matters relating to the physical properties of the air, and this interest has extended to prac- tical attempts to fly. We are very much gratified, therefore, that the Institution has thought our work worthy of this honor, for which we desire to express our sincere thanks. A subject of research which has not yet been completed, and one to which Doctor Bell has called attention in the work of Professor Langley, is the coefficient of air pressure; that is, the pressure cf wind at a certain speed on a plane of a certain size. A great many investigations have been made by 110 PROCEEDINGS OF REGENTS. Professor Langley, and other people have also experimented in this art, but for the most part the results have not yet been brought into shape to be presented to the public. Our own work in this particular investigation we have been obliged to set aside for a while on account of the press of business matters, but it is our intention, as soon as these business details are arranged, to take it up again and present the results to the world. There is a great deal of work to do in this line, and a great many other researches to be taken up, which will keep a large number of investigators busy for a lifetime, and I venture to express the hope that the Smithsonian Institution will continue to encourage the labors of those engaged in these fields. GENERAL APPENDIX TO" Re SMITHSONIAN REPORT FOR 1910 ADVERTISEMENT. The object of the Grenerat Apprnprx to the Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution is to furnish brief accounts of scientific dis- covery in particular directions; reports of investigations made by collaborators of the Institution; and memoirs of a general character or on special topics that are of interest or value to the numerous correspondents of the Institution. It has been a prominent object of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, from a very early date, to enrich the annual report required of them by law with memoirs illustrating the more remarkable and important developments in physical and biological discovery, as well as showing the general character of the operations of the Institution; and this purpose has, during the greater part of its history, been carried out largely by the publication of such papers as would possess an interest to all attracted by scientific progress. In 1880 the secretary, induced in part by the discontinuance of an annual summary of progress which for 30 years previous had been issued by well-known private publishing firms, had prepared by com- petent collaborators a series of abstracts, showing concisely the prom- inent features of recent scientific progress in astronomy, geology, meteorology, physics, chemistry, mineralogy, botany, zoology, and anthropology. This latter plan was continued, though not altogether satisfactorily, down to and including the year 1888. In the report for 1889 a return was made to the earlier method of presenting a miscellaneous selection of papers (some of them original) embracing a considerable range of scientific investigation and dis- cussion. This method has been continued in the present report for 1910. 112 Smithsonian Report, 1910.—Walcott. MELVILLE WESTON FULLER. 1833-1910. Chancellor of Smithsonian Institution, 1889-1910. PLATE 1. MELVILLE WESTON FULLER—1833-1910. [With 1 plate.] By CHARLES D. WALCcorTT, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Melville Weston Fuller, doctor of laws, Chief Justice of the United States, chancellor of the Smithsonian Institution, was born at Au- gusta, Me., February 11, 1833, and died at his summer home, Sorrento, Me., on the morning of July 4, 1910. He became a statutory member of the establishment of the Smithsonian Institution, and also a mem- ber of the Board of Regents on October 8, 1888, by virtue of his appointment as the Chief Justice of the United States. He was elected chancellor of the Institution by the Board of Regents at its annual meeting January 9, 1889. The chancellors who preceded Chief Justice Fuller were: Vice President George Mifflin Dallas, 1846-1849; Vice President Millard Fillmore, 1849-1850; Chief Justice Roger Brooke Taney, 1850-1864; Chief Justice Samuel Portland Chase, 1864-1873; and Chief Justice Morrison Remick Waite, 1874-1888. For 22 years, until his death in 1910, Chief Justice Fuller was most deeply interested in the general welfare of the Institution. He pre- sided over the meetings of the Board of Regents most wisely and judiciously. With one exception, there was not a meeting of the regents during that entire period when he failed to be present. The Regents of the Institution expressed their sorrow in the fol- lowing words of tribute to his memory, adopted at the annual meet- ing of the board on December 8, 1910: Whereas the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution have received the sad intelligence of the death, on July 4, 1910, of Melville Weston Fuller, Chief Justice of the United States, and for twenty- two years chancellor of the Institution; therefore be it Resolved, That we desire here to record our profound sorrow at the severing of the tie that has bound us to him for so long a period of honored service; that we feel keenly the loss of a wise presiding officer, 97578°—sm 1910——8 118 114 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. whose vast store of learning and gracious dignity have proved so in- valuable in the deliberations of this board, and whose loyal interest in the Smithsonian Institution has been a source of inspiration to his colleagues. Resolved, That we share in the grief of the nation at the passing . away of one who was at once a distinguished leader of the greatest legal tribunal of our land, an eminent jurist, a patriotic citizen, a shining example of Christian gentleness, and who also possessed so charming a personality as a man and as a friend. Resolved, That we respectfully tender to the members of the family of our late associate, our sincerest sympathy in their great bereave- ment. Resolved, That an engrossed copy of these resolutions be trans- mitted to the family of the late chancellor. An adequate review of the life of that eminent jurist would re- quire more space than can be devoted to the subject in the present report of the board to Congress. Numerous eulogies in his memory have been delivered by members of the bar of the Supreme Court and by jurists throughout the land. It is fitting that selections from some of these tributes should here be recorded. At a meeting of the bar of the Supreme Court and of its officers on December 10, 1910, Mr. Richard Olney, chairman of the meeting, and formerly an associate of Chief Justice Fuller on the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution said :1 “Gentlemen of the bar: The death of the Chief Justice of the United States is an event of the first importance. Undoubtedly it does not impress the general public as does the demise of a President in office. It does not elicit the same manifestations of general sor- row, it is not marked by the same profusion of funeral pageantry and funeral oratory. It is nevertheless an occurrence of much: greater moment by reason both of the longer tenure of the Chief Justice’s office and of the unique character of its functions. No single Presidency, probably no number of Presidencies combined, has ever infiuenced the destinies of this country so vitally and so largely as did the single Chief Justiceship of John Marshall. In adding Melville W. Fuller to the roll of the country’s Chief Justices, therefore, one of our great Presidents exercised his highest preroga- tive and performed the act of his official life most far-reaching and enduring in its consequences. That President Cleveland’s choice was fortunate has long been generally conceded. It put at the head of the national judiciary a well-educated scholar and a well-trained lawyer; a man who had won distinction at the bar on his merits and by his own efforts; who was not the lawyer of but one client or in but one field, but was expert in all varieties of professional work; who, 1The extracts herein are from ‘‘ Proceedings of the bar and officers of the Supreme Court of the United States in memory of Melville Weston Fuller, December 10, 1910.” Washington: 1911, pp. 1-108. cell ne MELVILLE WESTON FULLER—WALCOTT. 115 starting in the extreme northeastern corner of the Union where he indulged himself in such various activities as being president of the city council, city solicitor, and newspaper editor, soon took Horace Greeley’s advice to young men, and three years after’ his admission to the bar established himself in the metropolis of the West; who from the beginning and as long as he remained at the bar took the good citizen’s interest in politics, and thus put himself in touch with the currents of popular thought and sentiment; and who from the outset of his career was in thorough sympathy with the democratic principles which underlie our political institutions. Once inducted into his great office, he from the beginning acquitted himself so judiciously and ably and yet so modestly as both to increase the esteem of friends and to forestall the cavils of would-be critics. The limits of this occasion do not permit any adequate analysis of his merits as a judge or any satisfactory estimate of those labors on the Supreme Bench which occupied nearly 23 years of his life and are only partially shown in over 90 volumes of United States Su- preme Court Reports. It is, however, only just and proper to say that, large and novel and momentous in their aspects and conse- quences as are many of the legal issues constantly presented to the Supreme Court of the United States, Chief Justice Fuller never failed to rise to the height of the occasion, and, whether as one of a minority or a majority of the court, to worthily deal with them. Many of his opinions are models of ied statement, of exhaustive research, of close and conclusive reasoning. * * * a Besides doing his share of the legal work of the Supreme Court, the Chief Justice is its executive and presiding officer. His qualities in both capacities have always received unstinted commendation. He was anxious to keep the docket moving, to prevent any conges- tion of the business of the court, and to avoid all delays in the dis- position of causes not absolutely essential to the due administration of justice. That he accomplished those purposes with great success was due largely to his native tact and his invariable good temper. Over the public deliberations of the court he presided with a dignity and grace all his own. He was a patient and attentive listener and was content that counsel should have full opportunity to develop his case in his own way without interruption. He was specially considerate of the debutant, whether young or old, and many a first appearance at the bar of the court at Washington has been saved from wreck by the encouraging nod and smile of the Chief Justice. For those of us to whom the zest of life is largely in memories, few things can be more gratefully recalled than the spectacle of the Chief Justice sitting with his colleagues to listen to the opening of some newcomer, and by every word and tone and gesture expressing 116 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. the assurance that, whether his case or his presentation of it was good, bad, or indifferent, he had a well-wisher at the head of the court. It must not be understood that these occasions elicited any- thing unusual or exceptional.in the bearing of the Chief Justice. On the contrary, the same considerate and gracious demeanor marked his entire administration of his duties as chief of his court. No one was snubbed, no one left the court with a right to feel that for some occult reason he was not persona grata. During his Chief Justice- ship the court at Washington has been universally acclaimed as the most agreeable tribunal in the country to appear before. Members of the bar found there a forum in which the height of dignity was combined with the height of simplicity, in which ceremony did not degenerate into fussiness, and in which form was not exalted over substance. All can not fail to miss the central figure, in whom perfect kindliness of manner was joined to equal inflexibility in all essentials. They who knew him more intimately, and as the man as well as the magistrate, can not but grieve for the passing of a friend and comrade whose unique and personal charm mere words are inadequate to ex- press. Fortunate in his life and in the opportunities of a great career clearly apprehended and worthily utilized, the Chief Justice was also fortunate in the circumstances of his death, which found him still in harness and still charged with the responsibilities of his great office. ‘ When,’ says Lord Bacon, ‘a man hath obtained worthy ends and expectations, the sweetest canticle is “ Vune Dimittis.”’” At the meeting referred to above the following resolutions were adopted: Resolved, That the members of the bar of the Supreme Court desire to express their profound regret at the death of Melville Weston Fuller, eighth Chief Justice of the United States, and to record their high appreciation of his life and character and of his conspicuous and faithful service to his country. Born in the State of Maine, he went to Chicago at the age of 23, when that great city was in its infancy, and there entered upon his long and distinguished professional career, which culminated in his elevation to the most exalted judicial station in our Government. He secured the advantages of an academic and classical education at Bowdoin College, and always retained the habits and tastes of the student and scholar. He was a man of the most extensive and varied reading in the pro- tession, in governmental and political discussion and in general literature. He rapidly achieved a commanding position at the then exception- ally brilliant bar of the city of his adoption, and for 32 years carried on an extended and diversified practice in the courts of his State; nor did he infrequently appear before the great tribunal over which he afterwards, and for 22 years, presided with such marked ability and distinction. He was a man of singular beauty and purity of character. MELVILLE WESTON FULLER—WALCOTT. Ti While he was at the bar no one harbored a suspicion that the exigency of forensic controversy, in which he was almost constantly engaged, could ever tempt him to aught that was unfair or unworthy of the highest ideals of a noble and honorable profession. As Chief Justice, it is enough to say that with conspicuous fidelity he fully and consistently maintained the best traditions of that high office. He took a deep interest in the efforts to secure peace between nations by international arbitration, and was appointed by our Government to membership in the permanent court established in 1899 by the first peace conference, and served in that capacity. His character was marked by a gentle courtesy and consideration which constantly illuminated and attended upon the discharge of his important public duties, always marked his relations with the bar, and earned that popular confidence which goes out to him whom the people believe to be a merciful and considerate, as well as a just and impartial judge. All this he was; and, endowed by nature with talents not inferior to those of his predecessors, possessed of attainments, training, and experience adequate to the exacting requirements of his great office, he filled it at all times in such a manner as to command the admira- tion and respect of the bar and the grateful appreciation of his countrymen. On the morning of July 4 last, at his beautiful summer home, on the soil of the State in which he was born, and to which he remained always deeply attached, his long, useful, and honorable life ended; and when the sad announcement was made, we who had practiced in the great tribunal where he so long presided felt a deep sense of personal loss and personal bereavement that he had gone from us forever. Resolved, also, That the Attorney General be asked to present these resolutions to the court and to request that they be inscribed upon its permanent records. And that the chairman of this meeting be requested to transmit a copy of the resolutions to the family of the late Chief Justice and an expression of our sincere sympathy with them in the great and irreparable loss which they have sustained. In seconding the resolutions Mr. Lee S. Overman said: “The people of this country, Mr. Chairman, have the greatest re- spect for the law for its own sake, and there is no country in the world which honors and respects its great expounders and adminis- trators more than does ours; and the reputation of a great and upright judge is one of the greatest inheritances of a free and happy people. Our country has been blessed with a Supreme Court whose able, just, and upright justices have added to her history a crown of glory and been to the Republic and its people a shield of pro- tection. “ With untiring labor, with a broad grasp of the principles which underlie the structure of our Government, in the light of their genius they have traced back the principles of the law to their fountain springs, and then, running them forward to their logical conclusion, with their expansiveness and flexibility, they have so applied them to 118 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. the great problems arising continually under new conditions inci- dent to our progress and higher civilization that our republican in- stitutions and the affairs of the people have not suffered. “Chief Justice Fuller was among the greatest of these great and illustrious lawyers and judges, and it is therefore most fitting that we should do honor to his memory and hold these appropriate exer- cises. By so doing we not only honor him, but we foster that spirit which always exists among a free people, and which tends to con- serve our highest ideals and uphold our free institutions. Great men make great history, and love, veneration, and respect for them make a great people. ; “The great Italian poet, speaking of the mighty presence which he met in that mystic realm of departed spirits, paid a great tribute to him when he said, ‘ His was a life so round and full that when it rolled out of time into eternity the world knew not how great a void was left until a generation has passed away.’ This thought is applicable to him whom we meet to honor to-day. “ He was not a young man, dying in the fullness of his strength and power with unfilled possibilities. This is no place for sorrow. This man died after a full, well-rounded, completed life. He died when age was ripe, with the harness of his great official position yet upon him, and after maintaining the best traditions of his great office and of a great lawyer. Crowned with honor, ripe with age, respected by a great people, he leaned his white head beneath the soft touch of death—a death befitting such a life. “*Why weep ye, then, for him, who, having run The bounds of man’s appointed years, at last, Life’s blessings all enjoyed, life’s labor done, Serenely to his final rest has passed?’ ” Mr. Charles E. Littlefield, on the same occasion, said: “* * * He came from a family of able preachers and lawyers. With Mr. Chief Justice Shaw, of Massachusetts, one of the greatest justices that ever sat on the Massachusetts bench, he had a common ancestor in Rev. Habijah Weld, called in his time ‘a perfect Boanerges in the pulpit.’ Rev. Habijah Weld was the fourth in a succession of four generations of preachers. Mr. Fuller’s paternal and maternal grandfathers were both lawyers of note. Hon. Nathan Weston, his mother’s father, was one of the first associate justices of the Maine supreme court and its chief justice for seven years, and a lawyer and judge of unusual ability. His father and mother each had a brother who was a lawyer. He graduated from Bowdoin Col- lege when 20 years of age, destined to become one of the most dis- tinguished of an alumni which has a larger percentage of men of eminence and note than that of any other educational institution in the country. He had by inheritance an aptitude for the law. Ad- MELVILLE WESTON FULLER—WALCOTT. 119 mitted to the bar in Maine, desiring a wider field, in 1856 he went to Chicago, where, with gratifying success, he practiced his profession, attaining a high rank, until his appointment as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, April 30, 1888. His practice was general, varied, and extensive, involving much important litiga- tion. With great abilities, a ripe classical scholar, learned and pro- found in the law, diligent, industrious, conscientious, courageous, and patriotic, of the highest personal character, he brought to the discharge of the duties of the great office the abilities, qualities, and characteristics that enabled him to achieve his signal success. The dignity, urbanity, kindness, consideration, and gentle courtesy with which he presided over the deliberations of the Supreme Court of the United States endeared him not only to his associates on the bench but won for him the love and respect of a great profession. Of him it could be truthfully said, ‘And they shall judge the people with just judement.) Fit) *?” _ Mr. George E. Price said: * * * “No other court in the world is intrusted with such powers as this court. It deals not only with great questions of controversy arising between individual citizens of different States and between citizens of foreign countries and our own people, but to it is intrusted the ultimate interpretation of the laws and Consti- tution of the United States, with power to declare null and void not only acts of the legislatures of the different States, so far as they come in conflict with the Federal Constitution, but also the acts of Congress, the highest lawmaking power of the Federal Government. In additiontothese great powers, this court is also given jurisdiction to settle controversies between the sovereign States of this Union, and in the past it has been called upon to settle controversies which involved the very autonomy of the States concerned, the integrity of their territory and their governmental jurisdiction and power. It is the first great instance of what is in effect modern international arbitration. In the settlement of these controversies between the States this court has no statute law to govern it and seldom any provision of any written constitution, but it is obliged to invoke and apply the eternal principles of an elevated and perfect justice, un- fettered by technical subtleties and petty forms, the same funda- mental doctrines of international law, which by the common consent of mankind are the basis of the intercourse of the civilized world. To its great credit it can be said that in these controversies between the States its judgments have always been acquiesced in and respected and carried out without question. “Such are the powers of this great court over which the late Chief Justice presided for nearly a quarter of a century. ‘To-day we, 120 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. the members of the bar of this court, are assembled to pay tribute to his memory, and all of us here assembled, as well as other mem- bers of the bar of this court from all sections of the country, those who have taken part in the great contests before it on the one side or the other, those whose interests or the interests of whose clients have been affected by its judgments, with one accord declare and bear testimony that he discharged the great duties of his position with becoming dignity, uniform courtesy, with signal ability and unquestioned fidelity and integrity; discharged these duties in such manner as to reflect great credit not only upon himself but upon the court and the Nation at large. Speaking for myself and, in some measure, for the bar of the State of West Virginia, I am here to unite with the other members in paying this just tribute to the mem- ory of the late Chief Justice; and, having said this, there seems to be nothing more to say. I know of no way to pay greater honor to the memory of any man. “Chief Justice Fuller met the responsibilities arising out of the great questions presented to this court in his day, and this is all that can be said of his predecessors in this great office. Marshall exercised a great influence in deciding the questions that arose dur- ing the constructive period of our Government. They were far- reaching questions, and the influence of his decisions is felt in the administration of the Government to this day. Chief Justice Taney, his successor, was confronted with the burning questions that arose in the great controversies preceding and during our terrible Civil War. Chase and Waite dealt with the important questions which arose out of the war—the reconstruction period, requiring the read- justment of many things which had been considered settled; the readjustment of the relations between the two sections which had been at war with each other, and the interpretation of the amendments to the Constitution which grew out of the war. And Chief Justice Fuller has been obliged to grapple with the great questions arising out of the stupendous industrial development which has taken place in the last quarter of a century—questions of interstate commerce and transportation, questions of great trusts and combinations of capital, questions of the mutual rights of capital and labor, questions relating to the regulation of railroads, besides the perplexing ques- tions arising out of the development of this Nation into a world power since the Spanish War, involving our relations to our colonies acquired by reason of that war. No one can say that these questions are of any less importance than those which arose in any former period of the Government. He and his associates on this bench have met and disposed of many of these questions as they have arisen in such manner as to command the respect of the whole country and MELVILLE WESTON FULLER—WALCOTT. 121 to escape serious criticism. This is just what Marshall, Taney, Chase, and Waite, and their associates did with the great questions of their days; and so Chief Justice Fuller will stand forth in history as a worthy successor of the great Chief Justices who preceded him. “ The labors of the judge are along lines that make for peace—for the security of life, liberty, and property. It is his work to settle, in a peaceable manner, controversies that would otherwise result in the triumph of fraud, violence, and oppression and lead to war. The judge is essentially a peacemaker, and when we reflect that Chief Justice Fuller devoted 22 years of his life to this work may we not with propriety apply to him the beautiful beatitude which fell from the lips of Him who is the Judge of all the earth, in His sermon on the mount: ‘ Blessed are the peacemakers, for they shall be called the children of God’ ?” The Supreme Court, on January 9, 1911, adopted resolutions identical with those adopted by the bar of that court on December 10, 1910. On that occasion the Attorney General of the United States, Mr. Wickersham, in presenting the resolutions, reviewed the more important decisions of the court under Chief Justice Fuller, and in conclusion said: « * * * The Talmud compares the study of the law to a huge heap of dust that is to be cleared away. ‘The foolish man says, “ Tt is impossible that I should be able to remove this immense heap. I will not attempt it.” But the wise man says, “ I will remove a litle to-day, some more to-morrow, and more the day after, and thus in time I shall have removed it all.”’ It was in this spirit that Chief Justice Fuller toiled during the years that he presided over this court. Much of the work of all courts is of but transitory importance, save in so far as it keeps ever burning the sacred lamp of justice to lighten the footsteps of men. But the labors of this tribunal are essential to the preservation of the liberties of a free people. In the largest proportion of causes submitted to its judgment every decision becomes a page of history and may become a part of a rampart against anarchy. To this court men look for the maintenance of those rights which our forefathers wrung from a reluctant monarch at Runnymede 800 years ago, which are now embodied in the Con- stitution of the United States, and which are as essential to the pro- tection of the citizen against the tyranny of a hydra-headed tyrant of the future as they were against the monarchs of the past. “The labors of the eighth Chief Justice are over, and his work in this court is submitted to the judgment of men. As he said of Jus- tice Brewer, ‘he died suddenly, but not the unprepared death from which we pray to be delivered, and having finished his course in faith he doth now rest from his labors.” 122 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. Chief Justice White, in responding to the words of the Attorney General, said: “Mr. Attorney General: The resolutions which you present are consoling, since they show how poignantly our brethren of the bar share with us the sorrow caused by the death of our cherished and — venerated Chief Justice. When the shadow which the bereavement resulting from his loss casts upon the path of duty which lies before us is considered, the resolutions are additionally consoling, since they strengthen our conviction that, whatever may be our infirmities, we may always rely upon the generous judgment of our brethren of the bar if only we bring to the discharge of our duties the singleness of purpose which ever characterized the judicial labors of our late Chief Justice. “Those labors find an enduring memorial in the reported deci- sions of the court rendered during the long period of his service. Their potency, whether in enforcing and protecting individual right or in perpetuating representative government by upholding our con- stitutional institutions, has passed beyond the influence of praise or blame. They have become the heritage of his countrymen, for whose good he labored with untiring devotion. “The darkness of the valley of the shadow of death yet so ob- scures vision as to render it impossible for me to attempt now to fix the result of the labors of the Chief Justice or to define with accuracy the scope of the blessings to his countrymen and to mankind which have arisen from his work. I therefore do not attempt to supplement the brief statement on that subject which you, Mr. Attorney General, have so eloquently made. So, also, I shall forbear to comment upon the wide attainments of the late Chief Justice, his engaging literary fancy, his great familiarity with precedents, and his grasp of fundamental principles. I leave these special attributes, as well as the wider considerations which would be required to be taken into view in order to symmetrically analyze the judicial work of the late Chief Justice, not only because some other occasion would be more appropriate and some more masterful hand than mine be required to do justice to those subjects, but also because my purpose now is only briefly to refer to some of the more endearing and admirable personal traits of the Chief Justice which were manifested to those associated with him in judicial labor, and at the same time to mark the attributes from which those traits were derived and sustained. “ Briefly, those qualities were his untiring attention to his judicial duties and the dedication which he made to the efficient and wise performance of those duties of every intellectual and moral power which he possessed ; his love of justice for justice’s sake; his kindness, his gentleness, associated, however, with a courage which gave him always the power fearlessly to do what he thought was right, without MELVILLE WESTON FULLER—WALCOTT. 123 fear or favor. The source whence these endearing and noble qualities were derived was not far to seek. It was faith in the power of good over evil; faith in the capacity of his fellow men for self-govern- ment; faith in the wisdom of the fathers of our institutions; faith, unshaken faith, in the efficiency of the system of constitutional gov- ernment which they established and its adequacy to protect the rights and liberties of the people. And, above all, there was an abounding faith in Divine Providence, the faith of a Christain, which domi- nated his being and welded all his faculties into a harmonious whole, causing his nature to be resonant with the melody of hope and charity, which made him what he was—a simple, kindly, generous, true, brave, and devoted public servant, treading with unswerving step the path of duty, until the tender voice of the All-Wise and Merciful Father called him from labor to rest, from solicitude to peace, and to his exceeding and enduring reward. | “Mr. Attorney General, the resolutions of our brethren of the bar will be made a part of the records of the court. In making this order the thought comes unbidden to the mind that if there be in the future, by either the bench or the bar, a failure to discharge duty because of the want of an honest effort to do so, the resolutions will become the test of our moral insufficiency and be a relentless instrument for our condemnation. But the shadow created by these misgivings is at once dispelled by our conviction that although the Chief Justice has gone before, yet doth he abide with us by his precept and example, which I can not refrain from hoping will be a spiritual beacon lead- ing both bench and bar to a perfect dedication of all their powers to the complete discharge of their whole duty. Ah! In the luminosity afforded by that example and precept, and with the benign vision given by that faith which is the proof of things unseen, may the hope not be indulged in that the result of such a consecration to duty will enable us to behold a continued righteous administration of justice, a preservation of our constitutional government, the fructifi- cation of all the activities of our vast country for the benefit of the whole people, the abiding of tranquility and happiness in all the homes of all our land, and the continued enjoyment by all our countrymen of individual lberty restrained from license and safe- guarded from oppression.” Other touching tributes to Chief Justice Fuller might be cited. They all portray an earnest, efficient jurist, a man true to the wise principles that guide the daily life of an upright American citizen who holds the exalted position of Chief Justice of the United States. ORNAMENTATION OF RUGS AND CARPETS.* [With 6 plates. ] By ALAN SxConEi Ca B: In preparing this course of lectures, which the Royal Society of Arts has kindly invited me to give on textile ornament, I find the range of subjects covered by the title much wider than I expected.? Of textiles alone there are several distinct sorts: (1) Shuttle weavings, with ornament special to brocades, velvets, damasks, and figured silk stuffs, to say nothing of kindred ornament in woolen, linen, and cotton fabrics; (2) tapestries, with their decorative pic- tures of religious, mythological, historical, and domestic subjects; (3) carpets, with a number of simple and highly complex patterns; (4) embroidery, which is suitable to render almost any sort of orna- mental and pictorial designs; (5) lace, with its textures and ornament distinctly different from those of the foregoing; and (6) stamped, dyed, and printed textiles with a still further variety of pattern and design. The ornament of these different classes of textiles is but a chap- ter—an important one, certainly, but still only one chapter—in the story of all ornament, and as textile ornament during, say, 5,000 years has derived almost as many of its phases from ornament in other materials as it in turn has contributed to them, I find it neces- sary to take these latter also into some account. In order, then, to keep within the appointed limits, the choice of one or two central or rallying points becomes desirable, and in view of my previous Cantor lectures upon lace, tapestry, and embroidery, I have fixed upon ornament in carpets and in stamped, dyed, and printed textiles for my present course. This ornamentation has successive styles. Style is a convenient word to apply to the results of reviewing ornament designed by historic peoples, of determining various peculiarities or salient features in it, then of grouping them together and naming each group after some nation, locality, or period. In this way rough and 1Reprinted, by permission, from Journal of the Society of Arts, London, No. 3008, vol. 58, July 15, 1910. 2Lecture 1 (delivered Jan. 17, 1910) of series of three lectures on textile ornamen- tation. Lectures 2 and 3 are on stamped, dyed, and printed textiles. 125 126 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. ready classifications can be made and spoken of as Egyptian, Chinese, Mesopotamian, Greek, and other styles. Underlying all these styles are certain common factors of design. For instance, the arrangement of their particular ornamental details or devices is subject chiefly to balance, to repetition, and to symmetry. Again, ornamental details or devices in all historic national styles are either representative of actual things, such as plants, human and animal beings, etc., or are inerely abstract shapes presenting no likeness to any of these things; although some apparently abstract forms are symbols to convey some idea just as others are found to have descended, through many changes or distortions of drawing, from an original which repre- sented an actual thing. These changes or distortions occur to a marked extent in the ornament of people whose ethnography is more readily studied than their history. Take, for instance, Papuans, who produce plentiful ornament that is of the distorted character. They seem to have no regulated methods of design; at least, none so evident as those of historic nations like the Chinese, the Egyptians, the dwellers in Mesopotamia, and the Greeks, all of whom had culture, organization, manufactures, and commerce in a high degree. These great nations possessed neither aeroplanes nor telephones, but they appear to have paid better regard than many of us do nowadays to the suitable ornamentation of ordinary and ceremonial objects of use, including costumes and floor and furniture coverings. Leaving this digression, I come now to carpets and their ornamen- tation. I use the word carpet in the sense of an ornamental textile to be used under foot. Broadly speaking, there are two sorts of car- pet—one with a flat texture and the other with a definitely raised texture. It appears that in Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, and Greece flat-textured materials were manufactured long before those with raised texture. Ornament in the ancient flat-surface stuffs was pro- duced by inweaving, needlework, painting, and stamping. In pre- vious lectures I have touched upon the antiquity of methods of in- weaving and embroidery as practiced by famous historic nations hundreds and, in some cases, thousands of years before the Christian era. The inweaving corresponded precisely with tapestry weaving by hand of the present day. Its texture was therefore the same as that of a huge Gobelins tapestry and of a Kurdish rug. Here is an ordinary specimen of such a rug, which illustrates the flat texture we are considering. The style of its ornament has prob- ably endured for some centuries. The scheme or plan of its design is a field of small repeated devices inclosed within a border. This scheme or plan in connection with rugs and carpets is an old one; older indeed than most of the devices in the field which are weavers’ renderings of sprays of blossom and leaves; the ornament of the border is effective by reason of the repetition of its details. These ORNAMENTATION OF CARPETS—COLE. 127 are almost unintelligible, though the original of them probably was a dragon’s head; the dragon was invented by the Chinese almost as early as the Sphinx was invented by the Egyptians, and apparently some centuries before Perseus encountered any similar creature. The next slide shows a simple but adequate frame of the sort which has been in use from old times by wandering families or groups of carpet makers in Turkestan, farther east, and south. In such a frame flat or raised surface rugs could be made. These wandering weavers have inherited, as it were, the designs they work in their rugs; and, unless they come into the service of some merchant or patron who furnishes them with other designs, they continue to produce with scarcely any intended, but with a good deal of acci- dental, variation of their own traditional patterns and designs. And this condition has lasted amongst such peoples for many centuries. This slide is from the carving of a floor covering which was prob- ably of tapestry weaving, as indeed was the greater number of orna- mented textiles made by Egyptians, Assyrians, Persians, and Greeks before the Christian era. This carving was discovered in the ruins of Kouyunjik and is of Assyrian workmanship, eighth century B. ©. The plan of its design, as fully displayed in the whole of the floor covering, originally corresponded with that of the Kurdish rug, hav- ing its field of pattern inclosed within a border. In this case the ornamental features of the border are well shaped, and are based upon plant forms. The outer ones are alternately buds and ex- panded flowers, those in the next series are full daisy blossoms, and then come repeated palm or radiating palmette forms. The pattern of the field is formed with intersecting circles, and is a truly abstract pattern, being unrepresentative of any actual things and not sym- bolical in any way. ‘The texture of such a carpet was, as I have said, probably that of tapestry weaving and not of raised or cut pile. - Indeed, the manufacture of this latter and more complicated material does not seem to have been known by the old Egyptian, Assyrian, Persian, and Greek weavers. The nearest approach to raised surface textiles made by them were linen cloths faced with loose loops. These give a shaggy-faced material resembling modern bath towels. Several pieces of it have been found in disused Egyptian cemeteries, dating probably from the first century B. C. or A. D., and it is con- sidered by various authorities that they are identical with a fabric called by Aristophanes “ Persis,” and reputed as a manufacture of barbarians. The Greeks, however, also manufactured similar tex- tures, and called them “ kaunakes” and “ phlocata.” Pliny, writing 500 years later, mentions corresponding stuff as “ amphimalla ” when the shagginess was on both of its sides, and “ gausapa ” when woven on one side only. This shaggy material was apparently as common in use as tapestry weavings, but it does not seem to have lent itself 128 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. well to ornamental expression. And this I gather from specimens of it made probably by Copts, who decorated it with close loops of wool. Here is an exceptionally good example of a shaggy-faced floor or couch cover treated in this manner. The style of the design may be called Egypto-Roman. The center is surrounded by a bordering of rectangular corner shapes linked together with intervening star forms. It is interesting to note the interlocked device within the left-hand star—a device which I think is of Chinese origin. We find it in Turkestan and Asiatic rugs, as well, of course, as the swastika or crooked cross—another constantly occurring emblem in Chinese ornament. Of more distinctly Roman character is the design in this next ex- ample of looped worsted weaving or embroidery produced possibly by Copts in the second or third century. Here we have but a corner of a floor covering of the period, enough, however, to indicate that the whole of the field was covered with groups, like the single one here, of cupids in a boat. The border was narrow and of overlapping leaves, and a medallion, containing a face, in each corner of the whole rug. Such a textile may represent the “ Sardian pile carpets” mentioned by the Egypto-Roman writer, Atheneus, of Naukratis, a place now identified with Tell-el-Bareet, near the Rosetta branch of the Nile. Sir George Birdwood, in his treatise on the “ Antiquity of Oriental Carpets,” gives several interesting quotations from the “ Banquets of the Learned,” by Athenzeus, to prove the considerable use in the third century A. D. of floor coverings—but judged by the light of fabrics discovered in the disused Egyptian cemeteries, already referred to, none seems to indicate in a convincing way that cut-pile carpets or any carpets of distinctly Eastern design were amongst the usual household goods of either Greeks or Romans. We have, I think, to look elsewhere for the earliest of such things. Cut-pile fabrics were, I think, first produced by the Chinese. For more than 2,000 years before Buddhism reached them, they had pre- served to themselves a monopoly in the cultivation, spinning, and employment of silk. It is the most delicate of all fibers or filaments for textile purposes. In the possession of this monopoly, and of a prolonged skill in the ornamental arts, the Chinese seem to have de- veloped every sort of known process of ornamental and complicated weaving—so, at least, one must infer from their traditions and rec- ords. The evil of seclusion which had hidden these things from the rest of the world was gradually lifted by the trade started by Asiatic peoples living outside the Great Wall, who were the means of com- municating to the northern districts of the old Persian Empire, two centuries or so B. C., some knowledge of Chinese manufactures and ornamental design. The trade in its course affected Asiatic crafts- ORNAMENTATION OF CARPETS—COLE. 129 men and weavers; and they seem to have been the pioneers, as it were, in imitating fabrics similar in texture to that of Chinese velvets and the like. These Asiatics had boundless supplies of wool, camel and goat hair, long before they learned how to rear silkworms and cul- tivate them. Rulers of districts along the Chinese trade route recog- nized the value of this Asiatic enterprise in industry at places like the ancient Karakoram, Khotan, Samarcand, Bokhara, Herat, and thus cut-pile manufactures passed on to India and Persia, whose dominion had extended from Turkestan to Asia Minor and Syria, and included, of course, the territories previously governed by Baby- lonians and Assyrians; but there these goods were retained—the Persians being very jealous of them and preventing textile manu- factures from China from passing westward over to the Romans. The ornament in the Asiatic and Parthian rugs and carpets, such as they then were, consisted probably of geometric and abstract forms interspersed with adaptations of Chinese emblems. But about the fifth or sixth century A. D., or even a little earlier, they were com- bined by the Persians with devices of their own Sassanian, Roman, Persian, and older Assyrian styles. When, therefore, the Emperor Heraclius took possession of the royal castle of Dastagerd in 627 A. D., he found, among other treasures there, carpets, and most of them no doubt were of geometric and abstract ornament, and a less number of realistic ornament. But this ornamentation can have borne few, if any, direct traces of either old Egyptian or Grecian styles of ornament. It had a style of its own, and was alive in Persia up to the time when Mahomet and his conquering Arabs overran that country, Egypt, and elsewhere. It. served as a base from which gradually the Saracenic or Mohammedan styles arose. Now, for a far longer time than the life of the style we are consid- ering, the Chinese style had been gradually influencing ornamentists with some, at least, of its variety and ingenuity of design that must have proved stimulating to all who came across it. In both abstract and realistic ornamental forms the Chinese style has always been exceedingly rich, as may be gathered from ornament on ancient Chinese bronzes. These have, of course, outlived contemporary weavings and embroideries, which would have been decorated with as much, if not greater, variety of ornament. To put before you a suggestion only of what I mean by the variety and ingenuity of old Chinese ornament such as has lasted with little intrinsic modification for 4,000 years, I have had a slide made from two Chinese bronze vases. The vase on the left (pl. 1, fig. 1) is a wine vase made in 780 or 769 B. C., and is symmetrically decorated with highly conventional- ized dragon and bird forms adapted to fit into given spaces. These 97578°—sm 1910——9 130 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. forms vary in size with that of their spaces, and are distributed within them with the skill of sound and well-established ornamental design. A slight obliteration has taken place in course of time and interferes a little with the definition of them, but there is nothing of haphazard or barbaric art about them. The strange forms given to the birds and dragons on the wine vase were meant as ornament; more graceful realistic forms were designed and modeled at this period, so that the strangeness is by no means due to want of ability to do better, and does not therefore imply barbaric or primitive performance. The other vase (pl. 1, fig. 2), with elephants’ heads and rings, is of another phase of treatment, but one just as old as that of the conventional ernament on the wine vase. The ornament in this second vase is freer and more dainty, and some of the details are much more naturalistic. In the upper broad band about the neck are graceful, slim dragons upon a background fretted with the key pattern. About the bowl of the vase the background is of small continuous stems with spirals, upon which are large conventional forms, which, by the way, are arranged rather like those of our own seventeenth century strap ornament. Authorities say that this old Chinese conventional ornament is one of many which are intended to be emblematical of the dragon. Above it occur two Vandyke panels filled with a pointed device, which is suggestive, at least, of a lotus blossom, a detail very frequent in Mohammedan ornament done by Persians centuries later. Around the base is a band of swirling and foaming waves. These two bronzes give us at least some idea of unusual versatility in ornamental design. But besides such examples as’ these of the great technical skill and mature power of design jpossessed by the Chinese in the eighth century B. C. and much earlier, too, there are still older traditions and records of what they were doing in the ornamental arts. Some 2000 B. C., for instance, some 500 years before Joseph introduced his brethren to Pharoah, who would have been wearing a long flax tunic spotted with simple lotus buds inwoven with colored wools, the Emperor Shun’s silken robes had been woven and embroidered with the 12 chang or ornaments. These consisted of (1) a solar disk upon a bank of clouds, a three- legged bird within the disk; (2) a lunar disk containing a hare with pestle and mortar pounding the elixir of life; (3) a constellation of three stars; (4) mountains; (5) five-clawed dragons; (6) variegated pheasants; (7) a pair of temple vases somewhat like one of those we have seen, but ornamented with a tiger and a monkey; (8) grass in sprays; (9) fiery scrolls; (10) grains of millet grouped in a medal- lion; (11) a warrior’s ax, and (12) a symbol resembling two E’s back to back. It would take up too much time to go on reciting the number of other different representative and fanciful ornaments that enter into Smithsonian Report, 1910.—Cole PLATE 1. 1. ANCIENT CHINESE BRONZE 2. ANCIENT CHINESE BRONZE VASE, WITH DRAGON ORNA- VASE, WITH DRAGON AND MENT. OTHER ORNAMENT. CRNT@E ORNAMERY (et asec ceree ee GQetvea ANCIENT CHENESE SWASTIKA KEY PATTERNS raom : “ TURSOMAN Rued is Davee PRS JURRE STAN Ane KRURDIOM Roget. 3. ABSTRACT AND SYMBOLICAL ORNAMENTAL DETAILS IN CHINESE AND OTHER ASIATIC RUGS. Smithsonian Report, 1910.—Cole. PLATE 2 Chm Eee. CENTRE OF A AVE 8 aoe. Ss és ERKTAE of ARGO Bike Aue wancce bur ner Bhenreet ra Boncin iz ja ; ge 37 a DRAGON AG RENDERED INA KURDISH Woe ? | > . 0% TURCOMAR Rus : iN : CARAATIOA z severe stn vee cance { f . ene aay. Gorest . rh Kaa AR ah” k a) Rubs > 1. REALISTIC AND SYMBOLICAL ORNAMENTAL DETAILS IN CHINESE AND OTHER ASIATIC RUGS. 2. CHINESE CUT-PILE Ruas. ORNAMENTATION OF CARPETS—COLE. 131 designs of the very ancient Chinese. Their complex rectangular ornaments of abstract and symbolical character, as well as the counter- version of them rendered in curves and spirals are, I think, even more remarkable and intricate than anything based on corresponding elements in Egyptian, Assyrian, and Grecian ornament. In all like- Jihood textiles ornamented with all the familiar devices were then made in China, though none probably is in existence now. Still, in view of the conservative habits of the Chinese, I think we can get from modern examples some fair idea of the appearance of ornament in old Chinese cut-pile carpets, such as are likely to have been used in north China, Manchuria,*and Mongolia—as well as of modified ornament made by Asiatics along or in touch with the trade route across the Western Chinese Empire. Plate 1, fig. 3 is from some rough sketches I have made of details in cut-pile Chinese and other Asiatic rugs. The two first are a central ornament or disk shape and a border of key pattern devised upon the swastika emblem (the crooked end cross). The same orna- ment is to be seen on Chinese bronzes of 1000 B. C., as well as in old Chinese enamels, where it sometimes is terminated with a dragon’s head; variants made with curved instead of rectangular winding forms are similarly terminated. Swastika and dragon ornament is, I think, a possible parent of Mohammedan arabesques, which we shall come to later on. Below the Chinese details are others that I took from rugs made by weavers in Turkestan, Bokhara, and Caucasia, some in tapestry, some in close short stitch embroidery, and some in cut-pile material. The first of them is not peculiarly characteristic ; the one below it with incipient key devices seems to have a Chinese flavor; near it are various cross forms, some of which are Chinese swastikas; others with scrolled limbs, as in the octagon, are perhaps of Tibetan descent. Below an S shape is the knot or interlocked de- vice which we found in the Coptic Egypto-Roman floor or couch cover, and it may be symbolical of a recommendation, said to have been made by Confucius, that Taouists would do better if they gave up writing and took to making knots on strings. I am not quite clear if Confucius was satirical and poking fun at his pupils. A large panel or seal-shaped ornament contains what may be imitations of the eight trigrams of Chinese divination (Pa-Kua). The long narrow ornament, with two hexagons, may be an adaptation of a form of band that was often woven into Syrian and Egypto-Roman linen tunics about the sixth or seventh century A. D., and the last panel of later date is of semiabstract shapes and of conventional lotus buds. The upper ornaments in the next slide (pl. 2, fig. 1) are from Chi- nese cut-pile rugs, and are both realistic and symbolical. The circu- lar forms-may reflect veneration for the disk; one to the left contains 132 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. an emblem of longevity, which is surrounded by bats typifying “ Fe- licity; ” the other consists of four birds—beak converging to beak; below this is part of a border that contains dragon forms like the one given here. Such ornaments existed in China long before other people knew them or tried to imitate them in any such way as that indicated by the sketches below them, which are of details in cut-pile and other rugs from Turkestan, Persia, and Kurdish districts. None of the rugs is of great age, still the ornament on them represents many conventions in rendering dragons, birds, flowers, human and animal forms, the archetypes of which were more realistic in appearance and better drawn. The part of a rug border to the left, in the lower set of details, has a conglomeration of dragon and bird forms; the bird immediately below is from another part of the same border; next to it is a bit of a carnation border—a rude version, probably of a Per- sian fourteenth century border; next to it is a device—perhaps a double-headed eagle, although its counterpart in other rugs looks more like a conventional fruit or flower. The childishly drawn man and horse, with many other similar creatures, frequently occur in flat and raised surface Caucasian and Kurdish rugs; and so does the curious device to the right, which, with several others, was sent me by a friend. 'The half hexagon panel with a dragon derivative is from a Persian cut-pile rug which has its weaver’s name on it in Persian characters. It seems to me to be within the bounds of reasonable supposition that some of these Asiatic rug ornaments are as old as the first and second century A. D., though they may have been scarcely known beyond Syria and Asia Minor. The same style of rug ornaments has continued to the present day, and I suggest that the next few slides may be representative of varieties of rug designs which have been used during the last 2,000 years perhaps. The first (pl. 2, fig. 2) is from two cut-pile rugs of Chinese design and manufacture—stout white, blue, and gray-black wools have been used. The plan of design is a field with central circular device or disk and corner devices within the inclosing border. Such circular panel or disk (solar or lunar) placed at the center of the field appears to be a particular feature in Chinese rug design. The next slide is from two rugs, one made in Assam and the other at Patna. Both designs show Chinese influence. The Assam rug (pl. 3, fig. 1) is covered with a swastika key pattern. The scheme of the Patna rug (pl. 3, fig. 2) is Chinese with its central disk and corner pieces, but the ornament within them as well as in the border is Assyrian in a style more than 2,500 years old. The next slide gives a design of fuller ornament. The disk or cir- cular device at the center is surrounded with repeated Chinese em- blems; the corners have Chinese key pattern; the bold forms in the ORNAMENTATION OF CARPETS—COLE. Bae outer border show near affinity to ornament on old Chinese bronzes; the smaller details in the field are derived for the most part from plant form. This cut-pile rug was probably made in the neighbor- hood of Yarkand. Two rugs are shown on the next slide. That on the left (pl. 3, fig. 3) is of cut pile and has three disks, each of which is surrounded by curved and spiral versions of the swastika. The-border has a variety of circular blossoms or emblems. This rug comes from Yarkand. The second one (pl. 3, fig. 4) has three octagonal panels instead of disks occupying the larger part of the field, which is else- where filled in as the border is with various more or less abstract details like those we have already discussed. Amongst them are a few Chinese symbols of simple type. The rug is of closely-stitched needlework, and is considered to be a Soumak rug, which is, I believe, a corruption of Semaka, a town in Caucasia. The work corresponds with that of some of the saddlebacks from this district. Of less interest in the history of carpet design is that of the familiar red and green modern Turkey carpets. In these comfortable cut-pile floor coverings, the unintelligible forms are, I think, remotely related to those of the Asiatic rugs mingled with others distantly derived from patterns that were being designed before or about the time when Marco Polo traveled in Asia Minor and noted the fine carpets made there. These were doubtless of a type of Mohammedan style, the gradual development of which in Egypt on the one hand, and the Mesopotamian districts of Persia on the other hand, commenced soon after the eighth century. About then and for some time later on, Asiatic rugs such as we have seen were used at the courts of the Khalifs and Mohammedan governors in Egypt, Syria, Sicily, and Spain, whence germs only, of the later taste for rugs and carpets, were sparsely diffused in Europe. I have already said that at a period shortly preceding the Moham- medan conquest, the ornamentation in Syria and western parts of Persia, and to some extent in Egypt, was largely of a degenerate Roman character with occasional traces of ancient Assyrian feeling. Tt had but little Chinese flavor, and to give you a bare impression of its character I have a few slides made from Coptic and Perso-Roman specimens. The first is from a Coptic tapestry weaving, with an Egypto-Roman style of ornament of the fifth or sixth century A. D. picked out in needlework. It may have served as a couch or stool cover. The greater part of its ornament consists of ingenious variations of the Roman Guilloche. The intertwistings fall into repeated circles, within which are blossoms, and from such may have descended the fully developed plan of pattern seen in silk weavings of the period, in which the repeated circles were much larger and more widely sep- 134 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. arated, and inclosed fanciful griffons, lions, hunters on horseback, parrots, etc. Such patterns prevailed in Sassanian and Byzantine silks. The next slide is from a linen fragment of Coptic or Syrian tapestry weaving. Here we have a rather rude rendering of an old Assyrian device, a tiger or lion springing on the back of an ibex or gazelle. Improved representations of it occur in Mohammedan ornament, and in Persian carpets of later date. The next slide is from a golden bottle of the sixth or seventh century. Its main ornament, Perso-Roman in style, consists of large roundels, connected together, and inclosing such groups as the one we see of a griffon pouncing on a gazelle, which again is a reminis- cence of the Assyrian device. How handicraftsmen and designers working in this style blended it with Chinese ornament and Chinese feeling, which was so prevalent in Asia during the Tang Dynasty (seventh to tenth century), and invented much of what has become Mohammedan ornament, is the next suggestion I have to make with a view to offering some explana- tion of the ornamental designs in famous Persian carpets which are generally regarded as preeminent amongst all carpets. The Moham- medan Conquest dates from the beginning of the seventh century. One of the reputedly oldest Mohammedan buildings, having orna- ment on it, is the ninth century mosque of Tulun, in Cairo. It was doubtless the work of Copts, and I think that Coptic-Sassanian ele- ments as well as others closely resembling in effect modified tradi- tional Chinese patterns—those usually about an ogre’s mask—underlie a good deal of the internal ornamentation of the mosque. The inven- tion of the intricate Mohammedan geometric tracery, and interlacing ornament, including the curved arabesques that terminate in conven- tional foliations, seems to throw back to influences of Chinese designs having the same character of line and general scheme. The flow of Chinese influence must have become stronger than ever, when Arabs, in the ninth century A. D., were not only pushing trade with the Chinese by both overland and oversea routes, but also had busi- ness settlements at Canton and other seaport towns in China. Arab rule at this period was most extensive. Their khalifs and governors in ail parts—Asia, Egypt, Spain, etc.—possessed themselves of all the material luxuries that resources and native industry could supply. Their luxurious indulgence is the topic of many of their records; and from a single instance such as that of Ahmed Tulun’s son, who had in his palace at Cairo a lake of quicksilver, upon the surface of which “lay a feather bed inflated with air fastened by silver bands to four silver supports,” one can imagine how superbly they had the best of things; and, as history tells us, were rightly looked upon— not only in Europe but in China and amongst the Hindus and Tar- PLATE 3. Smithsonian Report, 1910,—Cole. ELC MMM Ae Rieweonveneme CA AY on vas ,*. bo, ‘ as *: “6 ated ee f f 3 G{ eriasiasissusiasusiasie ses sie za BoA ARIA IS Ae es > “O% 2. RUG WITH CHINESE SCHEME OF DESIGN FROM PATNA vs tah b -40 Gr Vey, Re Bee ee ed LNT SZ EOS AELSWITIT NE TORE BRST ELS ON SP Daa F At ea a > “8% fas ah 2s 6 Ss = + Pq Mn ra oe: iF & x ~~ tte Te tee RUG WITH SWASTIKA KEY PATTERN FROM ASSAM. ile 4. NEEDLEWORKED RUG FROM SHEMAKA, IN CAUCASIA. PILE RUG FROM YARKAND. 3. CuT- Smithsonian Report, 1910.—Cole. PLATE 4, 1. PERSIAN METAL BOWL, WITH MOHAMMEDAN ORNAMENT. 2. PERSIAN METAL EWER, WITH MOHAMMEDAN ORNAMENT. ORNAMENTATION OF CARPETS—COLE. 135 tars—as the richest princes in the world. Their religious tenets formed the basis of that uniformity of taste with which they required the art craftsmen who served them to comply, and the earlier of these artificers and ornamentists appear to have been Copts in Egypt, and Persians in Mesopotamia. The Arabs themselves were not, during the first periods of Mohammedanism, artistic craftsmen, although they were builders. As regards the output of carpets about this time we have, I think, to look to the weavers in Syria, Armenia, Mesopo- tamia, Persia, Bokhara, and Turkestan, whose ornament was chiefly of a geometric style, with Kufic inscriptions. About the beginning of the thirteenth century the Mogul ruler, Jenghis Kahn, “a true leader of man,” deported thousands of men of arts and crafts from their homes at Samarkand to work in distant part of his realm for his princes and nobles. “This,” the historian writes, “was the be- ginning of the Mogul system of recruiting by force, of compelling the service of artisans, of confiscating industries for the benefit of the nation.” Besides his military exploits and his zeal in public works, he gave new impulse to the trade with China. Soon after, his great nephew, Mangu, became Kahn, and lived in splendid com- fort in his capital at Karakoram (long since gone to ruin) in south- east Turkestan—where in front of his throne was placed a silver tree having at its base four lions from whose mouths there spouted into four silver basins, wine, kumis, hydromel, and terasine. At the top of the tree a silver angel sounded a trumpet when the liquors ran short—another instance of Mohammedan luxury which is hard to beat even now. Halagu Kahn, also a great nephew of Jenghis Kahn, undertook big expeditions, and amongst other places captured Bagdad, which still retained fine traditions of Haroun-al-Raschid’s flourishing times. Accompanying Halagu were hundreds of Chinese artificers, who are sometimes spoken of as engineers only, but for all that I think it more probable that amongst them were workmen proficient in branches of ornamental industries, and that they intro- duced some fine Chinese ornament into the metal mounting of the spheres, astrolabes, and globes which Halagu’s astronomer set up at Bagdad. At this time we get indications of high achievements in branches of Mohammedan art—notably so in the metal work, the earlier bits of which are considered to have been made at Mosil, on the Tigris, some 200 miles northwest of Bagdad, whose glory was then on the wane. The ornament of this metal work has a considerable bearing upon that of rather later Persian carpets. With its arabesque key patterns, scrolls, hunters, animals, inscriptions, and floral devices, it is the exemplar of a Mohammedan style that passes on from phase to phase between the thirteenth and seventeenth centuries, with so little change that it is difficult to classify them according to locality 136 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910, or period. Some are more restrained and simpler than others, though all have the same air de famille. The simpler ornament was in ac- cordance with the tenets of orthodox Mohammedans. At an early date in the spread of their religion the Prophet’s followers had divided themselves into two parties. Persians belonging chiefly to the Shi-ite and more easygoing sect, while the Sunnite or orthodox sect comprised Egyptians, Copts, and Moors, as well as some of the peoples in Asia Minor and farther east, who in the making of their rugs and carpets inclined almost exclusively to semiabstract and geo- metric ornament such as we have seen. The existence of the two sects helps, no doubt, to explain the maintenance in oriental carpets of the two divisions of style in Mohammedan ornament. In both we find traces of Chinese influence. And now let me put before you two slides made from examples of the metal ornament, and point to Chinese details in them. The first example is from a casket rich in symmetrical ornament of delicate stems that intertwine and form panels, the most of which are filled with an interlocking angular pattern, the basis of which is a developed swastika device. The intertwisting stems may be de- scended from Coptic interlacements, but the swastika patterning is surely Chinese. The leafy scrollwork, with birds here and there, throws back to Chinese and Perso-Roman origins. The two winged figures on the feet of the casket are Perso-Roman or Sassanian, though the idea of such fantastic creatures may have come into Mesopotamia from China or Egypt centuries earlier. The next slide is from a bowl and ewer, also of the thirteenth century, possibly from the hands of art craftsmen farther east in Persia, as at Ispahan. The ornament on each of these objects includes figures, and thus is more to the taste of unorthodox Mohammedans. Sportsmen hunting all sorts of strange creatures, mostly winged, and these in turn attacking others, together with griffons back to back, are to be seen in repeated four-lobed panels, between which is a ground of Chinese key pattern. Bands of foliated arabesque scroll- work run under the rim, round the center, and at the base of the bowl. (Pl. 4, fig. 1.) The ewer (pl. 4, fig. 2) is decorated with kindred ornament though different in design, especially the shaping of the compartments on the lower part. These are formed by intercrossing bands of rope orna- ment, and resemble some of the enrichments in the ninth century mosque of Tulun, but their shape is also akin to that of the pointed device which we saw in one of the Chinese bronzes of much older style. The spout is a Chinese dragon head, whilst the head on the handle is that of a hound. But I will not encroach on your attention to expatiate upon the delightful cross-breeding in ornament which these objects exhibit. ORNAMENTATION OF CARPETS—COLE. RST The contemporary richly colored illuminations of Mohammedan MSS. and of book covers reflect the style of the engraved and dama- scened metal work. And from both are directly descended the com- positions of color and form which are woven in the more magnificent cut-pile carpets that were manufactured in Persia from the fifteenth century onward. They practically superseded the carpets of simpler design during the fourteenth century and earlier. The first of my slides, to illustrate a few of these finer types, is from a carpet possibly of fifteenth-century manufacture. Silver threads are inwoven with the colored cut pile of fine wool. The border of cartouches inscribed with Persian characters incloses the field, at the center of which is a circular device which, as we have seen, is a feature of Chinese and Mongolian rug designs. At each of the inner corners of the borders are segments of Persianesque panels shaped and treated so as to suggest the shape of a conven- tional lotus flower. Within the central circular band is a four-lobed ornament—each lobe containing a peacock, which is a favorite subject of Persian and Mogul Indian ornament. Over the main part of the field are many long and short wavy devices usually identified as Tatar cloud devices and of frequent occurrence in Chinese ornament. The next slide (pl. 5, fig. 1) exhibits a carpet with a border of cartouches having inscriptions of which an interpretation, as given in the great Viennese work on oriental carpets, mentions the Shah, for whom the carpet was made, and states that “within the fair border of this field you see a flowery bed, refreshing and lovely as the paradise in Eden. To Chinese art its beauty is an object of envy.” (This is clearly an indirect though palpable acknowledgment of the superiority of Chinese art, as known to the Persians.) And then fol- lows a good deal more about the garden, and turtledoves and nightin- gales. But on looking into the design itself, at the center of the field we see a group of four lions, nose to nose, surrounded by fine spiral stems and Tatar clouds. At the top and bottom of this group is a pomegranate inclosed by two serrated long narrow leaves, charged with small sprays of flowers precisely like those on so-called Rhodian plates, and inside the pomegranate are a pair of peacocks. Beyond is a symmetrical distribution of fanciful floral ornament, lions, tigers, or cheetahs springing on antelopes—nothing in fact to suggest the serenity of flowers and birds referred to in the inscription, which may have been by chance the handiest, though not the most apposite, for the weaver to use. The next slide (pl. 5, fig. 2) is from a carpet made in 1540 for the mosque at Ardebil—a town in the northwest of Persia and not far from Caucasia and the southwestern shore of the Caspian Sea. The wider part of the border is designed with alternating circular cusped panels and elongated panels, not inscribed but decorated with flowers ~ 138 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. and Tatar clouds. In the center of the field is a large cusped medallion or roundel, containing dainty arabesque ornament; around the medallion is a series of pointed oval-shape panels, each filled in with floral and arabesque or Tatar cloud devices of different design. From the central pointed oval panel hangs an elaborate mosque lamp amidst flowered blossoms growing on delicate stems arranged in spirals, straying symmetrically all over the chief part of the field. Close to the lower border is a white rectangular panel with the mame of the maker of the carpet. At the corners within the border are segments as of the great central ornament. The narrow light bands of the whole border are enriched with repeated Tatar cloud devices. Of its kind this is probably the most remarkable carpet, and was made nearly 50 years before the accession of the great Shah Abbas to the throne of Persia. During his reign the arts were much encouraged at his capital of Ispahan and at other important towns of eastern Persia. It is hardly possible now to identify the manufacture of carpets of Perso-Mohammedan style with any particular town of central and eastern Persia. Several fine carpets were made from 760 to 1258 in western Persia or Mesopotamia—at Bagdad for instance, for luxury-loving Abbasid Caliphs. The ornament of these, however, was chiefly geometric (as in pl. 3, fig. 4), if one may judge from Persian miniatures in the British Museum, of which I find a number quoted by Mr. Martin in his big work on “ Oriental Carpets.” This is part of a Persian carpet perhaps, from Herat, with a border designed in a different style from what we have hitherto seen. The large arabesque curved forms between the pairs of varied pointed oval panels remind one of Chinese forms sometimes used in that ancient ornamentation composed with goggle-eyed ogre masks, which IT have mentioned already in connection with the mosque of Tulun. The field of this carpet contains the wavy Tatar cloud shapes and several animals, the design of which seems to be Chinese in char- acter—as, for instance, the beast on the left with curious almost dragon head and @ lashing tail; there is a smaller version of him within a pomegranate form below. Still lower down is a black panther, perhaps springing across a similar dappled beast. Above, on the right, is a dappled stag with antlers. Stags and fawns are favorite animals in Chinese porcelain of the Ming dynasty (1368-1644). Here is another variety of design in which Chinese influence seems to me to be very strong. The border is of delicate arabesque design ; within the counter-changing and almost lotus-shape compartments the group of the leopard or cheetah seizing an antelope or goat is repeated. But on the field are many devices, the like of which our previous designs have not given us; for example, the highly decorated vase or bottle toward the center with a pair of Kylins at its foot, PLATE 5. Smithsonian Report, 1910.—Cole. 2, PART OF THE CUT-PILE CARPET MADE IN 1540 FOR THE 1. PERSIAN CUT-PILE CARPET OF LATE FIF- MOSQUE AT ARDEBIL, NW. PERSIA. TEENTH OR EARLY SIXTEENTH CENTURY DESIGN, WITH INSCRIPTIONS. Smithsonian Report, 1910.—Cole. PLATE 6. 1. SPANISH CARPET OF LOOPED WoRK, 2. SPANISH CUT-PILE CARPET, SIXTEENTH CENTURY. SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 3. ITALIAN CARPET, SEVENTEENTH CENTURY; WOVEN AT PESCOCOSTANZA. ORNAMENTATION OF CARPETS—COLE. 139 the minute serrations to the pointed oval and circular cusped shapes inclosing birds or fishes, the cone shape, and the minute floral forms throughout, all these seem to tell of a Chinese Mohammedan designer. This carpet is less strong in Chinese influence, but even so we do not lose it. As compared with what we have seen, the design of the field is remarkable for cypresses, almond trees in blossom, rose trees, birds perched amongst their branches, hares by their trunks, at the center ducks apparently, and at each corner a flying phcenix—the mystical Chinese bird with elaborate tail. All these are brought into ornamental effect by symmetrical arrangement chiefly. The border, like that of the immediately previous carpet, is of counter- changing, semilotus-shaped compartments, within which is delicate conventional flower ornament. Here, again, is part of a carpet of somewhat similar design, with trees and animals—the dragon is by the trunks of the cypresses, a flight of cranes amidst Tatar cloud devices fills the cusped center panel. It is a pity that the upper part of this carpet, which came from a synagogue in Genoa, has been so cut as to destroy practically a corner panel, in. which there was the figure of a man apparently in Chinese dress, and by him some unusual ornament of Chinese style—quite different from the arabesques of the border. The flight of cranes recalls the class of subject for which the Chinese painter, Hsieh Chi, of the seventh century, was renowned. The carpet was probably designed and woven in north Persia about 1450. With the Persian carpet designs fresh in our eyes, I may now show a slide from one of the several so-called Polish carpets. Its design is of a purely Persianesque type, but somewhat angularized and stiff- ened in appearance. The materials are silk pile or velvet inter- mixed with gold and silver threads. The question of its Polish origin is one of many raised for discussion which does not lead any- one far on the road toward understanding material and artistic excellences. As far as I can find out, there were certainly some Persian or Turkish weavers in Poland in the eighteenth century who made golden brocades for a short time. The specimen before us is apparently of earlier manufacture, and may perhaps be, Dr. Bode, of Berlin, has suggested, of Turkish manufacture—one of the rich Damascus carpets in which the Venetians traded in the sixteenth century. Rather poor in character of design is this cut-pile carpet, which may be of Moorish manufacture, to conform to the taste of some orthodox Mohammedan customer. The cruciform panel is poorly shaped when compared with Persian panels. The ground is covered with inscriptions of the ninety-nine names of Allah. The stars in 140 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. the border are suggestive of Cairene and Moorish titles of indifferent quality. The carpet came from a mosque at Aleppo. In the same class of debased ornament, derived from finer origi- nals, we may place this carpet. Most of the forms are undecipher- able. A cypress tree is fairly evident; below it to the left is a queer and somewhat entangled device, which I think we may call a dragon; still lower down, to the left, is a pair of shapes which faintly resemble those of animals, and to the right of them is an equally faint re- semblance of a long-necked bird—possibly a crane. The carpet is called Persian of the sixteenth or seventeenth century. Another specimen elsewhere is described as being made before the fifteenth century. The scheme of the design is usually found in woven stuffs of the fifteenth century, with details and devices of intelligible beauty. I think that the indications are in the direction of estab- lishing such carpets as the one before us as ambitious attempts by careful weavers far removed from properly drafted designs and relying, therefore, upon elusive memories for their ornamentation which does not call for much admiration. The strenuous itinerant instrumentalist seated on the pavement, and diligently twanging the strings of his harp with some rhythm, much discord, and uncertain melody is surely a kind of confrére of these weavers of distorted patterns. This slide is from two carpets of Indian manufacture at Malabar, the modest patterns of which—especially that on the right hand— - are directly borrowed from inlaid work of the fifteenth century, done by Mohammedans at Broussa, in Asia Minor, and in Venice, ete. A similar style of pattern occurs on carpets made at Tanjore. A considerable number of Persian carpets were made in the six- teenth century from designs, of which the leading feature was a covering network or framing. Here this feature is carried out so as to produce a succession and series of interchanging panels, each of which is filled in with plant forms, Tartar clouds, arabesques, or pairs of birds. Schemes of net pattern, but in other variations may be traced in Roman mosaics contemporary with Coptic tapestry Weavings, as well as in Byzantine shuttle weavings, thence they pass into medieval European textiles and embroideries, and architectural enrichments, before appearing’ in carpets. Another and simpler example of this scheme of design is shown in this next slide from an Indian or Persian carpet of the sixteenth or seventeenth century. The border is much narrower; the net or frame- work is defined in delicate spiral stems, and at their junctions are variously shaped panels, the network itself does not form such recur- rent panels as in the previous specimen, but is independent of those here shown. ORNAMENTATION OF CARPETS—COLE. 141 From these I pass to specimens of another type of design. That on the left is probably of Caucasian or Kurdish weaving, and in the style of fiteenth century carpet designs, whilst that on the right is of Spanish or Moorish work. , Its field is covered with a diaper pattern of small foliated crosses, and toward the middle there are two eight- cusp circular panels containing a shield of arms. The outer border has Kufic characters mixed with small animal, bird, and blossom devices, which are repeated in the squares of the narrower inner border. The border pattern of the left-hand rug seems to be of orna- ment developed from Kufic writing, and such borders are seen in Persian miniatures dating even from the end of the fourteenth cen- tury, and more often in later miniatures as well as in paintings by such artists as Hans Memling (1425-1490), Raphael (1483-1520), and many more at this time. Such carpets, with others coming into general use by the well to do in Europe, served more often as table than as floor coverings, and it is claimed that some of them were made even in England. Here, for instance, is one of these carpets. The design of the bor- der corresponds with that we have just discussed; at the sides and bottom of it are shields with the arms impaled on them of two English families, and on the lowest part of the carpet are the words, “Weare God and keep His commandments. Made in the year 1603.” At this time East India merchants caused carpets to be made to their order at Lahore and elsewhere, and their coats of arms and initials would be introduced into the designs. A very fine specimen of such carpets belongs to the Girdlers’ Company, and has been illus- trated in recent books about carpets. On the ornamental side of carpets made in Europe from the six- teenth century onward, there is much to say. On the gradual devel- opment of European methods of carpet manufacture there is still more to say; but in these lectures I can give an extremely brief résumé only of a few incidents that stand out. The oldest of them has to do with those French corporations of tapissiers whose thir- teenth century regulations are well known and have been much dis- cussed with the object of determining which of the two bodies—the “Tapissiers Sarrasinois” and the “Tapissiers Nostrez” were con- cerned with the manufacture of flat-surface floor covering and that of raised pile. Their weavings were employed for seats and hanging on walls, or placing on tables, and this more often probably than as floor coverings—rushes or mats being then ordinarily strewn on floors. Illuminated MSS. supply indications of their patterns, which were generally diapers and spottings; patterns of fuller design were dis- played upon imported Oriental carpets. With the early years of the sixteenth century the manufacture of tapestries in France begins to be organized, under the patronage of the Government, but it is not 142 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. until the seventeenth century that pile-carpet making, under this pat- ronage, is well started at a disused soap factory known as the Savon- nerie of Chaillot, on the outskirts of Paris. Here were made the tapis veloutés—pile carpets as distinct from the tapis ras, or flat-sur- face carpets that were being produced at several of the tapestry weav- ing centers—the Gobelins, Beauvais, Tournai, etc. The manufacture of the two sorts was not combined at the Gobelins works until early in the nineteenth century. Aubusson carpets were first made early in the eighteenth century from designs that reflected the Louis XY. style—naturalistic floral garlands, ribbon knots, all shown with lights and shades, and entirely distinct in style from that of any Oriental rugs and carpets. In Spain some rugs are likely to have been made at many of the old Moorish towns, Malaga, Almeria, and Granada, perhaps as early as the middle of the ninth century, when their ornamentation would have been probably of the geometrical and abstract character, inter- mixed with inscriptions that appealed to Sunnite Mohammedans. Toward the end of the fifteenth century Spain had much to do with Flanders, where tapestry weaving was flourishing; it appears that at this time the making of Spanish carpets as distinct from Moorish carpets began. Specimens of them have come lately into collectors’ hands, some with cut pile, others with looped surface similar to those Egypto-Roman stuffs that we saw at the beginning of this lecture, and others wrought in a sort of cross-stitch embroidery. Here are now two of the Spanish rugs I have in mind, made prob- ably in the sixteenth or seventeenth century, one (pl. 6, fig. 1) with a surface of loops has an ogival net or frame of vine stems with sym- metrical groups of leaves and grapes alternately placed in the ogival panels. The scheme of the design is Byzantine originally, and be- came finely developed in Italian velvets of the fifteenth century. The border of this carpet is of a continuous stem scroll with offshoots of conventional plant shapes. The other carpet (pl. 6, fig. 2) is of cut pile of fair quality, its field of three octagonal panels or wreaths inclosing scroll ornament with a slight resemblance to Saracenic arabesque disposed on the plan of a cross, has a border of Italian- esque scrolls, griffons, and baskets. In both carpets the corners of the borders are not well managed in design—a defect which is seen constantly in Oriental carpets other than Persian, and runs through ornamental textiles woven from insufficient drafts, the completion of which is left to chance that the weaver can supply the deficiency of design. The weaving of pile and other carpets in European countries from designs by Europeans arose more or less simultaneously in Spain, Italy, France, Flanders, and England, about the middle of the six- teenth century. The English industry was stimulated a great deal ORNAMENTATION OF CARPETS—COLE. 143 through commerce with the East Indies and by the employment of Flemings here. But, besides this, a few enterprising Englishmen sent trusted workmen to Asia Minor to learn the methods of making “Turkey carpets.” Nowadays, when museums expound technical and artistic efforts, progressive and otherwise, material facts are be- coming available in an almost unexpected way to illustrate allusions and records, and thus give reality to much that has been speculative. Unquestionably of English manufacture, or, more correctly, of manufacture in England, is the pile carpet shown on the screen. Details of its ornamentation may throw back to Oriental sources, but the coats of arms are distinctively British. In the center are the royal arms, with a date 1570 and E. R.—Elizabeth Regina. On the left are the arms of the borough of Ipswich and on the right the arms of a Suffolk family. Other equally interesting examples have lately become available for consultation, so that no doubt we shall soon learn a good deal more of English carpet ornament than we know at pres- ent. Carpet making at Wilton and Axminster dates from the end of the seventeenth century, and its history from: that time forward can be pretty clearly traced. Many Frenchmen were employed there and elsewhere in England during the eighteenth century, and introduced much of the French taste in carpet ornamentation. The Society of Arts, as early as 1758, gave prizes for English-made carpets, “ in imitation of those brought from the East, and called Turkey car- pets;” and the Transactions of the Society of 25 years later record how the manufacture of these was then established in different parts of the kingdom, and “brought to a degree of elegance and beauty which the Turkey carpet never attained.” It is not difficult to make a pretty close guess of what large Geor- gian carpet designs were like. Some of them at least had a flavor of the French taste, and of that I have one interesting design, made at the beginning of the eighteenth century by Robert de Cotte, for a pile carpet woven at the Savonnerie. It is rather like a ceiling decoration and apropos to a style that the machine-made patent Axminster and other carpets have been affecting during the last few years, presumably to the content of some people, who do not care for the restrained treatment of ornamental forms and harmonious colors in Oriental carpets. As to Italian carpets I have not collected much information. Shut- tle weaving by peasants in the Abruzzi continues to the present day and is responsible for most of their bright-colored woolen aprons with stripes that are broché or woven with floating threads. This same character of work has been done for some centuries. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries Perugia was notable for white linen table- cloths and towels, broché with blue threads in a considerable variety of interesting patterns. Farther south Pescocostanza appears to have 144 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. been noted in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries for similar shuttle-woven woolen rugs, of one of which I have a slide. The style of the broché ornament is virtually the same as that of the Perugia linens. In the specimen now before us we have a field broken by garlands into repeated compartments, in which are, respec- tively, fountains, lions, horses, or perhaps unicorns, lambs of God bearing the cross and a flag, double-tailed mermaids with mirrors in their hands, and double-headed eagles, of a seventeenth century type, though almost all of them are emblems with traditions behind them, that, in some cases, spring from Gnostic sources of more than a thou- sand years earlier. Emblematical ornament, however, is far too big a subject to discuss now. The border of the carpet is a woven imita- tion of Italian lace points or Vandykes of the late sixteenth century. The last slide is from two pile rugs made at Merton from designs by the late William Morris. In both of them we trace his regard for Oriental symmetrical arrangement and flatness in treating orna- mental devices. In conclusion I must mention my indebtedness to important publi- cations, amongst which are the late Dr. Bushell’s handbook on Chi- nese Art, Mr. Martin’s admirable work on Oriental Carpets, and the great Viennese publications also on Oriental Carpets. This latter work contains illustrations of a hundred carpets or rugs, each of which Dr. Alois Reig] has described in detail with unsparing care. I do not think that either of these two last-named authorities, or even Dr. Bode, of Berlin, and others, who have a profounder erudi- tion than I can pretend to, have paid enough consideration to the enlivening effect which Chinese ornamental design must surely have had for the last 2,000 years at least upon that of other nations west of China, and especially in regard to its share in the invention of Mohammedan ornament. In offering a few hints upon that matter I hope that I have not made too great a call upon your attention. Mohammedan ornament, whether to the Sunnite or Shi-ite taste, plays a very important part in carpet ornamentation. The more it can be investigated and appreciated the less likely are we to manufacture carpets with quasi Oriental patterns that are at times really ludicrous in their simple-minded imitations of distorted devices. It is extraordinary what modern machinery can do in producing carpets of any sort of design. Certainly the daintiest that I have seen recently were manufactured at Glasgow and are reproductions of some of the finest and most intricately patterned Persian rugs. Messrs. Maple and Messrs. Warings have kindly lent the specimens of English machine-made rugs, as well as interesting portions of handmade carpets, not only from England, but from other European countries as well. RECENT PROGRESS IN AVIATION.? [With 19 plates. ] By OcTAavE CHANUTE,’ Honorary member of Western Society of Engineers. [Remarks by President Allen introducing Mr. Chanute: It is a remarkable coincidence that just 12 years ago this evening—October 20, 1897—Mr. Chanute gave his first paper before this society on the subject. of aviation, the paper being entitled “ Gliding Experi- ments.” | Biplane. . 2) Issyi-- et | DOO COV cet re cle ciate May40; 1008 |. .--. -do.-. <.| Berlin... ..---| Oz miless.. 2. 1 40 00 Oct: 1571909" |= = --d0ss00| DIACKPOOl-...-..) 14 miless. oS 23 00 OG. 20; 19008 | ses cOOn coeteless cedOseccccc che 47 miles......| 1 32 16 Noy. 3,19091).....do.....| Mourmelon..... 137.25 miles..| 4 6 25 Bee ee Remarks. First sweeps a half circle. With Mr. Archdeacon. Won Armengaud prize. Cross-country, Chalons to Rheims. 82 feet altitude; won prizes. His first long flight. Cross-country, Chalons to Suippe. First prize for distance and time up. With 2 passengers; prize. Won third prize, $960. On first day of meeting. Won prize of $10,000. Said to be 150 miles; 4 hours 17 minutes 35 seconds. won Avg. 61907 | Langley..:::|\Issy.2..2.2 45.522 AIONOBT ale a iaje| owe oeteide July 4,1908 | Monoplane.|..... DOs eicemt eee 3.7 miles. .... 0 547 Oct. 24,1908 |..... GC re MOULY:o. asiseccles 4.25 miles.... 6 40 Oct. 81,1908 |..... AO SRI EE Sac dO 48 a6 8.7 miles..... 11 00 Dosttesee|eee3 (oe | ee 6 |e eee slanese GOs Se exclsosss: ss: May 30,1909 |..... doses: Ussytocsceaceaesfieete Wolf ci cculsscssee22 June 12,19091)..... dons: JUVISSY...cecee0 984 feet... 5. ealecccccces July 13,19091)..... do: 532 Mondesir.......| 26 miles...... 44 30 July 25,19091)..... rots eet Walaise.25.oseee 32 miles...... 37 00 Aug. 28,19091]..... GO. <5 RHSMS ..<-ces5 6.3 miles..... 7 48 Aug. 27,1909 |..... GO ose clos om dO sc ccessen-| 20 Miles... ...|' 41/00 Ss. F. CODY. Feb. 22,1909 | Biplane....}| Aldershot....... L200 feetenicre|s eas | (RUMOMIIS <2 25.2. Seal ice eae jaenuhee 119 33 1 | On first day of Reims tour- nament. Aug. 27,1909 |..... do;.<. seQO sintasncs eee SUUODON Ws sen ssmeneece 1 | Won seventh prize for dis- tance. Sept. 6,1909 |..... OOseee=s | NANCY acca ease 25 miles...... 35 00 1 | Also made flights with pas- sengers. Sept. 10,1909 |..... a Ce Rf eae (: (eee USIHUGS so. 4ac taeee wae 1 | Accompanies troops on re- view. Sept. 11,1909 |..... ODzecsssleeess Qn sansia= Bole 24 miles .5. Fob aw ces oot 1 | Nancy to Lenoncourt. Oct. 16,1909 |..... do......| Doncaster....... 9.7 miles......] 21 45 1 | Best flight in Great Britain to date. Oct. 26,19091)..... do... Bei: (ae ee 29.7 miles....| 44 53 1 | Won Whitworth cup. PROGRESS IN AVIATION—CHANUTE. 165 Chronology of memorable fights—Motor Aeroplanes—Continued. M. ELLEHAMMER. Date. Machine. Place. Distance. | Time. eur Remarks. H.m.s 1906-1909... .. Biplanes35|) Denmark. £. u.<|./.sssee sees eee beets 1.| Experience with varied suc- cess. ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL. BOO 7190052 5s os gan os ad OC ete Stes ie aaa wes oe loaieis ocd een Experiments; tetrahedral machine. COUNT DE LAMBERT. Mar. 17, 1909 | SI plan Oees- | BAM a ees ease ch Seats see setae 0 300 1 | First flight alone; Wright’s pupil. Mar. 24,1909 |..... Clee Ae See GOL seeesosce 15.6 miles..... 27 11 1 | Wins Aero Club prize for 250 meters. Mar. 27,1909 |..... GOsese—- |. secs GOn see ccs 2. besettne. cones 7 56 1 | Flies beyond experimental field. Apr. 13,1909 |..... (oi foo Ps Ses GO vain sos see loca sesame gate 1 30 2 | With Delagrange as passen- ger. Aug. 26,19091)..... Gores. - Rheims =5e22 5:7. 72: miles: ...-. 1 52 00 1 | Won fourth prize; distance. Oct. 18,19091)..... GOs .c2- WUUVASS=/<\< cic =21—t 31 miles...... 49 39 1 | To Eiffel Tower and back across Paris. Oct. 21,1909 |..... GOrsac. Port Aviation ..| 1.25 miles....- 1 57 1 | Wins $3,000 prize for speed. May 20,1909 | Biplane....| Pau............. DOs MOS etal aac dais 1 | Pupil of W. Wright. Aug. 22,1909 |..... Os asc Rbeimsss..scse 18.6 miles. ...| 0 29 00 1 | Won third prize for speed over 30 kilometers. Aug. 27,19091)..... Osa =a |S-02 COtencsaseee 69 miles...... 1 46 32 1 | Won sixth prize for distance flown. July 21,1909 | Biplane....| La Haye........ Dmilesssesscs|sessest ees 1 | Self taught on Wright ma- chine. Aug. 27,19091|..... DO gers a PR NEIMNSe occas 12.4 miles....| 0 20 47 1 | Shows great boldness and skill, Aug. 28,1909 |..... Ghee eee (O1G paper | ay ye ee eS 115 2 | Performs evolutions with passenger, Sept. 7,1909 |..... (homers. JUNVISSY is nc cc cee TL S00H466C= ~ 31 miles...... 49 24 1 | Wins first prize for speed. Sept. 29,1909 |-.... dow «= 2|pNOw WOwKas. 227) 5 cugecke eet lose 5 1} Flights about Governors Island. Oct. 10,1909 |....- do... Bi. Louis... 2<5|-ss0-esesceweee|onnencese 1| Flights at Centennial cele- bration. Oct. 16,1909 |..... dow. =< = Chicago. .......- J mile: =<. .-.5 1 30 1 | Exhibition flights. J. A. D. MCCURDY. May 18,1908 Sti aint Hammondsport.| 600 feet.......|...-.---- 1 | With the White Wing. July 4,1908 }..... ak Pa 3,420 Ie0b sae tn nese a 1 | With the June Bug. Feb. 23,1909 |..... d0....-: Baddeck.....-..- 2,640 Teebe- eel 2-2se 1 | With the Silver Dart. Feb. 24,1909 }..... €02.ce2-|-- O0eee ee S| ee Berean eee ce 1 Do. Mar, id; 1909) |. 2-2 Ossett e | See eUOres ease) LO Ines: a5 0 22 00 1 Do. Mar. 18,1909 |..... CL cocoate tence 7 eesereereeecged bi cfeice ( Cheecege| arenes 1 | Aggregate of 1,000 miles. SUE. DON le se ee Se Petawawa.....-- BO amiless22 55. S- -. 1 | Many flights; broke ma- chine. LE BLON. Oct. 18,1909 | Monoplane.| Doncaster... ..-- 22 miles...... 0 30 00 1 | On Bradford cup; flew in rain. Oct. 19,1909 }..... Wor. be: ee Use (ici: See ae eee 1 | Astonishing flight in a gale. Oct. 20,1909 }..... G0z.6s baB 6 | ete ey dean gee | lh tn oy a heay dae SB eh Tele eaten, 1 | Foolhardy flight in great gale. F. W. BALDWIN. Mar. 12,1908 | Biplane....| Hammondsport.| 319 feet.......|.......-- 1 | With the Red Wing. May 18,1908 |..... (Ll (A aes Os fate ete a oe ete grieel ay Hate Bsa 1 | With the White Wing. Mar. 18,1909 |..... ts (eee Baddetke eee ae ee eee 1 | With the Silver Dart. Aug. 2,1909 |..... Grea. ol OUAWA WAL Coe cohen. eae see eo eee 1 | Several short flights. PROGRESS IN AVIATION—-CHANUTE. 167 Chronology of memorable flights—Motor Aeroplanes—Continued. LEGAGNEUX. Date. Machine. Place. Distance. | Time. | Pel Remarks. H.m.s Feb. 14,1909 | Biplane....| Mourmelon....-. Tea miles 3-2|ee- seca 1 | Pupil of Ferber. Woes se sete GG eo as ae ed Ore secon ce. |hOue EleSe pa. memes 1 | Sweeps two circles. Apr. 27,1909 |..... GOL. 55-2) Vienna. 42 eee 2.5 miles. .... 03 26 1 | Ona Voisin machine. Aug. 6,1909 |..... do......| Stockholm...... Sy2s0eet =. =~ oeeceecen 2 | With a passenger. Aug. 22,1909 |..... do:....-.)| heims’=.-.. Gmiles ao 52 3. 9 56 1 | Won eighth prize for speed over 6 miles. HENRI ROUGIER. May 23,1909 | Biplane....)| Juvissy......--- LS. Gmiléss- feces 1 | Swept eleven circles. Aug. 29,1909 }..... Goss -o5- AP] 0150 01s Ro ae cgeeeer ss] Meee 1 | Won fourth prize; altitude 180 feet. Sept. 9,1909 }..... WO ae ||P STOSCIN sco. soo ce bomie ements 0 12 10 1 | Reached 328 feet altitude. Sept. 12,19091)..... GOres. POO laos smiles... 22... 11018 1 | Reached 380 feet altitude. Sept. 20,19091)..... doz... Bs Eee es SESE ee mC eee Hea a 1 | Reached 650 feet altitude. Sept. 28,19091)..... dGvor~=" |MBOnine- cee s ee 31 miles....-.. 54 00 1 | Rises to 518 feet. Sept. 29,1909 |..... dot. -GGcesce .-| 48 miles.....- 1 35 00 1) In competition with Latham. Oct. 1,19091)...-. (dG. pcmns SOO soe waecteci-| 80 MUO. <5 2 38 00 1 | Wins first prize, distance. Oct. 18,1909 |... .. eee Blackpool......- 17.7 miles... 24 43 1 | Wins second prize, $3,600. E., BUNAU-VARILLA. NUE eo LOO. iplane:. 5 2|\Chalons se 65 osc]: ee eos cee seek 0 15 00 1 | Voisin biplane presented by father. Aug. 22,1909 |--... dos. .222| Rheims... 22... 6.2 miles..... 13 30 1} Thirteenth prize for speed for 10 kilometers. Aug. 29,1909 |...-- do:--~ -€0.2..5 18.6 miles... 38 31 1 | Eighth prize for speed for 30 kilos. 1 Considered the most interesting flights on record. Sct deat lair fetid me ; : WENO IeteH Oe nm ait \ eee 7s eS ho shots 99 1 Qos |. Balai ati sak Es a eee sil / ‘ebairite sity ane aor f ’ ee tke } hat |S ay <> i ey mae 7, Odie Leg ) i 0) Re aaa See sista shakes peibidil SUMO}. ac ak aaa we « Seebisie inet diet Bataan st | cs wet or el Seah 2 hy) Lube he © break dyea tad! Boaseaart oe BE pried tae ane AU haath | Ore EO ein ae souetp ; ti ashe Avltitey Mow ier! ity ee PRS. osseous «fatal dex T" i { amines wih iar ade che 7t 7 aot a ie aah: " s--. i hat FP} why env | Tey him Ty b cieaeehe sane Ape + | - = — ; andl » a er . ' — ws -— ) : AJLIBAVOJ ABH FE ia@ + Zz >? top a chs si PUP" ag \ SA» Tee Se eee a oe Latmgesus aaah! abioy } i) ere . fw, |... inl OL, SE ; Del ‘ j : { Demge rit Seluy el eesiti a | PEt ha. tet os reps eee) bP Ane Beth Srpbausted } tok : SW aabibaligh vol nedy Mar i a - ea OU so 1 AAs vd seas: ' 4 ~ Ais . if “ee Sd a \ ] és magreotataerwnr erie ae * ee Pee 7 a YG a! Th shbiannes ‘ia Leahy Quit tr» Lil stpa'D/? 9 wat a. ae ew PF 2 to ie i (re% y 4 2 ha aa) - Po ‘2.75 . . + i . ’ ° : £ \ sé ‘ye ee 4 err) wi they viet : we ty 7 j Ge 28, er , as , : f i Moe. Gt re | a... ds hee ar oy e ‘ie wa (2 eee a + ~ahe . . i PROGRESS IN RECLAMATION OF ARID LANDS IN THE WESTERN UNITED STATES. [With 12 plates.] By F. H. Newett, Director of Reclamation Service. PRESENT CONDITIONS. The progress being made by the United States Government in the reclamation of arid lands under the terms of the so-called Recla- mation or Newlands Act of June 17, 1902, has been notable, and the results as accomplished are instructive to students of engineering and economics. The plans and hopes have been touched upon in previous discussions, but the time has now arrived when more tangible con- clusions are becoming available. The work is in an instructive stage in that it is possible to observe the results of the practical application of ideals of conservation and the working out of these in communities of considerable size. Reclamation works have been laid out in all of the Western States and Territories and an investment of over $60,000,000 has been made. Part of the works in each State has been completed and is being operated, returning a part of the cost. About 10,000 families are being supplied with water. Most of these have come from the humid regions and have located upon tracts of land which formerly were considered valueless, and in portions of the country which were called desert. In short, by the use of a trust fund which is being returned and used over again, the waste waters of the Nation are being conserved, destructive floods prevented, apparently value- less land converted into highly productive farms, and thousands of families settled upon small tracts sufficient for their support. To this extent relief is being given to the tendency toward congestion in the industrial centers and home markets are being extended. The farmer located upon a small irrigated tract owned and cultivated by himself necessarily practices intensive farming, produces the highest 17This article is in continuation of papers printed in the Smithsonian Reports for 1901, pp. 407 to 423; 1903, pp. 827 to 841; 1904, pp. 373 to 381; 1907, pp. 331 to 345. 169 170 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. crop value per acre, is a large consumer as well as producer, and be- comes the most valuable citizen in the stability of the commonwealth. The individual projects are located far apart and the engineering problems connected with them are varied and many of them novel and difficult. They have not been confined to any one branch of en- gineering, but include not merely the ordinary surveying and prac- tice of civil engineering, with planning and construction, but reach out into hydraulics, to electrical development and transmission of power and the use of the power in pumping water and incidentally in commercial enterprises, the manufacture of cement, and of various structures, large and small, together with the safe and economical handling of explosives, the digging and maintaining of tunnels, and innumerable mechanical operations. Joined with the engineering has been the business side. This in- volves not merely the expenditure of the trust fund and the getting of the largest possible return for it, but also the careful accounting for all expenditures in terms of value received. It has not been the custom for work under Government auspices to be measured in the ordinary commercial way by returns. On the contrary, it has been usual to state simply that so much money has been appropriated and spent. Thus data are lacking for comparison of relative efficiency under Government and under corporate enterprise in most compa- rable operations, but in the use of the reclamation fund this side of the work has been made prominent. The engineering and business problems have been met and suc- cessfully solved. The most difficult undertaking, however, is that incident to the stage of progress now being entered upon, namely, the operating side which involves successful dealing with the human as opposed to the physical elements. This means the tactful han- dling of thousands of individuals, collecting from them in small payments the original cost of the works, they in turn deriving this money from the sale of products of the soil, and at the same time operating the works in such way that the best results in crop pro- duction may be attained, also maintaining the structures so that ulti- mately, after having been paid for, they may be turned over to the landowners in the best possible condition. The object of the reclamation act, as stated in the law is the con- struction of irrigation works for the reclamation of arid or semi- arid lands in the States and Territories named in the act. But the purpose behind the mere reclamation of the land is the providing of opportunities for homes for an independent self-supporting citizen- ship. The law is not drawn for the purpose of making men rich, but for providing opportunities for citizens who have the skill, energy, and thrift suflicient to make use of the opportunities for se- RECLAMATION OF ARID LANDS—-NEWELL. 171 curing a home for themselves and for their children; one in which the family may be supported; and one where with the growth of the country and increased land values, it will be possible for an in- creasing number of families to maintain themselves upon subdi- visions of the original farms. Thus far the wisdom of the framers of the act has been demon- strated, and it has been shown that, with wise administration, the law is proving of inestimable value to the States and to the Nation. From time to time, it is necessary to make improvements or changes in the organic law, such as are inseparable with growth, but as a whole this act has proved remarkably complete. CHARACTER OF SETTLERS, The character of the citizens who have taken up lands cn these projects under terms of the homestead act, or have purchased them from the original occupants, is as varied as can well be imagined. Characterizing them as a whole, it may be said that they include the more energetic and venturesome part of the population, such as largely make up all pioneer communities; men who have the desire for the novelty and for change deeply planted in their charac- ter, who are wearied of the monotony of the old familiar life, and are attracted by the remote and unknown. Among them are many me- chanics, shopkeepers, and clerks, who have had a longing to get into the open air, and who through energy and self-denial have saved a little money. Others are young farmers who can not find land near the old home and who wish to try their fortunes in the West. Others who come from nearer irrigated States, where the price of land has increased rapidly, and by selling the old farm for a high price they can obtain land equally as good at far less cost. The would-be irrigators come from every part of the civilized earth but are mainly Americans. There are some men of the Latin races, Spanish and Italians, also Germans and the northern races, English, and Irish, a mingling of the white men of every variety of religious belief and of political affiliations. As might be imagined, the population in the first few years is largely transitional. The same qualities which bring a man to a project tend to make him leave it. He has heard of all the good things, has read the roseate descriptions of irrigation, its benefits, but the drawbacks have never been brought to his attention. It is hardly to be wondered that many of the people who take up irriga- tion for the first time suddenly awake to the fact that it is not wholly a matter of sunshine and flowers, and that for success energy, skill, and thrift are required. In order to get well started on an irrigated 172 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. farm a man must have not only good fortune but must be prepared to endure privations which he would not be willing to consider at home; doing this, however, with the assurance that the reward ultimately will be correspondingly great. This awakening to the fact that irrigation has its thorny side some- times comes as a startling shock, sufficient to discourage all but the most enthusiastic or persistent, and the more faint hearted seek still farther for the promised land. Those who remain soon learn that success must be preceded by subduing the soil, getting it into a good condition of tilth, supplying the necessary nitrates and perhaps the phosphates, applying water day or night, and perhaps all night, wading around in the mud, or enduring the heat of the long days of brilliant sunshine and the accompanying dust of the arid regions, the troubles with neighbors over division of water, the possible seep- age followed by crop losses, or ruin from alkali. AJl of these look very large at first to the man who has never given them thought, but they gradually fade again as time goes on and experience is at- tained. As a consequence of these conditions a considerable part of the first settlers on every irrigation system sell out or relinquish their home- steads and seek other fields. The second comer is more apt to stay. He has usually looked over the field in advance with considerable care and has weighed the dis- advantages more carefully than his predecessor, but sometimes he in turn sells to a third comer, who may be regarded as the final locator. The first and sometimes the second man has reaped more or less of a reward for the discomforts of pioneering. He has obtained the land for nothing or at very small cost, has, it is true, endured priva- tions for a time, but has received an otherwise unearned increment in land values, due to construction of the works by the investment of capital not his own. Thus, if his land has cost him directly or indi- rectly $1 or $2 an acre, he usually sells it for $20 or $30 an acre, the final purchaser paying a reasonable amount for the land, but nearly what it is worth. The purchaser approaches the undertaking on the basis of a thorough appreciation of values and possibilities involved. He has not rushed in as have many of the pioneers because of the feeling that he was getting something for nothing, but on the con- trary has carefully weighed the advantages and disadvantages and has paid a fair price with the knowledge that he must get his money back out of the land itself. With him it has not been a vision of comfort or luxury, but a realization of hard work involving certain risks, though with reasonable assurances of success. RECLAMATION OF ARID LANDS—NEWELL. Lis SIZE OF FARM. The size of the farms obtainable from the public domain is defined by the reclamation act not by an arbitrary number of acres, as in the case of the homestead and other similar laws, but the Secretary of the Interior is required to give a “limit of area per entry, which limit shall represent the acreage which in the opinion of the Secretary may be reasonably required for the support of a family upon the lands in question.” With reference to the right to the use of water sold for lands in private ownership, the limit is placed at 160 acres “ to any one land- owner, and no such sale shall be made to any landowner unless he be an actual bona fide resident on such land or occupant thereof, resid- ing in the neighborhood.” These provisions necessitate a study in advance of the character of the irrigable land, so that it may be divided into tracts in accordance with its quality, each of these farm units being of a size reasonably required when irrigated and culti- vated for the support of a family. In the extreme southern part of the arid region, where the daily sunlight and warmth is most favorable for the production of crops, it results that where the land is carefully tilled, where it has been -put into high-grade crops, and especially in fruit, 10 acres may be ample for the support of a family. This is because of the fact that with intensive cultivation, crop follows crop in rapid succession, there being hardly any interval for rest during the year. Alfalfa, for example, may be cut eight or ten times, while there may be three successive crops during the year of grains or vegetables. Farther north, where the summer season is limited, and there is a long cold winter, the area required for a family is correspondingly greater. With alfalfa and sugar beets, 40 acres may be considered a fairly good sized farm, as, for example, in the more favorable parts of Montana, and elsewhere, 80 acres is usually the limit. Few men can handle successfully over 80 acres of irrigated land, especially with high-priced water. In laying out the farm units it is necessary to follow the conven- tional rectangular system adopted by the Government, of which the section, or 1 square mile, of 640 acres is the unit, and the quarter section of 160 acres is the size of the homestead entry. The smallest subdivision ordinarily recognized is the quarter-quarter section, or 40-acre tract, commonly known as a “ forty.” This in turn in the irrigated regions is again divided into quarter-quarter-quarters, or 10-acre tracts, this smaller subdivision not being generally recognized in the Land Office tracts. Not all of any quarter section or even of the “ forty ” is usually irrigable, Generally the farm unit consists of, say, 80 acres in all, y) 174 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. of which 48 or 52 acres or some other number may be irrigable. The charge for water is apportioned according to the number of irrigable acres, irrespective of the total of the farm unit. This farm may extend across the canal to an extreme size of 160 acres, of which a portion may be dry land above the reach of water and a portion irrigable. REQUIREMENT OF SETTLEMENT. The requirement of actual settlement on the reclaimed land has been one which has led to much discussion and has been the cause of much of the hardship incident to pioneering. The theory of the law as originally passed was that the Government, investing this trust fund without profit and interest, does this for the purpose of securing settlement in the more sparsely populated western States. The prime object was not so much to enrich these localities or States as to secure resident citizens, who would not only cultivate the soil and become producers but would build up the institutions of the State, make roads, organize schools, and add to the strength of the Com- monwealth. If, however, the Government were to reclaim the lands and permit men living in near-by cities, or even in Chicago or New York, to pur- chase or hold these lands, cultivating them through tenants, the main object of the bill would be defeated. It would amount practically to lending this money without profit or interest to a favored few. Assuming, for example, that the proportional cost of reclaiming a 40-acre farm was $30 an acre, this would be $1,200 invested by the Government for the benefit of some one family. This $1,200 is to be repaid in 10 annual installments by the landowner. If he prefers to live in the city, and rents the use of the land to some other indi- vidual, this renter will have little.or no interest in the permanent improvement and in development of the land and of the community. if either man is to be benefited by this loan of the Government, it should be the renter on the farm rather than the big or little capi- talist living in town. For this reason the resident clause has been held to be vital to the object of the act, although it has caused much hardship through the requirement that men bring their families out into the desert and live there throughout the early years of preparation. From the standpoint of a man. working in a store or machine shop, a teacher or professional man, the idea is extremely attractive of getting one of these homesteads from the Government, visiting it occasionally, adding improvements, and hiring a man to look after it until the community has been built up and the days of pioneering have passed. His monthly savings can be put into the little farm and provision made for the future without interfering with his daily wage-earning RECLAMATION OF ARID LANDS—NEWELL. 175 capacity. It seems to him a useless hardship to be compelled either to give up the farm or to go and live upon it, and he urges that if he be allowed to hold the farm and invest his savings in it he can in the end bring about a higher development than would be possible if he spent all his time on the farm itself. There is, however, no way of distinguishing between the small investor and the large, and if the school-teacher has the right to enjoy absentee landlordism, so has the man of larger means. Thus it would soon happen that the bounty of the Government would be enjoyed by people of comparative wealth and leisure, renting their farms to the class of men who are most needed as resident owners. CROPS. The crops planted by the settlers are as varied as are the farmers themselves and the climatic surroundings. They naturally endeavor to raise the things with which they are familiar and are somewhat slow in adapting their methods to the requirements of the soil and climate. Asa rule, grain is planted first, as it is a quick crop and it is possible to realize an early return from the new ground. The experienced irrigator endeavors to get a small part of the land into alfalfa as quickly as possible, knowing that it enriches the soil. With his first grain crop he sows on part of his land some alfalfa seed and if the stand is good he leaves this small tract in alfalfa for a few years, cultivating the remaining areas and adding each year to the alfalfa tract until the time arrives when he can plow in the alfalfa which was first planted, turning the plants under to enrich the soil, then cultivating it and planting to root crops (pl. 6, fig.2). | One of the problems with the lighter and sometimes better soils is to hold these in place until the crops are established. The desert vegetation, the sagebrush and greasewood, while undisturbed protect the soil from the winds, but, as has been shown by bitter experience again and again, when these plants are removed and the ground is plowed the winds of early spring sweeping furiously across the dry level field blow the soil away in clouds, carrying off the seed (pl. 1, figs); It requires a few incidents of this kind to convince the newcomer that it is wise to follow the advice given him not to clear his entire farm at once, but to leave rows of sagebrush across the path of the prevailing spring winds. He soon appreciates that it is little short of wicked to burn the sagebrush, and instead of piling it for destruction he learns to leave it in long windrows, cultivating the places between until the ground is well shaded by the growing crop and the roots have been firmly established, then he can remove the remaining sage- brush or windbreaks and get his entire field into crop. Ina few years, 176 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. by careful handling, the light soil becomes reasonably compacted, or held back by the roots and straw of the vegetation, or protected by the growing trees and shrubbery, so that no further damage is incurred. PROBLEMS. These problems of dealing with the settlers, of giving them sound advice, and at the same time collecting from them the cost of the works, involve the problems which are far more difficult than those of engineering construction or related business manage- ment. The difficulties of management are complicated by the fact that the irrigator frequently regards his individual interest as antagonistic to that of the community or management, insisting upon wasting water because of the mistaken belief that the more of a good thing he has the better. He thus gradually reduces the value of his land or ruins it and that of his neighbors, contesting stubbornly every effort at economy and wise management, because it interferes with his convenience. He has paid for water and he wants all he has paid for and more, awakening too late to the fact that in all this he has been struggling to do the wrong thing, because it seemed at the time easiest or cheapest. This phase of the work demands not merely engineering skill and agricultural knowledge, but the exercise of ° patience, tact, and firmness to the highest possible degree. It is probable that as irrigation systems develop, as the country grows older, and experience is acquired, the good practices will crystallize into customs and the customs into laws or regulations, mak- ing it easier to control the distribution of water, but at the present stage of the development under the reclamation act, with new officers and employees in a new country with almost unknown soil and climatic conditions, with families from all parts of the United States and from abroad, with irrigators who have never irrigated before, with customs uncrystallized, with laws and court decisions confusing and apparently contradictory, it is easy to see that there is no bed of roses for the water master, who must operate hundreds of miles of new ditches, delivering water to hundreds of new farms, through or by means of hundreds of structures, including headgates, flumes, cul- verts, and with bridges, crossings, etc., to be maintained. The water master, or the man who manages a large complicated system of hundreds or thousands of small farms, who must plan out day by day the schedule of distribution, who must guard against loss, be keenly vigilant for possible breaks in the system, and who takes the place of Providence for a community, is the most abused individual in the community. IcECLAMATION OF ARID LANDS—NEWELL. 177 AMOUNT OF WATER USED. The phrase “duty of water” is used frequently indicating the amount of water required during the year or crop season for success- ful irrigation. The duty of water is usually expressed in depth over the surface, for example, the statement that the duty of water is 3 acre-feet means that during the crop season an amount of water has been applied sufficient to cover an acre to a depth of 3 feet. As the acre consists of 43,560 square feet, a duty of water of 3 acre-feet corresponds to the use of 130,680 cubic feet per acre during the year, or nearly a million gallons (977,550 gallons). The use of water is also frequently expressed by a statement that 1 second-foot will irrigate 100 acres, more or less. This means that a stream 1 foot wide and 1 foot deep flowing at the rate of 1 foot per second, or in other words, 1 cubic foot of water per second flowing throughout the irrigating season will water 100 acres. By a simple arithmetical computation, it will be found that 1 cubic foot per second flowing for 24 hours will cover an acre to a depth of very nearly 2 feet (1.98 feet). In other words 1 second-foot is nearly equivalent to 2 acre-feet per day; thus, if the irrigating season is 90’days in - length, 1 cubic foot per second for 90 days will amount to a delivery of nearly 180 acre-feet, or cover 100 acres to a depth of 1.8 feet. NECESSITY OF GOOD MANAGEMENT. The value of the crop produced and the consequent ability of the farmers to return the cost of the investment are dependent directly upon water being received on each farm in proper quantity and at the right ume. If too much water is applied the crops will be corre- spondingly injured, the available soluble salts in the soil will be washed out or brought to the surface, the land depreciate in value, and large areas will be destroyed. With intensive cultivation and the crop production in the more valuable fruits, berries, or vegetables under ideal conditions, the yield may be several hundred dolla:s an acre. By a slight error in handling the water the crop value may be lessened by a hundred dollars an acre or more. Although the net product per acre may appear to be large and sat- isfactory, and it is impossible to prove that higher values might have been reached, yet the man who thoroughly understands the situation appreciates that there has been a loss of $100 per acre, which is directly attributable to lack of good management, and that under better conditions higher values would have been attained by the farmers. This possible reduction of crop values in a highly developed agricultural area of say 10,000 acres at $100 per acre 97578°—sm 1910——12 178 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. means a loss to the community of a million dollars, or, rather, under better or more successful management of the water, the net return of the community might have been $1,000,000 more during the season. This is by no means a fanciful idea. The study of ditch manage- ment and crop production in irrigated regions shows that in many instances there has been a shortage of water at a critical time, due to lack of forethought or, skill on the part of some one. The average farmer does not appreciate what this has meant to him, as he is apt to rarely figure out these larger matters with any degree of precision, and has been accustomed to disappointments in his crops so often that he regards such matters as inseparable from agriculture. If the crop looks fairly well he frequently goes no deeper. Possibly never having seen a full-crop production under excellent conditions he has no standard by which to judge. This matter was well illustrated by an experienced irrigation manager who examined one of the large. projects in Wyoming where the farmers for several years had been what they considered fairly successful. They had raised profitable crops and had succeeded in getting along with constant temporary repairs to the main canal. He took the history of a single season’s operation and number of days that the canal was out of service through accidental but pre- ventable breaks, and figured on a conservative basis what would have been the crop products had the works been maintained in excellent order by skilled men. He showed that had fire swept through the country and destroyed every visible improvement in the towns of the vicinity the loss to the entire community would have been less than had actually resulted from preventable failure to operate the canals properly. The spectacular view of a burning barn or store- house rivets public attention upon this definite loss, but the gradual -and unimpressive delay in development of the crop day by day is not noticeable. While all of the neighborhood would rush to aid the owner of the burning barn, yet no one knows or apparently cares while the valuable fruits or other crops are being imperceptibly reduced in value to a far larger degree. FERTILIZERS. One of the fallacies which must be continually met and overcome with these new men is that by applying water artificially to the soil the processes of farming are made easier and that there is no need of applying fertilizer. Statements are often made in popular publi- cations to the effect that the irrigating streams not only furnish to the plants the needed water but also bring fertilizers and enrich the soil. The Nile Valley, in Egypt, is frequently cited as an instance where it is alleged that through centuries agriculture has been prac- ticed without impoverishing the soil, the rich mud left by the river RECLAMATION OF ARID LANDS—-NEWELL. 179 giving all the necessary elements required for the growing crop. This, however, is true in part only. The soils of Egypt for best results must be fertilized by supplying the lack of some of the ele- ments of plant food not brought by the Nile. As a matter of fact, irrigation can not take the place of cultivation, and it is not a lazy man’s form of agriculture, but quite the reverse. Cultivation may take the place of irrigation to a certain extent, and it has been found that thorough cultivation reduces the need of water, but neither cultivation nor application of muddy waters will bring to the soil all the needed constituents which must be had to obtain the largest and best growth of plant or fruit. During the first few years the crop returns from the formerly un- worked soil are frequently large, but to preserve the valuable quali- ties experience has shown that some of the constituents of the soil must be conserved and others added. In other words, it is impos- sible to take large crops away from the fields year after year unless the necessary food is supplied to the plants. The successful irrigator must not only cultivate his fields, apply water sparingly, but must fertilize, supplying those materials which experience has shown are most beneficial to the crops. He should strive to retain or renew in the soil the useful constituents placed there by nature and supplement these where needed. Most of the soils of the arid region contain a large proportion of soluble mineral salts. The rains have nof been sufficient to wash these entirely away and they remain fairly uniformly diffused throughout the soil. Some of these salts are extremely valuable as plant food, but if at any point in the field they are in excess, there plant life is destroyed. The chief deficiency among these, however, appears to be in the phosphates. It is sometimes essential to supply this lack, even though there is a large quantity of the salts of soda and potash. The problem of obtaining the phosphates should not be a very difficult one as throughout the arid region are large deposits of the rock carrying the. necessary supply and the smelters or other in- dustries, as a by-product, can produce unlimited quantities of the acids necessary to put this phosphate into soluble or accessible form. The development of the industry has, however, not proceeded to a very notable degree, because of the slowness of the farmers to recog- nize the fact that fertilizers of this kind are valuable and the fear that, if it is generally known that fertilizer should be used, this will add to the discouragement of the new farmers. ALKALI, The excess of what is otherwise a valuable fertilizing element is also a matter which must be of serious concern. The natural salts, 180 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. easily soluble and widely distributed through the agricultural soil, may be concentrated by careless handling of the water and bring about a condition which is covered by the general term “alkali.” These salts appear on the surface of the ground, usually as a thin white crust, looking in the distance like snow (pl. 2, fig. 2). The appear- ance of the salts on the surface is sometimes preceded by an excessive crop yield, followed by diminution and burning out of the plants, and then by the white patches taking possession of the field. This is commonly known as the white alkali. Another appearance, less fre- quent, is that of irregular black patches of a peculiar, almost oily substance, as though a quantity of crude petroleum had been scat- tered over the field, destroying the crop and leaving a black stain. This is the dreaded black alkali, which is more difficult to eradicate. The white alkali is of the nature of gypsum, mostly sulphate of soda, while the black alkali consists of mixtures of similar salts in which the bicarbonate of soda predominates. Their destructive effect can be prevented by care and vigilance, and remedies can be applied, though at very large expense, sometimes too costly for the value of the land. In this, as in many other evils, an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. A study of the origin of the alkali shows that as a rule where water has been applied to lands in excessive quantities it has dissolved some of the valuable salts, and, seeping through the ground, has finally come to the surface perhaps a mile or more away. LEvaporating, the water has left its load of soluble material, for a time enriching the soil at this locality, as illustrated in the large crop growth for a short period. The process still continuing, the salt has accumulated to such an extent as to be visible. The remedy lies in two directions: First. In preventing excessive use of water, and, Second. In systematic drainage, to take away any excess of water. The first is mechanically the easiest, but from the human stand- point the most difficult, as it is impossible to convince the average newcomer, who first sees the wonderful results of irrigation, that it is possible to apply too much water and to ruin his own or his neighbor’s field. He can not see that he is washing out slowly but surely the con- stituents of the soil which are vital to his continued success. It requires a careful analysis to show that these salts, which would cost him, say, $100 per acre to apply, can be quickly taken away by a little carelessness, and the true value of the land reduced. He is less willing to admit that the excess water which has drained or perco- lated from his land, carrying off what is valuable to it, is at the same time concentrating the salts in the soil of his neighbor until its value RECLAMATION OF ARID LANDS—NEWELL. 181 is reduced in the opposite direction by becoming overloaded with what he has lost. e Lhe average experienced irrigator, seeing that something is wrong, and not recognizing that he himself is creating the mischief, clamors for drainage. If he could have his way he would develop a system of drains such that by having a steady stream of water flowing to the farm, there would be an almost equal stream flowing awdy, washing over or percolating through his soil. Such condition would result in a few years in leaching the land to a mere insoluble skeleton. This future contingency seems very remote in comparison with the ease and pleasure of having an abundant stream of water available at all times to turn to the fields or running out among his plants. These conditions are given at this time as illustrating the problems which are incident to the present stage of development of the recla- mation projects. On each of these a similar period of education of the individual and of the community must be passed through. There must be taught what is essentially a new art to men and women who have acquired experience along other lines. Many of the farmers must unlearn some of the things taught from boyhood, but as time goes on, and as experience is had in the new home and under the new climatic conditions, the importance of this matter gradually dawns upon the settler. As payments are made and the responsibilities of ownership become more deeply impressed, he sees the necessity of various regulations and becomes more ready to cooperate in the gen- eral welfare. The same lessons, however, must be learned on each of the projects, and although one group may have passed through bitter experience in losses through following wrong methods, another group must learn the same lesson in the same way. LOCATION OF WORKS. Reclamation projects, as before stated, have been begun in each of the Western States and Territories, and there is given in the follow- ing pages a review of the present condition of these, arranging the descriptive matter alphabetically by States, and giving concisely the physical features which are of interest or concerning which questions are usually asked by the student of engineering. The location of these projects is shown by the small map (fig. 1) which indicates by the heavy black spots the relative position and outline of the projects which are described. The structures are of all kinds and descriptions, and on each project there may be from 3,000 to 5,000 distinct pieces of work, these ranging from a great storage dam or tunnel, costing a million or two million dollars, down to the smaller diversion dams, headgates, flumes, bridges, culverts, and almost innumerable other minor works. These are scattered over an area of from 20 to 200 182 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. miles in length, or even more. Each must be designed, built, watched, and maintained individually. In the description that follows only a few of the larger features are mentioned, and it must be borne in mind that on most of the projects there are hundreds of miles of small distributing ditches and thousands of minor works such as farmers’ headgates and flumes, each of which is important to some one man or group of men. but PAYETTE-BOISE tse * Ni ‘ < G KLAMaT), Padge OY] IO Udy>seIpsyj Moe Oy Uy sy JospIs) ubG PU UO Pasyd aio Uys Sab) KG paicspul He UN FSWT Fy shoge SIA TUOT FUT IS SUONeATS BY HUA IAD PU’ TpUM Wd{\Oq PY UBTIese G99) FAY PUS SING BU US RS Hy UIT BIE Soul IMBIUaT BY] SAL oes I PAT Ay Uwsa MOG ea) Sie AiS{OW Im Bo poo sual euduaL We ebAee sesuibUy ST] eui Jo CudT Py] MISA {FA} PE Va! TT UM wuLld np FnduIS[y ey SACar 479] Ul UaAIB Iw SUDUEMATD Soe ea MOQ” paeoday abi ost 228 ¥ 5 7 a 75 * h| es BAY : Ca Gs 47e4 iG y == gaat 12 © & 00g SSO OO0O0¢ =| AIWOS zesl 16170 [681 Pue [eal UL apr APAANS [BI aULOUOSI4} © ULOdy pajyaafo4g 9€T6N LYWHO dO NOLLHOd NOISSINWOD HAATY IddISSISsiN ayyjo UO}VI2IIIp 9Yy} JapuNn epuly is 308 HAATY Idd ISSISSTN AIL st we 10 AGAYAS “| 3LV1d H42IO—'0161 ‘Hoday ueiuosyziws “LL6OL ‘8g HOUVII SSHOHS WMO] WOYNS WVG 4O 3LIS JO MaIA IVuaNay ‘6 3LV1d WRIO—O161 ‘Hodey uviuosyjims ELECTRIC POWER FROM THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER—CLARK. 201 bers. After public hearings and an investigation, the commission reported favorably on the project. AUTHORIZATION. In view of this favorable attitude and report, on April 21, 1904, a bill was introduced in Congress to secure the right to build a dam completely across the Mississippi at the foot of the Des Moines Rapids. This bill was favored by the legislature of the State of Illinois, which, on January 17, 1905, by joint resolution, memorial- ized Congress, urging its passage. The State Legislature of Iowa also indorsed the enterprise. On January 27, 1905, the bill passed the Lower House; on February 2, 1905, it passed the Senate; on February 9, 1905, it received the approval of President Roosevelt and became a law. This law was public act No. 65, entitled “An act granting to the Keokuk and Hamilton Water Power Co. rights to construct and main- tain for the improvement of navigation and development of water power a dam across the Mississippi River.” It provides: That the assent of Congress is hereby given to the Keokuk and Hamilton Water Power Company, a corporation created and organized under the laws of the State of Illinois, its successors, and assigns, to erect, construct, operate, and maintain a dam, with its crest at an elevation of from thirty to thirty-five feet above standard low water, across the Mississippi River at or near the foot of the Des Moines Rapids, from Keokuk, Iowa, to Hamilton, [llinois, and to construct, operate, and maintain power stations on or in connection with said dam, with suitable accessories for the development of water power, and the generation, use, and transmission therefrom of electric energy and power to be derived from the Des Moines Rapids on the Mississippi River. The United States Government had constructed in 1877, and was maintaining along the Iowa shore as an aid to navigation a dry dock, canal, and a series of three locks, the structure extending in all 114 miles from Keokuk to a point below Fort Madison, but above the swiftest part of the rapids. The dock, canal, and locks had for years made feasible the only practicable river intercourse between points above and below the barrier. In order to continue this means of communication, and in order that the Government might receive a return for the perpetual fran- chise granted the company, there follows in the bill this proviso: That in lieu of the three locks and the dry dock, with their appurtenances, now owned and operated by the United States, at the Des Moines Rapids Canal, the said Keokuk and Hamilton Water Power Company shall build, coin- cidentally with the construction of the said dam and appurtenances, at locations approved by the Secretary of War, a lock and dry dock with their appurtenances ; the said lock shall be of such a kind and size, and shall have such appur- tenances and equipment as shall conveniently and safely accommodate the 202 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. present and prospective commerce of the Mississippi River; the said dry dock and its appurtenances shall be such as to give space, facilities, and conven- iences for the repair of vessels at least equal to those afforded by the existing Government dry dock and shops at the Des Moines Rapids Canal. ~ Other conditions provide for further approval by the Secretary of War and upon completion place in the United States the ownership and control of the lock, dry dock, and their appurtenances, and the operation and maintenance thereof. As still further protection to navigation, and in the interest of tisheries, section 2 of the act requires: That the withdrawal of water from the Mississippi River and the discharge of water into the said river, for the purpose of operating the said power stations and appurtenant works, shall be under the direction and control of the Secre- tary of War, and shall at no time be such as to impede or interfere with the safe and convenient navigation of the said river by means of steamboats or other vessels, or by rafts or barges: Provided, That the said company shall construct such suitable fishways as may be required from time to time by the Secretary of Commerce and Labor. Under authority of this act, after the delay of preparing to finance the construction, in 1909 work was actually begun to continue until completion, it is estimated, some time before July 1, 1913. In direct charge of the hydraulic construction is Mr. Hugh L. Cooper, of New York. The Stone & Webster Engineering Corpora- tion, of Boston, has direct charge of the electrical installation, includ- ing the transmission and distributing lines. CHARACTER OF RIVER BED. The site of this dam and hydro-electric plant, as a glance at the map will show, is above the junctions with the Mississippi, of the Ohio, Missouri, and Illinois Rivers. It is at a point where the three States of Iowa, Missouri, and Illinois touch, 140 miles from Des Moines, 140 miles from St. Louis, and 220 miles from Chicago. The dam itself is being built upon a river bed of blue limestone in a region stable from a geological point of view. The surface of the river bed at this point is naturally clean and free from the cracks and fissures of rock of igneous origin. The average depth of the river at this point is from 5 to 6 feet and the variation is slight. Under an act of Congress July 25, 1866, a bridge joining Keokuk and Hamilton was built. This bridge crosses the river at a point 1,066 yards below the location of the Keokuk Dam. The following description of the river bed in the vicinity of this bridge is taken from page 1006 of the Report of the Chief of Engineers, United States Army, for the year 1878, Part 2: ELECTRIC POWER FROM THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER—-CLARK. 203 The river in its natural condition at this place is about 2,600 feet in width at ordinary low water and about 5,500 feet in width at flood stages. The bed of the river is limestone, of the same character as that of the whole Des Moines Rapids, which extend from this place to Montrose, about 11 miles. On page 313 of Report of the Chief of Engineers, United States Army, for the year 1867, is found a description of the Des Moines Rapids, in which the following extract appears: This erosive action, though productive of such remarkable results, has not been carried sufficiently far to render the river through this part of its bed, available at all times for the purposes of navigation. From Fort Madison to Montrose, the river is about 2,500 feet wide, and sufficiently deep; but in the rapids its bed of limestone rock, which by some unknown cause seems to have been hardened to a greater degree than the corresponding stratum above and below the rapids, has resisted the action of the water, while its sides have given way. The result is that this mass of rock remains there, acting exactly as an artificial dam whose upper surface slopes about 22 feet in 11 miles, and con- forms very nearly to the plane of stratification of the rock through which the channel is cut. The bluffs extend along the banks of the river throughout the length of the rapids, presenting a rock escarpment at the present high water- mark with a sloping gravel beach to low water, and also another escarpment of rock at 105 feet above the present water level, having, likewise, a sloping beach at its foot. FLOW OF RIVER. Readings of the stage of the Mississippi River at various points have been made by the United States Government since 1868. These readings have been published as part of the records of the Missis- sippi River Commission and of the United States Weather Bureau. Besides reading the stage of the river the Government has, through the United States Army and the Mississippi River Commission, ob- served at various times and at various points the discharge of the water. The results of these discharge measurements also form part of the records of the Mississippi River Commission as well as of the United States Engineers. In addition to these, various observations have been taken under the direction of Mr. Cooper. For the purpose of determining the amount of power available all of the above ob- servations, and particularly those establishing a minimum flow, have been valuable. So far as is known to the engineers of the develop- ment, the lowest measured discharge was recorded by Montgomery Meigs, United States Civil Engineer, in September, 1891, when at a time that the commonly accepted low-water marks on Mechanics’ Rock, just above Keokuk, showed water lower than the record of 1864, there was observed a discharge of 21,389 cubic feet per second. Other observations of minimum discharge are shown in the tables which follow, being the lowest records of which the engineers of the de- velopment have authentic knowledge. 204 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. Measurements at Burlington, Iowa (40 miles above Keokuk). Stage of : ‘ Date. Sarmeces piece pita oor ype) Measurements made under direction of— gauge. 1866. Feet. Sec.ft. Oct. 23 11.0 36,100 | Double floats.....- Lieut. G. K. Warren, United States Army. 1879. May 2 1.8 37,900 |..... GO I5I. it?s. Maj. F. U. Farquhar, Corps of Engineers, United States Army. May 9 na ( BOR GOpiac Vasenar Do. Sept. 17 1.5 34,600 |.-... GOs aria aot Do. Oct. 4 Auf PA Ph ea Qee osetia oe Do. Oct. 10 8 Ze (QOM: sees GOs de seaeeee Do. 1891. Sept. 16 “2 21,389 |.-.-. CO sec cess anes Montgomery Meigs, United States civil engineer. 1907. Dec. 31 1. 42 27,386 | Rod floats.........| W. V. N. Powelson and Lieut. C. S. Bookwalter, 1908. United States Navy. Jan. 30 1.45 2A; 755 ||--.-32 Gaense asec, 2 Do. 1JIn 1866 there was no standard gauge at Burlington and this gauge reading is ap- proximate only as compared with the present gauge, which was established in 1872. The observations listed above, purposely selected as showing the least discharge of record, have led the engineers of the development to establish in their calculations a minimum discharge of 20,000 second feet. Other observations of minimum discharge, made in 1906 under the direction of Mr. Cooper by a current meter, may serve to show the safe margin of surplus power often available over the amount calculated on the basis of the above minimum. Measurements at Nashville, Iowa (6 miles above Keokuk). Stage of Stage of Dat the river, | Measured Date the river, | Measured : ashville ischarge. i ashville | discharge. : Nashville | discharg Nashville | disch gauge. gauge. 1906. Sec.ft. 1906. Sec.-ft. Depy. (So -222 sees eeaeeeee 3.00 G3; SOON ISGRt Zon cr~ cncccestcce cel 3.05 69,700 TD uP OS) Ss beens 3.05 GF 7OOF Got Rei. Lace LER 3.30 71,730 TR ESE RRS SP SS 3.05 66, 100 Rosas saa ae dob ece se 3.10 62,120 Rt Se er icet 3.05 68, 300 7 Re 3.00 65, 700 aeednte eset core. 3.00 60, 400 Ls apes Reopen til Be 5 Bs 2.90 67,850 19s 5 seer... Files s.. 3.00 60, 400 1805.2 Et 2. 55 61, 600 PATE ey 6 SEBS Sa 2.95 68, 460 The waters at Keokuk can not accurately be called turbulent. They are not hurled over hidden bowlders and irregular rock with the speed of a Niagara. The river has much less velocity and pre- sents rather the smooth appearance of water running down an in- “JONVLSIG NI WV¥GYS4SS0D ASNOH-YSMOd “LILGL ‘LL WYdy ‘SYOHS SIONITT| WOYNS Ma3IA TWHSaNa5 Ue es E | y. rd pA a . a 'y = eee ee ee SS ECL ERE EE AERA CEES a es | AERA BELL 7 Sees "H12J}O—OL6| Hodey uejuosyyiws "INVUO YSASTLNVO PNIMOHS ‘LLGL ‘SL Teddy ‘Wvq JO DNINNIDSG ‘SYOHS SIONINI| “p ALVId *yIeJIO— 0161 ‘Hoday uBiuosyyWS ELECTRIC POWER FROM THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER—CLARK. 205 clined surface (pl. —). An observer with a short metal sounding rod can hear the clear ring of the solid rock bottom all the way across. The regularity of the bottom and the rock of which it is made are charted on the facsimile of the United States Government map shown opposite page 200. A well constructed concrete dam, power house, dry-dock, and lock on such foundations should last as long as the old Roman concrete work made of natural cement, a great deal of which has been standing 2,000 years and is still in good condition’ where not destroyed by the hand of man. STORAGE OF WATER. In the interests of navigation below the dam, particularly during the open period from March to December in each year, there are certain restrictions placed upon the complete interruption of the fiow of the river. The Mississippi River Power Co., successor to the privileges and franchises of the Keokuk & Hamilton Water Power Co., is allowed to cut down the flow only during the night to 15,000 cubic feet per second for two hours, 10,000 cubic feet per second for six hours and 5,000 cubic feet per second during the balance of the time between sunset and sunrise. If the wheels do not pass the above amounts then the deficiency must be made up by letting water through the gates. From an operating point of view these restrictions are not a gross handicap, for the storage of water during the night, when the load is light, will still be possible for use during the next day when the load is heavy. In backing up this water, the amount of which can of course be regulated as will be seen from the description of the dam construc- tion below, in the ultimate development, there will be formed a lake from 3 to 5 miles wide and about 40 miles long, overflowing the low- lands and thereby changing the topography of the country immedi- ately adjacent to the river. It will also submerge the Government canal mentioned above which is being supplanted by the new lock and dry dock. DETAILS OF THE DAM CONSTRUCTION. Resting on the solid river bottom described, the plant is being built out from the bluffs on either side almost a mile apart. The construction is handled by two distinct organizations—the Illinois division building the dam, the Iowa division the locks and dry dock. Each construction plant consists of a concrete-mixing plant, a stone- crushing plant, a central power plant supplying compressed air and 206 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. electric current to the works, a machine shop, a carpenter shop, ware- houses for storing cement, warehouses for miscellaneous materials, and various other structures. ; The methods of construction, if not unprecedented, may at least be interesting to such as are not familiar with hydraulic engineering work: | A cofferdam consisting of a rectangular timber crib structure, loaded with stone and made water tight by means of clay puddle, is built around a section of the dam about 1,000 feet long. The water is then pumped out of this cofferdam. In this space thus pumped dry is excavated a trench in the solid rock, on which the dam is founded. The piers and arches forming the bridge and the bottom part of the dam between these piers are then built. After this the cofferdam is removed and another section is cofferdammed and the bridge built in the same way. This continues until the bridge is extended all the way from the Illinois shore to the junc- tion with the power house on the Iowa side. This will leave 119 large openings between the bridge piers, through which the water passes unobstructed. These openings will finally be closed off, a few at a time, by means of steel gates, and the balance of the concrete part of the dam will be placed behind these steel gates, gradually raising the crest of the dam until it has reached its full height. The dam, including abutments, is being built 4,568 feet long, or about seven-eighths of a mile. The spillway section is 4,278 feet in length. The height above the river bed is about 32 feet and its base is 42 feet wide. The upstream face is vertical. The downstream face is an ogee curve, the upper portion a parabola over which the water will spill, the lower portion an arc of a circle which will throw the water away from the toe of the dam. On the top of the spillway are being placed the steel floodgates, one for each opening, 30 feet wide and 11 feet high, supported by concrete piers. These piers are 6 feet thick and are built integral with the dam. The piers also support an arched bridge, from which the gates will be operated by electric hoists. By manipulating these gates the water above the dam may be maintained at a nearly constant level at all seasons. The dam is being built entirely of massive concrete without reen- forcement. It is being locked into the rock bed of the river by potholes and other excavations and is practically a monolith. All concrete, except at specially isolated places, is machine mixed, car- ried from the mixing plant to the point of use in large buckets by trains running on the completed portion of the dam, where a canti- lever crane picks up the buckets of concrete from the cars, carries them out and dumps the contents into the forms. “MONA WENLYN HLIM GANISWOD Y3LWM 40 3OVIYNG HLOOWS ATSAILVYVdWOD ONIMOHS ‘1161 ‘8% HONVIA| ‘SHOHS WMO] WONS HALVM 40 MalA YVAN “G 3LV1d *“H12ID—O16L ‘Hodey uBlUosyzIWS "dNNOYDSYOY NI IVNVO LNSWNYSAOD “LL6L ‘G WYdy ‘SYOHS VMO] ‘SLIG SSNOH-YSMOd HOS WVGHS4IIOO 3H1 ONIAGTING WW "9 3ALV1d *MIRIO— 0161 ‘Hodey uRiuosy}IWS ELECTRIC POWER FROM THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER——-CLARK. 207 In mixing the concrete three parts of a standard grade of quartz sand, taken from the natural deposits of the Des Moines River, 2 miles south of Keokuk, is placed with one part of a standard grade of American Portland cement, and tempered with water. The stone to place with this mortar, available a few hundred feet from the end of the dam, is the run of crusher where the crusher jaws are set for standard 24-inch broken stone. The quan- tities of mortar and stone are such as to produce the maximum density and specific gravity. Mass rock is used in the body of the concrete work where any minimum dimension of the finished con- crete is 3 feet or over. The cubiture of such mass rock may vary from one-half cubic foot to 60 cubic feet, but all such rock deposited is thoroughly embedded in the concrete so as to form a complete union with the surrounding concrete, and stones are separated from one another in dimension by at least 12 inches. No mass rock is placed within 12 inches of any finished surface. POWER-HOUSE STRUCTURE. At the Iowa end of the dam, slanting downstream toward the lock, is being built the power house, 1,616 feet long and about 123 feet wide, the location of which is charted opposite page 200. The substructure is being built of massive concrete, in which are molded the water passage and water-wheel chambers. On top of this is planned the superstructure, a house of concrete brick and steel. The super- structure will contain the electric generators, transformers, and switchboards. The height of the power house from foundation to roof will be about 133 feet. In building the power house the method is to construct a cofferdam around the entire area in which the power house is built, inclosing approximately 37 acres. The water is pumped out of this inclosure, and the work of building proceeds in the space so unwatered. In connection with the power-house construction it is necessary to excavate a large amount of rock for the foundations. The rock is blasted out with dynamite and loaded on cars by steam shovels. It is then hauled to the crushing plant and after being crushed is mixed into concrete. The concrete is hauled to the point of use in buckets and deposited in the substructure of the power house by movable steel cranes. The molds or forms for this portion of the work, involving the water passages and wheel chambers, are com- plicated. The concrete used in the power-house construction complies with the specifications mentioned above in connection with the dam. Further than this, where partitions in the superstructure are less than 208 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. 5 inches thick the proportion of cement and sand is 1 to 23, respec- tively, instead of 1 to 3, and stone for walls of less than 10 inches thickness is screened and thoroughly separated, so that no stone in the mixture may have a greater dimension than 24 inches. From the power-house end of the dam, as shown on the chart opposite page 200, there will be run an ice fender for protection against logs and floating ice. This will be built upstream, curving to a junction with the shore and will be 2,800 feet long. The material will be concrete. The general design will be similar to that used by Mr. Cooper in one of the Niagara Falls developments. To the eye the fender will appear as a solid wall fencing off the power house from the river. There will, however, be large arched openings below the water level through which the water will find its way to the power house. INSTALLATION. In the initial development it is planned to install 15 main water wheels of the Francis type pressure turbines with single runner mounted on vertical shaft, so providing for direct connection to main generators. These turbines are to have a normal output of 10,000 mechanical horsepower each at a speed of 57.7 revolutions per minute and head of about 32 feet. The maximum output is to be approxi- mately 13,500 mechanical horsepower under a maximum head of about 39 feet. The design of governors, gate control, main step bearing, bucket design, and intermediate details incident thereto embody features usual in hydroelectric construction. The main generators will likewise be 15 in number, of vertical shaft revolving field type, each having capacity of 8,000 kilowatts at normal rating with overload capacity of 25 per cent for two hours. These generators are to deliver three-phase alternating current at 11,000 volts and frequency of 25 cycles per second. With the generators there will be installed initially two exciter turbines direct connected to the generators. These turbines will be of the same type as the main generator turbines, and will be mounted on concrete foundations and will have the same type of water inlet and discharge as provided for main units. The governors for main units and exciter turbines will be of standard construction for hydraulic regulation. Each turbine will be provided with an independent gov- ernor direct connected to the turbine gate control. The exciters direct connected with the exciter turbines are to deliver direct current to the generator fields at a suitable voltage. Initially there will be installed step-up transformers of sufficient capacity to deliver to the transmission lines, over and above the line loss 60,000 electrical horsepower which has already been contracted SLO: ‘bl AYVNYSSy ‘(SLSYONOD JO L1INg) NOlLvYadO NI LNV1d H2xXI\J SLAYONOD "7 AlW1d “HIRIO— O16 ‘Hodey ueluosyyiws "LLOL ‘Z HOUVIN ‘SIVINSLVI SLSYONOD HOS LNV1d DNIHSNYO-MO0Y *8 3ALVid ‘YIRIQ—O16| ‘woday ueiuosyzWws ELECTRIC POWER FROM THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER—CLARK. 209 for by public service corporations of St. Louis. The transformers are to be connected up for three-phase current and to deliver current to the transmission lines at a potential of approximately 100,000 volts. Step-down transformers will be installed for delivering current at a suitable voltage for lighting the power house and operating auxiliary motors. The transmission line to St. Louis will run from Keokuk along the east bank of the river about 155 miles to a point in the former city, and will consist of steel towers carrying two circuits, each capable of handling at least half the power specified. For the ultimate development to be installed in the power house as above described there are planned a total of 30 turbines and gen- erators and 4 or more exciter turbines and exciters for the gener ation of at least 200,000 delivered horsepower. LOCK AND DRY DOCK. The lock and dry dock, as indicated on the map accompanying this article, are being constructed on the west bank of the river in ac- cordance with plans approved by the Secretary of War. These plans call for a concrete and steel lock 400 feet long from gate to gate, 110 feet wide, and capable of lowering vessels about 40 feet. The lock is to be equipped with 1 steel gate downstream, and 2 on the upstream end, the one farthest up acting as a guard for the upper lock gate. The lower gate arches upstream; the upper gates are straight. In the masonry of the side of the lock runs a culvert with laterals ex- tending beneath the lock and valves to regulate the intake and out- flow of the water. The dry dock is to be built between the lock and the bank of the river, a space roughly 463 by 140 feet inside dimen- sions. The walls, of course, are of concrete. A separate small hy- draulic power plant will provide power for operating the lock gates and machinery connected with the lock and dry dock. In addition to building the lock and dry dock the company has obligated itself to carry out certain improvements in channel facili- ties immediately below the dam and upon certain conditions to pay over to the Government a sum of money for a similar purpose. CONCLUSION. It is not the purpose of this paper to place upon the construction of this dam and powerful hydroelectric plant in the Mississippi Val- ley an industrial significance. It is, nevertheless, true that this development is placed in a region heretofore unsupplied with hydro- generated electric power. The size of the development will enable 97578°—sm 1910——14 210 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. the furnishing of power at a comparatively reasonable price, and it is believed by inhabitants of Keokuk, of Hamilton, and the vicinity that manufacturers requiring large amounts of electric power will be attracted to the locality in the years to come. This, in a region here- tofore mainly agricultural in its pursuits, can not but be quoted as an indication of one direction of economic development of this coun- try during the next generation or so. SAFETY PROVISIONS IN THE UNITED STATES STEEL CORPORATION. [With 11 plates. ] By Davip 8S. Bryer, Chief Safety Inspector, American Steel and Wire Company. At the outset it should be explained that this article is not intended to be either “ popular ” or “ technical,” in the accepted sense of these terms. If it were framed on purely technical lines it would pre- suppose a thorough knowledge on the part of its readers, of power generation—of machinery—of industrial organization—and would resolve itself largely into a statement of rules, specifications, methods, and appliances, that would be both uninteresting and incomprehen- sible to any one who did not have this knowledge. On the other hand, to explain to an outsider the mechanical construction and operation of, for instance, the different types of electric cranes, with the accidents which may occur on them—and to make clear the value of the rules and safety devices which have been worked out to pre- vent such accidents—might readily fill the entire space allotted to this article. The attempt will be, rather, to touch in a general way on some of the principal features of safety work in its present stage of development in the United States Steel Corporation, and to give some impression of the problems encountered, and how they are being solved in a practical way. This work is a logical outgrowth of association with the accidents which must inevitably accompany the use of machinery. It is prob- ably safe to say that the “ casualty ” or “ accident ” department has always preceded the “safety ” department; that dealing with the men who have been injured has brought about a desire to prevent the recurrence of accidents. From the first scattering efforts in this direction have grown more systematic methods, until accident. pre- vention has developed such a variety of detail and such breadth of possibilities, that it is fast becoming a technical branch of itself. What was originally a species of self-defense has broadened out into 1 Copyright, 1910, by the Charity Organization Society. Reprinted by permission from The Survey: A Journal of Constructive Philanthropy, New York and Chicago. Vol. 24, No. 6, week of May 7, 1910, pp. 205-236, Some of the illustrations of the original article are here omitted. 211 212 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. more humanitarian lines, until at present it is being taken up on a scale that would not have been dreamed of in this country a few years ago. Safeguards once considered entirely satisfactory are being replaced by others of improved construction. New forms of protection are constantly being devised. In some of the companies which were brought together in 1901, to form the United States Steel Corporation, organized safety depart- ments have existed for the last 15 years; in all of them more and more attention has been given to safeguarding employees, until at present each of the main constituent companies has a corps of trained specialists who devote their time to studying the causes of accidents and to devising means to prevent them. New impetus was given this work by the interest manifested in it and the policy adopted toward it by the officials of the Steel Corporation. Every year all the men in charge of these matters for the several subsidiary companies have been called together at the general offices in New York for discussion of the problems connected with their work, the first general meeting being held in May, 1906, At these meetings the officers of the corpo- ration have given assurances of support to the subsidiary companies in every practical undertaking*for the prevention of accidents. This resulted in the formation in April, 1908, of a central committee of safety. This committee 1s composed of five members representing sub- sidiary companies operating the largest plants and mills, with an officer of the United States Steel Corporation acting as chairman. It was empowered to appoint inspectors to examine the various plants and equipment, and submit reports of safety conditions, with suggestions for improvement, The committee was further requested to record and disseminate data on regulations, rules, devices, etc., tending toward safer working conditions in the plants. Some idea of the breadth of the field before the new committee may be gained from the fact that it includes 143 manufacturing plants, in addition to mining and transportation properties, employ- ing in all approximately 200,000 men. The committee has selected as its inspectors men already engaged in safety work in the subsidiary companies. In other words the matter has resolved itself largely into a system of inter-company inspection, which gives the plants inspected the benefit of new view- point and varied experience, and at the same time enables the in- spectors themselves to see what is being done elsewhere, and to carry back new ideas and devices to their own plants. The plan has worked well and has been of great assistance to the several companies, who hitherto had been coping with their own safety problems without definite knowledge of what other members of the great corporation family were doing. SAFETY PROVISIONS—BEYER. 213 Meetings of the committee are held about once a month, when arrangements for inspection are made, and reports considered. Drawings, photographs, rules, specifications, etc., are submitted for consideration, and such as seem desirable are sent out to all the com- panies. During the two years since the institution of this central committee of safety its inspectors have reported to it, in round numbers, 6,000 recommendations for increasing the safety of em- ployees in the plants, mills, mines, and on the railroads and steam- ship lines of the organization. Of these recommendations 93 per cent have been adopted by the committee and carried out by the sub- sidiary companies. New appliances, guards for the protection of machinery, and other means for safeguarding the workmen, to the number of 100 or more each year, have been submitted for the con- sideration of the committee, and through the committee have been brought to the attention of and adopted by the subsidiary companies. There has been no attempt to establish a uniform safety organi- zation in each of these companies, since the conditions vary so greatly that this would be impracticable; the Carnegie Steel Co. has 27 dif- ferent plants, the Illinois Steel Co. 6, the National Tube Co. 13, the American Sheet & Tin Plate Co. 34, the American Bridge Co. 16, the Tennessee Coal, Iron & Railroad Co. 7, and the American Steel & Wire Co. 32. In some cases the plants of a company are grouped within a radius of a few miles, in others they are located in as many as 10 or 12 States. While each company thus has its own safety or- ganization, which has been evolved during a period of years, there are many features common to all. The following pages treat partic- ularly of the organization and methods used in the American Steel & Wire Co., but it should be borne in mind that many of the devices and ideas found in its plants were secured from some of the other companies mentioned, through the central committee of safety and the system of inter-company inspection. The American Steel & Wire Co. has plants in Worcester, Mass.; New Haven, Conn.; Trenton, N. J.; Pittsburg, Donora, Allentown, and Sharon, Pa.; Cleveland and Salem, Ohio; Anderson, Ind.; De Kalb, Joilet, and Waukegan, Ill.; San Francisco, Cal.; and Hamil- ton, Canada. Its equipment includes docks and ore-handling ma- chinery, blast furnaces, open-hearth furnaces, Bessemer converters, blooming mills, plate mills, and rod mills; finishing departments for making nails, fence, market wire, etc., as well as specialty depart- ments for springs, electric cables, rail bonds, wire rope, and flat wire. It unloads a boat of ore from the Michigan mines at its docks in Cleveland, reduces this to pig iron in its blast furnaces, converts the iron into steel ingots in open-hearth or Bessemer departments, rolls these ingots out into billets in a blooming mill, reduces the billets to a quarter-inch rod in the rod mills, and draws this rod down into the 214 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. wire from which your watch spring is made or your telephone con- nected up. To do this there is a great variety of machinery, and the problem of bringing this equipment up to approved standards of safety and maintaining it in this condition is complicated by the widely sep- arated locations of the plants. The logical outcome has been to place the responsibility largely in the plants themselves, with such over- sight and assistance as are necessary to obtain satisfactory results. Accordingly, special inspectors have been appointed and local inspec- tion committees organized. There are two of these committees in each mill, one of which is called the “ foremen’s committee,” and the other the “ workmen’s committee.” LOCAL COMMITTEES. The foremen’s committee usually includes the assistant superin- tendent of the plant, the master mechanic, chief electrician, and a department foreman or two. Some of these members are retained permanently on the committee, so that they may gradually become educated to the full scope of the work. By changing one or two members at intervals, numbers of foremen receivé the benefit of this experience. It is the duty of the foremen’s committee to make an inspection of the plant, either semimonthly or monthly, and turn in a written report; furthermore, it goes over the recommendations of the workmen’s committee, which reports weekly. The workmen’s committee is entirely distinct and is taken from the rank and file of our mill employees; for example, there may be a machinist, an electrician, and a wire drawer; or a roller, a millwright, and a carpenter, etc. These men are selected by the superintendent in consultation with the foreman from whose department they are taken, workmen of good intelligence being chosen, who will take an interest and be able to make their work count. There are from two to four men in this workmen’s committee, depending on the size of the plant; they serve on the committee for a month, making one inspection a week, each inspection consuming about a day. At the end of the month an entirely new committee is appointed, and both the incoming and outgoing committees meet with the superintendent, who explains to them something of the object of their committee work. Those who have completed their term of service are told that they are to consider themselves permanently on the safety commit- tee and to feel free at any time to mention anything which they think conducive to their own safety or that of their fellow employees. The men, pleased, of course, at the opportunity to meet the head of the plant, take considerable pride and interest in the safety work and are coming to realize more fully its importance. Several superin- SAFETY PROVISIONS—BEYER. 215 tendents state that the early members of these committees are still making suggestions, and they undoubtedly bring up many things that otherwise they would not mention at all. The details of the committee organization are left largely to the local managers, who adapt the scheme to local conditions and bring some of their own ideas into play. One superintendent makes out the lists of workmen’s committees for several months and posts them in the mill so that the men will see them and know some time ahead that they are to serve on the committee. He says that they like to see their names used in this way,-and “load up” in advance for the time when they are to begin this service. At another plant it is cus- tomary to have one member of the foremen’s committee go about with the workmen’s committee, to explain and discuss any problems which may come up. While there are these local variations in the different plants, the plan and scope of the work are the same in all. Each committee makes a written report of its inspection, the reeommenda- tions of which are numbered, and the numbers of any incomplete item are all shown on a monthly statement until they have been car- ried out as mentioned later. Our experience with these committees has been uniformly satis- factory; benefits accrue both from the actual recommendations and from the enlivened interest which the men are taking in safety appliances. A master mechanic of one of the large plants said a few days ago that he can notice a decided change in the attitude of the men toward safety matters since these committees were established; that where he used to have difficulty in keeping any safeguards in place, the men are now looking out for them and helping keep them up. Some of the things they bring to light are such as might escape an outside inspector in a dozen trips through the mill. For instance, one of the workmen’s committees recently called attention to a plat- form which was so placed that when it rained the water deflected back into the “ mixer building,” where melted iron is constantly being handled. This water lying in pools on the floor would cause a serious explosion if hot metal were spilled into it. Other items refer to gear covers which have been taken off and not replaced; to steam which forms in cold weather and obscures an open reservoir; to elevator gates which have been tied up so as to make them ineffective; to places which are poorly lighted at night, etc. MILL SAFETY INSPECTORS. There are certain classes of equipment that require thorough inspec- tion at frequent intervals by men of special training, who can go over them in greater detail than is possible for the mill committees. In this class are electric traveling and locomotive cranes, engine stops, 216 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. elevators, shop equipment, cars, locomotives, etc., and for them spe- cial inspectors have been appointed, who make a weekly report on a printed form. At present we have nine such forms in use. The important parts are all specified and each part is checked off on the form as the inspector goes over the cranes. One of the headings requires the man who is operating the machine to state his opinion as to its.safety, and there is a provision for stopping it at once if any serious defects are found. There are at present 28 men engaged in such official inspection in the Amalgamated Steel & Wire Co.’s plants, aside from the local committees. In the larger works this takes all of one man’s time, while in smaller ones two or three days or a week may be sufficient, the inspector working as a machinist, electrician, etc., the rest of the time. The reports of foremen’s committees, workmen’s committees, and safety inspectors are compiled once a month and copies sent to the general offices of the company. These statements include all new items, and at the end of each report show the “ Recommendations com- pleted during current month,” “ Previous recommendations incom- plete,” ‘“ Recommendations objected to,” if any, with reasons for objection. This gives a monthly survey, from which a good idea may be obtained of the general condition and progress at each plant, and additional pressure may be brought to bear where the progress is not satisfactory. Aside from the practical value of the recommendations secured, there is a moral effect in this varied inspection which must not be overlooked. The foremen, millwrights, and repairmen—all who are in any way responsible for the condition of the machinery—are stimu- lated to greater care and attention in keeping everything in good shape. The knowledge that any defects will be mentioned on an in- spection report (sometimes on two or three) each week until the defect has been remedied or the delay investigated, undoubtedly does much to prevent tardiness in carrying out this work. During the month of January, 1910, there were approximately 1,500 specific rec- ommendations made by these different inspectors and inspection com- mittees in the American Steel & Wire Co.’s plants. Of these over 500 had been entirely completed before the end of the month, with material ordered and work under way on a great many more. BOILER PLANTS. In mills driven by steam engines the boiler plant is the primary source of power. It generates steam which is piped to the engines, and is a storehouse of energy so great that when any mischance re- leases this energy in the form of an explosion buildings are demol- isbed and lives endangered. The possibility of such catastrophes has been so emphasized by repeated boiler explosions that most States SAFETY PROVISIONS—BEYER. 217 and municipalities have laws requiring a systematic inspection of boilers by authorized inspectors. In the United States Steel Corpo- ration this is done by an outside inspection company which makes a specialty of boiler insurance, each boiler being thoroughly inspected at least once in six months. In addition to this inspection, which is directed mainly to the de- tection of corrosion or defects which might lead to an explosion, many minor arrangements can be made to contribute to the safety of men whose duties require their presence in and about boiler plants. The failure of a part in a boiler or steam pipe, insignificant in itself, can instantly involve men and machinery in a cloud of blinding vapor, so that ladders and passages that would be safe under normal condi- tions may bring misfortune upon the workmen groping about with ineffective vision. Under such conditions prompt and unimpeded access is needed to overhead valves and connections, stairways being preferable to vertical or inclined ladders, and all stairways, walks, tops of boilers, etc., across which it is necessary for workmen to pass should be thoroughly protected by handrails and well lighted. Plate 1 shows stairways in one of our boiler plants. The arrangement of piping may be such as to form what is known as a “water pocket,” that is, a place where water gathers from ‘the condensation of the steam. The opening of a valve will shoot this water forward with sledge-hammer effect, bringing disaster to the piping system or the machinery to which steam is furnished, and endangering the lives of all who may be near. Water pockets should be guarded against in designing a system of steam piping, but where oversight or necessity has brought about such a form. of construction the danger has been obviated by placing a “drip” in the water pocket, that is, a small drain with a valve through which the objec- tionable water may be allowed to flow from the pipe before a main valve is opened. Many plants are provided with a tunnel underneath the boilers, through which, where coal fuel is used, the ashes are removed; not infrequently these tunnels are so arranged that there is a “ dead end,” from which there is no means of egress. A break which would let steam or hot water flow into the tunnel and cut off escape by the one outlet provided would be lable to scald or suffocate any workman who happened to be in this section of the tunnel. Six cases of tun- nels with “ dead ends,” which have come under our observation in the past two years, have been corrected by providing additional doors, ladders, or other outlets. Every boiler is equipped with a gauge glass, that is a vertical glass tube about three-quarters of an inch in diameter, by which the height of the water in the boiler can be known. These glasses frequently break, as they are subjected to the same steam pressure as the boiler 218 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. itself, which may be from 100 to 150 pounds per square inch, with a temperature of from 300° to 350° F. When a boiler tender opens the valve after putting in a new glass it is liable to explode before his face like the cannon cracker which the boy celebrating the Fourth of July holds too long after hghting, and the results are much the same—more or less severe cuts and burns, and possible destruction of his sight. Danger from this source has been eliminated by using the gauge-glass guard shown in plate 2, figures 1 and 2. This guard is made of sheet steel, and can be turned in front of the glass when any- one is working about it. After the work is done it is swung around | back of the glass, so as not to interfere with the view of the water. A number of our boiler plants have been equipped with nonreturn valves, which only come into play in case of an accident. There may be 10,000 horsepower of boilers connected into one piping system, so that if any part of a boiler or main steam pipe fails this stored- up energy will be released with terrific force at the point where the break occurs, until valves can be closed or fires drawn and the boilers cooled down. The nonreturn valve closes automatically in case of accidents of this sort, and thus brings the system under control with- out the risk which must be taken by men going in to close the valves by hand. Three connections are necessary for each boiler—one through which water to be evaporated is admitted; a connection from the boiler to the main piping through which the steam is carried away, and a connection to a system of “ blow-off” piping, so that the sedi- ment which settles from the water can be blown out at intervals. Entrance to a boiler is obtained by means of a “manhole,” which is just about large enough to enable an average-sized man to wrig- gle through comfortably—a process which can not be accomplished very quickly. Thus the workman who enters a boiler while other boilers of the same plant are in use is necessarily at the mercy of the men outside, as the accidental opening of a valve might result in his serious scalding. There are long rows of these valves exactly alike, and mistakes are liable to occur. To guard against this the valves have been numbered and red warning signs marked “ Danger—do not move” are hung on them when anyone is in a boiler. Wherever practicable it is made the duty of the man doing the work to place these warning signs. ENGINE INSTALLATIONS. The power which turns the shafting and drives the machinery in our mills, is furnished chiefly by large steam engines. These engines have flywheels weighing from 25 to 75 tons each, running at a rim speed of 5,000 or 6,000 feet per minute. The energy stored in one of these wheels when operating is about equivalent to an average sized ‘SOATBA UIBUI dT] JO YOR OF ssad00B S9ATS PUB S1OTLOG oy} Jo do} oy} SuolTR spue}X9 YL[VAL STULL, “ONILVUD TadLS JO MIVA SSOUDQ GVAHYSAO ONIMOHS ‘AVM -ulVLS AWVS 3HL JO M3IA YAHLONY "| aLvid “JOT OYJ WO SIOPp] 9YI AQ payBOIPUT ST SIG) SULOp JO poyoUL pfoO dy, “ASNOH Y3ATIOG NI ONIdld GNV SAAIVA GVSHYSAO SONIHOVAY YOs AVMYIVLS 4akag—Q1 6 ‘Hoday ueiuosyziws Smithsonian Report, 1910.—Beyer. PLATE 2, 1. GAUGE GLASS FOR INDICATING HEIGHT 2. WHEN STEAM IS TURNED INTO A NEW OF WATERINA BOILER. SEMICIRCULAR GAUGE GLASS THE GUARD IS REVOLVED STEEL GUARD SHOWN IN ITS NORMAL TO THE FRONT, TO PREVENT INJURY IN POSITION. CASE THE GLASS SHOULD BURST. 3. View OF Rope DRIVE FOR ROD MILL, SHOWING STEEL PLATE INCLOSURE. SAFETY PROVISIONS—BEYER. 219 passenger locomotive, running at the rate of 60 miles an hour. If an engine is allowed to speed up, additional energy is imparted to the flywheel until it bursts from centrifugal force, unloosing a power which might be likened, roughly, to a locomotive and a train of several cars plowing their way through the mill at the rate cf “a mile a minute.” This terrific force is controlled and held in check by the “ governor,” which is usually an arrangement of two fly balls revolving at a speed proportionate to that of the engine, and automatically reducing or increasing the steam supply. Certain parts of the governor may break and cause the engine to “ race,” and if the engineer can not get a valve closed quickly enough the flywheel will “ explode.” There is a safety attachment on the governor, which is intended to stop the engine in such emergencies, but engineers frequently allow this attachment to become ineffective. On a single inspection trip, this was the case with 10 out of 16 engines observed. In one instance a roll of waste was placed under the governor bracket—in another x wood block was used—in others the bolts were clamped so as to produce the same result, in two or three cases the man in charge simply said he had “forgot” to fix it up after a shutdown. One erayhaired engineer of perhaps 50 years to whom I spoke about this condition, minimized the danger, saying, “I have been running this engine now for six years and have never had an accident,” and yet on further questioning he admitted that such an accident might occur at any time, due to that insignificant handful of waste, and that probably he would be the first man injured. Each of the men run- ning these engines realized what might result from their interfering with the action of the governor, yet they all took the chance, because it never had happened in their experience. To improve matters we are having counterweighted brackets placed under the engine governors, so that they will drop out automatically when the engine is running, without any attention from the engineer, and a written report is made weekly on one of the inspection blanks previously mentioned, which shows’ whether this safety feature is being used or not. As an additional safeguard, practically all the large engines in this company have been equipped with automatic stop valves having a speed limit attachment. These are intended to shut ihe engine down automatically when it exceeds a certain safe speed, and the valve may be closed also by pushing an electric button in various parts of the mill. At intervals here and there in the different departments there are little blue lights, each of which marks the location of a push button for the engine stop system. Sometimes they are on a column, sometimes suspended over a machine, and there are anywhere from five or six up to forty or fifty of them in each system. If a man is caught in the machinery, or there is a breakdown of any 220 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. sort, one of these buttons is pushed, which shuts off the steam and stops the engine. Nearly one hundred of these stops have been in- stalled in plants of the American Steel & Wire Co. The push buttons operate by electricity—and the small wires which carry the current to the engine-room may be broken, the push buttons may be get out of order, or the batteries develop defects; here, if any- where, “eternal vigilance” is the price of safety, and we have ar- ranged that the daily shutting down of the engines shall be by means of these buttons, and that once a week each button shall be pushed with a man at the engine throttle to see that it works properly-—the speed limit tried, the voltage of the batteries taken, and the lines tested for breaks; all of this being reported on a printed form. In several places butter-fly valves have been placed in steam lines to engines—that is, a valve which closes instantly by pulling a lever, and chains or wire ropes are carried from this lever to convenient points for stopping the engine from a distance. MOTOR STOPS. In departments driven by electricity, we have motor stops cor- responding to the automatic engine stops described. In some cases these are arranged to operate by push buttons, and in others a rope is carried directly from the machinery to the switch controlling the motor, so that the switch can be pulled by means of the rope in case of emergency. Plate 3 shows a series of machines having a stop of this sort. There is an operator at each set of rolls. Recently when one of them had his hand caught he cried out, and several of his fellow operators pulled the rope with such vigor that the switch was torn bodily from the board. The motor was stopped so quickly that only the tips of the injured man’s fingers went into the rolls, whereas his whole hand would undoubtedly have been crushed but for this safety stop. ELECTRIC TRAVELING CRANES. Electric cranes have been called the “ giant laborers” of the mills. They pick up a ladle weighing 20 tons, with 50 tons more of molten iron inside it, carry, and pour it as readily as if it were a cup of tea. Heavy rolls and housings used in the mills are lifted out and replaced by them, and in many departments all of the daily tonnage is handled one or more times by cranes. They are excellent servants, but some- times they blunder, and a ladle of steel upset may mean disaster to a dozen men. There are gears and wheels which mangle; and 20, 30, 40 feet of space underneath the man who falls from a crane bridge. Some one has said that the education of a child should begin with its grandparents; certainly the best time to safeguard a crane is before it is bought. This method can be used when new machinery SAFETY PROVISIONS—BEYER. 221 is being obtained, and in order to insure proper attention to these matters by crane builders, standard safety specifications have been prepared for use in ordering new equipment for the American Steel & Wire Co. These specifications provide for a footwalk on the side of the crane bridge, with a toe board along the edge of this walk; exposed gears are to be covered and overhung gears eliminated. (Examples of these conditions are shown in pl. 4, figs. 1, 2); limit switches are required to prevent a load being lifted too high and breaking away from the drum; a safety switch is to be placed on the upper part of the bridge so that a workman can throw out this switch and prevent anyone starting the crane from the cab while he is at work; safety couplings, brakes, and bumpers are specified; also a gong which the operater can ring to warn anyone underneath of the approach of the crane; a brush or prong is required which moves along the track in front of the crane wheel, and would push aside a hand or foot resting on the rail of the runway before it would be crushed by the wheel. Wire ropes are also specified for hoisting purpeses instead of the chains which have been used largely in the past; the failure of a single link in a chain means dropping the load, while several members of a wire rope may be broken without inter- fering with its service, and the broken strands give warning of weak- ness which would not be apparent in a chain. ~ One of the most important safety provisions for a crane is a foot- walk on the bridge (see pl. 4, fig. 1), for the use of the crane operator, who must go all over his crane every day or two to oil and inspect it, and for the repairmen, who must handle tools and remove and replace parts of the crane. Where a footwalk is not provided, it is necessary to walk on the upper edge of the girder, the surface of which is bisected by a rail and broken up by rivets and bolts, and is, more- over, frequently slippery with grease or oil which drips from the bearings. If mention is made at the time the order is placed, any of the standard crane builders will furnish a footwalk on the crane; but of course it adds slightly to the cost, and in view of the com- petitive bids on such work, it is only natural that the footwalk should be omitted if it is not distinctly specified. Where these general matters have not been considered in designing and arranging the different parts of a crane, it is difficult, and some- times impossible, for an operating company to make all of the above safety provisions, but whenever practicable they are being installed on our old equipment. FOR WIRE DRAWING EQUIPMENT, Plate 5 shows the arrangement of a modern wire mill. A coil of rods or wire is placed on a reel, from which it is drawn through a die to a revolving block, the opening in the die being smaller than 222 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. the original wire, so as to decrease its diameter. It is possible by this process of cold drawing to reduce a quarter-inch rod to the thickness of a hair—that.is, one or two thousandths of an inch. There are several things which may occur to endanger the wire drawer: If the wire does not uncoil freely the reel may be dragged forward and crush him against the frame of the machine; a loop may spring over the top of the reel and catch his arm or foot, so that if the block is not stopped promptly the loop will tighten and lacer- ate, or even cut off the member; or the wire may break, and the flying end put out an eye or cause a scratch or puncture wound from which blood poisoning may result. In all of our wire mills some form of a stop has been put in. A number of different applications of it were assembled on one draw- ing and prints sent to each plant. It is simple and effective, the only objections to it being the amount of floor space it occupies and the second’s time it takes to place the wire through the lever. It may save an arm, an eye, or even a life—and yet some of the workmen have broken them off, others have refused to use them, and after a campaign of several years along this line one never goes into a mill without seeing some places where the operators carry the wire past the safety lever without using it. MISCELLANEOUS SAFETY PROVISIONS. In addition to the more common forms of protection, such as the elimination of projecting set screws, covering of gears (pl. 6), erect- ing of railings, etc., there are a great many provisions which could not be described in detail in an article of this sort. One of the dan- gerous occupations in the mill is that of oiling shafting and machin- ery. Wherever practicable, arrangements have been made to do this while the equipment is not in operation; in some cases oil cans are used, having light spouts 10 or 12 feet long, which enable a man to oil overhead shafting without leaving the floor; in other cases railed walks have been erected along lines of shafting, so that the bearings may be reached without unnecessary risk or inconvenience. Standard scaffolds with handrails are provided for the use of painters, riggers, etc., and a “painter’s chair” has been designed which has a safety belt, so that if a man were to fall out of the seat the belt would still hold him. Rules regarding the construction, inspection, and testing of this equipment have been posted in all of the shops where such appliances are used. Counterweights are being boxed so that they can not fall on any- one in case a rope or chain breaks; covers and shields are provided for emery grinders (pl. 7) ; safety stops of various kinds are arranged to enable machines to be shut down quickly in case anyone is caught; *poddojs Aue SUT ST ATOUTYORUL SUTATIP-10JOUL OY} PUB INO UAMOIYY SI YOJIMS OY] Surppoy st 10} v10do0 oy) YOry AM odor oy Surpjnd A k JS A[JUBISUT ST Ty TALL { t t Tploy st 1} ory I TTL “SANIHOVI ONITIOYN YSAO LNAWAONVYEYY dOlS *g) alvald ssakag—O161 ‘Woday ueluosyzIWS Smithsonian Report, 1910.—Beyer PLATE 4. 1. ELECTRIC TRAVELING CRANE BOUGHT ABOUT TEN YEARS AGO. This shows open gearing, overhung gears, exposed couplings, ete. The foot walk on which the men are standing was placed on the crane after it had been installed. 4 emo, Fcmaary H , 5 (Er (a \ 2. ANOTHER CRANE VIEW, SHOWING WHAT CAN BE DONE IN THE WAY OF PROTECTING GEARS. It is practically impossible for any one to be caught in the gearing of this crane, or for any of the parts to work loose or drop. "NSLSAS ONILVILNSA IYLNAD V OL GSLOANNOOD SAYV NAIA) SHL YSAO GSGNAdSNG Sadldqd SHL “MYO LV SYSAMVEC JYIM "G ALV1d rahag—'9|6| ‘Hoday ueiuosyyiws s ‘IOYRUL oy} AG Po1dAOd JOU SBAL TOUT oULTVUE B JO Sues Supoo0}01d soy yorpodxo poos B st jt puwB ‘saves SULSUBYO IOJ ABA ‘SAHLV7] 4O SYVAD GNZ 3HL YOS GUVND 1431S V aq} JO No SuNAs oq ATI pBor UL SIL "9 SLVId SAFETY PROVISIONS—BEYER. 223 blacksmith’s tools are inspected to see that the edges are not allowed to “mushroom” until some one is struck with a flying chip; storage yards are inspected to see that material is not piled too close to the tracks; planer beds are covered in the machine shops; and safety cylinders provided for all jointers in carpenter shops. Accidents which occur are studied with a view of determining means for preventing similar accidents, and a constant effort is made to anticipate danger in any form before it results in an accident. General specifications, rules, drawings, and photographs of stand- ard appliances are being compiled in a handbook, which it is in- tended shall be to the safety inspector what the standard reference books are to the engineer; these handbooks will be furnished to those who are responsible for the design, installation, and maintenance of equipment in our mills. NEW PLANTS. In erecting a new plant or in making extensions to an old one, much of the machinery is bought in practically completed form from outside manufacturers. When gear covers, etc., have to be adapted to old machines the results are always more or less unsatisfactory; the arrangement may be such as to afford no adequate means for attach- ing a guard, or a cover which protects one part of the machine may interfere with some of the other working parts. These difficulties can all be avoided if sufficient thought and attention are given to safety considerations when new machinery is being designed, as the different parts can then be arranged most advantageously. In plan- ning a new plant, the drawings are all checked over to see that the latest safety provisions have been included; the following note was inserted in a contract prepared recently for a mill to be erected by the American Steel & Wire Co.: Safeguarding of gears, spindles, couplings, collars, set screws, keys, ete., will be covered as fully as possible in the drawings which we furnish, but it is understood that these features shall be subject to the approval of our inspectors, who shall have free access at all times to the machinery while it is in process of construction and erection, In addition to the detailed specifications for various classes of equipment, each of our purchasing agents has been supplied with the following stamp, with the object of further stimulating interest in safeguards on the part of machinery builders: _ Provisions for safeguarding workmen should be brought to our attention, as we will consider them in selecting new machinery and equipment. This notice is stamped on correspondence, and the results which are already in evidence show that it is having a beneficial effect, from which other companies will profit as well as our own. 224 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. The demand for more thorough safety precautions is becoming recognized by manufacturers generally, and, when requested, most of them will furnish very good forms of protection. Plate 8 illustrates the improvement which is being made in machine tools and crane design; where open gears were the rule a few years ago, everything is now smoothly covered, and the gearing is practically invisible. THE HUMAN ELEMENT. From statistics which have been prepared both in this country and in Germany, it would appear that about one-third of the total number of industrial accidents are attributable in whole or in part directly to carelessness or negligence on the part of the workers themselves. In other words, a considerable percentage of the accidents which occur can be charged to the human element and can not be prevented by mechanical safeguards. If they are to be materially reduced, they re- quire other treatment. The problem here is largely a psychological one, and we are work- ing on it in a number of different ways. Men are prone to take chances, and it is not surprising if the same spirit which causes one man to ignore a cold until pneumonia succeeds it, or to risk his home in the stock market, causes another to take reckless liberties with a red-hot rod. Anyone who has watched a gang of structural workers 20 stories in the air scaling the steel columns of a new building must be impressed with the needless risks that these men take. We are endeavoring to bring about a change of sentiment among the workmen—to make them realize that it is quite as worthy and honorable to be careful and not to take such risks, as it is to assume the reckless, dare-devil attitude that is often found. There are din- ing rooms in practically all of our plants where the foremen assemble for lunch, with a more or less informal business meeting after the meal. Reports of accidents are discussed here, letters of instructions and general safety recommendations are taken up; talks are given; and a constant effort is made to impress upon the foremen their re- sponsibility in warning the men in their charge, or cautioning them when they see them in any dangerous practice When the men receive their pay envelopes they find little “ ser- monettes ” printed on the back of the envelopes, urging them to take care for the safety of themselves and others. These are placed also on certain printed forms which are used largely in the mills, such as the sheets on which the time distribution of the men is recorded and those on which requisitions for material are filled out. The following wordings are a few of those which have been used for this purpose; ‘ The exercise of care to prevent accidents is a duty which you owe to your- self and your fellow employees. Always be careful and take no risks. Smithsonian Report, 1910.—Beyer. View IN NAIL MILL, SHOWING SAFETY Hoops OVER EMERY GRINDERS, WHICH ARE FLANGED OuT OF A SOLID PIECE OF STEEL PLATE. The foot treadle must be held down while the grinder is being used; as soon as the treadle is released a spring throws the overhead belt on to the ‘‘loose”’ pulley, stopping the grinder automatically. Walks for oilers will be noted inthe trusses at the top of picture; in this case they are fenced in with boards, although pipes or structural railings are frequently used. “AIEISIA ATSOUNVOS SI ONIYVWSS SHL ‘NDISSG LNS03Y JO SHLV] “SG ‘posodxo AloIT] Ua O18 SIBAS SULUTBUOL 9} -SMOTS sivas WUOIT 0Y} IDAO 97RId OT} Sv ‘UOT}D9}0Id O UOALS UW9Aq SRY WOT0991B OTL V t tur { I I | y i t ‘Oop SYVSA N3SaLsI4 YO SAISAML LING SHLV] al "8 aLW1d akeag—'016) ‘Hodey ueRiuosy}IWS SAFETY PROVISIONS—BEYER. 225 Carelessness as to the safety of yourself or others will be sufficient cause for dismissal. The more you insist upon carefulness on the part of others, as well as exer- cise it yourself, the safer it will be for all. Report all injuries, however trivial; blood poisoning is the result of neglected wounds.* Realizing that what is sometimes classed as carelessness may be merely thoughtlessness or lack of understanding, signs are posted in the mills which are intended to keep the necessity for caution fresh in the mind. Following a newspaper account of an accident in an outside company, where three men were crushed to death in the air cylinder of a blowing engine, this notice was posted in each of the blowing engine rooms of the American Steel & Wire Co.: Norice.—All persons are positively forbidden to enter an air cylinder of a blowing engine until flywheels have been securely blocked, to prevent possi- bility of engine turning over. , Supt. Signs are placed at ladders or passageways leading to crane run- ways, instructing men to notify the crane operator before doing any work on a crane; warning signs are hung on valves, switches, and controlling levers of various kinds of machinery to guard against their being started while the men are working where they might be injured; notices are placed at railroad crossings and along tracks, in freight elevators, and in other places where they will attract atten- tion to possible dangers. Plate 8, figure 1, shows the warning sign which is used for mark- ing electrical equipment. It is printed in six languages and is sur- mounted by branching lines of “ red hghtning,” which ought to make ‘it universally understood. The smaller sign at the top of the picture, marked “ Danger—Keep away,” is made of nonconducting fiber and is hung over the controlling switch to show that it should not be operated. It is difficult to get the men to exercise the continued care which is necessary to guard against accidents. It has been said that “ famil- iarity breeds contempt,” and this is nowhere more strikingly demon- strated than in the mills. While investigating a case recently, where the general foreman of a rod mill was injured, one of this man’s assistants took me to the location in the mill where the accident had occurred, stepping over running lines of red-hot rods to reach the exact spot. He explained that a guard of wire netting had been placed at the rolls, which was supposedly fine enough in mesh to prevent a rod going through it. 17This is intended to encourage the men to make use of the hospital facilities described later. 97578°—sm 1910 15 226 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. By a peculiar chance, however, a rod which was exactly the same diameter as the opening in the mesh struck the screen fairly and went straight through it, injuring the man standing in front. With this catastrophe thus vividly before him, my guide started to show me another part of the mill, but instead of going round about somewhat as he might have done, he went directly along a line of guide pipes through which hot rods were running at the rate of 1,100 feet a min- ute. In doing so, he said apologetically, “ We'd better hurry here, as a rod sometimes jumps from the pipes.” If a loaded rifle were mounted in a mill and arranged to discharge at uncertain intervals, a man who passed in front of it would be considered foolish, and yet this is practically what some men are doing daily in the mills. I later talked to the injured foreman and he assured me that he had been positive that the screen was fine enough to stop anything which would be rolled there and had been greatly surprised to find that the rod could get through; he saw it coming and tried to “dodge” it, but was not quick enough. As it was, he escaped very fortunately from what might have been a fatal injury. Although the hot rod practically passed through his body, penetrating a lung in its course, he was in the hospital but two weeks and was back at his regular duties in the mill four months later. Anyone who is familiar with mill conditions, or, to put it more broadly, who knows something of human nature, realizes how difficult it is to change the accustomed method of doing things. When a safety appliance is installed it may involve some inconvenience to the workmen—it requires adjustment and repairs—at least, it is some- thing new, and the man who has been getting along without it for several years is generally against it. If he has never seen an accident of the kind in question it seems a very remote possibility to him. It is a slow process of education, but by continued agitation, by thorough inspection in which officials and workmen join for the common good, by commending what is good and holding it up as a model for all, the standard of safety conditions is being steadily raised. RESULTS. In considering the results of this work a comparison of the number of accidents occurring in the different mills shows much irregularity. A large percentage of reduction was made in some plants in 1909 as compared with the preceding year, but very little change appeared in others where an equal effort was made to improve conditions. The total number of accidents, however, is a very indefinite standard of comparison for several reasons. Slight injuries, of which no notice was taken a few years ago, are now reported; a particle of emery dust in the eye or an insignificant scratch on the hand may become in- fected later and develop serious complications, so that greater em- Smithsonian Report, 1910.—Beyer. PLATE: 9. 1. MILL SWITCH BOARD, SHOWING METHOD OF MARKING ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT. The small sign at the top of the picture reading ‘‘ Danger.—Keep away’’ is made of non- conducting fiber and is hung over a switch when anyone is working on the machinery it controls. 2. PROTECTIVE DEVICE FOR TRAP Doors. 3. WARNING SIGN TO ATTRACT ATTENTION TO WORKMEN OVERHEAD. The guard rods rest on ledge of door frame when the cover is raised, and drop down Intended to prevent injury from falling tools out of the way when it is closed. or material. Smithsonian Report, 1910.—Beyer. PLATE 10. 1. WORKMEN EQUIPPED WITH SAFETY 2. SAFETY Hoop, REAR VIEW. Hoop, READY TO ENTER A GASEOUS The same air supply is breathed ATMOSPHERE. over and over again, being con- = aalge : : : aie ae ee stantly purified and supplied This is a type of equipment which is used with the necessary oxygen. largely for rescue work in mines, and has been provided for our gas engine plants. SAFETY PROVISIONS—-BEYER. 927 phasis is placed on having all such cases reported promptly and havy- ing proper attention given them, even though no time is lost by the man affected. One is impressed with the capriciousness of fate when confronted with the peculiar ways in which accidents occur. An engineer had started home one evening at the end of the turn, but stopped for a moment to explain to the night man why he had been five minutes late in going on duty that morning; in doing so he placed his elbow on the end of the engine cylinder, and just at that moment the con- necting rod broke and the cylinder head was knocked out, injuring him fatally. In September, 1909, there were three isolated fatal acci- dents in one of the Pittsburg mills, while there was none in all of the other 380 odd plants of the American Steel & Wire Co.; in the succeeding month two men met fatal injury in one of the Cleveland mills, while, as before, these were the only fatalities for the entire company. On the other hand, there are quite as striking instances where what might have been serious catastrophes have passed off harmlessly. In one of our plants there is a group of machines in a building adjacent to the boiler plant; a couple of years ago the main belt furnishing power to these machines broke about midnight, and it was decided that it was useless to try to repair the belt that night, so the men were sent home. A little later a high wind, which was blowing, tore down the boiler stacks, and they fell over the building in which these men had been employed a short time before; parts of the wall were knocked down and a section of the roof fell in. The next morning the heavy beams and timbers which were lying over these machines indicated what might have resulted if that main belt had not snapped and the men had remained at work. Notwithstanding the fact that two buildings were wrecked, and a 16-inch steam main was broken in the boiler plant, no one was injured. Such occurrences introduce a large element of chance, which tends to invalidate any comparison from month to month, or year to year, and the plants are being constantly extended, giving an increasing number of employees to be considered. With these varying factors it would require a detailed study and analysis of classified injuries, extending over a period of years, to give any convincing statistical information as to the decrease effected; and so far we have been con- centrating on the active work of accident prevention, rather than on theoretical research of this nature. We are very certain, however, as to the results, and numerous specific instances which might be cited give definite clues as to what is being accomplished. In one of our eastern plants, power is fur- nished to three floors of a wire mill by a motor located in the base- ment, We planned an installation of push buttons for stopping the 228 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. motor from the different floors, but had considerable difficulty in getting a safe arrangement on account of the fact that a high-voltage current was used. For several months experimental work was con- ducted and various devices and expedients were tried, until finally a satisfactory arrangement was secured. Shortly after the installation was completed an operator was caught on the second floor of the building and was drawn to the block; his assistant pushed a button and stopped the machinery almost instantly, preventing any serious injury. Without the stopping device this man would probably have been killed, as it would have been necessary to go from the second floor to the basement to shut down the motor. There have been three specific instances in the last year where these motor stops have been similarly effective. There have been several cases during the same period where acci- dents have occurred in places covered by recommendations of safety inspectors, before these places could be safeguarded, showing con- clusively that it is possible to anticipate trouble of this sort. Dur- ing an inspection tour of a plant outside the American Steel & Wire Co. the writer went over various features of the electrical installation with the chief electrician of the plant; among other points which were mentioned was the provision of sweep brushes in front of the crane wheels, as some of the cranes had these while others did not. The electrician acknowledged the value of this device, and said that it would be placed on all cranes as promptly as possible. The day fol- lowing a man had his arm cut off by one of the unprotected cranes; he was holding to the girder with his arm across the track while adjusting an electric wire and had failed to notify the crane operator that he was there. If the crane had been equipped with brushes the most serious result, regardless of his lack of ordinary precaution, would have been a fall of about six feet to a platform. Numerous instances of this sort could be cited, and while it is generally impos- sible to point out a particular safeguard and say it has prevented an accident, it is obvious that the thousands of protective devices which have been installed in the various plants of the company must frequently prevent injuries which would otherwise occur. RELIEF ORGANIZATIONS. In concluding it might be well to mention briefly the methods used by the American Steel & Wire Co. in caring for injured men and those who are incapacitated by sickness or who have reached the age limit for retirement. There is an emergency hospital at each plant to give prompt aid to the injured; these hospitals are fully equipped with surgical in- struments, dressings, beds, etc., and each is in charSe of a competent Smithsonian Report, 1910.—Beyer. PEATE she GRILL WorRK PROTECTION FOR BINS AND HOPPERS. Sometimes a workman falls through a car of coal or ore into the bin underneath the track, where he is liable to be suffocated if he can not be gotten out promptly. g ae be yi — eS be eas SAFETY PROVISIONS—BEYER. 229 surgeon paid by the company. In the larger plants, where circum- stances warrant, nurses are in constant attendance. Very serious cases are sent to the public hospitals at the company’s expense, and all injured men are cared for until they have fully recovered, irre- spective of the manner in which their injuries were received. In cases of prolonged disability financial assistance is given to the in- jured man, according to the merits of the case, based on his age, family relations, and record as to term of service and faithfulness. These injury benefits are dispensed equitably without consideration as to whether the company is legally responsible for the injury or not. In each plant there is a “mill committee,” composed chiefly of foremen, whose duty it is to seek out and visit faithful employees who may have become sick and destitute. This committee investi- gates such cases and makes recommendations for financial relief for those whom it considers deserving. During the year 1909 more than $7,000 was distributed gratuitously in this way by the American Steel & Wire Co. There is, in addition, a pension department, which was established in January, 1902. Pensions are granted to employees who have reached the age of 65 and who have been in the service of the com- pany, or any of its predecessors, for 10 years; also to any who have reached the age of 55 and are physically disqualified for further serv- ice, providing they have been employed the preceding 10 consecutive years, The following uniform method is used in computing the amount of these pensions: For each year of service, 1 per cent of the aver- age monthly pay for the 10 years preceding retirement, is allowed; for example, a man who has been in the service of the company for 40 years, and has drawn an average of $75 a month for the last 10 years, would receive 40 per cent of $75 or $30 a month pension. Pensioners are allowed to seek employment elsewhere if they desire, and the utmost freedom of travel and residence is given them. In 1909 the American Steel & Wire Co. had 419 retired pensioners, some of them being located. in England, Ireland, and Sweden, be- sides various parts of the United States; they receive in pensions dur- ing the year a total of $56,712. The pension fund is maintained en- tirely by the company, without assessment or contribution from the employees. aati: eases tee wend rpg al boviewr: sew gobtrint tieds dood Jcont att oF wath #t onontelde lerianalt 9 : ae sid anv fyaad sts 6d ty etter: sey tint Hae cotrwe to arial of ee paler ibitirinhiawcs divoudtiw vidatingy baecracpails #18 4 reset dosrto Giaret pit rat sidigaodaer yllugal at ghecqatoh ‘aft att to vliside tmeoqmat “soittnnaas dint” 2°at, edt tanlg done. | desyolame lytdtiot jiae fest dag food 6} ai ti ub sealer. stem Liaeviti ssttinwew ail atniiteoh here aie eaomd tvail you ¢ got Toller lofyamitl at sadiinbostaows vaddat, bite wan jovew wails sion PONS Tesy, ots quiet agirictmals athbixads 31 nods rusted: add. Yh Ae siddict. Yepotintery: butgdertails way ere . >) otk " 4% se hocniliintes ea Moitle poner ne ieigns] a, ioitibia i 4. vee rad ods aivirolesnts ia Datos ei eter . Glye! viguank 4 i. aos dit Yo wolrws sl pi nese ava che, baw 6o4e wee alt hee ave dite yte oF osle peieed Ol ay eioresabeng ii Lo e107 p Vise sotalol hotilaupeth vilsoiaggtg ois bite SC 16 oun oll coda ll qiineenios Of anibsosny oft heveiqme 1990 arn yon subrogee & bie aa pies bert jee favor odd anitaqaoo ai hean. et hosted or rotisus Saiwohor oa F “r9tR «ld to 4099 Son L wootvise te seey sono 410 Wie HOLA seat shawolin al dnemertijet poihwor sizoy OF sdf 160 ‘weg ridicot qok Yasqmoo sit} lo aoivige of? i coud wel oF ed fh olgateze, = OF thal self vot. diner e ae 36 sgmove ata, neath ead cia er’, OF “okwied diosat 1 RES 704 do: fae: Dg Gh ovinxrr blower vieek yodt ti siatweals doaryoigie dom at bewolia. oon estat ul .oved! duvip xi sodetient ture fovay) To what ducrssedss oth. fare mudiasq Swiien,. Qf bad e-em. 2 fret peorarh odd ss of aber? fox basinal dosed atebenl yaisd mails tom in tly anbvieos Vi STisw. weds pabiaiG begin) odd to Arua; -HOPUuEY, anaes ai) bedialitent ai bash sormnasg oT 217,064 to lelbi 5 tay het »d) motk aotindiviags no ¢asntessrea Hstdliby yomprvory oft, Yb THE ISOLATION OF AN ION, A PRECISION MEASURE- MENT OF ITS CHARGE, AND THE CORRECTION OF STOKES’S LAW.1 By R. A. MILLIKAN. INTRODUCTION. In a preceding paper ? a method of measuring the elementary elec- trical charge was presented which differed essentially from methods which had been used by earlier observers only in that all of the meas- urements from which the charge was deduced were made upon one individual charged carrier. This modification eliminated the chief sources of uncertainty which inhered in preceding determinations by similar methods such as those made by Sir Joseph Thomson,’ H. A. Wilson,* Ehrenhaft,® and Broglie,’ all of whom had deduced the ele- mentary charge from the average behavior in electrical and gravita- tional fields of swarms of charged particles. The method used in the former work consisted essentially in catch- ing ions by C. T. R. Wilson’s method on droplets of water or alcohol, in then isolating by a suitable arrangement a single one of these droplets, and measuring its speed first in a vertical electrical and gravitational field combined, then in a gravitational field alone.’ The sources of error or uncertainty which still inhered in the method arose from: (1) The lack of complete stagnancy in the air through which the drop moved; (2) the lack of perfect uniformity in the electrical field used; (3) the gradual evaporation of the drops, rendering it impossible to hold a given drop under observa- tion for more than a minute, or to time the drop as it fell under gravity alone through a period of more than five or six seconds; (4) the assumption of the exact validity of Stokes’s law for the drops used. The present modification of the method is not only entirely 1 Reprinted with abridgment, by permission of the author and the American Physical Society, from The Physical Review, Ithaca, N. Y., vol. 32, No. 4, April, 1911. A prelim- inary account of this work was read on Apr. 23 before the American Physical Society and was published in Science, vol. 32, p. 486, September, 1910. 2 Millikan, Phys. Rev., December, 1909, and Phil. Mag., 19, p. 209. 3 Thomson, Phil. Mag.; 46, p. 528, 1898; 48, p. 547, 1899; 5, p. 346, 1903. 4H. A. Wilson, Phil. Mag., 5, p. 429, 1903. 5 Ehrenhaft, Phys. Zeit., Mai, 1908. 6 Broglie, Le Radium, Juillet, 1909. 7In work reported since this paper was first presented, Ehrenhaft (Phys. Zeit., July, 1910) has adopted this vertical field arrangement so that he also now finds it possible to make all his measurements upon individual charged particles. 231 232 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. free from all of these limitations, but it constitutes an entirely new way of studying ionization and one which seems to be capable of yielding important results in a considerable number of directions. With its aid it has already been found possible— 1. To catch upon a minute droplet of oil and to hold under observa- tion for an indefinite length of time one single atmospheric ion or any desired number of such ions between 1 and 150. 2. To present direct and tangible demonstration, through the study of the behavior in electrical and gravitational fields of this oil drop, carrying its captured ions, of the correctness of the view advanced many years ago and supported by evidence from many sources that all electrical charges, however produced, are exact multiples of one definite elementary electrical charge; or, in other words, that an electrical charge, instead of being spread uniformly over the charged surface has a definite granular structure, consist- ing, in fact, of an exact number of specks or atoms of electricity, all precisely alike, peppered over the surface of the charged body. 3. To make an exact determination of the value of the elementary electrical charge which is free from all questionable theoretical assumptions and is limited in accuracy only by that attainable in the measurement of the coefficient of viscosity of air. 4. To observe directly the order of magnitude of the kinetic energy of agitation of a molecule, and thus to bring forward new direct and most convincing evidence of the correctness of the kinetic theory of matter. . 5. To demonstrate that the great majority, if not all, of the ions of ionized air, of both positive and negative sign, carry the elementary electrical charge. 6. To show that Stokes’s law for the motion of a small sphere through a resisting medium, breaks down as the diameter of the sphere becomes comparable with the mean free path of the molecules of the medium, and to determine the exact way in which it breaks down. THE METHOD. The only essential modification in the method consists in replacing the droplet of water or alcohol by one of oil, mercury, or some other nonvolatile substance and in introducing it into the observing space in a new way. Figure 1 shows the apparatus used in the following experiments. By means of a commercial “ atomizer”? A a cloud of fine droplets of 1The atomizer method of producing very minute but accurately spherical drops for the purpose of studying their behavior in fluid media, was first conceived and successfully earried out in January, 1908, at the Ryerson Laboratory, by Mr. J. Y. Lee, while he was engaged in a quantitative investigation of Brownian movements. His spheres were blown from Wood’s metal, wax, and other like substances which solidify at ordinary tempera- tures. Since then the method has been almost continuously in use here, upon this and a number of other problems, and elsewhere upon similar problems. ISOLATION OF AN ION—MILLIKAN. 233 oil is blown with the aid of dust-free air into the dust-free chamber C. One or more oi the droplets of this cloud is allowed to fall through a pinhole 7 into the space between the plates M, N of a hori- zontal air condenser and the pinhole is then closed by means of an electromagnetically operated cover not shown in the diagram. If the pinhole is left open air currents are likely to pass through it and produce irregularities. The plates M, N are heavy, circular, ribbed brass castings 22 centimeters in diameter having surfaces which are ground so nearly to true planes that the error is nowhere more than 0.02 millimeter. These planes are held exactly 16 millimeters apart by means of three small ebonite posts a held firmly in place by ebo- nite screws. 7 | Fe del pomiee ying ele glee Tee 22.8 7.2 sae a RO ith ee Te: Ha yD ||eee ee 7) 16 78. 34 4. 897 23.0 7.4 we 7B een ere ae 22. 8.6 F= 8.65 ad ae 14 68. 65 4,904 23. 9.8 Fee an 13 63, 68 4.900 23.5 10.7 F= 10.63 an ie 12 59.12 4,927 uy 9.6 23.0 9.6 23.0 9.6 ' 23.2 9.5 V=7820 23.0 9.6 13 63. 68 4.900 Gy 98M ae ets A 9.4 F= 9.57 22.9 9.6 De Gees 9.6 22.9 9.6 te deine 10.6 12 59.12 4. 927 Eads Se £7 F= 8.65 aS ie 14 68. 65 4.904 ISOLATION OF AN ION—MILLIKAN. TABLE I.—Negative drop—Continued. G sec. F sec. n én 1010 23.0 12.3 i 12.2 = A225 a8 ib! 53. 92 #..223! 12.1 23. 2 12.4 Change forced with radium. 72.4 F= 72.10 ea 72.2 5 24. 60 71.8 TALT 32 39 é BO | Gar eee) Unensnenes 27.4 7 34. 47 Saket tes 20. 7 8 39. 38 r a nw B 3 8 iw) bo a wow bd wv bo Now hb Ww BS 8 8 BSSsagsys wooonan © > oe | 3 4 3 23.2 (hile: 4 >| amo | 4 s| me | V=7760 23. 4 38.5 | 3 G= 23.43 pe yal 39.2 23.5 70.3 ‘ 23.4 70.5 23.6 ral, : ee 4 6 4 5 4 2 4 6 3 4 PSOE OL 26.9 SR OOOBee 27.2 39.5 39. 2 39.0 39. 1 be | 34. 47 39. 20 6 29. 62 5 24. 60 382. 5 374. 0 71.0 5 24, 60 70.6 e1X 1010 4. 902 4. 920 4.922 4. 923 4. 937 4. 920 4. 920 4. 920 4,915 4. 937 4. 920 4. 937 23. 71.4 23: 71.0 23: 71.4 23. 380. 6 23. 384. 6 23. 380. 0 F= 379.6 23. 375.4 4 19. 66 23. 380. 4 23. 374.0 23. 383. 6 Be aie safe 39.2 F= 39.18 23. 5 39. 2 6 29, 62 V=7730 23. 5 39. 0 G= 23.46 23. 4 39. 6 a SEAR COE 70.8 =18e1000) © Been ste 70. 4 5 24. 60 Ae ee 70.6 23. 6 378.0 4 19. 66 Saw it, here, at end of 305. sec.. pick up two negatives. 23. 6 39. 4 6 29. 62 23.6 70. 8 5 24. 60 Mean of all e:s=4.917 4. 920 237 238 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. DIFFERENCES. 24.60—19.66= 4.94 29.62—24.60= 5.02 34.47—29.62= 4.85 39.38—34.47= 4.91 Mean dif.= 4.93 by the constancy during all this time in the value of the velocity under gravity. This constancy was not attained without a consider- able amount of experimenting. It is sufficient here to state that. the heating effects of the illuminating arc were eliminated, first by filter- ing the light through about 2 feet of water, and, second, by shutting off the light from the are altogether except at occasional instants, when the shutter was opened to see that the star was in place or to make an observation of the instant of its transit across a cross hair. Further evidence of the complete stagnancy of the air is furnished by the fact that for an hour or more at a time the drop would not drift more than 2 or 3 millimeters to one side or the other of the point at which it entered the field. The observations in Table I are far less accurate than many of those which follow, the timing being done in this case with a stop watch, while many of the later timings were taken with a chrono- graph. Nevertheless this series is presented because of the unusual length of time over which the drop was observed and because of the rather unusual variety of phenomena which it presents. The column headed G shows the successive times in seconds taken by the droplet to fall, under gravity, the distance between the cross hairs. It will be seen that, in the course of the four and one-half hours, the value of this time increases very slightly, thereby showing that the drop is very slowly evaporating. Furthermore, there are rather marked fluctuations recorded in the first 10 observations, which are probably due to the fact that, in this part of the observa- tion, the shutter was open so much as to produce very slight convec- tion currents. The column headed F is the time of ascent of the drop between the cross hairs under the action of the field. The column headed én is the value of the charge carried by the drop as computed from (4). The column headed m gives the number by which the values of the preceding column must be divided to obtain the numbers in the last column. The numbers in the e, column are in general averages of all the observations of the table which are designated by the same numeral in the » column. If a given observation is not included in the average in the e, column, a blank appears oppo- site that observation in the last two columns. On account of the slow change in the value of G, the observations are arranged in groups and the average value of G for each group is placed opposite that group in the first column. The reading of the voltmeter, taken at ISOLATION OF AN ION—MILLIKAN. 239 the mean time corresponding to each group, is labeled V and placed just below or just above the mean G corresponding to that group. The volts were in this case read with a 10,000-volt Braun electrom- eter which had been previously calibrated, but which may in these readings be in error by as much as 1 per cent, though the error in the relative values of the volts will be exceedingly slight. The PD was applied by means of a storage battery. It will be seen from the readings that the potential fell somewhat during the time of observa- tion, the rate of fall being more rapid at first than it was later on. MULTIPLE RELATIONS SHOWN BY THE CHARGES ON A GIVEN DROP. Since the original drop in this case was negative, it is evident that a sudden increase in the speed due to the field—that is, a de- crease in the time given in column F—means that the drop has caught a negative ion from the air, while a decrease in the speed means that it has caught a positive ion. If attention be directed, first, to the latter part of the table, where the observations are most accurate, it will be seen that, beginning with the group for which G=23.43, the time of the drop in the field changed suddenly from 71 to 380 seconds, then back to 71, then down to 39, then up again to 71, and then up again to 380. These numbers show conclusively that the positive ion caught in the first change— i. e., from 71 to 380—carried exactly the same charge as the negative ion caught in the change from 380 to 71. Or again, that the negative ion caught in the change from 71 to 39 had exactly the same charge as the positive ion cavght in the change from 39 to 71. Furthermore, the exact value of the charge caught in each of the above cases is obtained in terms of mg from the difference in the values of én, given by equation (1), and if it be assumed that the value of m is approximately known through Stokes’s law, then the approximately correct value of the charge on the captured ion is given by the difference between the values of e, obtained through equation (4). The mean value of this difference obtained from all the changes in the latter half of Table I (see Differences), is 4.93107. Now it will be seen from the first observation given in the table that the charge which was originally upon this drop and which was obtained, not from the ions in the air, but from the frictional process involved in blowing the spray, was 34.47< 1019 23. 8 31.5 WES BieSR Boa 23. 6 31.3 8 41.10 5. 189 23. 4 31.2 ; 23.7 43.8 G= 23:58... 23a 43. 6 V=8075.....- 23.8 43.7 7 36. 09 5. 156 1 Se BPs 23.5 43.4 23. 2 43.4 nthe Be) te 23. 5 24, 2 9 46. 29 5. 144 V1= .05534 Mean ¢; (weighted)=5.145 1The reading carried to hundredths of a second were taken with a chronograph, the others with .a stop watch. The mean @ from the chronograph readings is 24.567, that of the stop-watch readings 24.583. In order to find in just what way this law breaks down we made an extended series of observations upon drops the velocities of which varied in the extreme case 360 fold. These velocities lay between 248 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. the limits .0013 cm. per sec. and .47 cm. per sec. Complete records of a few of these observations are given in Tables IX, X, XI, and XII. [The reader may consult these tabies in the original article, but they are here necessarily omitted for lack of space.] The readings shown in these tables are merely samples of the sort of observations which we took on between 100 and 200 drops between December, 1909, and May, 1910. The sort of consistency which we attained after we had learned how to control the evapora- tion of the drops and after we had eliminated dust from the air may be seen from Table XIII which contains the final results of saul SEESEREFTEEIEEEEEEEOEERE eegenenaeeseesece! HE HEE Fe Ereeranieiet 0 $00 4000 _ 1500 2008 2500 - 3000 3§00-_ 100) a oo SLA x10" Fig. 2. our observations upon all of the drops except three which were studied throughout a period of 47 consecutive days. The three drops which have been excluded all yielded values of ¢, from 2 to 4 per cent too low to fall upon a smooth e,v, curve like that shown in figure 2 which is the graph of the results contained in Table XIII. Tt is probable that these three drops corresponded not to single drops, but to two drops stuck together. Since we have neyer in all our study observed a drop which gave a value of e, appreciably above the curve of figure 2, the hypothesis of binary drops to account for an occasional low value of e, is at least natural. Before we elimi- nated dust we found many drops showing these low values of e,, but after we had eliminated it we found not more than one drop in ISOLATION OF AN ION——-MILLIKAN. 249 ten which was irregular. The drop shown in Table I is perhaps the best. illustration of the case under consideration which we have observed. It yields a value of e, which is 4 per cent too low to fall on the curve of figure 2. This is as large a departure from this curve as we have thus far obtained. RABE Wake lls No. | Velocity. | Radius. | e:x100, | Probable cm. sec. cm. Per cent. 1 | 0.001315 | 0.0000313 7.384 6 2 . 001673 358 6. 684 4 3 . 001927 386 6. 142 2.5 4 . 006813 755 5. 605 1.5 5 . 01085 967 5. 490 5 6 01107 979 5. 496 ii 7 . 01164 . 0001004 5. 483 4 8 .01176 1006 5. 482 A 9 . 01193 1016 5. 458 BS 10 . 01339 1084 5. 448 5 11 01415 1109 5. 448 4 12 . 01868 1281 5.349 25 13 . 02613 1521 5. 293 5 14 . 03337 1730 5. 257 5 15 . 04265 1954 5. 208 5 16 . 05360 2205 5.148 4 17 .05534- 2234 5.145 5 18 . 06800 2481 5.143 aye 19 . 07270 2562 5.139 5 20 . 08843 2815 5.102 4: 21 . 09822 2985 5.107 .4 22 . 1102 3166 5. 065 A 23 .1219 3344 5. 042 5 24 . 1224 3329 5. 096 5 25 . 1267 3393 5.061 5 26 15145 3712 5.027 5 27 . 1644 3876 5.050 £3 28 . 2027 4297 4.989 a0 29 2175 4447 5. 046 4 30 . 3089 5315 4.980 31 . 3969 6047 5. 060 32 4074 6104 5. 033 1 33 4735 6581 4.911 1.5 THE CORRECTION OF STOKES’S LAW. The simple form of Stokes’s law, which has been used in obtaining the values of e, involves the assumption that there is no slip at. the bounding surface between the medium and the drop, or that the coefficient of external friction between oil and air is infinite. From the standpoint of the kinetic theory this surface slip, though in general very small, is, strictly speaking, never zero, and to take it into account a term must be introduced into the equation of motion which is proportional to the ratio between the mean free path of the 250 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. gas molecule and the radius of the drop.t. Since it is conceivable, however, that there is some other cause for slip than that assigned by the kinetic theory, it will be well to make this discussion as independent as possible of all theoretical considerations. From whatever point of view, then, the phenomenon of external slip be regarded, it is clear that the very existence of any surface effect of this sort between the medium and the drop must tend to produce an actual velocity higher than that computed from the simple form of Stokes’s law, 1. e., it must tend to produce departures from Stokes’s law of the kind actually shown in the experiments herewith recorded. Furthermore, it will be evident from the analysis underlying Stokes’s law that any surface effect whatever between oil and air which might modify the velocity given by Stokes’s law must be more and more effective in so modifying it the more the radius of the drop is diminished, and that when the radius is taken sufii- ciently large the term which represents this surface effect must be- come negligible. We could then write a corrected form of Stokes’s law, which would take into account any kind of surface phenomenon which might alter the speed, in the general form <= Guan +4G)P" ~ () in which 7 is a constant of the medium and a the radius of the drop. If we were in complete ignorance of the form of the function f we could express it in ternis of the undetermined constants, A, B, C, etc., thus / eee eat r(;) =14A-+B5+05, ete. (6) and so long as the departures from the simple form of Stokes’s law were small, we could neglect the second order terms in //a and have therefore oS 6xuarl + lee (7) or fen +A ‘| (8) Using this form of equation to combine with (1) and denoting now by e the absolute value of the elementary charge and by e,, as here- tofore, the value of the charge obtained from the use of (4), there results at once Ai + av) =¢, Or Aa + a‘) =ias, (9) 1See O. E. Meyer, Kinetische Theorie der Gase, p. 211, for the correction of Poiseuille’s law for slip, and Cunningham, Proc. Roy. Soc., 83, p. 57, 1910, for the corresponding correction of Stokes’s law. ISOLATION OF AN ION—MILLIKAN. 951 [The author then determines the value of the correcting term = a and confirms his result by reference to independent work of other observers. Jor these discussions the reader should consult the origi- nal article. | 7000 6000) 5000. 4000 Fig. 3. 10° £000 en | Sus geese THE ABSOLUTE VALUE OF é. Taking the value of A as 0.817 the value of e was determined from (9), and the values of ¢,, a, and Z obtained as explained above. 252 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. The next to the last column of Table XIV gives the results of this computation of e for all of the observations recorded in Table XIII TABLE XIV. Tem- | pew : , aie Differ- No. | pera- 5 1X108. | Velocity. | a(=radius) ia. €:X1019,] obser- | ex1010, | ence rare point. vational from an mean. pan ok “GC Cm. | Cm. sec. Cm. Per ct. Per ct. 1 24.0 5.3 945 | 0.001315 | 0. 0000313 0. 3020 7. 384 6.0 2 26.0 10.8 954 | .001673 . 0000358 . 2664 6. 864 4.0 3 23.8 9.3 944 | .001927 . 0000386 - 2446 6. 142 2.5 4 19.9 1.8 929 | .006813 . 0009755 . 1230 5. 605 1.5 5) 24.6 3.7 948 | .01085 . 0000967 - 0980 5. 490 25 4.892 | 0.20 6 26. 4 6.0 955 | .01107 . 0000979 . 0975 5. 496 at 4, 889 . 26 tf 24.0 .0 945 | .01164 . 0001004 - 0941 5. 483 4 4.903 - 03 8 20.0 1.8 929 | .01176 . 0001006 . 0923 5. 482 .4 4.916 - 28 9 24.8 .0 949 | .01193 . 0001016 . 0934 5. 458 8 4.891 577, 10 26.3 6.0 955 | .01339 . 0001084 - 0883 5. 448 5 4. 908 -10 il 23.6 3.7 943 | .01415 . 0001109 . 0850 5. 448 4 4,921 . 42 12 24.3 11.0 947 | .01868 . 0001281 . 0739 5. 349 5 4. 900 - 03 13 24.0 .0 945 | .02613 . 0001521 . 0621 5. 293 5 4.910 Pr 14 27.0 6.0 959 | .03337 - 0001730 . 0554 5. 257 5 4.918 . 34 15 23.2 | = 1.2 942 | .04265 . 0001954 - 0483 5. 208 5 4,913 «2d 16 27.6 12.2 959 | .05360 - 0002205 - 0435 5. 143 4 4. 884 . 36 17 26.8 6.0 958 | .05534 . 0002234 . 0429 5.145 25 4. 885 34 18 25. 2 4.0 951 | .06800 - 0002481 - 0384 5.143 ay 4.912 eal 19 23.8 5.0 944 | .07270 . 0002562 - 0369 5. 139 5 4.913 -O1 20 23. 2 1335 942 | .08843 . 0002815 - 0325 5. 102 3 4.901 aOr 21 24. 6 1.7 948 | .09822 - 0002985 . 0318 5. 107 4 4.915 wer, 22 25. 0 9.2 950 | .1102 . 0003166 . 0300 5. 065 4 4. 884 . 36 23 27 15.0 959 | .1219 . 0003344 . 0287 5. 042 5 4. 882 - 40 24 22. 6 1.6 939 | .1224 - 0003329 . 0282 5. 096 5 4,923 . 44 25 24.0 3.7 944 | .1267 - 0003393 . 0278 5. 061 5 4. 894 15 26 23 8 5.0 944 | .15145 . 0003712 - 0254 5. 027 5 4. 880 .44 27 25. 2 -3 948 | .1644 . 0003876 - 0245 5. 050 3 4. 903 - 03 28 22.3|— .7 938 | .2027 . 0004297 . 0218 4. 989 “7 4. 858 85 29 21.8.) =~ tt 936 | .2175 . 0004447 - 0211 5. 046 -4 4.918 fo6 30 22.3 4.2 938 | .3089 - 0005315 -0177 4. 980 1.0 31 24.4 1.0 947 | .3969 - 0006047 - 0157 5. 060 1.0 32 22.8 1.0 940 | .4074 . 0006104 . 0154 5. 033 1.0 33 25..2 2.% 951 - 4735 . 0006581 . 0144 4.911 1.5 Mean e=4.901 Six months after the original work on this table was done the laboratory obtained a very reliable Weston laboratory standard voltmeter which made it possible to obtain a more perfect calibration curve of the Kelyin and White electrostatic instrument than had been made at first. With the aid of this new calibration curve every value of e in the above table was recomputed, with the result that the final value of e was reduced 0.06 per cent. Furthermore, in the computation of the above table the m of equation (1) was through oversight treated as the real mass instead of as the apparent mass. This necessitates a further reduction of e amounting to 0.14 per cent, so that the most reliable value obtainable from the work thus far done is e=4.891X10~. except the first four and the last four. These are omitted not because their introduction would change the final value of e, which as a mat- ISOLATION OF AN ION—MILLIKAN. 253 ter of fact is not appreciably affected thereby, but solely because of the experimental uncertainties involved in work upon either exceed- ingly slow or exceedingly fast drops. When the velocities are very small residual convection currents and Brownian movements intro- duce errors, and when they are very large the time determination becomes unreliable, so that it is scarcely legitimate to include such observations in the final mean. However, for the sake of showing how completely formula (9) fits our experimental results throughout the whole range of the observations of Table XIII, figure 3 has been introduced. The smooth curve in this figure is computed from (7) under the assumption of e=4.89110-° and the experimentally de- termined values of e, are plotted about this curve, every observation contained in Table XIII being shown in the figure. The probable error in the final mean value 4.891 x 10-'°, computed by least squares from the numbers in the last column, is four hundredths of 1 per cent. If there is an error of as much as 8 per cent in the determination of A the final value of e would be affected thereby by only about 0.2 per cent. Since, however, the coefficient of viscosity of air is involved in the formula, the accuracy with which e is known is limited by that which has been attained in the measure- ment of this constant. There is no other factor involved in this work which has not been measured with an accuracy at least as great as 0.2 per cent. The value of 4; which has been used in the computation of all of the preceding tables, viz, 0.00017856, is in my judgment the most probable value which can be obtained from a study of all of the large mass of data which has been accumulated within the past 40 year$ upon this constant. It represents not only the result of what seems. to me to be the most reliable single determination of s which has thus far been made, viz, that of Stokes and Tomlinson! who deduced it from the damping of oscillating cylinders and spheres, but it is ex- actly the mean of the three most recent and very concordant values obtained by the outflow method (Table XV), and it is furthermore the mean of all of the most reliable determinations which have ever been made. These determinations are as follows: [The discussion of the determinations of the coeflicient of viscosity of air is here omitted. ] We have devised two modifications of this method of determining e which do not involve the value yw. It is scarcely likely, however, that the necessary experimental error in these methods can be re- duced below the error iny It is probable, therefore, that any in- creased accuracy in our knowledge of e is to be looked for in in- creased accuracy in the determination of y. 1 Stokes, Math. and Phys. Papers, v. 5, p. 181. 254 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. EXPERIMENTS UPON SUBSTANCES OTHER THAN OIL. All of the preceding experiments except those recorded in Table I were made with the use of a specially cleaned gas-engine oil of density 0.9041 at 25° C. Those in Table I were made with the use of a similar, though more volatile, mineral oil (machine oil) of den- sity 0.8960. The reason that we worked so continuously upon a single substance was that it was found that in order to maintain a drop of constant size it was necessary, even with these very nonvolatile sub- stances, to have the drop in equilibrium with its saturated vapor. This is shown by the following observations. The inner surfaces of the condenser plates had been covered with a very thin coat of machine oil in order that they might catch dust particles. Drops blown from a considerable number of nonvolatile substances were introduced between the plates and were found in the main to evap- orate too rapidly to make accurate observing possible. This was true even of so nonvolatile substances as glycerine and castor oil, as the following observations show: Glycerine, density Castor oil, density 25° 0.975. G. F. G. F. 28.3 11.5 73.8 18.0 32.5 9.8 75.8 * 12.9 38.7 77.8 18.0 45.6 8.4 78.17 102.2 59.2 79.6 17.8 ¢ 84.8 30.2 87.7 12.7 90.7 18.1 In order to get rid of this continuous increase in G, the drops were next blown from the least volatile liquid at hand, viz, gas-engine oil, and the behavior of a given drop showed immediately that it was_ growing in size instead of evaporating. This can be seen from the following readings: Gas-engine oil. c F, 17.6 6.1 17.4 76.2 17.2 82.0 16.9 87.2 16.8 92. 4 dLife 97.8 16.7 104.6 ISOLATION OF AN ION——MILLIKAN. 255 This behavior was shown consistently by all the drops experi- mented upon (six or eight in number) throughout a period of two days. Imagining that the vapor from the more volatile machine oil upon the plates was condensing into the less volatile but similar oil of the drop I took down the apparatus, cleaned the plates care- fully, and oiled them again, this time with the gas-engine oil. Every gas-engine oil drop tried thereafter showed the sort of constancy which is seen in Tables III to XII. Series of observations similar to that made upon gas-engine oil and tabulated in Tables XTIT and XIV will ultimately be made upon other substances. Thus far the aim has been to take enough observations upon other substances to make sure that the results obtained from these substances are sub- stantially in agreement with those obtained from gas-engine oil and to concentrate attention upon an accurate series of observations upon one substance. As a matter of fact, we have a fairly complete series upon machine oil and a number of observations upon watch oil, castor oil, and glycerine, all of which are in agreement within the limits of observational error, in some cases as much as 2 or 3 per cent, with the observations upon gas-engine oil. * * * * * * *k The conclusion to be drawn from all of the work thus far done on substances other than oil is merely that there is nothing in it to cast a doubt upon the correctness of the value of e obtained from the much more extended and much more accurate work upon gas-engine oil. COMPARISONS WITH OTHER DETERMINATIONS. The value of e herewith obtained is in perfect agreement with the result reached by Regener? in his remarkably careful and consistent work in the counting of the number of scintillations produced by the particles emitted by a known amount of polonium and measur- ing the total charge carried by these same particles. His final value of this charge is 9.58 X 107°, and upon the assumption that this is twice the elementary charge—an assumption which seems to be jus- tified by Rutherford’s experiments*—he finds for e 4.79 x10, with a probable error of 3 per cent. Since the difference between this value and 4.89 & 10-*° is but 2 per cent the two results obviously agree within the limits of observational error. * * * [The author then discusses several other determinations of e, and explains some discrepancies which appear. | In conclusion there is presented a summary of the most important of the molecular magnitudes, accurate values of which are made 1B. Regener, Sitz. Ber. d. k. Preuss. Acad. d. Wiss., 37, p. 948, 1909. 2Rutherford, Phil. Mag., 17, p. 281, 1909. 256 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. possible by an accurate determination of e. The Faraday constant is taken as Ve = 9,655 absolute electromagnetic units. e = 4.891 X 107° E.S.U. the smallest quantity of electricity canable of sepa- rate existence. N= 5922: x% 10° the number of molecules in one gram molecule of any substance. ..-=, 2.644.- 6.270" the number of molecules in 1 cubic centimeter of any gas at 0° C. and 76 centimeters. aw = 2.106 X 107 ergs. the constant of molecular energy. Molecular en- ergy « = aT’. & = 5.750 X 10-™ ergs. the kinetic energy of agitation of a single molecule at 0° C. and 76 centimeters. €)=273a. m = 1.702 X 10-*4 gms. the weight of the hydrogen atom. Weights and diameters of molecules. arp rg sipignt | ARSE? | Diameters [pale Grams. Centimeter. G. cm. 18 byg6 bite y 42 le ee MEA Sea cOer ee “omen Pes oOo Tee 2 3.40104 | 2.28x10-8 0. 55 ROL ss. oe oot oka ns cee owe hamenehe xk teaser ce tao ay 6.81X10-4 | 2.001078 1.63 Carbon monoxide... .3h.3-.552cce--ceeee eco sees 27.8 47.4 X10-%4 | 2.89108 3.76 WihVleEne) aS. Ss O2L EE PRMhUE BID mM %@BWi 32 36 40 Ey) 60 & 70 Distance sm Inches of Setewium Crrr from Source of INumination, x 2. Fig. 3. cell when placed in contact with the screen, the resistance becoming less the greater the fluorescence. You will see here a selenium cell of approximately 395,000 ohms resistance, over which is placed a small fluorescent screen of the same size; the cell is put in series with a battery of 100 volts and a milliampere meter, the divisions of which may be made to correspond to some arbitrary scale or to the time necessary for the exposure of a given make of photographic plate. The dividing of the dial depends on two things: First, the char- acteristic curve of the selenium cell connecting its resistance with the strength of illumination, the linear distance of the source from the cell being, in this case, the most convenient to employ. Second, this characteristic curve must be modified to meet the case of illumina- tion by the rays from the antikathode, which do not necessarily 266 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. diminish in their power to make the sereen fluoresce as the square of the distance from it. You will see on the screen the character- istic curve of a selected selenium cell for feeble illumination, the maximum being of about the same wave length as that of the fluores- cence, showing the relation between resistance and distance separating the source of illumination and the cell, and also the modified curve showing a similar relation between resistance and distance between antikathode and cell, with the screen in contact. The portion of the first curve most nearly asymptotic is best to employ for the work, and from the second curve the dial scale of the meter can be easily calibrated. If, now, I vary the height of the X-ray tube from the measuring apparatus, you will see that the meter needle is deflected less as the distance between tube and cell is increased. The actual instrument is provided with a scale divided so as to show compara- tive times of exposure, and by its use radiographic work can be greatly facilitated. It is interesting to note that the effect of the rays on the fluorescent screen, as estimated by the selenium cell, differs less with increasing distance the farther the antikathode is from it: Distance of anti- kathode from Current recorded, Difference. apparatus. Inches. Milliamperes. 6 0.33 _ 8 -27 0. 06 10 22 05 12 - 20 - 02 14 18 02 16 -16 02 A good deal of time has, I am afraid, been taken up in giving de- tails of apparatus, but I will now show some of the results that have been obtained in practice. The selenium machines already referred to were operated between Paris, Manchester, and London until the end of the year 1908. The first photograph received (slide) was of King Edward, and was received at the Daily Mirror installation in November, 1907. Several results will now be shown in the lantern, and you will observe that they are all composed of parallel lines, which widen or “thin” according to the density of the picture. These lines correspond to the movement of the shutter attached to the strings of the Einthoven galvanometer, which regulates the thick- ness of the spot of light focused on the revolving sensitive film. This spot of light*traces a spiral line around the film, which, when de- veloped, is laid flat, and the spiral becomes resolved into so many parallel lines. TELEGRAPHY OF PHOTOGRAPHS—BAKER. 267 Late in 1908 Prof. Korn introduced his telautograph, in which a Caselli transmitter, such as already described for the telectrograph, is used, and a line sketch or half-tone photograph is attached to the drum. ‘The receiver is similar to that used in the selenium machines, a spot of light cast on a revolving sensitive film being shut off every time current flows through the wire of the galvanometer NO COMPENSATION and displaces it. When dis- placed the shadow of the wire falls over a fine slit placed in front of the film, and so prevents the light from passing through to it. A line sketch transmitted from Paris to London in this way is now shown (pl. 2, fig. ORL e PARNER OS URE 2). The methods of syn- chronizing the sending and receiving cylinders is the COMPENSATION same as that used in the telec- - trograph; but Prof. Korn’s work was done prior to mine, and his arrangements were therefore copied by me. Sim- ilar methods have been adopted for many years, how- ever, in certain systems of ordinary telegraphy. There is a great deal of interesting matter connected with the efficiency of the gal- vanometer-recelving appara- tus, and the vast amount of careful work done by Prof. Korn to increase it, which time quite forbids my men- tioning, and IT will therefore pass on to the latest phase of phototelegraphic work—the experiments now being carried out to effect wireless transmissions. The wireless apparatus for transmitting sketches, writing, or simple photographic images over distances up to about 50 miles may perhaps be looked upon as rather rudimentary, but I shall be able to show, from actual results, that it is at any rate practicable, and it is certainly more simple than any method based on later wireless re- searches. CURRENT CURRENT Fie. 4, 268 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. I will first show you an experiment, for the simplicity of which I must ask your pardon; but it illustrates so clearly how easy it really FLUORESCING POWER OF X-RAYS AS MEASURED BY SELEWIUM “ ~ ~ ° a ° © ~ s MILLIAMPERES CURRENT : DISTANCE (IN INCHES OF ANTICATHOOE FROM CELL Siercury interrupley earth Fic. 6. is to transmit a photograph by wireless under ideal conditions. I have here a small electric lamp, coupled up with the local side of a relay and battery, the relay being actuated by means of a coherer de- Smithsonian Report, 1910.—Baker. PLATE 2. 1. PHOTOGRAPH WIRED FROM PARIS TO LONDON BY THE AUTHOR’S TELECTOGRAPH. 2. FASHION PLATE TRANSMITTED BY PROFESSOR KORN’S T ELAUTOGRAPH. TELEGRAPHY OF PHOTOGRAPHS—BAKER. 269 tector. At the other side of the platform there is a Morse key, which, when depressed, closes the primary circuit of an induction coil, the secondary being coupled up in the usual way to give oscillations. When I press the key, and thereby send a signal, you see that the lamp at once lights up. If the coherer be tapped, the lamp is ex- tinguished, and another tap of the Morse key causes it to light again. Now suppose that the taps of the Morse key were controlled by the lines in a photograph or sketch, and that the ight from the lamp were concentrated on a revolving photographic film, and you will see at once how a photograph could be transmitted by wireless teleg- raphy. Such a process would be utterly impracticable commercially, but my telectrographic system can be used with success in its place. A line picture prepared in the way already described is attached to the drum of the transmitter, and the intermittent current, which is ordinarily passed into the telephone line, goes into an electromagnet, M in figure 6, which then attracts a soft iron diaphragm attached to brass springs, which are fixed to two rigid supports. Every time current flows through the magnet coils this diaphragm is attracted to it, and the platinum contacts PQ are brought together; when the current flows, and PQ are in contact, the primary circuit of a transformer is closed, and the secondary having a spark gap and being inductively coupled to the aerial and earth, a signal is transmitted into space. Thus in the wireless transmitter the only difference from ordinary telegraphy hes in the fact that the length of the signals and their distance apart are regulated by the lines composing the sketch or photograph. When working with high voltages in the primary, such as 110, arcing is liable to take place, and hence the distance between P and Q, when not attracted must be considerable. This means that the distance between the diaphragm clamps must be short, and the German-silver spring of which the diaphragm is made must be thick, these two conditions making the natural period of vibration very short. I have, however, found that by interposing a mercury motor-interrupter in the primary circuit, arcing is almost entirely avoided, as if an are be formed the current is interrupted an instant later, and the arcing ceases in consequence. The receiving apparatus is very simple, and depends, for short- distance work, upon a coherer cymoscope, the decohering apparatus being of a particular character. Every time an oscillation passes to the antenna, the coherer becomes conductive in the ordinary way, and a relay is actuated; this relay is usually made to start a hammer vibrating, the hammer hitting the coherer, and thus causing it to lose its conductive power. But a vibrating hammer is useless for the photo-telegraphic receiver, and it is essential to have one strike only on the coherer for each signal detected. 270 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. The form of apparatus I have employed for this purpose is seen diagramatically in the next lantern slide (fig. 7). EE is the magnet which is actuated by the relay R. It then attracts an arma- ture MN, which moves toward the magnet poles and brings a resili- ent hammer H, fitted with a platinum contact p, against the coherer. The coherer AB is also fitted with a collar F and contact pin, so that in the act of striking the coherer the hammer closes a local circuit, and so causes a black mark to appear on the chemical paper. Suc- cessive distinct marks can be obtained in 0.017 second in this way, which is considerably more rapid, I believe, than a decoherer was given credit for. There is not sufficient time to show an actual transmission by wire- less, and I should like to make it clear that only sketches of the simplest character are at present being transmitted; but, as you will see from the result thrown on the screen—a simple portrait of His Majesty the King—the images are recognizable, and merely require slightly more detail to make them quite comparable with the early results in line obtained by Prof. Korn’s telautograph. Another result shows a plan transmitted by wireless; here an island is seen represented, and a lighthouse—or it might be a fort— and by means of letters the positions of sections of an army on the island are supposed to be designated, while the shaded portion might mean that the “enemy” is in that part of the island. Such plans as these could be drawn direct in shellac ink on a slip of metallic foil, placed upon a portable machine coupled to a portable military wire- less set, and communicated from one section of an army to another. The small portable machines I have already shown are used for the wireless transmissions, and they possess the advantage that “tap- ping” of the communications would be quite impossible. It is for this reason that I think the method would be of such value for mili- tary and naval purposes; even supposing that anyone wishing to TELEGRAPHY OF PHOTOGRAPHS—BAKER. art intercept a plan or written message were to have an exactly similar instrument, with the same dimensions, screw threads, and so on, by merely altering the rate of running by 5 or 10 per cent, according to prearranged signals, the picture as received by the intercepting party would be quite unintelligible and confused. We have already seen that in the telegraphy of a picture by any system, accurate synchronizing of the sending and receiving appa- ratus is essential. Where a metallic circuit links the transmitting and receiving instruments together, the matter is an easy one, and we have seen in what way it is effected. But when dealing with wireless work, the question of synchronism becomes more serious. I have employed two methods, each of which appears to answer CHRONOMETRIC SYNCHRONISER FOR WIRELESS APPARATUS. Fig. 8. satisfactorily, and as they are very important I will devote a few moments to their description. The first method secures accurate synchronism independently of any wireless communication. You have already seen how, in the ordinary telegraphic work, the receiving cylinder is driven rather faster than the sending one, and when it finishes up a complete turn too soon it is arrested until the sending cylinder has caught it up, when the latter sends a reverse current, which is responsible for its release. But in the wireless apparatus both sending and receiving cylinders are driven too fast, so to speak—that is, they are made to revolve in four and three-fourths seconds instead of a nominal five. A check comes into play at the end of the revolution, and the cylinder is stopped until the five seconds are completed, the motor working pio ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. against a friction clutch in the ordinary way during the stop. At the end of the fifth second each cylinder is automatically released by chronometric means, in the manner shown in the next diagram (fig. 8). Here you will see that a special form of clock is used, with a center seconds’ hand which projects beyond the face by about an inch, and to the end of it is attached a brush of exceedingly fine silver wires. At every twelfth part of the circumference of the clock dial is fixed a platinum pin, and consequently every five seconds the little brush wipes against the convex surface of one of them. Each of these pins is connected with one terminal of a battery B, the other side of the battery leading to the relay R, as does also the center seconds’ hand. Therefore each time the brush wipes against a pin the circuit is closed, and the relay throws into action the local circuit connected up with the terminals TT. This circuit excites an electromagnet, which attracts an armature and pulls away the check which is holding back the cylinder. At the end of each five seconds the cylinders consequently recommence turning. Well-calibrated clocks of the pattern used will keep good time for the period taken to transmit a picture, one gaining on the other quite an inappreciable amount, depending on the friction of the brush against the pins. By this means the two cylinders are kept in very fair synchronism independently of any wireless communication, and the less the interval between the stopping and restarting of the cylin- ders be made, the more accurate and satisfactory will be the effect. The other method of synchronizing is controlled by electromag- netic oscillations. Let us suppose that a coherer is being used as cymoscope; the transmitting cylinder is kept running without any interruption, but by means of a fleeting contact it sends out a wave at the conclusion of its turn, a bare space in the picture being neces- sary about half a second beforehand, so that no waves are sent out for the half-second previously. The receiving cylinder is driven too quickly, and checked at the end of the revolution. It then, by means of a cam pressing down a spring lever, throws out of circuit the marking current, and brings into circuit the relay which actuates the electromagnetic release. Consequently, when the synchronizing wave is received, the coherer causes the relay to work, the release is effected, and the receiving cylinder starts a new revolution in unison with the transmitter. This means of synchronizing is only possible in cases where a eymoscope is employed that is capable of actuating a relay, and you will therefore see that it is out of the question, except for short dis- tances. I am therefore using the chronometric system already de- scribed in the apparatus, and it is being embodied in the quartz fiber apparatus I am now about to describe. I must first remark that the TELEGRAPHY OF PHOTOGRAPHS—BAKER. } O73 wireless work has been greatly facilitated by the courteous assistance so readily given by the Marconi Company. The general form of the Einthoven galvanometer is well known, and the modified type of it used by Prof. Korn for phototele- graphic purposes has been already shown. If, now, we make the magnetic field very much more intense by building the field magnets heavier, and using a large number of ampere turns in the winding, and also employ a “string,” which is very much more elastic than the silver ribbon, the displacement of the string will be correspondingly greater. The silvered quartz fiber. used by Duddell for this purpose gives an extremely sensitive instrument, and very appreciable dis- placement is obtained with the current from one dry cell passing through 35 to 90 megohms resistance. It is not long since Prof. Fleming explained at this Institution the valve receiver for detecting wireless oscillations; in ordinary wire- less telegraphy, the minute alternating currents are rectified, and sounds are heard in the telephone in circuit owing to small unidi- rectional currents. If these currents be passed through the silvered quartz string of the galvanometer, the string is shifted. If, there- fore, we cause a shadow of the string to le over a fine slit, any dis- placement will cause the slit to be opened, as it were; the shadow will be shifted off the sht, and light will be free to pass through it. Oscillations corresponding to the lines in a photograph or sketch could therefore be utilized to cause shifting of the shutter in the manner I have already described for Korn’s telautograph, and a sensitive photographic film could be revolved on a drum behind the shit to receive the picture. Such an apparatus is now in course of preparation; but the amount of light that passes through the slit is extremely small, owing to the fineness of the fiber. Mr. Sanger- Shepherd has therefore attached a minute shutter to the fiber, cross- ing the optic axis; this enables me to use a very much wider slit, and also to adopt the alternative procedure for reception, which you will now see represented in the diagram on the screen. For photographic reception, the oscillation is passed into the valve detector, and thence to the quartz fiber AB, which is stretched across the field of the magnets (not shown), the poles of which are bored with a tunnel, through which the beam of light is directed. When the fiber is displaced, light is enabled to pass through a fine slit W, and so act on the photographic film. Where, however, the shutter is attached to the fiber, a much wider slit can be used, and then a pair of narrow compensated selenium cells SS are placed behind the slit W, a positive lens being interposed. When a signal corresponding to a dot in the photograph (i. e., the traversal of a line by the stylus) is received, the fiber shifts, light falls on the cells SS, and their resist- 97578°—sm 1910——18 274 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. ance is decreased sufficiently to enable the battery E to actuate the relay R. This closes a local circuit, in which the telectrograph re- ceiver is included, and a mark appears on the paper. In this way a visible record is obtained, which greatly facilitates the process. Wireless phototelegraphy may eventually prove of more utility than the closed-circuit methods, because it would bring America within reach of this country, and would enable communication to be made where telephone or telegraph lines did not exist. It is not limited to photographs—banking signatures, sketches, maps, plans, and writing could be transmitted. But I would point out most par- ticularly that the work is as yet in the very earliest stages, and that in giving you some account of it to-night I may be bringing before your notice methods and systems on which a few years hence you will look back with a smile—as curious merely from a historical point of view. MODERN IDEAS ON THE CONSTITUTION OF MATTER.’ By JEAN BECQUEREL, Professor at the National Museum of Natural History, Paris. For a number of years past physicists have been laying the foundations of a new theory of matter. A series of bold concep- tions, based on unlooked-for facts, has worked a deep-seated trans- formation in the previously accepted ideas concerning the constitu- tion of bodies. Everyone knows that substances in general are divided into two groups, simple bodies or elements and complex bodies made up by the combination of these elements. For a long time these bodies have been considered as composed of atoms which have combined and formed molecules, the atom being the most minute quantity of matter characteristic of an element and capable of entering into chemical combinations, while the molecule of a body, simple or com- plex, is the smallest particle of this body which is capable of exist- ing in a physical state. Let us consider an example: The molecule of water, the smallest quantity of water which can exist in a physical state, is the result of the combination of two atoms of hydrogen with one of oxygen. I shall repeat before you the classic experiment of decomposing water by an electric current; oxygen is set free at the positive pole and hydrogen at the negative pole, the two gases coming off in the proportion of two volumes of hydrogen to one volume of oxygen. The molecule of a complex body is always made up of the atoms of at least two elements. The molecule of an element may be made up of only a single atom, as is the case with monatomic bodies such as helium, zinc, cadmium, or mercury, while in other cases the molecule of a simple body may be a group of several atoms of this body, for instance, hydrogen and oxygen are diatomic, while phos- phorus and arsenic are tetratomic. . The discovery of Gay Lussac concerning the laws of the compo- sition of gases led Avogadro and Ampere to declare that gases con- 1 Lecture delivered at the Museum, Apr. 10, 1910. Translated by permission from the Revue Scientifique, Paris, 48, No, 14, Oct. 1, 1910. 275 276 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. tained in equal volumes the same number of molecules, and that the definite proportions in which they combined represented the invari- able relation between the weights of the atoms which were in juxta- position. The theory is that in the interior of bodies the constituent mole- cules are perpetually animated by a movement which becomes cor- respondingly greater as the temperature becomes higher. If the swiftness of these thermic movements could be gradually reduced to zero, temperatures would be obtained which would approach more and more closely to the limit of temperature found at about —273° C. This temperature, the lowest’ conceivable, since it corresponds to a state of repose of the molecules, is called absolute zero. The principles of mechanics which apply to this conception of molecules in movement takes account of all these laws to which gases and dissolved bodies are subjected. I can not enlarge here on the methods which have made it possible to count in a cubic centi- meter of gas at ordinary temperature and pressure, thirty billion billions of molecules, and to evaluate the dimensions of one of these molecules. The diameter of a molecule of oxygen, for example, is a few ten-millionths of a millimeter. These figures give some idea, however, of the extreme divisibility of matter. In connection with this divisibility of matter it is interesting to recall that accord- ing to Berthelot the odor of one hundred-thousand-millionth of a gram of iodoform per cubic centimeter of air is perceptible to the sense of smell. You are all aware that matter attracts matter, in accordance with the universal law of gravitation which rules the movements even of the stars. The invariability of the constant of gravitation has sug- gested the idea that the atoms of all bodies can be formed by the unequal condensation of a single principle and the relations dis- covered by chemists between the different elements lend themselves favorably to this hypothesis. The idea of a single principle as the ultimate constituent of all things, dates in reality from the most ancient times. Twenty-five centuries ago, Thales propounded the existence of a primordial fluid to which he attributed a sort of soul and a power of attraction. Anaximander, Anaximines, and Herodotus spoke of a universal prin- ciple, and Pythagoras located above the air “ether, a celestial sub- stance free from all perceptible matter.” Five hundred years before our era Leucippus and Democritus had conceived of atoms indi- visible and eternal which moved about in infinite space; Lucretius a little later expounded similar doctrines. Finally Descartes and Leibnitz developed for themselves an idea of matter which led them to similar conclusions, CONSTITUTION OF MATTER—BECQUEREL. Are About the end of the last century an English chemist, Prout, pro- pounded the hypothesis that all elements could be made up by the progressive condensation of hydrogen, the lightest of all the bodies. Several years ago, however, modern physicists took a still further step; they now attribute an atomic structure not only to matter, but to electricity as well, and consider matter as composed of electricity. We shall see as a fact that electrified corpuscles have been isolated which themselves appear to be composed of electricity, entirely free from anything that can properly be termed matter, whose mass is of electro-magnetic origin and is nearly two thousand times as small as that of an atom of hydrogen. These atoms of electricity are called electrons. They are present in all bodies; they are the atoms which are at the source of all phe- nomena of light, and again they are those atoms which allow the conduction of heat and of electricity. The electron appears to be in the nature of a universal constituent of matter, without being itself matter, in the ordinary sense of the word. The first conception of, an atom of electricity is a result of the phenomenon of electrolysis, of which you may see an example in the decomposition of acidified water by an electric battery. > OR ' Ye oll we ‘ y Sry tr Si se aoe ht ot (iis tai . lan SietypeaL vi os Abi i, 5 | oe @ awl iff winvicuds A y ia Sle -eLt g.4i {ol Mageine Ofough), lng sgl ¥ angal es . ; ’ ‘ke Tint Tu ; 's : jpat APT a ' cn tae. ft x i” ~*~ - ra ‘ ( iB ris ayn f fis ny . } ¥ . x th at a] ae ‘ “ Th eee! j 4 i> 7 *43) Tint . ’ : q ar a é »@ te Del ig a) y me y i‘ f iT ' Ce fe SMe? ated i de. ni 4c tyndad of Ge Hayy? Asdokeied? aM LD ve ae Lonley quniticot sta Royal 5) Seton! Morisey wiht (opel i ; henaper, G4RS Peers deh: “one, a 4 0p iy the iene areden, ire: ite ab aE Titi de (G24)- ale Bod” Le PURI ‘ r The Karst a af ’ pivshenh ofilia ar HM boca ys duphe thea, Tiatld me va Manwod duites: af Qrach Ma Gory 139-3 abs, Lt Atte 40g Ries piety sk hie tenons bi oye tb he Ordena? pe me 4 awl Lalas nol rigeieie aus @ ‘eles, unt fan ha? eta shot THE SOLAR CONSTANT OF RADIATION.? By C. G. ABBOT, Director of the Astrophysical Observatory of the Smithsonian Institution. Langley once wrote: If the observation of the amount of heat the sun sends the earth is among the most important and difficult in astronomical physics, it may also be termed the fundamental problem of meteorology, nearly all whose phenomena would become predictable if we knew both the original quantity and kind of this heat; how it affects the constituents of the atmosphere on its passage earth- ward; how much of it reaches the soil; how, through the aid of the atmosphere, it maintains the surface temperature of this planet; and how, in diminished quantity and altered kind, it is finally returned to outer space. The first great advance in the study of this matter was made by Pouillet more than 70 years ago. He constructed an instrument which he called a “ Pyrheliometer.” It comprised a shallow circular metallic box blackened to absorb sun rays, having a thermometer inserted in the center of one circular face, and being arranged so as to expose the other circular face broadside toward the sun. The in- strument was first shaded for a time, as, for instance, five minutes, then exposed to the sun an equal time, then shaded again. By reading the thermometer before and after each of the intervals just men- tioned, the rise of temperature due to the sun, exclusive of the losses and gains of heat due to the surroundings, was thought to be de- termined. Knowing the water equivalent of the pyrheliometer and the area exposed to the sun, the result could be converted to calories per square centimeter per minute. But it is not sufficient to know the amount of heat available in the solar beam at the earth’s surface, for this is reduced by the amount of haze, dust, and water vapor in the earth’s atmosphere, and even, as Rayleigh afterwards showed, diminished by the diffuse reflection of the molecules of air themselves. Hence the intensity of the solar beam not only differs from day to day, but increases between sunrise and noon, and decreases between noon and sunset, depending on the length of path of the beam in the atmosphere. Bouguer and Lam- bert, independently, about 1760, had derived an exponential formula connecting the intensities of the entering and outgoing beams with 1 Address by C. G. Abbot to the Solar Union Conference at the Mount Wilson Solar “Observatory, California, Wednesday eyening, Aug. 51, 1910. ie 320 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. the thickness of the medium traversed. This formula is variously given, but may be used in this form: E=E, Am, where E and E, are the intensities of the outgoing and entering beams, A a constant expressing the fraction transmitted through unit thickness, and m the thickness traversed. In the case of the atmosphere it is natural to take unit thickness as that of the layer between the observer and the zenith, and m as equal to the secant of the zenith distance of the celestial object. This latter assumption is not strictly true, because the air layer is not a plane parallel sheet, but spherical in curvature, and secondly because the beam is curved by atmospheric refraction. However, as the air layer of sensible density is thin compared with the length of the earth’s radius, and as the refraction is negligible except near the horizon, the approximation is very close for zenith distances less than 75°, for which m=4. Knowing m and measuring E by the pyrheliometer, two observations at different zenith dis- tances fix the values of KE, and A. Pouillet, proceeding in some such manner, made numerous determinations of these quantities, and con- cluded that the value of E, at mean solar distance is about 1.76 calories per square centimeter per minute. This, then, is Pouillet’s value of the “ solar constant of radiation.” For the next 40 years this result was generally adopted, although the experiments of Forbes, Violle, and Crova and the theoretical work of Radau indicated that it was too low. Langley, about 1880, stated Radau’s argument in a highly convincing form. Briefly stated, since the transmission of the atmosphere differs, depending on whether we consider blue or red light, and especially on whether we treat of rays which suffer only the general scattering of the molecules and dust particles of the air, or take those which are selectively ab- sorbed by water vapor and oxygen, and which are almost completely extinguished high above the earth’s surface—on account of this inequality of atmospheric extinction Pouillet’s method inevitably yields too low results. Langley, by the aid of his then newly invented bolometer, meas- ured at Allegheny, and in 1881 at Lone Pine and Mount Whitney, the transmission of the spectral rays separately, computed how the energy of the sun is distributed in its spectrum outside the atmos- phere, and fixed a new value of the solar constant which has been generally accepted almost until the present time. The method of Langley, which is that now in use, is complex, but necessarily so. Imagine that you have a very intense solar spectrum before you, and that it is still early morning, with the sun perhaps an hour and a half high. If you had a thin, delicate, blackened thermometer you could carry it along in the spectrum from the ex- treme ultra-violet to far beyond the red end of the visible spectrum, and detect varying degrees of temperature rise proportional to the © SOLAR CONSTANT OF RADIATION—ABBOT. 321 heat produced by each spectral ray. At each of the Fraunhofer lines the thermometer would fall slightly. The great A band of oxygen would produce a large decrease of temperature, but beyond the red you would think several times you had reached the end of the spectrum if you did not know better, and that you were exam- ining great water-vapor bands. Suppose now that several hours later you repeated the experiment. You would find that, excepting in these great water-vapor bands, practically every part of the spectrum was hotter than before, and that the change had been greatest in the violet end. At any selected wave length you could then apply the method of Pouillet, and find what your instrument would have indicated if you could have read its rise of temperature due to the heat of the solar spectral ray outside of the air altogether. It would be natural to plot upon a convenient scale the spectral distribution at the earth’s surface, and outside the atmosphere, using intensities of the spectrum as ordinates, and wave lengths, or pris- matic deviations, as abscissae. The total area included between such a curve and the axis of abscissae (or zero intensity) is proportional to the total radiation of all colors combined. Hence the ratio be- tween the computed area outside the atmosphere and that measured at the earth’s surface is the ratio which would be found between the readings of the pyrheliometer if one could read it outside the atmos- phere and again at the given hour at the earth’s surface. So we should determine the “solar constant” by multiplying the pyrhelio- meter reading at the earth’s surface for the given hour by the ratio just mentioned, and then reducing the result to mean solar distance. One thing, however, is to be considered. The energy in the great atmospheric absorption bands of the infra-red spectrum does not increase fast enough, as the path of the beam diminishes, to fully obliterate the bands in the energy curve computed for outside the atmosphere. But we know that there is no absorption in these bands due to the sun itself. They are solely atmospheric. Hence in draw- ing our extra-atmospheric computed curve we draw it. smoothly so as to eliminate all atmospheric bands. The remaining solar Fraun- hofer lines may be blurred over by using a wide slit of the spectro- scope, or, better still, a smooth energy curve representing average intensities may be drawn to allow for them, both within and without the atmosphere. As for the ultra-violet and infra-red regions be- yond what is convenient to observe, corrections of a few per cent are added for them. Such, in brief, is the method of Langley for determining the solar constant of radiation. Unfortunately in this pioneering work he came to distrust the application of the exponential formula of Bouguer to the atmosphere, even when applied as he did it to homo- 97578°—sm 1910——21 322 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. geneous, that is to say, monochromatic rays. He was thus led to fix the solar constant at 3 calories per square centimeter per minute, which now appears to be fully three halves the true value. I quote his own words in description of the method by which this value was derived: — We now proceed to determine from our bolometer observations a value which we may believe * * * to be a minimum of the “solar constant,’ and one within the probable truth. All the evidence we possess shows * * * that the atmosphere grows more transmissible as we ascend, or that for equal weights of air the transmissibility increases (and probably continuously) as we go up higher. In finding our minimum yalue we proceed as follows, still deal- ing with rays which are as approximately homogeneous as we can experiment- ally obtain them. Let us take one of these rays as an example, and let it be the one whose wave length is 0.64, and which caused a deflection at Lone Pine of 201. The coefficient of transmission of this ray, as determined by high and low sun at Lone Pine and referred to the vertical air mass between Lone Pine and Mountain Camp, is 0.976. From the observations at Lone Pine, then, the heat of this ray upon the mountain should have been 1000 201 X 076 = 206.0, but the heat in this ray actually observed on the mountain was 249.7. There- fore, multiplying the value for the energy of this ray outside the atmosphere calculated from Mountain Camp high and low sun observations (275) by the ratio Bead we have 333.3, where 333.3 represents the energy in this ray out- side the atmosphere as determined by this second process. By this process Langley obtained the solar-constant value 2.630 calories, which he considered a minimum. By another process he obtained the value 3.505, which he considered a maximum. The mean of the two he chose as the solar constant, or, in round numbers, 3 calories. Langley’s argument is, of course, that if we find our formula giv- ing too small values at a station within the atmosphere to which we can ascend, probably it would give values even smaller in proportion to the true one outside the atmosphere altogether where we can not go to test it. But in fact the transmission coefficient found at Lone Pine was not applicable to compute what ought to have been ob- served at Mountain Camp. It was applicable to the average trans- missibility of all the layers of the air from Lone Pine to the limit of the atmosphere. It was therefore far too high to suit the trans- mission of the dusty, opaque layers next the earth’s surface. Hence, by its use Langley computed a smaller value for Mountain Camp than he observed, but this had really no bearing on the problem. It would seem that the true result to be selected as representing Lang- ley’s experiments is the mean of 2.06 found by the unmodified method of homogeneous rays at Lone Pine and 2.22 found in the same way at Mountain Camp. That mean is 2.14 calories. SOLAR CONSTANT OF RADIATION—ABBOT. 823 After Langley, everybody admitted that “solar constant ” work required observation of homogenous rays, but nobody practiced it until 1902, when such observations were begun in Washington at the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. In the meantime im- portant advances had come. The brilliant work in Germany from 1890 to 1900 had fixed the laws and constants of radiation for the perfect radiator or “absolutely black body” of Kirchhoff. Hence we knew approximately that the sun was of the order of 6,000° in absolute temperature (centigrade), and that as its spectrum energy curve determined by Langley was generally similar to that of a “ black body,” there could be no very appreciable fraction of its radiation beyond 3y in the infra-red, or beyond 0.3» in the ultra-violet. The positions of the infra-red atmospheric absorption bands had been de- termined, and they had. been assigned to water vapor and carbon dioxide. The bands of the latter compound had been found to lie beyond the spectral region just named, and hence to be of little ac- count to diminish solar radiation, so that Angstrém, in 1901, with- drew his solar-constant value 4 calories, which he had based on a supposed enormous carbon-dioxide absorption. Great improvement had been made in the bolometer. For “ solar constant ” work this instrument comprises essentially two little threads or tapes of platinum, each about 1 centimeter long, 0.01 centimeter wide, and 0.001 centimeter thick. They are blackened to absorb rays, but one is hidden from the spectrum while the other is exposed to it, so that the latter is warmed by the rays with respect to the former. ‘Two equal resistance coils are joined to the two bolometer tapes, so that the whole forms a “ Wheatstone’s bridge.” The rise of temper- ature of one of the tapes increases its electrical resistance, and causes a very minute electrical current to flow and deflect a highly sensitive galvanometer. In ordinary bolometric practice a rise of temper- ature zodoov° centigrade is readily observed. You will not wonder that when this instrument was a new one it was almost unmanageable. Langley has told me often that in the hot tent at Lone Pine the galvanometer light spot used to rush off the scale, 1 meter long, in a single minute. Hence it took several men to make an observation. One sat, sweltering (this was the immortal Keeler), reading the scale as fast as he could, while another recorded his numbers and also set the spectroscope. One let the sun on and off the spectroscope and kept the irregularly running siderostat reflecting the beam approximately right. A fourth observed with the Violle pyrheliometer. It took thousands and thousands of observations to determine a “solar constant” under such circumstances. The de- flections could be worked out only by plotting the almost innumer- able galvanometer readings which the observer had made without 324 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. knowing if the sun was on or off. It is wonderful that out of such a maze the truth was approximately found at last. When the Astrophysical Observatory was founded at Washington the bolometer had been so far subdued that Langley introduced the beautiful device of photographically recording the galvanometer light spot on a moving plate, while the same clock which moved the plate also moved the spectrum over the bolometer tape. Thus an automatic solar spectrum energy curve could be taken without mak- ing a single galvanometer reading. But “drift,” though no longer ameter a minute, was stillan obstacle. Several devices have since been applied by means of which “ drift” is practically eliminated, so that the galvanometer light spot stays day after day practically unmoved, except as the sun is allowed to shine through the spectroscope. We now usually take an energy curve of the solar spectrum, running from the band of silver transmission near wave length 0.334 in the ultra-violet, to wave length 2.5» in the infra-red in eight minutes. Such a curve shows more than even Keeler could have found with the old apparatus in a lifetime. One observer may now easily carry on “solar constant ” work without help. In his “ Report of the Mount Whitney Expedition,” Langley states that the measurement of the “solar constant” encounters two difli- culties, one of which he describes as “formidable,” the other as “perhaps insurmountable.” The first is the difficulty of completely absorbing and accurately measuring the intensity of the solar rays as they reach the earth’s surface. The second is the difficulty of correctly estimating the loss they suffer in traversing the atmosphere. We shall recur to the latter. After eight years of effort to overcome the former I agree that it was “ formidable.” In 1894 Prof. V. A. Michelson, of Russia, published an account of his pyrheliometer. In this instrument he employed a tube-like chamber, blackened within to absorb the rays, and surrounded by melting ice and water. The amount of solar heating he determined by noting the increase of volume of the ice as it melted, reading for this purpose a graduated capillary tube attached to the outer chamber wall. Michelson’s pyrheliometer, which has been, I think, little used, may have given correct results, but excepting for it I believe there has been no accurate standard pyrheliometry until this year, 1910. Unfortunately the importance of Michelson’s device was overlooked because his description was published in the Russian language. The electrical compensation pyrheliometer of Angstrém was de- scribed in 1898, and has attained wide acceptance. It was adopted by the Solar Union as a standard at the Oxford Conference, but the experience of Kimball and of Callendar is unfavorable to it, for there is a deterioration after some years in practically every in- SOLAR CONSTANT OF RADIATION—ABBOT. 325 strument. Besides this, there is reason to believe that the instrument reads too low, even at the first. In most pyrheliometers, as in that of Pouillet, there is a blackened exterior surface for the reception of the solar radiation, behind which lies a device for measuring temperature. There are two pos- sible paths for the heat produced, one by conduction back to the tem- perature device, one by convection and radiation forward into the air. This second part of the heat is lost, and is undetermined, though not large in amount. Besides this loss is a second by direct reflec- tion of rays from the surface. This second loss is usually allowed for, but its determination is not easy. Both these sources of error are avoided in the hollow chamber instrument of Michelson. When in 1902 we began at Washington the study of the “ solar con- stant” we fortunately, though quite innocently, did not employ - Angstrém’s pyrheliometer. We had received from the late M. Crova two of his alcohol actinometers, and of these he said in a letter, with delightful naiveté, that they were good secondary instruments and only required to be calibrated by comparison with any satisfactory standard. At that time there was no standard. So we cast about for one, and, following Tyndall, who had followed Pouillet, I had our in- strument maker, Mr. Kramer, prepare a shallow, circular copper box with a thermometer inserted at the side, and with mercury filling the box to the blackened cover. The whole was surrounded by a wooden chamber to keep off the wind. By calorimetric measure- ments we attempted to get the water equivalent of this mercury pyrheliometer, and our subsequent measurements were all given, for years, in terms of the scale it furnished. We soon found our mercury pyrheliometer more convenient than the Crova actinometer, and abandoned the use of the latter. Afterwards we recognized that, on account of the great variation of the specific heat of alcohol with change of temperature, we should have been all at sea if we had continued to use Crova’s instrument. Later we dispensed al- most wholly with the mercury and used a solid, circular, thin copper block, with a radial hole for inserting the cylindrical bulb thermometer, using only enough mercury to make good heat conduc- tion to the thermometer. Finally we have bent the stem of the ther- mometer at right angles, employed a steel-lined silver block, have equipped the instrument with various effective little auxiliary devices, and by the aid of a grant from the Hodgkins fund by the Secretary of the Smithsonian_ Institution, have sent several of our silver-disk pyrheliometers to Europe, to promote international agreement in pyrheliometry. But although our scale of pyrheliometry was fortified by com- parison of numerous copper and silver disk instruments among them- 326 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. selves, and though we found by these intercomparisons that the scale remained unchanged from year to year, we yet felt sure that it was not the standard scale of calories. In 1903, not knowing of Michel- son’s idea of a decade earlier, I conceived the idea of employing the hollow chamber, or “absolutely black-body” principle. Instead of combining ‘with it the Bunsen ice-calorimeter method I proposed to make the walls of the chamber hollow and to circulate a measured current of water through them, which should carry off the heat as fast as formed. The rise of temperature of this water I proposed to measure by a platinum-resistance thermometer immersed half in the incoming, half in the outflowing water. To test the accuracy of the results I proposed to insert a coil of resistance wire within the cham- ber and to measure a known quantity of electrical heating which could be introduced thereby in terms of the rise of temperature it produced in the water. This program, after seven years, and the successive building of three, all supposedly final, water-flow pyr- heliometers is now satisfactorily completed. I can not praise too highly Mr. Kramer’s admirable skill in the construction of these instruments. A careful comparison, completed by Mr. Aldrich this spring in Washington, of standard pyrheliometers No. 2 and No. 3 with secondary pyrheliometer No. 8, and through this with secondary No. 4, used since 1906, on Mount Wilson, has resulted as follows: Constant of secondary pyrheliometer No. 4. leash bw ko Rh Ch eee ee ee ee 0. 8553 MES yes CeMI CLE T C1 SIN hs ah es ee rent ere ee 0. 8550 In these comparisons electrical heating was frequently introduced as a check, and the heat found seldom deviated more than 1 per cent from 100 per cent of that introduced. On the average about 99.5 per cent was found. I consider that now the obstacle to solar-constant work called “ formidable” by Langley is overcome, and that we may know the amount of solar heat received at the earth’s surface within a quarter of 1 per cent. It is not probable that I should have been here this evening if it had not happened that our “solar constant” values of 1903 indicated a fall of solar radiation of about 10 per cent at a time just before there occurred a general fall of several degrees centigrade from the normal temperature of the United States and Europe. This led to the suspicion that the “solar constant” was a misnomer, and that the sun’s emission is really variable. After further studies in Wash- ington, hindered by long periods of cloudiness, I was sent by Mr. Langley in 1905, at Prof. Hale’s invitation, to occupy for the summer a temporary station here on Mount Wilson. As ] was about to start Mr. Langley directed me to remember that I was going not to fix the SOLAR CONSTANT OF RADIATION—ABBOT. 327 average value of the “solar constant,” but to observe its possible variability. “In fact,” said he, with a twinkle in his eye, “ I may tell you that I consider that value of the solar constant as best which nearest approaches 3 calories.” You will perhaps infer from this that I had expressed to him the views regarding his Mount Whitney result which I have given here this evening. He replied that the Mount Whitney work was done in the prime of his life, and now that he was old and had laid the subject aside for so long he did not feel that he could reason upon it as acutely as he could have done at that time, and therefore he would let his former value stand. In 1905, 1906, 1908, 1909, and now in 1910 I shall have occupied for six months each year the Mount Wilson Smithsonian station, which has now become the permanent cement structure which many of you have visited. It is a pleasure to acknowledge the aid, inspiration, and friendly companionship which I have had from Mr. Hale and his staff. In this interval, partly with the aid of Messrs. Ingersoll and Aldrich in different seasons, but much of the time alone (so much are instrumental conditions superior now to those of Langley’s early work), I have made series of spectro-bolometric and pyrheliometric observations for the determination of the “solar constant” on about 400 different days. During 1905 and 1906 Mr. Fowle was carrying or nearly simultaneous, similar observations in Washington when- ever conditions permitted. Although the direct readings at the two stations differed by about 20 per cent on account of the relative con- ditions at sea level and 1,800 meters elevation, yet our “solar con- stant ” results agreed within the experimental error at Washington; that is, within 3 per cent on the average. In 1908 I went to the summit of Mount Whitney with Prof. Camp- bell, and we united to recommend the erection there of a permanent shelter by the Smithsonian Institution. This was approved by Secre- tary Walcott, and a three-room stone and steel house was built in August, 1909, by aid of a Hodgkins grant, and is now available to all students of science who shall receive permission of the secretary to use it. In 1909 I returned to Mount Whitney with a spectro- bolometric outfit, and made a complete determination of the “solar constant ” on September 3, simultaneously with a complete determina- tion by Mr. Ingersoll here on Mount Wilson. My result differed from his by less than 1 per cent, although my direct readings were, of course, fully 15 per cent higher than his, on account of the higher elevation of Mount Whitney, 4,420 meters. I have just returned from a third trip to Mount Whitney, on which I had, fortunately, excellent weather during all the time when I desired it. During my stay I made complete “ solar constant ” obser- vations on four days simultaneous with those of Mr. Fowle here on Mount Wilson; I observed with Prof. Kapteyn’s photometer on two 828 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. nights; made bolometric measurements of the water-vapor bands in the infra-red spectrum on one day; and measured with the bolometer on two days the relative brightness of the sun and many different parts of the sky. My expedition lacked the picturesqueness and éclat which distinguished Langley’s, with its private car, its guard of cavalry, and a budding astronomer of the first rank, the renowned Keeler, as assistant. However, I rode from Mojave to Lone Pine (about 150 miles) in an automobile trying all the while desperately to keep my pyrheliometer from being broken, and was consequently jounced myself, once to the roof of the automobile, and barely escaped a broken nose. My treasured pyrheliometer afterwards rolled down the Mount Whitney trail twice with the pack mule, and the second time the mule was killed, but the instrument reached the top in safety. My measurements of 1910 are, of course, not yet reduced. Considering that practically identical results have been obtained by simultaneous “solar constant” measurements at sea level (Washing- ton) and 1,800 meters (Mount Wilson), and again at 1,800 meters and 4,420 meters (Mount Whitney), observing by the spectro-bolometric method of homogeneous rays in each case, I think we must admit that Langley’s second difficulty was a bugbear and not an insuperable obstacle. I therefore venture to announce that I believe the true average value of the “solar constant” of radiation is for the years 1905 to 1909, 1.92 calories per square centimeter per minute. We know that the earth’s temperature is higher at sun-spot minimum that at maximum. Hence I suppose that the values so far observed are a' little below the mean for a term of years, and I propose as the most probable mean value of the “solar constant” 1.95 calories per square centimeter per minute. Our results at Mount Wilson have strongly confirmed the impres- sion gained in 1903 that the “solar constant ” is really a variable of short and irregular periodicity. We have tested this conclusion by all means in our power. But the one obvious and necessary test, that of establishing a second far-distant cloudless station and carrying on there with equal facilities and experience a series of “solar constant ” measurements simultaneous with those on Mount Wilson, we have not been able to make for lack of funds. ASTRONOMICAL PROBLEMS OF THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE.* By Heser D. Curtis. It is a natural result of the more recent development of the civili- zations of the Southern Hemisphere that advances in the science of astronomy should likewise be less extensive than those made by the parent civilizations of the Northern Hemisphere. From the nature of the case, the Southern Hemisphere possesses relatively few astro- nomical records which can compare, in point of time, with those cbtained for the northern skies during the last two centuries; and in the past, but to a less extent to-day, no small part of the progress made in mapping and studying the southern skies has been made by expeditions from the older foundations of Europe and America. Probably the first observatory south of the equator which can be described as of a permanent character was that founded by Sir Thomas Brisbane in Paramatta, New South Wales, as a private observatory, in 1821; its period of activity extended over about 10 years, and it was later incorporated with the Observatory of Sydney. An observatory was founded in Buenos Aires in 1822, but its period of activity was very short. Although the Observatory of the Cape of Good Hope was founded in 1820, its activity did not commence till 1829, the date of its completion; the extremely valuable and extensive work carried on here during the 80 years past give to it the unchallenged rank as the oldest permanent astronomical founda- tion in the Southern Hemisphere. Ata later date we find the foun- dation of the Observatory of Santiago in 1856; Melbourne, founded in Williamstown, Victoria, in 1853, and transferred to Melbourne in 1861; Adelaide, established in 1854; Cérdoba, 1870; Arequipa in 1891, and others of more recent date. Among the early expedi- tions of a temporary character may be noted the visit of Halley to St. Helena in 1677; later we come to the appearance of the first large systematic catalogue of the southern stars by Lacaille as a 1 Reprinted by permission, with author’s revision from publications of the Astronom- eal Society of the Pacific, vol. 21, No. 129, San Francisco, Cal., Dec. 10, 1909. 329 330 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. result of his stay of four years at the Cape of Good Hope in the years 1751-1755; the noteworthy investigations made at the same spot by Sir John Herschel, from 1834 to 1838; the expedition sent to Santiago under charge of Gilliss in 1849; and others of more recent date to which attention will be called later. The observatories in the southern part of the north temperate zone can extend their investigations in many lines of astronomical research to a distance of 30° to the south of the celestial equator without great difficulty or loss of accuracy, but from this limit to the South Pole we have a region amounting to about one-fourth of the entire sky which, relatively to the northern skies, was almost as much a terra incognita 75 years ago as was Central Africa at the same date, and which to-day contains many virgin fields which offer rich returns to the exploring astronomer. In the first great subdivision of astronomy, the astronomy of posi- tion, whose field is primarily the determination of the accurate posi- tions of the fixed stars, the observed changes in these positions are so minute that the element of time becomes the most important factor to enable conclusions to be drawn from a given mass of observations as to the proper motions of the stars and the structure of the sidereal universe as a whole. Because of this relatively short time factor since the earlier exact observations of the positions of the southern stars, the astronomy of precision of the Southern Hemisphere can not yet compete with the results from the northern heavens. Sir David Gill has said, and there is doubtless no more competent authority to pronounce upon this point than he, that the state of our knowledge of the exact positions of the stars of the Southern Hemisphere is at least a century behind that of the Northern Hemisphere. Neverthe- less, if we consider the results already secured in the exact cartogra- phy of the southern skies, and take into consideration also the re- searches in this field at present well under way, we may safely reach the conclusion that the coming 20 years will render our knowledge of southern star positions very little inferior to those of the northern skies, always excepting, in this conclusion, the disadvantage arising from the lack of early observations, a lack which will necessitate the accumulation of results for many years before our knowledge of southern proper motions can equal that of the northern stars. In this task of bettering our knowledge of exact star positions in the Southern Hemisphere it is doubtless superfluous to mention here the excellent work that has been done in the past and is now in progress at a number of southern observatories, especially the exten- sive results from Cordoba and the Cape of Good Hope. In 1865 the Astronomische Gesellschaft. undertook the extensive task of mapping, by means of exact meridian observations, all the stars in the sky down to the ninth magnitude. This work for the Northern Hemi- ASTRONOMICAL PROBLEMS—CURTIS. 831 sphere and for some distance south of the celestial equator is now practically completed, and the work is advancing favorably for the more southerly portions of the sky at the observatories of Madras, Melbourne, and the Cape. One of the most important programs in connection with the astronomy of precision of the Southern Hemisphere is that inaugu- rated in 1908 under the auspieces of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. It has for its object the measurement of the accurate positions of about 25,000 stars in the southern skies in accordance with the system of Prof. Boss, of Dudley Observatory. The instru- ment employed is the meridian circle of the Dudley Observatory, which has been used in the past for exactly similar work in the northern skies. The constants, graduation errors, etc., of this instru- ment have been so thoroughly investigated that doubtless no more efficient instrument exists to-day for this class of work. By the use of the same instrument, the same system of reductions, and to a cer- tain extent even the same observers, it seems probable that the re- sults of this program will afford us a far more exact binding together of the northern and southern skies in one homogeneous system than we possess to-day. The site was selected at San Luis, in the Argen- tine Republic. Prof. Tucker, of the Lick Observatory, was in charge of the Carnegie Observatory at San Luis and advices state that the site seems to be a very favorable one for this class of work. The program has been completed as planned and the observers are now (April, 1911) returning to the United States, where the results will be put in final shape for publication. The project involved about 3 years’ work, and about seven observers and assistants were employed. In the years 1885-1891, under the direction of Sir David Gill, the Observatory of the Cape of Good Hope undertook an extensive photographic map of the southern skies from declination —19° to the South Pole. The measurement of the positions of the stars on these plates was carried through by the disinterested and self-sacri- ficing labors of Prof. Kapteyn, and the publication in 1900 of the third and concluding volume of the great “Cape Photographic Durchmusterung” marked the completion of this monumental task. It contains the positions of 454,875 stars, nearly to the tenth magni- tude, and the positions are accurate to about 1 second of arc. It is an epoch-making work in the cartography of the southern heavens; in fact, until the completion of the “Astrographic Catalogue” no such complete and systematic photographic catalogue exists for the Northern Hemisphere. Naturally it can not compete, however, with the accuracy of the “Astrographic Charts”; those from Helsingfors, for example, having the small probable error of 0.11’’ for the mean of two measured star images. 332 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. Without doubt, however, the greatest problem in the cartography of the southern skies which awaits the observatories of the Southern ~Hemisphere is the completion of their respective shares in the great photographic map of the heavens mentioned above, which was in- augurated at the International Conference in Paris in 1887. As is well known, this plan, in its entirety, involved the construction of a photographic map of the entire sky down to the fourteenth stellar magnitude, for which about 22,000 plates were to be taken, and the total number of the stars registered on the plates would probably reach 20,000,000. Supplementary to these charts the plans con- templated the publication of a great catalogue of perhaps 2,000,000 stars down to the eleventh magnitude, based on plates or shorter ex- posure time. The task was apportioned among 18 observatories in the two hemispheres. The observatories south of the Equator which possess photographic equatorials of the uniform type adopted for the work are those at La Plata, Cordoba, the Cape, Santiago, Perth, Melbourne, and Sydney. It was proposed that the entire work be repeated in 100 years. But so vast is the scope of this program that even in the Northern Hemisphere this project, whose value for the astronomy of position of the future can scarcely be overestimated, has by no means made the progress anticipated for it at the time of its inception. Owing to the cost, only a few of the cooperating ob- servatories have agreed to publish the great maps, and among south- ern observatories Perth has decided to take only the plates to the eleventh magnitude and to publish the resulting catalogue. Perth has taken all the plates in its zone, and has commenced the measures for the Catalogue. The section apportioned to the Cape of Good Hope is now nearly completed, both as to the taking of the plates and their measurement, and rapid progress is being made at Sydney, Mel- bourne, and Cérdoba. Up in 1908 nothing had been done at La Plata or Santiago, though Dr. Ristenpart, recently appointed director of the National Observatory at Santiago, will make every effort for the prompt completion of the zone assigned to him; the work of taking the plates has already been begun under the direction of Dr. Zurhellen. It would seem that the publication of the costly maps might well be abandoned, for the plan adopted at Oxford of publish- ing only the coordinates of the stars would be far cheaper and fully as useful. Excellent work has been done in determination of stellar parallax at the Cape of Good Hope, but the difficult field of work which has for its aim the determination of the distances of the stars by the heliometer or modern photographic methods is still practically un- touched in the Southern Hemisphere. Parallaxes of only 17 stars south of declination —30° have been published, while north of this ASTRONOMICAL PROBLEMS—CURTIS. 3338 limit about 300 parallaxes have been determined, many of them a number of times, by different observers and different methods. In the interesting field of double stars, as is well known, Herschel discovered many systems in the southern skies, and modern ebservers, as Innes, Taylor, and others, have materially augumented this num- ber. During the past decade Profs, Aitken and Hussey have been making a very complete and systematic search for such doubles in the Northern Celestial Hemisphere, with the result that several thou- sand new doubles have been discovered, many of them of great in- terest. They have reached the conclusion that at least 1 in every 18 stars brighter than the ninth magnitude is a visual binary system. To these results we must add the evidence of the spectroscope that 1 in every 5 or 6 of the stars thus far examined is a spectro- scopic double, and we have facts whose importance it is scarcely possible to overestimate in their bearing on our theories of stellar evolution. Such systematic researches for the discovery of visual doubles are most urgently needed in the southern skies to round out the program which these astronomers have now nearly completed for the northern portions of the heavens. In this regard there is no doubt that the southern sky offers one of the richest and most promis- ing fields of research existing to-day. Burnham’s great “ Catalogue of Double Stars,” recently published by the Carnegie Institution, includes 13,665 pairs of stars and extends to south declination 31°. This eminent authoritiy estimates that a century must pass before sufficient data can be collected to make a similar catalogue necessary for the Southern Hemisphere. Innes’s “ Reference Catalogue of - Southern Double Stars”? contains 2,191 pairs between the Equator and the South Pole, but of this number about 925 are between the Equator and Burnham’s southern limit, nearly all of which have been discovered by observers in the Northern Hemisphere. A com- parison of the number remaining, south of —31°, with the results trom the northern skies will show clearly that there may well be 2,000 double stars brighter than the ninth magnitude at present awaiting discovery in the Southern Hemisphere, to say nothing of the need for additional researches on the pairs already known. During the past 10 years systematic observations have been made at six special stations in the Northern Hemisphere to study the small oscillations of the axis of the earth known as the variation of latitude. These stations are located at Mizusawa, Japan; Tschardjui, Asiatic Russia; Carloforte, Italy, and at Gaithersburg, Md.; Cincinnati, Ohio, and Ukiah, Cal.; and are all situated almost exactly on the parallel of north latitude 39° 8’. In 1905 the association which has this research in hand, Das Centralbureau der Internationalen Erdmessung, decided to extend this series of observations to the 1 Cape Annals, vol. 2, pt. 2, 1899, 334 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. Southern Hemisphere, and the plans at first contemplated three stations: in Sydney, Australia; Capetown, Africa; and Santiago, Chile. It was pointed out, however, by Dr. Helmert that better re- sults could be secured, as far as the evaluation of the so-called Ki- mura-term in the latitude equation was concerned, by two stations placed as exactly as possible on opposite sides of the earth. Ac- cordingly, after correspondence with authorities in Australia and the Argentine Republic, two cites were chosen in 1905 which satisfy this condition, and are, in addition, admirably situated as regards climatic advantages. Both are in south latitude 31° 55’ 15’’, and differ 179° 36’ in their longitudes. The Australian installation is in charge of Dr. Hessen, formerly of Berlin, and is located at Bays- water, West Australia, about 4 miles from Perth, the capital. The Argentine station is under the direction of Dr. Luigi Carnera, form- erly occupied in similar observations at Carloforte, and is located at Oncativo, about 45 miles from Cérdoba. Both of these stations commenced observations in 1906, and the work has been prosecuted with great energy since that date.t. The results thus far secured are enabling us to draw more accurate con- clusions with regard to these supplementary, exceedingly minute movements of the earth’s axis. The formula for the variation of latitude is ordinarily expressed by the equation od—o’=x cosrX + y sin A 4 &, where « and y are the components of the variation in the planes of zero longitude and that perpendicular to this, while the term z, called the Kimura-term from the Japanese astronomer who suggested its introduction denotes that part of the variation which is common to all the stations, corresponding to an apparent movement of the center of gravity of the earth toward one or the other pole. The results from the northern stations have revealed the interesting fact that the value of 2 is periodic, with a period’of one year, reaching its zero values about March 9 and September 12, and its maximum and minimum values on June 10 and December 10, these points coming, then, about 10 days before the solstitial points. The preliminary results from the southern stations coincide almost exactly with those from the northern stations with respect to the magnitudes of # and y, and show, in addition, that the value of the z-term is of the same magnitude and algebraic sign as that derived from the northern re- sults. This g-term is very small, oscillating only 0.’’046 on each side of the mean, which, if real, would correspond to a movement of the center of gravity of the earth of about 44 feet toward the North or the South Pole. The temptation is very strong to seek a meteoro- 1The observations at Bayswater were discontinued in January, 1909; the station at Oncativo has been taken over by the Government of the Argentine Republic. ASTRONOMICAL PROBLEMS—CURTIS. 3835 logical explanation for this small shift of the plane of the Equator. The accumulation of snow and ice at one pole, together with the cor- responding diminution at the other pole, due to the melting in the summer season, would be perhaps sufficient to explain the shift, but if this were the true and only explanation, it is difficult to see why the maxima and minima do not follow the solstitial points by a con- siderable interval of “lag,” instead of preceding them by about 10 days.t. Moreover, the quantities involved are so extremely minute, such transcendental care is necessary in arranging and making the observations, and such pains to exclude in the investigation all pos- sible sources of systematic error, that astronomers are by no means in accord as to the real existence of the z-term, Biske has shown that a variation similar to that afforded by the z-term could arise as a result of inaccuracies in the adopted value of the solar nutation, and that future progressive changes in this value could result from similar slight errors in the adopted value of the lunar nutation. Quite recently Prof. Hiroyama, of Tokio, has subjected the results of the first four years of the latitude variation results to a careful analysis, and reached the conclusion that the z-term is probably a result of errors which may be classified as instrumental. He did not include in his researches, however, the results from the southern stations. Probably no more marked case of modern specialization in the science of astronomy, no more fitting example of minute and careful analysis, nor any better illustration of the mutual interdependence of fields of investigation apparently widely separated, can be found than this same subject of the variation of latitude. Long since, Kuler, from purely mathematical considerations with regard to a rotating spheroid, showed that the axis of the earth should be sub- ject to a minute oscillation, with a period of 305 days. In 1890-91 Prof. Kiistner announced that this prediction had been confirmed by observation, but that the period was about 427 days. So minute is the movement that the poles shift from their mean position by less than 30 feet. Eight special observatories have been established, six in the Northern Hemisphere and two in the Southern, and experi- enced observers are carefully accumulating the observations for the further study of this variation, determining from observations of the stars a periodic movement of the positions of the poles of the earth only a little greater than the distance from one wall of their small observatories to the other, and even showing, with some prob- ability, that the earth’s center of gravity oscillates once a year a dis- tance of only a little over 4 feet toward one pole or the other. From these results Darwin, Hough, Larmor, and others have undertaken 1Later studies seem to indicate that the maxima and minima in the e-term are slowly shifting. 336 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. the investigation of the difference between the observed period of 427 days and that of 305 called for by theory, finding the explanation in the slight yielding of the earth, and have deduced the result that the earth as a whole must possess an effective rigidity a little greater than that of steel. In confirmation of these results, tidal students have found evidences, though very slight, of a minute tide with a period of 430 days. And in still another field these results may possibly prove of interest. No less an authority on earthquakes than Prof. Milne has expressed the opinion that earthquakes are more frequent at those epochs when the axis of the earth is farthest from its mean position, though this theory is not accepted by most seis- mologists. In the wide field of stellar photometry a very large proportion of our knowledge of the southern stars comes from the results of the Harvard photometric expeditions and particularly from its sta- tion at Arequipa, Peru. Through the visual results secured at Cér- doba, the photographic magnitudes as given by the Cape Photo- graphic Durchmusterung and the long series of exact visual estimations made with the meridian photometer at Arequipa, we may say that, except in certain special studies on the fainter stars, the state of our knowledge of the relative brilliancy of the stars of the Southern Hemisphere is not inferior to that of the Northern Hemisphere. From this station, too, has come far the largest proportion of what is known to-day with reference to the variable stars in the more southerly regions of the sky. Epoch making in this branch is the discovery by Prof. Bailey of a very large number of variable stars in clusters. The Magellanic Clouds and other clusters in the Southern Hemisphere have alone given about 2,000 new variable stars; the determination of the periods of all these and the study of the peculiarities in their variation will in itself furnish work for many years to come. Much remains to be done as well on the brighter variable stars of the Southern Hemisphere. Through the excellent work at Arequipa, also, Harvard’s exten- sive spectographic surveys have been extended to the South Pole. While it is certain that future studies with spectrographs of higher dispersion will bring forth many new facts with regard to stellar constitution, there is no doubt that Harvard’s extensive surveys of the entire sky in the photometric and spectrographic fields will for decades be to the astrophysicist what the Bonn Durchmusterung has been to the worker in the astronomy of position. As in the surveys just mentioned, the spectrograph was at first employed solely to determine the constituent elements of the sun and the stars, but the application of the Doppler-Fizeau principle to the determination of a star’s velocity in the line of sight from its, ASTRONOMICAL PROBLEMS—CURTIS. oat spectrum has opened up to astronomy a field so vast that we scarcely dare to-day even to demark its boundaries. Few are the fields of astronomical research where the work in radial velocities is not making itself felt, and to-day we are furnished with the interesting spectacle of the oldest astronomy of position and the newer astron- omy of the spectrum drawing closer and closer together for the solution of problems of sidereal structure. In order to determine the motion of our sun through space many analyses have been made of the minute proper motions of the stars across our line of vision, but all such determinations are subject to some uncertainty because of the fact that the true distances of the stars whose proper motions are used in the analyses are, in general, very imperfectly known. On the other hand, the spectrograph gives us the velocity of a star in the line of sight, a velocity which, in stars possessing good spectral lines, is accurate within a few tenths of a kilometer per second, and which is entirely independent of the distance of the star from our system. For this reason it should be possible to determine from the radial velocities of a considerable number of stars well dis- tributed over the entire sky a much more accurate value of the amount and the direction of the movement of the solar system through space. For a complete solution of this problem, at which Dr. Campbell and his associates have been working during the past 15 years, it was necessary that radial velocities be secured for the stars in the South- ern Hemisphere. This need was laid before Mr. D. O. Mills, who, in 1902, generously gave the funds necessary for the installation on Mount San Cristébal, Santiago, Chile, of a 37-inch reflecting tele- scope with the necessary spectrographic equipment, and in 1905 ad- vanced further funds to continue the southern work for five years longer. A further extension of the work for two years has been made possible through funds supphed by Mr. Ogden Mills, son of the late D. O. Mills. Up to date about 7,200 spectrograms have been taken at Mount Hamilton and 3,700 by the D. O. Mills expedition at Santiago, on nearly 1,400 stars. The northern portion of the program is nearly completed, and two years more should see the southern portions of the work essentially finished, though decades could well be used in investigating the “by-products” which have appeared in the course of the work, and other decades for the much-needed extension of these researches to fainter stars. To give one instance only, at the Santiago station alone 48 spectroscopic binaries have been announced up to May, 1909, and to work up these binary systems adequately and compute their orbits would necessitate at least three years’ work. One in every five or six of the northern stars examined has proved to be a binary, and nearly one in five of the stars observed by Prof. 97578°—smM 1910——22 338 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. Wright during the first two years and a half of the work of the D. O. Mills expedition. The discovery of so many spectroscopic binaries has greatly complicated the problem of determining the solar mo- tion; moreover, several other complexities have of late been added to the analysis of the results. Recent investigations of the proper mo- tions of the stars made by Kapteyn, Eddington, Dyson, Schwarzs- child, and others, have shown that our universe is probably complex rather than homogeneous in respect to its structure, for there seem to be at least two fairly well marked directions of motions among the stars as a whole.t’ Moreover, Monck and Kapteyn have pointed out that a considerable majority of stars possessing marked proper mo- tions belong to those spectral types which show numerous lines of va- rious elements, while the hydrogen and helium stars are relatively fixed in space. In connection with these facts a further complexity is brought in on the spectroscopic side through the unfortunate circum- stance that it is not possible to derive accurate velocities for many of the hydrogen and helium stars, because of the wide and hazy char- acter of their spectral lines. A simple solution will then perhaps be insufficient, on the assumption that all the velocities arrange them- selves according to the probability curve; it would seem that a satis- factory conclusion can only be reached by a very careful combina- tion of spectrographic results with due regard to all that the astron- omy of position can give us with reference to “star-drift,” proper motions, and variation of proper motion with type of spectrum. Work on the determination of radial velocities has recently been inaugurated at the Observatory of the Cape of Good Hope, so that these two observatories, that at the Cape, and the D. O. Mills expedi- tion, have to themselves this rich and still only partly explored field, while in the Northern Hemisphere some 10 observatories are at work on problems more or less allied to the determination of radial velocities. In figure 1 are shown the locations of the principal observatories of the world; the cut is that given by Stroobant in Les Observatoires Astronomiques et les Astronomes, Bruxelles, 1907, with the addition of a few recently established stations. The map shows, better than any description or tabulation, the overwhelming disproportion in the number of astronomical foundations in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. Sufficient has been said to point out the great richness of the skies of the Southern Hemisphere as a field for the working astronomer, and note has been made of some of the lines of work in which there are great untouched regions awaiting the explorer. Numerous other 1,000 of the brighter stars, give but little support to the two-drift hypothesis,— AUTHOR, May 9, 1911, 339 ASTRONOMICAL PROBLEMS—CURTIS. ‘PIIOM 94} JO Sal10}BAIesqo [Bdjourid oy} jo uoHNgTysIq— T ‘Dlr XI “TA TA an A ‘Ateneo 203 [sepmibun J 0 Tymvaesg TT 2p ay Tilsvbos AT a TAS ATA So XE xX ie xs ae jeans 340 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. points in which there is need for work in southern skies could easily be pointed out. Much work still remains to be done by those who are not possessed of powerful instruments in the study of the brighter variable stars and meteor radiants. Excellent photographs have been made with the Bruce refractor at Arequipa, but the field of southern nebular photography with reflecting telescopes is almost untouched as yet, and there is no more urgent need for the astronomy of the Southern Hemisphere than the establishment of a large re- flector to continue for the southern skies the work done by Roberts, Keeler, Perrine, and others on the northern nebule and clusters, for the study of faint variable stars, for parallax investigations, and many other allied lines of research. A program of nebular photog- raphy has been inaugurated with the new reflector at Helwan, Egypt; its southern limit, however, will extend only to —40°. The day must come, also, when there shall be established at some favorable point in the Southern Hemisphere a large solar observatory to carry on solar studies and investigations of the sun’s constant of heat in the southern summer season, thus supplementing the work of the northern solar observatories. Above all, so few are the workers in this southern field compared with the men and the instruments attacking the problems of the northern skies, that some scheme of cooperation among southern observatories seems imperative, each one to devote its attention to some one line of work or some definite zone. Prof. Cooke, of Perth, has recently pointed out the disadvantages arising from scattered and unsystematic observations in meridian circle work, and has announced that for the future all the efforts of Perth Observatory in determining stellar positions will be concentrated upon the zone from south declination 31° to 41°. Some such plan of cooperation and delimitation seems essential for the future progress of as- tronomy, and more particularly for the astronomy of the Southern Hemisphere; as Prof. Kapteyn has pointed out, the scope of this science to-day, with its millions of isolated units demanding study, is too vast for the combined efforts of all the observatories of the world, and he has accordingly suggested the well-known plan of limiting future studies to certain relatively small “selected areas,” a plan which promises to be the best method of extending our finite knowledge in a realm that is practically infinite. THE PROGRESSIVE DISCLOSURE OF THE ENTIRE ATMOSPHERE OF THE SUN. [With 4 plates.] By Dr. H. DESLANDRES, Membre de UInstitut. The sun, to which this conference is devoted, is a superb subject for study. Everyone realizes more or less clearly that the destinies of our earth are closely bound with those of the sun, and so we ought to know its real nature, its total radiation, its variations—in a word, its precise and complete action upon our globe. Face to face with the sun, our dependence upon it is absolute, and was recently sum- marized tersely by one of our French statesmen, now minister of finance, from whom I had asked a special appropriation for solar researches at the Observatory of Meudon, where I am director. At . first he refused, alleging the continuous increase in the public dis- bursements. Then, as I insisted, he said, “ Yes; you are right; the sun is master of us all; we must do something.” And so the Ob- servatory at Meudon was enabled to add to its ordinary means an amount, truly very small, but which came opportunely and aided ereatly in the prosecution of researches the results of which I now present to you. The study of the sun to-day requires a costly installation, compli- cated apparatus, and a personnel specially apt in physical as well as in astronomical observations. Since the sun lights the entire globe and ripens all our crops, it seems but natural that every man should direct his energies to the study of the sun. And with this in mind I proposed, some years since, to the Astronomical Society of France, that there be enacted a special and universal tax, only one cent per capita, for the study of the sun. This would have assured a continu- ous record of the sun and its changes not yet realized and, accord- ingly, a more profound knowledge of this star. But as our taxes are 1 Discourse delivered in French at the Royal Institution of Great Britain on Friday, June 10, 1910. Translated by permission from the author’s separate, printed by Royal Institution of Great Britain, London. Published also in Nature, London, Vol. 85, Jan. 26 and Feb. 2, 1911. 341 342 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. constantly increasing, this one, though very small and just, will prob- ably be set aside. Still, it must be said, civilized man of to-day, and he of the city especially, thinks little about the sun; he notices it less than primitive man and the savage who had neither watch nor alma- nac. The carrying out of my idea must be reserved for future citi- zens and for a social state more perfect than our own. This recourse to the Government or to associations of men is a French custom. It would be better to proceed as the English do, and appeal to private support, to the initiative of enlightened, gen- erous individuals. In this way the Royal Institution was founded which has seen mature so many beautiful discoveries and so many illustrious scientists. This good example should be followed by all. We know how liberally it has been followed in America, where the greatest observatories and especially those devoted to the study of the sun have been due to private munificence. Indeed, during the last 50 years, thanks to great discoveries, thanks to the support of our Governments and private patrons, the study of the sun has made remarkable progress. Little by little, astronomers have developed for it a zealous and permanent organization, and have extended their study to the entire and hitherto inaccessible atmosphere of this star. The principal discovery was the periodic variations of the sun spots, variations which are also undergone by the brilliant facule of the surface and, indeed, by all of its far-extending atmosphere. The sun in its entirety undergoes a great periodic variation; and what is yet more interesting, this variation extends to the earth and affects its magnetic elements. This connection of solar phenomena with the earth is of capital importance. It implies almost necessarily a novel, special action exercised by the sun upon our globe; whence comes the practical pop- ularity which solar research now enjoys. Following the discovery by Sabine and Lamont of the coincidence between the earth’s mag- netic variation and the variation of the sun, the English have given very great attention to the study of sun spots; and they were the first to establish the photographic registration of the spots and the magnetic elements at various places on the earth. The collection of all these records in one observatory, where they were accurately compared, followed. The works of Ellis and Maunder relative to these discoveries are well known. In this connection it is fitting to mention the researches of Lockyer and Schuster, who have recently noted variations of the spots in periods greater and smaller than the principal cycle of 11 years. The action produced upon the earth by the sun is generally at- tributed to the sun spots, but it may as well have its cause in the solar atmosphere, which undergoes the same variation; whence comes ATMOSPHERE OF THE SUN—DESLANDRES. 848 the necessity of studying and examining this with care. For nearly 20 years I have studied the entire atmosphere of the sun, and to-day I place before you the most recent results which have been brought to light relative to the upper layers of the solar envelope until recently unexplored. 1. THE ATMOSPHERE SEEN DURING ECLIPSES NEAR THE EXTERIOR EDGE OF THE SUN. The atmosphere of the sun is first revealed to man about the edge of the disk during total eclipses. It then forms a luminous ring that stands out from the now dark background of the sky surround- ing the lunar disk, equally black. Stretching out beyond the moon and the solar edge, it consists of two distinct portions: One, the narrow, brilliant, rose-colored chromosphere, with its prominences, also rose colored; the other, the fainter and more extensive corona. In what immediately follows we shall consider especially the chromo- sphere and the prominences. This luminous ring, visible at eclipses, is ordinarily hidden by the much more brilliant illumination of our sky. The screen which masks it is luminous; in order to annul this screen the English astronomer, Sir Norman Lockyer, in 1866, was among the first to have recourse to the spectrum, supposing what seemed probable, that the solar atmosphere is gaseous. This was one of those strokes of genius that have since become so fruitful. The eclipse of 1868 showed, indeed, that the rose-colored promi- nences are composed almost wholly of incandescent hydrogen which, under the influence of the electric spark, emits radiations already well known in the laboratory, and especially an intense red ray, designated as Ha. After the eclipse, Janssen in the Indies and Lockyer in England rediscovered the chromosphere and prominences of the eclipse with the assistance of the spectroscope and this bright red line. This result was justly received with enthusiasm, for this method, at once simple and fertile, has now been employed for 40 years in daily observations of the chromosphere and the positions and forms of the prominences. This study is even more captivat- ing than that of the spots, for the prominences have the most varied and rapidly changing forms. They appear at all latitudes and follow the same 11-year period as the spots, although it is true the duration of the maximum is longer. The spectroscopic study of the solar border, carried on at ordi- nary times or, still better, at eclipses, has brought us knowledge not cnly of the chemical composition of the chromosphere, but also the minimum height to which each vapor extends as estimated by the length of the corresponding line in the spectrum. Speaking generally, vapors of low atomic weight rise to the greatest heights; such is the case with hydrogen and helium. With 344 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. these gases the spectrum line which indicates the greatest height. is the red one, Ha, of hydrogen; the other lines of hydrogen show lesser heights and diminish in brightness from the red to the violet end of the spectrum. But reaching to the greatest heights of all are the gasses corresponding to the very brilliant violet lines, H and K, which are emitted by the compounds of calcium. As the atomic weight and density of calcium vapor are relatively great, this seems strange; it is easily explained, however, following the suggestion of Lockyer, by the dissociation of calcium in the sun and in the electric spark in our laboratory. The H and K lines, in all respects excep- tional, are very bright at the solar edge, assuring the easy photo- graphing of the prominences with ordinary photographic plates. On the other hand, the heavy vapors which are much more numer- ous extend up but a short distance into the atmosphere and are not easily seen except at eclipses. They form the lower, relatively very brilliant layer of the chromosphere, called the reversing layer. Yi Kei fit fy YUU Uy Uy MU Fic. 1.—Curve of the intensities in the solar spectrum in the neighborhood of the broad dark K line. The cross-hatched sections show the positions of the slits of the different spectroheliographs. 2. THE CHROMOSPHERE PROJECTED ON THE DISK—-THE AVERAGE LAYER. Such are the principal results obtained by the method of Lockyer and Janssen. They are truly wonderful, but in certain respects in- complete. They tell us only of that part of the chromosphere ex- terior to the edge of the solar disk and even there only about the lighter vapors at some distance from the limb. The part within the edge, projected upon the disk, and fifty times more extended in area, eluded our vision. But, since from 1892 to 1894, even this gap in our knowledge has been covered by an absolutely general method which reveals all the vapors, both heavy and light, and their suc- cessive layers in the entire hemisphere turned toward the earth. At the border of the sun the lines due to these vapors stand out ‘bright upon the continuous spectrum of the sky; on the disk they appear dark, and the continuous spectrum which then serves as their background is that of the sun itself which is much more brilliant, so that the difficulty of seeing these lines is far greater. ATMOSPHERE OF THE SUN—DESLANDRES. 345 That the H and K lines of calcium are an exception to this rule was announced simultaneously in February, 1892, by Hale and Des- landres. These dark lines are very broad, indeed the broadest in the solar spectrum; but wherever on the solar surface there is a facula, they are reversed ; in other words, there appears a bright line through the center of the broad dark line, and this bright line is itself double and stands out therefore as the lines of the prominences do outside of the hmb. (See fig. 1, which shows the K line and its components Ky, Ky, K,, Kp, Kz.) This result was obtained by Hale with the spectroheliograph, a new, somewhat complex contrivance that isolates a certain radiation with a second slit and by the movement of the first slit over the sun’s image furnishes a monochromatic image of the sun. I, myself, have ae ¥ Ky ciiiamiet thy ie ac du Bord du Bord —— eee we oe oe -——_——_——-— Fie. 2.—-(Schematic) ss, section of the sun made by the slit of the spectroscope; the chromosphere and the spot are very much enlarged; bright Ks, line, attributed to the calcium vapor and which appears in the middle of the broad dark K line of the ordinary spectrum ; it is single and narrow above spots and at the upper level of the chromosphere and double at other places, being then divided into two parts by the dark central Kz line. employed an ordinary simple spectroscope giving successive sections, though fully recognizing the use of the spectroheliograph. Meanwhile these two observers were at variance upon an impor- tant point. Hale placed these vapors thus revealed in the facula itself, below the surface, while I placed them, on the contrary, above in the atmosphere. The ordinary spectroscope furnishes all the data necessary for the solution of this question. Accordingly, in this re- spect it is superior to the spectroheliograph. The double K, line is bright not only over the facule but at all other points over the disk where it is present—weaker, it is true, and more difficult to detect. The bright, double K, line is always sharp just within the limb, and is prolonged beyond the edge of the disk as a double, bright line. (See fig. 2, which shows plainly the 346 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. appearance of the double K, line at the border of the sun as well as over a spot.) Since the K, line, exterior to the limb of the sun, corresponds to just what we have actually defined as the chromosphere, then we must conclude: The photograph of the sun taken with the K, line with the spectroheliograph represents the whole solar chromosphere projected on the disk. Besides these images of calcium made in Paris in 1894, which were the first exact images of this vapor, show the bright regions of facule larger than on the ordinary photograph of the surface, as well as smaller bright regions now called flocculi. These flocculi are pres- ent at the pole as well as at the equator. I have confirmed their presence at the pole during the years of a sunspot minimum as well as during the whole 11-year period. The bright K, line remains double beyond the edge for some 4” or 5’’ of arc, and as the chromosphere at the edge has a height of 10’, we may say that our photograph represents the mean chro- mosphere. Finally, while the first spectroheliographs were obtained in America, in France was discovered for the first time the whole chro- mosphere of the sun. 3. LOWER CHROMOSPHERE. But we may proceed still further. In 1893, I stated that this isolation with the spectroheliograph of an ordinary dark line pro- duced an image of the corresponding vapor; and in 1894, I isolated, with a small spectroheliograph of low dispersion constructed at Paris, the fading edges of the K line called K,, and K,y and the neighboring strongest dark lines due to aluminum, to iron and to carbon. The spectroheliogram obtained differed from those taken with the K, line. The spots, at times hidden in the K, image, have here their umbre and penumbre perfectly sharp and the regions of facule both at the edge and at the center though less extensive than in the K, image. Indeed, this new image is intermediate be- tween that of the surface and that of the mean chromospheric layer as shown by the K, photograph. It gives a picture of the entire reversing layer now obtained for the first time. I showed, also, that a still greater dispersion would allow the iso- lation of the much more numerous finer lines, and especially the narrow black central K, between the two components of K,. The K, line corresponds to the upper layer of the chromosphere. This method becomes thus absolutely general; it will furnish views of all the solar vapors indicating as well the successive superposed strata whenever the spectrum lines can be divided into distinct parts as in the case of the broad K line. ATMOSPHERE OF THE SUN—DESLANDRES. 347 Now, the number of solar lines amounts to some 20,000; and ac- cording to Jewell, all the solar lines show more or less the special characteristics of the typical line of calcium. The new field open to investigation is evidently very broad. 4, RECENT RESEARCHES—A GREAT SPECTROHELIOGRAPH OF NEW TYPE. The program of researches laid out in 1894 was accordingly very extensive. It was carried out in part during the following years, and the actual progress was marked, if not very rapid. In 1903 Hale and Ellermann took up the study in the black lines with a spectroheliograph of greater dispersion, and after 1906 con- tinued the work at Mount Wilson with yet more powerful instru- ments. They have obtained beautiful pictures and a whole series of new facts. With the lines of the reversing layer the results are practically the same as those obtained in 1894. But the hydrogen lines, and recently the Ha line especially, have shown new and very curious phenomena, which we will describe in detail shortly. However, the dispersion employed has been only moderate; though they have isolated a much greater number of lines than in 1894, the finer lines have not been used; and indeed in each case they have used the entire lines, making no distinction of the separate portions and therefore of the separate layers of the vapors. Their images have resulted from the mixture of the several distinct ones due to the several layers. I assumed the task of filling this gap and thus completing the program of 1894, isolating the upper strata hitherto unrevealed. Becoming director of the Observatory of Meudon in 1907, I was able to apply to this task the resources of the observatory, and here the special grant already mentioned proved very opportune. In short, it became possible to construct a great spectroheliograph having a dispersion as great as that of Rowland’s large spectrograph and a special building for its protection. This building consisted of a large chamber, 22 meters by 6 meters; its roof was of stone and earth, assuring the constancy of the tem- perature within. It received the hght from the sun by way of a coelostat placed south of the building, and constructed from some old transit-of-Venus apparatus and an old objective of 0.25 meter aperture and 4 meters focus. These pieces, though mediocre, were used for the sake of economy. The spectroheliograph, on the other hand, was of a novel type and presents several interesting features. It is somewhat complicated, at least in design, for it really consists of four different spectroheliographs grouped about the same colli- mator. The first is of three prisms, two slits and a camera 3 meters long, giving an image of the sun 85 millimeters in diameter; the 348 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. second uses a grating, two slits and a camera of the same length as the first; the third has an arrangement differing from the two preceding; finally, the fourth, the most powerful, has three slits and prisms and grating. It consists first of a spectrograph having a camera of 7 meters, and, as in the classical apparatus of Rowland, allows the isolation of very fine lines. But its ordinary solar image would require too long an exposure. It is therefore received by a second spectrograph which reduces it to the desired size and eliminates the diffused interior light. The final image of the sun is of any di- ameter desired; and by means of a special contrivance it shows the entire solar disk, a condition not fulfilled in other spectrohelio- graphs of great dispersion. The customary diameters of the sun’s images are 6 and 4 centimeters. This apparatus, with the two spectrographs, has a total length of 14 meters, and under these conditions rests stationary. It is, indeed, the first spectroheliograph in which all the parts except the photo- graphic plate remain at rest. The movable parts, the plate and the astronomical objective, are put in motion at the desired rate by synchronous electric motors and transformers for special speeds. The agreement of the movements is assured by electrical means, which do not depend upon distance, and this arrangement is pre- sented as a general solution of the spectroheliographic problem. Each of the four spectroheliographs has its special advantages, and _ the passage from one to another may be made in a few moments. The observer has thus at his disposal varied means for his investi- gations. In a general manner the spectroheliograph of two slits and a length of 3 meters has a large image, rich in detail. The three- slit spectroheliograph of 14 meters gives, with a longer exposure, a smaller image, but one much more pure (that is, more monochro- matic) ; it allows the isolation of the finest lines. The researches with this apparatus have been made by a young astronomer of this observatory, M. d’Azambuja, whose name is associated with mine. 5. THE DISCLOSURE OF THE UPPER K, LAYER OF CALCIUM. In 1908 we were able to isolate the narrow dark central line, K,, of calcium, and therefore the upper stratum of that vapor. Figure 1, which shows the K line and its components, will indicate the progress accomplished. Until now the spectroheliograph used had isolated the ensemble of the two bright lines (K,), which include K,; the slit width was then ninety one-hundredths Angstrém. The resulting image, called by us the K,, image, was a composite of the layers K, and K,, the much brighter K, layer predominating. Now with the great spectroheliograph we are able to isolate easily with slits of ATMOSPHERE OF THE SUN—DESLANDRES. 349 three one-hundredths Angstrém or greater either the K, line or one of the components of K,, thus obtaining very pure images of each corresponding stratum free from all extraneous light. The corre- sponding slit widths are crosshatched in section in figure 1. The vapor of calcium, which beyond the limb rises higher than all the other vapors, thus shows us three distinct strata, and if to these we add the ordinary surface of the sun we have four layers which are interesting to compare. . August * 1908. September 18, 1908. Fic. 3.—Network of alignments noted in the upper layer of the solar atmosphere. The full dark traces correspond to the continuous and very sharp dark lines called filaments ; the discontinuous traces to the similar lines though less sharp and the dotted lines to those still less visible and often broken. The hatched places are the larger regions of bright facule. As we rise above the surface of the sun the facule, or bright regions, grow progressively in extent and relative brightness. The average-sized flocculi increase, although the small ones disappear or become scarcely visible. There results a certain aspect of the K, layer which at once distinguishes it from the K, layer photo- graphed in 1892. (See the two spectroheliograms in K, and K, of the 18th of September, 1908.) I would also add that the peculiar network (reseau) of flocculi, called by me in 1894 the chromospheric 3850 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. reseau, and often “formed over a considerable area, composed of polygons touching each other at their sides and corners, is in general more distinct in the upper layer. On the other hand, the black spots which are the principal char- acteristic of the surface diminish progressively as we go above the surface and often disappear. Yet, further, there appear dark lines not seen in the densi layers, lines ne very long and called by me filaments. Generally the fila- ments have extensions from each side reaching to the limb neither so dark nor so sharp, which I call “alignments.” The ensemble of filaments and alignments form a definite network over the solar disk. They are a new phenomenon characteristic of the upper layer. Here the filaments have the same importance as the spot at the surface. They persist, like them, during several rotations, and like them also are the seats of special disturbances which are accompanied by prominences. 6. THE DISCLOSURE OF THE UPPER Hg LAYER OF HYDROGEN. © In my first studies I likened the spots to depressions (“lows”) or cyclones in our atmosphere and the filaments to anticyclones. I will come back later to this comparison, which I will develop. During the following year we (d’Azambuja and I) used this same apparatus in the study of the hydrogen lines, and especially the the red Ha. Hale and Ellermann had already isolated these lines with the spectroheliograph, obtaining very curious results. In 1893 they noted that in the Hf, Hy, and H8 spectroheliograms the facule were no longer bright with reference to the background, as in the calcium images, but, on the contrary, are often dark. With Hy, iso- lated in 1908, they found all about the spots a series of fine demarca- tions, giving the impression of whirls, and which Hale has described here at a special meeting. Indeed, these Ha images are beautiful and abounding in fine details. However, these American Ha images were obtained by the isola- tion and use of the whole dark line. I stated in 1908 that they must be composed of the mixture of the two or three images belonging to different strata. For, according to Rowland, the Ha line is doubly reversed like the K line, due to calcium although more feebly. Its width, including the shading edges, is 1.24 Angstréms; without them, 0.90. We would, therefore, expect somewhat different results as different portions of the line are isolated. This we have already clearly shown to be true, and indeed, con- trary to all our expectations, the differences existing between the various hydrogen images are greater than for calcium. The exact results are as follows: When the shaded portion close to the edge of the line is used, corresponding to K, of calcium, at a distance from the center of the Smithsonian Report, 1910.—Deslandres. PLATE 1. C= D > Gis! Care ere . = Upper Kz; layer of calcium. awa aS eal Se Mean Kg layer of calcium. SPECTROHELIOGRAMS OF SEPTEMBER 18, 1908. (Negatives. ) Smithsonian Report, 1910.—Deslandres. PLATE 2. ene is Upper layer of hydrogen. [ PN Mean layer of hydrogen. SPECTROHELIOGRAMS OF SEPTEMBER 11, 1909. (Negatives.) PLATE 3. Deslandres. Smithsonian Report, 1910. Upper layer of calcium. 21.3.1, Upper layer of hydrogen mixed with a portion of the mean layer. SPECTROHELIOGRAMS OF MARCH 21, 1910. (Negatives. ) i Smithsonian Report, 1910.—Deslandres. a 41, 4.10, Nee EEE ay Upper layer of hydrogen mixed with a portion of the mean layer. SPECTROHELIOGRAMS OF APRIL 11, 1910. (Negatives. ) PLATE 4. ~ GS ie a ATMOSPHERE OF THE SUN—DESLANDRES. 851 line amounting to between forty-seven one-hundredths and sixty- two one-hundredths of an Angstrém, we get the result of 1893; that is to say, the regions of facule appear black relative to the back- ground. When the middle of each side is used at a distance of from ten one-hundredths to forty-two one-hundredths of an Angstrém from the center, the result is entirely different. It shows the principal characteristics of the spectro-heliograms taken in America in 1908 and particularly the groups of small lines which Hale has called “solar vortices.” Finally, with the center of the line we get a third, yet different, aspect from the other two, much paler and simpler and correspond- ing to the upper layer of hydrogen. Now, and this point is important, the new image shows the dark filaments of the K, layer of calcium. As to the regions of facule, they are bright, never dark; they cover a smaller region than with the K, stratum and correspond to the maxima of brightness of the similar regions in the K, stratum, maxima which differ from those of the K, and K, strata. The darkest and the brightest parts are the same. (See the annexed pictures taken with K, and with Ha the 11th of September, 1909, and the 21st of March and the 11th of April, 1910.) And yet further, we have isolated the various parts of the blue Hf line of hydrogen, showing a lower elevation in the solar atmosphere than the Ha line, and so obtained images which show almost exclu- sively the dark regions of facule such as we found in the shaded portion of the red Ha line and which therefore correspond to a low level. Finally, we are led to conclude that hydrogen gives, like calcium, at least three distinct superposed strata which are now for the first time clearly distinguished. Now, in what just precedes I have treated the different portions of the same line and the different corresponding images by the ordinary laws of emission and absorption by gases, admitting nat- urally that the density of the gas and the width of the corresponding line diminish as we go upward in the solar atmosphere. Now, the theory of anomalous dispersion has been brought forward as coming into play here, and, at least in part, explaining the peculiarities of these images. But it seems to me that anomalous dispersion, while, of course, to some extent it must come into play, does so only to a minor extent and may be neglected in this preliminary study. The real reasons for making such an assertion would take too long to develop here. However, anomalous dispersion has been found in the laboratory with the lines H and K of calcium, and recently with the 352 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. Ha linet. But as the center of the line does not suffer anomalous dispersion, this theory can not apply to the images of the upper strata with which we are now interested. The black filaments which are found similarly in both calcium and hydrogen are in fact a very characteristic element of the upper stratum. Hale had already a glimpse of them in the earlier, really composite spectro-heliograms taken with K and Ha light, and noted them under the name of long dark flocculi and suggested that they very probably belonged to the high strata. Indeed, under such conditions one may often obtain the most important filaments which appear as very broad, dark lines. But for a complete knowledge of the filaments and their properties we must have recourse to the images solely of the upper stratum. Another important element of the upper strata is the bright re- gions of facule which are found at the same positions as on the sur- face though of different form. To sum up, if we examine the four layers formed by the surface and the atmosphere of the sun, the brightest portions are above the facule. But the darkest regions are placed very differently at the surface and in the upper strata. Below they occur in the spots; above, in the filaments which occupy a total black surface greater than that of the spots. The area covered by these filaments should be measured as exactly as that occupied by the spots. 7. RESEARCHES ON THE MEVEMENTS OF THE ATMOSPHERE—AN INSTRU- MENT FOR REGISTERING SPECTRUM VELOCITIES. The black filaments especially attract attention, and indeed justly, for, as we have just said, they have an importance at least equal to that of the spots. What, then, is their origin and what the nature of these long dark lines? An accurate answer is very difficult; it is significant to recall our uncertainty as to the spots which have been studied 300 years. However, with the filaments the inquiry may be more easy. The surface which carries the spot les between the inte- rior of the sun, which escapes our vision, and the lower complex strata of the atmosphere; on the other hand, the upper layer, with which the filaments are connected, is more free, more disengaged, and may have a structure and movements more simple. Indeed, at Meudon, several results regarding the filaments have been obtained worthy of note by virtue of a special device developed and used as yet only at Meudon and which is an instrument for registering or indicating spectrum velocities (spectro-enregistreurs des vitesses). This apparatus, used since 1892, was greatly improved in 1907. It reveals, as its name indicates, the radial movements of 1Some months after the Royal Institution lecture we found at Meudon that the anomalous dispersion was acting on the edges of the Kg line; so that the displacement toward the red is increased and the displacement toward the violet diminished. But the image of the center of the line with the spectroheliograph is always unchanged. ATMOSPHERE OF THE SUN—DESLANDRES. 8538 the solar vapors by placing side by side small spectra of successive equidistant sections of the solar disk by means of a second large slit and discontinuous, automatic movements. It is a complement to the spectro-heliograph and fully as useful. It tells us besides the radial velocities, the general form of the vapors, and the details of the-whole line, particularly the width of the isolated line which is very variable from one part of our star to another. It gives us information at points where the spectro-heliograph fails, for the latter can not with a slit of constant width isolate accurately a line of variable width; in short, it records all the elements which escape the spectro-helio- graph and assures an accurate interpretation of the results. A naked-eye examination of the plates taken with the K line shows at once that the radial movements are in general more noticeable on the filaments than at the adjacent points. Sometimes even all the K, lines due to the filament are inclined in the same direction and show a whirl about a horizontal axis as distinguished from that which exists in the sun spots about a vertical axis. But to this movement there succeeds, as with the spots, a relative calm. If then we were to measure with care these displacements and the radial velocities in the K, line when the vapor is at the center of the disk we would find that the vapor is rising with a velocity often greater than the ve- locity of rotation of the sun at the equator (some 2 kilometers per second). This has been verified for several filaments. Aside from the spots and the filaments, the vertical velocities in the upper strata are not insignificant and often of the same order as the equatorial speed of rotation. The magnitude of this vertical motion is less astonishing when we note that the gaseous mass of which the atmos- phere is composed lies above an intense furnace of heat. Analogous measures have been made carefully at the center of the sun on. facule and flocculi with the reverse result. The vapor here has a contrary direction of motion and descends while in the relatively dark portions around there are ascending currents. Gen- erally at the bright places of the K, images of the upper layer the vapor descends; it ascends where the image is relatively dark. That is really logical, for the vapor which goes down becomes compressed and therefore becomes warmer, while that which rises expands and becomes cooler. This phenomenon, which has already been noted on a great num- ber of plates, is important, for it shows the special structure of the atmospheric strata, indicating that they are divided into convection currents exactly. as in the case with liquids heated uniformly at their lower surfaces in our laboratories. The bright facule often cover a remarkable extent of the image and often with sharply formed juxtaposed polygons exactly similar 97578°—sm 1910——23 304 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. to the polygons formed by the vortex cells in liquids so well studied in France by Bernard. Since the vapor descends over the flocculi and rises at the inter- stices, each one of these solar polygons is thus probably a vortex cell. Other flocculi in the same image show polygons less sharp and less complete and sometimes, although more rarely, of wholly irregular forms. May 20, 1909. June 15, 1909. PN. | P.N | ps | es November 27, 1909. April 11, 1910. PN i | lps | Fic. 4.—Drawings of the upper layer of the solar atmosphere showing the characteristic black filaments and especially the polar filaments. These images, obtained with the aid of d’Azambuja, have been made from the monochromatic pictures of the sun taken with the central portion of the Hq line of hydrogen and the K line of calcium. They show only the dark filaments without the alignments. The bright regions above the facule have not been represented. Moreover, the filaments and lines are probably the limits of vortex cells yet greater, superposed upon the preceding in the upper stratum, and of which the spots are the centers. This is in accord with the 1This arrangement in juxtaposed polygons is at times very distinct over nearly the whole sun. The Kg plate of Sept. 18, 1908, shows in the Southern Hemisphere, near the center, several of these polygons joined by their sides and corners; but a larger and sharper image is necessary to show them well. ATMOSPHERE OF THE SUN—DESLANDRES. 355 movements in the stratum next to the spots noted by the English astronomer Evershed. We may easily explain why the spots are pointlike and the filaments linear, sometimes very long. Our prob- lem therefore through these researches has already received some light; it will, it seems probable, be completely elucidated when we have continuous measures of the radial velocities over the whole disk of the sun, unfortunately necessary for a very long period of time. 8. THE DISCOVERY OF THE POLAR FILAMENTS. I will close with a new phenomenon of the filaments recently rec- ognized at Meudon and already published. The observatory has so far obtained pictures of the upper stratum for more than 20 en- tire revolutions of the sun, and from them it is possible to study the ‘distribution of the filaments. They appear in all latitudes but at the poles they are generally grouped on a curve, more or less circular, surrounding the pole, although often not along a parallel of lati- tude. This polar curve of filaments is at times clearly seen at both of the poles, but in general it is distinctly visible only at one and tends to move from one pole to the other. It was particularly dis- tinct and strong during last April at the South Pole. (See the two pictures of Apr. 11 and fig. 1, which show the filaments of four dif- ferent days.) These polar filaments are accompanied by prominences and accord with the secondary maxima of prominences at the poles which have already been noted. They may thus be related to the special form of the corona which appears during the minimum of the sun-spot cycle and with the often-noted inclination of the coronal axis to the ordinary solar axis of rotation. At times the polar curve is accompanied on the side toward the equator by a line of parallel filaments which are reunited to the curve by filaments or lines more or less inclined; and so we find a disposition analogous to that of the bands on the planet Jupiter. Finally, the polar zone of filaments, where, as we have just seen, the vapor is ascending, may be compared to the zone of spots and faculz near the equator, where, contrarywise, the vapor is descending. We are led to suppose a great meridian circulation in the upper stratum, a vast general convection current analogous to that which exists in each hemisphere of the earth between the latitudes 35° and the poles. Time fails, unfortunately, for developing all the consequences of these first observations, but the facts given suffice to show the great interest connected with the study of the upper strata of the solar atmosphere and the necessity of continuing it. 856 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. The atmosphere of the sun alone we may observe in its entirety and in its successive layers. Our self-registering apparatus gives in a few moments its general aspect'and principal movements. From this point of view it is better known than our own atmosphere, which we may observe only in its lower portions and over a restricted re- gion even with the aid of the telegraph. The network of convection currents and the curious filaments discovered in the upper stratum may be found also upon the earth, and so the study of the sun may bring us to a better knowledge of our own atmosphere. RECENT PROGRESS IN ASTROPHYSICS IN THE UNITED STATES. [With 8 plates. ] By J. Bosier, Astronomer at the Observatory of Meudon, France. Americans during recent years have made great advances in astron- omy. This science, with its broad horizons and its continued desire for improvements and capital, comports well with the temperament of a people so well endowed for vast undertakings and for all in any way connected with mechanics. To get money for their researches seems second nature, almost a pleasure, to American scientists; as natural to them is the construction and employment of new instru- ments. We were not astonished, therefore, some months since, on the occasion of the International Conference at Mount Wilson, Cal., in finding for ourselves that they had accomplished great things in’ this class of undertakings, as well as in many others. It is but just to add that the means placed at the disposal of the astronomers by their many and generous friends were truly proportional to the uses made of these means. What follows will at every step illustrate the beneficent influence of private American initiative. HARVARD COLLEGE OBSERVATORY—THE SYSTEMATIC STUDY OF THE STARS. One of the oldest of the scientific establishments in the United States is the celebrated observatory of Harvard College, situated near Cambridge (Mass.), which, during the last quarter of a century, Prof. E. C. Pickering, assisted by his brother, has greatly helped to make illustrious. It is supported not by the State, but by Harvard Univer- sity, an autonomous institution analogous to the English universities. Situated in the center of New England, near Boston, this observatory is assuredly the least American of all those of the United States; you will not find here those colossal instruments which are the pride of the astronomer of the West; here the methods are akin to our own, and the qualities are the more especially European ones of order and patience, from which so many beautiful results have followed. 1 Translated, by permisssion, from Revue Générale des Sciences, Paris, 22d year, No. 3, Feb. 15, 1911. 357 358 ANNUAL*REPORT- SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. The principal line of researches followed at the Harvard Observa- tory is the spectroscopic and photometric study of the stars. The observers therefore constantly watch the entire system of stars down to the sixth magnitude, and as much fainter as possible, so that none of them may escape surveillance. In order to study the stars about the southern. celestial pole, which for good reasons have been so neg- lected by most astronomers, the Pickering brothers established, in 1891, an auxiliary station at Arequipa, Peru, at an altitude of about 2,700 meters, and consequently under the best atmospheric conditions for observations. Pickering, with praiseworthy self-denial, sent there one of his most beautiful instruments, the Bruce 24-inch tele- scope, which he thought would render more service there than at Harvard. We will not dwell on the photometric and spectroscopic catalogues published at Cambridge, nor yet upon the astounding dis- coveries of spectroscopic double stars, nor the various kinds of stellar hydrogen, and so on, which have been made here in the past. We will limit ourselves to the methods actually in use at this establish- ment and which, as we have stated, are in themselves of great interest. Prof. E. C. Pickering personally carries on the stellar photometry and has allowed no detail to escape detection which would lead to precision. The photometer is stationary and placed in a well-shaded place; a siderostat, worked from the interior by an assistant, sends the rays of the star under measurement into the horizontally placed photometer. The astronomer is thus comfortably situated, as at the equatorial-coudé at Paris, with his head enveloped in a mantle of black material; he remains here continuously during the whole even- ing; the settings, the records, even the readings of the divided scale, are made by his assistant. Mr. Pickering uses his sight strictly for the purely photometric work, assuring himself of his maximum effi- ciency in the photometric comparisons and avoiding thus a number of more or less systematic errors. The spectroscopic classification of all the stars of the sky is done principally with the aid of the objective prism of the 11-inch tele- scope. The equatorial upon which this prism is mounted is in no way unusual except for the electric control, which assures the accurate regulation of the driving mechanism which is kept in perfect syn- chronism with a controlling pendulum. As this 11-inch apparatus would not have been sufficient, two new ones, both of 24 inches, were constructed at the same time, thus reducing the net cost of each. Nothing more need be said in praise of the objective prism; it is well known how with it, at one exposure, may be photographed the spectra of all the stars visible in a given field. There is much less loss of light than in the use of a slit spectroscope, so that a shorter exposure is necessary. Unfortunately, accurate determinations of wave-lengths can not be made with that system and, despite the most ingenious con- “VINYOSITVD ‘NOLIINVH LNNO| NO AYOLVAYSSEO AOI] JO M3IA IWYSN3S5H "| aLlvid ‘18/S0G—"O16]| ‘Hodey ueluosyyiws Smithsonian Report, 1910.—Bosler. PLATE 2. THE CROSSLEY REFLECTOR OF THE LICK OBSERVATORY. ASTROPHYSICS IN THE UNITED STATES—BOSLER. 359 trivances, because of the lack of a convenient standard for the indica- tion of the wave-lengths, it is difficult to use it for the determinations of radial velocities. It is thought that the use of absorbing screens may do away with this objection last mentioned, now that the sub- stances have been found giving, at ordinary temperatures, fine ab- sorption lines (and not more or less hazy bands). The plates we saw were striking in this respect. This method necessitates, however, a longer exposure. Great progress has been made lately in the researches on variable stars. Independent of the direct photometric observations which give comparatively few results, several methods have been devised for the discovery of new variables. By means of one of the great portrait objectives of 16-inch (40 centimeters) aperture, which Pick- ering has had constructed, eight or ten exposures are made in a series on the same plate at intervals of a half hour; those stars are then easily noted, if such exist, which have varied during the four or five hours’ exposure. Variables of short period of the Algol type are thus discovered. Another more general procedure in use at Harvard is to take at two different dates two negatives of the same region of the sky; a positive is printed by contact from one of them, let us suppose the second, and superposed upon the original first negative. The stars which have not varied are represented—one of the plates being a little more dense than the other—by black dots surrounded by whitish aureoles (or inversely). The images of stars whose light has varied present a different aspect: if their brightness has increased, they appear surrounded by an aureole relatively brighter than that of their neighbors; if the contrary is the case, the aureole is less marked or perhaps wholly absent. By repeating this several times for each region all the variables existing in these regions may be told almost at a glance, even among the immense numbers of stars not undergoing fluctuations. The value of this method is unlimited and it is admirably adapted to clusters of stars like a Centauri in which 128 variables were discovered at Arequipa. At Harvard this ingenious method has led to the discovery of 2,000 to 3,000 variables, several times as many as have been made known by all the other methods combined. The objective prism aids also in this class of discovery. We know, for instance, that the variables of long period, of the type of Mira Ceti, for example, contain bright lines in their spectra; on the other hand, these bright-line stars are comparatively rare, so that a star possessing this characteristic attracts our attention at once to its variability. The organization of this bureau, composed solely of women and which has executed such colossal work, merits our attention. The reader may, however, reassure himself; we shall not detain him long. 360 ANNUAL, REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. We will content ourselves with saying that we Frenchmen, born bureaucrats and believing ourselves without rivals in the routine of administration, would certainly find much to learn here from a prac- tical point of view. All these researches on variable stars, upon stellar spectra and their classification, may appear to the ordinary reader very monoto- nous and of very little use; yet they are of great importance for a knowledge of our universe. We should not forget that by means of this incessant comparison these observers can often announce the new stars (nove) which are so interesting in many ways. And yet, further, a new short-period variable, a new type of stars gives cer- tainly a new clue to the elucidation of yet unsolved problems or what amounts to a new instrument for research in this vast laboratory of the sky where new tools are rarely obtained. THE LICK OBSERVATORY. Now, crossing the whole continent from one shore to the other and going to the Lick Observatory, we find a totally different estab- lishment ; more grand because of the vastness of the means at its dis- posal as well as notable for the beauty of its situation. Founded through the generosity of James Lick, a rich Californian, and now under the eminent direction of Prof. W. W. Campbell, the Lick Ob- servatory is situated on Mount Hamilton, at an altitude of 1,400 meters, a beautiful site, although unfortunately somewhat difficult of access despite its nearness to San Francisco. The distance from the nearest railroad station to the peak is some 40 kilometers, over a rather rough route, though suitable for an automobile. So the astronomers must dwell there all the time, and during the winter this region must lose some of its charms. We will dwell but little on the great Lick equatorial, one of the most justly famed telescopes of the world. Its focal length is 17.30 meters and its aperture 91 centimeters (386 inches). It may be used for visual observations and adapted for photography by the aid of a correcting lens placed just inside the focus. One of the most remark- able aids used with this instrument, the only rival of which is at the Yerkes Observatory, where it is further perfected, is the moving floor, which may be raised by hydraulic means so that the observer, his assistants, and all which surrounds him may be placed at a suitable elevation. The great telescope is used for various researches, notably for spectroscopy and the determination of radial velocities. The con- struction of the spectroscope, known as the Mills spectrograph, was most carefully designed. It has three prisms and an adjusting device which assures the parallelism of the optic axis of the telescope to that ASTROPHYSICS IN THE UNITED STATES—BOSLER. 361 of the collimator, a condition evidently indispensable for the use of all the available hght; the tube is sufficiently rigid to allow the realization of this. It is well known that one of the principal dif_i- culties in the accurate measurement of radial velocities results from the changes of temperatures which change the indices of refraction of the prism during the necessarily long exposures and thus produce a false displacement of the spectrum lines. In order to escape this danger the whole dispersive system is surrounded by a thermostat which maintains it at a constant temperature. It consists of a wooden box, lined with thick felt. By means of an electric fan and a fine German-silver wire passing along the sides of the box and traversed by an electric current of moderate intensity the box may be rapidly warmed when the temperature becomes too low; a ther- mometer, by means of an auxiliary current, stops the warming cur- rent when the proper temperature has been regained. Naturally the great equatorial of this observatory is particularly suited to measures upon double stars; we ourselves were able to sepa- rate the two components of the close double 6 Equulei (0.3’’ apart), and R. G. Aitken, the astronomer in charge of these researches, on nights of good seeing does even better and can separate those as close as 0.14’’.. He has already published 2,000 new doubles hitherto un- catalogued. Notwithstanding the superb qualities of this instrument, its angu- lar aperture (about 1 to 19) is too small for use in photographing very faint objects, such as nebule and comets, and for this purpose they therefore employ the Crossley reflector, whose aperture is 364 inches. This instrument has had a somewhat peculiar history and its mounting has been wholly rebuilt during the last few years in the shops of the observatory. As they had especially in view its use in photography, rigidity was considered a most essential quality. In order to follow a star across the meridian without having the tele- scope strike the pier and thus avoiding the necessity of then revers- ing the instrument, which would have been very undesirable in the middle of an exposure, they adopted the English form of mounting where the two extremities of the polar axis rest upon separate piers. In order to diminish the moment of inertia of the moving parts, which weigh 6 tons, they gave the polar axis the bizarre eccentric form shown in plate 2; the eccentric portion serves partially as a counterpoise and the radius of gyration is decidedly reduced. The driving sector has a radius of 2.50 meters so that any irregularities due to its movements are much reduced. In order to keep the image of the star being photographed constantly at the same point of the plate it has usually been the custom to move the whole telescope by the means of slow-motion mechanisms; with the Crossley reflector only the plate holder is moved. Two micrometer screws give it the 362 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 1910. necessary correcting movements, thus avoiding the useless waste of exertion in the older method. Finally, a very small, convex, hy- perbolic mirror, placed near the principal focus, allows them to give to the telescope the Cassegrainian form, increasing its focal length for the study of the brighter stars. With this instrument, and indeed, with its old form of mounting, the Lick observers were able to obtain a superb series of plates of the nebule, which are rivalled only by those obtained during the past year at Mount Wilson. They hope to photograph thus 120,000 nebulz, possibly many more, and our present catalogues contain only 13,000. The spiral form is much more general among nebule than was formerly: supposed, a result which becomes even more interesting since the Crossley reflector has enabled Fath to obtain the spectra of several of them. He found their spectra very remarkable and com- posed of three distinct types; a continuous spectrum, bright nebular lines, and dark absorption lines. The theory that these nebule are very condensed masses of stars is therefore supported by this. THE YERKES OBSERVATORY. Less favored than the Lick Observatory by its climate, the Yerkes Observatory is near Chicago; it was dedicated in 1897 in the pres- ence of a gathering of astronomers from the whole world. It owes its inception to the energetic initiative, assisted by the means of a wealthy manufacturer, of Dr. Hale, who was its first director and who proposed to make it a center of the first rank. Its great tele- scope, with an objective (pl. 3) of 1.02 meters (40 inches), derived much profit in its construction from the one previously built for the Lick Observatory. All perfections possible seem to be combined in this instrument, which, with its moving dome, cost some $170,000. The moving floor is raised by electrical means, the clock rewinds itself, and yet other motors direct the telescope to the desired place— indeed, no convenience has been omitted. One sees here vividly how American methods of construction dif- fer from ours, how little they concern themselves with customs so rigorously observed elsewhere. Our great instruments always seem to be built according to some former shop rules, very different from the practice in the construction of the machinery of ordinary manu- factories. Such is not the case with the great American telescopes; their parts are more massive, less fragile, and have the appearance of the machinery in the ordinary commercial industries. Everything must conduce to regularity of operation rather than to surface re- finements. Precision becomes illusory where there is flexure and the strains tend constantly to destroy the perfection of the surfaces and their adjustments. Smithsonian Report, 1910.—Bosler. PLATE 3. THE GREAT 40-INCH EQUATORIAL OF THE YERKES OBSERVATORY AT WILLIAMS BAY, WISCONSIN. Smithsonian Report, 1910.—Bosler. PLATE 4, DETAIL OF THE EYE-END OF THE 40-INCH, SHOWING THE PLATE HOLDER MOVABLE WITH RESPECT TO THE REST OF THE INSTRUMENT. ASTROPHYSICS IN THE UNITED STATES—BOSLER. 363 Several spectroscopes of one or several prisms may be attached to the telescope; we will mention especially the Rumford spectro- heliograph. Hale had especially in view the study of the sun when he founded the Yerkes Observatory. So he had the great refractor furnished with adjuncts analogous to those which he had used in his private observatory at Kenwood for his earlier solar researches. Yet we will find that there is now a tendency everywhere to adopt widely different schemes for this class of researches. Under the incentive of Prof. Frost, now the director at the Yerkes, progress has, of course, continued. With the 40-inch Burnham made .his great catalogue of double stars published in 1906. This includes many new doubles, which European astronomers may not hope to see. In photography Ritchey, the clever constructor and observer now at Mount Wilson, first applied at the Yerkes the idea of moving the plate holder with its plate (pl. 4) in following a star instead of moving the whole telescope. And yet further, by the use of isochro- matic plates combined with suitable color screens for eliminating the blue and violet rays for which the objective was not corrected pho- tographically, he succeeded in obtaining remarkable plates of star clusters. Studies in photometry have been carried on at the same time, and, just as at Meudon, daily photographs are taken of the protuber- ances of the sun, and also of the strata of calcium and hydrogen over the whole solar atmosphere. The Yerkes Observatory has other instruments: a telescope of 24 inches constructed there almost entirely by Ritchey; finally, through the generosity of Miss Bruce, there is a photographic telescope of 25 centimeters linear aperture and 1 to 5 angular aperture of large field, which has enabled Barnard to obtain, besides numerous pho- tographs of the comets which are magnificent, plates of large areas of the milky way and to discover through these latter those large, dark, star-free places, commonly called coal sacks, which so perplex the scientist. FLAGSTAFF OBSERVATORY—MARS AND THE PLANETARY SURFACES. And now we will pass to a class of work which recently has aroused lively curiosity even outside of scientific circles; this is the study of the surfaces of the planets, undertaken especially since 1894 and in particular very recently at the observatory at Flagstaff by Percival Lowell. Mr. Lowell, a rich amateur astronomer, early conceived a passion for studying the question of the “canals” of Mars and has become an ardent and intelligent advocate of the habitability of this enigmatic planet. The Martians seem almost friends of his, he has become so ardent in describing their exploits. In order to better 364 _ ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. observe their deeds and manners Lowell has chosen on the Arizona Plateau a privileged site near the route of the Santa Fe, a short distance from the Grand Canyon of the Colorado River, the marvels of which we could not tell here without departing from the purpose of this article. A dry and desert climate, high altitude, and distance from the smoke of manufactories, all contribute to give beautiful images in their telescopes, and they are indeed so very often. At Flagstaff they employ chiefly an equatorial of 0.61-meter aper- ture and 9.45-meters focal length and propose, besides direct visual observations, to obtain photographs as perfect as possible of the great planets. Lowell noted that generally the definition of the telescopic: images is vitiated by the undulations in the lower layers of our atmos- phere whose wave-lengths are of about the order of magnitude of the diameter of the object glass, although often smaller. With such dis- turbances it often happens that the bundle of light waves having traversed regions differently agitated produce a general blurring of the image which is not compensated by a smaller diffraction. Lowell therefore thinks it preferable to diaphragm his objective to 0.30 or 0.45 meter. Each of the exposures, which are made in series, receives a bundle of these varying rays which have followed very closely neighboring paths and traversed practically the same atmospheric course. Accordingly the images are very sharp, especially as care is taken to choose the most favorable moments. However, this is not all there is to be said. The form of the diffracted bundle of rays is that of a sugar loaf (conical), so that the diffraction of the image formed of a point is smaller the closer to the summit we cut the cone; or, practically, if we absorb a part of the light by interposing a screen before the plate we will diminish the harmful effect of the dif- fraction, thus improving the definition of the image. This hap- pens very fortunately, for in the use of isochromatic plates with an ordinary objective corrected for visual observation, we have already stated that it is necessary, in order to obtain a sharp image, to absorb the blue rays by the use of a yellow screen. Lowell and his assistants, Slipher and Lampland, have thus been able to photograph for the first time the “ canals ” of Mars, and, in- deed, so they think, to discover new ones of recent formation. To continue with the suggestive deductions which have led them to con- clude the existence on our neighbor of intelligent beings—indeed, yet more, of consummate agriculturists !—would take us too far, especially since we would then treat with theories which are strongly contested and upon which we must say that very little light has really been cast. They have made other spectroscopic researches, which have led Lowell to affirm the presence of the bands due to water vapor in the red portion of the spectrum of Mars, a fact favorable to the exis- ASTROPHYSICS IN THE UNITED STATES—BOSLER. 365 tence of people on the planet; but here, also, we must note, there are divergencies of opinion, and we must not insist. The ingenious methods of Lowell have been applied as well to Jupiter and Saturn; they have revealed on the equatorial bands of these two planets curious oblique filaments, a sort of network (re- seau) of cells which had already been noted in visual observations, ‘but the interpretation of which has not yet been found. Whatever we may think of the theoretical and philosophical ideas of which Lowell is the brilliant champion, there is no doubt that his methods present an important advance; in every way his planet photographs are among the best, perhaps the best, which have been made. MOUNT WILSON OBSERVATORY—SOLAR PHYSICS. At Mount Wilson we are brought more especially to the study of the sun. The Mount Wilson Solar Observatory was founded in 1904 through the munificence of Mr. Andrew Carnegie and at the request of Dr. Hale, then director at the Yerkes Observatory. Hale was especially interested in finding for solar physics a very elevated sta- tion where the atmospheric disturbances and convection currents would be less noticeable; therefore it seemed to be necessary to seek such a place among the mountains of the Pacific coast, which had been shown to be so favorable for astronomical researches. After a detailed inquiry at various places Hale chose Mount Wilson, a few hours’ ride from Pasadena, not far from Los Angeles, a peak of 1,800 meters altitude and crowned with pines; he had transported there a portion of the instruments which he had used at the Yerkes, taking with him also several of his assistants. At the foot of the mountain in the village of Pasadena are situated the offices for measurements and calculations. Here, as everywhere in America, there is a personnel exclusively feminine, which is an ad- vantage where, initiative being secondary, care and delicacy are required. Finally, in order to reap results from the greatest possible number of plates, a stereo-comparator by Zeiss is used. This is a German device, allowing the exact superposition and the changing at will in the field of vision of two slightly different plates of the same region; the smallest divergencies, the smallest changes, are then easily noted. We find here also an admirably organized workshop provided with all American mechanical resources, which means that they do here with mechanical means many things that we still do by hand, resulting in a great saving of time. Finally—and this is a thing of capital importance—these machines allow the working of pieces of very great dimensions which could never be executed in the shops of the best French constructors of astronomical instruments. 366 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. As to the laboratories proper at Pasadena, they also include all that is necessary for physical and spectroscopic researches, which in the minds of the founders should be the indispensable complement of astronomical investigations. If in the laboratory, by known means, the phenomena observed in the stars are reproduced, then, indeed, the presumption is tenable that the phenomena take place in the stars just as they do in our experiment. The proof is truly not rigorous}: and the conditions which prevail in the celestial objects are more or less difficult to realize, and may at times result in unexpected con- sequences. Nevertheless, it is the only method available in astro- physics for attaining the truth, and we must leave to the future the task of definite corroboration. We should add that this idea has become very general, and that all astrophysical observatories have more or less complete laboratories. Since its construction the establishment at Mount Wilson has been open to astronomers of all nations who have wished to work or study there. And so we had the pleasure of meeting our colleague, M. H. Chretien, of the Observatory of Nice, who had been studying thera some eight months. So, also, W. H. Julius was enabled to study in application to the sun his well-known theory of anomalous disper- sion set forth in this review in 1903. With this theory he explains a great many phenomena, principally those of the chromosphere and prominences by reason of the curvilinear paths of the light rays in the solar atmosphere. Kapteyn, also from Holland, has come to Mount Wilson for the purpose of continuing his researches upon the absorption of light in celestial space. The differences which he has noted between the visual and the photographic magnitudes of the stars, which become larger the greater the distances of the stars, may be easily explained by the absorption of the light by some cosmic medium. We have considered the general organization of this observatory; let us now discuss the instruments. The first one put into service was the Snow telescope (pl. 5), which does not differ materially — as a whole from that used at Meudon for the study of the solar at- mosphere. It consists of a two-mirror coelostat which sends the solar beam horizontally to a great spectrograph and a spectrohelio- graph. The latter, which is of moderate dispersion, serves to take plates of the sun in monochromatic light several times a day. With it was explored the mean layer of chromospheric hydrogen, in which are seen at times, besides the more important filaments of the upper stratum, isolated later at Meudon, the peculiar more or less vortical movements that bring to mind the classic experiment of the magnetic spectrum. The instrument next in order to the “Snow” is the tower tele- scope, which is designed on a totally different plan. In order to "VINYOSITVD ‘NOSTIM LNNOW LV 3d00S31a_. MONS SHL SO MalA 1VYESN3D “sa\sog— 0161 ‘Hoday ursuosyyiWs "Gg aLVId "NOSTIM, LNNO| SO 3dOOSatS | YSMOL FHL 3O HdVYDONLOSdS SHL 4O YA0IOH SLW1d OIHdVYDOLOHd INV LIN1S ‘9 3ALV1d ‘sajSOgG—'Q16| ‘Hoday ueiuosyyiWwS ASTROPHYSICS IN THE UNITED STATES—BOSLER. 367 avoid the irregular refractions produced in the lower air by the heated ground, it occurred to Dr. Hale to place the coelostat upon a tower some 20 meters high, sending theerays vertically downward through a lens of 30 centimeters diameter and 18 meters focal length. The solar image is formed about 1.50 meters above the ground upon the slit of a spectroscope (pl. 6). The light beam then descends into a well 9 meters deep, traverses the dispersive system, which may be rotated about a vertical axis, and the essential part of which is either a Rowland 4-inch grating or a Michelsson 8-inch grating, at will, and finally returns to the level of the ground to the photographic plate. There is yet another spectroscope with a prism, a companion to the last one; which is of great dispersion and mounted as a spec- troheliograph. This gives a monochromatic image of a portion of the sun’s disk, and either this or the one preceding may be employed at will. It was with the grating spectroscope of the tower telescope that ‘Hale discovered the magnetic field in sun spots, one of the most beautiful discoveries relating to the sun in recent times. The agi- tated appearance of the hydrogen flocculi about the spots suggested an investigation as to whether the Zeeman effect might not be produced by them. The hypothesis that the spots have electrically charged matter in rotation indicated the possibility of the existence of such a phenomenon. Indeed, the spectrum of the spots contains a great num- ber of enlarged and reversed lines, an appearance which would be produced -by a smaller or greater degree of doubling. Therefore Hale placed before the slit of his spectrograph a Fresnel rhomb and a nicol serving the following purpose: The former transforms the circular polarized light of the Zeeman doublets into plane polarized pairs, and the second, according to its orientation, extinguishes one or the other of the latter components. The experiment confirmed Dr. Hale’s theory. The rotation of the nicol 90° caused the disappearance of the right or left line from its original position, while, the telluric lines remained unchanged. Later it was found that this curious phe- nomenon existed in all sun spots to a degree varying with their size, and that the magnetic field seems to diminish greatly with the height of the vapor above the photosphere, and later yet other peculiarities were found which we can not think of describing here. A vast field thus seems open for astrophysicists, and the astronomers of Mount Wilson will certainly not leave it unexplored. In the realm of pure astronomy the Mount Wilson Observatory possesses an instrument which in power is not surpassed by any other in the whole world—the telescope of 1.52 meters (60 inches) aperture, constructed under the direction of Ritchey, and in use since December, 1908. Its mounting is interesting. The telescope tube, which is of openwork construction, is carried in a forklike 368 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. extension of the polar axis. Further, in order to lighten the great weight of the moving portions, it rests at its lower part in a bath of mercury; a large cylinder,jn the form of a mill wheel, and which may be seen there, plays the part of a float. In all details the de- signers have profited by the experience acquired elsewhere. In order to take advantage in every possible way of the light at their disposal various combinations of auxiliary mirrors may be used to give an instrument of various equivalent focal lengths. For instance, the telescope, with its great parabolic mirror alone, has a focal length of 7.6 meters and an angular aperture of 1 to 5. In this form it is adapted for very faint nebulae. In conjunction with a small hyperbolic mirror placed near the principal focus it forms an instrument similar to the Crossley reflector of the Lick Observa- tory. It has a focal length of 30.60 meters, and at the same time, and this is very remarkable, the images are very greatly improved from certain aberrations. Other arrangements allow foci of 21.40 and, indeed, of 45.50 meters. In the last case, especially useful in’ the study of the brighter stars, the light beam is sent down through the polar axis—which is hollow—and from there it passes into a subterranean chamber under the pier, where it may be analyzed by means of a fixed spectrograph, free from variations of temperature. We ought to say that in the mind of Ritchey even a focal length of 45 meters is not enough for his work on the moon. He proposes by more or less complicated reflections of the beam of light to photograph our satellite at a focal distance of 150 meters! . bre Ritchey’s method of work deserves description. As at the Lick Observatory, the photographic plate carrier is provided with two micrometer screws at right angles to each other for producing the motions of the plate necessary for “following.” It may also be turned in its own plane. By means of two different eyepieces at- tached to the plate carrier two stars may be seen; the first, which is kept constantly in view, is the guiding star, properly speaking; the second serves to correct the differential effects of refraction which would result in a rotation of the field. From time to time it is noted whether the star in the latter has left its cross wire, and a slight rotation of the plate holder suffices to bring it back to its place. Nor is that all; the focal length of the telescope may change during the course of an exposure lasting some 8 or 12 hours and continued during several nights. This is corrected every half hour by the knife-blade method of Foucault, susceptible of the precision of one-fortieth of a millimeter. For accomplishing this it is, of course, necessary to remove the plate, but a system of stops allows him to put it back into its proper position again. Ritchey, helped by an incomparable sky, has obtained plates which prove that such refinements are not illusory. His nebulae, of the "NOSTIM LNNOW LY ad00S373_L HONI-O9 SHL T/L ERAS Tal yajsog—016| ‘Hodeay ueluosy}iWUS Smithsonian Report, 1910.—Bosler. PLATE 8 DETAILS OF THE EYE-END AND PLATE HOLDER OF THE 60-INCH TELESCOPE AT MOUNT WILSON. ASTROPHYSICS IN THE UNITED STATES—BOSLER. 3869 greatest beauty, show details of structure of wonderful delicacy. Perhaps the most curious of these details are the dark streaks which are apparent, more often than on the Lick plates, between the spi- ’ rals of a great number of the nebulae. The 60-inch telescope has been in service but a short time, and we feel that there is no danger in predicting that in the near future it will justify by new feats all the hopes which have been placed upon it. But the founders of Mount Wilson wish to build yet greater instruments. A mirror of 2.54 meters diameter, which we had the opportunity of seeing, is in the process of construction in the work- shop at Pasadena. Meanwhile a new tower telescope, nearly 50 meters (150 feet) tall is nearly completed. This latter structure, analogous to the one we have already described, will give at the level of the ground a solar image 40 centimeters in diameter; it will be completed below by a well 24 meters deep containing the spectro- scopes. Imagine what may be done with such apparatus! Never- theless, it is to be feared that the improvement of the image antici- pated by Hale may be compromised by the vibrations of the coelostat tower despite all the precautions to diminish them. We can not leave Mount Wilson without mentioning an extremely interesting work which is also going on there; one which has already accomplished results of the first rank. We refer to the observatory of the Smithsonian Institution which, under the direction of Mr. Abbot, proposes to continue and extend the work of Langley upon solar radiation. We can say that the results of these researches represent our most accurate knowledge upon many of the most im- portant details of solar physics; notably, the distribution of energy in the solar spectrum, the absorption in the atmosphere, and the solar constant of radiation. CONCLUSION. We have passed in review all the principal American observatories. The more common American traits, you have without doubt re- marked, are the extreme perfection of mechanical means, an ever- watchful ingeniousness and the absence of all spirit of routine in their constructions. We are speaking of the United States, where everything in the daily life tends to develop practical ideas; and an almost feverish activity turned unceasingly toward advancement is noticeable in every profession. Meanwhile, we should not forget that all these superb observatories, all these powerful instruments, owe their existence to the enlightened and regal generosity of the wealthy American men of industry. It is curious to note that these men whose energy, at times hard hearted, has brought them success, seem more attracted toward science than to those who have failed 97578°—sm 1910——24 370 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. in the daily struggle for existence; in Europe, conversely, and more especially in France than elsewhere, the few possessors of great for- tunes tend to leave a reputation, perhaps less durable in the end, of philanthropy. Their gifts, at least to some extent, might be more judiciously distributed, in the interest of the moral prestige of our country, to aid scientific institutions which struggle so painfully to maintain a glorious past. What fortunes, in our annual budget of some 4,000,000,000 francs, go every year to the State to be frittered away without profit to any- one which, if given to one of our great institutions, would revivify their founder’s prestige and perhaps yet accomplish great things in the future. THE FUTURE HABITABILITY OF THE EARTH: By THOMAS CHROWDER CHAMBERLIN, Of the University of Chicago. Ever since the human race came to have a virile desire for intelli- gence it has tried to peer into the future that it might satisfy its curiosity and guide itself by foresight. Now and then it has tried to prolong its vision beyond the immediate future that it might fore- east the destiny of the race and the fate of the earth on which it dwells. In all these endeavors the depth of its penetration into the unknown before it, has been closely measured by the depth of its vision into the history behind it, and both the look before and the look behind have been close akin to the depth of its vision into the things about it. The light of the present and the lamp of the past have been its guides in the forecast. Beyond question this is the true method, and doubtless it will always remain the true method, for only as the race sees far into the past, and probes deeply and widely into the present, has it any firm basis for a sure prophecy of the future. The race did not fail to note even in its early days that the existing forms come into existence, live their day, and pass away. Why not then the race and the earth on which it dwells? While it was felt that this might not be true of the ultimate entities, it seemed clearly to be the order of things with the tangible forms. And so it will doubtless continue to be as the race grows into its fuller intellectual maturity and the horizon of its vision is enlarged, for there will no doubt remain the conviction that there has been a beginning of the current order of things and a like conviction that there will be an end. The increased breadth of vision that will come from research will only serve to bring into view still greater multitudes of organ- isms that have come into form, endured for a time, and passed away. And so any future change in the mode of building up the forecast 1This paper is essentially the same in substance as the presidential address before the American Association for the Advancement of Science delivered at Boston Dec. 27, 1909, but it has been freely revised and given a briefer title for publication in the Smithsonian Report.—T. C. CHAMBERLIN. ae 372. ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. is not likely to be guided by a new fundamental method, but merely by an increased measure of breadth and depth of insight. Some of the special features that have entered into former prophe- cies will quite surely disappear and new ones will no doubt be added. The forecasts of prescientific times often made the doom of the earth hinge on some lapse in the conduct of man; made a physical disaster serve as a moral punishment. But with a truer insight into the basis of moral law and the place of man in nature this anthropic view will no doubt give place to a more consistent conception of sequences in the moral and the physical worlds. In the earlier days of the race the backward look was short, and in - fitting accord with this the origin of the race and of the earth was put only a few thousand years before our times. In ‘strict consonance with this the forward look seemed to disclose an end but little ahead. In much the same tenor also the beginning was made chaotic and the end cataclysmic. The dawn of the earth sciences was followed by a new forecast, and as the sciences grew this forecast was repeatedly enlarged, re- vised and recast. It was learned that the history of the earth stretches back not merely for thousands, but for millions and tens of millions of years; that the ongoings of the earth are actuated by energies too great to be seriously swerved from their orderly course or brought to an end by the acts of those who dwell upon it; that the march of earth history has a mighty tread whose moving force feels no serious influence from the merits or the lapses of even our potent race. The trend of prophetic thought under the inspiration of science in the last century invites a closer review. The ground of forecast lay mainly in the views of the origin of the earth then current, in the course of the earth’s past history, and in the trend of those agen- cies that control the conditions of life. The solar system was then thought to have sprung from a gaseous nebula, and the earth, as a member of the system, was assigned a place in the gaseous evolution. It was itself pictured as a fiery gaseous globe. We need not here turn aside to review the special phases of the dominant hypothesis or of the quasi-gaseous meteoritic hypothesis, or pause to pay honor to their great authors, for the sole feature fhat entered potentially into the shaping of the future of the earth was the gaseo-molten state as- signed the globe at its genetic stage, and in this feature all varieties of these hypotheses essentially concurred. A crude alternative view was, indeed, offered in what was little more than the rough suggestion that the earth might have grown up by the infall of small sporadic bodies, but this did not gain the assent of students of celestial dy- namics familiar with all that is implied by the symmetry of the system. On the contrary, it was held that the rotations of the planets FUTURE HABITABILITY OF THE EARTH—CHAMBERLIN. 873 implied a partition from a rotating mass, and so a genesis from a gaseous or quasi-gaseous body was almost universally accepted as by compulsion. Starting as a gaseous globe, an early passage into a molten sphere wrapped in a hot vaporous atmosphere was logically assigned the earth. The atmosphere was made vast to contain all the water of the globe and the volatile matter that the heated conditions were pre- sumed to have generated. At a later stage a crust was assigned to the cooling globe, and the waters, condensing on this, gave the infant earth the swaddling bands of a universal ocean. On further cooling, shrinkage and deformation were supposed to follow, the waters to be gathered into basins, the land to appear, and the formation of earth strata to begin. It is important to note that the main agency in this hypothetical history was the loss of heat, and so, with logical consistency, loss of heat was made to he at the bottom of the great events of the earth’s history down to the present time, and, in framing a forecast of the future, loss of heat was made the chief cause of the earth’s prospec- tive doom as a habitable planet. The whole history was interpreted as a stupendous declension. From a plethora of heat at the outset loss followed loss till our semiglacial stage has come, and, by proph- ecy, loss is to follow loss in the future till the final winter shall come. Starting with a plethora of air and water swaddling the earth, loss followed loss till our emaciated stage has been reached, and loss is to follow loss till drought shall join frigidity in marking the final state and the end of all life. The details of this inherited picture were not wanting. As the body of the earth cooled and shrank, the waters were permitted to enter.it and by union with its substance lose their fluid state. In like manner the air, entering the earth and uniting with it little by little, depleted the smothering atmosphere, lessened its oppressive weight, tempered its noxious nature until it was compatible with low life, and later with higher life, and at length brought it down to the present state. Projected into the future, the forecast tells of further depletion, with the pauperiza- tion and at length the extinction of life. The shrinking of the oceans more and more into the deep basins, the absorption of the waters into the body of the earth, and the pro- gressive cooling and emaciation of the air were logically supposed to join in progressively reducing the vapors that rose from the waters. At first, hypothetically, a deep warm mantle of cloud clothed the whole earth, and this shroud was thought to persist halfway down the geologic ages, giving sultry, lowering climates in all latitudes. At length, however, this mantle was pictured as giving place to rifted clouds and clearer skies, and still later to mild aridities, to be fol- lowed in turn by desert stages, and these, growing apace, led on to 374 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. the saharas of to-day, which are even now held by this school of thought to be creeping out persistently on the once fertile lands. Thus is reached our own time, when heat and air and moisture are all running low, putatively, and are thus foreshadowing the predes- tined end in the not distant future. Life history is thus made but an episode in the midst of this great declension from the too hot and the too much to the too cold and too little. The life period merely spans a lapse on the slope from excess to emaciation. The logic of all this is plausible, the premises once granted. Start- ing with the hypothetical postulates, the conclusions seem almost necessarily to follow. The details, indeed, may not all have been as mapped, but, the premises granted, the general course of progress was scarcely less than inevitable. Sources of delay and causes of deviation might, indeed, have been found in means that furnished a greater or less supply of air, or water, or heat to offset the waste, but the presumption of a downward trend carrying the whole along with it is not easily escaped. In point of fact, the general conception of a progressive declension dominated the geologic thought of the last century. Not only did it dominate the forecasts, but it gave direction to the interpretations of the geologic record, and in no small degree it unconsciously influ- enced the observations of geologic phenomena, and this domination continued well down to the close of the last century and is far from obsolete to-day. But logical and plausible as is this inherited picture of the history of the earth, it was hung on the particular hypothesis of the genesis of the earth that was then currently accepted. However logical, its logical strength was only that of the hypothesis on which it was hung. I say logical strength advisedly, for outside the logic of the concept there was always the appeal to the record. This appeal was made and was thought to be in the main confirmatory. The strata of high latitudes were found to contain relics of life of subtropical types, and this was found true not only of the very early ages, but of ages well down toward recent times. Figs and magnolias grew in Greenland as late as the Tertiary period. So impressive was the presence of subtropical plants in strata almost under the very edge of the Green- land ice cap, that it gave deep hold to the logical inferences with which it seemed to be so strikingly in consonance. Phenomena not so consonant with the concept were easily overlooked or lightly passed by, as is our wont when too much impressed by what must be. It is, however, a merit of modern science that it prompts us to put to the front that which is and to relegate that which merely must be to a secondary category. And so all along during the past century the inconsonant elements of the record were gathered as well as the FUTURE HABITABILITY OF THE EARTH—CHAMBERLIN. 3875 consonant. Most of the former were of the unobtrusive sort and awakened little questioning, but some of the facts were startling, some were indeed apparently quite incredible, and as a matter of fact were long subject to the suspicion of being the offspring of illu- sion or inaccuracy. Only very slowly under the influence of repeated confirmation did they gain credence. The gathering of this incon- sonant data gradually weakened the hold of the inherited concept and prepared the way for a reconsideration. Meanwhile, in the progress of physics, a serious source of doubt had arisen respecting the tenability of the gaseous basis of the con- cept. The older hypotheses of the origin of the earth were framed before the kinetic theory of gases came into currency. After the kinetic theory had been accepted, it was urged, notably by Johnstone Stoney, that the velocities of some of the molecules of the outer air must be such as to give rise to their escape, and thus to put a limit to the amount of atmosphere which the planet could hold. When a test of this type was brought to bear on the vast hot atmosphere assigned the primitive earth, it gave rise to doubt as to the physical tenability of the concept. Weakness also arose in another quarter. One of the main props of the gaseous and quasi-gaseous hypotheses of the earth’s origin, was the conclusion that a condensation from any other dispersed state than the gaseous or quasi-gaseous would lead to revolutions and rotations in directions opposite to those actually possessed by most of the planets and satellites. A closer examination of this deduction under the stimulus of the doubt that had arisen from the kinetic test showed weakness here also, and even a reversal of probabilities, for it appeared that a slow ingathering of matter from a scattered disk-like orbital state would give revolutions and rotations even more consonant with the actual facts than would centrifugal evolu- tion for a gaseous globe, as previously postulated. Thus, toward the close of the last century, there arose from differ- ent quarters cogent reasons for a restudy of the whole subject. Further scrutiny added new sources of doubt, and in the end the tenability of all the gaseous and quasi-gaseous hypotheses was chal- lenged and a new genus of hypotheses, based on orbital dynamics, in contradistinction from gaseous dynamics, was offered instead. It is not appropriate for me to say that this challenge was suc- cessfully supported, or that the older concepts of the earth’s origin are to be laid on the shelf. As an advocate of the method of multi- ple working hypotheses, it belongs to me rather to beg of you to keep in use—so far as you find in them any working quality—all hypotheses that yield any wholesome stimulus to inquiry. Much less would it be appropriate for me to affirm that any form of the newer concepts is entitled to take the place of the older in 376 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. your complete confidence. The final adjudication of a genetic hypo- thesis of such a remote and complex an event as the birth of the earth and the solar system can only come of protracted scrutiny by means of diverse forms of searching analyses and trenchant logic, and of long and patient trial in testing the hypothesis by the multi- tudinous phenomena constantly coming to light from the earth, the solar system, and the heavens beyond. It is sufficient warrant for the present review, however, that not a few incisive students of celestial dynamics have been led to seriously reconsider the foundations of the hypotheses of earth genesis, and that not a few geologists have been led to scrutinize with renewed care the inferences and interpretations that have been hung upon past theories of earth genesis. Whatever may be your personal leanings, you will no doubt agree that it seems less permissible now to hang prophesies of the future upon challenged hypotheses of genesis than it might once have been, when a certain hypothesis or a certain class of hypotheses received the almost universal assent of those who seemed then best qualified to hold opinions respecting them. Tt does not seem to be going too far to say that whereas we for- merly seemed shut up to hypotheses of genesis that assigned the earth a gaseo-molten state at the start, it now seems to some of us at least that the earth may have inherited a quite different state from a slow growth by the ingathering of small bodies of a planetesimal nature. If views that are thus fundamentally diverse are permissible, and if these give rise to a wide range of alternative working concep- tions, we are freed from some of the constraints of interpretation that have hampered our reading of past history and colored our out- look upon the future. Let us, therefore, pass in brief review the states assigned the early earth by the newer conception of earth genesis that we may gain a concrete impression of the lines of inter- pretation it opens to us, and then let us turn to the critical phenomena of the actual record as the more solid basis for a forecast of the planet’s future. Quite in contrast with the older pictures of the primitive earth, the planetesimal hypothesis—and this is entitled to be taken as the type of theories based on concentration from a scattered orbital state—postulates a solid earth growing up slowly by accessions and coming to be clothed gradually with an atmosphere and hydrosphere. The earth, the air, and the water are made to grow up together from smaller to larger volumes without necessarily attaining a very high temperature. The sources that at the first had furnished the body of the ocean and the air, though they fell off as time went on, still continued to serve as means of replenishment, and to act as an offset to the familiar agencies of loss far down into the later ages, if indeed FUTURE HABITABILITY OF THE EARTH—CHAMBERLIN. OTT they are not still in function in some degree. And so, far from as- signing a vast atmospheric and oceanic supply at the start and bring- ing to bear on this a progressive depletion all down the ages, the newer view starts with a much more limited supply and rests on means of continued feeding as time goes on, and makes this feeding run hand in hand with the secular losses in more or less equal balance after the initial stages of growth were over. The question of the future, under this view, is not how long will the remnant of the original supply last, but rather, how long will the past and present degree of equilibrium between loss and gain remain effective? The equilibrium is held to be oscillatory but the limits of oscillation fall within the limits of the conditions of life. The specific question of the future, so far as our race is concerned, is, how long will such a degree of equilibrium as has prevailed in the past continue to preserve the critical conditions prerequisite to life? The question in this aspect turns us quite away from any serious concern respecting original abundance and centers attention on the geologic record itself as an index of past competencies. In particu- lar it turns attention on the agencies of equilibrium to see if there are signs of any fatal weakening of competency. Are the chief agencies which have controlled life conditions for tens of millions of years still in good working order and likely to continue effective for a long era yet to come, or do they show clear signs of declining power portending an early failure? Let us enter a little closer into a study of the specific factors on which life depends, though we may not go far. The ancient fear that the end of the earth will come by cataclysm is not yet obsolete nor is it theoretically quite impossible, but violent agencies are among the least to be feared. Volcanic or seismic con- vulsions may be imagined to put life in jeopardy as indeed they often actually do locally, but they really offer no serious menace to life in general, and they do not appear ever to have done so in the known ages. The spectacular destructiveness of these boisterous agencies deeply impresses the emotions, but they contribute but an infinitesimal fraction to a sober computation of the effective sources of loss of world life. The real peril, if peril there be to the whole world life, les in the deadly unbalancing of agencies of the quiet sort. The conditions essential to the maintenance of the habitability of the earth are many, but the more critical factors either lie in the atmosphere itself or are intimately associated with it. The fact of keenest interest is the narrowness of range within which the critical conditions are confined. Any of the constituents of the at- mosphere or all of them might easily, it would seem, be too scant or too abundant to be consistent with life as now organized. In a 378 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. peculiar sense it would seem that this might be true of carbon di- oxide, for it is one of the least of the constituents and is one of the most active chemically, and has come thereby to be preeminently the critical constituent of the atmosphere. Some small proportion of this element is altogether necessary to plant life, and so to animal life dependent on plant life, while a large proportion of carbon dioxide would be fatal to air-breathing animals. If the three or four hundredths of one per cent now present in the air were lost all life would go with it; if it were increased to a few per cent the higher life would be suppressed or radically changed. And yet the theoretical sources of supply are abundant enough for imaginable disaster of the one order, while the agencies of depletion have theo- retical efficiency enough for imaginable disaster of the other order. But neither Scylla nor Charybdis has swallowed up the living king- dom. There seems little escape from the conclusion that ever since the birth of air-breathing life, some 30,000,000 or 40,000,000 years ago, let us say, the interplay of the opposing agencies of supply and depletion has been so balanced that neither fatal excess nor fatal deficiency has been permitted to cut short the history of the higher life. The dangers of excess or of deficiency of the other constituents of the air are indeed less narrow as named in percentages, but they are scarcely less real in theoretical possibilities. The well-being of life is also hemmed in between a suitable pro- portion of moisture, dependent on an adequate water surface, on the one hand and a diluvial excess on the other. Universal deluges and universal deserts would alike be disastrous to our race. A few thousand feet more of water depth or a few thousand feet less would alike exclude our race and seriously restrict the class of life to which we belong. In even a more serious way the habitability of the earth is condi- tioned on a range of mean temperature of some such measure as 100° C, roundly speaking. The higher life is in fact confined to a nar- rower range. This is scarcely 5 per cent of the range of natural temperatures on the earth and a still smaller per cent of the range in the heavens. A few miles above us and a few miles below us fatal temperatures prevail. It is deeply significant that the thermal states of the narrow zone of life on the face of the earth should have been kept within so close a range as to permit millions of species to follow one another in forming the great genealogical lines which lead continuously up from the primitive types to the present ones without | breakage of continuity in all the ages, while the prevailing tempera- tures a few miles below them and a few miles above them, as well as in space generally, would have been fatal. While this constant and necessary supply of heat has come from the sun, the control of tem- FUTURE HABITABILITY OF THE EARTH—CHAMBERLIN. 379 perature at the surface of the earth seems none the less to be inti- mately dependent on the atmosphere and to constitute a further index of its critical character. To appreciate the full significance of so effective a control of life conditions poised thus between excess and deficiency, with the danger line close on either hand, while the possibilities were so free and so — wide, there is need for some measure of the time through which the delicate poise has been held. But there are now no means for any close measure of the geologic ages; there are merely rough estimates which give the order of magnitude. Life was far advanced in its career when first a readable record was made; but yet, since that record began, 100,000 feet of sediments at least—not to choose the largest estimates—have been laid down by the slow methods of wash from the land and lodgment in the basins. The number of years this implies has been placed variously from 50,000,000 to 100,000,000, with, indeed, higher figures as well as lower. Merely to roughly scale the order of magnitude without pretense of accuracy, let us take the midway figure of 75,000,000 years as representative. Let this be divided into 15 periods which may be made to average 5,000,000 years each, and these will roughly represent the technical “ periods” of geologists. By this rough scale we may space out such of the great events as we need now to review. These events are such as tell us of the states of the atmosphere and of the temperatures that prevailed on the surface of the earth at a sufficient number of the periods to show the general tenor of past history in matters critical to life. As an index of arid conditions we naturally turn to the products of evaporation. In interpreting there is need to note that there may be small excesses of evaporation over precipitation without giving rise to appreciable deposits of evaporation products, for in almost all cases the area that collects rainfall is larger than the portion of the basin that actually holds it, because some point on the rim of the basin is almost inevitably lower than the rest, and this lowest point permits the accumulating waters to drain off to its level, so that it is only the smaller water surface thus left that is exposed to contin- uous evaporation and takes part in the concentration of dissolved sub- stances into beds of solid salt and gypsum. It is therefore fairly safe to infer a decidedly arid climate when beds of salt and gypsum are found spread over wide areas, especially if these also bear appro- priate physical characteristics and if the adjacent deposits are totally free of life or carry only fossils of such types of life as can tolerate a high degree of salinity, or such as show signs of depauperization by the adverse conditions of aridity and salinity. Now, extensive deposits of salt and gypsum are found in the Salt Range of India in strata of the Cambrian period, the earliest of the 15 periods that make up our rough scale of 75,000,000 years. Because 380 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. these salt-bearing strata le so near the beginning of the readable record of life they are singularly instructive, for they give an insight into climatic conditions well back toward the primitive state of things. They challenge at once the view that in these early ages the earth was swaddled in a dense vaporous atmosphere from pole to ' pole, for under such a vaporous mantle a broad desert tract in India seems scarcely credible. If we come forward in time two periods to the deposits of Silurian times, we find great sheets of salt and gypsum underlying the St. Lawrence Basin in New York and westward, with a spread of many thousand square miles. In some parts of the accompanying beds there is complete barrenness of life; in some other parts the life seems to be pauperized, or to be only a remnant selected by hard con- ditions from an ampler fauna. The physical characters of the de- posits of sand, silt, and lime seem to add strength to the interpreta- tion that this great area where now lies a part of our great lake sys- tem was affected in Silurian times by an aridity that gave it scarcely less than a desert aspect. These signal facts join with those of the Salt Range of India in challenging the former picture of a universal envelope of vapor and cloud in all those early times, while it is in keeping with such a diversity of climate as has prevailed in later ages. In the next period there are formations that have been interpreted as implying desert conditions, but the evidence is less strong; and we pass on to certain stages of the sub-Carboniferous period next fol- lowing, wherein beds of salt and gypsum are found in Montana, Michigan, Nova Scotia, and Australia, thus implying wide but not general arid conditions. Passing on to the Permian and Triassic periods, near the middle of the geologic series, beds of salt and gypsum are found to be phe- nomenally prevalent on both the eastern and western continents, with a surprising range in latitude. The relative paucity as well as the peculiar characteristics of the life of those times seems equally to imply vicissitudes of climate in which aridity was a dominant ele- ment. There seems no tenable way to interpret these remarkable facts of the middle periods except by assuming an even greater prev- alence and intensity of aridity than obtains at the present day. So, too, at certain times in later periods, but at certain times only, the stratigraphic record implies atmospheres as arid as those of to-day ; not everywhere, indeed, but much as now, in particular areas and at certain horizons. These significant facts make up one group of phenomena; but there is another side to the picture. If the record be searched for facts of opposite import, they will come easily to hand. Indeed, as already noted, they seemed to the FUTURE HABITABILITY OF THE EARTH—CHAMBERLIN. 381 early geologists to be the more intrusive. In the early part of the record it seems peculiarly easy to find convincing evidences of stages marked by prevailing humidity, by great uniformity of climate, and by conditions congenial to subtropical life ranging through wide stretches of latitude. If we continued to center attention on these alone, the old view would now, as heretofore, seem to be sustained. But these evidences do not abound at all horizons, and the view is selective. Between these horizons lie the strata that bear evidences of marked aridity as well as those that bear the still more impressive evidences of low temperatures to which we shall turn in a moment. Combining the two sets of facts of diverse import, we seem forced to recognize that from the earliest known stages of distinct life record there have been times and places of pronounced aridity much as now, and sometimes even more intense, while at other times and places intervening between these, humidity has prevailed. This picture of alternations grows in vividness and strength if we turn from states of atmospheric moisture to states of temperature. The body of scientific men have rarely been more hesitant in accept- ing any interpretation of terrestrial phenomena than that of the glacial invasion of the lowlands of Europe and America in mid- latitudes when that view was first advanced by Louis Agassiz. In the face of the then prevalent view of general warmth as the domi- nant characteristic of all the earlier ages, it seemed beyond belief that great sheets of ice could have crept over large areas of the habitable part of Europe and America even in the geologic stage just preceding our own. The acceptance of this view was, however, made somewhai less difficult by the belief, also then prevalent, that the earth had greatly cooled down in the progress of the ages, and that concurrent with this the atmosphere had been much depleted by the formation of oxides, carbonates, coal, and carbonaceous mat- ter, and that the ocean had been reduced by hydration and by physi- cal penetration into the earth. By the combined influence of these it was easier to believe that a stage had been reached that made possible an epoch of exceptionally depressed temperature attended by glaciation. These special pleadings were in eminent harmony with the inherited view of a great thermal declension as the master fact of geologic history, and under this influence the ice age came to be generally regarded as but the first episode of a succession of ~ secular winters upon which the earth was entering, a series destined to lead on to the total refrigeration of the earth. This presumption was furthermore abetted by the theory of a cooling sun. The cool- ing and depleting processes were naturally regarded as inevitably pro- gressive, and so the final doom of the earth seemed clearly fore- shadowed in the near future, geologically speaking. 382 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. But opinion had scarcely more than settled down to this interpreta- tion, with a reluctant acceptance of the glacial evidence, when the geologists of Australia, of India, and of South Africa, severally and independently, and later those of South America, brought evidences of still earlier glaciation prevalent over wide areas in those low latitudes. The marks of glaciation were altogether typical and were traced up to and even somewhat beyond the tropical circles from both sides and in the same quarter of the globe, from Australia on the south and from India on the north. Moreover, all these cogent evidences were reported for strata referred to the Permian or Permo- Carboniferous times, i. e., from about the middle of our scale of technical time periods. For a score of years the body of geologists who could not personaily inspect the evidence doubted its interpreta- tion as surely indicating the presence of ice sheets in those low latitudes and at that early time, but the evidence under constantly renewed and broadened scrutiny by trained glacialists steadily grew till it became irrefutable. There seems now no rational escape from the conclusion that mantles of ice covered large areas in the penin- sula of India, in Australia, in the southern part of Africa, and in South America close upon the borders of the Tropics at a time roundly halfway back to the beginning of the readable record of life. On the basis of evidences of like kind and cogency, Strahan and Reusch, independently, have reported glacial beds in Norway at a much earlier geological horizon, but one not closely determinate. Willis and Blackwelder have described glacial deposits of early Cambrian age in the valley of the Yangtse-in China in latitude as low as 31° N. Howchin and David have described glacial forma- tions of similar age in Australia. In the last two cases the glacial beds lie beneath strata that bear Cambrian trilobites; in other words, they are at the very bottom of the fossil-bearing sediments, 15 periods back, or 75,000,000 years ago, on our rough scale. Prof. Coleman has offered what he deems good evidence of glaciation much farther back at the base of the Huronian terrane in Canada, but some skepticism as to the interpretation still lingers. Even more pointedly than the epochs of aridity previously cited do these early epochs of glaciation seem irreconcilable with the old view of a hot earth, universally wrapped in a vaporeus mantle in early times. They favor, if they do 1fot force, the alternative view that the ancient climates were marked much as the more modern - ones have been by periodic and local oscillations and intensifications, and that life was able to survive all of these in some part of the globe, if not in most parts. This warrants the hope, if not the belief, that life may survive similar oscillations and intensifications again and again in the future as in the past. FUTURE HABITABILITY OF THE EARTH—CHAMBERLIN. 383 At the present time glaciation in the polar regions and on Alpine heights is contemporaneous with desert conditions in extensive belts where the systematic circulation of the atmosphere favors aridity. There are reasons for thinking that in the past glaciations and aridity were related to one another in some similar way, and that they cooperated to give an aspect of marked vicissitude to the climates of certain geological epochs. It is to be observed, however, that the epochs of glaciation now known are fewer than the epochs of aridity, and it is probable that aridity has been a more common phenomenon than glaciation. Set over against the adversities of desert and ice there were stages, as already noted, when abundant life, bearing all evidences of a warm-temperate or subtropical habitat, flourished in high latitudes. In Greenland, Spitzbergen, and other Arctic lands—and we have recently learned also in Antarctic lands—are found relics of life not known to be able to live except in a genial climate. These quite clearly point to subtropical conditions at certain former times where only frigidity now reigns. In the light of these contrasted states of ice and desert on the one hand and of geniality and moisture on the other, intervening between one another in unexpected latitudes, we seem forced to the view that profound climatic alternations followed one another throughout the whole stretch of known geologic time. These may have been attended by variations in the constitution, as well as the condition of the atmosphere. If we turn to the relations which the great waters have borne to the great lands, an analogous series of oscillations is presented; and there is ground to suspect that the oscillations of the climates had some casual connection with the oscillations of the land and sea. At no time since life began is there clear evidence of the absence of land, and certainly at no time is there evidence of the absence of an ocean, whatever theoretical views may be held of the earliest unknown ages. The conviction seems well sustained that the land areas of the Archean and Proterozoic eras were comparable to those of the pres- ent day both in extent and in limitations, in the sense that they were neither universal nor absent in these earliest known times. Follow- ing down the history, the lands seem at times to have been larger and at other times smaller than now. There appears to have been an unceasing contest between the agencies that made for the extension of the land and the agencies that made for the extension of the sea. While each gained temporarily on the other, complete victory never rested with either. From near the beginning of the read- able record there appears to have been an unbroken continuity of land life, and from a like early stage an unbroken continuity of marine life. Probably the history of both goes back thus unbroken 384 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. far into the undeciphered eras which preceded the readable record, and no one to-day can safely affirm the precedence of either over the other on the basis of the physical record, either in time or in genesis, — whatever his theoretical leanings may be. Among the agencies assignable for the extension of the land are such as deform the earth and by deepening its basins and increasing its protrusions draw the water into the deeps and give relief and extent to the land. Among the agencies that make for the extension of the sea are the decay and erosion of the surface of the land and the girdling cut of the waves about its border. By the unceasing work of these gentle, but persistent, agencies, the land is brought low and the sea creeps out upon its borders. If the deforming of the earth body were held in abeyance for an indefinite period, the lower- ing of the land, the filling of the basins by the inwash and the spreading of the sea would inevitably submerge the entire surface of the globe and bring an end to all land life. Great progress in such sea transgression took place again and again until perhaps half the land was submerged, but before land life was entirely cut off or even very seriously threatened a regenerative movement in the body of the earth took place, the land was again protruded and extended and the sea again restricted. Here, then, also, there have been a series of reciprocal movements which, while they have brought alternate expansions of land life and of sea life, have notwithstanding conduced to the preservation of both under shifting stimulating conditions, and have thus main- tained the continuity of the two great divisions of life, if indeed they have not promoted the evolution of both by alternate stress and tension. It appears, then, in the large view that in each of the great groups of terrestrial conditions on which life is dependent, there has run through the ages, vast as they have been, a series of oscillatory move- ments that have brought profound changes again and again, but which have never permitted any of the disasters that seemed to be threatened by these movements to go far enough to compass the gen- eral extinction of life. These reciprocal movements seem to be dependent upon a balancing of the actions of the opposing agencies that has the aspect of a planetary equilibrium. It does not seem to me too much to regard it as an automatic regulative system. A clear insight into the intimate workings of the complex of agencies that cooperate in this regulative system is rather a task of the future than an attainment of the present, and I am not now justified in offering more than suggestions of what may prove to be among the main features of the system, in the hope that you will receive them with due reserve, FUTURE HABITABILITY OF THE EARTH—CHAMBERLIN. 885 The feature of profoundest importance from our racial point of view, the maintenance of the land against the incessant encroachments of the sea, seems to be assignable to internal agencies which at peri- odic intervals bring about a deformation of the earth’s body and a readjustment of the waters on its surface to the changed capacities of its basins. These actions involve changes also in the contact of the air with the earth substance which increases or diminishes the con- sumption of the air by chemical combination. At the same time, these deformations are probably related to volcanic and other ex- trusive actions which feed the atmosphere. How far this volcanic feeding is merely a return to the air of what had been absorbed earlier it may not be safe here to say, as opinion is not yet at one on this point, though the force of growing evidence seems to imply that at least a notable part of the volcanic gases are original. Final opinion on this point is dependent on what views shall ultimately prevail respecting the conditions in the interior of the earth, and these in turn are much dependent on the mode of origin of the earth. Perhaps it will be generally agreed that feeding from the interior is one of the sources of atmospheric supply, and that it helps to offset the depletion caused by chemical union with the earth substance; in other words, that the earth body gives out as well as takes in at- mospheric material. It is not apparent, however, that there is any special automatic balancing of these opposite processes, such as ap- pears to be requisite for maintaining the delicate adjustment on which the secular continuity of life depends. The ocean acts as a regulator of the atmosphere by alternately absorbing into itself and giving out atmospheric gases under the control of the equilibrium that exists between the gases in the water and in the air. This action is automatic and appears to be important. It has, however, its peculiarities and its limitations, and it does not seem to be wholly adequate, even when added to the preceding agencies. If it is possible at the present stage of inquiry to point to an addi- tional automatic action that promises to supplement the preceding in such a way as to make up a competent regulative mechanism, it seems to me most likely to lie in the high speed necessarily attained by some of the molecules of all atmospheres which causes them to escape from the gravity of the body about which they are gathered and to fly off into the sphere of control of some adjacent body, thus giving rise to an interchange of atmospheric matter. It seems safe to affirm that such interchanges prevail, but it remains to learn how effective these interchanges may be. The results of personal inquiries that have been in progress for some time have not yet been submitted to the full criticism of those best qualified to test them, and they can 97578°—sm 1910——25 386 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. cnly be drawn on here with reservation, but they seem at least to promise important help in solving the problem of a regulative system. A close analysis of the movements of the molecules of the outer atmosphere leads to the belief that the prevailing states there are distinctly different from the collisional states that prevail near the earth. The movements in the outer atmospheres seem to be in an essential part orbital in nature, and this orbital atmosphere may log- ically be supposed to occupy in an extremely attenuated way some large part of the whole sphere of the earth’s control. There should, under the same reasoning, be a similar orbital extension of the atmos- phere of the sun, and this extremely attenuated extension of the sun’s atmosphere should embrace the earth and its atmosphere. Under the laws of molecular activity, these two atmospheres should be inter- changing molecules at rates controlled by the equilibrium that ex- ists between them. It is logical to infer that any excess above this state of equilibrium that may at any time come fo affect the earth’s atmosphere would cause it to feed out into the sun’s sphere of control faster than the reverse feeding took place, and that any deficiency relative to the equilibrium state that might at any other time come to affect the earth’s atmosphere would lead to a deficient feeding out while it would facilitate a greater feeding in from the sun’s orbital atmosphere. If this logical inference is valid, and if it has the requi- site efficilency—which is a vital question yet to be settled—the main- tenance of the delicate atmospheric conditions requisite for the con- tinuity of life is automatically secured by a cosmic process of a fundamental nature. Under this view the future competency of our atmosphere is not left wholly dependent on losses and gains at the earth’s surface, but is abetted by a system of solar and interplanetary exchanges of a broadly cosmic order. The endyrance of the earth’s atmospheres is thus in a measure wrapped up in the continued efli- ciency of the sun’s activities. If the question of our future be thus wrapped up in the problem of solar endurance, weight must be given to the fact that the sun is sending forth daily prodigious measures of energy. But yet these are not wholly without some gains by way of partial offset. So far as present knowledge goes, however, the gains are greatly inferior to the losses. So long as the radiance of the sun was supposed to be dependent on ordinary chemical action, or on the fall of meteorites, or on self-contraction, it did not seem’ possible to forecast an en- durance of activity sufficient for the direct and indirect needs of ter- restrial life beyond a few million years. These few million years of probable endurance were of course a great advance on the estimates of the endurance of terrestrial conditions suitable for life worked out on the old method of estimate. But recent physical investiga- FUTURE HABITABILITY OF THE EARTH—CHAMBERLIN. 887 tions of a revolutionary character have disclosed sources of energy in radioactivity of an extremely high order. In the light of these dis- closures, the forecast of the sun’s probable power to energize sufli- ciently the activities of its own atmosphere and of ours, and to warm the earth adequately, is raised to an indeterminate order of mag- nitude. We thus find grounds for a complacent prophecy of the earth’s future habitability. This prophecy seems to me to gain strength from its appeal to a series of reciprocities between land and sea, be- tween earth and air, and between the planet and the solar center that seem to have been potent in all the history of the earth from its gen- esis to the present time. But if traditional fears from these domestic sources be dismissed, may we hold ourselves free from impending dangers from the heavens without? So far as present knowledge goes, one tangible possibility of dis- aster from without our system seems to be contingent; the possibility _ of collision with some celestial body, or, what is many times more contingent, such a close approach to some massive celestial body as to lead to serious disruptive effects. Within the solar system, the harmonies of movement already established are of such an order as to give assurance against disaster for incalculable ages. Comets do indeed pursue courses that may, theoretically at least, bring about collision, but comets do not usually appear to possess masses sufficient to work disaster to the life of the earth, as a whole, whatever local catastrophies might be suffered at the points of impact. The motions of the stars trend in diverse directions, so that collisions and close approaches between them seem, theoretically, possible and probable, if not inevitable. There are in the heavens also many nebule and perhaps other forms of scattered matter, and there are doubtless also dark bodies, all of which offer possibilities of collision. The appear- ance of new stars flashing out suddenly and then gradually dying away suggests the actual occurrence of collisions or disastrous ap- proaches. Though these seem destructive on their face, and are so, no doubt, it has been held that the close approach of suns is one of the regenerative processes of the heavens, and that by it old plane- tary systems are dispersed and new systems brought into being. One phase of the planetesimal hypothesis is built on this conception. Ti postulates the close approach of some massive body to our ancestral sun long ago, and that by this approach the sun’s former planetary system, if it had one, as is thought probable, was dispersed, and at the same time the matter for the present planetary system was thrown out into a nebulous orbital state by the explosive power resident in the sun aided by the differential pull of the great body that was 388 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. passing near. However this may be, it must be conceded that in collision and close approach lie possibilities of ultimate disruption to the solar system and disaster to our earth. But here, as in other vital issues, the degree of danger is deter- mined by the time elements involved. How imminent is this lability to disaster ? The distances between the stars are so enormous that the contin- gencies of collision or disastrous approach are very remote. Although nothing but rough computations can be made, and even these must be based on assumptions whose validity is open to doubt, the chance of a given sun or planetary system falling on disaster from collision or close approach seems to be of some such order as once in some few billions of years. There is no star whose nearness to us or whose direction of motion is such as to appear to threaten the earth at any specific time in the future. There is only the general theoretical possibility or probability when time enough is allowed. _ While, therefore, there is to be, with little doubt, an end to the - earth as a planet, and while perhaps previous to that end a state in- hospitable to life may be reached, the forecast of these contingencies from the point of view herein taken places the event far ahead in the indeterminate future. The geologic analogies give fair ground for anticipating conditions congenial to life for millions or tens of mil- lions of years to come, not to urge the even greater possibilities. This answer to the question of the future habitability of the earth, even if the conditions remain congenial to man, does not necessarily carry the actual realization of the future opportunities thus open to our race. Congenial conditions granted, there still arise questions as to man’s continued biological adaptation, as to the tenacity of his vital powers and as to the consequences of his own choices of action. If an appeal be made to the record of the animal races for an argu- ment from analogy, it is easy to find some cases of marvelous endur- ance and some cases of very short records, while the majority fall between these extremes. Many families of animals persisted for millions of years, and the average record known to us is much greater than the record already made by man. On historical grounds, then, a long career can not be denied to man—neither can it be assured. It is an individual race problem. It is a special case in the problem of races in the largest sense of the term. In distinction from the animal races, two new factors of deep import enter into the problem of human endurance, one the power of a definite moral purpose, and the other the resources of research. No previous race has shown clear evidence that it was guided by moral purpose in seeking ends not immediately before it and not connected with its physical requirements. In the human race such moral purpose has risen into a declared distinctness. As it grows FUTURE HABITABILITY OF THE EARTH—CHAMBERLIN. 889 with the higher development of the race, beyond question it will count in the perpetuity of man, or of the superman into which he may evolve. No doubt it will come to weigh more and more as the resources of helpful and harmful indulgence are increased by human ingenuity. New issues will arise as man is put to trial by new temptations to the deleterious and new promptings to rectitude. Organic ethics will quite certainly become more critical in deciding the strains that shall live on and the strains that shall perish, as the growing multiplicity of numbers brings upon the race with increasing stress those phases of the struggle for existence that are distinctively human. The ethical factor will, beyond question, be more fully rec- ognized as a source of perpetuity or as a cause of extinction, accord- ing as the criterion of the survival of the fittest shall render its unim- peachable verdict on what is organically good and what is organically evil, as determined by the actual working test. But to be most efficient, moral purpose must not only be shaped by the highest intelligence, it must be united in action with specific knowledge of the conditions under which it works and of the agencies which it may control. Herein lies the function of research, for re- search is to be looked upon as the sole reliable means of trustworthy knowledge. None of the earlier races made systematic inquiry into the conditions of life, nor did they consciously seek thereby to pro- tract their racial careers. What can research yet do for the extension of the career of man? We are witnesses of what it is beginning to do in making the forces of nature subservient to man’s purposes and in giving him command over the maladies that hedge him about. Can research master the secrets of vital endurance; can it reveal the mysteries of heredity; can it disclose the fundamental processes that condition the longevity of the race? The answer must be left to the future; but I take no risk in affirming that when moral purpose and research come to be the preeminent characteristics of our race by voluntary adoption and by the selective action of the survival of the fittest, and when these most potent attributes join in an unflagging endeavor to compass the highest development and the greatest. per- petuity of the race, the true era of humanity will really have been begun. ute BOEING, oares ‘labia © iy ia sy ttbioab, wi feat tia nom agaaxad la ot ai ies led AR np meer i 8.) 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(ue ti doi ta Go neared te attaout ofinilos olye odjaa soni fodnot adap xi Aor ’ iz: vA LIN) by Pa paler wb ait BPG, ulate 9 ne) lo i Ai gulvbitan Draco. 1dawd) ye Waoinanos rradh Mabe site anil. do anothh 2RStES htoy totewsn oe lad... 2reyteo leiden os wiiemad i ii duit fo eoeenedive ata a lS age toe Dun MMT oT OF Jae TWel jer lite eurhia to ral Mt 0 1 gilt, gris Sk i e Jvots oul opbol tal. xibelear, odt.cpsrw Pr eeaserericey | assiahy bate Ag 90) (Some si-s0. Sooty bate La liv to alee od b tata pep sly atee wi. ity): sono) Lainounebryt odd senloeif sinas suieboend.to | tal, “f heii, some ad Tair ald ty tiivennel oad LWih. SOE G | Laaogr sspily dash msnigins ihe Laden onialei I ‘aie “lh goan Tio, 3.20 ‘iolompily Anpatnapatal atl $91 Od one them it ho juwrinigs. od to nottor evitosen ot 40 hens woitqgobay ae ay GeHuip sin. 1. gig paiudittie hopkogg Joounitdancd le faves , ni deolnete sib baw Jung otayabpdaaaky ok aah, PARTING OF WE a4 [ sw Mia ont of) e081 abd tos ms i veil wil ect Tews Winans “i aH Ly 8 eras ar J te . as ? 7s i } Mme TO, G AT ithilg4 é b a. 74 He « in ‘Lopes ils f P : = ee ——" 3 : rit ry rita! HhHdUreat ie Ope T1e b- z ’ ; ‘ ; é « “a 4 ¢ 4 cit * inne - ih brid tela ca, “ 7s 7 hn alwar vesdenee hep i wi te ain. FD ue vbr tixbely bat i att ; Chi sp eirets) epi Th hhh Rivral Porcir he 1 thie a dened dieing 7 ‘av Toe e “f ) . y 7 Aaa): %) ~ = Poe he eo ~ 7 Sale a Po, oo | on . . - al * aa WHAT IS TERRA FIRMA?—A REVIEW OF CURRENT RESEARCH IN ISOSTASY. [With 3 plates.] By BatLey WILLIS. What are the foundations of the earth? On what do mountains, continents, and ocean basins rest? When men build they look to it that the foundations are firm enough to support the weight of the structure, or the building crushes its foundation and falls. Are there any rocks firm enough to bear the weight of mountains or continents without crushing? The crushing strength of rocks, as ascertained in a testing ma- chine, varies from 8,000 to 20,000 pounds to the square inch, and their average density is such that the weight of a column 3 to 5 miles high would crush its base. But among mountains there are many that are more than 3 miles high and some that exceed 5 miles. Their pyramidal form aids that portion of the foundation which is beneath the high peaks, but it has nevertheless been observed in tun- neling that the rocks are in a state of great strain, as was the case, for instance, with the granite penetrated by the Simplon Tunnel beneath the Alps. In the case of a plateau the form is that of a block, and where the height exceeds 3 miles the base probably approaches a crushed con- dition. Tibet thus stands above the general level of the Asiatic Continent. Asia itself may be described as a plateau, having an un- even surface, but rising on the average 3 to 4 miles above the bottoms of the ocean basins. Considered, then, as a mass whose base is on a level with the depths of the oceans, Asia is so high that its weight must exceed the load which can be supported by rocks, as we know them. The same is true of other continents. Thus it seems reasonable to think that the foundations or rocks beneath the continents may approach a crushed condition or may actually be crushed. Our thought has passed from mountains to plateaus and to conti- nents. The foundations of continents comprise one-fourth of the 391 392 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. earth’s outer crust. The three-fourths which underlie the ocean beds obviously are no exception to the conditions described. At depths of 3 miles or more the rocks beneath the ocean basins must also be loaded beyond the strength of rocks at the surface and must approach a crushed condition. This crushed condition is not, however, that of rocks which fall apart when crushed, for the foundations of continents and ocean beds are part of the solid earth and are continuous all about the sphere. There is, therefore, no space into which any crushed mass may crumble. The strength of the rocks may be overcome, but they can not fall apart. This condition has been reproduced experi- mentally and it has been shown that marble and even the firmest granite may be forced to change form, yet be held to a coherent solid. The rock under these conditions may be compared to wax, if only we bear in mind that it remains all the time a very strong solid. The zone of crushing without separating has been called the zone of flow or flowage, because the movement of any rock mass under such pressures is compared with that of a very stiff fluid. But the word flow conveys an idea of mobility, and is thus misleading. It is necessary constantly to insist that rocks in the zone of flowage are rigid solids. Solution plays an important part in the flow of rocks. Not that any large mass is dissolved at any particular time, but by the solu- tion of a minute grain or molecule, which then flows from the point at which it was dissolved to a point where it is redeposited. The condition which causes solution is a slight excess of pressure or of temperature or both; and deposition from solution follows where these slight excesses disappear. Rocks are composed of mineral particles which differ widely in solubility and under adequate differ- ences of pressure the less soluble may be granulated microscopically, whereas those crystals which are soluble in any moisture or mineral solution that may be present are dissolved and then recrystallized on a point that is less hard pressed. The individual element of motion is microscopic or even molecular, but the sum total of move- ments may affect a mass of subcontinental dimensions during a geo- logic epoch; that is to say, during a million years or several million years, more or less. Movements in the foundations of continents are exceedingly slow. In the zone of crushing, any rock mass of limited horizontal dimen- sions may be regarded as the base of a column that reaches to the surface of the earth. Being crushed by the weight of the superin- cumbent mass it seeks to spread sidewise; but it can not because each adjacent mass, which is the base of an equally heavy column, also seeks to spread in the same manner and to the same degree. If at any depth in the zone of crushing one mass be under a heavier load WHAT IS TERRA FIRMA ?—wlILLIS. 393 than that borne by another adjacent to it, then the base of the heavier column will tend to spread with greater horizontal force than that exerted by the lighter column; but in order to cause move- ment, the excess of thrust from the heavier must be greater than the strength of the rocks under the lighter load. The last conclusion follows because the material against which the excess of horizontal pressure is directed is held to the condition of a rigid solid by the very load that crushes it. It may seem as though the approximate balance of lateral pres- sures in the foundations of mountains, continents, and ocean basins were sufficient to explain the apparent stability of terra firma. But it will not have escaped attentive thought that the pressure beneath the mass of the Tibetan Plateau is sufficient to cause rocks at its base to spread near sea level. Or that the continental plateaus stand so high that their weight approaches the crushing strength of ordi- nary rocks near the level of the oceanic plateaus beneath the waters. Any lateral pressures, which may exist at these levels, are not op- posed by lateral stress from an adjacent mass and stability depends upon the firmness of the rocks. Since the Tibetan Plateau and others stand, and since continents are stable, at least during very long periods of time, it would seem that rocks under these great loads must be stronger than the same rocks in the testing machine. This is no doubt to a certain extent true, and there is some experi- mental evidence to show that the rigidity of rocks increases greatly under high pressures. The resistance which any solid offers to a permanent change of form is known to physicists as the viscosity of the solid, and it may safely be said that the viscosity of a solid increases under pressures applied from all directions in. some ratio for each particular substance that is as yet unknown, but which, no doubt, gives the rigidity of steel to rocks a few miles below the surface of the earth. Here we must introduce the idea of time. There is evidence to indicate that the huge masses of continents are not firm enough to maintain their altitude permanently; that in the lapse of ages they do spread laterally with a glacier like motion; and that the spreading lowers the surface. When this happens to a continent that has already been reduced by erosion to a low plain, the conditions are peculiarly favorable for submergence of the land beneath the sea, as has repeatedly occurred in the history of continents. There is, furthermore, abundant evidence to show that at other times the bases of continents have been compressed laterally, squeezed, as it were. This effect has long been attributed to a contraction of the earth in cooling, as was first suggested by Dana, but the advances of geologic knowledge have greatly strengthened an old objection— namely, that contraction by cooling is inadequate to account for the 394 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. amount of compression which the continents have suffered. While we know that continents have been squeezed, it is not known that ocean beds have been similarly affected. The broad flat ocean bot- toms have rather the form of surface of a mass which flattens and spreads under its own weight. The writer has suggested that the spreading masses below the oceans may squeeze the masses beneath the continents, and finds a cause therefor in the fact that a cubic mile of the former is heavier than one of the latter. This brings us to the idea of differences of density in the earth’s crust. As far back as 1880 an English physicist, Airy, entertained the idea that some parts of the earth’s crust might be heavier, some lighter, and in 1855 he contributed the suggestion to a discussion by Pratt of the attraction exerted by the Himalaya Mountains. In course of surveys in India it had been found that the great mass of that mountain range exerts an attraction, which was, however, much less than it should be according to calculation, if the mass beneath the Himalayas were of the same density as that beneath the penin- sula of India. Hence Airy and Pratt suggested that the mountains must be lighter.* When Pratt wrote in 1885 no one doubted but that the earth had cooled from a molten condition, become covered with a rigid crust, and finally assumed its present configuration with all the detail of ocean basins, continents, and mountains. Although Pratt and Airy did not wholly agree, they both explained the lightness of the moun- tains by reasoning based on the processes of cooling and floatation of the crust on the still fluid interior. Now that it is known that the earth has the rigidity of steel and can not possibly be liquid within, the basis of their reasoning has disappeared and their theories are no longer entertained; but the inference as to the lightness of the mountains has been confirmed not only in regard to the Himalayas. but for many other mountain ranges. It has also been shown that continental masses are relatively hight as compared with those be- neath the oceans. And it follows that if we think of a column be- neath the continent and one beneath the ocean extending down to a common level, the taller column of lighter material can be of the same weight as the shorter column of heavier material. The two columns might then balance each dther or be in equilibrium. It seemed probable to Dutton and Gilbert 20 years ago that this relation of equilibrium was characteristic of the masses that make up the outer earth. Dutton discussed the problem in the following terms: If the earth were composed of homogeneous matter, its normal figure of equilibrium, without strain, would be a true spheroid of revolution; but if 1Ppratt, J. H. A treatise on Attractions, Laplace’s Functions, and the Figure of the Barth, 4th ed., pp. 98-94, 1871. : WHAT IS TERRA FIRMA ?—wmILLIS. 395 heterogeneous, if some parts were denser or lighter than others, its normal figure would no longer be spheroidal. Where the lighter matter was accumu- lated there would be a tendency to bulge, and where the denser matter existed there would be a tendency to flatten or depress the surface. For this condition of equilibrium of figure, to which gravitation tends to reduce a planetary body, irrespective of whether it be homogeneous or not, I propose the name isostasy. * * * We may also use the corresponding adjective, isostatic. * * #* The question which I propose is: ‘‘ How nearly does the earth’s figure approach to isostasy ?”’* Gilbert,? in a measure, proposed an answer to Dutton’s question. He had been engaged in original studies of the rigidity or strength of the earth’s crust and had calculated that there was a limit to the mass which it could support without yielding. He expressed his view very conservatively, saying: It is believed that the following theorem or working hypothesis is worthy of consideration and of comparison with additional facts: Mountains, moun- tain ranges, and valleys of magnitude equivalent to mountains, exist generally in virtue of the rigidity of the earth’s crust; continents, continental plateaus, and oceanic basins exist in virtue of isostatic equilibrium in a crust hetero- geneous as to density. Researches as to the distribution of lighter and denser masses in the outer earth have been greatly extended and highly refined since 1889. Dutton’s general law is recognized as true. The larger ele- vations and hollows of the earth’s surface are due to the balance of lighter and denser masses. Gilbert’s suggestion that mountain-like masses and hollows are rigidly supported, commands consideration by conservative students. It is, however, apparently contradicted by the exhaustive calculations of the geodesist, Hayford, who concludes that the balance postulated by Dutton extends to masses which are much smaller than any which Dutton or Gilbert. regarded as prob- ably in equilibrium. In order to understand the present state of the problem we may briefly review the methods that have been employed in making observations. Gravity is the force which causes bodies to fall toward the earth or a pendulum to swing. Its intensity may be measured by the velocity attained by a falling body at the end of a second, or by the number of swings that a pendulum of definite length will make in a definite time. The latter method of measurement is capable of very great accuracy and is used for all observations of the intensity of gravity on land. In order that the determinations may attain the desired precision and yet be carried out within a reasonable time, a highly specialized apparatus is used. The form employed by the Coast 1 Dutton, C. HE. On some of the Greater Problems of Physical Geology. Phil. Soc. Wash., Bull., vol. 11, pp. 51-64, 1889. 2Gilbert, G. R. The Strength of the Harth’s Crust (abstract). Geol. Soc. Am., Bull. vol. 1, pp. 28-25, 1889. 396 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. and Geodetic Survey is shown in plate 1. A set of invariable pendulums is swung in an air-tight case in a partial vacuum, at a uniform temperature. An electrical flash apparatus makes the half- second beats of a chronometer visible and permits the observer to note when the beat coincides with a swing of the pendulum. The time of oscillation of the pendulum at the station where the intensity of gravity is to be ascertained is compared with the time of oscilla- tion under identical conditions at a station at which the intensity is known. The desired value of gravity is then calculated. The value thus obtained for the intensity of gravity at any par- ticular place can be compared with the intensity at other places only by making all the conditions of attraction the same for both places. Let it be supposed that any two results which are to be compared have been obtained at stations that differ in latitude, in altitude above sea, and in topographic surroundings. Then account must be - taken of all these conditions. Latitude and altitude both affect the distance from the earth’s center and gravity varies inversely as the square of that distance. Hence observations are reduced to sea level and are then compared with the normal value of gravity for the latitude of the observation according to a formula constructed by the German geodesist, Helmert. Suppose, for instance, that an observation for gravity had been made in a balloon over the sea. It would be necessary to correct the result for the altitude of the balloon and compare with the normal value given by Helmert’s formula for that latitude. This is what has been called the “ free-air reduction.” It is always made. The calculation of the influence of position and topographic sur- roundings involves theoretical postulates which distinguish three different methods. One may be described as the method of high rigidity, since it rests upon the postulate of a rigid earth of uniform density. The other two both develop from the assumption of iso- static equilibrium, but they differ in that according to one the balance is supposed to be complete, but according to the other it is partial. An illustration may serve to make the distinctions clearer. Let us transfer the place of observation from the balloon over the sea to the top of a lighthouse rising from sea level. The reduction - for elevation, the “ free-air reduction,” must be made as before, but correction must also be apphed for the mass of the lighthouse, which is an excess of material, added to and rigidly upheld by the rocks at sea level. It exerts an additional attraction, which must be de- ducted from the observed value in order to obtain the true value of gravity at sea level beneath the lighthouse. According to the pos- tulate of high rigidity, all elevations on the earth’s surface above 1Tllustration kindly furnished by Mr. Geo. R. Putnam. "ALIAVYD ONINNSVAI HOS SNLVEVddY WNINGNAad CIR \\, SS STEER > IHM—0O16) ‘Hodey uejuosyyiWs "| aLlvid PLATE 2. Smithsonian Report, 1910.—Willis. ree eter i HECKER’S APPARATUS FOR MEASURING GRAVITY AT SEA. WHAT IS TERRA FIRMA ?—WwILLIS. 397 sea level are excesses of mass which exert a similar extra attraction. A similar correction must therefore be applied to all observations which are calculated under that hypothesis. This was the reasoning of Bouguer, a French mathematician, who calculated the gravity obser- vations made from 1736 to 1739 in Peru. The method is therefore known as Bouguer’s method, and the mathematical formula as Bouguer’s formula. Had the lhghthouse in this illustration not been an extra mass, added to the rock mass of its foundations, the correction for excess of mass should not have been made. But under the hypothesis of complete isostatic balance there is no excess of mass, since that hy- pothesis rests upon the assumption that all parts of the earth’s crust which are, we will say, a mile square have the same mass, the heights of the columns above some common level within the earth being inversely proportioned to the density of the materials. The common level of the bases of the columns may be 100 miles below sea level, or it might be the center of the earth. All columns of the same cross section rising from it to sea level or to the heights of the Hima- layas have the same mass by hypothesis. Hence there should be no correction for excess. The assumption of complete isostatic equi- librium is the basis of Hayford’s work, which we shall see is the most recent and most exhaustive investigation of the subject. We shall therefore refer to the method of reduction based on it as Hay- ford’s method. Some thinkers on this subject hold that isostatic dette Bi can not be complete for every hill and valley of the surface, nor even for every mountain. They admit, however, the assumption that ex- tensive masses, such as that of a whole mountain range or plateau, and defects of mass, such as that of the basin of the Black Sea, may be compensated or in equilibrium. The reasoning in this case pro- ceeds on the basis that the mass of any large feature would be bal- anced at the altitude of a “mean plain,” which is a hypothetical plain, that would be produced by leveling off the hills till the mass removed from them just filled the valleys. The total mass remains unchanged, since nothing has been added and nothing subtracted. The position of the mean plain depends upon the irregularities of the surface and is independent of the altitude of the station at which the observation for gravity is made. The mean plain may therefore lie above or below the station. If it les above, there is a mass be- tween the two which exerts an upward attraction and reduces the observed value of gravity by an amount which must be added to it; whereas if the mean plain lies below the station there is an excess of mass whose attraction is included in the original value observed and for which a deduction must be made. This method was first suggested by a French mathematician named Faye, and is 398 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. known as Faye’s method; but Putnam and Gilbert were the first to put it in practice and to elaborate the idea of the mean plain. In the discussion of Hayford’s method it will be seen that there is a correction for topography which is analogous to that for mean plain in Faye’s method, but which has reference to a “theoretic plain that passes through the station.” The test which is applied to the results of calculations made under any one of these three different assumptions is that of agreement. All the values of gravity calculated by one and the same method should be the same. All the corrections which are applied are in- tended to eliminate from the original observation those items of attraction which may render the observed value greater or Jess than the normal value. Any difference which remains points to some factor that has been overlooked or to an erroneous assumption. That method of reduction which yields results in closest accord with each other is assumed to be nearest the truth. We shall first contrast the assumption of high rigidity with that of partial isostatic balance combined with partial rigid support; and then compare the latter with the assumption of completed isostatic balance, referring to the three methods, respectively, by the names of their authors, as Bouguer’s, Faye’s, and Hayford’s. In Bouguer’s time no one doubted but that the earth’s crust was very rigid. All masses above sea level were regarded as heaps upon the rigid crust and all depressions below sea level were taken to be defects of mass in the spheroid whose surface should correspond with that of the sea. Bouguer therefore corrected all observations for gravity by subtracting the attraction of the mass between the station and sea level. He obtained very small values. The intensity of gravity appeared to be so slight that Laplace, in the Mecanique Celeste, calculated the density of the material beneath the Andes as about equal to that of water, and he gravely suggested that the ob- served lightness might be due to great caverns within the volcanic zone. This suggestion is now recognized as quite untenable since rocks are not strong enough to maintain open spaces under the pres- sures that exist beneath the Andes. A great many observations for gravity were made during the century and a half between 1739 and 1895, and all, so far as the writer knows, were reduced by Bouguer’s method. They yielded a general result: The intensity of gravity on continents was found to be less than normal and was particularly low on high mountains; whereas the intensity was great on oceanic islands. Hence followed the conclusion that continents are light and suboceanic masses heavy. But Bouguer’s method yielded extreme results. Oceanic masses appeared to be very heavy and continents seemed excessively light, as Laplace’s calculation of the density of the Andes should have WHAT IS TERRA FIRMA ?—wILLIS. 399 shown. The anomalies resulting from Bouguer’s formula led Faye, in 1880, to suggest that the correction for the attraction of the mass between the station and sea level should be omitted. He reasoned correctly that this mass is balanced and therefore is not equivalent to a weight which is carried by the rigidity of the crust. He dis- tinguished between the masses which are “compensated,” or, as we now say, balanced isostatically, and those which are in the nature of loads superimposed upon the crust, and he wrote: It must be clearly understood that even if the thickness of the continents above the sea has no place in the computation, this is not true, for example, of the mass of the great pyramid of Egypt, if one were to observe the oscilla- tions of the pendulum at its summit. In that case, after having reduced the observation to the level of the sea, it would be necessary to subtract the effect of attraction of the pyramid above the level of the ground. In the same manner, if Bouguer had carried his pendulum to the summit of Pechincha, 1,500 meters above the level of Quito, it would be necessary to take account of the attraction of this mountain upon the pendulum of Bouguer. It will be noted that Faye regarded the mountain Pechincha as a mass upheld by rigidity, but considered compensation or balance to be the condition of the larger mass below the plain of Quito. He had thus been led by studies in geodesy to views which Gilbert reached in 1889 by independent geological investigations. But Gil- bert went further than Faye. He estimated the magnitude of the mass which the earth would support rigidly and placed it tentatively between 400 and 600 cubic miles. Faye’s method was first employed by Putnam in 1895 and inde- pendently by Gilbert, who collaborated with Putnam in the study of gravity observations made in the United States under the Coast and Geodetic Survey. Putnam’s results were also calculated according to Bouguer’s method by Gilbert as well as by himself. The comparison with Faye’s method was greatly in favor of the latter,-as the values ob- tained by Faye’s method were much more accordant, when reduced to sea level and the same latitude, than those obtained by Bouguer’s from the same observations. The comparison was so much to the dis- advantage of the older method that it may be said to be no longer worthy of consideration, and the very many results reached by it are of relatively slight value. The accordance of results by Faye’s method was so satisfactory that Putnam and Gilbert may be credited with having established beyond question the principle of isostasy as applied to the larger features of relief of the earth’s surface. The small number (35) of stations considered by them and the limitations necessarily placed upon the computations for corrections nevertheless lessen the value of their estimates as to the load that the earth could bear rigidly. 400 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. Putnam himself stated in his article that the residuals obtained by his computation was not precise. In order to understand this qualification of their results it is neces- sary to consider the method of reducing the “mean plain.” The position of that plain is such that the masses represented by hills, mountains, or plateaus above it are equal to the defects of mass represented by valleys or wider depressions below it. The position is calculated from topographic maps, whose accuracy thus enters into the computation, but a more important factor is the radius of the area about each station to which the estimate is extended. Gil- bert took a radius of 30 miles and Putnam a radius of 75 miles, both investigators being limited by the labor of computation to a smaller area about each station than they would have chosen. Hayford has since shown that the attractions due to topographic features out to a distance exceeding 2,500 miles are not negligible, and for a work on the intensity of gravity in the United States, which is the latest published, he has extended the computations to the features of the entire globe. Thus the detailed residuals of gravity, the differences from the normal, obtained by Putnam and Gilbert, are suggestive rather than precise. Those investigators proved the isostatic balance of large features, but they did not demonstrate how small a feature may be isostatically balanced or how large a feature may be rigidly supported. We have thus compared the hypothesis of high rigidity of the earth’s crust with that of partial isostatic balance, entirely to the advantage of the latter. There remains the hypothesis of complete isostatic compensation, which postulates that all parts of the earth are nicely balanced. Hayford has employed this assumption as the basis of the most refined and extensive investigations as yet made on the subject. The data which he has used are derived from the work of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey and the computations have been executed by that organization. There are two elaborate investi- gations. One relates to deflections of the plumb line from the true vertical as determined at 507 stations of the precise triangulation which is the basis of the geodetic survey of the United States.1 The other investigation relates to observations with the pendulum for gravity.” Deflections of the plumb line are determined in precise triangula- tion by comparing the direction of the apparent vertical line with the true vertical which is fixed astronomically. 1Hayford, J. F. The figure of the earth and isostasy from measurements in the United States. U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, 1909. 2Hayford, J. F. Supplementary investigation in 1909 of the figure of the earth and isotasy. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, 1910. WHAT IS TERRA FIRMA ?—wILLIS. 401 The deflection is due to lateral attraction, which may be exercised by mountain masses or by dense bodies within the earth’s crust lying on one side of the station, or by both sources of attraction. The in- fluence of topographic features, whose masses are more or less ac- curately -determinable, can be calculated. There then remains a residual attraction which is presumably due to a dense body, but before accepting that conclusion it is necessary to eliminate any erroneous assumption that might have a similar effect. Among the subsidiary investigations which Hayford made was one relating to the depth below sea level at which all the columns which extend downward from the earth’s surface are balanced. At one extreme he calculated the values of gravity on the assumption that this depth, which is called the depth of compensation, is zero; that is, there exists immediately below every elevation the full compensating defect of density and below every depression the full compensating excess of density necessary to balance the inequalities of height. At the other extreme he calculated the values of gravity on the assump- tion that the depth of compensation is infinity; that is to say, the earth is so rigid that there is no compensation in the finite radius. He also made similar computations for intermediate depths of the level of compensation. That which gave the most accordant values of gravity and which is therefore regarded as most reliable was at first ascertained to be 114 kilometers, but was subsequently corrected to 120.9 kilometers. Helmert has arrived at the value of 123 kilometers by independent computations. There is, therefore, no doubt but that this value commands a certain confidence under the primary assump- tion of complete isostatic compensation. It may, however, be re- garded as an average, from which there are in fact greater or less variations in different localities, and it also depends upon the postu- late that the density of each individual column remains the same from the surface to the bottom at 123 kilometers. It is more probable that the density increases downward, and this would somewhat modify the value of 120.9 kilometers. Nevertheless this conception of a definite lower limit to the zone of compensation is of the highest value. At and below that depth all pressures due to gravity are by hypothesis equal. In calculating the topographic correction before making the vari- ous computations for the depth of compensation, Hayford took ac- count of all irregularities of the earth’s surface to a distance of 2,564 miles from each station in all directions. The immense labor of these computations was brought within practicable limits by special methods devised to that end. As the stations ranged in position from the Atlantic to the Pacific coast, the depths of the Atlantic and Pa- cific basins were included among the features considered, as well as 97578°—smM 1910——26 402 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. the highlands and mountain ranges of the continent. In the direct studies for gravity the scope of these computations has been extended to the features of the entire earth. This topographic correction in Hayford’s. investigations occupies the place which the calculation of the “mean plain” takes in those of Putnam and Gilbert. But the plain of reference for the topo- graphic correction under the assumption of complete isostatic com- pensation is the “ theoretic plain ” at the altitude of the station indefi- nitely extended in all directions. The mean plain and the theoretic plain will rarely if ever coincide, and the corrections therefore have different values. It is much to be desired that the “mean plain” correction and Faye’s method, as used by Putnam and Gilbert, should be applied to all available data with the scope and detail employed by Hayford in order that we may have a comparison of the two methods on equally reliable results. The reason for this statement will appear presently in considering certain geological data that bear on the choice of method. Hayford found that at each station there remained residual de- flections of the plumb line after all the corrections had been made, and he regarded these residuals as evidence of departures from complete isostatic compensation. He says on this point: For the United States and adjacent areas it is safe to conclude from the evidence just summarized that the isostatic compensation is so nearly complete on an average that the deflections of the vertical are thereby reduced to less than one-tenth of the mean yalue which they would have if no isostatic com- pensation existed. One may properly characterize the isostatic compensation as departing on an average less than one-tenth from completeness or perfection. This statement should not be interpreted as meaning that there is everywhere a slight deficiency in compensation. It is probable that under some areas there is Overcompensation as well as undercompensation in others. Interpreting the preceding estimate in terms of altitude, Hayford places the average departure for the Continent of North America from that altitude which would correspond to perfect compensation at 250 feet. He further states that the maximum horizontal extent which a feature, such as a mountain, can have and escape compensa- tion is between a square mile and a square degree. It is evident that Hayford’s studies on isostasy exceed all previous ones in exhaustive detail and in precision. Nevertheless there are geological considerations which suggest that the assumption of com- plete compensation is less satisfactory as a basis of reasoning than that of partial compensation and partial rigidity. To present these considerations we must proceed from the fact that the features of continents are not permanent. They are the transient effects of two processes, uplift and erosion, which are opposed to each other, and which act intermittently. During certain epochs, of which the present is one, uplift has been dominant. Then continents Smithsonian Re Cleveland in metres. Mt. Hamilton rences, observed minus computed gravity: 2 = | 3 & oa: Bae Qo 8 <= oO Philadelphia N Princeton Uy Zp Br. Pa: ninus compuled gravity anly (dashed line). THE NORRIS PETERS CO., WASHINGTON, D.C Smithsonian Report, 1910—Willis. Plate 3, Fig.1. “6 ig i: 3000 BE Yi +200 2000 yf Z 7/7 : Stations in Latitude 41° to 45° N. : ; 1000 YY Yj > Yy f i : is § a Sea LZ “4 Reduced for elevation £ UVV|VVVUIIIEJIExx==_—™ WZ ne ZZ ZZ aa cree MW bill Uhl prasecane 10 z i “ses@err"” ¢ il 100 ; ; -200 & . 3 ; = 300 3 4000 Pleasant Valley rences, observed minus computed gravity 4 & 15) 3000 My +200 8 | 2 3 r £ b 3 Ss ‘ 3 ra 6 3 2 a 3 5 ° " « © § @ v, rs 8 = = c $ 3 3 2 4 a g 3 - E i: = FY ii § E 2 > a sé RY = a 5 JS Ma > oes Ls > a ee fe Z Sew emge oe = 2 7 A cms, saat a i ee SS — eee x \-feauced for elevation tie ~~’. ee pasar ewe $0 2 yu , ; : ‘ eee po** Stations in Latitude 38 to 41 N. aad a Tae a Spann 300 Diagrams showing relative positions of stations in elevation and longitude and differences observed minus computed gravity when sea level reduction is made by Bouguer's formula (dotted line), ar by correction for elevation anly (dashed line). (Denver is slightly displaced in longitude). Fig. 3. Asia Pavific Ocean North America Atlantic Ocean Africa +300 Australia . < A . 2 4 4 * a oy 3 % 3 £ $3 222 “a 2 9 8 8 Pc) oe Pa 38 5 8 pe 2 o o & & is) = —— ‘ < Scale of differences in dynes —Differences, observed computed gravity, from C. and G. Survey observations. Using Bouguer’s reduction to sea level.....-...-..------ Faye's “ Mo ee JME NORRIS PETERS CO., WASHINGTON, D.C DIAGRAMS ILLUSTRATING THE RESULTS OF PENDULUM OBSERVATIONS ACCORDING TO PUTNAM. e+ tes “A Stations batiiuge” 38 t» 41 WN “* val f ‘e - Pr -, (MAMMA ret ans netlirpAn repr li emeicey obeeeeed a q op siyam » imoahalsheay levi) (ew, mele corresiiun Me olerum Gigikos A Yeowlaash yServoie oh ss sot} ( © pit nee? of a? hs *~ s co > Fae DiTeet Ube) eet 4ia1g etapa herede suarrdtil- — on lorol con 4) gultqmtenn 5 emergent gale a - koget “ tT ANT AM TAMARAD CAEL AVATIONS ACCOMMING TO PUERAM WHAT IS TERRA FIRMA ?—wlILLIS. 403 have been large and mountain chains both numerous and high. At present continents are unusually large and mountains are unusually elevated. During other much longer periods erosion has exceeded uplift. Then continents have become low and featureless; great plains have prevailed; and in consequence of slight subsidence exten- sive lands have been submerged. These are facts of the geological record which admit of no doubt. | ; In this play of processes any particular part of the earth’s surface may reach just that altitude at which it is in perfect isostatic balance, but it is not probable that the equilibrium can be long maintained. If the High Plateaus of Utah be in general in isostatic balance, then the Grand Canyon of the Colorado must be too light by the weight of the rock removed in carving it out of the plateau. It is, further- more, certain that the Grand Canyon is but the beginning of that erosion which will eventually remove as much of the mass of the High Plateaus as les above a plain, which will slope gently from no great altitude to sea level. If the region is now in isostatic balance, it will then be out of balance. Or, to consider another case: It is a commonly accepted fact among physiographers of the present day that the Appalachian region of the eastern United States was a low plain during the Cretaceous and early Tertiary periods. The plain is now warped up to 4,000 feet, more or less, above sea. If it is now in isostatic balance, it was out of balance during the long lapse of time of the periods named. It is reasonable to link the movements which are expressed in the warped surfaces of continents with the stresses that are set up by disturbance of isostatic balance. It is probable that the stresses directly or indirectly cause the movements. But the effect is neither immediate nor constant. The disturbing process, erosion, is a very slow process. The plains which it produces endure during a geologic age. The earth is sufficiently rigid to be very slow in responding to the stress. However, if the hypothetical relation of cause and effect exists between isostatic stress and warping, it is highly probable that equi- librium is most nearly perfect at the culmination of movements of ele- vation, such as the existing relief presumably represents. Valleys excavated by erosion represent disturbances of that equilibrium, which therefore can not be perfect in detail, or even very nearly so, as Hayford assumes and calculates, but the mass of any large area, such as the Great Plains of central North America, or the High Plateaus of Utah, is very probably nearly in equilibrium, considered as a mass and reduced to “ mean plain.” Geological considerations thus afford reason to prefer the method of reduction employed by Putnam and Gilbert, the Faye reduction, rather than that used by Hayford. 404 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. The geological evidence which has been cited to show that iso- static equilibrium can not well exist in detail may be regarded as demonstrating a certain rigidity of the earth’s crust, which is most severely taxed when erosion has planed away the compensating heights to the nearest possible approach to level plains. It is inter- esting to note that, per contra, the isostatic balance is probably most nearly complete in regions of most vigorous mountain growth, or for the continents as a whole is most perfect at a time like the pres- ent, when uplift is most general. If the disturbing process of ero- sion could be eliminated from continental activities the uplifts and subsidences would establish perfect equilibrium or a close approach to it. Now erosion has no effect over those portions of the ocean basins which are beyond the reach of the sediments that surround the-continents and which occupy nearly three-fourths of the surface of the globe. These areas are depressed because they are heavy, according to the hypothesis of isostasy, and should be depressed more or less according to the density of the underlying masses. The adjustment should be nearly or quite complete except where disturbed by vulcanism or by other special stresses. It is, there- fore, of great interest to determine the law of distribution of density beneath the oceans in relation to the depth of the waters, apart from the interest which les in the comparison of oceanic gravitation with that of continents. As it is impossible to observe a pendulum on board ship measure- ments of gravity in ocean areas were restricted to oceanic islands until recently, when they were made possible on the water by a method in which the pressure of the air as shown by a barometer is compared with the pressure of the air as determined by the boiling point of water. In measuring the air pressure with a barometer the air is balanced by the column of mercury, which will be somewhat shorter at a place where the intensity of gravity is high than at a point where the intensity is less. If the air pressure be measured by observing the boiling point of water, the result is independent of any influence of gravity upon the apparatus. By using both methods at a station the effect of gravity on the barometer at that station can be ascer- tained, and by comparing the effects obtained at various stations relative intensities are found. This method, which was originally invented by the German physi- cist Mohn, was adapted to oceanic work by Dr. E. O. Hecker, who devised an elaborate apparatus for the purpose. It consists of five mercurial barometers which are hung in a metal plate swung on gimbals and which are so illuminated that the movements of the upper surface of the mercury are registered on a photographic film. The record is a wavy line, since the barometers are constantly agi- WHAT IS TERRA FIRMA ?—wilILLISs. 405 tated by the motion of the ship, but with the aid of a special appa- ratus which registers that motion the effect on the barometer and their actual reading can be ascertained. (PI. 2.) Hecker took numerous observations on voyages from Lisbon to Bahia, from Bremerhaven through the Mediterranean and Suez Canal to Sidney, from Sidney via New Zealand, Tutuila, and the Sandwich Islands to San Francisco, and thence back to Japan. Apart from certain anomalies in volcanic districts and in the Tonga Deep, which is a vigorous earthquake center, the results correspond with what the theory of isostasy requires. The intensity of gravity over the ocean basins is everywhere normal. That is to say, there is the same mass beneath each part of the ocean surface; each such mass or column is composed of two parts, water above and rock be- low. The shorter the rock part, or the deeper the water, the heavier or denser the rock part must be, or, putting the relation in terms of isostatic balance, we may say the denser the rock the deeper the hollow in the earth’s surface. The confirmation of the isostatic law for the oceanic basins is of great importance in supporting the probability of a similar balance for the continents against the ocean basins and within the conti- nental masses as well. The present state of investigation into the subject of isostasy may reasonably be summed up as follows: It is demonstrated that the larger masses of the outer earth, above a zone 120 kilometers deep, strive toward isostatic equilibrium. The condition of perfect balance has been most nearly attained within the ocean basins; the general balance of the continental plateaus and of the broad features of relief is at present also nearly perfect. If so, it is probable that the culmination of this mountain- building epoch is approaching, or is past. Erosion is a process which destroys those elevations of the conti- nental surface which appear to be essential to equilibrium, and which are probably a result of the effort toward it. The balance at any time is disturbed to the extent that erosion exceeds uplift. The long periods when, according to geologic evidence, lands have been low and featureless, have been periods of failure of equilibrium, periods of stress, when the low continental masses resisted uplift by virtue of rigidity. Isostasy and rigidity both are conditions of the earth’s mass. Their relative effects in the changes of stress in the earth vary with the state of uplift or erosion, and it is an interesting coincidence that intelligent research should investigate the condition during an epoch when equilibrium is most nearly complete and rigidity least severely - stressed. But we may not overlook the fact that this condition is but a transient one. 406 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. If we apply these considerations to the question with which this review began, What are the foundations of the earth? We may answer: The foundations are solid rock, which is self-crushed to a depth of 120 kilometers, more or less, which is rendered sufficiently rigid by pressure to maintain its form during prolonged geologic periods with but very slight change, in spite of stresses occasioned by erosion of continental reliefs, but which is capable of movements that from time to time result in the gradual elevation of continents and the more vigorous uplifts of mountains through which isostatic equilibrium is restored. TRANSPIRATION AND THE ASCENT OF SAP.t By Henry H. Drxon, Se. D., F. R. §., Professor of Botany in the University of Dublin. The water of the transpiration stream enters at the roots, passes up the stem, and is given off from the leaves. It will be convenient to discuss the processes taking place in each of these organs sepa- rately, so far as they affect the stream, and then consider how these processes are correlated. In regard to the exhalation of water vapor from the leaves, early experimenters have shown that cuticular transpiration is usually insignificant compared with diastomatic diffusion. The efficiency of diastomatic transpiration was first clearly explained by Brown and Escombe.* The minute cross sections of the openings of stomata and the com- paratively large area occupied by the practically impermeable cuticle made it difficult to understand how the observed quantities of water escape from the leaf. These authors showed, however, that an unex- pected law governs the diffusion of water vapor through a number of minute perforations in an impermeable membrane. According to this law it follows that the amount which diffuses through the perfo- rations is not only, as one would on first thoughts expect, proportional to the sum of their areas, but may vastly exceed this proportionality ; and consequently the diffusion through a number of minute pores, like the stomata, will be much greater than through one large aperture having a cross Section equal to the sum of the areas of the stomata. In order to obtain a clearer idea of this remarkable result, we will consider in a general way the state of affairs around one stoma, so far as water vapor is concerned. At the level of the stoma the water vapor has a certain density—i. e., the water molecules are more or less crowded, depending on the state of saturation of the external space 1 Reprinted, by permission, in abridged form, from Progressus Rei Botanice. ~ Heraus- gegeben von der Association Internationale des Botanistes, redigiert von Dr. J. P. Lotsy. Dritter Band. Verlag von Gustav Fischer in Jena 1909. 2 Brown and Escombe, Static Diffusion of Gases and Liquids in Relation to the Assimi- lation of Carbon and Translocation in Plants. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond. B., vol. 193, pp. 223-292, 1900, of which an abstract appeared in the Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. 66, and in Ann. of Bot., vol. 14, Sept., 1900, pp. 537-542. 407 408 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. and the amount of water vapor in the stomatal chamber. At some distance outside the stoma the crowding depends solely on the state of saturation of the outside space. When the density outside is less than that at the level of the stoma there will be a gradient of density estab- lished extending outward from the stoma depending on the drift of water molecules from the more crowded level at the stoma to the less dense vapor outside. If we consider a point (a, fig. 1) immediately over the middle of the stoma, the water vapor there will have a cer- tain density intermediate between that of the outside space and that in the stoma. AI] over the middle of the stoma places of the same density of water vapor will be approximately equally removed from the stoma, since these places lie in the general drift of water mole- cules from the stoma outward. Toward the margin of the opening, however, conditions are different. The molecules, jostling against each other as they issue from the stoma, tend to travel laterally as well as straight out from the stoma, so that the crowding at the mar- gin is less intense than over the middle; hence a place (a@’) having the same density as (a) will be closer to the stoma. By connecting up the points of the same den- sity or crowding we get a curve like a’ a a’, which rep- resents the section of a layer (or shell) of equal density arching over the stoma. In the same way at a distance somewhat more removed from the stoma, there will be a layer of less density, and this layer will be at a greater distance from the middle of the stoma than it is from its margin. So we may imagine a series of layers or shells of diminishing density overarching each transpiring stoma, such are are represented in section in figure 1. Of course, in reality the higher density within grades insensibly into the lower density outside; this gradient of density, or crowding of the water molecules, is steeper near the margin than over the middle of the stoma. From this it follows that the flow of molecules outward is less obstructed on the margins. Consequently greater numbers escape there. In other words, the margin is more efficient in trans- mitting water vapor than the middle region of the stoma. As the size of an aperture is reduced the relation of its margin te its area is increased ; for the value of 2 77 does not decrease as fast as 7? when 7 is reduced. So, for a very small aperture like a stoma, the marginal diffusion is very large compared to that over its cross section, and hence the diffusion from a stoma is exceptionally efficient. It will be readily seen that in order to maintain. the efficiency of the marginal diffusion on the outside it is necessary that the diffu- sion streams from adjoining stomata should not interfere with one Fic. 1. TRANSPIRATION AND ASCENT OF SAP—DIXON. 409 another. This necessitates a certain interval between the openings. Brown and Escombe found that a membrane of 1 square centimeter area, perforated with 100 holes 0.38 millimeter diameter and 1 milli- meter apart, transmitted by diffusion under identical conditions as much vapor as an open tube of the same cross section, although the total area of the holes was only 11.34 per cent of the cross section of the tube. When the distance between these holes is increased their efficiency in diffusion rapidly increases; thus, according to these authors, holes of the same diameter 6 millimeters apart on a mem- brane 1 square centimeter in size transmitted one-fifth as much as the open tube, while the total transmitting area was reduced by the inter- position of the membrane to 0.3 per cent of the whole cross section. Figures like these will enable us to form some idea of the efficiency of a leaf. Brown and Escombe,! taking as an example a leaf of Heli- anthus in which the average area of the stomatal opening is 908107 square millimeters (= a circle 0.0107 millimeter diameter) and the spacing of the apertures 8 to 10 diameters, and allowing for the resistance of the stomatal tube (which leads through the epidermis), found that the amount of diffusion from a square meter could be as much as 1,730 cubic centimeters of water per hour, when the state of saturation of the surrounding space was one-fourth of that of the spaces within the leaf. The greatest amount of transpiration observed in the same time was 276 cubic centimeters. This clearly shows that it is not the resistance offered by the stomata to diffusion which puts the limit on transpiration in still air. * * * The considerations just stated show that the stomata when open provide ample means for the exit of water vapor from the inter- cellular spaces of the leaves. We will now proceed to inquire into the physical conditions under which the water vapor enters these spaces. As long as the spaces are not saturated there will be a flux of water molecules from the adjoining moist surfaces into the spaces, since the vapor pressure of the water imbibed by the cell membranes of the mesophyll cells there exceeds the vapor pressure in the ad- joining intercellular spaces. How is this loss made good? On first thoughts it might appear impossible for pure water to pass easily from the cells which possess a considerable osmotic pressure within their more or less perfect semipermeable membranes, and we know experimentally it is not possible to extract water from them by os- mosis unless the pressure of their solutions is balanced by an equal external osmotic pressure. This balancing pressure may amount to several atmospheres.? While this is true in the case of abstracting 1 Brown and Escombe, loc. cit. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond., p. 279. 2H. H. Dixon, Role of Osmosis in Transpiration. Proc. Roy. Irish Acad., ser. 3, vol. 3, 1896, p. 774, and Notes from the Botanical School, Trinity College, Dublin, No. 2, p. 42; Idem, A Transpiration Model. Proc. Roy. Dub. Soec., vol. 10, N. S., 19038, p. 119, and Notes from the Botanical School, Trin. Coll., Dub., No. 6, p. 222. 410 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. water from the cell so as to diminish its total water content, quite a small difference of pressure will cause water to move across the cell when it is distended to its maximum with water. The osmotic pres- sure of the cell then acts simply as a force pushing the protoplasmic lining against its walls, while the water on one side of the cell is free to move across to the other side except for the resistance it expe- riences in passing through the cell walls and protoplasm. In the present instance this force is the difference of vapor pressure existing on the inner and the outer, or evaporating, side of the mesophyll cell. It might happen that this difference would be sufficient to almost keep the wall on the evaporating side flooded with water, and then evaporation into the intercellular space would take place as if from a free liquid surface; or, if evaporation proceeded more rapidly, the liquid surface might retreat into the substance of the evaporating wall. Then the capillary or imbibitional properties of the wall would exert a force drawing the water through the cell and bringing it to the surface of evaporation. The retreat of the water surface would proceed till the capillary forces so produced could bring forward water as fast as it evaporated from the surface and a steady state were arrived at. According to this point of view the submicroscopic spaces occu- pied by the imbibed water in the cell walls are regarded as intensely minute capillary passages. When water is lost, the surface of that which remains behind retreats in the form of innumerable menisci into these spaces. The capillary forces intensify as these menisci increase the sharpness of their curvature, and may attain an ex- tremely high value owing to the fineness of the texture of the cellu- lose. The contraction of cellulose on drying, involving the reduc- tion of these passages, enhances this effect so that the capillary trac- tion drawing the water from the cell within may become enormous. If the supply coming into the cells were small compared with the evaporation, it might be that the steady state would not be attained until the capillary forces, bringing water forward as it evaporated, had actually reduced the volume of water in the cell and conse- quently reduced its turgor. Under these conditions we would have the capillary forces of the outer cell wall pitted against the osmotic solutions in the cell itself, and, if exerting a superior force, drawing water into and across the cell, now somewhat diminished in size and containing a more concentrated ‘solution; but, all the same, the flow across the cell is determined by the difference of vapor pressure on its opposite sides. * * * The most vexed problem of the ascent of sap is how the water rises in the stem to fill the trachee of the leaves. Botanists have sought solutions of this problem in two directions, viz: (1) In the energy transformations taking place in the living TRANSPIRATION AND ASCENT OF SAP—DIXON. 411 parts of the stem, namely, in the cells of the wood and of the medul- lary rays, acting to raise the water, and (2) in the energy trans- mitted and applied by means of the physical properties of the con- ducting tracts and of the water stream itself, not necessarily involv- ing any special vital activity on the part of the cells of the stem. Those hypotheses which belong to the first category may be dis- tinguished as the vital and those of the second as the physical theories of the ascent of sap, PHYSICAL THEORIES. The vital hypotheses of the ascent of the transpiration current take no direct account of the inflow of energy at the leaves. The entire sap-lifting force is applied in the stem. This appears to hold good for all the vital hypotheses with the exception of that of Ewart, who admits that possibly some of the energy needed to raise the water may be directly transmitted downward from the leaves to the stream in the stem. Of course ultimately the energy assumed by the vital hypotheses to be expended in the stem is derivable from the energetic substances formed in the leaves during photosynthesis, and afterwards distributed to the cells of the stem. * * * In 1894 Dr. J. Joly and the author published the first account of their cohesion theory of the ascent of sap. In the work leading up to our theory we naturally submitted the theories of previous investigators, so far as we were acquainted with them, to full con- sideration and experimental examination. In addition to these we subjected various other hypotheses formed by ourselves to investi- gation. As these investigations naturally lead us up to the cohesion theory, it may be permissible to briefly outline them here. In the first place it seemed possible that perhaps gravitation itself might furnish the lifting force of the upward moving water. This, at first, seems paradoxical. Suppose the dilute sap in the leaves to be concentrated by evaporation and by the addition of carbohydrates. The denser fluid thus produced and passed into the tracheids would settle downward. As it passed down it would dis- place upward the less concentrated solutions entering at the root. An accumulation of the denser material in the lower part of the tree may be supposed to be prevented by the abstraction of materials from the concentrated sap all the way down. In this way it is secured that the ascending “raw” sap is just overbalanced by the denser descending column, and the very dilute solutions brought into the root might in this way be raised to any height. A model illus- trating the hypothesis is easily set up. ~~ a ah - ae inne st Mau Te a: neki atiis it U8 yiie Poh ie tis Ss Dihae, 7 SRN Sts ‘ a 4 aa ae a ‘| ii ‘sier} yn fais “7 jre EMTS ad. ey t a i, By al \ } , ow r;< ete | rm t tes « [ > bi re a. 4 oh io} 2/1 oli ‘ ig@ .& ( i ont + 4 . : : i py mat: ¥ i By Al va AAS Bi iy bay ei es dats Be : 7 Z : § ; ote * ee ie A hal) sunectrlcte ay ra wo sodieoyy satiate ' y , We Fig ’ y itg F 640 ° e : j ens \ oY ek 4 y : (VaR ere Beh ly ho i 46te oe + * ; y ' 17 > , | sarrcwy ; ¢ . if Fase : ' Re BE BDI om Ms, ¢ 7 ‘ don . pe2 ULE aA er ft. 7 Ling | ved ' AB) | ‘ p rY¥ Fa ve j TOI TSaauewn 4 . ‘ Te. ae 4 h d 7 , Ly ; ne. im nat ) é hy : 7 Aes ry see Lg ’: AU j rf ; e fic | ty * [ be f 3 ‘ ie X uy sie pen - S Rib. o> iL Gal Ge GUN BUTT ost), 3 iS aa os aise ila sagt yakihe | | Mist od) Th. jniohitele ant Woh li ‘ yy 4 ad ‘4 ‘ et ; ‘ ah 44 ) 7 liy ; Pyeipenine dy | ; , Bi fF oe . n ' ¢ ‘ ’ ay : 7 - ; _ 4 : « : i t i ' a st “ i. x i Bs THE SACRED EAR-FLOWER OF THE AZTECS: XOCHINACAZTLI. [With 1 plate.] By WILLIAM EDWIN SAFFORD. Among the marvels of the New World which excited the admira- tion of the Spanish conquistadores were the parks and gardens of the Aztec Emperor and his nobles. Cortez, in his official reports to Charles V, described them at length. At Iztapalapan, on a peninsula between Lake Chalco and Lake Tezcuco, there was a park which covered a very large area, laid out in squares, with the intersecting paths bordered by vine-covered trel- lises and aromatic shrubs which filled the air with perfume. Many of the trees and shrubs had been brought from great distances, and the gardens were arranged in regular plots, irrigated by ditches. There were aviaries filled with birds, remarkable for their brilliant plumage and their songs. There was a great basin, or reservoir of stone, stocked with fishes of many kinds. This is described as havy- ing a circumference of 1,600 paces, and around it there was a stone pavement wide enough for four persons to walk abreast. Its sides were sculptured with curious designs, and a flight of steps led down to the water, which fed the irrigating ditches and was the source of beautiful fountains. So elaborate and magnificent were the gardens described by the conquistadores that we might well doubt the truth of their assertions, were the evidence not attested by many witnesses. In the capital city itself the Emperor had established the botanical garden of Tetzcotzinco, of which there still remain a few vestiges. After having gathered together all the plants and animals which could endure the climate, the Emperor caused the pictures of others to be painted upon the walls of his residence, so that the whole of the fauna and fiora of Anahuac might be represented. A few leagues south of the City of Mexico, in the direction of the modern city of Cuernavaca, was the wonderful garden of Huaxtepec, which survived the conquest, and to which Hernandez frequently re- 427 428 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. fers in his great work. Here were collected trees, shrubs, and herba- ceous plants, native and exotic, some selected for their beauty, some for their fragrance, and others for their medicinal virtues. They were systematically arranged in a manner which displayed both artistic taste and horticultural knowledge; and it is safe to say that it would not have been easy to find their equal in that day in any country of Europe or Asia. : There has come down to us an account of the methods by which this remarkable garden was stocked with some of its most precious plants. Tlacaelel, the brother of Motecuhzoma Ilhuica- mina, the chronicle states, conceived the idea of col- lecting the waters of Huaxtepec, in the moun- tains south of the valley, into a great reservoir from which they could be distributed and governed. This work was under- taken and, at his sugges- tion, a garden was laid out. Messengers were then sent to various parts of trop- ical America for plants to stock it. From Pinotl, viceroy of Cuetlaxtlan, the Emperor requested, Fic. 1.—Xochinacaetli, seu Flos auricule, illustration among other rare and of Hernandez (1576). (i aS gs BED US MEL attajyut aint Aaa ey teeter 2. > 4 beautiful plants, the yolo- xochitl, or “ heart-flower” (Talawma mexicana), a single blossom of which was sufficient to fill a whole house with fragrance; the cacalowochitl, or “ crow-flower” (Plumeria rubra), used by maidens for decorating their hair; the izqguixochitl (Bourreria huanita), with clusters of fragrant salver-shaped flowers; and the xochinacaztli, or “ear-flower,” the botanical identity of which has long remained a mystery. The first account of this flower was written about 1569 by Padre Bernardino de Sahagun, who refers to it as teunacaztli, “the sacred a, Smithsonian Report, 1910.—Safford. PLATE XOCHINACAZTLI (CYMBOPETALUM PENDULIFLORUM.) NATURAL SIZE. SACRED EAR-FLOWER OF AZTECS—SAFFORD. 499 ear,” and states that it was much used for the sake of its fragrant odor and for drinking, ground up with chocolate. Francisco Hernandez, the “protomedico,” sent by Philip II, in 1570, to Mexico to study its resources, has given a fair illustration of the flower (fig. 1), and describes it under the heading “ De Xocutna- caztut, seu Flore auricule.” This description, in Latin, together with the figure, was published in the Roman edition of his work in 1651. The same description, but without the illustration, appeared before this in the Spanish edition of Hernandez, published by Ximenez in the City of Mexico in 1615. It is as follows: The «ochinacaztli is a rare tree, with leaves long and narrow and of a deep green color. Its flowers, borne on a pendent velvety peduncle, are divided into leaves, which are purplish within and herbaceous without, shaped almost ex- actly like ears, and of a very agreeable odor. It grows in warm countries, and there is nothing else in the ti@ngues and markets of the Indians more fre- quently found nor more highly prized than this flower. The which is wont to give the greatest charm and taste, together with a very fragrant odor and flavor to that celebrated drink cacao, which they call chocolate, and it imparts to it certain tonic properties and wholesomeness as well. It is said that when drunk in water this flower dispels flatulency, causes phlegm to become thin, warms and comforts the stomach which has been chilled or weakened, as well as the heart; and that it is efficacious in asthma, ground to a powder with the addition of two pods of the large red peppers called terochilli, with their seeds removed and toasted on a comal which is a kind of griddle on which the natives toast and make their bread, called by us tortillas, adding to the same three drops of balsam and taking it in some suitable liquor. Since the time of Hernandez many works have appeared in which the economic plants of the Aztecs are discussed, but in none of them is the botanical identity of the vochénacaztli hinted at, though it is invariably mentioned. That it was to be found in the forests of the Tierra-caliente the author of the present paper felt confi- dent, and he read with interest the accounts of all travelers in southern Mexico and Guatemala who spoke of the delicious flavor ot chocolate prepared with the flowers of the Orejuela. His dis- covery of the identity of the flower was almost an accident. While working upon the plants belonging to the Anonacee, or Custard-apple family, of Mexico, he came across a photograph in the files of the Bu- reau of Plant Industry of the Department of Agriculture, showing a number of flowers with their inner petals very much like the himan ear in shape. This photograph had been taken by Mr. C. B. Doyle in 1904 while accompanying Mr. O. F. Cook on a mission of agricul- tural exploration in Guatemala. The flowers were found in the market of the town of Coban, in the department of Alta Verapaz. The photograph is here presented (pl. 1). It was not accom- 1The last of these is the work of the Rey. A. Gerste, S. J., published in the Vatican, at Rome, in 1910, entitled ‘‘ Notes sur la médecine et la botanique des anciens Mexi- cains,”’ 430 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. panied by notes as to the uses to which the flowers were applied, but Mr. Cook, in his journal, states that the flowers of an Anona were offered for sale both fresh and in the form of dried black petals curled up on the edges and heavily veined inside. They had a pleas- ant, spicy odor. He describes the fresh flowers as having the sepals and outer petals ight green and the inner thicker petals of a pale dull salmon color and breaking with a bright orange-colored frac- ture. No specimens of the plant were collected at this time, but on May 30, 1906, two years afterward, Mr. Cook secured specimens of an Anonaceous plant at Jacaltenango, Guatemala, which he did not associate with the flowers he had seen in the Coban market. On examining these specimens in the United States National Herbarium (sheet No. 574411) the identity of the plant was revealed. The xochinacaztli of the Aztecs was no other than the plant described by Dunal from the drawings of Mocifo and Sessé as Cymbopetalum penduliflorum. The discovery was announced in a paper read before the Botanical Society of Washington, February 7, 1911.1. The accompanying illus- tration, drawn by Mr. Theodore Bolton from the specimens collected by Mr. Cook and from the photograph of Mr. Doyle, will serve for comparison with that of Hernandez, which is also reproduced. The inaccuracy of Hernandez’s figure consists chiefly in the fact that the upper flowers shown by him have none of the petals revolute, or incurved along the margin, while the lower flower has all six petals incurved, suggesting the fruit of the aromatic star-anise of Japan. It was a simple matter to test the qualities of the petals by eating one of them. The taste was pungently aromatic and suggested that of a nutmeg, or perhaps a cubeb. The Xochinacaztli (Cymbopetalum pendulifiorum) is endemic in the forests of northwestern Guatemala and across the border in the Mexican State of Chiapas. The use of its flowers as a spice gradually died out throughout the greater part of Mexico with the introduction of cinnamon from the East Indies, which is now, together with vanilla, almost universally used for flavoring chocolate. The small tree grows in regions where there is a marked dry and a rainy season, usually associated with coffee, and it could in all probability be cultivated wherever coffee will thrive. Both on account of the fragrance of its fiowers and for their application in cooking as a delightful condiment it is suggested that this plant be cultivated. 1See Safford, W. E. “The Rediscovery of the Nochinacaztli of the Aztecs, with notes on Mexican Anonaceae.”’ Science, N. S., vol. 38, p. 470. March 24, 1911. SACRED EAR-FLOWER OF AZTECS—SAFFORD. 431 Fig. 2.—Cymbopetalum penduliflorum. Natural size. 7 ‘ | ints a eee 5 rn Sane wu ss es FOREST PRESERVATION. [With 7 plates. ] By Henry S. GRAVES, Forester and Chief of Forest Service, Department of Agriculture. Ten years ago, in the Smithsonian Report for 1901, Gifford Pinchot, then Chief of the Division of Forestry, discussed the subject of forest destruction. He pointed out that the attitude of the public in the United States on the forest question showed two sharply con- flicting opinions. One of these regarded forest destruction as an end to be sought in the interest of development. The other regarded forest preservation as an unmixed good and an end in itself always and everywhere desirable. Contrasted with both these views there was set forth another, in words pregnant with the spirit of the un- born conservation movement: From the point of view of national progress the one opinion is as mistaken as the other. Both are likely to be survived by that phase of thought which regards forest protection as a means, not an end; which contends that every part of the land surface should be given that use under which it will con- tribute most to the general prosperity, and the purpose of whose action is best phrased, in the language of President Roosevelt, as ‘“‘ the perpetuation of forests by use.” The progress in practical forest preservation which has been made in the 10-year interval since Mr. Pinchot’s article on forest destruc- tion was written may fairly be called startling. In 1901, of the relatively few persons who were alive to the fact that some kind of action must be taken to offset the effects of forest destruction, nearly all either lacked any definite program for the solution of the forest problem or favored remedies which were incapable of meeting the situation. The two remedies commonly proposed were the provision of new supphes through tree planting, largely by farmers, and the reservation of existing supplies through the prohibition of use. As early as 1873 Congress had attempted to promote tree planting as a means of providing timber supplies in the naturally treeless regions, by passing the timber-culture act, which granted homesteads to set- tlers on condition that one- atl of the entries should be planted with trees; and the idea that forestation could be developed on a 97578°—sm 1910——28 433 434 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. scale sufficiently large to compensate for the stripping of great areas of timbered country persisted long after the practical failure of the timber-culture act had led to its repeal in 1891. The reservation idea was illustrated in the State of New York by the constitutional prohibition of any cutting on the State holding in the Adirondack and Catskill preserves, and also in the popular understanding (or rather misunderstanding) of what was intended when the western forest reserves of the National Government were first set aside. The total area of these reserves in 1901 was less than 50,000,000 acres. Their custody was in the hands of the General Land Office of the Department of the Interior. The administrative work of caring for them was confined almost entirely to protecting them against fire and trespass. At the request of the Secretary of the Interior, the Division of Forestry of the Department of Agriculture had begun to make technical studies with a view to showing how forestry might be applied to the reserves; but the resources of the Division of Forestry were hopelessly small, in comparison with the magnitude of this task, and the foresters were without any authority to insure the practice of forest conservation through use, even where they might have known how the thing should be done. The regular scientific staff of the division totaled only 20 persons, and its entire appropriation was but $88,520. Although the principal effort of the Division of Forestry previous to 1901 had been directed toward the private owner, less than 180,000 acres of private forests were reported in that year as actually under forest management in the United States. Indeed, the vast field of American forestry had at that time hardly begun to be explored. It was almost as much of a terra incognita as was the American conti- nent to the geographers three centuries ago. For except to a limited degree in the eastern part of the country, no basis existed for fore- casting what the forests of different regions would produce annually, and therefore of prescribing what should be cut annually; of judg- ing what would be the effect upon the forest of any specific opera- tion; or of insuring forest preservation through use. Whenever the advice of the forester was sought it was necessary to begin by investi- gating the underlying problems instead of applying knowledge already gathered. In a word, the science on which intelligent use of forest resources depends was only beginning to be developed. A legal basis for the application of the conservation principle to the forest reserves, or national forests, as they became shortly after the transfer of their administration to the Department of Agricul- ture on February 1, 1905, had been created by the act of June 4, 1897. This act declared as the purpose of these reserves “to improve and protect the forest or for the purpose of securing favorable con- ditions of water flows, and to furnish a continuous supply of timber: “LS3SYO4 TVNOILVN ZSW3Sf SHL NO NIGPVD S\YSONVY "|, aLV1d *SAARIN—'O1L6| ‘Hoday uviuosy}iWs "NOILONYLSNOO aDaIyg 1S3YO4 IVNOILVN JO 4qdWvxXy a (os me "Sg aLVid *SeARIQ—'O16| ‘Hoday uviuosy}iWS FOREST PRESERVATION—GRAVES. 435 for the use and necessities of citizens of the United States”; and it also authorized the Secretary of the Interior “to make such rules and regulations and establish such service as will insure the objects of such reservations, namely, to regulate their occupancy and use and to preserve the forests thereon from destruction.” The same act specifically authorized the sale of timber under methods prescribed by the act and authorized the Secretary of the Interior to permit free use of timber under regulations to be prescribed by him. In other words, the law had explicitly recognized that the forests were not merely hoarded reserves of timber, but public property to be developed, to be occupied, and to be used as well as to be preserved ; and further, it recognized that the sum total of these ends could be attained only through regulated use. Yet the only product which the Secretary of the Interior was authorized to dispose of was the timber. By the act approved February 1, 1905, entitled “An act providing for the transfer of forest reserves from the Department of the In- terior to the Department of Agriculture,” full authority was given for regulation combined with the securing to the public of a proper return for the use of its resources by private interests for public gain; for this act specified the manner in which “all money received from the sale of any products or the use of any land or resources of said forest reserves ” should be disposed of. Thus when the Forest Serv- ice took charge of the national forests the way was clear for solving the administrative problem involved in giving practical effect to the policy formulated in the act of June 4, 1897. The national forests now contain a gross area of over 190,000,000 acres. Except in the six States of Washington, Oregon, Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, and Colo- rado, in which the authority of the President to add further to the area of the national forests was withdrawn by Congress in 1909, practically all the public lands of the United States capable of con- tributing most largely to the public welfare by their management as productive timberlands or by the effect of their forest growth in protecting water supplies or preventing soil erosion, or by both to- gether, have been put into the national forests. Wherever the timber on these forests is in demand, it is now being sold (or given away where settlement and development can best be promoted by free use) under methods which will not only maintain but also improve the timber growth, and which at the same time safeguard the water sup- plies of the West. The total amount of timber cut from the national forests last year was nearly 500,000,000 feet; of this the cut under free use was over 100,000,000 feet. The National Government has also adopted a plan which looks to forest preservation, for purposes of stream protection, in those parts of the country in which there are no longer public lands available for 436 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. the formation of national forests. Under this plan the Government will both buy land to form eastern forests and will cooperate with States to protect State and private holdings from fire, Important progress toward forest preservation has also been made as a result of action by the States. Ten years ago the only States which had given much attention to their forest problems were New York and Pennsylvania. In New York the Adirondack and Catskill Preserves had been created and contained a total of about 1,400,000 acres of forest land which the State had undertaken to hold and pro- tect from fire; and a policy of enlarging these holdings by further purchases had been inaugurated. Fire protection of private holdings under a firewarden system had also been begun in New York, the State sharing equally with the towns in the cost of putting out fires. In Pennsylvania a vigorous public sentiment, developed under the leadership of the Pennsylvania Forest Association, had resulted in the creation of a State department of forestry with a commissioner of forestry at its head; in the acquisition of land for State reserva- tions with a total acreage which before the close of 1901 was nearing half a million acres; in provision both for the management and for the sale of timber from these State holdings; and in a fire law which made township constables firewardens. New York and Pennsylvania had both provided for the punishment of persons causing fires. Maine also had a forest-fire law, while Michigan, Minnesota, New Hampshire, and Ohio had State forest commissioners, boards, or bureaus. In Massachusetts the State board of agriculture acted also as a board of forestry, while the New York work was under a forest, fish, and game commission. At the present time the New York reserves contain, in round numbers, 1,642,000 acres, and those of Pennsylvania 921,000 acres, while Michigan has 232,000 acres, Wisconsin 385,000 acres, Min- nesota 51,000 acres, New Jersey 14,000 acres, Maryland 2,000 acres, Indiana 2,000 acres, Vermont 1,700 acres, and Connecticut 1,500 acres. Several other States also have made a beginning toward the formation of reserves. A most notable advance has been made in State provision of fire protection for private holdings. Generally the first attempts to combat the fire evil took the form of laws providing for the detection and punishment of persons who willfully or carelessly caused forest fires; and the second step was to provide for local wardens, either by adding the duty of firewarden to that of some existing official or by authorizing the appointment of men for this duty exclusively, to be paid for time actually spent in fighting fires. These wardens were usually empowered to employ other help, and often to require the services of men needed to put fires out, PLATE 3. Smithsonian Report, 1910.—Graves, AN EXAMPLE OF NATIONAL FOREST IMPROVEMENT Work. ROAD BUILT ALONG FLATHEAD RIVER “AVEYEsaYIy AYVGNOOAS GNV TIVHY] “(LSSYO+4 TIVNOILVN SATSONV) VINYOSITVD NYSHLNOS NI SGNVq GAaLVOIEY| ONILOZLOYd 1LSSYO4 TWWuYVvdVHO “p ALV1d *SOARIQH—'O1 6] ‘Hoday ueiuosyyiwS FOREST PRESERVATION—-GRAVES. 437 Real progress began when it was seen that it is much more im- portant, and less expensive to the community in the long run, to aim at fire prevention than to begin to act only after the fire has become formidable, and that to prevent fires main reliance should be placed not on punitive measures, but on an organized, disciplined, and efficient protective force, under a technically trained forester, and regularly employed in watching for fires and cutting down the causes of fire. In heavily forested regions this means patrol during the fire season. It also means such protective measures as the pro- hibition of brush and fallow burning during the fire season, except under permit, the education of the public as to the harmfulness and the prevention of fires, and watchfulness against such special sources of danger as railroads, campers and fishermen, logging and sawmill outfits, ete. Such a fire-protection system can not, of course, be established without an adequate appropriation. The States of Con- necticut, Idaho, Maine, Maryland, Michigan, Minnesota, New Hamp- shire, New Jersey, New York, Oregon, Pennsylvania, and Washington now have more or less effective systems of organized fire protection, either partly or wholly at the expense of the States. In certain western States a system of fire protection under author- ity of the State has developed along a somewhat different line. Tim- berland owners in the group of heavily forested States in the North- west, from Montana to the Pacific coast, have on the whole been in advance of the local public sentiment in recognition of the need of systematic fire protection. It is perhaps not to be wondered at that in this region State legislatures were at first not able to see any reason for spending public money to protect private timber which was mainly in large holdings, or that timberland owners should have organized to do at their own expense what the States were not willing to do. The laws of Washington, Idaho, Oregon, and California make it possible for owners, or associations of owners, of timberlands to nominate persons in their own employ for appointment as State firewardens.t. These wardens receive no pay from the State, but have the authority of the State behind them in enforcing the laws against starting fires. Fire. protective associations of timberland owners now exist in Montana, Idaho, Washington, and Oregon; of these the Washington association was the pioneer. Where their holdings border on or are inclosed by national forests they are lit- erally joining forces with the Forest Service, whose protective meth- ods they have closely followed; they generally wish, however, to spend more per acre on protection than the funds at the disposal of the Forest Service permit it to spend in protecting national forest timber. 1 North Carolina in the East has a similar law. 438 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. Only brief mention can here be made of the important advance which has been made by the States in promoting forest preservation through the giving of advice to private owners. This has been done through the appointment of State foresters capable of advising, and expected to advise, those wishing to learn how to apply forestry to their holdings. State foresters, who are technically trained men. have been appointed and are now in office in California, Connecti- cut, Kansas, Maryland, Michigan, Minnesota, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Vermont, and Wisconsin. As advisers these men are most useful to farmers and other wood-lot owners who could not afford to call in a pro- fessional forester at their own expense, but whose small individual - holdings form in the aggregate no inconsiderable part of the tim- bered area of the East. Notwithstanding the conservatism which is supposed to make the average farmer slow to adopt new methods, it is at least open to debate whether forestry is not making actual progress faster among these small owners than among our lumber- men. Farmers have, indeed, long been practicing a kind of forestry, in that they have been drawing supplies of wood continuously from the same area; and since wood lots are characteristic of parts of the country which have been longest settled and are most densely popu- lated, they are exceptionally favorably situated with regard to mar- kets and the prices obtainable. It is not improbable that, if things are left to take their natural course, improved methods of handling wood- lands on the part of small owners may become general in States which have competent State foresters before the owners of large tracts in the great sources of virgin supply are converted to the practice of forest management. As indifference to forest destruction has been replaced in the public mind by a conviction that the question of future timber supplies is one of serious public concern, a sentiment has developed in favor of legislation to prevent destructive lumbering. The laws which have been proposed look generally toward either (1) the retention of a part of the existing stand, or (2) the lessening of the fire risk after lumbering. Proposed laws of the first kind have set a diameter limit below which timber should not be cut. From the standpoint of technical forestry such a requirement does not meet the need because of its rigidity. Decision as to what trees should be cut and what left in order to make best use of the productive power of the forest can be wisely made only when specific conditions are taken account of. In the same way laws prescribing that all slash must be burned are open to criticism as substituting a rule of thumb for judgment. Fortunately the working out of a better way has followed the pro- posal of such a law in Minnesota. After a Lake State forest fire conference which brought together last winter representatives of FOREST PRESERVATION—GRAVES. 439 Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan, and of lumbermen, railroads, and others interested, this Minnesota law was passed in a form which left decision as to the need of brush disposal and the methods to be followed entirely in the hands of the State forester. The Lake State conference adopted resolutions advocating that the forest-fire protective system of each State should be put under the con- trol of a nonpartisan commission, which should place the work in charge of a technically trained forester; that instead of the present firewarden service of each State there should be organized and main- tained an adequate system of patrol; that trails, telephone lines, and lookout stations should be constructed, and that proper safeguards against fire in the form of slash disposal, the establishment of fire lines where necessary, and patrol of railroads should be required. The outcome of this conference must be regarded as a long advance in proposals for State control of fires. Forest taxation has for years been recognized as an important part of the forestry problem. If taxes are levied annually on tim- berlands at a high valuation a powerful reason is created for cutting the timber off. Even though the valuation is low, the existence of laws under which timber may, in the discretion of the local authori- ties, be compelled at any time to pay yearly its full share of a general property tax creates an uncertainty which timber owners generally declare to be a serious hindrance to engaging in forestry. As a matter of wise public policy it is certainly worth while not to make the practice of forestry hard. At the same time, if the existing tax laws are modified on the plea that the peculiar interest of the public in forest preservation calls for a lightening of the burden on forest holdings, the public will have a right to demand that those who benefit by the change shall put forestry into practice. It must be admitted that as yet large owners have on the whole shown little inclination to take up the actual practice of forestry— that is, to adopt lumbering methods which provide for reproduc- tion and amount to a money investment in the growing of a new crop. There is, however, an important drift toward the making of an investment in what might be called halfway forestry. This appears in the numerous examples of cuttings in which young timber is left to grow, though merchantable, and in which unmerchantable young growth now on the ground is looked after, through care in lumbering or through fire protection, in expectation of a later cut. From this to the actual production of a new crop is but a step, though it may be a long step. Since four-fifths of our standing timber is in private hands, the prob- lem of conservation as related to this resource must be held far from satisfactory so long as a reasonable expectation of the general prac- tice of private forestry is not in prospect. To regard any such ex- 440 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. pectation as justified by present conditions would show an over- sanguine optimism. Lumbermen have not yet reached a point at which they are generally ready to regard their holdings of timber- lands as permanent investments. The reasons for this are worth considering. It is a common saying that the only lumbermen who have made money in this country have made it by buying and hold- ing timber. It might be thought that these men would turn naturally to the idea of a permanent investment in productive timberlands. Doubtless they would if the prospective profit were great enough. But hitherto new investments in cheap stumpage have been open to them, either in this country or in Canada, which promised much better returns than money put into reproduction. As has already been noted, the beginnings of a demand for legis- lation to compel private owners of timberlands to adopt measures intended to secure the perpetuation of the forest on their holdings has already appeared. Unless private owners themselves forestall action by taking up forestry the pressure for legislation is certain to grow rapidly. When public sentiment first began to awaken to the fact that something was called for to counteract the effects of destructive lumbering, it was frequently said that forest owners should be required to plant a tree for every tree cut down. This plan was generally supposed by its advocates to be that employed in European countries where forest preservation was provided for. Such a proposal is, of course, entirely impracticable, and the idea that it is applied anywhere is based on misinformation. It is true that forest replanting by private owners is required under certain conditions in countries like France and Germany; but the object of the requirement is primarily the maintenance of protective for- ests, and the method is not that of planting a tree or two trees for every one cut, but calls for a sufficient replanting of the area cut over to establish a new stand. This can be accomplished only by planting a very much greater number of small trees than consti- tuted the mature stand, for a complete forest cover must be secured promptly and the number of young trees required for this is many times greater than the number of old trees. A good mature forest represents the outcome of a long period of competition, during which most of those which began the race have disappeared. The prescription of a diameter limit may be called the second stage in the evolution of a plan for enforced forest protection accom- panied by use. The practical objections to this method have already been indicated. The immediate objects contemplated by this plan are (1) the holding of timber, which, though merchantable, is not yet mature, for additional growth and a later cut, and (2) the start- ing of a new crop by natural reproduction. In other words, the trees left are expected to act as seed trees. The seed-tree method *SG4q LNVIdSNVUL NI Yl4 SVISNOG GIO-YVAA-OML ‘“AYSSYUNN 1SSYHO4 TVNOILVN) HOLVSVAA NI S3N30S ‘CG ALV1d ‘SBARIO—'O16| ‘Hoday ueuosy}IWS *S03q 033 Ni 3Nid ALIHMA “OVNVYVS LV AYSSHNN ALVLS MYOA MAN SHL SO LYUVd VY S | eG aan ‘9 3LV1d "SPARIQO— O16] ‘HOdey ueluosyyIWS FOREST PRESERVATION—GRAVES. 441 of securing reproduction is one of the recognized methods employed by foresters. Like slash burning and the use of a diameter limit, it is not a method which can give good results if applied under any blind and rigid rule. Much judgment must be used in modifying the rule to fit specific conditions if the results intended are to follow. In California a law was proposed last winter which would have required the leaving of at least one seed tree on every acre of forest land cut over. So far as the writer knows, this is the only case hitherto in which a law has been introduced in any State requiring that seed trees shall be left, except as such trees are provided under a diameter limit. There are several factors, most of them of a temporary nature, which at present work against the adoption of better lumbering methods. For several years there has been a growing uneasiness among lumbermen because of the evidently increasing criticisms and public disapproval to which their industry has been exposed. Lum- bermen feel that they have been subjected to criticism which is un- just. They consider they are in danger of being ground between the upper and nether millstones. They confront a business condition. At present stumpage prices, cost of manufacture, and market prices for their product, their profits are not large. The public chafes at the present cost of the lumber which it consumes. To the average lumberman the difficulties in the way of the practice of forestry, in the light of present conditions in the lumber industry, loom so large that he regards it as impracticable. For these conditions, however, the industry itself is largely respon- sible. The question of profit or loss to the lumberman frequently turns on the price at which stumpage is figured on the balance sheet. Stumpage prices have, as is well known, advanced rapidly during recent years. As the available surplus virgin timber dwindled, far- sighted lumbermen rushed to get as much as possible into their hands in anticipation of the time when they could sell with a large profit. But prices which mills can get for their product have not moved in proportion to stumpage prices. The reason for this is twofold: The number of sawmills operating in the United States has increased greatly, and the sawing capacity of many old mills has been enlarged, so that to-day the capacity for lumber production is far greater than formerly. Mill owners can not afford to let their property stand idle, and, in consequence, lumber is put upon the market in excess of the actual demand. The second factor which tends to keep down the price of lumber is the inroads made by many substitutes for wood put upon the market in recent years. These inroads in some branches of the lumber industry are serious and have tended to restrict the demand. To the extent that lumbermen have created fixed charges against themselves by buying and holding large amounts of timber, 442 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. they are themselves responsible for any embarrassment which may result from their inability to obtain, at the present time, prices for lumber which will enable them to reap the anticipated speculative profit. It is not likely that the public will be willing to bear, in the form of much higher prices for lumber, the burden which the lumber- men have imposed upon themselves. The demand that they be per- mitted to combine, in order to advance prices as a means of meeting the additional cost which practicing forestry imposes, is one to which it will be exceedingly difficult to secure public assent. Moreover, the additional cost made necessary by the practice of forestry would not be as great as most lumbermen claim. Even under present unfavor- able conditions it would in many cases be possible to practice for- estry with only such increased cost as the ultimate advantage to the lumberman would fully justify. Beyond a doubt the sentiment against forest destruction and the demand for the application of lumbering methods which will better utilize and perpetuate the forests will grow stronger. The demand for better lumbering methods will result in the proposal of legisla- tion by the States aimed at regulation of the lumber industry. Some States will try one experiment, some States another. Some laws will doubtless be urged which are unwise. The lumber industry will be on the defensive. It will be compelled to fight drastic and unwork- able propositions. When regulating laws are passed, even though they be good laws, the lumber industry will suffer from the lack of uniform laws in different States. The greater the dissatisfaction with the methods of the lumber industry the greater will be the probability of the passage of laws giving scant consideration to what it may have to urge in its own defense. If, on the other hand, they are ready and able to meet the demands of the public for forest conservation with a constructive attempt to recognize the obligations and the necessities of the situation, so far as they are concerned, advance toward real forestry among private owners may soon become rapid. Progressive lumbermen themselves recognize that the ownership of our timber lands carries with it a certain obligation. To the extent that the lumber industry controls a fundamental resource it is affected with a public interest, and this implies the right of the public to regulate the industry along lines which are not fantastic, but face the actual conditions and are not unjust to the lumbermen. The alternative to onerous regulation would be the voluntary choice of a course which would satisfy the public that the private owners of forest resources were seeking in genuine good faith to perpetuate them. With such a choice made, the public would not be inclined to demand impossibilities. All that would be necessary would be that the lumbermen should show a reasonable readiness to go as far as is Smithsonian Report, 1910.—Graves. PLATE 7. = ee ks ‘ RED SPRUCE FOREST IN THE ADIRONDACK STATE PRESERVE. FOREST PRESERVATION—GRAVES. 443 possible for them under existing conditions. What is needed first of all is a spirit of initiative applied partly in doing such things as using reasonable precautions against fire and adopting a forward- looking policy, partly in a thorough study of existing conditions in order to find out what else technical forestry would propose and what the cost would be. There is no reason why the lumbermen should not work out the situation themselves, if they are ready to meet it in a large-minded and constructive way. In the case of our public forests, as in that of our privately owned forests, preservation through use is fundamentally a matter of in- vesting capital in a growing timber crop. Whenever timber is sold from a national forest such an investment is made. Regulations em- bodied in the contract of sale require the purchaser to observe certain conditions designed to protect young growth and favor reproduction, while it is stipulated that he shall cut only such part of the stand as the forest officers may mark for removal, and the purpose of the marking is to secure the future welfare and a high productiveness of the forest. The Government therefore invests in making such sales: (1) The equivalent of the increase in the cost to the purchaser of cutting timber under requirements of brush piling, avoidance of injury to young growth, and smaller amount of stumpage obtainable per acre because of the timber reserved. This increase in cost of lumbering falls on the Government through lower prices, which a purchaser required to observe such conditions is willing to offer for the stumpage. (2) The actual stumpage value of all merchantable timber reserved from cutting whenever the purchaser would have been willing to increase his purchase by this amount had he been given opportunity to do so. (3) The direct cost to the Government of planning the sale with a view to benefiting the forest, of marking the timber, and of super- vising the sale to insure observance of the conditions framed to pre- serve the forest. In other words, just as the private lumberman, if he were able to apply forestry and pay the added cost of operating out of his receipts, would be reinvesting a part of his profits; so the cost of handling timber sales on the national forests is largely chargeable to capital account on any sound scheme of forest finance. The average price realized for national forest stumpage last year was $2.44 per 1,000 board feet. The average cost of these sales to the Govern- ment may be put at from 30 to 50 cents per 1,000, a figure which would be much lower were not so many of the sales on National Forests for small amounts. This latter amount may be regarded as the sum of two very different expenditures. One is the expenditure 444 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. incident to the sale itself as a business transaction. When a pur- chaser cuts timber under an agreement to pay the owner a certain amount per 1,000 feet the owner must measure the amount cut. The cost of doing this should be counted as a current expenditure. On the other hand, that part of the cost of timber sales which goes back into the forest, so to speak, should be reckoned differently. It is a betterment expenditure. Of course, such a point of view as this is not easily reconcilable with the methods customary in handling Government expenditures. The national finances do not ordinarily make a distinction between money expended as capital investment and money disbursed for cur- rent expenditures. Both are paid alike from current receipts. I merely wish to point out that in order to judge properly as to the true character of the work of managing the national forests it is necessary to look at them from the standpoint of the business man and to distinguish between actual running expenses and investments on capital account. A more obvious investment on capital account, which forms a considerable part of the annual expenditures of the Forest Service, is found in the expenditures for so-called “ permanent improve- ments.” Both the protection and the use of the forests depend on their equipment with roads, trails, telephone lines, fire lines, watch towers, rangers’ cabins, fences and water tanks in connection with handling stock, and various other works of construction. Plainly, expenditures made for these purposes should not be combined with expenditures necessary for the transaction of current business and a balance struck against receipts if the result is to be used as the basis for a judgment as to whether or not the forests are paying. Another very large item in the total cost which national forest administration entails is the cost of protecting the forests from fire through the maintenance of a protective force. The national for- ests contain over 500 billion board feet of timber. Only a very small part of this is now within reach of a demand which will enable the Government to sell the timber, except at a great sacrifice in price, if at all. A private owner who was protecting timber which was not ready to cut would treat the cost, from an accounting standpoint, precisely as he would the cost of paying taxes on the timber. In other words, it would amount to an annual increase in his invest- ment. The question whether the expenditure was wise would not in the least depend on whether he was getting back anything from the forest or not. If his final profit is enough greater than what he could realize now to more than cover the cost of holding the timber, he has done well to hold it. While it would be well worth while, from the standpoint of money receipts, for the Government to protect the great amounts of timber FOREST PRESERVATION—GRAVES. A45 which are now unsalable in anticipation of the time when they will be salable, it must never be thought that the question of money profits is the vital one. The interest of the public in the preservation of the existing supply of national forest timber is much more than an interest in what it will sell for. It is an interest in preserv- ing the supply of material necessary to the carrying on of many industries. More than this, it is an interest also in the continuation of the benefits obtained from the forests in other ways than from the use of timber. Many of the national forests were created, and are pro- tected, not because they furnish valuable supplies of timber, for they do not; but because they protect much more valuable supplies of water. If the question of the wisdom or unwisdom of the national forest policy were to be tested by balancing expenditures against receipts it would follow that the first thing to be done would be to get rid of forests from which a net income is not either now being ob- tained or reasonably to be expected. This would throw out almost the whole national.forest area in southern California; large parts of the forests in Arizona and New Mexico, maintained for the pro- tection of projects developed or to be developed by the Reclamation Service; and much of the present area of the national forests in other States. Neither public sentiment nor the public interest could permit this. The national forests are a gigantic public undertaking, con- ceived with a view to the future. They are like a system of public works in process of construction. It would be almost as absurd to settle the question whether the Panama Canal is worth while on the basis of income, compared with the expenditures at the present time, as 1t would be to answer the same question in the case of the national forests by the same method. The application of any such test is equivalent to the adoption of the policy of “scuttle.” It is not to be imagined that public sentiment would permit the adoption of any such policy, were it proposed. | ar cigorile ery ‘kt fle cue silt: A ta seh aad ati i vir bE “eldled ie feast at: er 7 anes bie ebsites Up Sania liga” nett De nS en hr ya - bps Cthaboblt Sh 4 ‘“Le7" 131s “ai ‘ ai TO Hoh tsditi tor ad A? pts Pea ink Me vag? 1 es ‘edt ‘orlt ‘fii day fd? BS dio SP a OH eae bs ae Sony th Gira Waa ny aw ees? Thholter bat wv Tee ine i ~ «GR rF Rt cepiladk ae WANES AULse? 1 pil Tt oe eS ve obra ndhdndtyalderiog SLT CURA RE, OF seme duidiar, 748, roi Lag ith ot owig auth of of, Phobias mara d Kenn "4 veobeaa nih, enh ts eeu bliravy ary nist, HrnRt i a +" te fold O,AGL ., aldipooggsial i ph ¢ LAG Mipeay: otf of fark aj. oplovmy of, sg wih Mah die Th, ‘holly huh oa ora, ‘te te mai ey of) Sach tual ge earl aqat 4, ii, Dive wrthaol pi, alyowr, a - HAC taty pkey, ond tj bth arty 7 eis! Je: TOF Rt Ot “Cacinpladeeteo.e “tp iow te oon ary, bah ie shi ayn atht 0, Ata prea tox, ai, x 0 ban dearth palye bunch , sane win bead havea Lnef yigata ond rg Ms urIoy ot) mi Jovi uni stalost aoa [ netted (he Can +» 4 - ss 7 yet f cg htngtans ty ‘ ¥ . éy, 7 i c- ety ey ’ reat Si c ine ™ ty *} ie wit : Hine th Belen iNnat oN PSTi td nr shret og Pa > 3 ma if (niet ; me ‘ ? tha i, ry. * dy 7 - . > . = iheep ; hed i 4 **4 ‘ va con) : i esata i 1 A Veta Th SL hn . et ; ee , bare bee Aan ae na “i «654-3 ap oe a ee eee es) ea wie: a SOMES pete: no) THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PULSE RATE IN VERTE- BRATE ANIMALS.' By FLORENCE BUCHANAN, D. Sc. (Lond.), Fellow of University College, London. We should expect the frequency with which a heart beats to be determined by its own properties—by its size, the minute structure of its muscle fibers, the inorganic salts in and outside the fibers, tem- perature, its relation to the nervous system, etc.; and it probably is immediately determined by such things as these. At present, how- ever, we do not know the properties in which the hearts of allied animals, beating with very different frequencies, differ from one an- other, and we are not therefore in a position to point to the imme- diate determining factors. All we know is that the properties, what- ever they are, which determine frequency have come to be such as to enable the heart to serve the purposes of the animal to which it be- longs. It is proposed in this paper to attempt to ascertain whether we can find out some of the different ways in which the heart serves these purposes, and whether or to what extent alteration in frequency of beat is one. To do this we must first know something about the different purposes for which the heart is required in different ani- mals, In the first place, the amount of driving work the heart has to do varies a good deal in the different craniate vertebrates and both with the structure and the habits of the animal. Im fish, e. g., it has only to pump the blood as far as the gills, and it has not much to do even in effecting this, as the passive dilatation of the gill capillaries with each inspiratory movement of the buccal cavity helps the blood to get there (1).2 In accordance with this small amount of work, we find the heart to be of relatively small size in fish. Its weight in the common round fish is on the average only 0.09 per cent of the body weight; in the notably inert flatfish it is even less, only about 0.04 1¥rom a lecture delivered to the Oxford University Junior Scientific Club in Novem- ber, 1909. Reprinted by permission, with author’s additions and corrections, from Science Progress, London, No. 17, July, 1910, pp. 60-81. 2 These numbers refer to a list of authorities given at the end of the paper. 487 488 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. per cent of the body weight (2). In birds, on the other hand, the heart has a very large amount of work to do, especially in the birds of passage and those that sing. Accordingly they have relatively very large hearts—1 to 2 per cent of the body weight, as a rule (3), and sometimes, as in the thrush and golden oriole, as much as about 2.6 per cent. The size of the heart has thus no fixed relation to the size of the animal to which it belongs. The heart of a pigeon, e. g., weighs 25 times as much as that of a plaice of the same weight, and is about equal to that of a salmon 15 times as heavy as the pigeon. A thrush and a guinea pig of six or seven times its weight have hearts of about equal size. Frequency of beat, if it be in any way ere by the absolute size of the heart, is counts no direct function of it. It is true that we have reason to believe, as we shall presently see, that the pulse rate in the thrush is not very different from what it is known to be in the guinea pig, but it would also not be very different from what it is in the rabbit, which has a heart of over twice the size. We know very little about what the frequency is in different fish and for those in which it has been accurately determined (7elestes and Bar- bus) the size of the heart has not been ascertained, though, assuming the relative size to be the same as in the other round fish, we should expect it to be no larger than that of a canary. In both these fish the frequency varies, in different individuals, between 40 and 70 per minute at room temperature, and no elevation of temperature raises it to beyond 125 per minute (1), whereas the heart of a canary may (7) beat with a frequency of 1,000 per minute. If the animal made some demand on the heart for a definite vol- ume of blood in unit time, frequency of beat might be expected to bear some relation to the relative size of the heart. Only it would be difficult to discover such a relation unless in a group of animals having the same circulatory arrangements some required a quicker and others a slower circulation for some assignable reason. For the lower groups of craniate vertebrates (fish, dipnoi, amphib- ians, and reptiles) we know very little as to the special demands made upon the heart. It has certainly more work to do in amphib- ians and reptiles than in fish, having to drive the blood all round the body without the help of the respiratory movements which seem to play so large a part in maintaining the circulation in fish (1). The relative heart size is accordingly greater in amphibians and reptiles. In the frog (2. temporaria) and in a crocodile the heart was found to be about 0.4 per cent of the body weight and to be nearly 0.8 per cent in the common snake (7). But we do not as yet know what the tissues take most from the blood in these lower vertebrates; we only know for a certain number of species of fish and amphibians and for the crocodile (6) that they take very little oxygen and that the rate SIGNIFICANCE OF PULSE RATE—BUCHANAN. 489 at which this at least is supplied is not likely to cause difficulty. Neither has anything yet been ascertained about differences in pulse rate in different genera of amphibians nor in those of any of the dif- ferent classes of reptiles; so that we have not the material for decid- ing whether the frequency with which the heart beats has become one of the factors used in natural selection. In the few species of am- phibians and reptiles (6) for which—sporadically—the frequency is known, it seems to be not very different from what it is in fish—i. e., varying (and varying in individuals of the same species) between about 20 and 80 per minute at ordinary room temperature. In birds and mammals the case is different. We not only know . that the tissues take a great deal of oxygen from the blood, but that those of small animals take much more than those of large ones; and we can assign a reason. Birds and mammals are able to maintain a nearly constant temperature whatever that of their surroundings may be. They are homeothermic or (the temperature they maintain being usually higher than that of the environment) “ warm-blooded ” animals; they have in consequence to produce more heat than those animals which maintain no constant temperature—the potkolother- mic or “cold-blooded” animals—and to try to prevent loss of heat. To produce heat the muscles—the chief heat-forming organs of the body—require oxygen, and they take it from the blood according to their need, the need being greatest in those species or individuals in which the loss of heat is greatest. The maximum loss is of course in those animals in which the surface exposed to the environment is largest in proportion to the mass of the animal—i. e., the smaller the animal the more heat must it give off, other things being equal, to a colder environment, and to maintain a constant body temperature the more heat must it produce and the more oxygen must its muscles consume. The heart, therefore, being asked to replenish the supply, must, if it respond, give out the larger relative volume of oxygen- containing blood in unit time the smaller the animal, and it might do so either by expelling a larger amount with each beat or by increas- ing the frequency of the beat. But by regulating the volume of blood supplied to the muscles in unit time, the heart can only regulate the rate of supply of oxygen if the oxygen is present in a constant percentage. This is the case in birds and mammals in which the blood in the systemic circulation leaves the left ventricle of the heart with its hemoglobin saturated with oxygen. It is not the case in the lower vertebrates, not even in crocodiles; for although they, like birds and mammals, have the oxy- genated blood completely separated from the rest in the heart, it be- comes mixed with other blood in the dorsal aorta, and may become so even in the conus. In other reptiles facilities for the admixture of the blood coming from the lungs with blood coming from other parts 490 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. of the body are greater, since it may happen even in the ventricle. In the dipnoi and amphibians, moreover, other organs besides the lungs have respiratory functions, and the blood from the rest of the organs in the body may mix with oxygenated blood elsewhere than in the ventricle and the arterial system. Where there is only one auricle, as in the dipnoi, and blood of all qualities enters the ventricle simulta- neously, the percentage of oxygen in all the blood leaving the ventri- cle must be variable. Where there are two auricles, the one of which receives only oxygenated blood, as in amphibians and reptiles, this need not be the case, since the blood from the lungs, by entering and leaving the ventricle after the rest, may remain very nearly saturated. But such blood is by special arrangement supplied to the head only, and the blood to the limbs and other muscles is unsaturated. In all these classes of lower vertebrates, therefore, the heart itself could not regulate the rate of oxygen supply to meet different demands by alter- ing either the volume given out per beat or the frequency of the beat. In fish, on the other hand, there is the possibility of regulating it, either by altering the frequency of the respiratory movements or by altering the volume of blood expelled in each heart beat, since all the a |} —————___—o l a 2 A B Fig. 1.—Diagrams to show the sort of relation of the oxygen to the blood-yolume in the systemic circulation. ‘ A, warm-blooded vertebrate. B, reptile and amphibian. blood which supplies the body has to pass first through the respira- tory organs, and so would contain a constant percentage of oxygen, even if its hemoglobin did not become fully saturated. In fish, amphibians, and snakes, the attempt seems occasionally to be made to maintain a temperature above that of the environment (164), but in how far it approaches to being constant we only know for two specimens of the Indian python (13a). It would be inter- esting to find out whether in a species of 7hynnus, the bonito, which may have an internal temperature as much above that of the environ- ment as the python, it is more nearly constant, and how far the de- mand for oxygen in the one and in,the other varies both with the ex- ternal temperature and with the size of the individual; moreover, if it so varies, in what way the supply is regulated to meet the different demands. The difference obtaining between the warm-blooded vertebrates on the one hand, and all the cold-blooded except fish, on the other, with regard to the relation of the oxygen to the volume of the blood in the systemic circulation, is illustrated in figure 1. Regulating the vol- ume rate would regulate the oxygen supply only with arrangement A. SIGNIFICANCE OF PULSE RATE—BUCHANAN. 491 With any other arrangement, such as that in B, the absolute amount of oxygen supplied in unit time could be increased by increasing the frequency of the beat, but it could not in that way be regulated at all accurately to suit special demands.* What is true of the cold-blooded vertebrates is true of the embryo of the warm-blooded animal in respect of want of constant percentage of oxygen in the blood supply to the body as in so many other re- spects. Although the blood leaving the left ventricle is blood brought ‘straight from the respiratory organ of the embryo, the allantois, this serves only to supply the head, the great aorta through which it flows being joined, after having given off the vessels to the head, by the ductus Botalli bringing blood (through what is afterwards the pul- monary artery) from the right ventricle, which has received it from all the organs and reserved all but that from the respiratory organs. Thus the percentage of oxygen, which may have been constant in the blood leaving the left ventricle, is no longer so by the time it reaches the body of the animal, and this must continue to be the case so long as the ductus Botalli remains open, which it does until the time of hatching or birth. When it closes, the blood from the right ventricle, which would otherwise have gone along it, can only go to the lungs, and the channels from the lungs to the left auricle, the pulmonary veins, become functional with the lungs themselves, so that now blood saturated with oxygen enters the left auricle from the respiratory organ of the adult, and (the septum between the two auricles being now complete) passes unaltered into the left ventricle, whence it is driven to supply not only the head, but now also the body. It would be interesting to know whether in the young guinea pig and chick, which are able to regulate their temperature as soon as they come into the world, the ductus Botalli closes earlier than it does, e. g., in young mice, rats, and pigeons, which can only regulate their tempera- ture very imperfectly when born or hatched, and take a week or more to develop this power. It would help us to find out whether, or to what extent, the want of power to regulate temperature depends upon the fact that any attempt of the heart to adapt itself to meet special 1 Since this paper went to press, Krogh has published a series of articles in the Skand. Arch. f. Physiol. (1910) in which, amongst other things, it is shown that a method of regulating the oxygen supply to the body does exist in reptiles and amphibians. This consists in adjusting the relative volumes of blood in the pulmonary and systemic arches by alteration of resistance in the pulmonary arteries, this being effected by variations in the tonus of their vaso-constrictor nerves. Thus, while the blood per beat driven into the systemic circulation becomes less in volume the more oxygen the tissues consume, its oxygen-tension becomes not only relatively, but absolutely, greater in consequence of the increase in the volume going per beat through the lungs, which naturally involves a greater absolute absorption of oxygen. Although a convenient way of meeting dif- ferences of oxygen requirement in the individual, it is not one that would lend itself to meeting permanent differences of oxygen requirement, did these exist, in the different species of reptiles and amphibians, in the way that alteration of volume rate lends itself in birds and mammals, 492 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. demands made upon it for oxygen, potentially or actually, could meet with only imperfect success. Let us now see in how far the hearts of birds and mammals, having the power to regulate the oxygen supply by regulating the volume of blood expelled in unit time, succeed in doing so when it is asked of them. As a measure of the rate at which oxygen is consumed in the different animals we may take either the oxygen intake or the carbon-dioxide output of a unit of weight in unit time, as the two things run roughly parallel, In the two following tables the carbon- dioxide output is given because it happens to be known for a larger number of species than the oxygen intake. The numbers are for the most part taken from the table in Pembrey’s article on “ Chemistry of Respiration ” in Schifer’s Textbook of Physiology and represent the average in round numbers when several results are there given by different observers. Those for birds which are not to be found there are determinations kindly made for me by Mr. C. G. Douglas, fellow of St. John’s College, Oxford.t| The pulse rates of all the birds and of the smaller mammals have been determined by myself in a manner to be described immediately; those of the larger mam- mals have been taken on textbook authority when none other was available. Asa measure of the volume of blood expelled per beat the weight of the heart in percentage of the body weight has been taken. This has been determined for a large number of birds by Parrot (3), but unfortunately not for many of which the pulse rates are known. For most of these, as well as for the mouse, I have determined it myself. For most of the other mammals mentioned it has been de- termined by Bergmann (8), but the results of his observations are referred to, together with some more determinations of his own and those of a few other people for other mammals, by Joseph (9). Unfortunately the number of individuals from which the “ average,” either of pulse rate or of relative heart weight, is taken was usually small and sometimes (in all the cases marked with an asterisk) the data were only ascertained from a single individual of a species; as we know that in other species there is a good deal of individual varia- tion, the numbers given in these columns may not hereafter be found to be the correct averages. They probably are so, however, in the case of man and rabbit, in which they have already been ascer- tained from large numbers of individuals. It is, of course, highly desirable that the correct average should be known for every case, but it is difficult to get people to make large collections of facts, and it is debatable in how far their doing so is a thing to be encouraged, so long as the interest attaching to them is not in evidence. The fol- 1 For each bird he determined also the oxygen intake; since this datum for the canary and for the tame duck has not yet been put on record, this occasion may be used for stating that it was found to be 10.99 and 1.66 grams per kilo per hour, respectively, for the two birds. The canary was remarkably quiet all the time it was under observation. SIGNIFICANCE OF PULSE RATE—BUCHANAN. 493 lowing tables, if they serve no other purpose, at least indicate the sort of value which would attach to a large collection of these par- ticular facts. TABLE I.—Birds. fear ee ee ty Average | dioxide | weight in of beat per per kilo |percentage| minute grams). per hour of body when at (in grams).| weight. rest. Goldfinch ts sfosas 22: 4 8t BoA 2. 2c est alse *16 12.6 (?) *920(5) Canerye t+. Sheet m3 se she. eee eS aged. Reps ee 20 *11.7 *1, 04(3) *1, 000(7) SPALTOWis2 eee see ant fhe en acl eese= Skies a a8 sels oe sas 24 12:2 1.36 (5) 800(5) CCH iCEXST OM TAY E10 Ee SE ee oe SE Seg a er 26 11.7 (?) 740(5) KSIFHIRE EV OUNS) st. eiehtatsa cc ose ae uate eae ots oto ee *42 (?) (2) *440(7) DRY UG oe? sos Ge eho) GORE oe Baas Seep oer eee *75 (?) #2, 56 (3) (?) HP COME 2 Seas eek Se ae Spi 2 he ols oR oat 300 3.4 1.5(5) 185 (5) Parrot: (PSttacus eriuhacus)). <2 s- oaejnn n= = 5 aim lacie see #430 (2) (2) *320(7) Jeqeyoe ao) SOR eT Ue f Nees See BD eee ee ed ee ee 1,500 1.5 . 42(5) 330(5) To ibkelig (aya QOD) 2a E a see ae eee *1, 134 (2) *1.06(3) (?) DAC ke (LATING) Be < fare = ae peyaecie -a'siae F< sin value’ Sere atelo *2, 060 *1. 62 . 63(2) *240(7) (EGU GSES SAB LOCO: CaJe De eG TEE DEEL Ea GBS cee Sree eae 4, 400 1.07 *, 8(3) (?) The table for birds shows us at a glance that, roughly, the smaller the bird, and therefore the greater the surface relatively to the mass, the larger is the amount of oxygen. consumed, or, rather, of carbon- dioxide given off, by a unit of weight in unit time. If the rate of supply of oxygen to the tissues is greatest, as it ought to be, in those in which the oxidation processes take place most rapidly, we should expect the pulse rates to vary directly with what we take as a measure of these processes so long as the relative volume of blood expelled with each beat is the same. Since the relative heart size varies, we should expect to find a reciprocal relation between pulse rate and relative heart size dependent upon the rate at which oxidation processes occur. Where we have these data, or a measure of them, the table shows us that this is the case. Thus, comparing the pigeon and the sparrow, and knowing the pulse rate of the pigeon, 185 12.2 ‘ we should expect that of the sparrow to be = 693 in con- : , 6 : sideration of the different metabolisms, but to be = =r per minute in consideration also of the different relative weights of the hearts; and this is what it is in some sparrows, though it is lower than what was found to be the average for four sparrows. Again, the hen, which compared with the sparrow, would be ex- 8001.5 pected to have a pulse rate of —7o9 —=98.4 per minute in virtue of its size and its metabolism alone, would be expected to have 494 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. € 2) one of sc a NT) considering also the small size of its heart. If we were to take the carbon-dioxide output of the thrush as being, as from the size of the bird it is likely to be, about 10 grams per kilo per hour we should have expected its pulse rate by comparison with that of the sparrow to have been about 666 per minute were it not for the large size of its heart, which makes us expect instead one of only 225 per minute. From what is known of the metabolism of the goose, we should expect its pulse rate to be about 144 per minute when it is in good condition; we should expect that of the wild duck to be not much more than half that of the tame, allowing for its car- bon-dioxide output per kilo per hour being, on account of its smaller size, somewhat less than what Mr. Douglas found it to be in the tame duck of which the pulse rate was recorded. Small hearts and correspondingly quick pulses seem, therefore, to be more character- istic of tame birds than of wild, a subject to which we shall have to return. Taste II.—MWammals. Frequency of beat per minute, Average Average cero heart ; - ; ioxide | weight in Weight in grams. Mamma). per kilo |percentage| Observed Paka per hour | of body | average 4 aT Un (in grams).| weight. | when at |°@ PY com- rest, Parison. : with man. 25 Mouser. $25 Gad 3s 2s eee Ses 8.4 0.79(4) (2) | '700(4) 732 S00—5005| Giimea, PIS 5 se c.f oto weep eee 1.8 - 40(9) 300(7) 309 SIM GOL css lakece Stee sce 1.5 - 9(9) (?) 115 OED a es kote t es aeons bo ee 1.3 - 45(9) 160 (7) (22) 198 hela it Rabbityaceciescscchpeeser vcd ee 12 .27(9) 205 (11) 306 13 Cho SBOE, SOP See eee eer se (?) . 75(8) 64(12) (2) 6, 000—10, 000 | Medium dog....:.........-.....- 1.37 . 75(9) 120(7) 128 10, 000O—50, 000 | Large dog .....-..-.........-.... 1. (?) 85(7) (?) Deerhspqsvess tenses Aehicseae est (?) 1. 15(8) (2) 45? SRCCD epoca b ie seek eo scek ope biag cet Al . 60(8) 75 80 a eal | 2ptig Dek wea ta t-pain ten sae Bil (2) . 45 (8) 75 100? Man S220) Sthd. AOE sos fe Stee -6 . 59(8) 70= 70 Om 354 Be. 242 daoceew asct bere 45 . 89(8) 48 78 400, 000—600; 000"); Horse: <> --- .. £20. ftaa. FECES E SS :3 - 63 (8) 37 34 RECO NOMS 2. 6-2 eceeeeceeee ees (?) | 1.1218) (?) (2) — — In the table for mammals a column has been added giving the pulse rate, which, taking both carbon-dioxide output and relative heart weight into consideration, we should expect the animal to have compared with man. Man has been chosen as the standard because so many more observations have been made on him that the averages are more likely to be correct than those for the others, with the exception perhaps of the rabbit. Of course, somewhat different SIGNIFICANCE OF PULSE RATE—BUCHANAN. 495 frequencies would be to be expected had we chosen for comparison some other animal. If, e. g., we had taken the relation of the mouse to the cat or rabbit we should have expected its pulse rate to be only about 590 or 490, respectively, per minute, which is lower than the average found for six mice. Carbon-dioxide output. Pulse rate. Relative heart weight. Pulse rate. mouse 8.4 a 980 0.59 * 732 man 0.6 a 70° i 980 mouse 8.4 = == ns Misbigecingy ly gyi rabbit ke ar 205” O79 wi omy te TES Considering that the rate of formation of carbon-dioxide, the relative heart size and the frequency of beat, have in the case of nearly all the species been determined by independent observers, it is really rather remarkable how closely the observed and expected frequencies agree. Only in the rabbit and ox? is the observed fre- quency considerably (over 30 per cent) lower than was to be expected from that of man. It is probably also about 25 per cent lower in the pig, though we have not yet the data for knowing what to expect for the pig. A higher hemoglobin percentage in the blood would compensate for what seems to be otherwise too slow a blood supply to enable the oxygen loss to be made good, but although we know this percentage to be higher in the ox than in man, it is in the rabbit a good deal lower than in man. Since in the rabbit at any rate the averages are likely to be correct, we have probably still to seek for some other factor which enables the supply of oxygen to meet the demand. But it must be remembered that the relative heart weights may not run strictly parallel with the volumes of blood expelled at each systole in the different species. Unfortunately we do not know and it would be difficult during life to ascertain what that volume is for any heart; we have had therefore to take the only available data which were at all likely to be a measure of it. None of the mammals referred to have pulse rates appreciably higher than those to be expected by comparison with man. All birds, however, so far as we know, have higher frequencies than might be expected when compared with mammals, thus, taking man again as the standard, that for the sparrow would be only 618 instead of 800 per minute. Carbon-dioxide output. Pulse rate. Relative heart weight. Pulse rate. sparrow 12.2 1423 0.59 618 eaten > ns man 0.6 Ti) 70 1.36 a 1423 1Tf the ox had the same relative heart weight as the bull (0.53 per cent), the pulse rate to be expected by comparison with man would be almost precisely what it actually is in the ox. 496 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. The hemoglobin percentage does not appear to have been deter- mined in the blood of birds, but in view of the greater size of the red blood corpuscles of birds as compared with those of mammals we might expect it to be lower. On the other hand, the fact that the consumption of oxygen and both relative heart weight and pulse frequency are higher in a bird than in a mammal of the same size (e. g., in the sparrow than in the mouse, in the pigeon than in the guinea pig) may have some bearing on the fact that birds maintain a higher constant temperature than mammals. In this connection it is interesting to note that in the lowest mam- mals, the monotremes, and also in the marsupials, in which a lower body temperature is maintained, the heat produced, as measured by the carbon-dioxide output per kilo per hour, is much less than in so-called placental mammals of the same size (10). We know noth- ing at present about relative heart size or pulse rate in these animals. But since the monotremes regulate their temperature by the produc- tion of more heat when required (1. e., in cold surroundings) instead of by always producing a large amount and getting rid of the excess when necessary as the larger at any rate of the higher mammals do, we should expect the pulse rate in them to vary a good deal, and inversely, with the external temperature. The marsupials, utilizing also variations in loss of heat, although to a less extent than placental mammals of the same size, seem to regulate their body temperature extremely well. Of the two monotremes still living, Ornithorhyncus succeeds in doing so quite as well as some of the placental mammals; and Echidna, although it fails, makes the attempt for the greater part of the year, the oxygen consumption in the individual, at any given external temperature, seeming to some extent to vary inversely with the size according to the determinations made by Dr. Martin of the carbon-dioxide output per unit, weight, and time in three individuals (10). Those placental mammals which do not regulate their temperature the whole year round do not succeed much better than Echidna when they make the attempt, especially on first awak- ing from hibernation. In some of them the temperature seems to remain lower than in other placental mammals. :The rectal tem- perature of a bat, for instance, may be only 30° C. when it is wide awake and active (16). The low temperature in such cases seems again to be due to the production of heat being small in comparison with other mammals of the same size. Thus in an active bat weigh- ing about 20 grams, the carbon-dioxide output per kilo per hour was found to be only about 4.5 grams, and therefore considerably less than in a mouse. If we may take this as a measure of the demand for oxygen in an active bat, the heart need not beat with a frequency of more than 250 per minute to supply the demand, seeing that the heart of the bat, as we happen to know from two independent SIGNIFICANCE OF PULSE RATE—BUGHANAN. 497 sources (3) and (16), weighs as much as 1.2 per cent of the body weight, and is therefore relatively larger than that of the mouse. A very small dormouse on the other hand, in which the carbon-dioxide output may be as much as 20.4 grams per kilo per hour when awake (16), we should expect to have a pulse rate of over 1,000 per minute, even if it has as large a heart (relatively) as the bat.t It may have a pulse rate as slow as 16 or 14 per minute when hibernating (16a). Before going further a few words should be said about the method of ascertaining the frequency of the beat in small warm-blooded animals. It would be difficult to count a frequency of over 300 a minute, or to record any mechanical movements of the heart when they are so rapid, in the living intact animal. We can, however, make use of the fact, the meaning of which is not yet sufficiently un- derstood (5) and (6), that the electrical changes accompanying all muscular activity, and therefore that of the heart, produce in the case of hearts of mammals, birds, and certain if not all reptiles, two electric fields, the one of which pervades the anterior, the other the posterior part of the body. In order to record the rate at which the fields appear and disappear, we select some spot in each, e. g., the mouth and one of the hind legs, and with some good conductor of elec- tricity (such as wool or thread soaked in salt water) connect each with a basin of salt water, these in their turn being connected with the terminals of an instrument sensitive enough to record such small differences of potential as come into existence between the two fields. Such an instrument is the capillary electrometer represented diagrammatically in figure 2, which shows a bird ready to have its pulse rate recorded. The instrument consists essentially of a fine glass tube drawn out so as to be only a few thousandths of a milli- meter in diameter near the tip, and filled with mercury. The open end of the capillery tip dips into dilute sulphuric acid which enters so far as the mercury permits, the tube being very slightly conical so as just to prevent the mercury running out however near it be to the tip. The properties of the instrument are such that if the mercury becomes (galvanometrically) positive to the acid it moves toward it, if negative it moves in the opposite direction. Since the one field always comes into existence before the other, even though it may be by no more than a thousandth of a second, there is always a quick movement of the mercury in one direction while the single field exists. There may be other movements, but these first quick 1 Note added in 1911.—Observations subsequently made by the author showed that an ordinary sized dormouse has a pulse rate of 600 to 700 when awake and warm and a heart weight which is about 1.2 per cent of the body weight; also that the pulse rate of a bat when awake is very variable, being in the very small form Nannugo pipistrellus now about 200, now about 900 a minute, now something between, while in the larger form Plecotus auritus, 9. specimen weighing 9.4 grams, had a pulse rate varying from 600 to 900 a minute (see 6A, and Proc. Physiol. Soc., Mar. 18, 1911). 97578°—sm 191082 498 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. ones, each the precursor of a ventricular systole, are easiest to count when recorded. To record the movements the image of the tip of the tube is magnified some three hundred times, and the boundary Basins of salt water - H,S0, Hg Capillary o== He electrometer Inverted image of H,SO, tip of capillary X 300 Fic. 2—Diagram of a bird having its pulse taken. between mercury and acid is photographed on a moving plate on which is simultaneously projected the shadow of one end of a tun- ting fork vibrating at a known rate, so that the speed of the plate Fig. 3.—Electro-cardiogram of a goldfinch. may be gauged. Figure 3 is two seconds’ worth of a record taken with a goldfinch arranged in the way shown diagrammatically in figure 2. The tracing of a tuning fork vibrating one hundred times a second is seen above, and a thick and a thin horizontal line which SIGNIFICANCE OF PULSE RATE—BUCHANAN. 499 do not here concern us; the white below is the acid and the black the mercury. The record reads from right to left. It will be seen that the acid moved toward the mercury at regular intervals. These can be counted; in this particular photograph 304 of them occur in the two seconds, indicating that the heart was beating at the rate of nine hundred and fifteen times per minute. Until this method was introduced the frequencies of beat in small warm-blooded animals were not actually known. Their order had, however, already been inferred by Dr. Haldane from the known quick rate of consumption of oxygen. The method he introduced some 14 years ago of detecting the presence of carbon monoxide in mines, which has been the means of averting many disasters, depends essentially upon the fact that the more rapid the circulation is through the lungs, the more quickly is an animal affected by poison- ous gases absorbed from the atmosphere and the more quickly does it recover in air free from such gases. Since carbon-monoxide, which is far more dangerous to life than any of the other gases which are formed when explosions or fires occur in mines, neither affects the sense organs nor produces pain, miners may remain unaware of its existence and so do nothing to avoid it, until they suddenly succumb. Had they only with them a mouse or a small bird in a cage, forming as much a part of their equipment as a safety lamp, they would have sufficient time to escape from a place which is dangerous, by leaving as soon as the animal showed symptoms, long before they themselves had absorbed a sufficient quantity to be incapacitated. If they are quick, the animal will live to aid them in finding a safe place of retreat. As it takes 14 to 15 times as long when at rest and 7 to 8 times as long when at work, for a man to be disabled as for a mouse, the miner, even if working, would have one or two hours for escape with such percentages of carbon-monoxide in the air as usually occur in mines (14). The frequency of beat, as we have seen, has not become adapted by itself to regulate the supply of oxygen to the demands of the different warm-blooded animals, but other factors also play their part. We have shown that of these the principal one is the volume of blood expelled per beat. We have now to inquire what signifi- cance is to be attached to the fact that now the one and now the other of the two main regulating factors plays the more important part. Parrot’s observations on the relative heart weights of over 50 dif- ferent species of birds and those others of birds and mammals re- ferred to in our tables show that the relatively large heart is found in the more active animals. This is so not only in warm-blooded animals, but also, as we have already noticed, in fish, flatfish having a relative heart weight less than half that of more active fish. It is probably also the case in amphibians and reptiles, although we have 500 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. not yet the determining data; for, however small the demand for oxygen, all animals when active must consume more than when at rest and those that are habitually active must have some means of obtaining more. Moreover, since a large heart works more eco- nomically than a small one, in that it spends less of its time in over- coming inertia, it would for that reason also be favored when much work has to be done. The range of variation in relative heart size is fairly large in all species in which it has been determined in sey- eral specimens, but more so in some species than in others. Thus in four specimens of the golden oriole it varied between 1.8 and 2.6 per cent, while in seven of the curlew sandpiper it varied only between 1.6 and 2.0 per cent. In man, according to the determinations made by Bergmann from 36 people in whom death was accidental, the variation may be from 0.43 to 0.75 per cent. Miiller (24) dealing not with the weight of the whole heart, but only with that of the musculature, in percentage of body weight, in a large number of individuals who had died of different diseases, shows by his tables that in about 800 people dying between the ages of 30 and 60, this varied from 0.26 to 0.89 per cent, and further that the percentage weights of this musculature did not vary symmetrically about a mean, but asymmetrically about a mode (i. e., the percentage weight of the greatest number), and in such fashion that the mode (0.49 to 0.50 per cent) was nearer to the relatively small hearts than to the large ones, suggesting that the heart in man is becoming relatively smaller. The suggestion that man’s ancestors were larger hearted is perhaps supported by the fact that in infants the modal ratio is about 0.6 per cent and even in children from 4 weeks to 3 years of age it is further in the direction of the large heart than in the adult, being about 0.53 per cent. But we have to be careful in drawing such inferences from data which can not be determined in the living, since we do not know in how far the heart ratio affects the death rate, a point which Miiller, who interprets his tables in a way very dif- ferent from that which is here suggested, seems to neglect. How- ever this may be, we have ample evidence that in man as in other mammals, in birds, and so far as we know also in the lower verte- brates, the material is there to be selected from should it for any reason become advantageous for a species to alter its heart ratio in the future as it has probably done in the past. With regard to the past, it seems probable that such variations were used as material for selection before they became correlated with frequency of beat and that it was with the size of the heart more or less already deter- mined that this frequency, which is also known to be variable in indi- viduals, began to be used when it began to be advantageous to be independent of external temperature, owing perhaps to a change from an equable to a variable climate. In the present state of our SIGNIFICANCE OF PULSE RATE—BUCHANAN. 501 knowledge it is difficult to point to any advantage which might accrue to any species of poikilothermic vertebrate from having a particular pulse rate, nor apparently is the variation in different species greater than that in individuals in this respect. When frequency came to be correlated with relative heart size for the regulation of the rate of oxygen supply to the heat-forming tissues, the slow pulse would tell as an advantage as well as the large heart in animals having to make great sustained effort; for a slow pulse as compared with a quick one means longer diastoles more than longer systoles, the systole requiring to be very little longer to expel a much larger quantity of blood, since, in contracting, the walls (the surface) of the ventricles decrease with the square, the contents with the cube. The longer the diastole the more time has the heart to recuperate between the beats when the animal is at rest and the greater power has it in time of need of increasing the oxygen supply to the tissues by increasing the frequency of the beat. The pulse rate of the rabbit only goes up to an average of 324 per minute after a few minutes’ chasing about or after section of the vagi (11), thus in- creasing the oxygen supply by one and a half times at the most; that of the hare goes up under similar circumstances to 264 per minute (12), so that if the same amount of blood were expelled in each systole as when the animal was at rest the oxygen supply might be increased as much as four and a half times. MacWilliam, drawing attention to the connection between slow pulse and staying power, remarks (12) with regard to these particular closely allied animals, that “the rabbit is able to run short distances with great rapidity, but not to traverse long distances without intermission—this being no doubt in relation to the fact of their having burrows to flee to; the hare, on the other hand, destitute of such means of protection, has to depend, in the open country, upon its endurance in swift loco- motion.” The relative size of the hare’s heart, according to Berg- mann’s estimations, appears to be nearly three times that of the rabbit’s; and of the pulse rates of the two animals at rest that of the rabbit is about three times that of the hare. That staying power rather than wildness itself has led to the larger heart being favored is shown by the fact that there is very little difference in the relative heart weights of the tame and the wild rabbit (9). The relatively small heart of animals kept for food, such as the hen, the tame duck, the pig, the ox, and the cow (in which it is the same as in the ox) is, on the other hand, a consequence of the artificial fattening up of these animals, thus increasing their body weight, while their hearts, having little to do, do not keep pace, it being possible to supply the oxygen demanded by increasing the frequency of beat. The animals with the smallest hearts would be selected for the purpose in question by man just because of their 502 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. being the least active. By similar artificial (though also uncon- scious) selection in the other direction, the relatively large heart of the race horse would be accounted for, while in the case of the deer and the bat, which are the only other mammals, of those in which relative heart weight has already been determined, with so large a heart as the race horse, the same end has been achieved by natural selection. That frequency of beat in a resting condition, as well as relative heart size, furnishes material (whether it is used or not) for natural (or artificial) selection to work on is a fact of common experience so far as man is concerned. I have found it to vary between 45 and 90 per minute in quite healthy people. The extent of the range seems to be very different in different species, thus in the mouse it varies between 520 and 810 per minute, in the rabbit between 123 and 306 per minute, while a veterinary surgeon informs me that in the ordinary horse its range of variation is between 34 and 40 only in health. Hering’s observations on the pulse rates of 43 rabbits show that the modal resting frequency is lower than the average fre- quency, thus suggesting in the case of the rabbit what Miiller’s observations did in the case of man, that it has come from a slower pulsed and larger hearted race. Can we go further than showing that variations in frequency exist to be selected from if need be, and indicate also the method by which the heart in birds and mammals has succeeded in adapting itself to the needs of the organism? We know that regulation of heat in every individual warm-blooded animal is brought about by the agency of the central nervous system. We know also that a warm- blooded animal never is cold, although it feels cold when brought into cold surroundings, while a so-called “ cold-blooded ” one which really does become cold under similar cicumstances does not feel cold, if we may judge from its behavior. We find that instead of making the attempt to produce more heat to counterbalance the loss, by eating or moving about, it refuses to do either of these things in the cold. It will not even choose the warmest place and so prevent as much loss of heat as possible. I kept a young crocodile for some months in a long trough so arranged that one end but not the other might be heated from outside. It was so heated every night when the weather was cold, but the crocodile was found indifferently in any part of the trough in the morning, until at last one night in a somewhat longer spell of cold weather it died at the very farthest extremity of the trough from the warmed part. It could have been in a sur- rounding temperature of 8° C. had it liked; it chose one that was hardly above freezing point and died there. A warm-blooded ani- mal, feeling the cold, would have made every effort both to prevent loss of heat and to produce more heat, and even without effort it . SIGNIFICANCE OF PULSE RATE—BUCHANAN. 503 would, with the aid of the central nervous system, that is to say reflexly, have done one or other or both things, in some species more the one, in some more the other. Is it also by means of the central nervous system that the muscles, put into play either voluntarily or involuntarily to produce the extra amount of heat and taking up more oxygen from the blood, ask the heart to make good the loss? It is well known that muscular action is accompanied by acceleration of the heart, and that acceleration of the heart may be brought about by the intervention of nerves. But to answer the question we have to know a good deal more than this, and, in the first place, whether either reflexly by the excitation of the afferent nerves of the muscle or by the excitation of motor cells of the cortex such acceleration can be produced, also whether poikolo- thermic vertebrates differ from homcothermic ones in this respect. That it can be produced in one or other of these ways in one species of homceothermic vertebrate, namely man, is shown, I think con- clusively, by the results obtained from experiments which, by the kindness of several Oxford undergraduates in serving as subjects for them, I have been able to make. Having recorded the frequency of the beat with the subject sitting quietly with one hand and one foot in basins of salt water connected with the terminals of the capillary electrometer, it was then again recorded when, instead of being at rest, he clenched the fist that was free, or made some other definite muscular action, on hearing a signal given automatically just as the plate began to pass behind the capillary electrometer and with the exact moment at which it was given recorded on the plate. The reaction time of the subject to the particular sound had been first ascertained with the same instrument, in a way which need not be here described, to enable us to tell the moment at which the mus- cular action began to be made, and to see in how long or how short a time after it the acceleration of the heart took place. We have of course to take our chance as to when in a cardiac cycle the signal is given, but by taking a sufficient number of records we are likely to meet with it in all phases of the cycle. The amount of the accelera- tion with such a slight action as clenching a fist is very different in different people, but if it is marked at all we have no difficulty in ascertaining that it occurs so promptly that if the muscle begins to contract only at the end of a systole, the immediately ensuing diastole of the same cardiac cycle is considerably shortened and that of the following cycles still more so. Thus in a.man whose heart when at rest was beating very regularly 73 times a minute, the period of the cycle being therefore 0.82 second, the period became 0.67 second when the fist was clenched at the end of the systole, and the next ones were 0.57 or 0.56 second, the frequency being thus temporarily raised to over 100 per minute. That the stimulus should be anything 504 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. involving mechanical movements of the blood is hardly conceivable. The shortening of the cycle in cases of such slight action is due to shortening of the diastole only, and MacWilliam’s researches (12) on cats have shown us that it is the vagus nerve which principally, if not solely, affects the duration of diastole, and that stimulation of the peripheral end of this nerve produces an immediate effect, whereas that of the accelerator nerve to the heart (the sympathetic) takes some few seconds to produce one. We can therefore not only say from the promptitude with which the heart accelerates when a volun- tary action is made that it is due to nerve action, but also that it is the vagus nerve which conveys the impulse to the heart and therefore that the nerve which acts on the vagus center, whether the sensory nerve of a muscle or an axon from a cortex cell, acts in such a way as to suspend the tonic action of the center. Bowen, in a paper (15) discovered after these experiments had been made, has shown that even so small an action as gently tapping a key, the subject being at rest with his arm supported on a table, produces a prompt accelera- tion of the heart. His method of recording does not show so well as that described above how prompt it is, but he saw that it was enough to indicate that it could only be brought about by the mediation of the vagus. Of course many other factors—chemical, mechanical, and thermal, as well as nervous—must play some part in producing the strong acceleration of the heart consequent on severe exercise, when the frequency may become in man 170 or 180 per minute, and when the duration of the systole as well as that of the diastole is shortened. To answer our question we require to know whether it is to them or to nervous factors only that the acceleration is due which occurs with involuntary, reflexly produced, muscular movements for the regulation of temperature such as shivering, evidence of which acceleration I have obtained from one or two medical undergradu- ates who kindly took their pulse rates several times under conditions which induced shivering for comparison with what it was before the shivering commenced. Since the shivering can not be made to begin at a precise moment, we can not ascertain in the same way as for voluntary movements whether the heart acceleration as well as the movement itself is brought about by the agency of the central ner- vous system; but there is a certain amount of likelihod that the two things should be effected in the first instance by the same agency. The fact that the arousing to activity of the central nervous system of a hibernating animal makes it not only begin to shiver (17) or become very active so as to produce heat, but at the same time (or even pre- viously) quickens the heart beat very considerably (see 64), also sug- gests it. It might perhaps be determined whether it were so or not by seeing whether in the first place the animal managed to hibernate SIGNIFICANCE OF PULSE RATE—-BUCHANAN. 505 if the action of the vagus on the heart were prevented, e. g., by the administration of atropine; whether in such case the frequency of beat was reduced to the same extent, and if so, secondly, whether under a continuation of the treatment heart acceleration occurred, and occurred as promptly, on awakening from hibernation. If in spite of such procedure the animal when awake still succeeded in regulating its temperature, we should know that other agencies than the central nervous system were more intimately concerned in adapt- ing the heart to meet the demands made upon it. We should then be in a better position than we are now to discuss whether the power which we have shown to be exercised by the heart in the different species of warm-blooded animals of complying with the demands made upon it, not on occasion only but for lfe, has been evolved under nervous control. REFERENCES. (1) Kourr, Arch. f. d. ges. Physiol. (Pfitiger), Vol. 122, 1908. (2) BryaNn-ROBINSON, 1734: quoted by (24) MULLER, Die Massenverhiiltnisse des menschlichen Herzens, Hamburg and Leipzig, 1882; and by Hopssuin, Arch. f. (Anat. u.), Physiol., 1888. (3) Parrot, Uber die Gréssenverhiltnisse des Herzens bei Végeln, Zool. Jahrb., Vol. 7, Syst., 1894, (4) BucHANAN, On the Frequency of the Heart-beat in the Mouse, Proc. Physiol. Soc., November, 1908. Journal of Physiology, Vol. 37. (5) , On the Frequency of the Heart-beat, ete., in Birds, Proc. Physiol. Soc., March, 1909. Journal of Physiology, Vol. 38. (6) , On the Electro-cardiogram, Frequency of Heart-beat, etc., in Reptiles, Proc. Physiol. Soc., December, 1909. Journal of Physiology, Vol. 39. (GA) , The frequency of the Heart-beat in the Sleeping and Waking Dormouse, Proc. Physiol. Soc., June 18, 1910. Journal of Physiology, Vol. 40. (7) , Results of hitherto unpublished observations and experiments made in Oxford with the aid of grants from the Government Grant Committee of the Royal Society. (8) BmRGMANN, Ueber die Grisse des Herzens bei Menschen und Thieren, Inaug. Dissert. Miinchen, 1884. (9) JosepH, The Ratio between Heart-weight and Body-weight in various Animals, (Journ. Exp. Med., Vol. 10, No. 4, 1908. (10) Martin, C. J., Thermal adjustment and respiratory exchange in Monotremes and Marsupials, Phil. Trans. B., Vol. 195, 1902. (11) HerinG, Ueber d. Beziehung d. extracardialen Herznerven zur Steigerung d. Herzschlagzahl bei Muskelthiitigkeit, Arch. f. d. ges. Physiol. (Pfitiger), Vol. 60, 1895. (12) MacWIr.LuiAM, On the Influence of the Central Nervous System on Cardiac Rhythm, etc., Proc. Royal. Soc., Vol. 53, 1893. (18) FraNcK, Anatomie der Hausthiere. (184) Forspns, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1881, p. 960. (14) HaAtpAann, Journal of Physiology, Vol. 18, 1895; Trans. of the Institution of Mining Engineers, vol. 38, 1910, and other papers there referred to. (15) Bownn, A Study of the Pulse-rate in Man, as modified by muscular work. Con- tributions to medical research, dedicated to Victor Clarence Vaughan, Mich- igan, 1908. (16) Pemprey and HAaLtn WHITH, Regulation of Temperature in Hibernating Animals, Journ. Physiol., Vol. 19, 1896; or (164) Pembrey’s article on Animal Heat in Schiifer’s Text-book of Physiology, 1898. (17) Pemprey, Respiration and Temperature of the Marmot, Journ. Physiol., Vol. 17, 1901. OT a ot itite 7 aw istomehypiitelars te magne te od "i pltoutie\: gr lth iri finn ‘tichae! er oe = pbroenens fo woiseesteron tnaoil Drbieed weenie ke Lite lnoitdited i wri tition sath wie ete | wie tae Uae fiebasbons! Hid ailytire ies: dursfodtiote alt?’ ab | (Qadir nadie | tact Newer bod tnt, svt trot wats - dope east Tenerselacun ybrtatnitibarsoc Woz: minticeinld orn madd Duos a¥hii yi Oy oheas Ehadresh ody joonteot bv vil j TH Oy GAT eh aie of Hon tera rat} ows biatiicp: 49) phi drevvsivsie ef2earoeprmedd seb wk fiesiorece) ed) oft eeydely evil vine ‘ » rie - ine ete, et 4 nar ; 5m Z MLL Ce if Wie] MOD 20 Vier seas baa ; em ' i t i ) ? 1) i. ‘ - i - } ied) ai tiie tw hedh vine: notessosiio ida } i Roya i . 4 ‘ ; ¢ . Melinda Nice sa ' J 4 dy oe 4 y Ase) fay , dus 4 y ' ’ (eu t @e27 | ly pea we japen ke § i) tne iv, hy 7 . 7 net ‘ 4 : . ¢ a Piz Leas | inia iy 1 ai Let uf t F : rai rt] I< ri I » Ly i ‘a f " | . Py a t ; Tn 2 i wt? 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Aa ' is ther e AGA 3 - Lares? rune ; anf I> of A " we {UPTON orion xv ot yan esha, rete ashe ww aptimenatowd fatlt j a4 i} Stav-svie’l of) io chai A ow hy : ai 1 ‘oon pt athe | : ‘ f ae ry, rye ot beshy sa vii iy te hee ee reall ais 7 hey oy : 6 Te : i . }J ae nv a ey ‘ae Petre a EE TRG SATE SOF OUe ke. LON. 4 Seer “ingte™ eth wal oo OR TEE, ¥ ( wubid sige, og ? a ; be ue Ai tu dasiereginyl ban hia or , 7 ; ties y 4 po ) ‘ . Les - 1 e y 7 al? , rs 4 Py ° rh we a ° Oe , tet A pet | ae ee a ee ee T Pee Ps a a a eye 2 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SOLITARY WASPS OF THE GENUS SYNAGRIS. [With 4 plates. ] By EH. RousBaup. The solitary wasps of the subfamily Eumenine which belong to the genus Synagris inhabit the whole of Africa except the northern por- tion and Egypt. They are closely allied to the genus Rhynchium, but are distinguishable by the labial palpi, which have only three joints, the very long labrum, and the maxillary palpi of 3, 4, or 5 joints.” The systematic relationships of this group, although elucidated by the early investigations of De Saussure, are still imperfectly known, while the biological data which we possess regarding them are much more fragmentary. We know that these insects build nests in the ordinary manner of the eumenids, but their larve are little known and their mode of feeding and their history still less. During the leisure hours of my sojourn in the Middle Congo as a member of the commission for the study of the sleeping sickness, I sought as far as possible to supply some of these deficiencies in our knowledge. The wasps are quite common in the lower Congo, and I found there three species, S. calida L.,. 8. sicheliana Sauss., and the most common as well as most remarkable of all, S. cornuta L. These three species nest by preference on the roofs and walls of houses, at all times, both in the dry or cold season and in the rainy or warm season. There was, therefore, at my very door an interesting subject and one relatively easy to follow and to study from a biological stand- point. Since it had to do with the eumenids, one might have ex- pected a mode of life but little different from that of other solitary wasps—that is to say, an ordinary provisioning of the nests by means of fresh paralyzed prey, with which the egg is shut up and left en- . 1ranslated by permission from Annales de la Société Hntomologique de France. Paris, July, 1910. Vol. 79, Pt. I, pp. 1-21. 2I owe all the bibliographical details, the information regarding classification, and the exact identification of the species which are the object of these observations, to my friend, Viscount R. du Buysson, whose knowledge and courtesy have been unfailing. I am happy to express here my very sincere thanks. 507 508 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. tirely alone. Observation was not long in demonstrating to me that instinct among these wasps assumed an entirely different form—that throughout the genus it is in full course of evolution toward a higher type, toward the mode of rearing the young so entirely different, which exists among the social wasps. The species of Synagris constitute, biologically, a type intermediate between those of the solitary wasps and the social wasps. I shall attempt to show this in presenting the results of my investigations regarding the three species of the Congo. I have been aided in this work by the devoted zeal of my assistant in the commission, Mr. Weiss, to whom I wish to express at the outset my deep sense of gratitude. Synagris calida L. ‘ This species is not common at Brazzaville. I found only one large nest, which was built in September under the roof of the laboratory of the commission. When collected in October, this nest measured 12 centimeters in length and about 8 centimeters in greatest diameter. It had the appearance of an irregular mass of earth, without appreciable symmetry, the surface being mammilated by a peculiar rough plastering, in which could be recognized the innu- merable pellets of earth which the builder accumulated for its con- struction. This nest contained 11 cells, with very thick walls, all closed and occupied by young pupe, or by larvee which had already devoured their food and spun their silken cocoons. Like those of all the species of Synagris, this nest was built of a mixture of yellow clay and sand, mixed with saliva. In accordance with the habits of the eumenids, it is probable that each compartment was constructed separately, and that the common covering of earth was merely a secondary assembling of the separate cells. Mr. G. Vasse brought to the Museum of Paris from Mozambique a young nest of this species which consisted as yet only of the first cell. The nest is somewhat conical, and about 5 centimeters long and 4 centi- meters across the widest part of the base. ‘The apex is occupied by a large orifice, shghtly turned toward one side. Mr. Chevalier also sent one from Krébedjé (Fort Sibut), in the Gribingui, which was already finished and quite old, but which contained only six compart- ments, from which all the adult insects had gone. It measured 7 centimeters in length and 5 centimeters in breadth. I should have known scarcely anything about this wasp if I had not accidentally found in one of the closed compartments of the nest which I collected at Brazzaville a young larva dead and desiccated, with the whole of its store of caterpillars. All the other occupants of the cells were either fully developed larvee which had devoured their food and spun their cocoons, or were pupe. The caterpillars SOLITARY WASPS OF GENUS SYNAGRIS—-ROUBAUD. 509 found by the side of the young larva of Synagris were identified by Mr. P. Chrétien as those of hesperids. By means of these remains it is possible to describe the habits of the wasp. It deposits in the cells during the course of their construction a hoard of caterpillars, ren- dered immovable, and an egg, and then walls up the orifice, and takes no farther care of its offspring. This is the ordinary provision of food as found among other solitary wasps. Mr. Maindron,! more- over, observed in 1879, at Senegal, the mode employed by S. calida in providing food. He saw the insect hunt about small bushes, seize upon caterpillars, grasping them with its mandibles and pierc- ing them with its sting, and then carrying them away and storing at least six in each cell. In the Brazzaville nest the number was much larger. I counted as many as 14 caterpillars in the same cell. Many of them were parasitized by the larve of a Z'achina (T. fallax Meig. =T. xanthaspis Wiedm.=Eutachina wiennertzi B. B.),? the pupe of which, having escaped from the host, were found at the bottom of the cell. It is quite possible that the premature death and decompo- sition of the parasitized caterpillars had led to that of the others, as well as to that of the Synagris. The parasitism of the Z'achina had, therefore, extended its results not only to the hesperid caterpillars, but also to the larva which was to feed on them. This circumstance shows one of the defects in the primitive mode of rearing the larvee. Synagris sicheliana Sauss. [t is not the same with S. stcheliana Sauss., in which the feeding instinct is perfected, as will be seen presently, in a remarkable man- ner. This species, which builds nests cell by cell, of rude structure, much resembling those of the preceding species, is the most common form of Synagris at Brazzaville. The nests are masses of yellow earth, the surface of which bears the marks of the successive balls of earth which the wasp has joined together to form the cells. The maximum number of cells which I found in a single nest did not exceed eight, and the whole structure was roughly ovoid. The most recent cell is nearly always open, and serves as a shelter for the builder, which very often dies in it. As is usually the case, the ma- terials that serve for the construction of nests are obtained in moist places, mixed with saliva, and carried with very great zeal to the place chosen, which is nearly always under the high roof of houses. The initial cells are higher than broad and roughly conical. Quite often the earth of old nests is used, in which case they are gnawed and demolished all about the orifice; but I have never observed that 1 Monit. du Sénég. et Dep., Apr. 15, 1879 (communicated by Mr. J. Ktinckel d’Herculais). 21 owe this identification to the kindness of my learned friend Dr. J. Villeneuve. 510 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. a Synagris obtained its materials at the expense of fresh nests that were still occupied. The nests were 8 to 9 centimeters long and 7 centimeters broad; the height of the cells, 4.5 centimeters. Association of nests—Sometimes the nests are associated, several being placed side by side, so that they form bands of earth 20 to 25 centimeters long, according to the number of individual nests. The number can be ascertained by observing the constrictions in the mass of earth which mark the area of contact between two different nests. (Pl. 2.) Are these fortuitous associations of nests of different age grouped by adult wasps which had no original connection with each other; or are they constructed by females born in the same nest? It is difficult to decide. It appears, a priori, not impossible that they represent the first step toward a grouping in colonies. Rearing of larve.—On February 19 I discovered under the roof of a farm building a nest of this Synagris, with two cells. The older, the orifice of which was walled up with a plug of earth, contained a larva already well grown, and a provision of six inert caterpillars, one of which was about three-quarters eaten. In the more recent cell, which was guarded by the female, was found a single yellowish egg merely placed in the bottom of the cell. On the 22d of February another nest was pointed out to me by natives on the quarters of the Senegal tirailleurs. I had it brought down with the greatest precau- tions. It was an association of nests forming a band that measured about 30 centimeters in length. The adults had already taken their flight, as these nests were old. In two of the cells were found only a couple of females, probably the builders, who had retired within‘ them to die. The last cell alone, at one end of the assemblage, was guarded by a living female. I found there an egg that occupied the bottom of the cell and above it 5 large hesperid caterpillars. On the 23d of February a third nest was brought to me by a Ba- kongo boy, who had obtained it on his quarters. Three cells were walled up and contained a young pupa and two full-grown larve. A fourth cell was open and contained a wasp with its head turned in a menacing attitude toward the opening. It had not abandoned the nest while the latter was being transported. On turning it out, I found in the cell 10 large hesperid caterpillars, to serve as provision for a large larva which had already attained three-fourths its full s1ze. On the 27th two nests were brought to me with the greatest care by natives. One consisted of three cells, of which two were closed. The third harbored a young larva with a provision of eight cater- pillars. The other nest comprised five cells. In the freshest one, which was guarded by the female, was found an egg without pro- vision. In one of the adjoining cells, which had the orifice closed, SOLITARY WASPS OF GENUS SYNAGRIS—ROUBAUD. 511 there was a larva of large size with a provision of seven caterpillars, two partly devoured. With the aid of the foregoing data, it is possible to contruct a history of this Synagris. The wasp lays an egg in its cell of earth. Then, without haste, after having guarded it for some time, com- mences to collect a small provision of caterpillars for the moment of hatching. When the larva has commenced to feed, the Synagris continues its provisioning, but in a slow and regular manner, taking care only to furnish its larva with a little more food than is neces- sary for the day. It is a progressive provisioning, from day to _ day, which gives the wasp the necessary leisure to guard the larva and watch its growth. A fact of this kind has never before been recorded of the solitary wasps. When the larva has attained three-fourths of its size, the wasp incloses it in its cell with the last provision. At this time the larva is still transparent and rose colored. In three days it devours the caterpillars at its disposal, takes on a uniform yellowish color, and loses its transparency on account of the abundant development of reserve nutriment. After three days of rest, during which it remains inert and without movement, it spins the thin walls of silk which surround it, and outside of which are left the alimentary wastes, the excrement of the caterpillars, and the hard chitinous parts which have not been devoured. From 19 to 23 days intervene from the time when the larva spins its cocoon to the time when it emerges as the adult insect. The pupa, properly so called, exists for about 12 days. Thus, three larve which spun their cocoons on February 19, 22, and 23, respectively, were transformed into pupe on March 1, 3, and 5. The adults came out on March 10, 15, and 18. The duration of the pupal stage was, therefore, 10 days for the first, 12 days for the second, and 13 days for the third. . The caterpillars which the female wasps choose for the nourish- ment of their larve are those of various species of hesperids (skip- pers). I did not observe either their capture or the method of ren- dering them immobile. Some of them were bitten on the side of the head, and the majority showed indications of having been stung sev- eral times. They were always more completely immobile than the caterpillars made use of by the solitary wasps of the genus Odynerus in our country. Fabre has observed as regards the latter that the caterpillars, although stung, do not remain motionless, and that they would crush the egg by their movements if it were deposited in their midst. Hence the utility of the suspensory thread which attaches the egg to the surface of the cell in different species of Odynerus and Humenes. Ferton mentions that in the case of nests which he ob- served the caterpillars were possibly able to spin cocoons and to trans- 512 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. form themselves. It is far from being so in the case of the cater- pillars rendered immobile by Synagris, which lie quite inert in the earthen cell and scarcely show any signs of remaining alive, beyond slight movements of the mandibles and head. The egg is deposited beside them, and is not fixed to the wall of the nest by a suspensory thread, although this thread still exists at- tached to one end of the egg. The egg, furthermore, is not fixed to the prey, as in the case of such predaceous wasps as Bembex, Oxuy- belus, Ammophila, Pompilus, etc. It is deposited in the bottom of the cell, which is at the time empty, and the female watches for the hatching in order to begin provisioning. This is, therefore, the habit of social wasps. One of the wasps, M/onedula punctata, has nearly the same habit, according to Mr. Hudson (ea Bouvier, p. 26). This - wasp digs a hole, deposits its egg therein, and then closes the hole and waits for the hatching of the young larva before undertaking the provisioning. But, as Bouvier has remarked, this proceeding hardly constitutes a marked advance in the evolution of instinct. The young Bembewx, at its birth, finds itself immured in an empty cell. It does not find at its door the food that it needs after hatching. One can understand, however, the protection of the egg which is assured in this way against the attacks of the Tachina flies. The proceeding of our Synagris is much more perfected. The wasp does not wall up its cell after laying the egg. It remains there itself and guards the ege—its head directed outward, thus preventing the access of para- sites. On the other hand, it begins provisioning at such time as will enable the young larva, after hatching, to be certain to find its food. The provisioning which then takes place regularly and in proportion suitable to the size of the larva, permits the Synagris to watch the growth of its young. This is certainly an important advance over the primitive mode of rearing the young found among the solitary wasps. The larva is not walled up in the cell, which is abundantly supplied with caterpillars, until it has reached a period of active growth, which guarantees, to a certain extent, a favorable termination of its evolution. The usual mode of provisioning, in which the egg is abandoned to itself in the midst of an abundant supply of caterpillars, is mani- festly imperfect. It may happen that the prey which has been col- lected at one time in a single locality may be already infested with parasites. In this case, these caterpillars, which are in such a condi- tion that they can offer little resistance, soon perish and decompose, involving the death of the larva which they should serve as food. It may happen also that their tissues having been partly devoured by their parasites, the amount of food is insufficient for the complete growth of the young wasp. This occurred, as we have seen, in the case of at least one of the larve of our Synagris calida. Such an SOLITARY WASPS OF GENUS SYNAGRIS—ROUBAUD. 513 accident could not happen in the nests of the Synagris sicheliana, or at least it could not occur so readily, as the cell is not walled up until late. In this respect, therefore, the slow and progressive pro- visioning constitutes an indisputable improvement on the primitive instinct. It is an important step in the evolution of the hereditary habits of the solitary wasps. Synagris cornuta. L. In a third species of Synagris, S. cornuta, we find the expres- sion of a maternal feeling infinitely more definite, an instinct for rearing the young still more perfected. This is the third term of the series which will lead us directly to the remarkable rearing habits of the social wasps. Nidification—The nest of S. cornuta, as in the case of the other species, is built by the female, with a yellow earth, a mixture of clay and sand, taken from the borders of brooks in moist places and mixed with saliva. Occasionally the clay chosen is of a gray color. As usual, the male does not participate in any manner in the con- struction of the nest. The different cells, in this case also, are built separately, but at periods which may vary considerably more than for the other two species, on account, as we shall see later, of the peculiar manner of rearing the larve. The nest is composed of an assemblage of cells which are built separately, but the general structure reveals talent which is unquestionably more perfect than in the other two species. The nest of S. cornuta has scarcely been mentioned except by FE. André (1895), who described it very briefly. I have had occasion to observe numerous nests of this species in the Congo where it is seen more frequently than the preceding ones. It builds, moreover, in much more accessible places, under roofs of huts (paillottes), and on the protected walls of dwellings of Europeans, at a little distance above the ground. I was able on one occasion to observe the con- struction of a nest, which was immediately before my eyes on the wall of the laboratory, about 1.50 meters above the ground. The first compartment took the form of an oval cell, the bottom of which was slightly more expanded than the part which contained the entrance. Usually there is a short neck near the orifice which is more or less inclined toward the side, to facilitate the entrance of the builder. The prominence of the neck is variable. When it is well developed, the cell may take on the appearance, roughly, of a turbinated shell of a gasteropod. (Pl. 3, fig. 2.) Frequently, the neck is lacking, and the entrance is then at the upper part of the cell. The length of the cell is, on the average, 3 centimeters, and the broad- est part 22 millimeters. The wall of earth is much less thick in this species than in the case of nests of the other two species of Synagris 97578°—sm 1910——33 514 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. already mentioned. The materials are noticeably economized, which indicates a constructive ability more certain and more refined. The coating of earth is diversified externally by a multitude of transverse, parallel corrugations, which correspond to the bands of successive accretions during construction. At a distance the whole structure presents the appearance of a small rude basket. The construction of the cell is begun at the bottom. The wasp molds its work, building up the earth in regular fashion around the whole breadth of the cell. It deposits its material on one side in contact with the substratum. Then, moving backward, it distributes the whole evenly as regards thickness, according to the predetermined diameter of the structure. It carries on this work with extreme care and zeal, interrupting its toil as mason and architect only to go hastily to gather new materials, which, as a rule, it gathers in a sin- gle spot. Two or three days are necessary for the Synag7vis to com- plete its basket of earth. Then the work is suspended for a time. The wasp lays an egg in the cell, and the new occupations of mother and nurse follow that of worker in clay. When the larva, which is born and develops in the cell, has completed its growth, the insect closes the orifice of the cell with a cover of earth, the material for which it frequently takes from the walls of the entrance passage, or neck, so that the opening is often transferred to the end of the main axis of the cell. The task being finished, the insect returns to its labors of construc- tion, goes to look for suitable materials, and builds a new cell at the side of the preceding one, and in the same form. The maximum number of different cells which may compose the aggregate of an old nest appears not to exceed six, on the average, for a single female. Every time that a new cell is built, it is attached firmly to the pre- ceding ones, and a mass of earth filling the interstices conceals in part the original distinctness of each cell, and also frequently covers the bands of the fundamental coating. The uniting of the different cells, however, is never so complete and never produces so compact a mass as in the case of the nests of the-preceding species of Synagris. The appearance of the nest is quite different. The arrangement of the cells in an old nest, and consequently the general form of construction, varies according to the orientation of the whole. Most commonly the successive cells are placed in juxta- position in a linear series, in a single row along the substratum. The complete nest formed by this manner of assembling takes the shape of a band of earth more or less regular and compact, about 6.50 centi- meters in breadth for a nest of four cells, and 3.50 centimeters in height (pl. 3, fig. 3). The different cells are often recognizable only by the orifices, which are all arranged on the same side, whether open or closed. The nests with the cells in a single row are the most SOLITARY WASPS OF GENUS SYNAGRIS—ROUBAUD. 515 regular and perfect. In their construction the powers of S. cornuta in comparison with those of other species are most fully revealed. In other instances the cells are placed one upon another in several rows, the orifices being sometimes in the same direction and sometimes dis- tributed at random. The mass which fills the intervals between the cells may produce a compact and amorphous nest. The dimensions of these compact nests, which are always less than those of other species of Synagris for the same number of cells, the greater thinness of the walls, and the difference in the ornamentation of the outer coating, enable them to be readily distinguished. Orientation of the nests—The orientation of the orifice of the cell is variable, as well as that of the whole nest. The wasp knows how to modify slightly, according to circumstances, the general direction which is suitable for the cells. It adapts its constructions to the dif- ferent conditions existing where the nests are placed. The linear nests are ordinarily placed horizontally if the breadth of the foundation permits and the openings of the cells occupy the highest point. In other cases, especially when a nest is placed on a strongly inclined sur- face, such as the underside of a roof, the orifices are turned a little more outward. The length of the entrance passage, or neck, and the position of the orifices vary according to the inclination of the foun- dation. When a nest is fixed to the lower surface of a horizontal wall the entrance to the cells looks downward (pl. 3, fig. 2) in accordance with the development of the neck. Sometimes, though rarely, the wasp nests in the bushes away from habitations. It may then use as sup- ports for its cells the broad and firm leaves of certain herbaceous plants, but it takes care to conceal the nest on the underside of the leaves which, being bent downward by the weight, form a roof for it. When the nest is attached to a narrow leaf, the breadth of which scarcely exceeds the maximum dimensions of a single cell, the orienta- tion of the nest is entirely changed. The cells are placed according . to the breadth of the leaf and piled one on another. A linear nest results, but is oriented in accordance with the length of the blade, the orifices of the cells being placed laterally. These facts show a certain elasticity in the manifestations of the constructive powers of Synagris cornuta, which we did not find in our other two species. Ovulation and rearing of the larvaa—When the Synagris has fin- ished the construction of its cell of earth, it lays a bluish egg, measur- ing 6 millimeters long, the chorion of which presents at one of the ex- tremities the rudiment of a terminal filament. This is the rudiment of the suspensory thread of the egg. which among a large number of eumenids secures the egg to the wall of the cell. After the egg is laid, the female remains in the nest, her head being turned toward the orifice. She is observed to be absent only for brief periods at long intervals, no doubt leaving in search of food. She does not, 516 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. however, bring back any prey, nor undertake any provisioning of the nest. It is only when the larva is hatched that the wasp begins to hunt in a more active manner. She comes and goes incessantly, re- maining about the nest only a very short time at repeated intervals. In this respect the habits of our Synagris are entirely different, not only from those of the two preceding species, but also from all that is known relative to the eumenids. In examining nests several times shortly after the return of the female—which never appeared to carry living prey in her mandibles—I always found them without provisions of any kind. Whatever might be the age and stage of development of the larva, which lay on its back at the bottom of the cell, it never appeared to have any caterpillars at its disposal. Fur- thermore, no remains of a previous repast were found, either head parts of caterpillars previously devoured, or excrements of paralyzed caterpillars, such as were always to be seen in the cells of other species of Synagris. One is led to conclude that S. cornuta forms a re- markable exception among solitary wasps as regards its habits, in that it nourishes its larve from day to day, without storing provision for them, and doubtless in a very special manner. By observing more closely the goings and comings of these wasps I secured the key to the problem. A nest easy of access was ex- amined at the moment when the mother Synagris left a cell. I ex- amined carefully the contents of the cell and found therein, as usual, no trace of eaterpillars. The larva of the Synagris lay at the bottom of the cell. I grasped it lightly by the aid of pincers, and after having confirmed the fact that it showed no trace of food I replaced it in its normal position. Ten minutes later the wasp returned, flying rapidly, and entered the nest. After waiting some moments I forced it to leave the spot and then saw, deposited on the thorax of the larva, on the lower surface near the mouth, a little food mass of a green color and of semifluid consistency, which the larva ate greedily. Looking a little closer, I saw that this food con- sisted entirely of the rudely worked-up body of a caterpillar. The manifestation of the feeding instinct of this solitary wasp proves to be entirely different from the stage at which it has arrived in the other two species of Synagris. S. cornuta nourishes its larva from day to day with caterpillars ground up into a paste which it places close to the mouth of its offspring in the manner so well known among the social wasps. Thus we find in this species no trace of the primitive provisioning instinct of the solitary wasps. By a sudden leap, we pass to a mode of rearing the larve greatly more advanced, which indicates on the part of this species a maternal care that reveals itself only in a very indifferent and primitive form in Synagris sicheliana, SOLITARY WASPS OF GENUS SYNAGRIS—-ROUBAUD. 5L¢ The nutritive paste is deposited by the mother wasp on the ventral surface of the thoracic segments of the larva. cs agai ape a SOLITARY WASPS OF GENUS SYNAGRIS—ROUBAUD. 519 that the female S. cornuta possesses the power of regulating the time of laying her eggs or at least of retarding the process consider- ably for the benefit of the larva which she nourishes and cares for. She devotes herself to it entirely and does not abandon it in spite of the slowness of its evolution until she knows that it no longer needs her services. In this particular case the retardation produced by the parasite in the development of the first larva proved fatal to the whole subse- quent progeny. The mother Synagris, after having finally walled up the first cell, commenced the construction of the second nearly three and a half months after the former. After a day of toil she dis- appeared and did not return. It is probable that she perished through accident and with her all the future line. This was the in- direct result of the action of the parasitic ichneumon-fly on the first larva, which occupied uselessly in its behalf the greater part of the life of the female. It is possible, of course, that the latter, warned by the presence of the parasite, summoned courage to begin a new nest elsewhere, but the fact that she had commenced to build a second cell (at the origi- nal nest) renders this hypothesis improbable. The duration of the pupal stage in S. cornuta is approximately a fortnight. From one cell, which was closed on December 13, an adult emerged on January 5—after 23 days. It is necessary to deduct from this period the time necessary for the larva to spin its cocoon and transform itself into a pupa, which may be reckoned as about a week. In order to escape from its prison of earth the adult Synagris moistens with saliva, in the usual manner, the ball of earth which closed the cell, and the latter, softened immediately by absorption, yields at once to the pressure of the captive wasp. The males.—¥ollowing in this respect the habits of other Hymen- optera, the males of Synagris cornuta take no part in the protection or construction of the nest or in the rearing of the young, notwith- standing the threatening armor of their mandibles. However, they do not remain entirely ignorant of what passes; they inspect the young and visit them daily. Under the roof of a hut at Brazzaville Mr. Weiss and I noticed several nests of Synagris fixed in different places and sufficiently difficult to find to require search for some moments in spite of certain indications. One day I noticed a large male of this species which flew about slowly, examining the nests successively, moving with certainty and without any hesitation toward each of them as if it had known for a long time the exact location of each. It stopped for a moment on a nest, disregarding the open cells and touching and examining preferably the cells still walled up, which contained pupe. This male evidently came to watch the emergence of the young females, and the exact. knowledge 520 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. which he possessed of the distribution of the nests leads one to be- lieve that he came out of one of them and returned frequently to the place of his birth. At my suggestion, Mr. Weiss caught this male and in order to recognize him removed his left posterior tarsus. Then he was set at liberty again. For some days the insect, doubt- less because frightened, did not reappear, but the following week he was captured agzin just as he was returning to make his usual in- spection. It may be said, therefore—and this is a character which distinguishes this species from all other eumenids—that the males of Synagris cornuta are not entirely indifferent to the work of the females; that they know all the nests that are to be found in a given area; and that they visit them regularly, doubtless for the purpose of seizing the females when they emerge. Except for these brief visits, the males are never seen about the nests. They wander at will outside of habitations in the bush and build no shelter for themselves. When two males meet on the same nest they attack each other with open jaws, repel each other with their large pincers, and strive to thrust one another away. The first comer usually maintains the advantage. It is principally for this that the formidable pincers, which are developed on the mandibles, as in the stag beetles, seem to serve. They are probably secondary sexual characters rather than real organs of attack and defense developed by sexual selection, which give those who have them an authority over the nests, and consequently possession of the young females. It is probable, also, that they play some réle in copulation. Nothing is more variable among the individuals reared in the same nest than the size and form of these large pincers. Some males are entirely without them; others have them narrow and short, but very sharp; while in others again they reach extraordinary dimensions and are provided with a blunt tooth near the middle. They represent a sexual character which is not yet fixed, over which hovers the mysterious phenomenon of variation. It is well to remark that this section of the genus Synagris, which is very sharply differentiated from the others by the form of the mandibles in the males, is also completely separated by these bio- logical characters. It is extremely probable that the mode of feeding the larve with fragments, which is exhibited by S. cornuta, occurs among the other species of the same group. Viscount du Buysson (1909) has quite recently made known a nest of S. didieri, a new species from the Congo, which belongs to the section of S. cornuta L. and S. proserpina Grib. This nest is precisely like that of S. cornuta. From one of the compartments Mr. Didier extracted a larva which was isolated in its cell without any débris of caterpillars which had served as food around it, such as are always found in the case of those forms which do not feed their young with fragments. It may be SOLITARY WASPS OF GENUS SYNAGRIS—ROUBAUD. 521 affirmed, in my opinion, without hesitation, that this species is bio- logically of the same group as S. cornuta L. Evolution of instinct among the solitary wasps.—The biological history of the species of Synagris permits us to see, within the limits of a single genus, instinct developing from the provisioning in mass characteristic of the ordinary type of eumenids to continuous pro- visioning, and finally to the feeding of the larve from day to day after the mode of the wasps which live in colonies. We find com- bined in a singular manner in the same type of wasps the principal steps which lead from the primitive instinct of the solitary wasps to the much more perfected instinct of the social wasps. By reason of the facts which we have brought forward, it should not be thought that the habit of nourishing the larve from day to day on caterpillars ground into a mass, which is customary among the social wasps, may represent a primitive mode of provisioning peculiar to wasps which do not know how to make use of the sting to paralyze their prey. It is, on the contrary, manifestly a modi- fied form of the instinct of provisioning found among the wasps that paralyze their prey which forms a complete substitute for these hereditary habits, while at the same time maternal attachment and caring for the progeny are developed. This conception is a little different from that of Bouvier (1901), who regarded the habits of the social wasps and the solitary wasps as derived from a common source, this source being a species with the habits of Monedula punctata, which kills its prey without paralyzing it and provisions its nest continuously from day to day. Hence, the habits of these wasps are to be regarded as having developed in two different directions, the social wasps preserving the habit of killing their prey and provisioning the nest continuously (with slight modi- fications), the solitary wasps acquiring, on the contrary, with the habit of paralyzing their victims, the possibility of provisioning the nest all at one time. The evolution of instinct in Synagris, which we have been able to follow, leads to different conceptions as regards the wasps. Feeding the young by mouthfuls with caterpillars ground up into a paste represents the last term of an evolution of the rearing instinct the initial form of which is a slow, progressive, and continu- ous provisioning with paralyzed prey, which permits the mother wasp herself to watch the growth of her offspring. In the mode of rearing the larva so highly perfected in S. cornuta may be seen the direct bond of union between the solitary wasps and the social wasps. To understand how the final stage of evolution is reached by the latter it is only necessary to observe the colonizing tendencies among the solitary wasps, which employ continuous pro- visioning and nourishing their young by mouthfuls. We have already noted in Synagris sicheliana the association of nests, which is also 522 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. frequently found in S. cornuta. One may be permitted to see in these aggregations the beginnings of association in colonies, such as different authors have observed; for example, in Polistes (Mar- chal, 1900; Ferton, 1901). It is difficult to say whether these asso- ciations are purely and entirely due to chance; whether the different grouped nests are made by individuals which are strangers to one another; or whether they are not rather made by individuals from a single nest which build their cells in proximity to those in which they are born. Lf this hypothesis has not yet been directly verified, it has at least the appearance of great probability. One may advance in its favor the instinct of knowledge of places which leads the males of S. cornuta, for example, to return frequently to the same nests and watch them closely. It may be asked why it is not the same as re- gards the females, and whether they may not possess some tendencies to build by preference in the vicinity of the nests in which they were born. We firmly believe that such is the fact, and that certain of these associations may be interpreted as the first step in the evolution of the instincts of the solitary wasps in the direction of those of the social wasps. Parasites of Synagris——The nests of Synagris may be invaded by different insects, some merely commensals which use only the cells of old nests in which in their turn to rear their young; others, genu- ine enemies that seek the larve of Synagris in order to prey on them. The usual commensals of the nests of Synagrvis are sometimes solitary bees of the genera Megachile, Osmia, etc.; sometimes spider- wasps (Pompilide). The majority of old nests are occupied by these hymenoptera, sometimes isolated, sometimes associated in the same nest. Occasionally the nest of the spider-wasps is made on the cells previously occupied by the solitary bees. One of the most formidable parasites of Synagris is an ichneumon- fly, Osprynchotus flavipes Brullé. This insect has a wide distribu- tion in Africa. The Museum of Paris contains specimens of it from Dakar, Casamance, Mozambique, British East Africa, the Gaboon, and the valley of the Zambezi. The larve of this ichneumon-fly (pl. 4, fig. 2) infest those of several species of Synagris. I have ob- tained them from 8S. cornuta and S. sicheliana. It is probable that they attack all the species. We have called attention above to the disastrous effects as regards the development of the whole of the later progeny of the wasps, due to the attack of Osprynchotus on the first larva in a nest of S. cornuta. The great retardation which resulted in the development of the parasitized larva delayed the building of new cells and prevented the mother wasp, which was entirely devoted to her fated offspring, from rearing new larvae, that might perhaps have escaped the parasite. Thus, the very per- SOLITARY WASPS OF GENUS SYNAGRIS—ROUBAUD. 523 fection of this maternal instinct, so highly developed in the species of Synagris of the group to which cornuta belongs, in this instance spread the inauspicious influence of an isolated case of parasitism over the whole nest, with disasterous results. In Synagris cornuta the instinct, though so much perfected, is inferior, from this point of view at least, as compared with that of the other species which do not follow the practice of feeding the larvee from day to day in a manner so complete and exclusive. On the other hand, the ordinary provisioning, consisting of blindly burying the egg in the midst of a quantity of food without care of any kind on the part of the mother, also presents, as we have seen, other disadvantages. It is an indirect parasitism which in turn produces unforeseen effects. The caterpillars employed for provi- sioning may be infested by Tachina-flies, and hence unavailable as food for the larva of the Synagris, which is condemned to perish, not- withstanding the deceptive mass of provisions with which it is sur- rounded. Another parasite, less common than the last, which has thus far been observed only in the nests of S. cornuta, is a magnificent species of beetle of the family Rhipiphoride, which is also a mortal enemy of the larve of this wasp. At present I do not know at what time it penetrates into the cell and begins to attack its prey. Probably it waits until the wasp walls up the cell and feeds on its host only when the latter has ceased to have recourse to the maternal care. Finally, the adults themselves may be parasitized by the larve of Chalcis-flies (small parasitic hymenoptera). I observed at Brazza- ville for more than three months a female of Synagris cornuta be- longing to a nest consisting of a single cell, which remained in its nest without laying eggs, until one day I saw emerge from the ex- tremity of the abdomen, which extended outside the nest, a small white active larva. A few moments later another larva appeared, and, like the preceding one, dropped to the ground. I then captured the Synagris and discovered by dissection that the whole body cavity was infested by small larve similar to the first ones, which were doubtless prepared to escape by perforating the articular membrane of the posterior segments. These larve (pl. 4, fig. 3) were charac- terized by the presence of four pairs of retractile pseudopods on seg- ments 5 to 8 of the body. I was unable to ascertain the adult form. The larve were transformed into pupe in a small cocoon soon after leaving the body of the host, but they did not emerge. A noteworthy fact in this instance was the sterility of the parasi- tized wasp. It was observed to be incapable of laying eggs, and dis- section showed that the ovaries remained in a state of immaturity. This was a clear case of parasitic castration. No doubt other para- 524 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. sites of Synagris also exist, and one may expect to ascertain very interesting facts regarding their life history. It would be desirable to extend the study, which is scarcely more than begun, as well as to confirm the history of the different species of these solitary wasps. The brief researches which I was able to make during my stay in the Congo lead me to hope for considerable discoveries in the future in connection with this subject. I shall be happy to have turned in this direction the efforts of African naturalists. BIBLIOGRAPHY, ANnpRE, EH. Sur quelques Vespides africains nouveaux ou peu connus. Revue d’Entomologie, Vol. 14, 1895, p. 352. Bouvier, E. L. Les habitudes des Bembex (monographie biologique). Année Psychologique, 1900. 4UYSSON, R. Du. Monographie des Guépes ou Vespa. Bull. Soc. entom. de France, Vol. 72, 1903. Id. WHyménoptéres nouveaux. Revue d’Entomologie, 1909, pp. 207-219. DaLLaA Torre, C. G. DE, Catalogus Hymenopterorum, Vol. 9. Fapsre, J. H. Nouveaux souvenirs entomologiques, 2° série, Paris, 1882. Frerton, CH. Notes détachées sur Vinstinct des Hyménoptéres melliféres et ravisseurs, 1*° série. Ann. Soc. entom. France, Vol. 70, 1901. Id. Notes détachées sur Vinstinct des Hyménoptéres melliféres et ravisseurs, 2° série. Ann. Soc. entom. France, Vol. 71, 1902. LATREILLE. Hist. naturelle crust. et insectes, 1802, Vol. 3. Marnpron, M. Moniteur du Sénégal et Dépendances, April 15, 1879. Marcuat, P. Observations sur les Polistes. Bull. Soe. zool. France, Vol. 21, pp. 15-21, 1896. RovusaubD, HE. Recherches sur la Biologie des Guépes solitaires d’Afrique du genre Synagris. Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences, No. 16. 1908, p. 696. SaussuRE, H. pr. Mélanges hyménoptérlogiques. Mém. Soc. Phys. et Hist. nat. Genéye, Vol. 17, 1863. Id. Etude Fam. Vespides, I, Euménides, 1852. EXPLANATION OF PLATES. PLATE 1. Fic. 1. Nest of Synagris sicheliana Sauss. . aia: athtebs ss Yo silane ids ls wnt = Bah Soap Sear! sry Dicasie for nnaetonnhas: ae \ Te Pee r } Uy » at Lee, aan 7 Paes. ny Ma my wd * Ph eds res “a 1. apaione 0 Ma ee i 4 ia nile. a0 = : AS fi ta ys al SOK ‘ OE if uh out, Ip. fh rv ate hie. “atlas 1Giw . io ws be Stl Onis: ~ 7 , egos baadiot 3 2a : ; de otras bh alae ies e} tiny of 7 yt ‘a. ‘| 7 \ y . F ste ¥ STOOL BIE at. 7 HITS ty ny tal AMOS A M = i oe he , Pury a ~ 4 - ; an eeirvet ¢ Hargett vuk AM eED Wie: ; ARS aban) 2 Tv atlapery bi lis Koss ? es bis} ST | RTS a : oo ao A Pics 2 beta, a. Jt 6: eam specimens being as follows: culmen, 29 millimeters; depth of mandibles at gape, 22 millimeters; width at gape, 19 millimeters. The striking character of the mandible is the shortness of the gonys, this being only about 9 millimeters, or one-fifth of the total length of the mandibles. The mandibles are slaty olive, lighter on the edges. The nostrils are round and placed about midway between the eye and the point of the beak. The sides of the head are almost bare, being covered only with a very scanty growth of black, bristlelike feathers on cheeks, ears, and lores. Two rows of these function as eyelashes. at Fic. 2. Beak of hoatzin. ECOLOGY OF THE HOATZIN—BEEBE. 533 The bare skin about the eyes is Nile blue in color, shading into cobalt on the other unfeathered parts of the head. The irides are carmine. The bristles on the upper lores point upward, their tips interlock- ing on the forehead. Just back of them begins the long waving crest which is such a marked character of this species. The crown feathers are reddish buff; in those on the occiput the buff darkens and becomes a shaft stripe, while the edges and tips of the feathers are black. The longest measure about 4 inches. The feathers of the upper parts as a whole are dark brown, with a distinct olive-green irides- cence. The feathers of the nape and neck have pale, buffy shaft stripes, this color changing to white on the mantle. In some speci- mens the scapulars sre margined with white. The outer edges of the thumb feathers are pale buff, corresponding in shade to the feathers of the chin, throat, and breast. Most of the wing coverts are tipped more or less broadly with white, forming three distinct wing bars. The under wing coverts and primaries are of a rich maroon or chestnut, this hue being duplicated in the feathers of the sides, belly, flanks, and most of the under tail coverts. The tips of the primaries are olive green like the back, and the under and upper tail coverts are black. The tail consists of 10 feathers, all of which are tipped with a broad band of buffy white. The hoatzin harmonizes well with its environment, the dark upper color and the splashes and streaks of white and buff breaking up its body form into sunlight and shadow. When sitting quietly, either perching or on its nest, it is extremely difficult to detect, and its fear of hawks shows that this concealment may perhaps serve a useful purpose. The most interesting thing about its coloration is the way the colors of the under parts are carried out in the wings. The pale buffy cream of the breast has spread, as it were, over the broad wrist edge of the wing, and the rich chestnut of the belly has infiltrated through the larger flight feathers. It is most difficult to account for this correlation of limb and body patterns—a condition found in many reptiles and insects—but it seems to emphasize the fact that some important environmental factor or cause must be concerned with this apparently directive evolution of just such colors being arranged in just such patterns on totally different portions of the body. When the hoatzin is once alarmed, silhouetted against the sky, with wings and tail spread, and crest waving, no more sia jae object can be imagined. The total length of the hoatzin is about 23 inches, the wing 124, the tail 12, tarsus 2, middle toe and claw 3. The nels Fee eae already mentioned which I collected on the Guarapiche differs from all the other hoatzins I have examined in 5384 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. having no buff on the crest, this color being replaced by dark reddish chestnut; the buffy cream of the breast is darker, while the edges and shaft lines of the wing coverts, mantle, and scapulars are buff instead of white, and the lower parts instead of maroon are reddish buff. The bird is altogether unlike those from other parts of South Amer- ica. It is fully adult. Summing up the hoatzin as a whole, we have a bird small of body with small head, short, curved beak, long, waving crest, and long, slender neck. The body plumage is loose and disintegrated, the wings and tail large in comparison with the body, and of strong, well-knit feathers—all the more remarkable when we consider the weak flight, soon to be discussed. The shortness and stoutness of the beak may safely be correlated with the toughness of its vegetable food. Its short feet rather belie their strength, as the bird seems to have little real power in them, and is forever balancing itself with wings and tail. PARASITES. The unpleasant odor which characterizes hoatzins seems to have no effect on their insect parasites, and the cheek bristles are often encrusted with masses of the eggs of several large species of Mal- lophaga. No thorough work has been done on the external parasites of this bird, but I obtained three species of Mallophaga from the hoatzin shot on the Guarapiche River in northeastern Venezuela. Two of these insects are new species and I have published their descriptions in Zoologica, vol. 1, No. 4. I am indebted for their descriptions, and the following most interesting notes, to Dr. Vernon L. Kellogg, of Stanford University. Concerning the Opisthocomus Mallophaga, Dr. Kellogg says: The three species are: (1) Goniocotes curtus Nitasch.—Heretofore taken from Opisthocomus and no other host. (2) Lipeurus, sp. noy.—in the group clypeata sutura distincta, which group has been found heretofore only on maritime birds. (3) Colpocephalum sp. nov.—An extraordinarily spiny beast, not much like anything else in the genus. TIT am disappointed in finding these two new species. I hoped to find known parasites that might, by their relationship with other parasites, characteristic of the pheasants or the rails or some other group of birds, be a clue to the indication of your curious bird’s phyletic affinities. The one known species of parasite, the Goniocotes, belongs to a group of Mallophaga best represented, and most characteristically, on the pheasants. But the Lipewrus, although a new species, belongs just as unmistakably with a group of Mallophaga characteristic of such birds as boobies, albatrosses, cor- morants, frigate birds, pelicans, and such strictly maritime forms. ECOLOGY OF THE HOATZIN—BEEBE. 535 FIELD NOTES IN VENEZUELA, The first view which Mrs. Beebe and I had of living hoatzins was 2 miles up the Rio Guarapiche, in southeastern Venezuela, where we found a flock of 8 on March 27, 1908. Farther up we discovered 3 smaller flocks and later in the day a large assemblage of 25 indi- viduals. The natives know them by the name of Guwacharacas de Aqua and are well acquainted with the musky odor which emanates from their bodies. Being considered totally unfit for food, they are never killed and as a result have become extremely unsuspicious. _The following notes were written in the field: The moment our dugout comes into view the hoatzins announce their presence by hoarse, croaking cries; grating and rasping to the ear like an unoiled wheel. Then, as we approach, those nearest flop or crawl inward through the branches, making a tremendous racket. This utterance has been termed a “ hissing screech” by some writers, and although a very poor description of the sound, no better one comes to mind unless it is a croaking hiss. Buffon (13) tells us “ Its voice is very strong, and it is less a ery than a howl.” Quelch (38) says “ The cry of the hoatzin is usually heard when they are dis- turbed, and it is one of which is not easy to give an exact idea. It recalls slightly the shrill screech of the guinea bird (Vumida), but it is made up of disjointed utterancesg like the notes heigh and sheigh (ei as in sleigh), pronounced with a peculiarly sharp and shrill in- tonation, so as to be quite hisslike.” The reckless way of thrashing through the undergrowth, and the apparent looseness of wing and tail and general carelessness of plumage bring to mind the crazy antics of anis, a fact not wholly uninteresting when we recall certain hints of cuculine structure in the hoatzin. Except during the extreme heat of midday the hoatzins prefer conspicuous positions overhanging the water on mangroves or other trees, among the foliage of which they roost at night. They appear to be extremely sedentary, and day after day we could be sure of finding the birds in the same place. We located 9 flocks, ranging from a single pair to 42 birds in number, and these seemed never to move from their favorite trees except when driven back a few yards into the jungle by our intruding canoe. In these same trees over the water we found remains of many nests in various stages of disintegration. As the number of the nests bore a fairly accurate relation to the pairs of birds, and as we saw these large, rough platforms of sticks at no other points, circumstantial evidence would indicate that the sedentary life of these hoatzins is seasonal, if not, indeed, annual. We were told that they nest in May and June in this locality. 536 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. After they flop and clamber a few yards away from the canoe they all quiet down, and with waving crests crane their necks at us in curiosity from their perches. Each time they utter their grating note they raise the tail and wings, spreading both widely. We had no opportunity of observing the quadrupedal habits of the young hoatzins, but an interesting observation, first noted by Mrs. Beebe, was that this finger or handlike use of the wing is present in the adults as well. They never fly if they can help it, and even when they pass over firm ground seem never to descend to it. But their method of arboreal locomotion is to push and flop from branch to branch. When the foliage and hanging vines are very thick they use their wings, either together or alternately, to push aside the ob- struction and to keep themselves from falling until a firm grip has been obtained with the toes. This habit is extremely wearing on the primary feathers, which become much frayed from friction against stems and branches. I secured two specimens for the skin and the skeleton, respectively, and found them in an interestingly irregular molt. In one (Coll. No. 1138) the right third primary and the left fourth, seventh, and tenth are about half grown. Im the tail, the next to the outer pair and the right central rectrices are in the same stage of growth, while blood feathers are scattered here and there over the body. The second hoatzin examined’ (Coll. No. 1139) was in a still more disheveled condition of plumage. Both wings and tail were badly frayed and broken. Instead of the full number of 10 tail feathers only 5 were present, 1 of which was half grown. Three blood-filled sheaths just appearing above the surface of the skin represented the remainder. In the right wing the second, eighth, eighteenth, nine- teenth, and twentieth were considerably less than half grown. The head, back, and thighs of this individual showed heavy molt, besides many growing feathers over the rest of the body. The crops of these birds were distended with a finely comminuted mass of bright green vegetable matter, the leaves of the mangroves and some other river growths. In one crop, scales and the remains of a small fish were also present, and as we once saw a hoatzin with dripping plumage, creeping from the water up a slanting mangrove root, it may be that the adult birds retain some of the natatory skill which characterizes the nestlings. This, however, is mere conjecture. The scales in this instance were those of the little four-eyed fish (Anableps anableps) so common about the muddy shores of the Cais. FIELD NOTES IN BRITISH GUIANA. On April 12, 1909, Mrs. Beebe and I reached a bungalow used as the headquarters of a rice plantation, some 20 miles up the Abary ECOLOGY OF THE HOATZIN—BEEBE. 537 River in British Guiana. Through the kindness of Mr. and Mrs. Lindley Vinton we obtained permission to remain here several days, with excellent opportunities of studying the hoatzins. Three days after our arrival Mrs. Beebe had the misfortune to break her arm, and we were compelled to leave at once, with only a few notes and photographs. These are, however, of sufficient interest to warrant publication. The Abary River is at this point some 20 yards across, and winds through a great treeless savanna marsh in a general north and south direction. The east bank is for the most part clear of growth, except for the reeds and grasses of the savanna. Along the western bank is a dense shrubby or bushy line of vegetation, at times rising to a height of 20 or 30 feet or again appearing only 2 or 3 yards above the grass and reeds beyond. The presence of this bushy vegetation on only one side of the river is probably due to the prevailing winds, which blow from the east. The bush grows altogether in the water and consists chiefly of a species of tall arum, or mucka-mucka as the natives call it, frequently bound together by a tangle of delicate vines. Here and there is a treelike growth, white barked with entire obtuse leaves. This narrow ribbon of aquatic growth is the home of the hoatzins, and from one year’s end to another they may be found along the same reaches of the river. In general, their habits do not differ from those of the birds which we observed in Venezuela. Throughout the heat of midday no sight or sound reveals the pres- ence of the birds, but as the afternoon wears on a single raucous squawk may be heard in the distance, and we know that the hoatzins are astir. Directly in front of the bungalow, between it and the river, the brush has been cut away on either hand for a distance of about 60 yards. Every evening from 4.30 to 5.30 p. m. the hoatzins gather on the extreme northern end of this wide break in their line of thickets, until sometimes 25 or 30 birds are in sight at once. Some fly down to the low branches and begin to tear off pieces of the young tender shoots of the mucka-mucka. With much noise and flapping of wings several soon make their way to a single bare branch which projects over the cleared marsh. The first bird makes many false starts, crouching and then losing heart, but the next on the branch, getting impatient, nudges him a bit, and at last he launches out into the air. With rather slow wing beats, but working apparently with all his power, he spans the wide expanse of clear bush, then the 10 feet of water, then 15 yards more of stumps, and with a final effort he clutches a branch—and his goal is reached. After several minutes of breathlessness he makes his way out of sight into the depths of the brush. A second hoatzin essays the feat, but fails ignominiously, and falls midway, coming 538 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. down all of a heap among the stumps. Here a rest is taken, and for 5 or 10 minutes the bird may feed quietly. Then a second flight car- ries it back to the starting point or on to the end of the open space. Sometimes when the birds alight and clutch a twig they are so exhausted that they topple over and hang upside down for a moment. Watching the hoatzins carefully with our stereo glasses for several evenings in succession, we came to know and distinguish individual birds. Two, one of which has a broken feather in the right wing, and the other a 2-inch short central tail feather, are excellent flyers, and, taking their flapping start from the high branch, never fail to make their goal, going the whole distance and alighting easily. All of the others have to rest, and one which is molting a feather in each wing can achieve only about 10 yards. This one fell one evening into the water at the second relay flight and half flopped half swam ashore. One evening a hoatzin flew toward us and alighted near some hens on the ground, but took wing almost instantly back to his brushwood. A day or two before we came one of the birds had used a beam of the porch as a perch. This general shifting occurs at both sunrise and sunset, and is apparently always as thorough and noisy as we found it the first evening of our stay. For months, we are told, it had been kept up as regularly as clockwork. In the morning as the sun grows hotter the birds become more quiet, and finally disappear, not to be seen or heard again until after- noon. They spend the heat of the day sitting on their nests or perched on branches in the cooler, deeper recesses of their linear jungle. The last view of them in the morning, as the heat becomes intense, or late in the evening, usually reveals them resting on the branches in pairs close together. On moonlight nights, however, they are active and noisy, and come into the open to feed. The habit of crouching or squatting down on the perch is very common with the hoatzins, and it may be due to the weakness of the feet and toes. I am inclined, however, to consider it in connection with the general awkwardness in alighting and climbing, as a hint of the inadaptibility of the large feet to the small size of the twigs and branches among which it lives. Inexplicable though it may appear, © the hoatzin, although evidently unchanged in many respects through long epochs, is far from being perfectly adapted to its present envi- ronment. It has a severe struggle for existence, and the least increase of any foe or the appearance of any new handicap would result in its speedy extinction. ECOLOGY OF THE HOATZIN—BEEBE. 5389 FOOD. The hoatzin is unquestionably a vegetarian, and the remains of the previously mentioned four-eyed fish in the crop of one of my Venezue- - lan specimens must have been evidence of an abnormal diet. Examinations of the stomachs of individuals from various locali- ties show that two or three species of marshy plants furnish almost the entire menu of this bird. One is the mucka-mucka or arum (Montrichardia arborescens), a tall plant of spindly growth, with large, tough, heart-shaped leaves, and a pineapplelike fruit. The leaves, flowers, and fruit are all eaten. Hoatzins also feed on the Drepanocarpus lunatus, and, both in Guiana and Venezuela, devour the tough leaves of the white man- grove (Arvicennia nitida). Bates (3) includes the sour guava (Psidium) and “ various wild fruits” in his list of its food. NEST AND EGGS. At the time of our arrival on the Abary the hoatzins had just begun to nest. They were utilizing old nests which, although appar- ently so flimsy in construction, yet are remarkably cohesive. The nests are almost indistinguishable from those of the “ Chows” or Guiana green herons (Butorides striata), which were built in the same situations. The latter were usually placed low over the water, while the hoatzins were higher, from 5 to 12 feet above the surface of the marsh. The twigs were longer and more tightly laced in the hoatzins’ nests, and while the herons’ nests crumbled when lifted from the crotch, the others remained intact. The hoatzins placed their nests in a crotch of the white-barked trees, or more rarely sup- ported by several branched mucka-mucka stems. Both sexes assist in the building, as we observed two birds collecting and weaving the twigs. Three sets of eggs which came under our observation num- bered, respectively, 2, 3, and 4. From what information I could gather, 2 seems to be the usual number. There is no foundation for the assertion that these birds are polygamous. There is little accurate data in regard to the date of nesting of hoatzins. It is possible that it differs in different places, and that no definite limits can be set to cover the species as a whole. On the Orinoco, near Ciudad Bolivar, Cherrie (16) records that the nesting season extends from early in June until mid-September, thus including the height of the rainy season. Quelch (38) in British Guiana found the hoatzin nesting from December to July, and thinks it “very likely that it is continuous throughout the year.” ; In Venezuela the last of March the birds were not nesting, and those examined showed no signs of a recent breeding season. In mid-April in British Guiana the hoatzins were just beginning to nest. are 540 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. The eggs are rather variable in shape. One which I have from the Orinoco is elliptical, while my Abary specimens are oval. The ground color is creamy white. The entire surface is marked with small, irregularly shaped dots and spots of reddish brown, inclining to be more abundant at the large end. The brown pigment de- posited early in the oviduct is covered by a thin layer of lime and thereby given a lavender hue. The size averages 1.8 by 1.3 inches. ENEMIES, Hoatzins seem to be very free from enemies, although from year to year their numbers remain about the same. The waters beneath them are inhabited by otters, crocodiles, anacondas, and voracious fish, so that death lies that way. They seem also to fear some preda- tory bird, for whenever a harmless hawk skims over the branches on the lookout for lizards, the hoatzins always tumble pell-mell into the shelter of the thick foliage below. PHOTOGRAPHING HOATZINS. We found that the best time to approach and photograph the birds was during their siesta. As we paddle along the bank, they scramble from their perches or nests up to the bare branches over- head, calling hoarsely to one another. Pushing aside the dense growth of arums and vines, we work our canoe as far as possible into the heart of the brush to the foot of some good-sized marsh tree perhaps a foot in diameter. I step from the boat to the lowest limb, Mrs. Beebe hands me the big Graflex with the unwieldy but neces- sary 27-inch lens, and I begin my painful ascent. At first all is easy-going, but as I ascend I break off numerous dead twigs, and from the broken stub of each issues a horde of black stinging ants. These hasten my ascent and at last I make my way out on the sway- ing upper branches (pl. 5, fig. 1). From here I have a fairly clear view of the surrounding brush, and if I work rapidly I can secure three or four pictures before the hoatzins take flight and hide amid the foliage. Of all my pictures, that of plate 3 is the prize. We came upon a flock of hoatzins late in the afternoon and were fortunate enough to get into a clear space and to photograph 11 on the same plate; the confused mass near the center of the picture containing four indi- viduals. Plate 4, figure 1, shows the character of the country where we found the hoatzin on Abary Creek, with the line of dense growth on one side and the level savanna on the other. A photographic study of an individual pair of birds is given in plate 5, figure 2, to plate 7. The action of these two birds is so typi- ECOLOGY OF THE HOATZIN—BEEBE. 541 cal of hoatzins that an account of them will apply to the species in general. I made these photographs from a boat, standing on the thwarts, while Mrs. Beebe guided it through the brush. We flush the female from her nest, and she flies to a branch some 8 feet higher, the male then appearing from a tree beyond (pl. 5, fig. 2). We remain perfectly quiet, and the next photograph shows the female hoatzin, tail on, looking about, while the male, who has flown nearer, is watching us suspiciously (pl. 6, fig. 1). Plate 6, figure 2, shows the male on another perch, still more alarmed, and a moment later he thrashes his way out of sight. Mean- while the female has rediscovered us and crouches down (pl. 7, fig. 1), hoping to avoid observation, but as we push closer to the nest, she rises on her perch, spreads wings and tail to the widest (pl. 7, fig. 2), her scarlet eyes flashing, and, uttering a last despairing hiss, launches out for a few yards. At this moment, as may be seen in the same picture, a second pair of birds fly up from a nest in the next clump of undergrowth and raise their discordant notes in protest at our intrusion. The assertion which I made last year that hoatzins use their primary feathers as fingers, in the same way that the chicks and partly grown young use their wing claws, has been received with some doubt, and I am glad to offer a photograph (pl. 7, fig. 2) as evidence. In the right wing of the hoatzin the thumb feathers are plainly visible, with their edges fretted away, while the first six primaries also show signs of severe wear, such as would be expected from the rough usage to which they are put. Attention is called to the apparent immobility of the crest, which is as fully erect in the crouching hoatzin (pl. 7, fig. 1) as in the same bird a minute or two later, alert and about to fly (pl. 7, fig. 2). Thus it was that we made the first photographs ever taken of these most interesting birds. ODOR. In regard to the odor given off by the flesh of hoatzins and its cause, there seem to be many conflicting statements. I quote some ~ opinions: I never found the smell of these birds so bad as I had been led to believe; it reminds one of a rather strong cow shed. It has been found on cutting out the crop, aS soon as the bird is dead, very little unpleasant odor remains. Loat (27). As is well known, the aroid shrub upon which the Canje pheasant feeds gives its flesh a strong and disagreeable odor. Sclater (41). The popular name (Catingueira) is derived from a certain penetrating odor. This disagreeable odor is transmitted and adheres with such efficacy that it is an excellent protection, not only against the attacks of carnivorous animals, but also against persecution by man. Goeldi (20). 542 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. Even by man they are seldom meddled with, except for scientific purposes, since a peculiar and unpleasant odor attaches to the flesh, especially after death, and which seems to be due to the penetration of the fluid and gaseous contents of the digestive tract. On this account they are not generally eaten, but a few eases have been reported to me in which they have been utilized for food. Quelch (88). The flesh has an unpleasant odor of musk combined with wet hides—a smell called by the Brazilians catinga; it is therefore uneatable. Bates (3). On our Venezuelan trip we heard a great deal and were warned again and again concerning the frightful odor which was supposed to characterize these birds. Some said they would have to be skinned under water! We found this wholly false. When skinning or dis- secting one of these hoatzins one notices the faintest of musky odors, not at all unpleasant, and indeed perceptible only when the attention is directed to it. Our specimens were certainly most inoffensive in this respect, and the flesh of one which we cooked and ate, while it was tough, was as clean and appetizing as that of a curassow. In British Guiana the above experience was repeated, although the “Stinking pheasant” was held in horror by the blacks. But, as before, we could detect nothing but a shghtly musky odor. The odor is exceedingly persistent and is given off by skins which are several years old. Its cause is problematical and the direct connec- tion with the crop is very doubtful. There is little doubt but that boatzins differ greatly, either seasonably or individually, in regard to the intensity of this odor. Far be it from me, however, to em- phasize any lack of it, for the very thread of existence of this most interesting bird hangs upon belief in this inedibility. The Indians and other inhabitants of South America who depend upon wild game for food never waste powder, shot, or arrows on so- called sport. Until the “civilized” tourist penetrates to these re- gions, the hoatzins are safe. When he does arrive protection must be given to these interesting birds—a heritage to us from past ages. So helpless are they that, given a week’s time and a shotgun, one man could completely exterminate them in the colony of British Guiana. Fortunately the game laws of that colony are comprehen- sive and wisely made, and the hoatzins are probably safe for many years to come. BIBLIOGRAPHY. (1) ALLEN, J. A. 1889. List of the Birds Collected in Bolivia.- Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. His., Wolss2, No.2;-p. 207. (2) AstLurT, H. A. 1909. MS. Letter, dated June 7th. (3) Bates, H. W. 1892. The Naturalist on the River Amazons, pp. 60-61. (4) BrepparpD, FRANK E. 1889. Contributions to the Anatomy of the Hoatzin. The Ibis. 6th Series. Vol. 1, pp. 283-293. (5) Breysn, C. WittiaAmM. 1909. An Ornithological Reconnoissance of Northeastern Venezuela. Zoologica. Vol. 1, No. 3, p. 73. (6) Brerpsn, C. WILLIAM, and Mary Buarr. 1909. Our Search for a Wilderness. Chapter 11. Henry Holt & Co., New York. ECOLOGY OF THE HOATZIN—BEEBE. 543 (7) BerLePpscH, HANS Grar yon. 1884. On Bird Skins from the Orinoco, Venezuela. The Ibis. 5th Series. Vol. 2, p. 440. (8) 1908. The Birds of Cayenne. Novi- tates Zoologicae. Vol. 15, p. 297. (9) BrRLEPSCH, HANS GRAF VON, AND HARTHRT, ERNST. 1902. On the Birds of the (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20) (22) (23) (24) (25) (26) (27) (28) (29) (30) Orinoco Region. Novitates Zoologicae. Vol. 9, p. 122. BINGHAM, Hiram. 1909. The Journal of an Expedition Across Venezuela and Colombia, p. 61. Brisson, M. J. 1760. Ornithologie. Vol. 1, p. 304. Brown, C. BARRINGTON. 1876. Canoe and Camp Life in British Guiana, p. 257. Burron, G. L. L. pg. 1771. Historie Naturelle Oiseaux, Vol. 2, p. 385. BURMEISTER, HERMANN. 1856. Thiere Brasiliens, Vol. 3, pp. 842-3. (15) 1870. Journal fiir Ornithologie, p. 318. CHERRIN, GhorGE K. 1909. The Hoatzin. The Museum News, Vol. 4, pp. 50-53. Evans, A. H. 1899. Cambridge Natural History, Birds, Vol. 9, pp. 241-242. Gapow, Hans. 1892. Crop and Sternum of Opisthocomus Cristatus. Proc. Royal Irish Acad. 38rd Series. Vol. 2, pp. 147-153. Garrop, A. H. 1879. Notes on Points in the Anatomy of the Hoatzin. Proc. Zool. Soc., Lon., pp. 109-114. GorupI, Emin A. 1894. As Aves do Brazil, pp. 442-445. (21) 19038. Orni- thological Results of an Expedition up the Capim River. The Ibis. Sth Series. Vol. 3, p. 417. HerRNanpDnz. 1651. Nova Plantarum, Animalium et Mineralium Mexicanorum Historia, p. 320. Hornapay, W. T. 1876. Unpublished Journal. Huxuny, T. H. 1868. The Affinities of Opisthocomus. Proc. Zool. Soc., Lon., pp. 804-311. IHERING, HERMANN VON. 1907. As Aves do Brazil, p. 26. LatHam. 1783. Gen. Syn., Vol. 2, pt. 2, p. 741. Loat, W. L. S. 1898. Field Notes on the Birds of British Guiana. The Ibis. 7th Series. Vol. 4, pp. 558-567. MiLupr. 1776. S. N. Suppl., p. 125. id Newton, ALFRED. 1893-6. Dictionary of Birds, p. 423. OGILVIB-GRANT, W. R. 1893. Catalogue of the Birds in the British Museum. Vol. 22, pp. 528-525. (381) 1905. Guide to the Birds in the British Museum, p. 56. ParkKeR, W. K. 1891. On the Morphology of a Reptilian Bird. Trans. Zool. Soc., Lon., pp. 48-85. PELZELN, AUGUST von. 1871. Zur Ornithologie Brasiliens, p. 280. PmNnsarD, P. AND A. 1908. De Vogels van Guyana, pp. 307-309. PrRRIN, J. B. 1876. On the Myology of Opisthocomus Cristatus. Trans. Zool. Soc., Lon., Vol. 9, part 6, pp. 3538-870. QuEtcH, J. J. 1888. Notes on the Breeding of the Hoatzin. The Ibis. 5th Series. Vol. 6, p. 878. (87) 1888. A Collecting Trip on the Abary. Timehri, N. S., Vol. 2, part 2, p. 364. (38) 1890. On the Habits of the Hoatzin. The Ibis. 6th Series. Vol. 2, pp. 327-3385. SCHOMBURGK, RICHARD. 1848. Reisen in British Guiana, Vol. 3, p. 712. ScuaTER, P. L. 1857. Further Additions to the List of Birds Received in Col- lections from Bogota. Proc. Zool. Soc., Lon., pp. 15-20. (41) 1887. British Guiana and its Birds. Ibis. 5th Series. Vol. 5, p. 319. SCHLATHR AND SALVIN. 1875. The Birds of Hastern Peru. Proc. Zool. Soc., Lon., p. 308. SHARPE, R. BOWDLER. 1891. A Review of Recent Attempts to Classify Birds,, p. 70. (44) 1898. Wonders of the Bird World, p. 19. (45) 1899. A Handlist of the Genera and Species of Birds. Vol. 1, p. 93. STEJNEGER, L. 1885. Riverside Natural History, Vol. 4, Birds, p. 196. STEPHENS, J. F. 1819. MWoatzin Serpent-eater. Shaw’s General Zoology, Vol. 11, pp.192-194. WALLACH, A, R. 1876. Geographical Distribution of Animals, Vol. 2, p. 345. pure tnie pica a a r ite sig eet ive trax. > $4 Hee ine NUH, F minds otvibaaes u t. Vea? a 4 ton a | aT -- Atendt TS see an ie hwnd eer tote mains ATR ae Gi y -48) 2 Acct gna emt aia SUD 9 UN - (95) «OM a £ ISY seti seat emit? Soar 7 : y eee ¥ F oy .lnoiodsinat Atha and fore 4° el “ofS aw on“ ‘ j N ‘vel + bis rik Woolas Tare RP ee eS lad aie eared Leora wohhdatey ih + 7ecriie wires? tener tieigg 36: anoeett: benign ade 2 a = ” ‘ tla l bh atk Jen geokiet antpsh ; y* tiztrol! df we Wht era ees WP arin? Tah? aime ie 7 ROOTES Gt Boll ‘eto Otia ate veel a ; APH pPVOL CR) RMS EG eae, FERRE OD. 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Dedce . wa. o + + is L . fic Wis 1.2. |e hated cae see tot vcontoll- a , 218 < AL ‘sit pe be — , | | He eles . sk % ; j Lea ot 2D oe ] ts ; : ai” OT e7b trey FIRE hes ee, Wa 4 “> &. ch bea stata) afi} bya : t ; A q ‘ - “ei 38E yerpmemis 4 i} ‘ . ; : on) oe , ek’. hates ae © “Te : PRE OE ag tS a . Qs jeans) Fer il To SEM — ors ; . P fe > : : ot ee ‘ \ vi = an > : k ah Smithsonian Report, 1910.—Beebe. PLATE 1. BREAST-BONE OF HOATZIN. PLATE 2, Beebe. Smithsonian Report, 1910. HALF-GROWN HOATZIN, SHOWING CLAWS ON THUMB AND FIRST FINGER. "USAIN AYVEY SHL NO SNIZLVOH N3A3B1Q4 SO M0014 tn a nani 0 en ain re ERR it sti TE St sides sOcteVal el ‘aqeeg—'016| ‘Hoday ueiuosy}iWis Smithsonian Report, 1910.—Beebe. PLATE 4. aaa pees RIE : | | 3 | 1. HAUNT OF THE HOATZIN, ABARY RIVER, BRITISH GUIANA. 2. NEST OF HOATZIN IN DENSE GROWTH OF MUCKA-MUCKA. Smithsonian Report, 1910.—Beebe. PLATE 5. 2. FEMALE HOATZIN FLUSHED FROM HER NEST; MALE BIRD APPROACHING. Smithsonian Report, 1910.—Beebe. PLATE 6. 2. MALE HOATZIN ALARMED AND ABOUT TO TAKE FLIGHT. Smithsonian Report, 1910.—Beebe. PLATE 7. 2. FEMALE HOATZIN TAKING FLIGHT WITH WINGS FULLY SPREAD; A SECOND PAIR OF BIRDS LEAVING THEIR NEST IN THE BACKGROUND. > a ~— a Step) - 7 : : ry ‘ = ae ee, ee ar ky” MIGRATION OF THE PACIFIC PLOVER TO AND FROM THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS. By Henry W. HENSHAW. Since primitive times the phenomenon of bird migration has excited peculiar interest, and although much of the mystery formerly attaching to it has been dispelled by the prosaic facts brought to light by modern investigations, it still presents enigmas to stimulate the imagination and invite study. How birds migrate is now beginning to be understood, and the present practice of tabulating dates of arrival and departure and collating the facts gathered by numerous observers in different parts of the country is likely ere long to give us the solution of many as yet unsolved problems. Why birds mi- grate is quite another question, likely to resist satisfactory solution for some time to come for, were there no other reason, from the very nature of the case we can have comparatively few facts to guide us, and speculation must largely take the place of deduction. When we consider the number of miles traveled, the widely differ- ent character of the regions chosen for summer and winter abodes, and the perils necessarily attending the passage between them, the migration of no other of our birds appears so wonderful as that of the golden plover. In part the migration route of the eastern form of the golden plover (Charadrius dominicus) is well understood, and those interested in the subject are referred to a suggestive paper by Austin H. Clarke? on the probable method by which the bird is guided safely across the Atlantic from Nova Scotia to South America. In the present paper will be presented such facts in regard to the migration of the Pacific plover (Charadrius dominicus fulvus) as the author was able to gather during his stay in the Hawaiian Tslands—from 1894 to 1904—together with certain deductions there- from. 1Reprinted by permission, after author’s revision, from The Auk, a quarterly journal of ornithology, Cambridge, Mass., yol, 27, No, 3, July, 1910. 2 Auk, pp. 134-140, 1905. 97578°—smM 1910-——35 545 546 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. Isolation of the Hawaiian Islands—It may be premised that no other part of the earth’s surface is so far distant from continental areas as the Hawaiian Archipelago. The islands are about 2,000 miles from the coast of California on the east; about the same dis- tance from the Aleutians on the north and the Marquesas Group on the south; and not much farther from Japan, reckoning from the outermost of the chain of low islands and reefs which stretches from Hawaii some 1,700 miles toward the Asiatic coast. It is important to note, however, that, assuming the availability of these islands as stepping-stones for birds, there would still be an interval of more than 2,000 miles between the most northwestern of the chain and Japan. Hence, if we reject as untenable the theory of a sunken southern continent, of which the Hawaiian Archipelago is the north- ernmost and now the only visible remains, the original introduction into Hawaii of its mammals, birds, insects, and plants presented greater difficulties than were presented to the fauna and flora of any other part of the world. So remote and isolated have these islands been since their forma- tion, and so few and uncertain nature’s carrying agencies—the birds, the winds, and the ocean currents—that after the islands were thrust up out of the sea ages must have elapsed before they received the parent stocks of the many and diverse forms of plant and animal life peculiar to them. That the difficulties of stocking the archipelago with life, great as they must have been, were not insurmountable is proved by the fact that enough waifs found their way to the islands to clothe them with verdure and stock them with animal life. As a result of the com- petitive struggle which followed, upward of 900 species of plants, numerous insects, including many distinct genera, seven species of lizards, more than 50 species of birds, and at least two mammals, finally made good their foothold on the islands and flourished, some more, some less, according to their nature and adaptability. Avifauna of the Hawaiian Islands.—Among other inhabitants of the islands are some 45 species of passerine birds, one hawk, an owl, a mud hen, a gallinule, a stilt, a duck, a goose, and a few others. All of these I pass by for the moment and come to certain migrants from North America which regularly journey between the islands and the continent, both spring and fall. Four of these migrate in great numbers, viz, golden plover, turnstone, wandering tatler, and bristle-thighed curlew; the shoveler duck and pintail also visit the islands in considerable numbers. In addition to these are perhaps a dozen other ducks and geese whose occurrence in the islands is more or less casual, and the same remark applies to a dozen or 15 wading birds. Altogether, including the regular migrants, the MIGRATION OF PACIFIC PLOVER—HENSHAW. 547 casuals, and the accidentals, the visiting birds make quite a respect- able winged army. Islands accidentally discovered by present migrants—It is not supposable that birds ever put to sea to seek unknown lands by a hitherto untraveled route. We know that millions of birds of many species are annually or semiannually driven out to sea by storms, especially species that migrate near the seacoast. Many, perhaps most, of these storm-driven waifs never see land again, but become wing weary and find watery graves. Some few, however, reach safe havens in oceanic islands, and in this way, no doubt, such islands have received their bird colonists. That the golden plover, like the other migrants from the North American coast, discovered Hawaii accidentally is hardly open to doubt. I see no necessity for presupposing the existence of sunken continents or of ancient continental extensions to account for the presence on the islands of the plover and other North American birds, like the night heron, gallinule, and coot. The presence there of the weak-winged passerines is another matter, and it must be admitted that proof of the existence of an ancient continent, stretch- ing from the islands southward toward Australia, would simplify a very difficult problem. So far, however, as our North American birds are concerned, it need be assumed only that long ago some thousands of Pacific plover and other species, when following the usual southward migration route along the Asiatic coast in fall, were accidentally driven to sea, and that a greater or less number were able to maintain themselves on the wing long enough to make a lucky landfall of the low islands to the northwest of Hawaii. The flight from Japan to the nearest island eastward would involve a flight about as prolonged as that from the Aleutian Archipelago to Hawaii, or some 2,000 miles. The chain of low islets once gained, it would be but a question of time for migrants, step by step, to reach the larger islands of Hawaii, 1,700 miles or so to theeastward. After win- tering, a sufficient number may have essayed the flight back across the ocean to the Asiatic coast the following spring, and then north- ward to their Siberian breeding grounds with their Asiatic fellows. Having once discovered the islands and learned their suitability as winter quarters, they would no doubt return over the same route, and thus in time establish a regular fly line or migration route from the Asiatic mainland to the islands. Later, as the position of the islands became better known, the part-land, part-water route would naturally be exchanged for a shorter all-water route. It is possible, however, that the old Asiatic route has never been wholly abandoned and that it is still favored by a certain number of the island migrants; for plover, turnstones, curlew, and tatlers have been observed on Laysan, about 600 miles northwest of Hawaii, late in May. These 548 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. birds were probably about to migrate across the ocean, but it is, of course, impossible to tell whether they were headed directly for America or for America via Asia. Absence of fog—The original discovery of the Hawaiian Islands by birds was undoubtedly greatly facilitated by the fact that, although fog is common on the mountains at altitudes of 5,000 fast and nrwatirds it never occurs at sea level; and as its abaetets favored the original avian discoverers, so it continues to favor annual mi- grants. Date of discovery of the islands by American. migrants—As to the length of time the Pacific golden plover and its fellow migrants have been visiting the Hawaiian Islands, or when they first discov- ered the group, it were idle to speculate. Their arrival probably an- tedated by thousands of years that of the natives, which is supposed to date back only some 20 centuries. Certain of the bird colonists from America, like the owl, night heron, gallinule, and coot, have resided in the islands so short a time that they have changed very little from their American ancestry. Others, like the hawk, stilt, and goose, have changed more, and hence presumably have been residents of Hawaii a longer time. Changes of color, proportion, and size, however, be they great or small, can not be used as time measures, except in the vaguest way, since practically next to noth- ing is known of the length of time they require. We are perhaps justified in concluding that none of the above species have changed sufficiently to call for isolation from their American ancestors for periods to be reckoned by geologic intervals rather than by thousands of years. Spring migration of plover.—The impulse to migrate in spring is by no means simultaneous among all the plover that winter in the islands or that winter on any one island, nor, apparently, is it the rule for large bodies of plover to migrate together. The plover and turnstones, probably often in mixed companies, begin to leave for the north early in April, and the migration continues till at least the latter part of May (probably even later), being dependent, ap- parently, on the state of preparedness or the inclination of individual birds. When the time to migrate comes, small parties, from a dozen or even less, to flocks of 200 or more, strike boldly out to the north- ward, apparently without hesitancy or doubt of the result. Mr. Haswell, of Papaikou, which is on the coast about 15 miles north of Hilo, soon after daybreak during the early days of April, 1900, saw several flocks rise to a great height and, after widely circling about a few times as if to orient themselves, finally disappear in a northerly direction. MIGRATION OF PACIFIC PLOVER—HENSHAW. 549 It is probable, however, that day migration is not the rule with plover and other shore birds. Apparently it is more usual for the flocks to feed by day and leave just before nightfall, as do many other birds in different parts of the world. Mr. R. C. L. Perkins states that several times he “ witnessed these departures, always late in the afternoon or just before dark.” He adds: When about to return to the north, the plover frequently assemble in very large flocks, and before setting out on their journey rise to an enormous height in the air, even beyond the range of sight. I have once seen two such flocks start from the same point, the one following the other after an hour’s interyval.— [Fauna Hawaiiensis, Vol. I, pt. iv, p. 449, 1903.] It is interesting to note that plover are occasionally sighted from passing ships. Naturally they attract little attention and never are recorded in the ship’s log. I found one ship captain, however, who remembered to have seen a flock of plover passing north in spring. The date was uncertain, but the ship was about midway between San Francisco and Hawaii, and the plover were steering a course which would carry them to the neighborhood of the Aleutians. Where data are so scarce and difficult to obtain it is worth noting, as bearing on the season and course of the spring migration of island birds, that Townsend captured a Pacific plover, which boarded the Albatross May 19, 1890, when 600 miles south of Kadiak. This bird was probably an island migrant nearing the end of its long flight. Elliott, also, speaking of the turnstone, states that he “ met with it at sea 700 miles from the nearest land, flying northwest toward the Aleutian Islands, my ship being 800 miles west of the Straits of Fuca.” Physical condition of spring migrants—During the last two months of their stay in the islands both the migrating plover and turnstones get very fat, and it is probable that individuals that are not in good condition do not attempt the flight, or if they do, do not survive the attempt. Toward April most plover seem to be in full breeding plumage, and I feel sure that none of the birds assuming the breeding dress remain behind, unless sick or wounded. There is, however, a small contingent, both of plover and turnstones, that sum- mer in the islands, and these appear to consist wholly of immature individuals, which, as a rule, are thin and not in good trim. Speed of migrating plover—tThe migration of plover over a wide ocean involves two factors: (1) Ability to go without food for the time necessarily consumed in the flight. (2) Ability to make the journey without resting and yet not overtax the physical powers. As stated above, apparently all the migrating birds in spring are in good order, and some of them, especially the males, are exceedingly fat. They are thus in condition to exert their utmost powers for a considerable period and to do without food. I know of no actual 550 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. tests of the speed of plover. From my own observations I believe that when not fatigued the plover can easily enough fly 50 to 75 miles an hour, but it is doubtful if such speed can be maintainéd for any great length of time. I am confident, however, that a speed of 40 miles an hour is well within the bird’s powers. At this rate the flight from Hawaii to the Aleutians, a distance of about 2,000 miles, would consume a little more than two days; or, allowing a speed of 35 miles an hour, the time occupied would be two days, nine hours. At first thought it does not seem possible for plover to fly continuously for so many hours without rest and food; yet the above statement can not be far from the truth. If the birds fly faster, the journey requires less time but the expenditure of more vital force; if slower, ‘they husband strength at the cost of time. In either event the result would be about the same. Of the extreme limit of the plover’s en- durance in continuous flight we know nothing; nor do we know what proportion of the birds that start across the ocean are successful in making the flight. That the effort is too much for many individuals is hardly to be doubted, especially for young of the year, which are comparatively weak and unpracticed of wing. A leaf from the notebook of Dr. E. A. Mearns is of interest in this connection. On the 9th of October, when on a transport bound for San Francisco and one day out of Honolulu, Mearns noticed a lone plover, which joined company with the ship for nearly two days. On the 10th his notebook records that the bird was still circling around and above the ship, as if designing to come aboard. Some- times it flew close alongside and whistled plaintively. Once it rose very high in air and flew out of sight, probably trying to sight land on which to rest, but it soon returned from its fruitless quest. At 5 p. m. on the 10th it seemed weak and tired, but was still flying feebly alongside, its call notes continually growing fainter with waning strength. It was lost sight of at dusk, and was never seen again, but its fate is ohly too certain. It may seem remarkable that this tired wanderer apparently never alighted on the water to rest. However, I recall only one instance in which an unwounded plover has been known to alight on the water and again take wing.t’ In considering this question it must not be forgotten that neither by birth nor habits is the plover a swimmer. It is a true wader, and though, like all of its family, it can swim when compelled to and can even alight on smooth water and again take wing, it does so probably only in very exceptional instances, and perhaps never for the purpose of resting when in migration. Could we assume that the particular individual noted by Mearns made a direct course from the Aleutians to the point where inter- 1 Rothchild, Avifauna of Laysan, pt. 1, xiv, 1893. MIGRATION OF PACIFIC PLOVER—-HENSHAW. 551 cepted by the transport, the incident would be valuable as affording a tolerable idea of the limit of the endurance and wing power of a plover. The bird, however, may have lost its way and have taken a very indirect course to the point where it was first seen from the ship. Unaware of the proximity of the islands to which it was bound, and which it might have reached in a few hours more, it became confused, and made the fatal mistake of following the ship’s course. Before it finally succumbed to fatigue, it followed the ship for about 500 miles. Thus at the least calculation it flew 2,500 miles before it succumbed to fatigue, and probably very much farther. Time of arrival of migrants in Alaska—As the migration of the plover (and also the turnstone) from the islands begins during April and continues till into May, and possibly even later, the birds should arrive in Alaska at corresponding dates, the flight probably con- suming not much more than two days. his a matter of fact, however, the mainland breeding grounds of the plover in Alaska are snow- bound till well into May, and Turner states that the Pacific plover does not arrive at St. Michael till about June 1, a statement cor- roborated by Nelson. Although there is no necessary precise corre- spondence between the breeding time of the Pacific plover in Siberia and in Alaska, it is interesting to note the statement of Seebohm that the plover arrives on the Yenesay River, Siberia, June 5; and, referring to water birds generally, he adds that “very few eggs are laid on the tundra before the last week of June.” (Geog. Dist. of the Charadriide, 1888, p. 58.) Where the plover and turnstone, which leave Hawaii early in April, spend the interval till the melting snow bares the hillsides in Alaska and exposes the previous season’s crop of Vaccinium and Empetrum berries, upon which the plover in spring chiefly feed, is left to conjecture. As the Aleutian chain is nearly 1,200 miles fete however, and as comparatively little is known of its Binds in spring, it is posi that early migrating shore birds sojourn on them vititil advancing summer prepares the mainland for their occupancy. This conjecture is to some extent supported by the statement by Elliott that a few straggling plover land on the Pribilofs in April, or early in May, on their way north to breed, but never remain long. Breeding range of the golden plover.—Without doubt the chief breeding ground of the Pacific plover is eastern Siberia, but a con- siderable number breed on the American coast of Bering Sea from the vicinity of Bristol Bay (where taken by McKay at Nushagak, June, 1881) to near Bering Straits. The plover breeding on Kotze- bue Sound, north of the straits, is dominicus (Grinnell), as also is the one breeding at Point Barrow (Murdock). Apparently fulvus does not breed at all in the interior of Alaska, these regions being occupied solely by dominzcus. It concerns us to note in passing that, 552 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. unless Palmén is mistaken in his identification, dominicus, not con- tent with its wide habitat in the interior of Alaska, crosses the straits, and breeds on the Chukchi Peninsula.t Thus the summer ranges of the two forms actually inosculate, the Asiatic form crossing to Amer- ica and the American form crossing into Asia—an xpparent anomaly in the case of geographic forms. Hawaiian plover breed in Alaska—It is, of course, impossible to absolutely identify the Pacific plovers breeding on the coast of Alaska with the winter visitors to Hawaii, yet there are certain facts tending to show that they are the same. (1) It is to be noted that of the winter visitors to the Hawaiian Islands not one is an exclu- sively Asiatic species. (2) The form of the wandering tatler, which regularly migrates to and from the islands is not the Asiatic form brevipes, but the American form minor. (3) There is evidence that the bristle-thighed curlew, also a winter visitor to the islands, breeds in Alaska, while it is not known to breed in Asia. As the two last- named birds, which breed exclusively in America so far as known at present, regularly winter in the islands, it is a fir inference, in the lack of evidence to the contrary, that the plover and turnstone, as also the other waders which winter causually in the islands, as the sanderling, pectoral sandpiper, sharp-tailed sandpiper, jacksnipe, knot, and others, also come from Alaska and not from Asia. Fall migration of plover.—For some reason or other plover appear to arrive in the Commander Islands in fall very late, according to Stejneger, not till after the 15th of September; the last ones were observed in 1883 on the 28th of October. The turnstone, on the other hand, touches the Commanders on its return trip much earlier, ac- cording to the same author, as early as the last part of July. Arrival of plover in Hawaii in fall—Passing now to Hawaii, a small number of plover and also turnstones return there as early as the middle or the latter part of August. By inference these are the birds which leave for the breeding grounds earliest in spring, and so are the first to complete their parental duties; or, the first arrivals in Hawaii may be individuals which made the journey to Alaska, but for some reason did not breed, or whose nests were broken up, or whose mates were killed, for the Arctic tundras have their bird trage- dies, as have other lands. Just as the turnstones reach and leave the Pribilofs in small straggling flocks, so they and the plover arrive in Hawaii; and it appears further that in fall, as in spring, they get into good condition for the flight, and then leave in no regular order nor at any set time, but just as the impulse seizes them. Between the dates of early departure from Hawaii in spring and of early arrivals in fall there is thus an interval of some four months 1Palmén, Vega-Exped. Vetensk. Iak-t., Vol. V, 1887, p. 342-348; also Stejneger, Auk, 1888, pp. 308-310. MIGRATION OF PACIFIC PLOVER—-HENSHAW. 553 or more, quite long enough to permit the pairs to attend to their parental duties, to get into condition for the return journey, and to make the trip. So far as my observations extend, all the first arri- vals in Hawaii in fall, both plover and turnstone, are adults in breed- ing plumage. I may add that they are invariably in good flesh and that some are very fat. Later arrivals, however, no doubt young of the year, are comparatively poor in flesh and require considerable time to fatten. How migrants find their way across the ocean—It thus appears that thousands of birds, large and small, make a 2,000-mile flight from Alaska to Hawaii in fall and return in spring. To answer the question how they find their way across the trackless waste we must leave the realm of fact and enter that of speculation. Ocean migra- tion routes have generally been plausibly accounted for on the theory that the present fly lines were established ages ago when the land connections were very different, and when, by means of continental extensions and islands now sunken, part land, part water routes were easily followed. As such changes as the raising or depressing of continents are very gradual and extend through long periods, suc- ceeding generations of migrants are supposed to have scarcely no- ticed the difference, and, even after the old landmarks had disap- peared, to have been able to follow the ancient routes through the power of transmitted habit. This explanation, however, does not apply to the case of the Hawaiian migrants, since there is no reason to suppose that the isola- tion of the Hawaiian Islands in relation to continental areas was ever less complete than now; and, although a theory has been advanced that the archipelago is the northern apex of a former southern con- tinent, it finds little support from biologic, botanic, or hydrographic investigations. Moreover, such a continent extending southward toward Australia would have been of no assistance. to birds migrat- ing from America, though its former existence, could it be proven, would render easy the explanation of the derivation of the Austra- lian elements of the Hawaiian fauna and flora. The presence of two shoals, situated, roughly speaking, midway between San Francisco and Hawaii, has suggested the former existence here of large islands, now sunken. If such islands really existed, which is doubtful, they unquestionably would have aided the passage of American birds and plants to the Hawaiian Islands. In his interesting article on “The migration of certain shore birds,” quoted above, Mr. Clark argues that prevailing winds, espe- cially the steady trades, offer a reasonable explanation of the way certain birds are or may be guided in migrating. Such an explana- tion seems to apply peculiarly to the case of the American golden plover, which, as is well known, abandons the North American Con- 554 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. tinent at Labrador and Nova Scotia, and under ordinary circum- stances makes no landfall till it strikes the Guiana coast, a distance of about 2,000 miles. It is perhaps more remarkable that instead of returning in spring to its breeding grounds by the same route it takes in fall to its winter quarters, it follows an all land route and traverses the length of two continents, thus furnishing: the most extraordinary migration route of any existing bird, as pointed out by Prof. Cooke. An attempt to apply to the case of the Pacific plover wintering in Hawaii the same principles so well worked out for the Atlantic coast form is not so successful. About September the wind that prevails in the north Pacific immediately south of the Aleutians is from the northwest. It is generally believed that migrating birds prefer to fly on a beam wind. By heading southwest birds migrating to Ha- wali might have the northwest wind abeam till about the neighbor- hood of latitude 30°, where they would be almost sure to pick up the northeast trades. By then changing their course to southeast they would be enabled to fly with wind abeam till they sighted the islands. That they follow such a course in fall and steer their way by either the northwest wind or the northeast trades there is not a particle of evidence that I can bring forward, nor do I know any facts to justify a statement that they do or do not utilize the winds as guides either in fall or in spring. The results of recent experiments by Prof. John B. Watson with sooty and noddy terns along our south Atlantic coast go far to prove the contention long maintained by many that birds actually possess a sense of direction tantamount to a sixth sense. If we grant this, as we may ultimately be compelled to do, the ability of birds to find their way both by land and sea is explained without further trouble and quite independently of landmarks of any kind or of the winds. The possession of such a useful sense will explain many difficult prob- lems of migration, and among others the apparent confidence with which migrants boldly launch out from Hawaii for a 2,000-mile flight across the Pacific, without the aid of any compass apparent to human intelligence. Danger of oceanic migration.—Of the fall migration of the golden plover on the Atlantic it may be remarked that, while the birds have no landmarks to steer by after leaving the northeast coast, they are yet within comparatively easy flight of the mainland, and in event of an unfavorable northeastern wind they can, and in fact often do, take refuge on the New England coast; and farther on, in bad weather or in case of unpropitious winds, they alight for rest and food in the West Indies. The Pacific plover traverses a much more hazardous route, since, when once clear of the Aleutian Islands, it not only leaves all land- MIGRATION OF PACIFIC PLOVER—HENSHAW. HYS3) marks behind, but also all ports of refuge. The Hawaiian Archi- pelago, with the chain of low islands and sand spits to the north- west, afford a reasonable chance for a successful landfall, since unitedly they stretch away in a very thin line for some 2,200 miles. Moreover, the islands are close enough together so that migrants high in air would not be likely to miss them by passing between. Flocks that chance to get to the eastward of Hawaii, however, are probably doomed, since they would have to fly another 1,000 miles or so before finding islets on which to rest. The Marquesas Group, the first islands of size to the south of Hawaii, is about 2,000 miles away, or about 4,000 miles from the Aleutians, and it is more than doubtful if even the strong-winged plover could fly 4,000 miles without rest and food and survive the trip. That many of the migrating shore birds actually perish at sea admits of no doubt. In this connection it is of interest to note that in a few instances in which island migrants have been sighted when near their journey’s end, going or coming, they exhibited fatigue and evinced a strong desire to board passing vessels. The incident noted by Dr. Mearns has been cited. Other instances were reported to me by the captains of two island-bound barks, who sighted several small flocks of plover during the last days of September, 1900, when from 200 to 400 miles off Hilo. These birds appeared much fatigued and exhibited a strong desire to board the ships, especially when their calls were imitated. EK. W. Nelson, however, while on the Corwin, October, 1881, saw a small party of plover about midway between the Alaska Peninsula and the Hawaiian Islands. These birds were headed directly for the islands, and they flew swiftly on their course, showing no signs either of uncertainty or of fatigue. Other similar cases might be cited. Molts of the Pacific golden plover.—it is of interest to note that in fall this plover migrates before it molts; in spring it molts before it migrates. The first birds to reach the archipelago in August are, as stated, adults, and while they are practically in full breeding dress, they begin to molt into the winter dress almost at once. The molting season for the species is long, and many individuals, doubtless birds of the year, may be found the last of December still molting into the fall and winter dress. By the middle of February numerous indi- viduals are already beginning to molt a second time and to assume the distinctive nuptial plumage, which in the case of these early birds is practically completed during the month of March, though individ- uals continue to molt far into April, and some no doubt complete the final stages in Alaska.t Doubtless the individuals to molt first in spring are the adults which arrive first and finish the fall molt first ; and doubtless, too, these are the birds first to leave Hawaii for their 1]T have several specimens taken in March and April, which were kindly sent me by my friends Mr. Henry Patten and Mr. W. B. Newell, of Hilo. These are in spring plumage, but show unmistakable signs of molting. 556 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. breeding grounds in Alaska. So protracted is the molt of the species that it is probably true that during the stay of this plover in Ha- wali—from middle August till May—there is not a month when some individuals are not molting. There is no reason for believing that the plover summering in the islands, which, as before stated, are chiefly if not wholly immature birds, participate in the spring molt. At all events, all the Hawaiian summer plover and turnstones I have seen were, without exception, in the winter garb. Why the plover migrates——We have thus seen that what at first might appear a physical impossibility—the 2,000-mile flight of small birds across an ocean highway without a single landmark and with only the friendly winds to guide them, if indeed they utilize these as guides—is not only possible, but the feat is accomplished annually by many thousands of individuals, and apparently with no stops for rest and food. The wonder of it is but increased when we realize that these annual flights are undertaken solely for the purpose of making a sojourn of a few brief weeks in Alaska to nest and rear their young. The hazards of such journeys are v than any land migration, however prolonged—and there is no doubt that of the thousands daring the perils of the trip from Alaska many are lost, either by missing the islands altogether or by being caught in storms, or by reason of insufficient strength and wing power. The flight from the islands to Alaska, though not without danger, is less hazardous than the southern flight, both because a much greater pro- portion of the migrants are mature and experienced and because, in case they lose their way, they have two continents as marks to hit. The motive for the fall migration of the plover, like that of the other waders breeding in the far North, is easily understood. What- ever may have been the case in the distant past, to-day the waders have no alternative. They must migrate from the Arctic in the fall or starve. The only choice offered is as to the selection of winter quarters. Thus compelled to migrate, it appears that a certain num- ber of plover and of several other shore-birds find the Hawaiian Islands a winter resort so attractive that to reach them they brave the perils of migration across a wide and stormy ocean. Why, then, do they not permanently colonize the islands? If adapted to the bird’s needs for nine months of the year, why not for the other three? Tt can not be said of the spring migration of these Hawaiian migrants as of the fall, that the birds have no alternative. On the contrary the choice is open, and they would seem to have every incen- tive to remain, with no very apparent motive to migrate. The chief cause compelling winter visitors to the Tropics to leave and to seek northern regions in which to breed has been supposed to be the over- crowding of the Tropics in spring and the resulting lack of room and MIGRATION OF PACIFIC PLOVER—HENSHAW. 557 of food. No such conditions appear to confront the winter sojourn- ers of Hawaii. During its stay in the islands the plover, as also the turnstone, feeds chiefly in the upland pastures and clearings, up to 6,000 or 7,000 feet, and on newly-plowed cane land. Both the sugar planter and the stock raiser have much to thank the plover for, since, while the birds feed on small seeds to some extent, they live chiefly on insects, and according to Perkins, on insects of much economic importance, since they depend largely on the caterpillars of two of the most widely spread and destructive of the island “ cut worms.” These insects are most abundant when the grass on the island pastures is green and luxuriant, and this usually is in winter when rains are most copious. That the supply of food in winter and spring is ample is sufficiently attested by the fact that the birds get jnto such excellent condition. Even if it be assumed that the supply of food in summer is less than in spring, and hence inadequate for the needs of the thousands that winter here, together with their young, still there is enough to sustain very many more than the comparatively small number of nonbreeders that summer here. From the standpoint of the food supply it is even more difficult to explain why the tattler and the curlew leave the islands in spring, since these birds feed almost wholly alongshore, where there can be no appreciable difference in the quantity of food summer and winter. The question why the island plover migrate is all the more diffi- cult to answer when we remember that the islands have been perma- nently colonized by certain other American birds, such as the Hawaiian stilt among the Limicole, the night heron of the Hero- diones, the Hawaiian mud hen and gallinule of the Paludicole, the Hawaiian goose, the short-eared owl, and the island buteo. These birds came to the islands as waifs, as did the plover. Finding room. shelter, and food abundant, they wisely elected to roam no more, but to become permanent residents, and to forswear for all time the perilous and unnecessary habit of migration. Since they successfully resisted the impulse to return to their former summer homes to nest, then why not the other species? As stated above, the failure of the plover and turnstone to become permanent colonists is not because they are crowded out by other species. In fall the migrants from Alaska find the inviting island pastures unoccupied, and as they find them in fall, so they leave them in spring. I can suggest no very convincing answer to the question, but I may note the significant fact that the present suitability of the islands as a breeding ground for the plover and turnstones is very recent as compared with the birds’ acquaintance with them. The cleared strip around each island now planted chiefly to cane, which may be roughly stated to be 3 miles wide, and the extensive clearings above this strip which serve for pasture for cattle, are less than 100 years old, 558 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. most of them less than 50. Prior to their discovery by Europeans all the islands were heavily forested, nearly or quite to the shore. Possibly then the plover and other migrants have been slower to realize the situation than the other species, and do not even yet appre- ciate the advantages offered by continuous island life. It may be said, too, that the spring migration of the plover and turnstone is so intimately interwoven with the function of repro- duction that we are quite safe in assuming that, were it not for the desire to nest, the birds would never migrate. Those, in fact, which are not stirred by the impulse to nest, either because too immature or too old, do not migrate; and the intimate connection between migra- tion and reproduction appears further from the fact that all the individuals that migrate don the nuptial dress before they start, a sufficient declaration ef their purpose in undertaking the trip; while those that remain retain the dull winter plumage. It appears to be true of all birds that, having once reached their winter quarters, be they near or far from the summer home, no migrating species attempts to return to its summer haunts till stimu- lated thereto by the profound physiological change consequent upon reproductive activity. This impulse is not primarily due to change of season or to change of temperature, but is periodic and physiologi- cal. When once felt, every instinct seems to impel birds to take the shortest route to the spot where they first saw the hght or where they have reared young. This has often been called the home instinct. In the case of many species the phrase is not very happily chosen, though I myself have used it, since that locality is more properly to be called a bird’s home where it spends the greater part of its life, rather than where it spends a few brief weeks annually. Neverthe- less the power of habit transmitted through thousands of years is very great, and it is probably this influence associated with the repro- ductive instinct which so far has prevailed over other considerations and caused the plover to migrate from Hawaii in spring. If the Charadriidine birds, the plovers, sandpipers, and curlews, originated in the Arctic, as Seebohm and others believe, and were forced by the exigencies of the ice age to become wanderers over the face of the earth, then indeed the spring migration of the waders from their distant winter resorts is more fitly termed a return home, and the instinct prompting the flight the homing instinct. Originally forced by the ice invasion to abandon their then Arctic paradise and seek shelter and food in distant parts, as the ice receded they grad- ually formed fly lines to and from their summer and winter homes till the habit formed during thousands of years became so fixed as to absolutely dominate many species. That it did not dominate all of the original migrants, however, appears from the fact that permanent colonies settled here and there even in tropical regions, showing that MIGRATION OF PACIFIC PLOVER—HENSHAW. 559 under certain circumstances the habit of migration can be and is overcome. Of the island plover all we can say is that, so far as we can see, its spring migration to its Arctic breeding grounds is not necessary, except in so far as made so by the tyranny of habit. This explanation has at least the advantage that it explains noth- ing, and hence leaves the problem open. It simply shifts slightly the point of view. We perceive that the island attractions have proved sufficiently strong to make permanent residents of certain species which have strayed to the archipelago. In the case of other strays, like the island plover and the turnstone, either the island attractions are not so strong or the birds’ love for their original habitat is stronger, and they continue to migrate, though with much danger and at a great cost in lives. Before leaving this subject I must add that several independent observers have reported finding a few young plover and turnstones in summer on the coast of Kau, island of Hawaii, and at one time I thought it possible that a few curlews also remained to breed; but in the case of none of these species was I able to fully satisfy myself that the birds reported were nestlings. It is, however, not impossible that occasionally a disabled female plover, tattler, turnstone, or curlew secures a mate and nests in Hawaii. Indeed, it seems highly prob- able that it is in this accidental sort of way that new avian colonies are occasionally planted. Such, indeed, may be the explanation of the resident colonies of American species like the coot, gallinule, and others above referred to. Possibly, too, young birds of the year remaining for the summer occasionally feel the breeding impulse after their comrades have left for the north, and so breed and found permanent colonies. te, air, eb seancrnay sett aH DLO an: - -_ onal abishqal Reeder arith ogste vs 7: ~ihto < Oh EAGR® pri pitccr Daneel cf: ‘3 yd as oTidang sig, Hare titaledonay | Natalie ts thetilaioad! itddwarinc eg 6 Tact 4 OFS 1292 TO) Se ofitehi igyt duadireremes peste i f: fe i nde, wey 74 tj ea : ph ang > ‘ ped TM ARO OY Ptthire SUA Lacritloype,s tis 4 fen? e ashe og fase pleas , s ih. : P f ; es! Sasa hi crate, ATO MYTLIG none NNG Hoel 20 4 29 ie fades 144 34 vow < a ‘ et aN, en? OCA set ett oak aban 7 ie MOR. Ape! mi Nile (ORE Ba Erde Hanoe hogy ‘duns sna }. bts ef ry ae SAUTE AE RPS, lat git: 3 mi tite ¥ catty feet aga Be ri ye APTS Tre L Ss 1ailt, Lig pre «ead bila = Seok.” Deas et : See he eS : ae a bie a Ag j J Fj 5 | eae ty 0 re to JOG} s Bee OL re Oph fee er sts . aan . San ve te UF teaisee tlie otvelda:d aur whee z = (Haat OTST AMO REALS pa segs wo saceus! Cty? novela Meine tbe by ViOitE S22 e 9 Pp ase oe ER. “ ; pa tore kbs ral Lage > ak py 2 igldt aie i . ifr, ‘ . ’ M — ; rc : : z . 4 i ce a) c 7 ay 8 % , i (a9 j Ay yet POLLY fa ur, ; : ih | rites sui r % ‘ - .« - cent} bi r- i} aeerire- beevit ty it ‘ AoA G ecco . ‘ , , a i ; fe ' : _« Pe 4 4 . . ‘ 8 af F . : {{ af7 .4 } i . rig ¢ fi i“. t € vw : $ ty 277 af - - - ie - ' i ‘ gf Ti. 7 ‘ ‘ - ¥ f *, v ° » ‘ i - . - i > | . ‘ | t, : _ 7 a. 7 - - = — + 3 cre : % wa ms THE PLUMAGES OF THE OSTRICH. [With 8 plates.] e By Prof. J. H. DUERDEN, M. Sc., Ph. D., A. R. C. S., Rhodes University College, Grahamstown. By the plumage of the ostrich is understood the entire covering of feathers on the bird at any one time.? This is not the same at all periods, for the bird varies greatly in appearance between its chick and, adult condition, dependent upon differences in the form, color, and other characters of its feathers. Visitors to zoological gardens in other countries, accustomed to seeing only the adult ostrich, would scarcely recognize the same bird in its earlier garb. Four well-marked plumages can be distinguished in the ostrich, namely, the natal, the chick, the juvenal, and the adult. These repre- sent four distinct kinds of feather which each feather socket on the bird can produce; but, as regards the bird as a whole, the passage from one stage to another is gradual, as there is no well-defined molting period involving a complete simultaneous change of feathers. Until the adult plumage is reached there is an intermingling or over- lapping of the feathers belonging to different plumage stages, the older feathers being distinguished by their worn and faded appear- ance as contrasted with a freshness and perfection in the newer. Many birds, especially in colder regions, vary the character of their plumage between summer and winter, but the slight seasonal changes of South Africa have scarcely any influence on the feathers of the ostrich, and in the adult there is little or no difference in appearance between summer and winter and a well-defined molting period has not been established. The change from one plumage to the other is dependent upon age and nutrition rather than upon climatic con- siderations. 1Reprinted by permission, with corrections by the author, from the Agricultural Journal of the Union of South Africa. Pretoria. Government Printing and Stationery Office. Vol. 1, No. 1, February, 1911. This article is in continuation of a series con- tributed by Dr. Duerden from time to time to the Cape Agricultural Journal. 2 Among farmers the term plumage is sometimes restricted so as to refer only to the white wing quills. Thus, by an ostrich in “full plumage” is understood one in which the wing plumes are fully developed; when these have been clipped and the quills only remain a bird is said to be “in quills... Throughout this paper, however, plumage will refer to the covering of feathers as a whole, 97578°—sm 1910——36 561 562 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. THE NATAL OR BIRTH PLUMAGE. Like the young of many other birds, the ostrich chick at hatching is already provided with*feathers in the form of down. This is the natal or birth plumage, and consists of only down feathers, which are very different from the feathers which will clothe the bird later. Some of these down feathers, taken from the back, sides, and under surface, are shown in the illustration. (PI. 1, fig. 1.) Though differing somewhat in size, the down feathers are of the same character all over the body and wings, a contrast to the various kinds of feathers which the bird produces later. They consist of small tufts of plumules, differing in length, and all starting from about the same level, there being no shaft or stem, as in the later feathers.? ach tuft consists of from 10 to 20 or more plumules, of which at least 4 are much longer than the others, being about 24 inches in length in the side feathers but only about half as long on the back. A plumule is made up of a central axis or barb with small delicate barbules on each side. Toward their free end the larger plumules are without barbules, and on the down feathers of the back are prolonged into a rather coarse, flat, curled, strap-like portion, but on the feathers of the side and below they are narrower and more hair like. The flat naked parts of the barbs give a bristly hedgehog-like appearance to the young chick, and stand out con- spicuously against the rest of the plumage. (PI. 1, fig. 2.) Most of the remaining plumules have barbules all along their length and vary in size from an inch and a half to half an inch, while two or three are shorter. These soft delicate plumules give the downy character to the under part of the plumage of the young chick, though this is somewhat obscured toward the surface by the bristle-like character of the barbs of the long plumules. (PI. 1, fig. 2.) Even at the time of hatching it is possible to distinguish in the natal down great differences in the feather-producing capacity of various strains of birds. The down feathers in some strains are almost double the size of the feathers in other strains, while others again are denser and more glossy. At all ages the neck and head of the ostrich are, as regards their plumage, sharply distinguished from the rest of the body. These parts are sometimes described as naked, but as a matter of fact they are thickly covered by feathers which are much smaller than those 1 Down feathers are sometimes termed “‘ plumules,” but in ostrich feather terminology it is best to use plumule for each barb and the barbules attached to its sides. Thus each constituent of a down feather will be a plumule, as well as each separate part of the flue arising from the shaft in the adult plume. 2It has lately been shown that both the shaft and quill are absent from the first down feathers of birds, the barbs of the down feather passing without interruption into the new feather below. In the large down feathers of the ostrich, however, there is fully half an inch of quill. PLUMAGES OF THE OSTRICH——-DUERDEN. 563 on the body and wings, and have one or more of the plumules pro- longed ina hair-like fashion. These hair-like feathers become bristly on the head, and form a special tuft around the ear openings, and also serve as eyelashes to the eyelids. The head and neck feathers of the chick are tufts of plumules like those on the body, only much smaller. Examples of the same feathers as they occur in the adult are shown in plate 8, figure 1, and are seen to have advanced very little beyond ordinary down. They do not overlap one another like the feathers on the body and wings. The neck and head feathers vary in color in the chick, and on the neck the colors are so arranged as to give rise to from five to nine longitudinal dark bands, which are either continuous throughout the long neck or interrupted. Usually the dorsal three or five bands are continuous, while the rest are broken and somewhat ill defined. They are shown on the chicks in plate 1. On the head the dark feathers are arranged so as to produce a V-shaped pattern, the angle of the V pointing toward the beak. The sides of the V are either continuous or interrupted, this, according to some, denoting a sexual difference. The general color effect of the upper part of the head is a rich brown, shading off down the neck. On some chicks a small naked patch occurs on the back of the head and disappears later. The down feathers of the back and sides of the body also vary in color from light to dark brown or nearly black, and, being inter- mingled, give a characteristic mottled appearance to the chick, as shown in plate 1, figure 2; the feathers on the under surface and in front are much paler in color, either yellow or white. But newly hatched chicks vary much in the general light or dark brown appear- ance of the natal plumage as a whole, dependent upon the relative number of the light and dark feathers. In some down feathers, light and dark plumules are intermingled, but usually a feather is either one shade or the other. Both natal and chick feathers are found covering the outer surface of most of the upper region of the leg, but as the birds become older they largely disappear from this part, leaving the legs altogether naked (pl. 3, fig. 1) ; impressions of the sockets, however, remain for a long time. The natal feathers are not molted in the ordinary manner of later feathers. A week or two after birth they begin to be pushed out of the feather sockets by the chick feathers growing below, the first to appear being those along the sides of the hinder part of the body. The down remains continuous with the tip of the new feather, and there persists until broken or worn off. On the tip of the wing quills the natal feathers remain for six months or more; that is, until the feathers (spadonas) are clipped or the tips worn away (pl. 2, fig. 4). 564 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. THE CHICK PLUMAGE. The chick plumage is that which appears soon after the chick is hatched, and is completed at the age of about 8 months; that is, when the wing quills are fully ripe, these being the last to complete their growth. The feathers of this plumage are formed of the ordinary quill and plume, the flue of the latter being equally devel- oped on each side of the shaft or stem. The chick feathers are distin- guished from the later feathers by bearing at their tip the natal down feathers, due to the fact that the growth from the birth to the chick feather is continuous; they also taper toward their free end. The feathers, surrounded by their sheath, begin to make their appearance when the chick is a week or two old, but not all at the same time, the earliest to push out being those over the sides of the hinder part of the body. The flue begins to expand when the chicks are between 3 and 4 weeks old. The chick plumage lasts for a varied period, dependent partly upon the nutritive condition and partly upon the strain of the bird; some of the feathers remain on the bird for a year or more, while others are molted before the bird is 6 months old, when there results an intermingling of the chick and juvenal plumages. The distinguishing feature of the chick plumage, as of the early plumage of many other birds, is its mottled character, agreeing in this respect with the natal plumage. In the chick, however, the mottling is not due to an intermingling of light and dark feathers, but to the fact that the upper part of each feather is light brown, while the lower part is of a dark gray color (pl. 2, fig. 1). The com- bination of light brown and dark gray colors gives a peculiar mottled or variegated color to the chicks for the greater part of the first year, but is more pronounced during the first six months while the feathers are young and fresh. Chicks from different parents vary much in the proportion of light brown and dark colors on the indi- vidual feathers, and hence in the general light or dark mottled effect of the plumage as a whole. The dark bands on the neck and head are nearly as pronounced as in the natal plumage. The various kinds of feathers—body feathers, coverts, and wing and tail quills—now begin to show for the first time those differences which are such a marked feature of the adult. The wing quills 1J3t has recently been shown that in many birds the barbs of the new feather are directly continuous with the barbs of the down feather, no real break occurring between the two. For this reason some writers consider that the down feathers do not represent a distinct plumage, but are to be looked upon as the modified tip of the first true feathev (the definitive feather). In the ostrich, however, there is a definite though weak quill, which makes a distinct break between the barbs of the down feather and those of the chick feather. Moreover, the quill of later feathers naturally molted is also continuous with the tip of the new feather, breaking off from it more readily than do the natal feathers on account of its greater weight, PLUMAGES OF THE OSTRICH—DUERDEN. 565 (remiges) are from 1 to 2 feet in length when full grown, and, like the later wing quills, vary much in length, breadth, and other characters according to the strain. Like the rest of the chick feathers they never form the full rounded tip characteristic of the later wing quills, but taper considerably, hence their technical name of spadona, derived from the Italian spadone, the name for a long, heavy sword (pl. 2, fig. 2). The flue is somewhat narrow and thin compared with that of the later wing quiils, and light brown above and white or gray below, the white being the more valuable. As the spadonas attain their full length they seem disproportionately large for a chick of 5 or 6 months, and when the wings are at rest the feathers of oppo- site sides may cross over one another under the body and behind the legs. From their nearness to the ground, the tips are more or less worn away as the plumes become fully grown. The rectrices, or tail quills, are white below, gray above, and tipped with the usual brown, varying much in the proportions of the different tints. They are much shorter than the wing quills, and, like them, taper toward their free end. The body feathers of the back and sides vary somewhat in length from different parts of the chick, and also in different strains of birds, but they all narrow toward their free end. The wing coverts and body feathers are of much the same shape, narrowing consider- ably toward the tip. The lower part of each is a light or dark gray color, while the upper part is light brown; the boundary between the two colors is irregular, and the proportion of the two colors on each feather also varies considerably. The chick feathers on the under part of the body are white or gray, and do not overlap in the same way as the upper feathers. The wing quills or spadonas of the chick are practically fie only feathers of any commercial importance at this stage, the wing coverts and tails having but little value. The spadonas complete their growth, as regards the whole of the plume and an inch or so of the quill, by the time the chicks are from 6 to 7 months old, and are then clipped for sale. The quill is, however, allowed to remain in the socket in order to complete its development. This requires about two months longer, so that the feather has not actually finished its growth and ripened before the chick is 8 or 84 months old, by which time all the other feathers have ripened and many have been replaced by the feathers of the next plumage. As the feather ripens, the red blood in the central medulla or pith can be seen to recede slowly down the quill, which then becomes white and dry, filled with air, and hollow except for the presence of the horny feather cones which successively cut off the medulla. By the end of two months from clipping, the quills are practically ripe; that is, the blood has left the medulla and the whole quill has hardened and is narrowed 566 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. toward its extremity. It may then be extracted without injury to the bird. The plumes are clipped before the lower part of the quill is ripened, otherwise their tips would be much worn, and the feather as a whole greatly depreciated in value; this applies also to all the later feather crops. As the severance takes place through the upper ripened part, above the blood in the pith, there is no hemorrhage, which should be avoided for the sake of the later feather. As regards the feathers of the chick plumage there is no reliable sexual difference in the ostrich, nothing to indicate which are cocks or hens, a matter often of much importance to the farmer. Usually, however, the spadonas from cock chicks are lighter than those from the hens. To determine the sex with certainty, however, other char- acters are available at this time. The wing plumes being clipped at about 6 months, the tail quills and two rows of wing coverts are allowed to ripen, and are plucked at from 7 to 8 months; being of little value they are rarely clipped. All the other feathers of the chick plumage are allowed to follow the natural method of molting. The process is carried out at very different times in different parts of the bird and will be described in connection with the juvenal plumage. From 5 to 6 months onward the chick plumage as a whole begins to lose its primary characteristics. Many of the body feathers are early pushed out by those of the juvenal plumage, and, as the latter are larger and uniformly steel gray, they show conspicuously among the mottled chick plumes. The chick feathers drop out first in the hip region by the time the chick is 5 months old, that is, before some of the other feathers of the plumage are fully grown. The chick feathers which are not replaced begin to lose their freshness of color from about 6 months onward, the lighter brown at the end of the feathers especially disappearing. In the wear and tear the tips are generally worn away, and the adhering natal feather is broken off. The general color effect of the chick ostrich, in both the natal and chick stages (pl. 1, fig. 2, pl. 2, fig. 1), would appear to have a protec- tive significance, the light and dark mottlings closely resembling the dry veld or grass on which the chicks usually crouch in nature. When at all alarmed, chicks suddenly scatter and then drop flat on the ground, with the neck and head extended, exhibiting death feigning to a greater or less degree, and in this condition all farmers have noted the difficulty in recognizing the chicks on account of the close resemblance which they bear to their surroundings. THE JUVENAL PLUMAGE. The third or juvenal plumage represents an intermediate stage betwen the chick and the adult plumage. It does not, however, fol- low immediately upon the second or chick plumage, as molting is PLUMAGES OF THE OSTRICH——DUERDEN. 567 never uniform over all the body. The body feathers of the chick are pushed out gradually, one at a time, not simultaneously, from 4 or 5 months onward, and are replaced by larger feathers of an altogether different type. Instead of being mottled, the new feathers are of a uniformly dark gray or slate color, often tinged with white for a time at the extreme tip, which is no longer tapering but rounded (pl. 3, fig. 1). The juvenal feathers first appear along the sides of the hinder part of the body, a number coming out about the same time. Often the chick feather will remain attached to the tip of the new feather, hanging loosely, and only breaking off after the juvenal feather has protruded for some distance. After a number have grown out at the sides others begin to appear along the back, and then odd ones push out over the body generally. Some chick feathers may, however, remain in their sockets until the birds are 12 months or more old, those around the base of the neck being the last to drop out. The rapidity of the change is partly determined by the nutri- tive condition of the bird and partly by the strain. The chick, as a whole, begins to lose its mottled appearance from 6 to 9 months onward. This is partly due to the replacement of the lighter tipped chick feathers by juvenals of a uniform hue and partly to the fading and wearing away of the light brown tip of the old ones remaining. By the time the chicks are a year old, nearly all the body feathers show the slate or drab color of the juvenal plumage, those of the cocks being somewhat darker than those of the hens. All the feathers of the plumage, however, are not fully ripe until the birds are about 16 months old, as usual the last to ripen being the wing quills. In the wild chick some of the wing quills would ripen much later than this, for, in nature, the first quills are not got rid of all at the same time as is the case under farming conditions. The ventral or underbody feathers of the juvenal plumage are white or light gray in both the cock and the hen, but by 16 months some of the true blacks are beginning to show in the cocks, and, ulti- mately, the ventrals are all black in the cocks but remain white in the hens. Under farming conditions the quills of the spadonas are all pulled out at from 8 to 9 months, and the wing quills of the juvenal begin to show in about a month’s time. They have been found experimen- tally to grow at the rate of from 1 to 2 inches per week. The juvenal wing plumes, known as “ first-after-chicks,” are sometimes uniformly white in the cock, though usually they are tipped with black. Rarely some of the juvenal wing plumes in the hen are pure white; generally they are tipped with black or have an irregular admixture of gray, and though sometimes longer, are usually not as dense nor as valuable as those of the cock. The juvenal wing plumes are much larger than the spadonas and more rounded at the top, but the wing 568 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. plumes do not reach their full size until the next stage or even later. As a result of the highly stimulating conditions of artificial feeding, it is found, however, that the plumes tend to attain maturity at the juvenal stage, and advance but little afterwards. This is more es- pecially the case in some strains than in others. The juvenal tail quills of the cock are now white or tinged with light or dark brown; those of the hen are usually a darker or lighter mottled gray. The juvenal upper and under wing coverts are, like the body feathers, gray or blackish, darker in the cock than in the hen. The small black feathers of the neck and head now disappear to a large extent in both sexes, so that the dark longitudinal bands of the chick are scarcely recognizable. The covering of the head and neck becomes a pale gray, almost white in some strains, and often a pure white ring intervenes between the neck and the body feathers. With the juvenal plumage slight sexual distinctions begin to mani- fest themselves. Generally the body feathers are darker in the cocks than in the hens; the ventral or under feathers are white in the latter but change to black in the former; the wing quills of the cock are pure white, usually tipped with black, while those of the hens are nearly always tipped or tinged throughout with gray. The plumage distinction between the sexes is, however, by no means so decided at the juvenal stage as later on, when the true blacks appear in the cock while the body feathers of the hen retain the dark gray or drab. ADULT PLUMAGE. The adult plumage in the cock ostrich is altogether different from that of the hen; even at a glance the two sexes are conspicuously unlike (pl. 3, fig. 2). The full distinction is reached when the birds are about 2 years old, but great variation occurs, some strains com- pleting their changes much before others. The adult cock bird is characterized by the possession of black body feathers and coverts, the hen by drab body feathers and coverts (pl. 4, fig. 1). The differ- ence may perhaps be better appreciated by saying that the hen retains throughout life the same dull gray color which she had in the juvenal plumage, while the cock passes through the juvenal to a stage where the feathers are black. Both sexes are practically alike in color as far as the juvenal plumage, and the hen retains the somber color throughout life while the cock goes a stage further in which he is more conspicuous. Similar sexual relationships hold in many other animals, the female remaining at an earlier developmental stage which is common to both, while the male assumes another more showy garb, differences which may perhaps have a bearing upon questions of sexual selection and protective resemblance. In young cocks there is a marked contrast between the gray or drab feathers of the juvenal plumage and the first black feathers PLUMAGES OF THE OSTRICH——DUERDEN, 569 of the adult plumage. The time at which the true blacks show themselves varies much in different birds, and as these feathers are of greater value than the drabs, the earliness is a matter of some economic importance. The blacks on the sides will sometimes appear before the birds are a year old, but usually they are later, though before the end of two years all the body feathers and coverts will be black. Often in birds between 18 months and 2 years a few odd faded feathers of the juvenal plumage are conspicuous among the fresh. true blacks. With the fourth plumage, “second-after-chicks,” the valuable. wing quills of both the cock and the hen have usually reached their’ full size and show their best characteristics. The plumes attain ripeness by the time the bird is about 2 years old, though in forward birds the quills also will be ripe by this time. With the exception of a few feathers toward each end of the wing, the wing quills are pure white in the cock (“ primes” or “ whites”), but are usually tinged with gray or black in the hen, either throughout or only at the tip (“ feminas”’) (cf. pl. 4, fig. 2; pl. 5). The detailed characters of these feathers, which determine their value from a commercial, point of view, will be described later. The tail quills of the adult also differ in the two sexes. Those of the cock are usually white below and yellowish brown above, while in the hen they are mottled light and dark gray, the proportions of the light and dark areas varying much. At first sight the brown color of the cock’s tail feathers might be supposed to be merely a discoloration from dragging over the ground, but it is found to be the true natural color of the plumes in most cases, though some are nearly pure white. As the cocks generally carry their tails erect or pointing forward, the light brown feathers stand out very con- spicuously against the blacks of the body. Except as regards position the passage from the wing and tail quills to the coverts and body feathers is gradual. Toward each end of the series of wing quills three or four of the plumes of the cock, instead of being pure white, are a particolor of black and white. These are technically known as byocks or fancies (pl. 6), and are very attractive plumes, realizing good prices. The hen likewise shows “hen fancies,” a mixture of white and gray. Similarly with the two rows of wing coverts; while usually wholly black (pl. 7) or drab, many are white in places, particularly toward each end of the plume. Likewise the white and brown tail quills of the cock are not succeeded by wholly black feathers but by particolored feathers, in which the white, brown, or black are displayed in varying proportions. These intermediate tail feathers are known as “ black butts.” As previously stated, the neck and head of the ostrich are covered with small downlike feathers, giving these parts an altogether dif- 570 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. ferent appearance from the rest of the body (pl. 3, fig. 2; pl. 4, fig. 1). Examples of the neck and head feathers as they occur in the adult ostrich are shown in plate 8, figure 1. In most cock birds a con- spicuous ring of small white feathers occurs toward the base of the neck; that is, where the black body feathers pass into the gray neck feathers (see the cock in pl. 4, fig. 1). Two of these are shown in plate 8, figure 1, and reveal that a few of the barbs at the tip are prolonged beyond the others in a hairlike fashion. This character becomes more emphasized in the feathers covering the rest of the neck and head, as shown in the same illustration. They are downlike in character, the quill and shaft undeveloped, the barbs delicate and hairlike, and the central barb prolonged much beyond the others. Owing to these long barbs the neck and head seem as if provided with a sparse covering of hair, which is especially concentrated as a circular tuft around the ear openings and also around the eyelids, forming the eyelashes. The under or ventral body feathers are small and black in the cock but white or gray in the hen. In the adult the feathers have all or nearly all disappeared from the upper part of the leg, which is then naked throughout its length; the original feather sockets show, how- ever, for a long time. The third and fourth clippings are generally considered to repre- sent the best efforts of the ostrich in the direction of feather produc- tion (pl. 8, fig. 2). The plumes do not improve from this time onward, so that the farmer is now fully aware of the feather value of his bird. Ostriches which are well treated continue to produce feathers of the same quality for a number of years, well authenticated cases being known of birds 35 to 40 years old which still produce a good plumage. Where, however, the production is forced, as in securing a clipping every eight or nine months, some birds are found to deteriorate after four or five years; but great variation is observed in this respect. The plumes also depreciate rapidly if the practice is followed of drawing the feathers or quills before they are fully ripe. Hh rit MIT ogy 4onecKar 4% ny fs vaLyioats OMT M a el ito ; PEs ahd tern ai 3 OE ast a ara tlor” bey FINS: TOMMS vig Ty ole | sty tt Wl a ~ dss mi) bods ti yrti wr! it rG ray ty : HELP Th Ath reir MTBOTIG Ht OTs in “tare Gee POO Mi ti Hil =(0iF g Pe! Me Oe TO Satoh sre ‘diver Badhaliti an a ie eerie wrt} rfiiliin PRAY TTOR A VTOti A Hipind Bh Dill a “if OMT They sarily a? bee urct ¥iiadoud ; baths: ANS sth} } . Sere SUP HOTA wa ddr TaditeH cad frintesy hn oe Sard ot dil baditnley Hii i PTS “Fsith? hreina hei a %Reie 9 os eat vob ‘BY Beal 1 Ufuig POX) OTT he F(a) ba tuat sel wad fa} eA iinet mie aA EE er io fr To erent ott Were Saw Sita Wed mie AL GACNyer if LOL dey gy, r= Mita trod 3 vay erik Showhih” Hoy ad! in attr i Petts hat aay nro EN 161" f , tod aise aciins tort edt agi ar ty ‘ ,f ‘i GEOGRAPHICAL AND STATISTICAL VIEW OF THE CONTEMPORARY SLAV PEOPLES.’ [With colored map.] By Luspor NIEDERLE, Professor of Archeology and Ethnology, Bohemian University, Prague. INTRODUCTION. The original Slav people arose in central Europe by a gradual linguistic and cultural division from the old Aryan or Indo-Euro- pean units. From the physical standpoint, the original Slavs were in all proba- bility somewhat composite, with differences in the type of the skull, as well as in the color of the hair and eyes. They were probably never entirely homogeneous, either culturally or linguistically. This is substantiated by the fact that in the region occupied, evidently from an early period, by the first Slavs there are found different cranial types; and as to complexion, one portion of the Slavs, at the commencement of historical records concerning these people, is spoken of as possessing light hair and eyes, while another portion is said to have been dark in these respects. The remains of hair in the graves support these statements. There existed also, before the present era, several distinct cultural regions among the old Slavs, for we find in the west, between the Elbe and Veser, other types of graves and with different contents than on the east of the Veser. The former region connects in these respects with that farther south, in central Europe, while the latter is more nearly related to that north of the Black Sea. The linguistic differentiation was equally of ancient origin, and was undoubtedly favored not merely by regional developments, but also by isolation, migration, contact, mixing with foreign ele- ments, etc. The eventual result of this differentiation in language was that ancient Slavs, who must still be regarded as originally only 1 Prepared for the Smithsonian Report, under supervision of the author, on the basis of the publication bearing the title Slovansky Svét (The World of the Slavs), 8vo. Prague, 1910, pp. 1-197. Published also in Russian in the Slav encyclopedia, and in translation in several other Slavic languages. 599 600 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. one body, fell into a number of separate parts. At the present time, and even throughout the period covered by history, Slav people as one national unit no longer exist; their place is occupied by a line of more or less related Slavic nations. The details regarding the causes and progress of the above indi- vidualization are problems that are still to a large extent unsolved. It is most probable, however, that the original Slav people, the aucleus of which occupied the region of the rivers Oder and Dnieper, but who already in the prehistoric times were reaching in places to the Elbe, Saal, and Donau, as well as to the Baltic Sea, fell gradually apart into three primary groups. The first of these, to the west of the Veser and the Carpathian Mountains, expanded still farther on toward the west and became a branch of the Elbe, Pomeranian, Polish, Bohemian and Slovak Slavs; the second main branch, whose original territory was most probably somewhere near the Upper Vistula, the Dniester, and the central Donau, moved in the course of time—with the exception of small remnants—to the south of the Carpathian region and into the Balkans, separating secondarily into the subdivisions of the Slovenians, Srbo-Chorvats (‘ Serbo-Croa- tians”), and the Bulgarians. The third main branch of the Slavs finally expanded from the lower Dnieper northward to the Gulf of Finland, westward to the Don and Volga, and southward to the Black Sea and Lower Donau, evolving eventually the Russian nation, which, due to various circumstances, became itself in differ- ent localities somewhat heteromorphous. The degree in which various Slav groups differ from each other to-day, while nowhere excessive, is not everywhere alike. Between the Bohemian, for instance, and the Pole there is a greater gap than betweeh the Bohemian and the Slovak, and that between the Velkorus (Great-Russian) and the Pole is also decidedly greater than that between the former and the Malorus (Small-Russian). In conse- quence of the less well-defined differences, we constantly meet, in literature and elsewhere, with controversies as to which groups of Slavs can be regarded as independent ethnic units or peoples, and which can not be so regarded. Furthermore, these conditions give rise to disputes in the application to the different groups of the terms nation, nationality, stem, branch, race, etc., and, finally, to disputes concerning the number of present Slav nationalities or peoples. There is no agreement in this regard, different classifica- tions depending on different points of view, such as philological, ethnographical, historical, or political; and even from one and the same standpoint, such as the basis of language, different philologists form unlike classifications. In many cases the tendencies at separa- tion and individualization are given more weight than the actual differences, while elsewhere political motives are responsible for the THE SLAV PEOPLES—NIEDERLE. 601 making of new nationalities of whose existence, and with full right, others will not even hear. It is in consequence of these conditions that the number of separate Slav groups, and hence the entire Slav classification, varies so much with different authors. The best authenticated division of the Slavs to-day is about as follows: 1, The Russian stem; recently a strong tendency is manifested toward the recognition within this stem of two nationalities, the Great-Russians and the Small-Russians. 2. The Polish stem; united, with the exception of the small group of the KaSub Slavs, about whom it is as yet uncertain whether they form a part of the Poles or a remnant of the former Baltic Slavs. 3. The Luzice-Serbian stem; dividing into an upper and a lower branch. 4. The Bohemian or Cech and Slovak stem; inseparable in Bohe- mia and in Moravia, but with a tendency toward individualization among the Hungarian Slovaks. 5. The Slovenian stem. 6. The Srbo-Chorvat (Serbian-Croatian) stem, in which political and cultural, but especially religious, conditions have produced a separation into two nationalities, the Servian and the Croatian; and 7. The Bulgarian stem, united. Only in Macedonia is it still undecided whether to consider the indigenous Slavs as Bulgarians or Servians, or perhaps as an independent branch. The following pages contain brief data concerning the above divisions: THE RUSI, OR RUSSIANS. The beginnings of the Russian nation are hidden in antiquity. There are names of tribes in the works of the old historians, some of which evidently belong to the old Russians, but as yet it is not known positively which can be safely so regarded. In the fourth century A. D. there appear some hazy notices of the great tribe of Anti. Under this name, it is now known, were com- prised the southern Russians of the territory between the lower Donau and the Don; but later this tribal name disappears. Some misty mention concerning the Russians exist also in the Arabic notes dating from the tenth century. But it is first from the work of Constantine Porfirogennetes, and especially from the famous first Kiev record, preserved from the beginning of the twelfth century, that we learn that toward the end of the first millenium of our era there lived in what is to-day European Russia, a whole series of Slav tribes existing as more or less independent units. The Kiev record mentions 12 such tribes and at the same time gives for the first time to all these people the collective name of Rusi. 602 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. How the term “ Rusi” arose is still doubtful, but whatever may have been its origin, it is certain that the term was applied foremost to the Kiev center of the population. It was in Kiev, also, that the first Russian state was founded. The name extended thence over broader territory and eventually covered even some tribes that were of a different ethnic origin. The eastern part of the Russian territory at this time, however, is not one of the parts originally occupied by the Russian people, but is a territory that was colonized by them after other settlers. Similar colonization also progressed from an early period toward the north- west among the Baltic tribes and toward the north and northeast among the Finns. In the west and southwest, Russian spread was restricted by the presence of the solid body of the Poles; and in the south it was interfered with from early periods of our era by various invasions and migrations of foreign peoples. Into this region, bordering on the Black Sea, came in the third to fourth century the Goths and Heruls; in 376 it was traversed by the Hunns; in 482 by the Volga Bulgarians; before the year 557 by the Avars; in about the middle of the seventh century by the Chazars; and during the ninth cen- tury it was occupied for a time by the Uralian Magyars, on their way from the Volga to the Donau. These invasions, however, only interrupted and delayed the Rus- sian colonization of these more southern regions. Toward the end of the tenth century the tendency southward of the Rusi is more marked than ever, but it becomes again interrupted by the advent of farther eastern hordes, principally Turkish, resulting in long years of wars. During the thirteenth century follows the Tatar invasion, and the victory of the Tatars in 1224 results in a devastation and de- population of a large part of southern Russia. The effect of these attacks on the Russian people was deep and lasting. On one hand they detained for a long time their advance southward and westward, and on the other hand they resulted in a counter pressure of the ever increasing Russians against the non- Russian tribes of the northwest and north, with a gradual occupa- tion of piece after piece of territory formerly belonging to peoples of different origin. During this period also an important political transformation took place within the Russian nation itself. The old tribal system gradu- ally disappeared, giving place to fewer territorial political units, from which eventually arose the three great divisions of the Russians, differing somewhat in tongue, in habits, and occasionally in politics. These branches ‘were the Velkorusi, the Malorusi, and Bielorusi. Corresponding to these divisions, there arose also during this period the territorial names of Mala Rus (Small Russia), Bila Rus (White THE SLAV PEOPLES—NIEDERLE. 603 Russia), and Velika Rus (Great Russia). The Malorusi branch remained apparently the purest linguistically. But notwithstand- ing their differences, these three branches continued as parts of one greater nation, bound together by all that was most important in their existence. The further development of the Russian people belongs to well- known history. They have not advanced any toward the southwest and west, due to the presence of other solid and strong ethnic units, especially the Poles; but they have progressed greatly toward the north and especially toward the southeast and east. The colonization southward and eastward dates particularly from the fifteenth cen- tury, and especially from the time of Peter the Great. From then on we see an elementary, peaceful, and military advance of the Rus- sians over the territory formerly subdued by the Tatars, culminating in 1783 in the fall of the Krimean Dominion, and extending to re- gions far beyond the original boundaries of the State. Expansion into Siberia, the population of which to-day is already more than four-fifths Russian, commenced in the sixteenth century. The total number of Russians existing in 1900 amounted to about 94,000,000; at the present date, judging from the average annual increase of the people, their number must be somewhere about 110,000,000.7 The regions at the present day most thickly settled by Russians are the black-earth belt east of Poland, and Small-Russia, the least settled being northern Russia and many parts of Siberia. The proportion of males and females is, in general, 103.4 females to each 100 males, which is close to the condition among other whites. But the birth rate is very large—48 per thousand; the death rate is also large, amounting, on the average, to about 34 per thousand. _ Physically, the Russian people everywhere, barring some limited localities, are predominantly brachycephalic. In complexion the Malorusi are, in general, the darkest, the Bielorusi the most blond. The principal differences are observable, on the whole, between the Velkorusi and the Malorusi, but even these are such that to an out- side scientific observer both of these branches must remain parts of the same great Russian stem of people. THE POLACI OR POLES. The Poles constitute the principal western branch of the Slavs, and of them alone is it possible to say that from immemorial times 1In these numbers the Velkorusi are represented by about 67 per cent, the Malorusi by about 27 per cent, and the Bielorusi by about 7 per cent. The Kozaci (Cossack), who are partly of Velkorus and partly of Malorus origin, but who in the course of time have acquired many habits differing from those of ordinary Russians, count, approximately, 3,500,000. 604 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. they have occupied the same territory, which is located between the Oder, the Carpathians, and the Baltic. They were always situated centrally as regards the other Slav tribes, and the Polish philologists are of the opinion that even the language corresponds to this central position of the people. But very little is known about the ancient ethnography of present Poland. It is only with the advent of the ninth century that a little light begins to appear concerning these Slavs. The boundaries of Poland, however, were then unsettled, and the nation itself was still composed of a number of tribes or groups; nevertheless, the people were already looked upon as one by the-neighboring Slavs and known under the common name of Liachove or Liachi. Toward the end of the first millenium, the Poles still consisted, as far as known, of at least five tribes. Between 960 and 1025 the tribe of Poles proper (Polane) succeeded in uniting all these groups, and its name extended over the entire resulting unit. The principal in- centives toward this unification of the tribes were wars with the Germans, following the subjugation by the latter of the Slavs along the Elbe. The tenacious struggles with the Germans, thus initiated, continued and exercised a far-reaching influence on the entire internal and ex- ternal development of the Polish nation. They resulted in a slow retirement of the Poles on the west and in their corresponding expan- sion toward the north and the east. Disastrous events to the Poles in the thirteenth century were the invasion of the Tatars, and espe- cially the battle of Lehnice, in 1241, which, among other effects, re- sulted in the tearing apart of Poland and Silesia. Quite as disastrous as the above, however, were the continued, exten- sive, and intense efforts at germanization, proceeding from the west. It was due to these combined agencies that in the thirteenth century the Polish nation was almost at the point of destruction. In these extremes, however, there became manifest a great internal reaction among the Poles, directed particularly against the oppressing Ger- mans. This was accompanied by numerous political and other suc- cesses of the nation, and finally, in 1410, in a decisive victory of the Poles at the battle of Grunwald over the German Knights, the prin- cipal agents of germanization. The provinces, however, that were meanwhile lost on the west and northwest, could not be regained, and henceforth Polish expan- sion was directed principally toward Lithuania and toward the east and southeast into Russian territory. The latter eventually en- countered the opposition of the Russians, leading to wars and strug- gles that lasted for centuries, and which were unfavorable to the Poles, resulting, with other circumstances, in the years 1772, 1793, and 1795, in the tri-partition of the Polish State. THE SLAV PEOPLES—NIEDERLE. 605 These conditions had of course a deleterious effect on the Polish people, and it was only their great inner vitality, coupled with their traditions and with strong hopes for the future, that kept the nation from annihilation, and that eventually again strengthened and uni- fied it to such a degree that its destruction became impossible. The tendency toward the germanization of Poland, or at least that part of the country under Germany, continues, however, as intense and active as ever. The total number of the Poles living at the present date is esti- mated at approximately 19,000,000. Of that number there lived in Russia in 1900, about 8,500,000; in Austria, 4,250,000; in Germany, 3,450,000; and in the United States of America, 1,500,000. There are still recognizable within the nation a number of terri- torial or tribal groups differing somewhat dialectically, but ethni- cally none of these divisions can be constituted into separate units. Physically, the Poles show especially a close similarity with the Velkorusi (Great-Russians). THE LUZICE (LAUSSITZ) SERBS. From the powerful branch of the Slavs who centuries ago occupied the territory along the central and lower Elbe there remains to-day only an insignificant body of the so-called Serbians in the Upper and the Lower Luzice. The Elbe Slavs, at the time from which we have the first historical notices concerning them, that is, in the ninth to the tenth century A. D., consisted of three large groups. From the time of the first records these groups were in constant and intense struggle against two powerful agencies, the Germans and the Roman hierarchy. The inevitable result was that they fell before such odds and became ger- manized. From the fifteenth century onward we find only scattered groups of the Elbe Slavs. The more northern examples of these disappear gradually one after another, and the only remnants surviving to this day are the “ Laussitz” Serbs, settled near the northern boundary of Bohemia. The cause of the survival of this remnant was, besides other circumstances, the fact that Luzice belonged for a long time to the Bohemian crown. The numbers of the “ Luziéani” are, how- ever, steadily diminishing by absorption. According to the German statistics of 1900, there were still living in Laussitz 93,032 “Serbs,” who spoke nothing but their own language. According to other estimates the total number of these “Serbs ” at that date was between 150,000 and 160,000 individuals. In 1910 the estimate was 20,000 less. As the people are surrounded by Germans, their complete assimilation with that people can only be a matter of a relatively short time. 606 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. An interesting fact is that emigrated Luzice Serbs have founded a number of settlements in the United States, especially in Texas, as, for example, Serbin, West- Yewa, Warda, Burleson. The language of the upper and lower branches of these peoples, as mentioned above, differed to such an extent that the two must be regarded as distinct dialects. THE BOHEMIANS (CECHS) AND SLOVAKS. The Bohemians and Slovaks, also, are derived from the western body of the Slavs. The Slovaks can in general be regarded as a part of the same ethnic group, although considerably separated by various conditions. Both parts arose from a common center somewhere near that of the Poles and that of the Elbe Slavs, to the north of the Sudet Mountains, reaching, perhaps, into Moravia. The Bohemians and Slovaks came to their present abodes from the north possibly in one, possibly in separate ways. Historical data concerning these facts there are none, but some light on them begins to rise on the basis of archeological researches. According to the latter investigations both branches had settled their respective territories before the latter half of the first millenium B. C., and hence they can well be regarded as autochthonous in their countries. Linguistic relations show clearly that both the Bohemians and the Slovaks belong to the same stem as the Poles, the Luzician Serbs and the Elbe Slavs, and that they expanded in connection with these. Historical data concerning the Bohemians begins in the seventh century. At that time these people occupied a more extensive terri- tory than they do to-day, reaching in places into what is now Bavaria and on the south to the Donau.- They also extended farther than they now do into ancient Pannonia (Hungary), and the Slovaks occu- pied a large portion of the latter country, connecting in the south with other Slavs. As all the other Slavic branches, so also the Bohemians were at the beginning separated into a number of more or less distinct groups. Among these the Cechové (Cechs) exceled in number and power, and, as with the Polane in Poland, the name of the group even- tually became extended over all the other subdivisions, barring the Slovaks. In the ninth and tenth centuries the word Cechové or CeSi was already used in the larger sense, embracing the whole people. The territorial term Bohemi was in like sense employed even earlier. The naturally highly favorable and protected situation of the center of the Bohemians resulted in a rapid and auspicious develop- ment of the people, and had it not been for some of its rulers with their foreign sympathies, the nation would have played an even more important role than it did among the Slavs and would doubtless occupy to-day a different political position, THE SLAV PEOPLES—NIEDERLE. 607 The most detrimental procedure of some of these rulers was the colonization of parts of Bohemia and Moravia by Germans. This colonization and contemporaneous germanization continued, favored also by the nobility and the clergy, until the fourteenth century, when it was checked effectually for a time by a revulsion of the people, manifested in part in the wonder-inspiring Husite wars. The pro- cess of Germanization at that time extended even to the Slovaks in northern Hungary. The Husite (after Jan Hus, the martyred reformer and patriot) wars were conducted victoriously mainly under the banner of religion, but at the same time it was a struggle for Bohemian nationality and against the invading Germans. As a result of these wars, the Bohe- mian language again became the official language in Bohemia, Mora- via, and Silesia, and there was a general national rejuvenation. The German waves, however, could be stayed only for a time, and in the sixteenth and particularly the seventeenth centuries their effect again became manifest. The early part of the seventeenth century (1620) marks the dis- astrous battle of Bila Hora, near Prague. Then followed a period of intense religious oppression, confiscation of property, exile of tens of thousands of the best families, and the repeated destructive invasions of the Thirty Years’ War, all of which left the Bohemian element greatly reduced in numbers and on the verge of exhaustion. Then came further German colonization and more germanization. Toward the end of the eighteenth and at the beginning of the nine- teenth century it seemed as if the Cechs were to follow the fate of the Elbe Slavs. Instead of this, however, there became manifest a marked and gradually growing reawakening of the national spirit, attended with a purification of the language, and not merely a suc- cessful opposition to further germanization, but a slow and continu- ous gain of old positions in all directions. A century ago it seemed as if the nation was doomed. To-day it stands among the most cultured and united, as well as intellectually and industrially productive, in the compact strength of nearly 7,000,000, exclusive of the 2,000,000 Slovaks in Hungary. The history of the people from the fourteenth century to date reads like a fable. The Slovaks are subject to forcible magyarization which, with their environment, has retarded their progress in all directions. The total number of Bohemian Slovak people in existence is esti- mated at somewhat over 9,000,000 individuals, and of that number at least 300,000 Bohemians and 500,000 Slovaks live in the United States. There is a considerable difference between the Bohemians and Slovaks in education. Among the former the percentage of those able to read and write exceeds even that among the Germans, and is 608 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. the highest (for larger groups) in Europe; among the Slovaks, due to the highly unfavorable local conditions, the percentage of analpha- bets ranges from 32 to 42 per cent. As to occupations, there are among the Bohemians 43 per cent devoted to agriculture, 36.5 per cent to industry, and 9.3 per cent to transportation, while 11.1 per cent are in civil service. _ Tribal differentiation among the Bohemians has to a very large extent disappeared. Highly interesting remnants of tribal differ- ences, however, are met with in numerous localities, as indicated by dress and eset habits of the people, and also in a few places by the dialect. There are recognized three strains of these dialectic shades, but none is of any special importance. Physically, the Bohemians are characterized by a good stature (average of men 169.2, of women 157.3 centimeters) with a brachyce- phalic skull of, on the average, a considerable capacity (Weissbach). They are somewhat predominantly of a darker type, but blond and mixed individuals and especially those with lighter-colored eyes are quite common. It is evident that the type is not strictly homogene- ous, but the differences are very largely only individual. THE SLOVENIANS. The Slovenians are the northwestern portion of the southern Slavs and a remnant of a once powerful branch known at Slovieni, which at the beginning of the Middle Ages spread over the territory between the Pannonian bend of the Donau and the Adriatic Sea, reaching at the same time far into the Alpine regions. Nothing is known historically as to the date and circumstances of the first appearance of the Slovenians in this territory. It seems that their penetration there had commenced at or even before the begin- ning of the Christian era, but definite proofs of this supposition are still lacking. What is certain is, that from the sixth century onward the territory became filled with Slavs, and in the year 600 we read that they were then imperiling Italy. They occupied what are now the southern half of Lower Austria, Styria, Carinthia, Gorizia, and Carniola, as well as a part of Tyrol and Upper Austria. This distribution is authenticated by the topographical and _ historical nomenclature as well as by a number of direct historical notes regard- ing these Slav settlements. In the earlier part of their history, however, the Slovenians were subjugated by the Avars. They were liberated from this yoke dur- ing the first half of the seventh century, but during the eighth cen- tury were overcome in turn by the Bavarians, who initiated a progressive and long-lasting germanization. Still later, after the invasion of the Magyars, germanization was rapidly replaced by THE SLAV PEOPLES—NIEDERLE. 609 magyarization, the cause of both being the preponderance in numbers and power of the Germans on one side and of the Magyars on the other, over the Slovenians. To-day the Slovenian territory is limited to Carniola, the northern part of Istria, Gorizia, and parts of Styria and Carinthia, with small regions in northeastern Italy and in western Hungary. The total number of Slovenians is now only about 1,500,000, of whom about 100,000 live in the United States. CROATIANS AND SERBIANS. Croatians and Serbians arose, with the Slovenians and the Bul- garians, from the southern main Slav stem or division. They formed at the beginning a linguistic unit, which did not become separated into two parts or two nationalities until during historic times. Both of these units, although aware of their close relation, to-day defend a nationalistic individuality. The conditions leading to the separation of the two branches were, as elsewhere, territorial, tribal, and dialectic differences. The orig- inal body at first consisted of a series of tribes belonging to one linguistic group, but dialectically slightly differentiated, which ex- panded from their more northern cradle, near the Carpathians, toward the Donau and beyond that to the Drava, Sava, and farther on to the Balkans. It was only in the latter region, with the Balkan Mountains presenting boundaries difficult to traverse and hence im- peding communication, that some of the subdivisions became sepa- _rated and further differentiated, leading eventually to the present grouping into two nationalities. In the northwest and west the original segregation of the tribes gradually gave rise to the Croatians, while the more eastern group became the Servians. The Croatians led an independent political existence from probably as early as the seventh century until 1102, when the Croatian Kingdom became attached to Hungary, with which, in 1526, it became a part of Austria-Hungary. The Servians were organized as a separate political body somewhat later, between the 10th and 11th centuries, and retained their independence until after the battle with the Turks on Kosovo Pole, in 1389, after which their territory was made a part of the Ottoman Empire. The Turkish subjection of the Servians resulted in the emigration of masses of the Servians and also of the Croatians northward into southern Hungary and into other parts of the southern portion of the Austrian States. At the present day the Croatians are settled entirely within boundaries of the Austrian Empire. They occupy parts of the coast land and Istria, portions of Dalmatia and Bosnia, and entire 97578°—sm 191039 610 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. Croatia, in addition to which they are found in numerous localities in southern Hungary and in Slavonia. The nucleus of the Servians rests in Servia and Montenegro, whence they extend to Bosnia and Herzegovina, now annexed to Austria- Hungary, to parts of Dalmatia, Slavonia, southern Hungary, and to northwestern Aibania and Macedonia. Separate statistics of the two nationalities are not available. Together they numbered in 1900 approximately 9,000,000 individuals, of whom somewhat more than 3,500,000 were in Austria-Hungary, a little less than 2,000,000 in Bosnia and Herzegovina, 350,000 in Montenegro, 2,300,000 in Servia, 400,000 in old Servia, Macedonia, and Albania, and about 300,000 in the United States and elsewhere in America. Both the Servians and Croatians are predominately agricultural people, the percentage of farmers in different localities reaching between 80 and 90 per cent of the population. As in all the other Slav branches, so among the Servians and Croatians, there exist a number of secondary groups, differing from each ails dialectically; but none of these interesting divisions is of great importance. From the anthropological standpoint the Servians, as well as the Croations, are predominantly of a darker complexion and are strongly brachycephalic. THE BULGARIANS. The last Slav nation which resulted from the differentiation within the southern stem or main division of the Slavs, are the Bulgarians, who to-day live almost exclusively on the Balkan Peninsula. As was the case with the other branches of the southern Slavic division, so the Bulgarians had their cradle much farther to the north, somewhere above the Carpathian Mountains, in the neighbor- hood of the Russians. From these regions they had already begun as early as the third to the fifth century A. D. to penetrate toward the lower Donau, and in the sixth century they reached the Balkans. At this time and even during the seventh and eighth centuries of our era, the people consisted of a considerable number of separate groups more or less loosely united. In the year 679 there arrived in the region occupied by these groups a body of Volga Bulgars, of Turkish descent. These invaders sub- jected the nearest of the aforementioned groups, united them, and subsequently the union extended to the remaining Slavs in the central part of the peninsula. The Volga Bulgars very soon became assimilated into the Slav element and disappeared as a separate body, but they left their name to the united new people. In general, it may be said that the Bulgars THE SLAV PEOPLES—NIEDERLE. 611 were always Slavs, although they suffered a considerable admixture of foreign elements. The Bulgarian Kingdom during the ninth and tenth centuries had spread over a large territory. It carried on numerous wars with the Byzantines on one hand and the Servians on the other. until the time of the Turkish invasion. In 1396 the battle of Nikopole resulted in the forcible submission of Bulgaria to the Turks, a sub- mission lasting until 1878, when, with the help of Russia, the country again gained a limited freedom. In 1885 Bulgaria succeeded in regaining a large part of Roumelia; and recently, on the occasion of the annexation by Austria-Hungary of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and that of political disorders in Turkey, Bulgaria again attained com- plete independence. To-day it is the strongest and most progressive nation of the Balkans. Throughout its history, but especially during and even after the Turkish occupation, Bulgaria has witnessed many internal move- ments of population. At present the restlessness is confined to the Bulgarians of Macedonia. The total number of Bulgarians at the present day exceeds 5,000,- 000. Of these approxjmately 3,000,0000 reside in Bulgaria proper, 1,200,000 in Macedonia; 600,000 in other parts of the Balkan Penin- sula and Turkey, 180,000 in Russia, and about 100,000 in Roumania and Dobrudza. In America, particularly in the United States, the Bulgarians are represented by only small numbers. Exclusive of groups belonging to other nationalities which are settled in Bulgaria, the Bulgarians themselves show an internal dif- ferentiation into three principal subdivisions, differing somewhat dialectically and in other respects. None of these divisions, however, is sufficiently apart from the body of the people to make possible any actual separation. Besides this, there are met with in Bulgaria (as in Servia) many local names of groups, with no, or but very little, ethnic significance. From the anthropological standpoint, according to the most: reli- able data, the Bulgarians are somewhat heterogeneous. The typical Bulgarian is of medium height (166.5 centimeters for men and 156.7 centimeters for women), and predominantly dark (50 per cent dark, 5 per cent light, 45 per cent mixed complexion). The head is pre- dominantly mesocephalic, with a rising proportion of brachycephaly in the southwestern part of Bulgaria and in southern Macedonia. Dolichocephalic forms appear in parts of southern Bulgaria. Regarding the Slavs in Macedonia, there is still a difference of opinion as to whether they are nearer the Bulgarians or the Servians, or whether they constitute an independent Macedonian Slav people. As the matter is complicated by politics, a continuation of the discus- sion must be expected. There is no doubt that a large part of the 612 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. Macedonian Slavs feel and proclaim themselves to be Bulgarians, and also that the dialects of the people are nearer the Bulgarian lan- guage than the Servian, with the exception of the northern part of the region, which in turn is more Servian. CONCLUDING REMARKS. The Slavs are of central European origin and of the same descent as other Indo-European or Aryan whites, though in some regions they have in the course of time become mixed with other elements. The total number of Slavs at the close of the year 1910 may be estimated at about 156,000,000 to 157,000,000. In this number the Russians are represented by nearly 70 per cent, the Poles by 13 per cent, the Bohemians and Slovaks by a little over 7 per cent, the Ser- vians and Croatians by a little less than 7 per cent, the Bulgarians by about 3.7 per cent, the Slovenians by a little over 1 per cent, and the Luzice (Laussitz) Serbs by a little over 0.1 per cent. The stock is in general a naturally well-preserved and sturdy one. The mean annual increase in numbers amounts to about 1.4 per cent. Anthropologically, the Slavs are characterized by a mostly rounded head, good cranial capacity, medium stature, and a good physical development. In complexion they range from brunette to blond, the former predominating among the southern Slavs and among the Malorussians, while blonds are more numerous among the northern parts of the stock, and especially among the Bielorussians. Culturally, numerous parts of the people are as yet more or less retarded, due not to any want of natural abilities, but to lack of facilities of education, and to oppression. Those Slavs who emigrate, particularly to North America, become generally (with the exception of a certain percentage of the Slovaks, who return to their families) completely assimilated with the indig- enous population within two generations. Norn.—Prof. Niederle’s work contains many special details which could not well be included in this abstract, due to limit of space, and there is also given an extensive bibli- ography relating to the different stems and branches of the Slavs, for wkich the reader must be referred to the original, Smithsonian Report, 1910.—Niederile. PLATE |. Great R White Russians Small Russians Poles @ Kashubs Luzice Serbs Bohemians, Slovaks Slovenians Servians Croatians Bulgarians THE NORRIS PETERS CO.,, WASHINGTON, D.C Smithsonian Report, 1910.—Niederie. Great “ae i Ligal . Pe ¢ aL df. = “ * 7 . * . 7 2* 7 > - ’ PTR? 6 .* 4 '_ « . af P = . Ct A. THE CAVE DWELLINGS OF THE OLD AND NEW WORLDS. [With 11 plates.] By J. WALTER FEWKEs. In considering many subjects suitable for a presidential address that of “The Cave Dwellings of the Old and New Worlds”? has seemed to me timely as illustrating certain aspects of culture history that are only vaguely comprehended by those unfamiliar with our science, and often overlooked by professional anthropologists. The subject enables me to call attention to the intimate connection existing between history and geography, and to lay before you data bearing on the theory that culture similarities in distant lands are due not so much to derivation as to a mental unity on account of which human thoughts are similarly affected by a like environment. This subject also brings into relief significant limitations of the theory that cul- ture development is due wholly to external conditions, while the data here presented show the existence of diversities in culture which have apparently no relation to those conditions. There is nothing produced by the human mind and hand that reflects individual and racial characters more accurately than man’s habitations. It is a far-reaching ethnological law that the house is the most truthful expression of the mind of the inhabitant; natural man in constructing his dwellings must avail himself of the material which is nearest at hand for that purpose. It is convenient for purposes of study to consider human habita- tions as arranged in two series which are not necessarily local lines of evolution—houses of wood including those of sticks, bark, grass, hides, and those of stone embracing earth, clay, and the like. Our subject is especially concerned with the origin and development of the latter. The simplest kind of durable house or shelter is the cave, the choice of which for habitation generally leads ultimately into 1 Presidential address delivered before the Anthropological Society of Washington, April 12, 1910. This address was accompanied by stereopticon views illustrating many of the points presented, which can not be reproduced as illustrations. Reprinted by permission from American Anthropologist, vol. 12, No. 3, July—Sept., 1910. 618 614 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. permanent structures. The cave as an element in the history of human habitation is conditioned in its influence by its geographical extension. You may have noticed that I have spoken of the intimate connec- tion of history and geography, and it may be added that in using the former term I include in it both ethnology and archeology. It seems to me that the time is coming when the science of history will no jonger be made up solely of descriptions of past events, even when including within its ken economics and institutions, but will embrace a study of cultural life in its broadest significance. The time is not far distant when the discoveries of the ethnographer will enlarge the scope of history, so that this science will embrace all forms of culture, among all men, both low and high in development. Ethnology is destined to infuse into history a meaning more comprehensive than it has yet had and to bring into sharper relief the relation of cultural life and geographical surroundings. Human thought, as expressed by material culture, language, and beliefs, is modified to a certain extent by survivals of past environ- ments. In early conditions this modification was strong, but later, when man had obtained greater control over his surroundings, ex- ternal conditions lost some of their power. The character of primi- tive habitations is perhaps more influenced by environment than any other product of man’s intelligence, but even in them>we find surviy- ing traces of former conditions.t. The effect which the adoption of caves as habitations has had on the construction of buildings within them illustrates this statement. Originally caves were sought out for protection from elements, but in the course of time, possibly from conservatism, man continued to construct buildings in caves and to live in caverns long after necessity for them had ceased. The fact that nothing of man’s manufacture is more profoundly modified by environment than his habitation gives to caves or cave dwellings a great importance in the study of the interrelations of history and geography. he reason that led man originally to seek caves for habitation was a desire for shelter from the elements, but not so much protec- tion for himself as for others—for his offspring. Caves were early used for the hiding away of food and secretion of other property, as sacred images and ceremonial paraphernalia, for burial places, and as chambers for the performance of sacred rites. Their use for habitation was secondary, the primary motive being mainly altruistic, the same as that which leads the insect, bird, and mammal to make their nests. 1The effect of migration and retention of cultural survivals of former environments should not be overlooked, although as time passes it becomes more and more obscure. CAVE DWELLINGS—FEWKES. 615 As one of the few crafts man shares with animals is the building habit, it is natural for us, on the very threshold of the subject, to consider the influence of environment on lower intelligences as expressed by insects, birds, mammals; or perhaps it might be better to say the study of the habitations of lower animals should go hand in hand with those of natural man.t_ We are immediately informed that the bird acts not from reason but from inherited habit or instinct. The first swallows which built under the eaves of a house or in a chimney of the same surely had no inherited instinct to guide them. This choice was certainly not due to former teaching in the site that has been inherited, but to an independent use of mind which recognized the advantage of a new environ- mental condition. It does not seem unreasonable to suppose that the birds that first built their nests under overhanging cliffs did so for the same reason that men built in similar places. Both bird and man saw that the caves were advantageous for shelter and built accordingly. The cave swallow builds its nest of available material, as stones, clay, and twigs. I possess a photograph showing one of these animal cliff dwellings which indicates how close a parallelism can be traced in the choice of a site and material for a building by animals and man as determined by their environment—a most fascinating subject to which I can give only brief mention at this time. The outcome of the comparison is that there appears to be a general psychic law show- ing identity of thought among animals and men in the construction of buildings or nests where available material and geographical con- ditions are the same. Life in caves passes naturally into one in permanent houses of stone or clay. If we follow Ratsel in his conclusion that “ the germ of stone architecture” arose from “the habit of dwelling in caves widely spread in primitive times and not yet obsolete,’ then the geographical distribution of caves has largely determined the sites of monument development and consequently of civilization. The effect of stone buildings made by one generation on development of the culture in the next and subsequent generations is very con- siderable, and the perpetual existence of monuments is a continual 1This great ‘untilled field of comparative psychology,’ as pointed out by a re- viewer in The Atheneum (Aug. 20, 1910), of Dr. H. C. McCook’s Ant Communities and how they are Governed, ‘‘ will be extended from the primitive human type to the conceptions of other animals, but zoologists must find the materials.” Although somewhat foreign to my subject the following comment by Dr. Cook on the discovery of a story in an ant’s nest 8 feet deep is instructive: “Those who are curious in such comparisons might find grounds here for a striking parallel between the achievement of an ant three-eights of an inch high (long) and of a man 176 times as high (53 feet). Were we to reckon on a proportionate rate of progress between the two on the basis of height, our man would have to be credited with a storied structure 1,408 feet deep.’’ 616 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. stimulus acting on the mind to interest it in past history and create a pride in former achievements. It is self-evident that a race, each generation of which builds houses of perishable material, leaves little evidence of its past history, and whenever the creations of one generation fall into decay in the next there remains nothing to which tradition may point with pride. If the past adds nothing to the present a race progress is not possible. Stone habitations become monuments and endure, not only serving as an inspiration for new endeavor but also securing lasting models for future gen- erations. It is on these accounts that the limits of artificial cave habitations are almost always the same as those of higher human culture, historic and prehistoric. Caves showing evidences of habitations are widely distributed geographically. Beginning with China, a belt of cave dwellings ex- tends across India to Asia Minor and Arabia, following both shores of the Mediterranean, continuing into the Canary Islands, the West Indies, Mexico, North and South America. Wherever geological conditions furnish a rock that can readily be worked into suitable caves there are generally found ruins of stone buildings, and where these exist there we are almost sure to see other evidences of past culture. Two lines of architectural evolution reach back to the cave as the original form: (1) Growth of a building within a natural cave, and (2) evolution of a building from an artificial cave. While natural caves must theoretically have formed the earlier shelter, we find. when the character of the rock permits, that artificial caves were con- structed almost contemporaneously with them. The use of unmodified natural caverns for shelter can not be con- sidered at length at this time, but in passing it may be pointed out that, while not limited to any one geographical location or climatic condition, they are necessarily found under certain geological condi- tions. Existing historical, legendary, and archeological accounts? of human habitations in natural caves of Europe are very numerous, but no extensive literature exists on the natural cave man of Asia, Africa, and America. The association of human remains with those of extinct animals in European caves carries the antiquity of man into late geological formations. The limited observations on New World caves rather than the poverty of the subject makes it difficult, almost impossible in fact, to institute an adequate comparison of the culture or relative age of the natural cave man of America and Europe. In order to show how little work has been done on this subject in America, let me call your attention to one of many examples. At the 1 Higher culture without permanent habitations or sacred edifices is almost incon- ceivable. 2Wm. Boyd Dawkins, Cave Hunting: Researches on the evidence of caves respecting the early inhabitants of Europe, London, 1874. CAVE DWELLINGS—FEWKES. 617 close of the fifteenth century, when Columbus discovered America, there were cave dwellers in certain regions of the West Indies, which were mentioned in the writings of early historians. The people who inhabited the greater part of these islands were dwellers in the open and had attained a considerable cultural elevation as shown in the polished stone objects called “collars” and three-pointed idols or zemis. The germ of this culture came from South America. In addition there were settlements of Caribs who had migrated north- ward from South America along the Lesser Antilles as far as Vieques Island and the eastern shore of Porto Rico. It would appear from history that there were at least three distinct stocks, indicating three kinds of culture, in the West Indies at the epoch of discovery. The first and most primitive of these three were the cave dwellers, rem- nants of an aboriginal people once spread all over the West Indies, but at that time inhabiting the western ends of Cuba and Haiti. They were known to early writers as the Guanahatibibes,! and were said to have been low in cultural development, possessing a character- istic idiom, their livelihood being obtained by fishing, hunting, or gathering wild fruits or roots. ‘These apparently had not yet become an agricultural people, and had no knowledge of how to prepare cassava from the poisonous root of the yuca. The existence of this race of natural cave dwellers in the West Indies has long been known through legends extant since the time of Columbus. Roman Pane, the oldest folklorist of the American Indians, in one of the legends of the natives of Haiti refers inci- dentally to their fermer life in caves—a legend which was no doubt founded on historical fact. It is known that some of the Haitian caves were inhabited by man at the discovery of the island, and we may infer that these troglodytes were survivals of an antecedent epoch, referred to in the legend, when the aborigines of the island were cave dwellers. While, as seen from the above remarks, evidence drawn from folk- lore supports history, the archeological verification has yet to be gathered. Our knowledge of the character of the West Indian cave culture is fragmentary and can be greatly enlarged by systematic excavation of the caves of Cuba, Haiti, and Porto Rico. Skeletal remains which may be referred to the cave men of Cuba have been investigated by several Cuban anthropologists, who have regarded 1In western Cuba; their province in Haiti was called Gaucarima. The structures called ‘‘cacimbas”’ in the Isle of Pines and elsewhere in western Cuba may have been made by the prehistoric cave dwellers of Cuba. These cacimbas are large earthern jars, apparently fashioned and baked in place, filling a hole 6 feet deep, with rim level with the surface of the ground. Additional study is necessary to determine their age and use. Norny.—A careful study of 25 of these cacimbas in May, 1911, showed that while they are almost universally shaped like jars their walls were not of clay baked in place, as I had been informed, but made of masonry plastered or excavated in solid rock. A thin layer of tar on their sides and floors seems to indicate they were used as receptacles for turpentine or tar. Their construction as well as their use is still doubtful—2J. W. F. 618 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. them as among the oldest in America. A comparison of the culture of these cave men with those of Europe would be very instructive, but it is manifestly impossible considering our limited knowledge of the former. Here is an opportunity for the study of cave men at our very door, practically within our domain, which offers a most fascinating field rich with harvest to our historians, folklorists, and archeologists.1 A comparison of artificial caves and buildings constructed in natural caverns in the Old and New Worlds is much easier to make than that of the natural caves of the two hemispheres on account of the abundant known material. Both America and the Old World have an extensive literature of artificial caves used for habitations or natural caves sheltering buildings of size. Historically speaking we have little information regarding the life of man in artificial caves or in buildings in natural caverns in America, but this lack may be supplemented by the contributions of archeology, and our knowledge may be enriched by a study of the folklore* of the Pueblo Indians. In addition to legends capable of verification by archeology, the Hopi also have others less definite which, although vague, are still as worthy of belief as those dealing with the period of history, if taken symbolically. Pueblo legends all agree that the human race orginated in an underworld and climbed to the surface, where it now dwells, through an opening which the Hopi call “the Sipapt.” A comparative study of these stories among different pueblos reveals the fact that this emergence opening does not always have the same position, creating doubts as to the authenticity of the location of Sipapi and raising a suspicion that geographically it is not to be taken literally, but varies with the clan or larger group. Moreover, the legend, greatly obscured by esoteric and symbolic interpretation, may indicate a local prehistoric event.? It is usual to interpret “ the Sipapt” as the original orifice of emergence common to all members of the human race, but it is worth while to consider whether it does not sometimes refer to the passage from a previous culture. If we interpret the underworld ‘ to be a prehistoric underground habitation, we can bring several facts of archeology and ethnology to its support. 1Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt has also called my attention to the following legend on an old map by De I'Isle near what is now Williamsport, Pa.: “les Tionontatecaga qui habitent dans des cayernes pour se deffendre de la grande chaleur.” 2The legends of the life of some of the Hopi clans in the cliff houses of the Navaho National Monument, possibly vague as to the exact site of these cliff dwellings, are as vivid to them as their life in any historic ruin like Awatobi. These legends do not always refer to historic times, but often indicate the individual cliff dwelling once in- habited by specific clans, as those in the Chelly Canyon, which comes well into the his- toric period, although not recorded in historical documents. ’ Or the present conception of a universal Sipapf may have been a generalization from a purely local historical account of the passage of culture from the caves to the open. 4The ‘‘ pit dwelling,’ or as they are sometimes designated ‘“ underground habitations,”’ referred to throughout this lecture are allied to but not identical with cliff dwellings and pueblos. Cliff dwelings are of two kinds: Cavate rooms or those artifically excavated in CAVE DWELLINGS—FEWKES. 619 There can hardly be a doubt that the remote ancestor of the cliff pueblo was an inhabitant of a natural cave, and that the construction of an artificial.cave and a pit dwelling was also early in time. As man developed into a mason? he outgrew the narrow bounds of a cavern and, erecting buildings in front of his artificial caves, rele- gated the latter to storage or ceremonial purposes, just as in certain places in Asia Minor caves are granaries and have houses in front of them which are inhabited. Knowing as we do that early man in Europe inhabited natural caves, the question naturally arises why there is a total absence in Europe of large villages like the great cliff houses of Arizona and Colorado. This is partly due to the limited size of the caves, for there are no European caverns suitable or ample enough to contain large villages. The step from the cave dwelling to the construction of stone buildings in the open was an early one and was probably brought about by overcrowding. After the population of the cave had outgrown its limits two remedies were possible for accommoda- tion of the increase. Crowded out of caves by enlargement in num- bers, man was forced either to build rooms in front of the caves he had excavated or, cutting free from the cliffs, to construct an inde- pendent house in the plain or on the mesa. It is not unhkely, also, that in some instances he first inhabited pit dwellings or habitations underground. Such simple dwellings as these were not unlike some ancient aboriginal habitations of Cali- fornia or the earth lodges in the plains east of the plateau region. Tf we regard the so-called cavate lodges and the pit dwellings as primordial dwellings, much that is incomprehensible in cliff-dwelling architecture can be readily explained. Although numerous examples of pit dwellings in the Southwest may be mentioned, the Old Caves near Flagstaff, Ariz., are among the best representatives. A visitor on approaching one of these habita- tions first observes on top of an elevation broken down walls of one- storied rooms forming a cluster, the ground plan of which would not be unlike a checker board.?2 These walls, constructed of lava blocks, gave to this cluster of rooms the appearance of a small one-storied the walls of cliffs and cliff houses, or cliff pueblos, houses or pueblos with walls built in natural caves. There is of course no strict line of demarkation between these different types and some settlements are composites of two or more kinds of dwellings. The pit dwellings belong to a distinct type of southwestern ruins, represented in cliff dwellings and pueblos by the substerranean sacred room or kiva. 17The training of primitive man into a mason was rapid wherever rocks about him could be worked with rude implements. The excavations of caves led to stone buildings. No better illustration of the dependence of architecture on the character of rock can be found than by a comparison of the prehistoric monuments of Cuba and Yucatan. LHasily worked rocks of the latter country made possible the magnificent temples that have been the wonder of archeologists. 2Similar walls forming an inclosure into which open the doorways of cave dwellings are figured in a cut of Madeba, by Libbey and Hoskins, the Jordan Valley and Petra, vol. 1, 620 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. pueblo, but on entering the inclosures one sees in the middle of each floor a vertical entrance through which the the inhabitants descended to a subterranean chamber, excavated in the solid rock. This under- ground chamber was entered from lateral rooms by doorways which also had been excavated in the lava conglomerate. From the plaster- ing on the walls of these rooms it is evident that they were not used simply for storage, but served for habitations and were true pit dwellings... Let us consider still another example of these early subterranean houses with vertical entrances inhabited by the abo- rigines of Arizona. Certain ruins on the Little Colorado have under- ground rooms that indicate even better than the Old Caves the char- acter of pit-room culture antedating the free buildings called pueblos. Some of the best of these exist in considerable numbers in a cluster of ruins near the Black Falls of the Little Colorado. These rooms are underground, single, multiple, or arranged in rows, being gen- erally found in the shelter of a low outcropping rock formation some- times occurring at the base of a low cliff on top of which is a pueblo ruin. Their form is generally round or they have rounded corners, one side being the cliff walls. A row of underground rooms of this type morphologically resembles a series of subterranean kivas. There is nothing to show that they were specialized for ceremonial pur- poses, but they are believed to belong to the type of subterranean dwelling called a “ pit room,” of which the kiva is the modern sur- vival. Some of the Armenian cave dwellings belong to that type of cavate house characterized by a vertical entrance. In the writings of Xeno- phon there is said to occur the following reference to these troglodytes visited by Polyecrates and certain others of his command: “ Their houses were underground, with entrances like that of a well, though they were spacious below. The entrances for the animals were dug out, but the men descended by means of ladders. In these houses there were goats, cows, chickens, and the young of the same. The animals were fed on hay inside the houses, which also held a store of wheat, barley, vegetables, and barley-beer in great. vessels.” As in certain Southwestern cavate houses some of the cave villages of Asia Minor had a series of houses above ground which were occu- pied, and another series, subterranean in position, entered by tunnels, and advantageously situated for protection from foes. The use of the underground rooms as places of refuge, those in the open serving as habitations, may furnish a clue to the use of cavate rooms under or behind houses in prehistoric New Mexico and Arizona. The Asiatic excavated rooms were used by their inhabitants for protection against Ibrahim Pasha, who, with an Egyptian army in a 1TI recognize in these pit rooms the precursors of the subterranean kivas, the vertical entrance representing a hatchway. CAVE DWELLINGS—FEWKES §21 campaign against Turkey, came to a town of this character in Asia Minor. The people fled to their subterranean rooms, closing the entrance behind them by rolling great stones over the doorways,: so that the Egyptian soldiers could not force their way into these re- treats. When the latter were sorely in need of water and lowered buckets to draw it up from the wells, it is said the people under- ground cut the ropes, causing the soldiers to withdraw. Dr. Ellsworth Huntington, in an interesting account of his visit to certain Druse caves in Syria, published in Harper’s Magazine, for April, 1910, has shown how this was possible. It appears that these caves were safe retreats in time of danger, being in communication with houses above. He found in them remains of tanks, from which water could be drawn by those in rooms above. It would not be possible to obtain water if there were hostile people in the caves below near the tanks. : The most instructive résumé of the dwellings of the aborigines of North America has been written by Herr Sarfert,? who has con- sidered many points of interest to the student of subterranean or - cave habitations. It would seem from his studies that underground habitations had a wide distribution in the New World in prehistoric times, and that there was a line of such, interrupted at intervals, ex- tending from the Aleutian Islands along the west coast of North America into Central America. The relation of the underground ceremonial room in California and the kiva in the pueblo region is not the least of many interesting suggestions in Herr Sarfert’s article. Cavate habitations in cliffs on Oak Creek, a tributary of the Verde, Ariz., correspond with caves used by Guanches for ceremonies and burials in the Canaries. Many similar examples from the Old and New Worlds might have been chosen, some with buildings before them, others destitute of the same. In many instances these former habitations have become burial chambers, once deserted by the in- habitants; they were used later as catacombs for the dead. Instances of this secondary use can be found all the way from China to the southwestern part of the United States. These artificial caves are not confined to Asia and America, but are also abundant in Europe. Many are found in Germany,’ in France (pls. 1, 2) along the River Loire, where the older cave rooms now serve for storage, and new, occupied dwellings have been erected in front of them.* The caves of Dordogne, France, have been studied and their contents figured and described in the magnificent work, +The method of closing the doorway by rolling a great circular stone before it seems to have been common in the cave habitations of Asia Minor. * Haus and Dorf bei den Higeborenen Nordamerikas, Archiv f. Anthrop, vol. 25. ®See Lambert Karmer, Kiinstliche Héhlen aus Alter Zeit, Wien, 1903. The examples described are from Germany and America. 4T am indebted to Professor Partington, of the National Park Seminary, for the use of the photographs used for plates 1 and 2. 622 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. Reliquiae Aquitanicae, by MM. Lartet and Cristy. The Aquitani of Cesar’s time lived in caves, and the caverns of Dordogne were in- habited in the Middle Ages. According to M. Desnoyers, writes Boyd Dawkins: In France there are at the present time whole villages, including the church, to be found in the rocks, which are merely caves modified, extended, and altered by the hand of man. The so-called Heidenlécher, Pagan holes (pl. 3), at Goldback, over- looking Lake Constance in South Germany, may be taken as typical examples of certain European cave dwellings excavated in the loess formation, recalling those in tufa along the Verde in Arizona. My attention was first called to these interesting caves by H. von Bayer, who has given me an English translation from a German account published in the Ueberlinger Badblatt (Nos. 6 and 7, Aug. 6, 22, 1910), and a short notice published in 1827 in Gustav Schwab’s Der Bodensee nebst dem Rheinthal. As these descriptions are too long to quote in my address, I have introduced a condensed account embody- ~ ing the main features of the two. These caves are excavated in a cliff rising perpendicular from the lake about 7 meters above the water level, and were formerly approached by ladders from a narrow path that once skirted the shore. The Heidenlécher formerly consisted of a series of rooms, chambers, cel- lars, and niches connected with each other by hallways and stairs, extending for a distance of almost a kilometer * * *. The single rooms are of differ- ent sizes and shapes, some have groined arches, or at least the beginning of them with the springers; others have flat ceilings, some have columns, pilasters, architraves, and cornices; others are simple and without ornamentation. In nearly all of them, however, are to be found stone benches, niches, window and door openings with grooves cut out to receive the frames, and even the remains of wooden dowels. In some places in the cliff are to be seen niches and rifts which no doubt are remains of a former cave dwelling. The present approach (pl. 4, fig. 1) is by stone steps along the face of the cliff, the former stairs being badly disintegrated. There are now seven caves, a large number having been destroyed in 1846-1848, when a road was constructed between Ueberlingen and Ludwigshafen. The first cave, entered by an arched doorway, is 3 meters high and has niches near the entrance. The second cave has two windows open and a chimney. A niche in this opens into a third cave 1.8 meters high and 2 meters wide. The fourth cave (pl. 4, fig. 2), over 2 meters high, has a groined ceiling and stone bench at the opening. On a lower level lies a cave called “the chapel,” from which one descends seven steps to a path which bifurcates, one branch leading to the open, the other to a fifth cave, which has two stone columns in the middle supporting Gothic arches. Two additional caves with niches and benches are extended a few steps along the level of the meadow lands. Smithsonian Report, 1910.—Fewkes. PEATE ls INHABITED CAVE DWELLINGS NEAR TOURS, FRANCE. "SONVH4 ‘NOPHOOSHOOY LV SONITTSAMG 3AVO 9d “an UOqLooayIoy. Sp samy > ? ~ eS a 3, ae Saar, _ SFL +. —— = = = ANNAN Nena x ) ‘6 ALVId *sayMe-J—'O1 6] ‘Hoday ueiuosy}IWS Smithsonian Report, 1910.—Fewkes. PLATE 3. CAVE DWELLINGS AT LAKE CONSTANCE, SOUTH GERMANY. Smithsonian Report, 1910.—Fewkes. PLATE 4. 1. ENTRANCE TO OUTER ROOMS. 2. INTERIOR OF ROOM, WITH BENCHES, PILASTER, AND WINDOW. CAVE DWELLINGS AT LAKE CONSTANCE, SOUTH GERMANY. CAVE DWELLINGS—FEWKES. 623 Regarding the origin and purpose of these Heidenlocher there is not the least historical information. No one knows who built them or lived in them, how old they are, nor the purpose for which they were built. No chronicle nor historical record contains a single mention of them. Nothing has ever been found in the caves themselves which would aid in explaining them. In the family Beurer at Brunnensbach there figured for centuries as an heirloom a rare stone image which was found in the Heidenloécher—a large piece of quartz, in form similar to a sitting man. This was perhaps of Celtic origin, for similar figures are frequently found in Gaelic graves; or, as others think, it may have represented ‘‘ Godfather with the globe,’ pointing to the former use of the Heidenliécher by Christians. * * * The results of the various theories may be summed up as follows: Our Heidenlécher were originally but few, simply caves dug in the’ rock; they were in time enlarged, multiplied, improved, and embellished, and lastly treated with a sense of art. The small and simple ones are the oldest; they were the dwellings of the inhabitants of our region, first of the Celts, then the Suevians, the Romans, and lastly the Allemanni. The name Heidenlocher must be ascribed to the Romans. The modern history of these heathen caves is interesting. _ As early as 1760 the city council of Ueberlingen ordered the destruction of the major portion of these caves because of their general use by low tramps and vagabonds. When in 1846 to 1848 the new road was built between Ueberlingen and Lud- wigshafen, a large portion of the Heidenlocher cut in the cliff bordering on the lake was sacrificed. There are now only seven caves left of the former large number; they are visited annually by many tourists and are well cared for by the city as interesting relics of ancient times. Joseph V. Scheffel has chosen these caves as scenes for some of the incidents of Ekkehard, an interesting story laid in the tenth century. We must not overlook in our studies underground dwellings in England or such structures as the chambered mound at New Grange in Ireland, which may be described as roofed subterranean chambers, counterparts of which are found in other parts of the world. Rooms of this kind somewhat different in structure appear in the megalithic underground habitations, “ weems” or “ Picts’ houses” of Scotland, and the Hebrides, the pit dwellings of Jesso, the subterranean rooms of the California Indians, and the “ pit rooms” in southern Arizona. Spain has many artificial caves that were once inhabited, and those in full sight of the Alhambra in Grenada. are still used by Spanish gypsies. Some of the Andalusian caves figured and described by Sr. Gongora, in his valuable memoir, Antiguedades Prehistoricas de Andalusia, closely resemble those of the southwestern part of the United States. Many accounts might be quoted in which the Etruscan caves, largely mortuary, are described. The remains found in caves along the Riviera, as those near Montone, have been de- scribed by several archeologists. To enumerate all varieties of artificial caves, pit dwellings, and related forms of cliff dwellings would take me many hours—even a list of geographical locations where they occur would be of con- 624 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. siderable size. I should not omit to mention the monastic establish- ments and chapels of the Crimea built in caves, and those of the rugged Thessalian Mountains, views of which appear in plates 6 and 10. Among the most interesting forms of Crimean troglodytic dwell- ings are those described by Prof. G. F. Wright in Records of the Past (vol 6, part 1) near Bakhtci-Sarai, the crypts of Katchikalen. and the “ Valley of Jehoshaphat” (pl. 7). At the last mentioned locality there is a “promontory with precipitous faces on either side several hundred feet in height. The surface is covered by massive ancient ruins, while many passages lead down to extensive excavations with the windows open out upon the face of the precipice below.” Fergusson reports more than a thousand caves of architectural importance in the western part of India, and the cave temples of Ellora may be regarded as the culmination of Braminic cave architecture. There is a remarkable locality for the study of cave dwellings, called “ The Thousand Caves,” in the mountains of Koko- Nor, in Cambodia. The loess formation in certain parts of China is fairly riddled with artificial habitations. Mr. F. B. Wright has called my attention to caves of this kind at Shi-wan-tse, a place visited by him outside the Great Wall. There might also be called to your mind the rooms inhabited by Greek priests, which have been excavated in large bowlders, and inhabited natural caves in the Caucasus Mountains; in some cases the cave mouth is filled in with an artificial wall made of stones, reeds, or bamboo. I can not do more than mention the cliff buildings of this kind reported from our possessions, the Philippines. Certain climatic resemblances between the oases of the Sahara, in northern Africa, and the deserts of the Southwest have brought about remarkable similarities in habitations. We have in the Sahara region, extending from Egypt, through Tunis, Tripoli, and Morocco, to the west coast of Africa, a region of subterranean dwellings repro- ducing in appearances those common to the arid belt of the New World. It is instructive to note the similarity of these ancient Berber homes and certain Pueblo dwellings. It is perhaps more than a coincidence that we have coexisting among the former, as with the latter, two architectural forms, one above ground, the other below, the one a cliff and pit dwelling, the other an independent village. The character of Tunisian Berber towns can best be illustrated by a typical pit habitation and town, and for this comparison I have chosen Matmata and Medinine. The village of Matmata (pl. 5, fig. 1), near Gabes, is certainly one of the most extraordinary under- ground settlements yet described.t As the visitor approaches it, we 1Die Troglodyten des Matmata, von Paul Traeger. Zeit. fur Hthnologie, 1906, p. 100.. Smithsonian Report, 1910.—Fewkes. PLATE 5. 1. MATMATA, SOUTHERN TUNIS, AFRICA. 2. MEDININE, SOUTHERN TUNIS, AFRICA. PLATE 6. S. Smithsonian Report, 1910.—Fewke CAVES WITH WICKER GRANARIES. CAVE DWELLINGS—FEWKES. 625 are told, he sees no sign of a village but only a number of cisternlike depressions in the earth, each measuring about 30 feet in diameter. But standing on the edge of one of these depressions and looking over the side into it what a strange sight meets his eyes. Deep in these sunken areas he sees the inhabitants, dogs, camels, and human beings. This depression is a breathing place or sunken plaza into which rooms open through lateral passageways, which are exca- vations in the walls of the depression. Some of these chambers are adorned with rugs and furniture. The sunken plaza is apparently the living place, entrance to it being by means of a subterranean tun- nel, slanting upward, large enough for passage of man or beast. The troglodytic people which inhabit these subterranean chambers now number 1,200, and there is historical evidence that they have lived in these sunken pits for centuries. The court or sunken area into which the different rooms open is a common gathering place for the inhabitants, in which most of the household work is performed, the excavated chambers being often arranged one above another, serving as the sleeping rooms. There are several of these troglodytic towns in the arid deserts of Tunis, some of them wholly below the earth’s surface, while others are partly above ground. The reasons man has resorted to this sub- terranean life in this region are to escape from the torrid sun that fiercely beats down on the parched desert and to obtain shelter from the rain and sand storms. A remarkable similarity between pueblos on the one side and another type of Tunisian town like Medinine on. the other is worthy of mention. Medinine, regarded by Hamy! as the Mapalia of Sallust, and probably the same as the troglodytic town mentioned by Strabo, according to Traeger, is composed of long, narrow rows of rooms destitute of windows, their doorways looking out on a common court. The rooms of this village, as shown by the doors, are built one above another, facing in the same general direction. A comparison of the accompanying view of Medinine (pl. 5, fig. 2) and the Hopi pueblo, Oraibi, can not fail to reveal to the observer general likenesses with special differences. The buildings ate four or five stories high, with lateral doorways at different levels. Of minor resemblance, visible in the figure, may be mentioned the steps, stairs, or other foot rests by which one ascends from the ground to the upper rooms. The row of these last, seen near the standing human figure about halfway up the side of the building, closely recalls similar pro- jecting stones found in some of the cliff dwellings in Arizona, Colo- rado, and New Mexico. 1La Tunisie au debut du XX Siécle, Paris, 1904, 97578°—sm 1910-40 626 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. Traeger and Bruun have pointed out that a Saharan town like Medinine is architecturally an imitation in relief of the subterranean village, Matmata, one being above the other under ground. In the southwest there is a similar relation of the cave dwelling and the pueblo built in the open. The relative age of Matmata and Medinine, as representing the African troglodyte and a village in the open, may aid us in deter- raining the relative age of the cliff houses or rooms in artificial caves and the pueblos. Traeger regards the dwellings underground as constituting the older or the original form, and it would seem that the same is also true in the New World where there is evidence that the cavate rooms are older than the pueblos. The existence of several-storied dwellings in the Sahara and in our Southwest are explained as follows. The limited capacity of the caves in America had so crowded together the inhabitants that they were compelled to construct rooms one above another, a condition of congestion which survives in the pueblo. The multiple-storied Berber villages in the open have a pueblo form for the same reason. The Tunisian pueblos are inhabited by the Berbers, an aborig- inal people of North Africa, whose ancestors, there is every reason to believe, lived in similar habitations in the earliest historic times. In fact, it is not impossible that the very people now inhabiting them are descendants of those who lived there in the time of Strabo or Sallust. It would appear that a residence for centuries in this peculiar form of dwelling may have led to certain habits of life which they share with our pueblos. It is foreign to the purpose of my address to enter into any intimate comparison of the culture of the sedentary prehistoric aborigines of the desert region of Africa with those of our Southwest, but it may not be out of place to state en passant that there are deep-seated similarities in their customs, arts, and institutions, which are heritages of a cave life. Instructive parallels, for instance, might be detected in house owner- ship, matriarchal rights, and clan descent between the two. It would be strange if their ideas of building were not alike. To-day; as of old, the Berber tribes are distinct from the nomads and are reputed to live in stone-built hill villages with two-storied houses,! in marked contrast to the nomadic Arabs, who dwell in towns of tents. According to Ratzel, in villages of the western Atlas “the greater part of the upper story consists of a sort of rough veranda ill suited to the severe climate of that mountain country. * * * The natives pass the winter in cellarlike vaults beneath the houses; and for the sake partly of warmth, partly of defense, the houses are built so close together that they often produce the im- 1The upper story of a Kabyle village is ordinarily added after the marriage of a son. CAVE DWELLINGS—FEWKES. 627 pression of a village.” This applies also to certain prehistoric Arizona house builders. It is not too great a stretch of the imagina- tion to fancy that the former inhabitants of the Old Caves in the black lava hills that surround the San Francisco Mountains near Flagstaff, and those‘ in the neighborhood of the Black Falls, Ari- zona, may also, like the Berbers of the Atlas Mountains in Morocco, have retired in winter for warmth to their “ cellarlike vaults beneath their houses.” They likewise built close together, partly for warmth, partly for defense. But cliff dwellings in the Old and New Worlds are not always limited to arid climates although they are elsewhere used for warmth, or retreats from cold wintry blasts. The Eskimo villages at King Island, in the Aleutians, is a noteworthy example of cliff dwellings overlooking the sea. This settlement, consisting of 40 dwellings, is literally lashed by cords to the side of a precipitous cliff, each habitation consisting of two chambers, an inner, partially excavated, and an outer constructed of poles or driftwood, the two communi- cating by a tunnel several feet in length. In the summer the hardy fishermen who inhabit this village live in the outer rooms which are little more than verandas, but in winter they withdraw to the excavated rooms for protection from the cold sea breezes. The student of archeology of our Pueblo region has reason to congratulate himself on being able to interpret both major and minor antiquities by ethnological data. It is a great help when Pueblo priests, descendants of the ancients, can serve as mentors in archzeo- logical research. The same may also be said of the archeologist who attempts a study of the past culture of the cavemen of Morocco and Algiers, always considered in the greater perspective of time. Unfortunately the archeology of the Berber region, prior to accul- turation and influx of foreign tribes, is almost unknown. A knowl- edge of the cave life of northern Africa, reaching as it does so far back in time, ought to aid us in comparison with more modern Ameri- can cliff dwellings. It rarely happens that so close a likeness between cave dwellings of the two hemispheres can be pointed out as in those found in Cappadocia and New Mexico. Perhaps the most striking types for comparison are the so-called “cone dwellings.” None of the various cavate habitations of the Old World are more suggestive to the student of American cliff houses than those of the volcanic area west 1The Navaho call the Hopi, whose ancestors according to lengends probably lived in these ruins, the Ayakhini, people of (the kiva) underground houses. (See the Fran- ciscan Fathers of St. Michael, An Ethnologic Dictionary of the Navaho Language, p. 135. This name is especially applied to Walpi.) When this name was given them, before the present Walpi was built, the ancestors of the predominating clans of the Hopi may have been living in underground houses at Black Falls or elsewhere, 628 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. and southwest of Mount Argeus and Cesarea* Mazaca, overlooking the Huyler and the valley of the Geureme in Cappadocia (pl. 8, fig. 1). Many, perhaps the majority, of these were the works of Christian. monks dating from the time of St. Basil. Many travelers have commented on resemblances in the geology of Syria, Palestine, and the arid regions of our Southwest. In some parts of Asia Minor we find the geological formations of Arizona so closely reproduced that one is amazed at the similarities. In one as in the other there are regions of volcanic tufa eroded into fantastic shapes. We should expect to find in countries the geological features of which resemble each other so closely a similarity in human habitations. This resemblance is evident in the cone dwellings near Martchan and those of the Otowi, New Mexico (pl. 8, fig. 2). These cones are geologically considered the last stages in the erosion of tufaceous cliffs and, as would be expected, we find associated with them all stages from the massive wall to a conical structure sometimes capped with the harder lava rock which has preserved it. The whole region in the neighborhood is volcanic in origin, and consists of a thick layer of tufa overlaid with lava which is comparatively thin. This tufa can be easily worked with primitive implements as stones or sticks; with a little patience chambers of any size could be excavated in it. Although some of the Asiatic excavations are 25 feet long by 13 feet wide, they might be made in a single month by one industrious workman. In the past centuries the tufa has been eroded into deep canyons lined by cones often tipped by a lava cap 300 feet above the level of the canyon. In places the sides of these cones have been eroded, so as to expose the chambers in their interiors that are now used for drying grapes or other fruits. Ingress is generally by means of parallel holes arranged in rows which, when the sides have been worn away, are no longer visible. The rooms are commonly small, a fact that led the older writers on the troglodytes to speak of them as a dwarfish race, from which arose the supposition that the ancients knew of the race of pygmies in Africa. This supposition, that the cave dwellers are pygmies,? is world-wide in distribution, always due to the same 1Cxsarea was the home of Basil, the founder of the rule of St. Basil first accepted in Cappadocia, as far back as the fourth century, but others date back to a much earlier period. 2The most ancient sedentary people of New Mexico, Arizona, and Colorado which preceded the Pueblos lived in caves or pit rooms and practiced cremation. Their culture center was in the neighborhood of the Rio Grande. Another stock which also cremated their dead lived along the Gila and its tributaries. In early prehistoric times the Little Colorado Valley from Zuni to the Great Colorado, including Hopi, was practically unin- habited by sedentary people. Later it was peopled by colonists from these two cultural centers, possibly a race largely composed of extra-Pueblo peoples that did not cremate the dead, Smithsonian Report, 1910.—Fewkes. PLATE 7. Photographs from ‘Records of the Past.’’ a-e, CRIMEAN CLIFF DWELLINGS; /, ROCK TOMB, AMASIA, ASIA MINOR. Smithsonian Report, 1910.—Fewkes. PLATE 8. . Cone dwelling, Mazaca, Cappadocia. Photograph from ‘‘Records of the Past.” 2. Cone dwelling, Otowi Canyon, New Mexico. From Bull. 32,B. A. E. Photograph by Craycroft. CAVE DWELLINGS. CAVE DWELLINGS—FEWKES. 629 cause—the small size of the excavated rooms. Thus, although many people believe that the former inhabitants of the cliff dwellings of Arizona were pygmies, as every tyro knows, skeletons that occur in them do not support this theory. On entering one of these cone dwellings of Cappadocia we find ourselves in a spacious chamber with shelves or niches excavated in the solid stone of the walls. The stairways resemble round tunnels through which one ascends to an upper story through holes like those lateral openings by which one enters the room. The floors separating the upper from the lower stories were usually thick enough to hold the weight that might rest on them, but occasionally these floors have given way and fallen to the floor below, thus enlarging both rooms and forming a lofty chamber. In one instance nine stories were counted, but generally there are one, two, or four stories, their posi- tion appearing on the outside as small windows or peepholes. Many of the cave dwellers of Cappadocia have in front of the excavated rooms a portico later in construction than the room, as indicated by Greek or Roman arches and columns. In the interior occur also evidences of later occupation showing Christian origin or Byzantine culture. The customs of the natives living near the caves of this region differ slightly from those of an ordinary Berber village.? I ask your permission to depart a little from the trend of my address and to consider the antiquity of these Cappadocian cave dwellings, many of which are no doubt comparatively modern monas- tic dwellings, though others reach back to a remote antiquity. Sayce regards Cappadocia as the original home of the Hittites, considering that in the hieroglyphy of this ancient people “ cones are used as ideographs for king and country.” If this be true the cone dwellings of Cappadocia were known and perhaps inhabited at the epoch of Hittite supremacy, or about 1900 B. C. Although these caves were probably inhabited before this remote time, no one has assigned them an older date. Diodorus, Strabo, and other early historians or geographers of antiquity have embodied in their writings an account of the trog- lodytes living on the coast of the Red Sea written by Agatharcides about 250 B. C. This account is instructive as perhaps the oldest known historic record of the culture of cave dwellers. These troglo- dytes are described as a pastoral people, governed by chiefs who fought valiantly for their farms. ‘“ They made use of stone imple- ments, spears, and arrows. Women always finally parted the com- 1¥For this material I am partly indebted to an instructive article by Prof. J. R. S. Sterrett in the Century Magazine for May, 1900, from which the statements here made are quoted. here is considerable general literature on the cave dwellings of Cappadocia, one of the most accessible accounts being that in Records of the Past. 630 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. batants, for their laws forbade a troglodyte to strike a woman. Their food consisted of meat of their herd, milk, and blood and of bones which were crushed and mixed with meat so as to form a kind of hash which was wrapped in raw untanned skins and roasted. Butchers were regarded as unclean persons. They slaughtered only old and sickly animals for food. They did not regard human beings as their ancestors but looked upon the cattle and sheep which furnished them food as their parents. They went nude or dressed in skins. Those who were too old to work committed suicide by hanging themselves by the neck to the tails of wild bulls, who dragged them to death. Cripples and those afflicted with incurable diseases were put to death. Herodotus says of the Ethiopian troglodytes that they were swift runners, fed on serpents and lizards, and had no real language but screeched like bats or twittered like birds.” ? The highest form of cliff habitation in the New World is the cliff- pueblo which is practically a village built in a large natural cave. When the cliff dwellers of Colorado had arrived at such perfection in masonry that they could construct a village like the Cliff Palace of the Mesa Verde National Park they had progressed far beyond the primitive cave house. This was the highest and most characteristic American form of stone cliff dwelling north of Mexico and its counter- part is not known in the Old World. There are true cliff houses of this type in Asia as well as in Amer- ica. The examples which have been chosen for illustration of this point are cliff dwellings situated in Shansi, the northern Province of China (pl. 9, fig. 1). The cliff temple of the Mienshan Mountains, one of many in that region, lies in a great mountain cave which re- minded Boerschmann? of the “Cave of Winds” behind Niagara Falls. Although there is no architectural resemblance between this temple and a cliff dwelling in Arizona (pl. 9, fig. 2), both are con- structed under an overhanging cliff and it is interesting to note that the country in which both occur is semiarid. A necessity for shelter is not so evident in the Chinese cliff houses as in Colorado, but the same thought is apparent in the choice of the sites of these cliff houses. They show that in localities thousands of miles apart, where geological conditions favor the custom of constructing villages in natural caverns, there these structures have been found. It must be 1It is instructive to note the evidences of totemism and matriarchial descent that erop out in the above account. If we regard the Berbers or Tibbus as the lineal de- scendants of the cliff dwellers of North Africa, and the pueblos as living representatives of American cliff dwellers, several other common characteristics can be traced to a common infiuence, Dawkins says that ‘“‘ Dr. Livingstone alludes in his recent letters to the vast caves of Central Africa, which offer refuge to whole tribes with their cattle and household stuff.” Ernst Boerschmann, Architektur und Kulturstudien in China, Zeit, f. Ethnol, 42. J. 3. 4. 1910. I am indebted to Herr Boerschmann for the use of his photograph of this temple. “SONITTSMG 449 “"BUOZIIY ‘UlB({ J[aAosooy TRU SUITTOMp BUDO G “QUULAOI ISUBYS ‘SULBJUNO]Y URYSUST]T oY} UT a[dute} YIP ssoulyyD “T *6 a1lvid "seyM34—O16| ‘Hodey ueiuosyzWS Smithsonian Report, 1910 —Fewkes, PLATE 10. MONASTIC CLIFF DWELLINGS, METEORA. CAVE DWELLINGS—FEWKES. 631 inferred, however, that, aside from the site occupied, the architectural features of the two are unlike although characteristic. The cliff temples in the Shansi are thoroughly Chinese, the Colorado cliff dwellings are aboriginal American, a diversity pointing to an in- fluence to which the cave is secondary, to some power which is stronger than the external influence in its effect on the formes of cliff dwellings. While this power exerts itself strongly on the highest, it is not as potent on the lowest. The excavated caves of lower cul- tures in regions widely separated show closer resemblances than those made by more civilized men. The simpler the cultural life the closer its resemblance in different regions of the globe where environ- ment is identical. Another secondary use for caves which connects them with habi- tations and is found on both continents dating back to early times is their adoption for mortuary purposes. The cave originally built for a habitation in course of time is deserted by the living and becomes a burial place just as the subterranean cavern becomes a catacomb. This secondary use is connected with its adoption as a resort for priests, who would withdraw from the world for cere- monial or other reasons. The custom of burial in caves once estab- lished led to the construction of caves de novo for tombs and cave shrines, possibly temples, which latter are made difficult of access and isolated to add to their mysterious character. Ancestor worship and fear of the dead intensifies a feeling of awe, and other men are unwilling to enter caves which were once inhabited and now contain the dead. Of many subjects connected with a comparative study of cave dwellings in the Old and New Worlds a comparison of burial places and tombs of the two continents parallel with that of habitations is one of the most instructive, but a consideration of this subject would manifestly enlarge my address to undue proportions. Although examples of prehistoric tunneling occur in several lo- calities in the New World none of these can compare in extent with the subterranean passages of Syracuse in Sicily. As in the Old World, so in the New, the cave is a resort for the priest who remains there to intercede with supernatural beings. As a place of burial it is sacred and in it at times are kept the sacred images and paraphernalia of worship. A fear of the cave due to superstition is not wholly confined to the Old World but is also found in the New. Neither Navaho nor Ute, successors of the cliff- house people, would enter the cliff dwellings in early times before white men took the lead. Such an act would, they believed, bring direful ills, as blindness or even death, to anyone who ventured within these old habitations, 632 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. As the cave life is probably older in the Old World than in the New so the cave dwelling of that continent is the most highly de- veloped architectually. Many of the rock temples of Egypt—as the far-famed rock temple of Abu-simbel—China, and India‘ are among the highest known examples of man’s skill and expertness in rock cutting. Of all these none surpasses in interest and beauty the ancient far-famed cliff city of the Syrian deserts, called Petra. Situated not far from an old caravan route across the desert from Damascus to Mecca and protected from nomadic marauders by its marvelous position, Petra has been occupied successively from most ancient times by Edomites, Pheenicians, Egyptians, and Romans, all of whom have left examples of their art in its rock-hewn temples and amphitheaters, shrines, and house walls. After passing through a narrow defile called the Sik, whose perpendicular walls tower above on each side, a visitor suddenly beholds the magnificent “Treasury of Ptolemy ” cut on the side of the cliff. This beautiful temple, empty because without cave behind it, is but the beginning of a series of facades covering the high cliffs in the enlargement of the canyon, at the base of which lies in ruins the fallen walls of buildings long ago deserted. As one studies this greatest of all cliff cities,? built by human hands in the variegated rocks of a Syrian desert, he realizes the height cliff dwelling architecture long ago reached in the Old World, as a protection from foes by isolation. This ruin, with all its wealth of beauty, is connected with a desert and an arid climate, the same conditions which characterize its hum- ble representatives in the New World. I have sought for some explanation of the fact that the cliff dwellings and pueblos built in caverns are confined to our southwest and northern Mexico, and to the arid belt of Asia, Europe, and Africa. Why, for instance, is the distribution so circumscribed, especially when we find evidences that man elsewhere, as in the West Indies, once lived in a previous stage in natural caverns. I am inclined to recognize here the most striking instance of the in- fluence of environment and geological conditions. Nowhere else were there caves capacious enough, open to the air, and in many other ways suitable for the erection of dwellings. Other caverns are deeper, the limestone caves of the Alleghanies are more extensive, some of those of the West Indies as inaccessible, but the majority have narrow entrances and are otherwise unfitted for the development of cave dwellings. iBmil Schlagintweit, Indien in Wort und Bild, Leipzig, 1890. _Fergurson and Burgess, The Caye Temples of India, London, 1888. 2 Alois Musil, Arabia Petra, Wein, 1907. Gustay Dalman Hermann, Petra und seine Felsheiligtiimer, Leipzig, 1908. Wm. Libbey, jr., and Franklin EB. Hoskins, The Jordan Valley and Petra, New York, 1905. Also a popular account by the latter in the Geographical Magazine. See also Scientific American, 1900, et alii. "3ONVY4 HLNOS ‘SAVD Ni SSNOH HSVM SP Seley alict ‘soyMeaj— O16] ‘Hoday ueluosyiiWws CAVE DWELLINGS—FEWKES. 633 A study of the cliff dwellings of the Old and New Worlds while showing, on the one hand, that surroundings have exerted marked influences in history, reveals on the other the weakness of the posi- tion that human history is solely a product of environment. If we were dealing with organic structures alone and the mind of man were wholly subservient to them, cave men throughout the world would have a greater uniformity in culture, but there is another factor in the case, there is the human mind and will with its powers of over- coming environment, and there is in man a strong desire for socio- logical and therefore institutional development. Man’s mind, especially in the higher stages, is not altogether plastic to conditions; the desire to live in families, tribes, and other groupings is strong enough to offset climate and physicial conditions or to modify their influences as man wishes. Animals also have gregarious instincts, but these have not overcome environmental influence. Primitive man is also more or less subservient to it, but civilized man rises above . external conditions, creating for himself sociologic and institutional laws independent of his surroundings. It is evident that while cave life has exerted a marked influence on natural man in the creation of the monumental habit of building and thus led to higher civilization, this habit is only one influence acting on human culture history. The higher culture of man is more complex and due to more complicated influences than this would imply. History is the result of external environment, geolog- ical and climatic, but this cause is not the only influence acting on man’s mind through the centuries. Whether we approach our sub- ject from the historical, the cultural, or the geographical side we can not overlook the psychic or mind element in culture. It is instruc- tive to see how in different regions of the earth natural man has been similarly influenced by like environment in constructing habi- tations, that limited influence from its nature is not lasting although in a measure hereditary but it will ultimately be powerless. Simi- larities of cave dwellings in widely separated geographical localities mean that the human mind in early conditions is practically the same everywhere, a principle that has the support of psychology. In later conditions the mind of the individual, while not necessarily superior to that of earlier times, enjoys the influence of accumulated survivals or the race inheritance of centuries of thought of other minds called culture. Norr.—Since the delivery of the above address several pamphlets and one or two books have been published on related subjects; the most important of the latter is by the Rev. S. Baring-Gould, on “ Cliff Castles and Cave-dwellings of Europe.” Among many in- structive examples of European troglodytes, mentioned by the author of this work, the caves of Balmes du Montbrun near S. Jean de Cen- 634 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. tenier, in the Vivarais, are interesting in a comparative way. Here, according to Mr. Baring-Gould, is found a volcanic crater “ 300 feet in diameter and 480 feet deep; and man has burrowed into the sides of the porous lava or pumice a series of habitations, a church, etc.” Similar excavations of habitations in the sides of a volcanic crater occur at the “Old Caves” near Flagstaff, Ariz. The view of the Cave Castle, Kronmetz, given by the same author, recalls several of the cliff-dwellings in the Canyon de Chelly and the Navaho National Monument. Many parallelisms to American pueblos in caves or cliff-dwellings may be found in European cliff refuges and cliff castles, although these structures are not as complicated in the New World as in the Old. One is strongly tempted to compare the pre- historic refuge platforms supported by beams found in some caves of France with the scaffold of Scaffold Ruin in the Navaho National Monument. Mr. Baring-Gould brings out clearly in this work a most instruc- tive fact in human geography, the relation of the European cave- dwellings to the chalk formation tufas and sandstones extending almost continuously from England to Asia Minor. In this we see relation of artificially excavated cliff-dwellings and geological condi- tions, a correlation that also exists in the distribution of cavate lodges, cave-dwellings, and easily worked geological formations in our South- west.—J. W. F. THE ORIGIN OF WEST AFRICAN CROSSBOWS.' [With 1 plate.] By Henry Batrour, M. A. Considerable interest has been aroused in the discovery, now many years old, of crossbows in certain parts of western Africa, amid con- ditions of primitive culture; and the fact has given rise amongst ethnologists to speculation as to how a somewhat specialized weapon of this kind, which does not belong at all to African culture in gen- eral, has come to be adopted by uncivilized tribes in a restricted por- tion of the African continent. The range of the crossbow in Africa is very limited and more or less connected, and its isolation is a noteworthy feature. To account for the presence of the crossbow in West Africa as an article of native manufacture and use, two alternatives are, of course, open to us. It must either be indigenous and have been evolved by the natives themselves, or its prototype must have been introduced from some foreign source. Paul du Chaillu, who recorded the use of a crossbow amongst the Ba-fan in 1861,? and who brought home specimens, two of which are now in the Pitt Rivers Museum at Ox- ford, does not offer any suggestions as to its origin, and is content with a description of its use. Sir Richard F. Burton,’ on the other hand, in referring to the nayin (the native name of the crossbow among the Mpongwe of the lower Gaboon), describes it as “ peculiar to this people and probably a native invention, not borrowed, as might be supposed, from Europe.” The contrary opinion is, how- ever, held by most modern ethnologists, and there seems to be but little doubt that the theory of the exotic origin of the West African crossbow is correct. There are probably few nowadays who seriously maintain that the weapon is either indigenous or of any considerable antiquity in the region. At the same time, the details in regard to the source whence it was derived do not appear to have been dis- cussed, and I venture to bring forward some evidence of a very sug- gestive kind. 1 Reprinted by permission from the Journal of the African Society, London; No. 32, vol. 8, July, 1909. 2Bxplor. in Equatorial Africa, 1861, pp. 77, 78. 3 Gorilla Land, 1876, vol. 1, p. 207. 635 - 636 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. Dr. Bastian * appears to have regarded the very simple “ release ” of the Fan crossbow as being due to the inability of the natives of the interior to imitate the complicated release-mechanism of European crossbows, and as representing merely the best they could do in the direction of imitation of a perfected type. Dr. F. von Luschan, too, speaks? of the method of discharging the Fan cross- Fic, 1.—Side view of stock of Norwegian whaling crossbow (pl. 2, a). bow as a degenerated derivative from a European form. I propose to offer evidence which renders unnecessary the view that the Fan weapon is degenerate, evidence which points to the native form being a direct and but very slightly modified imitation of an actual European type, itself of extremely. rudimentary construction. In other words, my view is that the crossbows of the Ba-Fan and other allied native types are strictly primitive rather than degenerate. Fig. 2.—Side view of stock of crossbow from Oboru Kitty, in neighborhood of Benin, Nigeria, length 3334 inches. Collected by G. F. Martin. Pitt Rivers Museum. Distribution and varieties of the crossbow in Africa—Of the African crossbows the best known is undoubtedly that of the Fan and Mpongwe tribes of the Gaboon and Ogowe Rivers, of which numerous examples may be seen in museums. A typical specimen (pl. 1, fig. 1, a), collected by P. du Chaillu and belonging to the Pitt Rivers collection at Oxford, consists of a short and very rigid bow, SS eS a Fe ee a mee — Fia@. 3.—Side view of stock of Fan crossbow (pl. 1, a@), length 50% inches. 254 inches across the arc, having a nearly rectangular section, stout at the center, and tapering toward the ends. The bow is not straight in the unstrung state, but has a set curve when free from strain. It is set symmetrically through a rectangular hole near the fore end of a slender wooden stock, measuring 50% inches in length, and is fixed with wedges. This stock (fig. 3) is split laterally through- 1 Zeit. fur Ethnol., vol. 6, 1874, p. (264), and vol. 10, 1878, p. (96). 2 Zeit. fur Hthnol., 1897, p. (204). ORIGIN OF WEST AFRICAN CROSSBOWS——BALFOUBR. 637 out the greater part of its length, so as to form an upper and lower limb, whose hinder ends are free and can be forced apart, while they remain united in the solid for end of the stock. When the two limbs are brought together, a square-sectioned peg fixed to the lower limb passes upwards through the upper limb and completely fills up a notch situated on the upper surface behind the bowstring. The distance between the latter and the notch is 34 inches, and this represents the full extent of the “draw.” When drawn or set, the bowstring is held in the notch and the peg is forced downwards, a Fic. 4.—-Side view of stock of Fan crossbow (pl. 1, 6), length 522 inches. causing the two limbs to separate. By bringing these together again, with a squeezing action, the peg as it rises in the notch forces out the bowstring, and in this very simple manner the release is effected. There is a very faint groove in which the arrow lies. The second example (pl. 1, fig. 1, 6), also in the Pitt Rivers collec- tion was obtained by the well-known West African traveler, R. B. N. Walker, from Du Chaillu, and is a very handsome specimen, deli- cately carved. It resembles in general the example above mentioned, but the stock (fig. 4) is somewhat longer, 523 inches; the bow is Notch § peg ! GY Ye G GY ty a eesea Side Under Surface Fic. 5.—Details of carving upon Fan crossbow (pl. 1, fig. 1, 5). angular in outline, square in section at the center, and slightly con- again later, is engraved upon either side. The chief point, of de- vex along the back; it measures 28 inches across the arc. The dis- tance of the bowstring from the notch is 3? inches. The release peg is semilunar in section, the convex edge directed forward. The stock is very neatly carved in linear designs in the neighborhood of the notch, the pattern extending as far forward as the union of the two limbs (fig. 5), at which point (a) a small circle, to which I refer parture from the other specimen lies in the stock being incompletely divided. In the former example the two limbs of the stock are quite 638 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. separate at the hinder end (fig. 3), whereas in the present specimen they are reunited at this end, which is solid (fig. 4). This attach- ment of the two limbs at both ends accentuates the tendency of the lower limb to spring back when forced away from the upper, and the release becomes more automatic. When the bow is set the limbs are kept apart with a short stick, which is withdrawn to effect the release. In both examples the bowstring is of twisted bast or root fiber and a “ whipping” or “serving” of fine yarn at the center protects it from friction against the stock. Du Chaillu, in describing the use of these crossbows, tells us that either iron-headed arrows or small darts poisoned with vegetable sap are shot from them. The little darts, being extremely light and easily blown away, are held in position in the arrow groove by means of a patch of gum. He tells us that they attain to a considerable range; that they are effective at 15 yards, and that the merest puncture kills immediately. He, also speaks of the natives as good marksmen. The iron-headed arrows are about 2 feet long and are used for big-game shooting. In bend- ing the bow, which is very strong, great force is required. The archer sits down, applies both feet to the center of the bow, and pulls the bowstring with all his force till it reaches and is held in the notch. Du Chaillu’s illustration depicts the process. Sir Richard Burton also mentions that amongst the Mpongwe the dwarf bolt, ebé, is always poisoned with the boiled root of a wild shrub. He was not impressed with the marksmanship of the Mpongwe and never saw a decent shot made. He adds, “ It is believed that a graze is fatal and that the death is exceedingly painful: I doubt both assertions.” Comparing these two accounts by Du Chaillu and Burton, and as- suming their accuracy, we may infer that the Ba-Fan were at the time the more skillful archers, and that they employed a more deadly poison that the Mpongwe. This is in keeping with the higher organization and culture of the former tribe, whose dominance amongst the other tribes of the region has been remarkable. I have a note of a crossbow of the usual Fan shape from the Sanga tributary of the Kongo; but, unfortunately, I have no details regard- ing it. This type appears also in the Kamerun region, in the Ya-unde district, 4° N., 12° E., as may be gathered from a figure in a work upon the German colonies! The Ya-unde people are be- lieved to be closely related to the Ba-Fan. Sir H. H. Johnston * mentions the use of the crossbow among the Bali (N. Kamerun) and Indiki (Middle Kamerun), and also among the Baya tribes of the Sanga sources. 1Das iiberseeische Deutschland, 1890, p. 113. See also F. von Luschan, Zeit, f. Hthnol. Verhandl., vol. 24, 1892, p. 209. 2 George Grenfell and the Kongo, 1908, vol. 2, p. 766, Smithsonian Report, 1910.—Balfour. BATES. 1. a. Crossbow of the Ba-Fan, Gaboon, West Africa; length, 503 inches. Collected by P. du Chaillu, Pitt Rivers Museum, Oxtord. 6b. Ditto, carved specimen; length, 523 inches. Collected by P. du Chaillu, Pitt Rivers Museum. 2. a. Whaling crossbow, Skogsvaag, Store Sartor, west coast of Norway. Specimen fully set up and ready for use, with bolt in position. Author’s collection. b-f. Similar specimen with the parts separated. Collected by Dr. Bronchorst, Pitt Rivers Museum. (b, The bow with fixing collars; c, the stock; d, the bar and wedge by which the bow is held in position; ee, ‘‘goat’s foot” levers for bending the bow; /, arrow or bolt.) _ ORIGIN OF WEST AFRICAN CROSSBOWS——BALFOUR. 639 An interesting native crossbow (fig. 6) was presented by Capt. Latherington in 1832 to the Scarborough Museum, and is said to have been obtained on the “South coast of Benin” and to have be- longed originally to a chief of the Mandingo tribe.t It is of dark- red brown and hard wood, polished. The bow is curved, 27 inches long and 1? inches wide at the center, tapering to 1 inch at the ends, which terminate in projections for the bowstring. The “back” is convex, the “belly” flat, and the edges are squared. The bow is passed through a rectangular hole in the thickened end of the stock and is fixed with wedges driven in from opposite sides. The stock is 24 inches in length, and consists of two parts (fig. 6, c). The upper part extends in one piece the full length of the stock, of which it forms the major part. The lower part consists of a separate bar or limb, fitting closely underneath the stock and butting against a sloping shoulder. A short distance behind the shoulder there is a Cc, Fic. 6.—Crossbow of the Mandingo tribe, ““S. coast of Benin,’ length 24 inches. Col- lected by Capt. Latherington. Scarboro’ Museum. (da—upper surface; b—lower sur- face ; c=side view.) transverse hole through the upper limb, and a string loop passing through this embraces the lower limb and keeps it in its place, form- ing also a kind of rudimentary hinge uniting the two limbs in front and allowing their hinder ends to separate. The “release” is iden- tical with that of the Fan crossbows, being effected with a notch-and- peg mechanism of precisely similar form. An arrow groove is also seen in this form (fig. 6, a@). The principal difference between the Mandingo and the Fan types lies in the latter having a split stock while the former has the stock in two separate pieces hinged together. In the Yoruba country the crossbow is used among some Yoruba- speaking tribes in conjunction with the long bow,? and a local proverb referring to them has been recorded by Bishop Crowther of the 1T am indebted to Dr. John Irving, of Scarborough, for details and sketches of this specimen. 2Goy. Moloney, Journ. Anthrop. Inst., vol. 19, 1890, p. 213, 640 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. Niger: “A crossbow is not enough to go to war with; whom do you dare to face with a stick?” Gov. Moloney produced exam- ples of crossbows through the chiefs of Ibadan. They are called in Yoruba akatanpé (the long bow being called oron or orun). The release is like that of the Fan and Mandingo forms, i. e., effected by means of a divided stock with peg and notch. The bow is drawn, as is that of the Ba-Fan, with the aid of the feet. The string is of bast, twisted fiber, or animal skin. In the Pitt Rivers Museum at Oxford there is the stock of a cross- bow (the bow is missing) which closely resembles the Mandingo example (fig. 2). It was obtained by Mr. G. F. Martin from a Benin tribe at Oboru-Kitty, about 14 miles from the right bank of the Niger and 30-40 miles east of Benin, and was presented by him to the museum in 1902. The length of this stock is 384 inches. The head is carved in rectilinear designs. The loop which forms the hinge uniting the two limbs is of cane, and allows the free ends of the two limbs to separate to the extent of 3 inches. The release peg is fixed to the lower limb somewhat diagonally, pointing forward. From the shape of bow slot we may gather that the bow was rectangular in section. There is a well-marked arrow groove upon the stock, and close to the notch there are traces of wax, evidently employed for causing the arrow to retain its place until the detente. It is clear, I think, that the Mandingo, Yoruba, Beninese, and some of the Kamerun crossbows which I have mentioned are closely related to those of the Ba-Fan and Mpongwe. ‘The principle of the detente is identical in all, allowing for the difference between the hinged and split stocks; the tendency of the bows toward a rectangu- lar section, the arrow groove and the use of wax to keep the darts in place, are all features common to these varieties of the weapon. That these crossbows form one family group with local variations can hardly be doubted. Dr. F. von Luschan has described and figured ! a peculiar form of crossbow from the Ba-Kwiri in the hinterland of Kamerun. Two specimens were obtained by Lieut. Freiherrn, and are now in the Berlin Museum. This type differs from those already referred to in certain prominent characteristics. The crossbow itself is of small size, the length of the stock being about 34 inches, but the total length is enormously increased by the addition of a wooden barrel nearly 5 feet in length, through which the featherless darts (about 10 inches long) are discharged. In use, the bowstring is drawn back into a notch, as in other West African crossbows; but, unlike the latter, there is no mechanism for the release. The stock, which is shaped in imitation of that of a European musket, is solid and not divided, and 1 Zeit. fiir Ethnol., 1897, p. [204]. ORIGIN OF WEST AFRICAN CROSSBOWS—BALFOUR. 641 there is hence no peg with which to push the bowstring out of the notch; this action is performed simply with one of the archer’s fingers. In respect of the detente, this particular type appears, as von Luschan justly remarks, to exhibit degenerate rather than merely primitive characteristics. An almost identical form of crossbow with long barrel and stock of European shape, from. Buea, Kamerun, may be seen in the missionary museum at Basel. Crossbows fitted with barrels are everywhere uncommon, though I have noted in the Berlin Museum an example from Goram Island, in the Malay Archi- pelago. A barrelled crossbow was much in use in western Europe during the seventeenth century. Although the distribution in Africa of the crossbow as a serious weapon is so restricted—being confined mainly within the limits of the region extending from the Mandingo country to the Sanga and Gaboon districts—there are to be found outside this area certain appliances in which the general principle of crossbow mechanism is adopted, and to which brief reference may be made. J. A. Grant mentions toy crossbows as in use in 1861 among the children at Ukuni in the Unyamwezi country to the south of the Victoria Nyanza.t| Mr. Emil Torday discovered among the southern Ba-Mbala of the Kwilu district in the Kongo State a toy crossbow used by children for shoot- ing seeds and berries.? In this the form of the stock, which is of palm midrib, is clearly modeled upon a European gunstock, and the method of release, by means of a toggle and short string attached to the bowstring, is, to the best of my recollection, only to be paralleled amongst crossbows with the crossbows of the Nicobar Islands. Sir H. H. Johnston also mentions the use of toy crossbows among the Ba-Yaka and the Ba-Kongo. These various miniature crossbows, which may very likely be still more widely dispersed in Africa, have but little in common with the West African crossbows with divided stock, and they may well be regarded as referable to a different origin, and as having been introduced independently into West Africa via the northeast and through Moslem influence, as has been suggested by Sir H. H. Johnston.’ Again, there is that peculiarly widely distributed applance, the - crossbow trap, varieties of which are to be found in so many widely separated regions of the world. Rat traps of crossbow form are familiar appliances in the French Sahara and Bornuese territory and occur also in German East Africa and, no doubt, elsewhere in Africa; but it may be doubted whether these have any direct morpho- logical connection with the true West African crossbow weapons, and it is unnecessary to consider them in detail in the present memoir. 1A Walk Across Africa, 1864, p. 100. 2Figured and described in Man, 1907, No. 52, fig. 2. ’ George Grenfell and The Congo, 1908, vol. 2, pp. 766-767. 97578°—sm 1910——41 642 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. Origin of African crossbows.—I have now described the varieties and distribution of the crossbow in Africa as far as the evidence at my disposal allows, and it remains for me to deal with the interesting problem of its origin in this part of the world. The theory of an indigenous origin for the crossbow in West Africa, which has been held by some authorities, e. g., Sir R. F. Burton, has, it would appear, been put forward in the belief that the West African forms are of a far more rudimentary type than any European forms, and that the differences between the crossbows of the two regions are such as to preclude their having a common origin, the crude and peculiar method of effecting the release being the principal distinguishing feature in the African examples. Those observers, on the other hand, who maintain, as I think rightly, the exotic origin of this West African weapon, have endeavored to account for the extremely simple release mechanism by urging that this is a degenerate form, arrived at as a result of attempts on the part of the savage to approximate to the more complex European mechanism, and representing the best that he could do in this direc- tion. Both these views are, I believe, based upon a misconception, and are due probably to their promoters being unacquainted with one very interesting type of European crossbow, which to my mind fur- nishes the key to the solution of the problem. The theory of indigenous origin may, I think, be finally dismissed. I propose to bring forward evidence which gives one good ground for believing that the Fan and some other West African crossbows are neither degenerate to any extent, nor even more primitive in con- struction than some rude types of crossbow which remain even at the present day in practical use in northwest Europe. Although it is unlikely that the crossbow is of any considerable antiquity in West Africa, we may feel sure that it is not at any rate a very recent introduction among the natives of this region. Du Chaillu, Burton, Walker, and other early explorers of the inland regions, found the weapon well established and in general use among the Ba-Fan and Mpongwe tribes of the Gaboon district, among whom it had assumed a well-defined and constant type, subject only to minor variations. The opening up of other parts of West Africa has here and there revealed the use of native-made crossbows, which also exhibit a considerable uniformity of type, though well-defined local varieties occur, as I have pointed out. The general uniformity leads one to assume that all, or nearly all, are traceable to a common prototype. These weapons are likely to become obsolete very soon, since, just as the general use of the crossbow in Europe died out as a result of the successful rivalry of firearms, so the process is being re- peated in Africa to-day, where European muskets are rapidly ousting the descendants of the European crossbow. ORIGIN OF WEST AFRICAN CROSSBOWS—BALFOUR. 643 It seems to me unlikely that the crossbow was introduced into West Africa overland from the northeasterly’ portion of the con- tinent—though this has been suggested by some’—since this weapon, though probably known in early days through European contact, can not be regarded as characteristic of or as having been adopted in that part of the world, which is therefore unlikely to have afforded the source of inspiration through the medium of Arab traders and explorers. The more probable and more generally accepted theory is that West Africa owes the crossbow directly to western Europe, and I hope to show that this theory is far more plausible even than is generally supposed. The reputed French trading adventurers of the fourteenth cen- tury, the Portuguese explorers from the middle fifteenth century onward, and the Dutch, English, and Danes, who followed closely upon their heels and vied with them for commercial supremacy, may be regarded as the possible introducers of the crossbow into western Africa, in the region of the Bight of Benin, the scene of their keenest investigations and most strenuous rivalries. The famous bronzes, cast by the cera perduta process by the natives of Benin, afford evidence of the use of the crossbow asa weapon ,, ,_,, ° ish9 By : . ft Ig. 7.—European crossbow, represented in by invading Europeans in the relief upon a bronze plaque, from Benin, in sixpesora ork seventeenthtven~ 67 Heeb ritisi Museum. (g- aR Bes ~ Mews B b=side view.) tury. A bronze plaque in the British Museum? carries a figure in relief of a European, probably of the sixteenth century, carrying a crossbow (Fig 7, a) and three different. kinds of bolts or quarrels (pointed, blunt headed, and chisel ended), and the realistic manner in which these are portrayed is evidence of an accurate appreciation of their utility and detailed construction by natives already acquainted with the long bow. On the other hand, none of the numerous figures of armed natives repre- sented upon these bronzes are equipped with this weapon, and this negative evidence may be regarded as indicating that the crossbow was still purely exotic at the time, and had not yet been adopted 1Sir H. H. Johnston in his book already referred to, as also in a letter which he kindly wrote to me, expresses the opinion that the crossbow reached West Africa by two routes: (1) from Egypt, where it was introduced in Crusading times, and thence transmitted by Moslem influence, (2) from Portugal by the West Coast sea route. 2 Figured by Read and Dalton in The Antiquities of Benin, London, 1899, pl. 14, fig. 1. 644 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. and imitated by the native craftsmen of this region at any rate; while a suggestive clue is afforded as to the possible date at which an appre- ciation of the capabilities of the foreign weapon may have led to early attempts by the natives to produce weapons of similar type. It is generally supposed that the art of the bronze founders of Benin was itself introduced from western Europe, and the Portu- guese have usually been suggested as the likely teachers of the process. This very plausible theory is not, however, conclusively proved as yet, and arguments against it have been presented by Mr. H. Ling Roth.* Be this as it may, even if we assign to the Portuguese the credit of having introduced to the natives the difficult art over which the latter obtained so complete and remarkable a mastery, it is not necessary to assume that every European represented upon the plaques and other castings is of necessity a Portuguese. Once the art was developed by the natives, any Europeans with whom they came in contact would be equally liable to have their characteristics portrayed, and, as I have pointed out, there were among the early explorers of the region not only Portuguese, but also Europeans of French, English, Dutch, and Danish nationalities. It is of importance to bear this in mind in connection with the probable introduction of the crossbow. The prevalent idea that the native African crossbows are degener- ate imitations of European forms is based upon the notion, a per- fectly true one, that the well-known types of this weapon used for military and sporting purposes from the fifteenth century onward were complex weapons of elaborate construction, involving a bow of steel, an elaborate wooden stock, and a skillfully designed and com- plex mechanism for the release. This is undoubtedly so, the cross- bow having already been in use for centuries in Europe, and having been developed through successive stages of improvement into a highly perfected appliance. It had reached almost the zenith of its development. At the same time, we should not lose sight of the fact that not only had more primitive types necessarily existed—proto- types whence were derived the later, improved forms—but, further, that under certain conditions some of these archaic forms persisted into quite late times, and continued to be manufactured alongside of the more perfected varieties. The older forms survived, in fact, as long as their simpler construction and relative cheapness continued to supply a want. Now, in a single small district on the western coast of Norway there may still be seen in serious use a form of crossbow which it would be hard to parallel for simplicity and rudeness of construction. It seems like an anachronism in an environment of highly special- ized weapons of modern type. It is, however, no mere plaything, but an appliance of practical utility, upon which the livelihood of its 1Great Benin, 1903, Chap. 19. ORIGIN OF WEST AFRICAN CROSSBOWS—BALFOUR, 645 owners largely depends. In former times, no doubt, it was far more widely dispersed, but, having been gradually given up or superseded by improved weapons, it is now reduced to a state of struggling sur- vival in its last home, whence, too, it will finally disappear ere long. The district in question is the southern portion of Store Sartor, a large island adjacent to the port of Bergen.t The island is deeply cut into by three narrow fjords, Ostfjordspollen, Tellevaag, and Skogsvaag. These fjords are visited periodically by whales, espe- cially by the Lesser Rorqual, Balenoptera rostrata, the “ Vaagehval” of the Norwegians. The capture of these cetaceans is a matter of considerable concern to the inhabitants. For the details concerning this local whale fishery I must refer readers to Dr. Brunchorst’s interesting paper. Suffice it to say that when one or more whales have entered the fjord their retreat is cut off by a net drawn across the narrowest part, and they are then killed from boats by means of the extremely crude and barbaric crossbow which I will now describe (pl. 1, fig. 2). Several years ago I procured one of these whaling crossbows through a friend in Bergen, and lately a second example has been sent to me by Dr. C. G. Seligmann, who obtained it from Dr. Brunchorst. The construction is as fellows: The bow (pl. 2, a and db) is of large size and very stout, roughly hewn out of yew (Taxus baccata) procured from the Hardanger; it tapers somewhat toward the ends, which are “shouldered” for the bowstring. The latter is “thick and of tanned hemp, in strands loosely twisted into a cord which is “served” at the center to protect it from friction against the stock. The stock (pl. 1, fig. 1 ¢, and fig. 1) is of ash, and consists of an upper and a lower limb. The upper limb, or stock proper, is deep at the front end and terminates in two projections forming a fork in which the bow lies. Close behind the fork is a rectangular perfora- tion, and further back its lower edge is cut suddenly away to form a sloping shoulder. From this point the limb tapers gradually away to its hinder extremity. A short distance behind the shoulder a short, flat bar of wood is set transversely through the stock, its ends pro- jecting on either side. ‘ eee ) peti ? ; J fitis ri Whee ¢ i’ Ve oA) pened aes My i < eal ia ' y 4 4 heypet be . * , * ii i ‘ AFR ea lorve 7 Say 1332 fy i TREY MPR 7 Alf sa | rts > - 4 ; F A ol ft kt MoGeadt darn (ie ore bie» cer ih ana ve Oa: ae ibe Sle D> va 4 aoe ’ at pa) Mie 1 MENTS TOLLS TD Tee UE Per oY cans | plore | eee Font thi me oe shchnaiiney Of mr ak ae mete TUL WO FR tiie Ff a sen lai F (a 2 ial . ‘ ; é oe i . ra Lehre ls > ; sas ee fpinia 4 sh ted isa cP A et am ] 4 em ees at bale eh Bo) Cs it Oe Pie, e! Ge ot alo ndels (Ebi oD Ww’ - PRY i ena ob j ; Uiemoite ty, erapioeays up inuidws ‘oh i “i Pet rm heaved 0 iaah att Lcrnertagae nr oli hictey verb tt th oe | ie ae ¢ ew murat ; , MM) te agli ial vaqnts = . ire re” 7 a ‘ » ae in | 7 Pita n EPIDEMIOLOGY OF TUBERCULOSIS. By Roserr Kocw. (A. lecture given before the Academy of Sciences of Berlin at its session of Ape are /1910:)* Investigations into the epidemiology of tuberculosis have brought out some facts of interest and also of practical importance which will be the subject of the present paper. First some preliminary remarks concerning the character of the investigations. They are in all essential respects statistical. If at- tempt had been made to cover the entire field, insurmountable diffi- culties would have been encountered. Tuberculosis, as is well known, manifests itself in the most varied ways, frequently occurring in such insignificant and latent forms that no sharp distinction can be made between those affected and healthy persons. For that reason it was necessary to limit the present dis- cussion to a form that is sufficiently well marked and also diagnosed with certainty. These conditions are best fulfilled by tuberculosis of the lungs, the so-called pulmonary consumption. This form is also to be recommended for such investigations because it is by far the most frequent, the one chiefly concerned in disseminating tuber- culosis and therefore the most important in medical practice. A still further limitation must be made. Owing to the long dura- tion of pulmonary consumption and the difficulty of making sharp distinctions as to its beginning, we must disregard the statistics of illness from this disease and consider only the statistics of death. In these we have original data that are, to a certain extent, trust- worthy, and that may serve as a basis for investigation. It is true that this trustworthiness could only be absolutely as- sured if in every case of death by pulmonary consumption the diag- nosis were confirmed by an autopsy made by a competent expert, 1 According to a manuscript kindly placed at the disposal of the editor of the Zeit- schrift fiir Hygiene und Infections-krankheiten after the death of the author. Translated from Zeitschrift fiir Hygiene, Leipzig, 1910, vol. 67, Part 1, pp. 1-18. 659 660 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. which by no means really occurs. Autopsies are held only in a small proportion of cases, and therefore some uncertainty exists. Besides this, in many regions, even in entire countries, there is, for well- recognized reasons, a certain hesitation attached to pronouncing a diagnosis of pulmonary consumption, and the disease is called in- stead chronic catarrh of the lungs, or something similar. It is, there- fore, not always admissible to compare with each other the death rates of pulmonary consumption of different countries without fur- ther examination, and it is to be supposed that many cases of strik- ing differences may be explained by circumstances of this kind. This source of error has, however, no essential influence when we con- sider the increase or decrease of mortality in the same country or city. On the other hand, it may be said that pulmonary consumption is a very satisfactory subject for statistical investigation, because its. characteristic symptoms make its diagnosis quite certain, even by the laity, so that for many matters where absolute exactitude is not required, data are available, even though not supported by medical authority or by autopsies. If in an investigation of the epidemiology of tuberculosis we go back to early data concerning mortality from consumption, we find the disease mentioned in the oldest records. In the writings of Hippocrates a very characteristic description of pulmonary consumption is given, and we may conclude from it with certainty that the physicians of that time were quite familiar with the symptoms of the disease. It is stated in several places that numerous persons have been affected by it. We must therefore con- clude that phthisis already at that time played a part similar to that which it assumes at the present day. We find the first numerical data, however, much later, and these relate to Sweden, where they were collected by the clergy. From these we obtain the highest figures which mortality from phthisis has hitherto reached (Table 1). About the middle of the eighteenth century the mortality in Sweden was, for the country, 21.5 per 10,000 persons, and it rose very slowly to 27.7 about 1830. 1¥rom the writings of Hippocrates (Grimm’s translation). On Epidemics, p. 16: “For consumption alone, as the most important single disease among those prevailing at that time, killed many people”; p. 57: “The greatest and most terrible disease, and the one which was the most fatal, was pulmonary consumption.” EPIDEMIOLOGY OF TUBERCULOSIS—KOCH. 661 TABLE 1.—WMortality from pulmonary consumption. [After Sundbarg. Calculated for every 10,000 persons. ] In Swe- | In Stock- den. -} holm. STG Oe sae det oe mci bac erste). Bete) weed cece ese tes baa Sagas amtdianrs 21.5 TRAP HAST) ABBR Gee ee GE SE Lae GASB EE oo OOO ee ae Create ee ner ae ent ere nae 20.6 69.8 UNL aliiclWesite so GU RSRetas Serr aaete Se Gee preg ieal ed a aoe Pe elie tal ea les laa ania 20.8 74,4 Titel SORES LEE. eae Ned EERE OE 28 PASS hk oo aR SSP SELLE 23.1 87.7 1 OENI0 0 ee ee 9 Sono eenn Ap Bee OS ae Ae aaa eee Ree Oe een Cee A Pen ae 24.0 85.0 EEN Peer ey oars arya ieee nlm sero is Swe asiatalaicriis as mypitge Sina aisles cise Sew ces keeles Olean 25.1 83.7 ASIN USD Dee esas & cae 25 Me aaa awe a. acta acts’ nati ccekeac cclec santas seem eceme 26.9 87.2 1871-1831) eee Ree ee en ans ee See ee oa ied eak «od dasen Qofasadaceee dee Dies 93.1 1831-160 Lee ee ern ee re aA KY re Ndi 7 2) Ae See BE (2) (a) TSG 1S ea eer ele iainic Se Se ces ia Rot a ejeina die sesleieSasive adie eciee omnsisumiet cecee sie 30.6 43.3 USTASISSU Re Seek she ot oe = oe Scecet ERS see alate tan Gokchs secu beings Setesd some eee ce 32.4 40.6 DSB GO ee ere eet ee bic heed initial oe Gy nes aSeeas sokieetiveegut os cbceresepieetee 30.0 34.6 TSO TO eee eer mee ae ek eta SRE oOo a ie nis che emratae caGica ssc cieels mop ectee 27.0 29.2 “No data given. Considerably higher figures prevail in the chief city of the country, and this corresponds to the usually accepted opinion that the cities, on account of the crowded buildings and the bad dwelling conditions connected therewith and also because of the less resisting power of their inhabitants, are more unfavorably situated as regards tubercu- losis than is the open country. Stockholm had in 1750 a mortality of 73.2, which in 1830 had advanced to 93.1; that is to say, nearly 100 per 10,000, or 1 per cent. The increase of mortality from phthisis in Stockholm is said by the Swedish physicians to be caused by the misuse of alcohol. The rate of 100 per 10,000 is only met with where the most unfavorable sani- tary conditions are encountered, for example, in jails, at least in former times; and also among the perishing races of North American Indians where alcohol is also the principal cause of decay. Accord- ing to the concurrent testimony of various travelers, the inhabitants of Greenland, compelled by the northern climate to live crowded to- gether in their huts, thus greatly increasing the possibility of infec- tion, suffer in an extraordinary degree from tuberculosis, reaching, it appears, even a higher figure than 100 per 10,000. A death rate of 50 per 10,000 occurs rather frequently in the last quarter of the nineteenth century, especially in cities. I will cite as examples among the German cities: Diisseldorf, 55; Elberfeld, 59; Osnabriick, 52; Cologne, 504; Munich, 50. Especially high figures occur in Austria-Hungary where there is 50 for Buda-Pesth; 58 for Presburg; 66 for Fiume; 72 for Vienna. From these figures we have a gradual descent until we reach a total absence of mortality. In certain regions, as in central Africa, tuber- 662 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. culosis occurs only in quite isolated cases, the patients being of Euro- pean or coast origin. At the present time the lowest figure for some regions in Australia is about 7 deaths per 10,000. But this figure is also reached in some sections of our own country, as for example, in the district of Osterode in the Province of Allenstein. Such low death rates have only been observed during the last few years, and this leads me to the most notable phenomenon in the epi- demiology of tuberculosis, to which I would especially invite your attention, namely, the almost universal marked decrease in pulmonary consumption which has become evident during the last 30 or 40 years. The lowering of the death rate began first in England, and it also happened that the English hygienist Farr was the first who was struck by this and who called attention to it. In our own country Hirsch, the author of the well-known Handbook of Historico-geo- graphical Pathology, was the first to mention it. This remarkable phenomenon was at first received with great scep- ticism, and it was alleged that there were either errors in the statistics or that it depended upon the decrease in the general death rate which had been previously noted, though not to the same degree. But as the decrease in pulmonary consumption was shown to occur almost universally and also continued, there remained nothing to do but to acknowledge it as a fact and to find an explanation therefor. In order to give an idea of the decrease of consumption, the course of the death rate from that disease in the Kingdom of Prussia may serve as a specially characteristic example. ' It is shown graphically by a curve in Table 2. Up to the year 1886 the figures representing the mortality remain with irregular, but not marked variations a little above 30, then begins a decrease which has kept up with but little variation to the present time. In the year 1908 the figure fell to 16.24, a decrease of nearly 50 per cent. For the German Empire the statistical records do not go back far enough to demonstrate the reduction in consumption in a similar manner. Yet the curve for all Germany resembles, as far as it goes, that for Prussia; it is somewhat higher, because the States of southern Germany are not as favorably situated as Prussia with regard to the disease. The significance of this reduction in consumption will be noted when we observe that if the same relations prevailed now as 30 years ago about 100,000 more persons would die annually of consumption than is now actually the case. It is therefore very important for us to ascertain the causes for this decrease, in order to know whether it is subject to any influence under our control; whether it would be possible, were it arrested, to overcome the obstacle, also whether it would be practicable to hasten its decline beyond the present rate. EPIDEMIOLOGY OF TUBERCULOSIS—KOCH. 663 The question, therefore, arises as to what is the cause, or rather what are the causes of this decrease, for it can hardly be supposed that it depends on a single factor alone. Concerning this it might at first be supposed that the death rate from consumption decreases because the general death rate, as is well known, is also decreasing. This need not necessarily be so, for it would only occur in case the causes which influence the general death TABLE 2.—Mortality from consumption in Prussia. . aetna dan $ $ ESE RG aS ina: aie Sah tate Bistin EEN . i Bae Rees See aeet cca ee j paki cid Bs a $ Sipe gs eee aie] j jGeeee acti Sipe Soe eaidenp Sass BREE y 1 ie j me oo tee pe rate have a similar influence upon the death rate from consumption. But we now see that the decrease in the latter is much more rapid than that of the general mortality, this being more probably influenced in a considerable degree by the decrease in pulmonary consumption. Therefore that disorder must be influenced by factors peculiar to itself. It might also appear possible that the decrease in tuberculosis depends upon the general epidemiological course of this disease; that 664 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. this epidemic in itself, like other epidemics, such as the plague and cholera, must decrease after a certain lapse of time. If this were its natural course then the decrease would proceed everywhere in a uniform manner. But this is by no means the case. TaBLe 3.—Mortality from consumption in Massachusetts, Japan, Great Britain, 166, Uh, 76. 81,96, 1 96. OL ee 65 - ry! Vag! 40 195° %” % 1900 03. 3 er = me | ‘ 3 1 te ah See [Prt a sn q eb seagrass inte eee : ae $ * ' + Sieh aay ee Sages : ig Island oe es ee : (6 — eae . - — : e Ce ee Boing = BLT a Sa Oa ep ee : pe es i i Nad decid ‘ : 1, M9 yt! sa sy AW 03 In most countries, it is true, the curve descends, but there are others in which it rises. It will be seen by consulting Table 3 that England, Scotland, and the American State of Massachusetts (chosen because its statistics reach far enough back) have a decreasing death rate from consumption, while in Ireland, Norway, and Japan it is increas- EPIDEMIOLOGY OF TUBERCULOSIS—KOCH. 665 TABLE ty eae from consumption at Paris, Hamburg, Copenhagen, and London. vie Peta D WLAN ths ty "5 re Mes Shay Nog Mya ws ese [ae pe Oy! ly go y Mag °8 666 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. ing. We meet with the same phenomenon in certain cities; so London, Copenhagen, and Hamburg have curves of decrease, while Paris, on the contrary, has a high-lying curve which shows but little tendency to descend (Table 4). TABLE 5.—WMortality from consumption at Hamburg. C2 -_ YY Ww + Ss So ee Ne Lo) io C2 7S 5 ae mime POE CGG Gur es qed Eom ED aomeiee aH BOCeRaee cas es | Cease i ate Bocas Baraaeeraa $°gal France has a death rate from consumption that is especially un- favorable. In cities of more than 5,000 inhabitants, the only ones for which statistics are available, 27 out of every 10,000 persons die of this disease, and there was no decrease in the years from 1901 to 1906 (so far as the data have been published). EPIDEMIOLOGY OF TUBERCULOSIS—KOCH. 667 Very characteristic examples of favorable indications in the mor- tality of consumption are shown by Hamburg (Table 5) and Boston (Table 6). Before 1860 Hamburg lost by consumption 37 for every 10,000 inhabitants, and in 1880 the figure stood at 33.5. In 1907 the mor- tality had decreased to 13.7. Boston had in 1886 a mortality of about 40, in 1907 it was 18.5. TaBLE 6.—Mortality from consumption at Boston. A, Westen pelos 4 = fa EE UM BS SS ry HU tl T i fa 4 1 a : 3 Bhs 68 BE Cae NS ES FG SERS Ee +! rime wt yet Teal ei i a + je i al Per 23456189002 z These figures are still more significant if we compare them with those of cities which are exposed to conditions similar to those of Hamburg and Boston. For this purpose we will compare Hamburg with Berlin (Table 7) and Boston with New York (Table 8). The mortality curves of Hamburg and Boston descend at once and the decrease continues at a uniform rate, while in New York and especially in Berlin it has slackened for several years past. The examples I have submitted, and which might easily be in- creased in number, show that there can be no question of a general, 668 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. regular, uniform decrease in mortality from consumption, and that we must therefore seek for other factors than those dependent on a spontaneous cause of decrease connected with the epidemiological course of the disease. TABLE 7.—Mortality from consumption at Berlin. | t ste ha Se leedhod’ 4 Dab nee ea pei ae ae eee . fe eine ater § sane nee stn be ig meron et oe to Oe + onea falar 4 : | SO ee sR Bat OS, Bis fas EDs Lo ease te ee ke {ee gad ite f ; : ; wetter ints 4 ‘i | eas Sip eee mggune 2055 y bas : ; | es aa ees as { me PERE Sj Peril eee t boar ee teas IE ie Pes 228 CEE T Teac egret ae ee ase marca ‘Olean ae z ss 23 ee ff) ps | It might be alleged that the virulence of tuberculosis has abated. But in ply to this it should be said first that the decrease in tuber- culosis began quite suddenly, and after a few decenniums has reached, in many cases, 50 per cent and over. As the mortality from EPIDEMIOLOGY OF TUBERCULOSIS—KOCH. 669 consumption has been marked and often slowly increasing during 2,000 years it is not reasonable to suppose that it would decline all at once without any assignable cause. Besides, the decrease of viru- lence would first be manifested by an amelioration in single cases TABLE 8.—WMortality from consumption at New York. Saas rT ae Dp O pace (ear te) me ses ©) sedan OE 123 sDerss ‘sdcinaubuehmunmds SSSA een er aaa ee eeoeeeen. eae fie BHA Se aeennace Ba: ae es ae ae ict He el [os jolts Bens Bey aoe senuaBeee: Brac ae ot mons tH st : esa ge saceee ae a Pouoeaaean Serie 0. saeaaaat 4 destaeereataeeee eRe oees Oy TSSDaEEGSEeteceeoguaei zee: teat lil 7 8 MH E SHE MAYES We pers: ge st 89 234 & Eee JESS OSU ae Ae Maia which would also more frequently terminate in recovery. But noth- ing of this kind occurs. It is indeed true that in modern times great advances have been made in the treatment of tuberculosis, and that we succeed, through the so-called hygienic-dietetic treatment and 670 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. especially by the specific treatment, in curing many cases. At pres- ent, however, only a comparatively small percentage of cases share this advantage, and for the cases not so treated we are unfortunately convinced again and again that pulmonary tuberculosis maintains the same deadly characters as formerly. Besides the decrease in con- sumption had already been going on for several years before the new methods of treatment had been widely disseminated. The decrease in consumption has often been ascribed to the dis- covery of the tubercle bacillus. It has been said that by this, the infectious character of the disease was proved and that, in conse- quence of this, people became more cautious and avoided infection as much as possible, while previously physicians did not admit the infectiousness of consumption and the public at large followed them in this as a matter of course. There is certainly much to be said for this argument. In any case it is very striking that, with a few exceptions, the decrease in consumption set in everywhere within a few years after that dis- covery. Yet the exceptions prove at once that this new-born fear of infection is not the only factor involved, although we must allow to il a certain influence which is by no means slight. German authors have frequently claimed that social regulations, particularly insurance against illness, has had an effect upon the decrease of tuberculosis. To a certain extent this is undoubtedly true, particularly as regards present conditions in Germany; yet in most other countries, where such regulations have not yet been estab- lished, the decrease has been just as great and has been going on at the same time, so these regulations can not be with us the most weighty cause. It would take me too long to enumerate and discuss all the attempts at explanation that have been made, and I will therefore confine myself in conclusion to those investigations of this question which appear to me to be of the most importance. These investigations were suggested by the striking fact that the death rate from tuber- culosis shows great differences in the three countries belonging to Great Britain. In England and Scotland it is decreasing; in Ire- land, on the contrary, it is slowly but evidently increasing. News- holme, the well-known medical statistician, has endeavored to find the prime cause of this. With the greatest thoroughness he has ex- amined all the factors in the question, chiefly lodging, food, condi- tions of service, care of the sick, emigration, and has finally beceme convinced that for Ireland the method of caring for the sick is the determining factor. While in England and Scotland phthisical charity patients are committed to isolated institutions, in Ireland they are supported without being required to place themselves in an institution; they therefore remain in their own lodgings and con- EPIDEMIOLOGY OF TUBERCULOSIS—-KOCH. 671 tinue to spread infection about them. Newsholme endeavors also to prove that in Norway, too, the mortality from consumption is on the increase because insufficient care is taken for the placing of phthisical patients in hospitals. I might remark here that in Norway this defect has already been recognized and care has been taken to remedy it by founding special hospitals for consumptives. It appears that on account of this precaution the mortality curve in quite recent years no longer ascends. Newsholme says further that the very high mortality in Paris results from the insufficient hospital facilities, in consequence of which patients are not kept in long enough to insure protection of others against infection. With reference to this I entirely agree with Newsholme that a commitment to hospital for as long a time and with as careful atten- tion as possible is the most effective means of preventing infection and thereby the spread of consumption. My experience also shows that wherever consumptives are kept in sufficient numbers in hospi- tals there consumption is most diminished, and vice versa. It is also apparent that in no way can the danger of infection, which attends every phthisical patient, be so successfully combated as by isolation in a hospital. The value of hospital isolation is shown in a striking manner by such treatment of leprosy, as by its means we have attacked that disease with good results. . Besides this factor there is still a second one that plays a very important part. This is the housing of patients. The more con- tracted this is—the more lack there is of light and air—the more is infection favored. By many authors poverty and density of popu- lation have been mentioned as having a decided effect on the fre- quency of phthisis, and quite correctly so; but, in truth, this is caused by the defective and too small dwellings in which, through poverty and the increased density of population, people are forced to live. I might even goa step further and say that it is not so much the contracted character of the dwellings as a whole as the condition of the sleeping rooms that favors infection. Even in a spacious dwelling, in itself hygienic, the danger of infection may become very great if the inhabitants crowd together at night in a small sleeping room. It is certainly not an accident that with us the highest mortality from consumption is not found in the poor regions of the eastern provinces, but in the relatively prosperous and amply cultivated regions along the coast of the North Sea, where from olden times the evil custom has prevailed of using: for sleeping rooms small, cell-like apartments built in the wall, the so-called cubbies (Butzen), which are shut up at night, and that in the north- ern parts of Sweden, with a climate that is notoriously healthy, the highest death rate for consumption occurs where people also sleep in closets quite similar to the cubbies of Frisia. 672 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. . The striking fact that with us the cities often have a lower con- sumption death rate than does the surrounding country is apparently due partly to the want of hospitals and partly to the bad habits of the rural inhabitants, in that they, even when they have at their dis- posal several living rooms, select the meanest and smallest for a sleeping room. As an example of the distinction between city and country, the following statistics for certain Prussian provinces may serve (Table 9): TABLE 9.—Mortality from pulmonary consumption per 10,000 inhabitants. [After Hirsch, Historico-Geographic Pathology. ] In the In the Province. city. country. Marieniwerder. --sscoc aaapseaasenc me dee wc8 syaaady qunee sea Siee = Ose emecaaeie heed 25.4 13.5 DRDZAE oasis cn sicoe sisep sonics aren tnigun pues en sc wnslainie sa aie giabia/siamatt rs Sapeeinte es Seis See ae 23.9 14.1 RiGnigSDeTE Ss. so ican soot se aoa s etee ott seen cao acet ct dee tee sas eae eeaes et dane meas oer 24.9 15.5 Bromiberm tie ses 2. Aouad... dad ts ake Ra Le = Re Se i es 81.3 18.5 TU oa cto i Si EE ae wc eis coe Na eee ian eae metals gee Semen aie 26.9 27.0 IBTORMMG a.o cpm ciniseutsisis, sos aiserigicie pioisiare l= nicer cits Siete Rei py sIuln See R em Mets eine clciciwi alae gereye 37.3 27.5 HEMNOVER So. cce coor eee Po otae ce aoe co ese « Sates meee caehise cence cee tee eeembce oaine 6 ae ome 33.8 44.4 Osnabritek s:2025. Qisd pdseaige~ see 2 ts ss fh Pp PH ah wc PEE 48.7 52.2 C0) (ona 8's ee RR I< PRE CIE NESS Cees a. eR, Yin SR SNR VSE gE Eee yee er aoe 47.6 53. 4 But in cities, also, housing conditions are poor. There are numer- ous dwellings that consist of a single room, in which families, often with several children, live, cook, and sleep, often in a single bed. According to Rubner there are in Hamburg, Berlin, and Breslau 10 to 14 per cent of overcrowded dwellings, if we consider as such a room with but one window housing more than 5 persons. Kayserling has estimated that, of the phthisical patients who die in their own rooms 40.6 per cent inhabit but one room, 41.7 per cent but two rooms; that in Berlin, during three years, 8,229 per- sons were exposed to the greatest danger of infection because of con- sumptives.dying in one-room dwellings. It is well known that con- sumptives in the last stages of the disease, when they are helpless and expectorate sputum crowded with tubercle bacilli, are especially liable to spread infection. If we adhere to the view that the most effective protection against infection is the isolation of consumptives in hospitals, and then reflect further that the number of such adult persons for which, on account of tuberculous disease, hospital treatment is necessary, amounts in the German Empire to from 150,000 to 200,000 annually, and that it is quite impossible to place these all in hospitals, nothing else remains but to isolate the greater part of them in their own dwellings. If it were possible to assign to each patient a separate sleeping room, this might be to some extent effected; but how can it be done if the entire dwelling consists of only a single room? EPIDEMIOLOGY OF TUBERCULOSIS—KOCH. 673 These considerations show that the decrease in consumption in recent times depends upon various factors, of which the two most im- portant ones are the care of those affected by isolating them in hos- pitals and the improvement of housing conditions, especially as regards the sleeping rooms. It is apparent from this that vast obstacles have yet to be over- come before we can succeed in reducing still lower the mortality from consumption, and finally reach a level which will possibly be below the lowest existing at the present time. namely, 7 per 10,000 persons. We are now enabled to realize the great benefit that accrues from having an exact knowledge of the statistics of mortality from con- sumption in countries and cities. The mortality curve informs us at once whether the conditions are favorable or unfavorable, whether the mortality is decreasing and the measures taken are still effective, or whether improvements, supplementary regulations, etc., should be instituted. So in Norway the course of the consumption curve induced the authorities to take in hand the building of hospitals, and thus cause it to descend. New York resolved, as soon as it was shown that the curve began to flatten and show greater variations, to take more care of the sick and to increase the number of beds assigned to consumptives from 2,500 to 5,000. In Berlin, for the same reason, there was erected a special hospital for pulmonary consumptives, with 1,000 beds. It is very desirable that exact mortality statistics should be every- where obtained and that studies of the same should be extended to smaller and smaller districts, so as to ascertain more fully the con- ditions that control the development of tuberculosis, especially in the case of small hamlets and country districts, and thereby to relieve them. In our own country statistics are already developed far enough to enable us to scan the death rate from consumption in single districts. I have here the record of mortality in two departments, which ex- emplifies in a striking manner the interesting problems that result from a comparison between different districts. (Table 10.) TaBLE 10.—Deaths from tuberculosis in 1907 per 10,000 inhabitants. Allenstein department (10.33) : OSTEO Co eee eer ey ee Wenes BU Merny og SETS) OUTS gat OT eee eee 8.5 NTO Camis eemeeereene mn cs Lg RS PA Ne eS 9.5 ECG) SSG enn ene Se 8 2 Ae le 2 SS 10.0 WETEIS eee a mre ee ae ee ee 2 ee ee ee alee) TY xc ee ee 2 a de ils} AGC ZC Ree re ete ee a ee ee ot Se eee 11.5 CANTATAS es nl nee ee et Del ee GR a 2k ee ee 13.0 97578°—sm 1910-——43 674 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. Osnabriick department (23.384) : Osnabruck. (Country) = Sj. me Re ee ee eee 15.0 AD Ue a ee 17.0 ROUSTAUS LE WC KCC LOY feces te re en een re ee ee ee 18.0 Me p pene Soest ae Loe ee ae NY Pe ee ee Ve ee eee 22.8 Miell@sa<: 2. Js of eyes - wee) a et Te AMEE SY ee eee oe 24. 0 Aschendotificr _ axe of ey bey tog fhe... pe gln 5b 1) pet lp eears Da tee yee ee 24.0. Grafseha thi Rentheniyr ss. 458 Bos Be ee eee 25.15 ReESen DIUGi = 2 = oes i ee ae 28. 0 WRIT Geo Se a ee oie eee eee 30. 0 Wittiase 2. 25ers ee nee eee ee ee 30. 0 ERM ee se oe Pe SE Oe ee ene eee 35. 0 For an effective campaign against tuberculosis it would be necessary to go still further and divide each district into smaller areas, each of which should be specially investigated and provided with detention houses or other devices for combating the disease. The statistics of mortality and the epidemiological researches con- nected therewith constitute an important feature of the measures by which tuberculosis is to be combated. A. fied PAN aap eat! fromm eu] ye beni) ene al ee Se ee ee ee 17, 83 AN ovate 0 CE Ge ee ee Sey ee Se 4, 16, 21, 37, 74, 76, 83, 99 hota wen (solaim constant of radiation) {20 22 2 ee ee eee 319 SSIES OCG AELS, SLD ey 247.) ULL TS) et a ea a al Ok St here pes Serpe: ted 43 JN D SNL, ANTE KD [ae Sas a eS eS eS 88 ANCOESNTNSY aE ee Oe ster See ie ke EER NNN I Pe Tae gf ag a 28, ol, 40, 44, 71, 77, 79 sf CONSULTS] BAGG OY SS ee i aca wr am eg ana on AN ene hemes Seale (ae 33 GET URS ENYA GPL Se a eae ia eS i te 3, 21 NCTC) OE CLINE eA SSO CLA OU =.= ee ke ee ee ee ee 157 INGCTOOLOMICICS DeLIMeENtS OLIN. JE. Waneley ee Ie 105, 147 PRETO TAH UL Call exe SAPO lO Mi se kes a es Be ee ee ee 26 PNET CTI UU A ERIS Hts = te a par ome ara Nan at meh er alae eS Seeks Oe hen we Eee 26, 105, 145 TOLL O tea ee ee ee ag le ee fe 78, 83 ANTETE KOT STO EYER HOT YET ENS HOG Er tO 0 RII Srl i a a Ta a Ry Raa re as Se ear m= 43, 83, 84 African expedition, Smithsonian___________________ 10, 28, 43, 44, 83, 84, 101, 102 African monkey of genus Cercopithecus, new subspecies of (Elliot) _—_____ 84 PANE USSU Zar Aol ON ATCT as (GILCU VO Tg aa es ee Se aw ee eer Se 447 AOTICWEULe. MO CWATeCMent, Olea. 2 ei See 28, 44, 69, 74, 76 Agriculture, Secretary of (member of the Institution) --________________ 3 AUS ane X DEOMI OME ET AIL IM AN ate ee te ee ee 20 AN ESS Keel CESS Sis Os te era see ee a a ee ee a ee 2, 87 SNAG TENE) Rage) IS a Bg ee een a ae NP te nels Cem age OS 74, 75, 76 ATG lo we Ulin s OV Oe ee ke ns eat nas 2 ee Sn ee 86 Alligator, development of brain of American (Reese) ___-______-________ 83 PULL MINT ETN uel (ONO MT NGE UN UN ees tee = eee he ee ee 21 ANTBAVENEN Tra Gyo 1 ETD RG EN ic ie a EN NE rene SRI EID nie PS oe 14, 15 PANELS Te Coed em LASS COULSON Bsmt ee a ee ee ee cs Be 36, 58 American Association for the Advancement of Science_________________ Piles ATMETIcan: (HIStOnIGA! ASSOCIAtION. 2.= = 225-2 20, 21, 27, 78, 88, 1038 PRETTET Ceili MTT A Soe Sel Va Ole a ee ne pe a ee 12 AMEMICAMISES, International, CONSTESS Of. =e ee ee 25 eee aes isms ChCP CMU) sas aaes— Se ee ee ee 3, 96 Antelope from British East Africa, a new sable (Heller)_______________ 84 AMTIGUIGYLOtaManl im SOUtM, AMEN Calo... 22 ee ee 14 Arid lands, progress in reclamation of (Newell) __-----_-________________ 169 AI ZONA Elie rOMe Ny ROjeCheu IM = = = ke eee ee ee 188, 184 Tabs iN LU TORD lane eUNL tee Ole Sees ees et ee Cs Oe Oa ao) SNP GaN H ES 1D ee oe) ONSET. fermen ae i i PN Ae Fe RS A wt, A Spel Sh led te Sh 26 Ascent OL Sap irauspiration and: the (Dixom)\-- == ee 407 ASSistant, secretary. of the Institution. ___-_ = 3, 4, 20, 28, 30, 45, 87 Astronomical problems of the Southern Hemisphere (Curtis) _-_________ 329 Astrophysical Opservatory=—_—_—_—-_-—— 5, 9, 16, 19, 21, 37, 73, 77, 88, 91, 94, 99 675 676 INDEX. Page. Astrophysics, recent progress in, in the United States (Bosler)---_______ 357 Atmosphere, mechanics of earth’s (Abbe) ----------------_---__-_--___ 83 Atmosphere,of the:sun’(Weslandres) 2225 ee 341 Atmospheric ‘air in: relation to tuberculosiss=- 22225 = ee ee 17 Atomic weights, (Clarke) Wu. <2. Woe 38 ee ee 83 Attorney General (member of Institution) #--— “-—--—— =) === es eee 3 Audit. of Smithsonian’ AeCCOUDtSS— 2-222). 22 aS eee 93 Avery, ReoS> (bequest )=--2=- 2) SS ee 9, 22 Aviation. recent progress in) (Chanute) _-_—==--- > = eee 145 Aztecs, sacred ear-flower of (Safford)!=2-—--- eee 427 B. Bacon. Senator Aucustus, OO. (Rerent) = 8 = see eee 3, 96, 97, 98, 101 Baggallay, i. Wo222 2200 es 2 eS ee eee 86 Baker,* Alt Bish 2k Ses CUE er ee ee 2 tae ee 4,70 Baker: Dra wank. 22) =5204 53227 229 2h oe et ee ee 4. 2A Baker, T. Thorne (telegraphy of photographs, wireless and by wire) —--~-- 257 Ralgiwith) oh a aW lee So = oS ae ee ee ee oe eee 166 Balfour, Henry (origin of west African crossbows) —_-_----_--_-_______ 635 Ballinger, Richard A; Seeretary of the Intenior-22=) = 222-22 R: Ialouobrore ib. Mise iat ee eee ee 47, 51 Banks: Nabhan. — 2 2 2 es 2 Se ee ee eS ee 87 Barrett, C:~ Uli 2 522242202252 sss 5 Se ee se eee 86 Bartsch Pal. 2. 22 2223 oe ee Oe ee ee 87 IBASKIET UR. Neo ee ee ee ee ee 4, 87 Beale Bidwartd: We. 22255222 ee Se ee eee 42 Beale. Hon, JRruxtON=s2220 2. oe oe eo ee 42 Bean; “Barton ‘Aj: 222 2 222 2.2 2 a ee eee 82 Beeker, dr; Georze "WN .... 222 o eae haeeaS eee 20, 25, 84 Becquerel, Jean (modern ideas on constitution of matter) —--__-________ 275 Beene. ©. William (ecology of adult Hoatzim) 222222 =25s22 = ee 527 Bell, Dr. Alexander Graham (Regent) —------_-- 3, 6, 22, 96, 101, 102, 104, 157, 165 Bell sMleanor WORKCl.. 2 ease ee eee 86 ee IMTS 2 ae oe ee a ea ee ee aay Benjamin, Marcus 2-2 -=_ 23 2208 ee a ee 4, 79, 87 POQUCSES isan = 8m Se ee eS ee 6, 8, 9, 16, 22, 30, 37, 91, 97, 104 Berry, Merdinang! “Ves. - 2 2 oe eee oe ee 67, 104 Beyer, David S. (safety provisions in the United States Steel Cor- DOTAUON) 352 a eee one ae ee ee 211 Billings; Dr. JGhn: S2.2--- oe ee eee 18 Biological Survey ot Eanama:, Canal Zones == 52 3 =e ee 13 SIT Gi a ee ee a es ee 527, 545, 561 Blashfield, Bawin Hao. 222.2 a ee eee 33 Bleriot, WOUlS= 5 222-2 22 ee ae ee 153, 158, 159 BOASS PIOL, Wnany =. sts A a 4, 46, 51, 52, 54 Bohemians. (division of Slav peoples) _""2 02 - "eee 606 Bosler, J. (recent progress in astrophysics)——- = = eee 357 Botanical jistory, landmarks of (Greene) so eee 83 Botany,, CONLTCSS Ol... 225. See eee SEE eee 26 British Hast Africa, specimens trom= 22.2 ee ee ee 48, 88, 84 Y EArt a 0 Pal ae) (Pe eS aes eS eae See = 87 INDEX. 677 Page. Brockett Palen ne inlay, tpolbalnod an 17, 27, 79, 83 EURO YIN se OEE SES NE SS 8 Me Ye 4 ee NANG ONO 8 a ei ee A Ny ee ete 43 Buchanan, Florence (pulse rate in vertebrate animals)______-_-__-_-_ 487 Biulearignse(divisionvoL slay peoples)i2 1s 2) ie pe 610 PNA Va ae ee ott = seep eerie Fob a 156, 167 Burrows, Montrose T. (See Carrel and Burrows.) PIPLON. SCN al Ons =ae nae ch oe a es = Ue IR om te tis Bs Sats 1038 ISCk:, . AUS Sie= eso = A ever eth sti eit _jetaty is Mabe eer Ye ehtn 84 ‘eS amore 1D eile) Les fe ee ee ee 2 ee ee See ieee es a a 54, 88 IE ES oe i eS 48, 54 C. CAN CILC s OST) eee ae a Se en ee 83 SEAL CR Tear lage MENT (0 ne ea St ee 156, 165 CHORAL eaulOny PrOyeCusni 2. 2 = ee ee 184, 185, 194 Cambrian runes ime NOrtncamertea: (Walcott) 22-2) ee 84 Cambrian geology and paleontology (Walcott) _______________ 11, 12, 20, 44, 84 Ope ea OY Ove A ARTS RR es ee ae eo ye 16, 17, 86 Campbells Wap We (ole William Ele ein S)pe. oo ee 307 Canal’ Zone: Pandma. piological survey Ob... 6. ee 13 Carnivore on British Mast Airica, a new Miller). ses 2 soe ee 83 Carpets, ornamentation of rugs and \(@ole))22.--2 125 Carrel, Alexis, and Montrose T. Burrows (manifested life of tissues out- Sid TOL Ne TOFS ATI SOM) a= ae ee Fee Se ee 573 Wanso uy Keil 5 Se ee ee od Sie YD pee rsh 25 Bd ge Paneer et ot 43 Cave dwellings of the Old and New Worlds (Fewkes)-____-____________ 613 Cenimaly@America. wlants: from — 4 — Hel pele gh oe eee fier ey oer 87 ESCO GES OLA 10 CS meee err ea ae ee eee 87 @etuceans, new. genus of fossil (True) =... =. CS ee tee eae 82 Chamberlin, T. C. (future habitability of the earth) ___________________ 371 Chancellor of the Institution (Chief Justice Fuller) ______ 3, 5, 6, 23, 96, 101, 113 Chanute, Octave (recent progress in aviation)_-______________-_________ 145 Characinid fishes, scales of African (Cockerell) -22--+252_ +) jenni oe 84 @hemical tenndabionu(@arike ice ol? we. esecsusiie eee ole Ny. ete 84 Chief Justice M. W. Fuller (Chancellor) —___.__-_-______ 3, 5, 6, 23, 96, 101, 113 Choate;.Charles jr. (Regent) 2seheslf Jeanie lA a etal OB, ears 3, 96 Whoctaw or Lowisiana_._.. foes Soya teen bere | ceed) ot poe ey 8 ae ee 88 “OEE ET Wahl g (04511 Lee ene Se oe eee ge SM eee Ts 3, 4, 21, 26, 89 ROSAS UAL Sa eh eae, 26 Clark, Chester M. (electric power from the Mississippi River) ___________ 199 fy LAG OTT IE) Woe a a a 2, ena 4, 20, 83, 84 QUE Ty Ager aNs Ll Bee Rs ee ee ee ee ee SS A eee) aes Le 55 Govind Geoderncu survey. = Se a GAT ABO CIRO TCU a ae Ne ae eel 84 NOON ys He ak NON Se iene. te 162 Cole, Alan S. (ornamentation of rugs and carpets) ____________- 125 CCFO UNIT CVS RUG. “eh SS ee nee ee ae PVE SEES Sees FY 1 es 87 Colombingmlamis chrom 2s 620 ee i a eee 87 Coloradovomrnicaiione proyects gins es en ee 185 Commerce and Labor, Secretary of (member of the Institution) _________ 3 678 INDEX. 8 Page. Commission on Zoological Nomenclature____________-_ 24 Bonimittees 253. a ts ey Ds 3, 18, 21, 24, 33, 89, 91, 93, 95, 96, 99 onterenceof, librarians, 24250! £8 Vl bone oe eee 27 Gongress_of the United. States s-ehertsoy 4: sitet sein) aagem 111, 5, 6, 9, 20, 29, 30, 32, 34, 40, 46, 57, 58, 61, 63, 85, 88, 91, 92, 93, 94, 104 Congresses. and celebrations, international. __..___.__________ Lakes. 25 Constant of radiation, the, solar ‘(Abbot )/s24517 8) 994) __'T saree ee 319 @onstants_of nature.(Clarke) <2 .. = 225 oe 83 Constitution of matter, modern ideas on (Becquerel)______-___-_-_- 275 WOOK On fsa Sa esess op LO bee). en EE ee 87 PoRrespond ents... S2se se oF te Bee) 2 eee 63 Cowlter; Johns M8 2 <2 ee 87 Coyle Or: WW Ven Se se ee ee eee 4, 26 Crossbows, the origin of west African (Balfour) 22 ee 635 Croatians-(Givisions Of Slav PeOples ) at eee ee ee ee eee 609 CrowmMinsneld, A rederick=<== = 2 =o et ee ee ee Oe ee 33 Collom, Sensktor SV CRELENT) 22 eee eee 3, 96, 100, 101 CHIMINSNAING: Niwas ses Ea oe ee ee BLD eps to | Crier, eve Charles “Waren. oe ae eee eee eee ee 25 Cunt pa Glen yt Ss ses = ASO Sea Se RE ee ee ee ee oe 156, 157, 166 Curtis, Heber D. (astronomical problems of the Southern Hemisphere)__ 329 COISHUMTATES OSC D Me AUS USUING se a nn aera eee ee eee 87 D. [FEN 20 & ES SARS Pas cepa One ane ea Oe en ene eeu Lies og TA 4, 87 Balzell) svepresentative John (Regent)... -— a 3, 6, 95, 96 Hamas, Des = ss. 21 29a) Bite wie Dige pt) Git to penis 86 Daughters of the American Revolution______-~-_L 422) obi 20, 88, 103 Nae Tey re Tea ON es ae 152, 161 Densmore, -Miss;,Hrances.... 2222-2221 BUTE) tae) Je Bian ait 2 46, 52, 54 Deslandres, H. (progressive disclosure of the entire atmosphere of the Siti) aA RL a eae Ta Nites an) ehh To ee 341 Determination of sex, recent work on (Doncaster) -~-~----______-______ 473 Diekinson,,.JJacob-M..,. Secretary. (Of TWark)) soir f. fey seal foe peer Pacee ee 3 Disclosure of the entire atmosphere of the sun, the progressive (Des- landtes)i22 46.8. t= olan) eh) i ere 341 Distribution of specimens (National Museum) -_—~~~~_--__~______-_______ 29 Dixon, Henry H. (transpiration and ascent of sap)_---_--_-_________"__ 407 Doli. Dr fAmiom Fe eee lage 55 she Dee ee ee 17, 100 MOUs MOT lt CUMIN 2 Se ee eee 17, 100 Doncaster, Leonard (determination of sex) ._--~--_--__--+---_----=---- 473 Donehoo Dr eG eoree PP si7 ain Hoke tO Ae oe bi 46 Ty EMS a a Ce SSM METMe OUET EE Ce oe ae Densey, al Owen 3 oa eee ease 48, 54 SOQ 5) S68 DTN et a a 86 Drnidism-theconicinlol CPokomy,)) 1-5. 583 Duerden,, J..E...(plumages' of theostrich)._ 224 1 12 sus siasstesiel & aes 561 Dmont Santo Sit rarer sas Ne a a es 151, 152, 161 Duniway,.ClydevAne- 2-=322-2es_-! £6 _ ee eee 88 PO I sd a ee aol eee ee 46, 53 Dutcher, William (president National Association of Audubon Societies) — 26 INDEX. 679 HB. Page EKar-flower of the Aztecs, the sacred (Safford) _-.--..._____ =. ne 427 ep OlmN tls. ge I Bees ee ep lag 88 Hirih acer Oeuhe x GB CCliex,)| 2 2 e482 eee By lees see ee 84 Marth: tuture habitability of the (Chamberlin) ___.......___.___Bssee5) 3 Bal Harth-sratmosphere, mechanies of the (Abbe) _—._____.-_____-_. ___. 83 IDcheverias meweSpecies OL... en ee eee ST Beology of theradult, Hoatzin ((Beebe)).-..2..-2.-__=_----...___. sina F_ aed 527 PAiiopcofihenimnstituton. —.— Bete ve speck visi yy A Se 3, 4, 21, 26, 89 Hipiwands wie TOr w@Narles Wy: 2s. a) 18 Hieenmann, Wor: Carl Hi. 2. bee I ee ee ey ee 18 Electric power from the Mississippi River (C. M. Clark) —~-_-___________ 199 MMilehamme;nr Mis 2 os ee Ere teh eee EE Re 165 TAGE, OE Ce eS aS ee ee ee ee eee! EPs Ses ae 84 TE SOT ere 1) forms Nine eee Re eee ee ee ee ee 20, 44, 54, 87 HMiomolozicaly Society, mUSSIaN =~ ee eee 27 EI TLOMIOLOD ye Nea eO les see De ee ee eee 28, 44 Epidemiplocyromtubercnlosis, (och) 2.22 = "en eae ee eee 659 PISA eel beer es er ee ee teen Snes See ee ee eee 154, 163 Hsiaplushimentssthe = Simi tnsonin 2 22 2S" ne ha eae See ee 5 HWiMnNolosyAwsNreTULOL AMeriCcan= =9—-— 22" = 2 Ser se renee ee 5, 9,19 20, 21, 22, 33, 44, 45, 46, 78, 79, 82, 87, 88, 91, 94 3 AWTS ATT 0 ght Ba al ce tl een cea Se ea tee EP aD ee a es 4 Howard, Representative William M. (Regent)____--____-_________ 3, 6, 101 1S aN PS] Da, a ee eo ee ee eee ee 18 1S SHOOT) Oy ees Oe ea SS ee ee ee eae 4, 14, 15, 25, 44 Ee eINS Sin William. Kee. B.. ©; M. (Campbell). 307 tla, 2 CCOUNt Ol GO Ss meee ne ae Se ae ee 87 - Hygiene and Demography, International Congress on______-___________ 99, 103 if Tea ahO,- ITM Patron pPrOyeCtsc aes cs = se Ee em yy aye Bias sap h 186 NONE Ss “Bror. JOSephP =~ 2 Sees ee a es gee ee 12 Indian Languages, Handbook of American____________________ 47, 50, 51, 52, 55 RUE TEN HS ODD ed Bi] Legh = a ele ee ean ee ea Pe eR ee eck 75, 76 MA SCCESs ULeSEE Va tlON Oli a ==" Ohi ee eo stata ee 1 a, op ee ee 87 BITES GOES. VV LOO WHI CU ee aoe Sot Aenea ele ee ae ee 87 Interior, Secretary of the (member of the Institution) -_______________ 2 Imternational Americam Scientific Coneress aoe 26 International Catalogue of Scientific Literature__________ 5, 9, 21, 38, 80, 91, 94 Imtermational congresses and, celebrations - 22.2.2 et 25 international exchanges =. 2 2 ee eae 5, 9, 21, 34, 57, 77, 78, 79, 91, 92, 94 UGiMyerkKoN AO) ai, COneaes oy (uy HO ULT Egs 1s 0) |e selene ee re 231 Lericanion- im tie western Wmited Statess22- <2 + = 22 ee ee 169 HSOM DG LO UO Ny cata LOTMA eATI ) oat, oe ee ee 2 ek 231 Isostasy, review of current research in (Willis) __-__-_-----_--_----__------ 391 J: Johnson, Harriegsmane. (bequest) .s-.--2..4-..---2enuen 2 30, 31 Ij) ENTS EES Teka NTS Des fag ee eee ee a i 86 BION es lei MeV LETT Be iene on ee ee ea 2 52 682 INDEX. K. Page. Kansas? irriaation) projects dnt... oS eee ee ee ee eee ee 187 Kreellicotty dOr Wii) Hite eet, se PO 1 ye es eS oe ee 26 Kano witon ASAE eet See ee Bel ee et Ae Bll tee ee a ee 83 Knox, Philander .C.,..Secretary of States 2) =. sss 5. eae ee =) Koch, Robert (epidemiology of tuberculosis)____---_-__-_--_ 659 soni sisid@re ston - Fes ee eee eee 42 L. Tae SsEVeSC Ne. Se Hirai Cia 2 oe ee ee ee eee ee ee ee 4, 46, 53 amber: “COUlIGsOG== et ban Ree eee ee ee ee eee 156, 165 Page scripner. Bo- 902° ao re eee ea eee eee ee eee 87 Langley, Samuel P_________- 16, 19, 28, 24, 26, 73, 74, 75, 82, 97, 102, 105, 107, 147 baneleyomedal and sta plete =e ae ae et ee ee 22, 23, 24, 97, 102, 104 ipacham= Eup erga. 2 ee ee ee eee eee 155, 163 TGA TS WOU CO, pedis gb are ee en ee ee re ee eee 86 esti ye Missekr eee Se oe See ee Se re ee eee 54 eS 1 ae Sear, Serene Te Se ee ee ea Se er eer 166 Mere bh yieey hae ne ee” See Se ee ee eer ee ee 156, 165 [ie sae ie kee ae ee en eee er ee eee 156, 167 hendenteld? Profisvones Sse ee eee ee eee ae oe Lee ee 16 uepidoprerous“lawan (Buse) os oe es eee eee 84 ATE Ole COMGLCNS 2 = eine Shee nea Se ee ee 21,22, 54,50; 51, OF, (17 lose Ini praney- Othe cn Stiibone "2 Se eee Ae ee oe eee avin Lick Observatory (astrophysics in the United States)--__-__________ 360 JANGHENS (OL VEIMeSOfd =o ate a a eee Sree ae eee 87 aStot publicabiony == 2 ate ees See ee ee ee ee ee eee 87 ’ Littlefield; Charles HE. (Melville Weston: Fuller) 222 222222223! ee 118 PAGANS OOS S = eee ee ee ee ee 6, 8, 27, 29-81, 37, 41-45, 69, 71, T7T—-79, 91 Modo SSenathorie iG mee 5 oa ee 3, 23, 96, 98, 101, 103, 108 JO PERUSE [es JAG 1 0 Pea Res Been ORM RRB A SIRE Ol rp ie ete aes Oe i hE Ee 10, 11, 43 Bowell, inauguration._.o£. President... ______._._._ #3 stele sliaw tit 26, 99 buzice Serbs. (division of Slay, peoples) ___.__-_.._._.__.-___. 4? inten} Sane es 605 M. MacCurdy. Georre Glatt n-ne ee ee 86 MacVeseh, Branklin; Secretary of the Treasury 22222222" 222 3 Mammals collected in British East Africa (Hollister) __________________ 84 Mangroves, geologic work of, in Florida (Vaughn) a eee eee 83 MEATY (Ola LOn my iene See eee ee 19, 82, 147 Mann, Representative James R. (Regent) —_---_-_-_____-_-__=_ 3, 6, 96, 100, 101 VTE el eee ae a eee eee ee ee eee ee ee ee ee ee 86 ITATOUGT rte ete en en ee en ee ee 86 Tp ESTO a Ng Bo gear meth ce ete atu te a SAN se ry ne Bish nigh BB PD 16 Matter, modern ideas on the constitution of (Becquerel)—~---__-__-__-____ 275 MVM eeSs LTTE OEE Poet Na eens ae ee ee ee 146, 147 Mayer, Alfred Goldsborough (Alexander Agassiz).----__-___--_-_____-__ 447 MeCurdyis Ad Det ae th. Stee ee ee eae 157, 166 MicNiilian, “WU IN’ a SSeS eee F Sle ar 37, 69, 71 MeatnA HDT) Unga. (Sawiteee en e e e e a ieee 10, 11, 48 Medal (Langley: memorials Ae 22 es ere et 8 eee 22, 23, 97, 104 Me prs rT cae a ee 13; 27 INDEX. 683 Page ATOR eesire rel peas Sinn Temeid eases eee eee En a es 87 Sea VCENCTRTOUS, TDM CG ype Erase gece pd a ae en a a ee et eae ola ft agli) ed 4, 21, 83 DSS NTR US rc ct a A So i Ea ie NA yey bl Wc 88 Metcoritesrrom~s Georsiaw (Merril) sls" 2 ke ee eee 83 NEM CO eaAn-HOWerarrOnl =e 22 2 2 Oe bt So tr Be ee RE ee eee 427 Meyer, George von I. Secretary of the Navyl2. 2/8) *. he Be 3 Miche SOTiemD Tee nti = ee ee eS Oe Le 4, 51, 52 PTET SCOTS VY ee As ee eae ek a ee I? FD ee eee 74 Misration oF theyeacine ployer (Henshaw) a222"2 "222" ) ose ee 545 Millers Gernite Serolbea= 2 | 2. 2 se we 1G bs - 3) OE a eee 4, 88, 84 JTBE i cl NNECEOKGIIS) 3) 0) ee ie ee la A le MS tl La 33 Moalliememroe As Crsolationsot an ion) = 22. === as ee ae Dew Te WAC EV OTN Ghee ees 2 Ro ee ee ee ee ee 86 Miscellaneous Collections,-Smithsonian’ <___ =~ = 18, 20, 82-84 Mississippi River, electric power from the (C. M. Clark) _~~_---___-_____ 199 DROS Ss eer ae ashe ee Se Be eee 87 Nonkeys eAchnican= (GHG) pe ee se Le Be oe ee ee era 84 Monta) .irhication | projecis: in ——--- s ee aeree in ae 187, 188, 189, 190 INPDOWE Veeck e Sin eee ere eis | Fa ee ee ee 4,47 MOOK Tab azo mvs eee 2s eee ho ee a Nie 1638 Mroncwlhist Or Senrciuse. ==. oes ee ene ee 18 MaSsesmibenmamdits: 2.5. eS a8 oe ee ee ee eS oe eee 88 Mountew hitney: Observatoryo2. 2-222 > beeen ieee ppt ee 16, 37, 75, 76, 83, 99 Mount Wilson Observatory) Sy les gif ute Sootaiy 37, 38, 73, 74, 75, 76, 99, 365 Weer! JOT SO BUNS S 42>: Des ee pr oe ee 16 NEWINOG MO He = ere Fee eae ee eae eh 86 Munroe, C. E. (methods of testing explosives) ____________-_____-__ 291 Minsterbure dor: Ego eS ee se ee einai eS 36, 58 N. Nagel, Charles, Secretary of Commerce and Labor_____________~-_-_____-=__ 3 INSMles; ZOOLOS GA Stadion = 2 Se a ee a 17, 100 National ‘Acad emycoLiSGlences=— 2. 2 5 eee ee a 103 NGO eG eulleryen Oi wAmi ee ee Ps 7, 28, 29, 41, 87, 99 Nant Ti a reer perenne ek ea 2 ee ly a 14, 20, 29, 87 INGO MEN DOS ah Able eee oe eee eee ee ee ee ere See Sree) ee 30 National Museum, wibrary of.) - 9 2) see | EL re 78, 98 WAG OWN onal eee i a ee eee, Sens eeneney gna, See ey. een he ae AT 103 MET AGIOS: Oi es ee ee ee ee ey 28, 40 tip ItentdOn GO ee eek oe Se ee ie 20, 87 National Zoological Park ==. 2 5, 9, 21, 36, 68, 77, 78, 79, 91, 94, 101 Navy, Secretary of the (member of the Institution) _____________________ 3 NEULASKeaeiEn SatlOn™ PLOJCCUS) MMs See ee ee eee 190 NGraAGar ini a hOnnprojGCus! Mile Sy wen ee yee Se 191 INEN ACCOLC0 Coal STONEY S10 01 0) 01 Soo Sen ee es ee ee So na ee NEES eee 45, 86 Newell, F. H. (progress in reclamation of arid lands) _-_-_______-~-___-_ 169 Newfoundland, geological investigations in-________________-____---____ AD, New Mexicosirrication projects mss 4s — .o- e e e 191, 192 INTCHOLSap Vian Smee noe wee eee Meee es ae. be So re ee 53 Niederle, Lubor (contemporary Slav peoples) _____-------______________ 599 Nomenclature: Zoological. Commission) on_- 0-2 24, 87 North Dakota perieatlon projects tia... ___ | "5-2 oe ce 192 684 INDEX. 0. Page Oldroyd collection. 2. =* 2.02. a ee ee ee eee 104 Olenellus and other genera of the mesonacidie (Walcott) ________________ 84 Olney, Richard (Melville Weston Fuller) =— = -222 220 5 2 ee ee 114 Oneron; ATTiSAtlon PrOJeCtS ANS ee ee ee 193, 194 Organism, life of tissues outside, the. 2-2. 5 see ee 573 Orizinsol Druidism, the: (Pokormy )- -- = = = ee eee 583 Ornamentation of rugs and carpets (Cole)_—--— = 2 a eee 125 Ornithology, Congress: ON. 2.22 a a Se a oy ee 26 Ostrich, plumages of the (Duerden)) 222-2 = a eee 561 Overman, Lee*S. (Melville Weston Muller) =... 2 eg 117 Ovaedo!, University of - os ne ee ee eee 27 lee Paleontology, Cambrian geology and (Walcott) ________________ 11, 12, 20, 44, 84 Ian re, - VV sD a te poe a ee 43 ea Lass MV Oye he Se on eS 87 Panama Canal Zone, biological survey of______2) 2) -22 2s te :s 13 Banilhan,. LOWS a- 2. oe eee eee 164 iRabctom; Wirederiewlire = ee ee 88 EET IID ire SEL GC ee ee ee See ge 96 PElienieobismatiht: § 2 es 2 ee ee ee 154, 163 Philippines; amew. froe-from- (Stejneger,) Se se) pea 82 Photographs, telegraphy of, wireless and by wire (Baker)______________ 257 PHELCE, LW = WO Wig ee es ee 87 PAIN ChoOt, sWVirsy Co AIMeS VVVA Ls ee 3 ee ee a ee eee eee 28, 42 eitniery Tenmny See 2 Ee ie sortie | Le when toasty 9 OE Sa 87 ilanmts! fossil (Kilo wilton)) Ss ce ee ee ee 83 Plover -Eacine micration of the ((@ienshaw)l eee 545 Plamacesior thesostriceh, the.(Duerden)e = 2. 2 eee eee eee 561 ehivinel Maer deta Vamenta ok Se ee 86 AF UL sorbeg IS) es cert oh at res ALE MES Sie do, Le ee Se 83 IPOIMea TE MECnriV ete she 1 Bae eh eet soa con a Bea 86 POkOMy UUs (OnginvOL Wruidisnl)=-<--4-2 ==" ee eee — 6583 ‘Poles (division: Or Slaiv-peoples)-