ie At a eg ae ol>Raaete tal RIES e INSTITUTION NOILNLILSNI SMI NYVIR SMI SMITHSONIAN LIBRARIES LIBRARIES ILSNI NVINOSHLINS S3IYVYdIT LIBRARIES \, SQ SN INSTITUTION NOILNLILSNI Salyvudl S3iy¥vudsi RIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOILNLILSNI NYINOSHLIWS NVINOSHLIWS . ILSNI_ NVINOSHLINS S31NVYaII NOILNLILSNI NOILNLILSNI RIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOILNLILSNI SAINYUSIT LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION INSTITUTION ALSNI SStuVagll LIBRARIES =. om = eas S = a Ee + tf fy = j oO Be rs, © : Y 3 weg 2 yp = Zz Ci) FE 2) ae ” RIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOILNLILSNI w oe Ww ws o w << ys a > 2 F é m ee m op) _ w RIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOILNLILSNI = =a z Ly. hf 4 Na Ber yey fy “A > \ai £3 IV 3 A ~ We & YY GY SMITHSONIAN NVIt INSTITUTION NOILNLILSNI INSTITUTION NOILNLILSNI HSONIAN NVINOSHLIWS NVINOSHLINS S3IYVUdIT LIBRARIES SON Se SMITHSONIAN NVINOSHLINS S31tuvadl LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN NVINOSHLINS & SMITHSONIAN > SMITHSONIAN NVINOSHLINS SJIUVuE SAINVHUSIT LIBRARIES INSTITUTION NOILNLILSNI Sil uvug 17 LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN = ‘es a) ee Saiuvadl n ; Ce 8 = ale 172) O 2 > Zz 5 INSTITUTIO y Saluvudl ; JOSHLIWS wee es we ae w - RIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOILNLILSNI ee elie e hs ee o aiff JL za < *t ee re a WG 2 f ae cos JLSNITNVINOSHLINS. S3IUVUGIT LIBRARIES a ey ra | fas mo = o 2 YX an 2 “RAY : ke ee] WN al wD 5 We ; RIES, SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOILLILSNI a . : 2\,; & RQ os SAN n JE dE NN oc rT WAN GC VG fifi Ww 2 = AS in ue . = ae S JASNI_NVINOSHLINS S3INVYSIT LIBRARIES = ie 2 7) ci un es oc = ae << =f = : 5 g : : re | RIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOILNLILSNI is = o) ie fo) = s = ae a EF * eo = Z e Z LILSNI S3IMVUIT_LIBRARIES ra 2) ma ies VATE Tae YG A y * 2 “iy = = > xd = 4 122) = Ww 5 RIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOILOLILSNI feos <8 y oO . = o <3; < oc po oc =e S E a | awd JLSNI_NVINOSHLINS [SA1YVYGIT LIBRARIES —: = © — 199] > — ow Pe) Yy = 2 F AW WWE a 2 OW fr Oe m = wo RIES, SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION LLSNI a * eS ei = Ly. : 2 \y i & SLY oO cr MISS OC YY &, SMITHSONIAN i: Sen ice — S. = Naas = ~~ dq | NVINOSHLINS S31YWy INSTITUTION NOILALILSNI SaINVUGIT LIBRARIES NVINOSHLINS S3ZI1YVUdI NVINOSHLIWS INSTITUTIC os ¥ rm . ce ae C * eS cn = oma Oo ay Zz Sa3lyuvua oa = : : a 4 = ca = = i G Zz [op] = a) ae wm oO = > ae SMITHSONIAN NVINOSHLINS S31uvua \ SMITHSONIAN _INSTITUTIC INSTITUTION NOILNLILSNI SAINVYGIT LIBRARIES NVINOSHLINS S3ZIYVvud [HSONIAN YOSHLIWS eS | | ia ‘ i a i ALA eae j i Vi, fy a eit ie vi i ae hi j | i it) Of \ i f y) he Viv ah ar } Ra he a ; iv) 1 Ph ee Py ue ae ihn eee ne: | : { Mi L j | i! ae | Mi i ‘ ; - i fj ss rin a A j Pik | vay 4 | i even nen } ay Be hit — mes is! My 1 wu 7 if ft iy rh { ti fy hon i i RL RENONY oF Tee GARD ine eG oe — — 3 BM t HS rit i yee oe yj ea ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN PNSTITULTION SHOWING THE OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND CONDITION OF THE INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30 WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1912 ¢. e; * J} A653 No A ote © A, CHAI UIOASIYA 20rd VOIVTITeA! AHT 40 ViOrH 06 AYUL OVSC AG What - 451) Dl bed a be FROM THE SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, SUBMITTING THE ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1911. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, Washington, April 8, 1912. To the Congress of the United States: In accordance with section 5593 of the Revised Statutes of the United States, I have the honor, in behalf of the Board of Regents, to submit to Congress the annual report of the operations, expendi- tures, and condition of the Smithsonian Institution for the year end- ing June 30, 1911. I have the honor to be, Very respectfully, your obedient servant, CuarLes D. Watcort, Secretary. III fe poor ee ; Ros : i, eset iets 7 a ] Abate eer iting PE sar #0, at setae BU ands 7& sche: =, Taevisiat Be: PENAL | Oe Bis & wud tary SHE Racked wom ee a en, fet Veale supra t A EAA RVIG ORES eh oe Seid. AAR RE ate | ttn. | Pee Mors sae Rea 2 ae RR TET! SA ne wean +. Sky < $ey See ft ae Fe aso) i tag noth ai ron Tate: wi petoak agit ee gue. | i yaks. Wb Pe eeey RaQ siti Ca TG Piss erie, + AER haters ac1) euros can % oH ; ae fakes i pense Sshtrar ad f° ee vd Se ae ar ai grained ti ah wit Joe er i oo eo Ff fe a eX a \ Ss < . } CONTE NTS. or “p j N ye : nn ES ‘ od 0 Page. Letter from the secret Submitting the annual report of the regents to Woneness sar Neue ans Ss eessee Leask GER SL OSR iii EBL OER FOPOR Squier... och posse ectar «Sane ee meee cee 133 Recent experiments with invisible light, by R. W. Wood...........-..------ 155 What electrochemistry is accomplishing, by Joseph W. Richards............ 167 Ancient and modern views regarding the chemical elements, by William Ram- BOW ate strroless oclal cfe'n' old dina’ ano/g bie myeiaiolata a ctbsletiainie a cece aa mts ae Eee CO eae 183 The pendamened properties of the elements, by Theodore William Richards. . 199 The production and identification of artificial precious stones, by Noel Heaton. 217 The sterilization of drinking water by ultra-violet radiations, by Jules Cour- BOW 15 so wie sicie = c1zi alo emyars winiays on Sse ino oie ns) bapa marae arate ta ea ae ee 235 The et time in various countries, by M. Philippot .................---+-+: 247 Some recent interesting developments in astronomy, by J. S. Plaskett.......- 255 the age of the earth,“by J.-Joly... 22202222... 2. s222. send eee ee ee 271 International air map and aeronautical marks, by Ch. Lallemand.........--- 295 Geologic work of ants in tropical America, by J. C. Branner...............--- 303 On the value of the fossil floras of the arctic regions as evidence of geological climates, by A. G. Nathorst.., (2420/90: bues osohecs Sect eee 335 Recent advances in our knowledge of the production of light by living organ- isms, by: I’. Alex.. McDermott... ......:,....<28es-2 5 eo - eos eee 345 Organic evolution: Darwinian and de Vriesian, by N. C. Macnamara......... 363 Magnalia nature: or the greater problems of biology, by D’Arcy Wentworth PEROMPBON a. !5:5:.)5/s/o% =. 's'ne:se,c 5s 50.5) ose) SESE aE eee Se eee Len CBee 379 A history of certain great horned owls, by Charles R. Keyes...............-- 395 The passenger pigeon, by Pehr Kalm (1759), and John James Audubon (1831). 407 Note on the iridescent colors of birds and insects, by A. Mallock............-- 425 On the positions assumed by birds in flight, by Bentley Beetham. ..........- 433 The garden of serpents, Butantan, Brazil, by S. Pozzi_i(o.- teieeece: sore 441 Some useful native plants of New Mexico, by Paul C. Standley...........-- 447 The tree ferns of North America, by William R. Maxon............-..-...--- 463 The value of ancient Mexican manuscripts in the study of the general develop- ment of writing; by Alired M. Tozzer. << <2... 2... sethecdsd: oe eee ee 493 The discoverers of the art of iron manufacture, by W. Belck..............--- 507 The Kabyles:of north Africa, by A. Lissauer.-... 2... 22-2332 desea 523 Chinese architecture and its relation to Chinese culture, by Ernst Boerschmann. 539 The Lolos of Kientchang, western China, by A. F. Legendre................- 569 The physiology of sleep, by R-. Legendre... 42... 5-5 ins one teenie nice ose eee 587 Profitable and fruitless lines of endeavor in public health work, by Edwin O. POPGRD ois 2 so be oc oe sured el aE she aoe Se te gommmet cade ane Seaetoee = ee 603 Factory sanitation and efficiency, by C.-E. A. Winslow..........-.....------ 611 The physiological influence of ozone, by Leonard Hill and Martin Flack.....- 617 Traveling at high speeds on the surface of the earth and above it, by H. S. Hiele-Shaw. - 0. 02)20)s cect sone ees t-te eee ee eee eee 629 Robert Koch, 1843-1910) by @ 3d ee eee eee 34, 000 For the annual reports and bulletins of the Bureau of American Hth- nology and for miscellaneous printing and binding for the bureau____ 21, 000 For miscellaneous printing and binding: international exchanges 2222-2 sae See ee ee ee ee 200 International Catalogue of Scientific Literature __________________ 100 NationalsZoolovicalsPark 22 ss ates ae ei ee ee eee 200 AStropnysical Observatory = ee a Se ee ee 400 For the annual report of the American Historical Association_________ 7, 000 HNO Geller a ee 2 oi Sao ae ees Be ee ene ee 72, 900 LIBRARY. The libraries of the Smithsonian Institution and of its several branches show an increase of about 18,000 volumes and pamphlets during the last year, being largely additions to the National Museum library and the Smithsonian deposit in the Library of Congress. During the last five years improved methods and consolidation of work have been adopted in the interest of economy and efficiency, as discussed by the Assistant Secretary in the appendix to this report. The library of the Bureau of Ethnology has been transferred from its former quarters in a rented building to the galleries of the main hall in the Smithsonian Building where it is much more con- venient for reference, though the books are still arranged on temporary wooden shelves. It is hoped that this hall, which was originally planned for library purposes, may in the near future be- come available for such use. It is proposed, if necessary funds be- come available, to remove the wooden galleries, stairways, win- dow sashes and frames, and book cases in this hall and substitute fireproof bookstacks, stairways, and windows. The new stacks and cases would accommodate the books belonging to the several bureaus under the direction of the Institution, including a part of the library of the National Museum, which should be kept in a central location. They would also provide a safe place to assemble the REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 15 Smithsonian books constantly used by the bureaus, of which several thousand are now scattered through various rooms in the Smith- sonian Building. LANGLEY MEMORIAL TABLET. The memorial tablet authorized by the Regents to be erected in the Smithsonian building commemorative of the aeronautical work of the late Secretary Langley has not yet been completed. A design for the tablet has, however, been prepared and is under consideration by the committee appointed for the purpose. INTERNATIONAL CONGRESSES AND CELEBRATIONS. The Institution each year receives invitations to numerous scien- tific congresses and celebrations in the United States and abroad, but as funds are not available for the expenses of delegates few of these invitations can be accepted. In some instances, however, it is possible to arrange for representation by collaborators of the Insti- tution who are visiting the localities on official or private business. Congress of Americanists—Dr. AleS Hrdlicka was appointed rep- resentative of the Smithsonian Institution and the National Mu- seum and delegate on the part of the United States at the second session of the Seventeenth International Congress of Americanists, held in the Museo Nacional, Mexico City, September 8 to 14, 1910. He presented an account of his recent explorations in Peru, and also described the uncovering of an especially interesting sepulchre which he had been invited by the Mexican authorities to open in the ancient ruins of San Juan Teotihuacan. The meeting was held in the Museo Nacional, and was well at- tended, especially by scientific men from the United States. Dr. C. W. Currier, of Washington, was also designated delegate of the United States and a representative of the Smithsonian Insti- tution at the above congress. International American Scientific Congress.—Mr. Bailey Willis, as delegate on the part of the Smithsonian Institution, attended the International Scientific Congress which was held at Buenos Aires, Argentina, July 10 to July 25, 1910. Geological Congress—In August, 1910, the Eleventh International Geological Congress met in Stockholm. Dr. George F. Becker, of the United States Geological Survey, was a delegate on the part of the Smithsonian Institution. The congress was more largely at- tended than any of its predecessors, and nothing could exceed the hospitality of its reception. The principal subjects of discussion were the distribution and extent of the iron ore deposits of the world, Cambrian paleontology, and the change of climate since the last maximum of glaciation. To all of these subjects painstaking 16 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. contributions were made from every quarter of the globe, and the publications of the congress contain the most authoritative exposi- tion of the present state of knowledge on these vital questions. Among the papers presented to the congress was one expressing my view on “ the abrupt appearance of the Cambrian fauna.” Zoological Congress —The Seventh International Zoological Con- gress was held at Graz, Austria, in August, 1910. The delegates on the part of the United States and the Smithsonian Institution and National Museum were Dr. H. H. Field, Dr. W. R. Kellicott, Dr. Ch. Wardell Stiles, and Mr. Austin H. Clark. About 600 members were present at this congress, of whom about 60 were from the United States, the majority of these representing scientific societies or educa- tional institutions. To facilitate its labors, the congress was divided into sections, each section representing a definite subject or group of subjects. Papers of general interest were read in the Stephanien- salle, a large hall in the center of the city, while papers of more restricted scope were presented in the various lecture rooms of the university. Taken as a whole, the papers read were of a distinctly progressive nature, the authors, especially the younger ones, showing a marked disposition to depart from the time-honored and accepted lines of work and thought, and to approach their subjects from entirely new view points. Congress of Bibliography and Documentation.—Mr. Paul Brockett, assistant librarian of the Institution, who was appointed a delegate to the International Congress of Bibliography and Documentation at Brussels, August 25 to 27, 1910, attended the congress and sub- mitted a report on its proceedings, which is printed in the appendix. Congress of Archivists and Librarians——An International Con- gress of Archivists and Librarians was held at Brussels August 29 to 31, 1910, when the Institution was represented by Mr. Paul Brockett, whose report appears in the accompanying appendix. MISCELLANEOUS. Hambach collection of fossils—The Institution has secured from Dr. Gustav Hambach, of St. Louis, a collection of about 20,000 specimens of fossil echinoderms and other animals, with more than 100 types. Almost all the fossils were collected in the Mississippi Valley and are the choicest obtainable. The series of Blastoids, a group of fossil echinoderms, is unique. The collection contains representatives of the various classes of animals, among which may be mentioned many insects from the Cenozoic formation in Colorado; many specimens of Paleozoic fishes, including an especially inter- esting series of teeth and spines; a complete series of fossil sea- urchins; the jaws of a Carboniferous batrachian over a foot long, and of a mastodon. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 17 Chinese photographs.—The Institution has received a valuable series of large photographic negatives taken by Mr. Bailey Willis in connection with his geological work in China. These photographs represent scenery, particularly landscapes in which the loess forma- tion is conspicuous, and also Chinese buildings, monuments, and the people themselves. The route of the expedition through the Prov- inces of Chihli, Shansi, and Shensi led through the district of the loess formation and some remote mountain regions of great interest and scenic beauty. Copies of many of these photographs have been furnished at cost to various institutions for educational purposes. NATIONAL MUSEUM. The most important item of interest in connection with the Na- tional Museum during the year was the completion on June 20, 1911, of all structural work on the new building, just six years after the excavations for the foundation were commenced. On another page the Assistant Secretary in charge of the Museum mentions the very superior character of the building for museum purposes. It is mas- sive and imposing in appearance. It is well hghted. There is little room that can not be utilized. More than one-half of the 10 acres of floor space is placed at the service of the public in the interest of popular education, while the remaining space is used for reserve col- lections and laboratories of the scientific departments and divisions and for the maintenance of the building and the operation of the heating, lighting, and ventilating plant. The greater part of the natural-history collections, including ethnology, have been removed to the new structure; while in the old building space is now afforded for the proper display of objects pertaining to the arts and indus- tries, including the collection illustrating the graphic arts and the art textiles, and also for the large and interesting series illustrative of American history. Although there has as yet been no formal dedi- cation of the new building, the exhibition halls are being opened to the public one after another as the reinstallation of the exhibits pro- gresses. It is planned in the near future to admit visitors to the new building, for a portion of the day at least, on Sundays in order that the people of Washington may be afforded a long-desired op- portunity to study the national collections in their leisure hours. The number of visitors to the new building during the year was 151,112 and to the old building 207,010. The auditorium in the new building has been utilized for meetings of various scientific bodies and important lectures. The First Ameri- can International Humane Congress was held there from October 10 to 15, 1910, and in connection therewith an interesting exhibit was displayed. 38734°—sm 1911 2 18 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. The accessions received by the Museum during the year include more than 200,000 specimens of animals and plants, besides 6,600 specimens relating to geology and paleontology, and about 17,000 anthropological objects. To the National Gallery of Art were added 94 paintings and engravings. In addition, about 1,600 objects of art and anthropology were accepted by the Museum as loans for ex- hibition. Among important accessions that merit special mention was a collection of 3,400 ancient crania, 6,000 bones, and 1,500 archeo- logical objects, gathered chiefly in Peru by Dr. Hrdhcka, as men- tioned on another page. Other interesting archeological objects were received from the ancient pueblos of Arizona and New Mexico, be- sides a valuable series of skulls and skeletons from Arkansas and Mississippi. About 50,000 specimens of mollusks, collected in Alaska by Dr. William H. Dall between the years 1871 and 1899, were re- ceived during the year, together with many thousands of Japanese mollusks from the Imperial University of Japan. Many other interesting accessions of objects of zoology, botany, geology, and anthropology are referred to by the Assistant Secre- tary in his report. The paintings of the National Gallery of Art, exhibited in the middle hall of the new building, continue to attract much public attention. Mr. William T. Evans has added 13 canvases to his notable gift, which now comprises 127 pictures, representing 90 contemporary American painters. Mr. Charles L. Freer has also added a large number of objects of oriental art to his most important gift to the Nation, the entire collec- tion remaining, however, in his keeping at Detroit, Mich. The great exhibition halls of the new building will afford op- portunity for the proper display of the national collections ulustra- tive of natural history, and especially such large and striking objects as groups of mammals, skeletons of fossil vertebrate animals, and groups representing the habits and customs of the races of mankind. The collections pertaining to the ethnology of America had increased year by year so rapidly in extent that they long ago outgrew the space that could be allotted to them in the old building. In the new structure they are installed with adequate regard to their size and importance. The loan collection of laces and other art textiles has been largely increased numerically and in variety of contents under the able supervision of Mrs. James W. Pinchot, who initiated the movement. The Museum has continued the distribution of collections of dupli- cate specimens to schools and colleges throughout the country. About 3,000 specimens, chiefly recent and fossil animals, were thus dis- tributed during the year, and about 23,500 duplicate specimens were used in making exchanges. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 19 Considerable progress has been made in arranging the large quantities of natural-history specimens collected by the Smithsonian African expedition and the Smithsonian biological survey of the Panama Canal Zone. Some of the African mammals of greatest public interest have been mounted in groups. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY. The Bureau of American Ethnology has been engaged for a number of years in scientific studies of the American aborigines, including their arts and industries, government, religious and soci- ological systems, and languages, as well as their mental and physical characteristics, their history, and antiquities. Much has been ac- complished in this direction, and many of the results have been permanently recorded and disseminated by means of publication; but a large body of material still awaits final study and arrange- ment, and much work remains to be done both in the field and in the office. The investigations of the bureau have, however, reached a stage at which it has been found possible to summarize some of the results in the form of handbooks, designed especially for the use of schools and unprofessional students. The demand for those already issued, - or about to be published, is very large. Many changes are taking place among the Indians, owing to their advance in civilization, and for that reason the researches are being pressed with all possible speed while knowledge of primitive conditions is still available. The Indians form one of the great races of mankind, and the world properly looks to our Government to gather and record accurate knowledge of this branch of the human family, while by many the work of the Bureau of American Ethnology is regarded as the basis of American history. One of the immediate demands upon the bureau is vigorous activity in the exploration and preservation of antiquities, especially in Arizona, Colorado, and New Mexico, before these important and ‘ most interesting ruins are entirely destroyed by vandalism or the elements. Another important work that should speedily be undertaken is an ethnological study of the Indians and Eskimo of Alaska before the advent of greater numbers of white people shall have so modified them as to destroy their primitive character. So also there is need of further activity in the study of the few survivors of Indian tribes in the Middle West. The bureau has conducted various lines of field work among the tribes which composed the Creek Confederacy of the Southern States; the Tewa Indians of the Rio Grande Valley, New Mexico; 20 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. the Winnebago Indians of Wisconsin and Nebraska; the Piegan, Blackfeet, Cheyenne, and Menominee Indians of the Algonquian family; the Chippewa Indians, especially with reference to their music; the Osage Indians, now in Oklahoma, and the Iroquois in New York. A study of the past and present population of the Indians, with the various causes of their decrease is being conducted. Some very interesting studies were made in Cuba, indicating that the western end of the island, including the Isle of Pines, was once inhabited by a cave-dwelling people of low culture and without agri- culture. It is believed that these people were in that condition at . the time of the visit of Columbus, and that they were the survivors of a cave-dwelling population once occupying all of Cuba and repre- sented in Porto Rico and elsewhere in the West Indies. The Smithsonian Institution, through its Bureau of American Ethnology in cooperation with the Archeological Institute of Amer- ica, has carried on excavations in prehistoric cliff dwellings and pueblo ruins in New Mexico. In one locality these dwellings extend along the walls of a canyon for about 2 miles. In cooperation with the Colorado Cliff Dwellers’ Association, the Institution excavated and repaired the celebrated Balcony House in Colorado. Excava- tions have also been made in newly discovered cliff dwellings and other archeological remains in northwestern Arizona. INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES. An idea of the magnitude of the work conducted by this branch of the Institution may be obtained from the statement that 228,698 packages were handled during the year, an increase over the number for the preceding 12 months of 7,073. The weight of these packages was 560,808 pounds, a gain of 76,124 pounds. The total available resources for carrying on this work were $36,954.99, $32,200 of which was appropriated by Congress, and $4,754.99 was derived from the exchange repayments to the Insti- tution. Several changes made during the year in the routine of the Ex- change Office have resulted in a more economical and efficient admin- istration of the service. It was stated in the last report that the German authorities had under consideration the founding in Berlin of an establishment to promote cultural relations between Germany and the United States, and that one of its functions would be to conduct on behalf of Ger- many the international exchange of publications which the Smith- sonian Institution carries on for the United States. This establish- ment, which is known as the Amerika-Institut, was organized in the fall of 1910 and the exchange duties were assumed by it on January REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 21 1,1911. The exchange agency maintained by the Smithsonian Insti- tution in Leipzig was discontinued on the latter date. Packages for Luxemburg and Roumania have heretofore been dis- tributed through the Leipzig agency. Since its discontinuance the Amerika-Institut has been good enough to assume charge of the dis- tribution of packages in Luxemburg, and the Academia Romana at Bucharest has been asked to act as the Roumanian exchange inter- mediary. The Japanese Government has transferred the exchange agency of that country from the Department of Foreign Affairs to the Imperial Library at Tokyo. The regular series of United States official docu- ments, which had been sent to the former for a number of years, has also been deposited in the Imperial Library. The Government of the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, Allahabad, India, has, at its request, been listed to receive a partial set of United States official publications, the total number of such depositories being now 34. The number of depositories of full sets of governmental documents remains the same as at the close of last year, namely, 55. The Governments of the Argentine Republic, Denmark, and Great Britain have entered into the immediate exchange of their parlia- mentary record during the past year, 29 countries now taking part in this exchange with the United States. Important collections of foreign publications have, through the efforts of the Exchange Office, been obtained during the past year for the Library of Congress and for several other establishments of the Government. NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK. The accessions to the Zoological Park during the past year were 335 animals, and the total number of animals on hand June 30, 1911, was 1,414, representing 376 species of mammals, birds, and reptiles, about 20 species being new to the park. Among the important additions to the collections I may mention a pair of northern fur seals from Alaska, a hippopotamus, an Kast Af- rican buffalo, three prong-horn antelopes, a pair of reindeer, and a large Asiatic macaque monkey. The number of visitors was 521,440, or a daily average of 1,428. As an indication of the educational value of the park, it may be men- tioned that it was visited by 169 schools, classes, etc., with 4,966 pupils, an increase of about a thousand over the year preceding. While most of the classes were from the District of Columbia, some of them belonged in various parts of the country, including all the New England States, New York, Pennsylvania, and North Carolina. 22 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. The equipment of the Zoological Park, both as regards the accom- modations for the collections and facilities for visitors, is still in- adequate and is inferior to that of other establishments of the kind of equal importance. Many of the animals are kept in temporary quarters that are in- sufficient in size, more or less insanitary, and quite costly to maintain. This is particularly true of the fine series of birds, which includes some of exceptional interest and rarity. The rough temporary build- ing in which they are now kept is too small for the exhibition of the entire collection and the conditions are such that it is difficult to keep the birds in a good state of health. In a suitable structure the bird collection would be one of the most attractive features of the park. Permanent paddocks are also needed for the hardy deer, wild sheep, goats, and cattle, which are now scattered in temporary inclo- sures, some of them altogether unsuitable. A new bridge across Rock Creek is urgently needed to replace the present temporary log structure, and it should be of a permanent character and sufficiently wide to provide for the greatly increased travel when the valley of Rock Creek is fully developed. The roadways and walks in the park were greatly improved at the cost of a special appropriation for that purpose. Nearly a mile of the roads were treated either by reshaping and supplying a top layer of stone or by regrading and furnishing the entire thickness of road- bed metal. About 1} miles of walks were also laid or repaired and steps were constructed where grades had before been too steep. A consid- erable amount of work was also done to provide proper drainage. ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY. The Astrophysical Observatory has been engaged in three principal lines of work during the year. Observations by the spectrobolometric method were continued in order to confirm the view referred to in last year’s report that the determinations of the intensity of the solar radiation outside the earth’s atmosphere are independent of the observer’s altitude above sea level, provided the conditions are otherwise good. Observations for the “ solar constant ” were accordingly taken on Mount Whitney in the summer of 1910, where opportunity was afforded also for measurements of the brightness of the sky by day and by night, the influence of the water vapor on the sun’s spectrum, and the distribu- tion of the sun’s energy spectrum outside the atmosphere. The re- sults of these observations show no discrepancy due to altitude be- tween Mount Wilson (5,840 feet) and Mount Whitney (14,502 feet). It also seemed important to confirm by further observation the variability of the solar constant of radiation. Observations were ac- cordingly continued daily at Mount Wilson until November 10, 1910, REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 23 and renewed again on June 11, 1911, which tend to confirm the con- clusion that the sun’s output of radiation varies from day to day in a manner irregular in period and quantity. Assurance seems now complete that this latter result will be tested during the next fiscal year by long-continued daily observations taken simultaneously at two widely separated stations, where the atmosphere is believed to be specially favorable for such research. The definite determination of the laws governing the apparent variability of the “solar constant ” it is expected will be of much value in the probable forecast of climatic conditions from year to year. Measurements have also been made of the transparency, for long wave radiation, of columns of air containing known quantities of water vapor. Thisline of research promises highly interesting results. As mentioned on another page, arrangements have been made with several observatories, widely separated through the world, for the use of the standard silver-disk secondary pyrheliometer designed by the director of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. It is hoped to thus secure not only uniformity of radiation measures, but also a more exact knowledge of solar radiation and the influence of the terrestrial atmosphere upon it. INTERNATIONAL CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE. The International Catalogue of Scientific Literature publishes, through the cooperation of countries in all parts of the world, a current classified index to the literature ofscience. Seventeen volumes have been published annually, beginning with the literature of 1901. The organization consists of a central bureau in London and regional bureaus established in and supported by the 32 countries taking part in the enterprise. Supreme control of the catalogue is vested in an international convention, which met in London July, 1905, and July, 1910, and is to meet every tenth year hereafter. The second inter- national convention met in London at the rooms of the Royal Society on July 12 and 13, 1910, and Mr. Leonard C. Gunnell, assistant in charge of the United States regional bureau, was sent by the Insti- tution as the delegate from the United States. The convention de- cided that on account of the success already achieved by the Interna- tional Catalogue and the great importance of the objects promoted, the enterprise would be continued. Attention was called to the ur- gent need of a permanent fund to aid in carrying on and extending the work. It was pointed out that although various regional bureaus for the collection of material were supported by the countries in which they were located, the maintenance of the central bureau for general administration and actual publication of the 17 annua! vol- umes was dependent entirely on the funds derived from the sub- 24 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. scribers to the published volumes. Though every care has been used to edit and publish the work in the most economical way, the income of the central bureau has proved to be insufficient to meet current expenses and in addition pay interest on approximately $35,000 of borrowed capital. As a more detailed report of the work of the bureau and of the proceedings of the convention will be found in the appendix to this report, it will be sufficient here to call attention to the great value and importance of the work, and to say that it would be difficult to find an enterprise more deserving of endowment. A capital fund, yielding an annual income of from $5,000 to $10,000, would enable the central bureau not only to broaden the scope of the catalogue but also to reduce the subscription price now charged for the annual volumes. This charge is $85 per year which, although not large when the amount of matter published is considered, is found to be far beyond the means of many who would otherwise be glad to avail themselves of this important aid to scientific research. The Smithsonian Institution has a peculiar interest in the Inter- national Catalogue, for the reason that the original idea was con- ceived by the first Secretary of the Institution in 1855. The Royal Society through its Catalogue of Scientific Papers later partly carried out Secretary Henry’s idea. Experience proved that the enterprise was too great for any one society, or, indeed, any one nation, to undertake, and the Smithsonian Institution, representing the United States, joined in the movement to make the work international. The history of this international movement is briefly as follows: The British foreign office in 1894, at the instance of the Royal Society, requested the United States Government, through the De- partment of State, to send delegates to a conference to be held in London in 1896. The matter was referred to the Smithsonian Institution, and the late Prof. Simon Newcomb and Dr. John §. Billings were sent as delegates. The second conference was held in 1898, and Dr. Cyrus Adler, librarian of the Smithsonian Institution, attended as a delegate. In 1901, when success or failure depended on obtaining the co- operation of the United States in the enterprise, the Smithsonian Institution agreed to and did support a regional bureau from that time until 1906, when Congress made its first annual appropriation to carry on the work in this country. It will thus be seen that in each step the United States has, through the Smithsonian Institution, been prominent in the movement, and it would be a matter of much gratification if now that the enterprise has been so auspiciously started it could be further aided by an endowment fund originating in this country. > REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 25 NECROLOGY. Metvitte Weston FUuuier. It becomes my duty to record here the death of Chief Justice Mel- ville Weston Fuller, Chancellor of the Smithsonian Institution, who was born at Augusta, Maine, February 11, 1833, and died at his sum- mer home, Sorrento, Maine, July 4, 1910. For 22 years prior to his death, Chief Justice Fuller had been deeply interested in the welfare of the Institution, and only on one occasion was he absent from a meeting of the Regents during the entire period of his service as a member of the board. During his long and useful life Justice Fuller served his country faithfully in several civil offices of trust and as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. His achievements as a jurist were most adequately portrayed by the resolutions and eulogies pro- nounced in his memory at a meeting of members of the bar of the Supreme Court on December 10, 1910, and at the session of the Supreme Court on January 8, 1911. The Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution expressed their sorrow in the following words of tribute adopted at the annual meeting of the board on December 8, 1910: Whereas the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution have received the sad intelligence of the déath, on July 4, 1910, of Melville Weston Fuller, Chief Justice of the United States, and for twenty-two years chancellor of the Institution: Therefore be it Resolved, That we desire here to record our profound sorrow at the severing of the tie that has bound us to him for so long a period of honored service; that we feel keenly the loss of a wise presiding officer, whose vast store of learning and gracious dignity have proved so invaluable in the deliberations of this board, and whose loyal interest in the Smithsonian Institution has been a source of inspiration to his colleagues. Resolved, That we share in the grief of the Nation at the passing away of one who was at once a distinguished leader of the greatest legal tribunal of our land, an eminent jurist, a patriotic citizen, a shining example of Christian gentleness, and who also possessed so charming a personality as a man and ag a friend. Resolwed, That we respectfully tender to the members of the family of our late associate our sincerest Sympathy in their great bereavement. Resolved, That an engrossed copy of these resolutions be transmitted to the family of the late chancellor. Respectfully submitted, Cuartes D. Watcort, Secretary. Apprenpix I. REPORT ON THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the operations of the United States National Museum for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1911: COMPLETION AND OCCUPATION OF THE NEW BUILDING, It is gratifying to be able to report the completion of all structural work on the new building for the Museum on June 20, 1911, just six years after the excavations for its foundations were commenced. While the time limit orig- inally estimated was somewhat exceeded on account of delays in the fulfillment of certain contracts, the work was purposely conducted slowly in order to insure entire stability and permanency of construction, which it is confidently believed have been secured. ‘The building is massive and imposing in appear- ance, a notable addition to the group of Government structures at the Capital, and has already been proved to be admirably adapted to the purposes for which it was designed. There is comparatively little room in the building that can not be utilized. Of the approximately 10 acres of floor space which it contains, fully one-half has been allotted to the public in the interest of popular education. The other half, after deducting the area required for the maintenance and operation of the building, is assigned to the storage of the reserve collections and to the labora- tories. The occupation of the building did not await its final completion, but was begun during the summer of 1909, and has been continued as rapidly as the necessary furniture could be provided. The work done on and in connection with the building during last year com- prised the finishing of the rotunda, the south approaches, and the auditorium; the painting of the interior plastered walls and ironwork; and, under the direction of the officer in charge of public buildings and grounds, the grading and sodding of the grounds immediately surrounding the building and the construction of roads and walks leading to the several entrances. By the close of the year essentially all of the reserve collections and all of the laboratories of the several divisions of anthropology, zoology, geology, and paleontology had been established in the new building, as had also most of the administrative offices which are to be located there. The collections had, moreover, been nearly all arranged in a manner convenient for study and reference, and in greater part had received their permanent systematic installa- tion. Much remains to be done, however, in perfecting this arrangement and in completing the catalogues and indexes. The exhibition collections had also been moved with the exception of the American mammals, the birds, the marine invertebrates, the osteological speci- mens, the fossil plants, the building stones, the gems, and a small section of ethnology. The only public installations that had been completed in the new building, besides the paintings of the National Gallery of Art, were, however, of ethnology, which occupied the sides and ends of the middle hall on the 26 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. OA main floor, and most of the two adjacent ranges. To these halls in greater or less part the public had been admitted from March 17, 1910, when the building was first opened. Work was actively progressing in the preparation of the exhibits for all of the other branches, the delays being due in large measure to the slow rate at which furniture was supplied, and had been well advanced for archeology, mineralogy, and the fossil vertebrates. ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS. The permanent acquisitions received during the year comprised approxi- mately 228,642 specimens and objects, of which 204,540 were of animals and plants, 6,647 were geological and paleontological, 17,361 belonged to the several divisions included in the department of anthropology, and 94 were paintings and engravings presented to the National Gallery of Art. In addition, 1,629 objects of art and anthropology were accepted as loans for exhibition. One of the most important accessions of the year resulted from an investi- gation in Argentina, conducted under the auspices of the Smithsonian Insti- tution by Dr. AleS Hrdlitka, curator of physical anthropology, partly in con- junction with Mr. Bailey Willis as geologist, for the purpose of determining the nature and value of the evidence relating to man’s antiquity in that country. The skeletal and archeological remains attributed to early man or his forerunners preserved in the museums were studied, the more important localities where such remains have been discovered were visited, and on the journey to and from Argentina short stops were made in Brazil, Peru, Panama, and Mexico. Sdéme 3,400 ancient crania, 6,000 long and other bones, and 1,500 archeological objects of human manufacture composed the collec- tion brought to Washington. A large number of prehistoric utensils, im- plements, ornaments, examples of weaving, etc., obtained by Dr. J. W. Fewkes during excavations in the Navaho National Monument and at the ancient Hopi pueblo of Wukoki at Black Falls, Little Colorado River, Ariz., were transferred by the Bureau of American Ethnology. Collections of a similar character, but including ancient human crania and skeletons, from the north- eastern pueblo region of New Mexico, were received from the School of American Archeology of the Archeological Institute of America, at Santa Fe, and a valuable series of skulls and skeletons from Arkansas and Mississippi | was presented by Mr. Clarence B. Moore. Two interesting ethnological collections, one from Liberia the other from Abyssinia, were lent for exhibition by Mr. George W. Ellis, jr., and Mr. Hoff- man Philip, respectively, and a number of specimens relating to the Indians of North America were acquired by gift and purchase. The final shipments from the Smithsonian African expedition, which arrived in the early part of the year, contained several thousand specimens of mammals, birds, reptiles, fishes, and mollusks. The notable collection of mammals belonging to Dr. C. Hart Merriam and consisting of about 5,800 skins, 6,000 skulls, and 100 complete skeletons, was secured through the generosity of Mrs. Edward H. Harriman, of New York, by whom it was purchased and donated to the Institution. The other principal additions of mammals were from British East Africa, Abyssinia, and China; while of birds the more important contributions were from North and Central America, the Philippine Islands, and China. The United States Biological Survey and the United States Bureau of Fisheries transmitted many reptiles from various parts of the United States and Mexico, and the latter also an interesting series from the Philippines. The fishes received were mainly from explorations by the Bureau of Fisheries in the eastern part of the United States. Large numbers of 28 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. insects were deposited by the Bureau of Entomology, and important collections of hymenoptera were presented by Mr. S. A. Rohwer and Mr. P. R. Myers. An especially noteworthy accession consisted of the collection of mollusks made in Alaska by Dr. William H. Dall while in the field for the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, and later for the United States Geological Survey, between 1871 and 1899. It comprises about 15,000 lots and 50,000 specimens, and is undoubtedly the largest collection of the shells of moderate depths of water that has ever been assembled from that region. Another extensive contribution of mollusks, consisting of many thousands of Japanese specimens, was obtained from the Imperial University of Tokyo. Important type collections, recently described, of isopod crustaceans, medusx, hydroids, and siphonophores, from explorations by the steamer Albatross in the Pacific Ocean and at the Philippine Islands, were transferred by the Bureau of Fisheries. Decapod crustaceans, representing a large number of species, were received from the Indian Museum at Calcutta; many isopods from several French explorations, including the Charcot expedition to the Antarctic Ocean, were obtained from the Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle at Paris; and an inter- esting series of recent crinoids was secured from’ the Zoological Museum at Copenhagen. The collection of plants was increased by over 38,000 specimens, of which the largest contributions were from the biological survey of the Panama Canal Zone and the Department of Agriculture, though many specimens were obtained from the Bureau of Fisheries, and by gift and exchange. On the biological survey of the Canal Zone, which is being carried on, under the auspices of the Smithsonian Institution, the Museum was represented during the year by one member of its staff, Mr. W. R. Maxon, assistant curator of plants. Mr. Maxon spent about two and one-half months in the field, working in conjunction with Mr. Henry Pittier, who is in charge of the botanical investigations, and in view of the richness of the region the exploration yielded exceedingly important results. Dr. J. N. Rose, associate curator of plants, and Dr. Paul Bartsch, assistant curator of mollusks, were members of an expedition by the Bureau of Fisheries steamer Albatross, which visited Guadaloupe Island, proceeded down the outer coast of Lower California and ascended the Gulf of California for a considerable distance. Valuable series of marine animals and of plants were secured, the former mostly by means of dredging, the latter during stops made along the coast. The accessions in geology and mineralogy from the Geological Survey and other sources contained much interesting material and a number of type specimens. Especially important were several type series of Cambrian fossils described by Dr. Charles D. Walcott, and included in the noteworthy discoveries resulting from his recent explorations in British Columbia. Investigations in Kentucky and Tennessee by Dr. R. 8S. Bassler and Mr. Frank Springer yielded valuable collections of Silurian and Mississippian fossils. In vertebrate paleontology the more important additions consisted of mammalian and rep- tilian remains obtained in exchange. An interesting series of articles of nickel produced by the late Joseph Whar- ton, of Philadelphia, who was recognized as the leader in the technology of this metal, was received as a donation from the executors of his estate. This collection, which had been preserved by Mr. Wharton in a cabinet at his home, comprises over 60 pieces, including pure nickel in several forms, harness and door trimmings, household utensils, forceps, magnetic needles, coinage blanks, ete., and is of much historical value. The historical collection was greatly enriched, mainly by loans, and, by extending the exhibition space into a second hall, its installation has been much REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 29 improved. Rear Admiral R. H. Peary, United States Navy, retired, deposited the many medals conferred upon him by various geographical societies in rec- ognition of his service to science in arctic exploration; the silver model of a ship and three loving cups presented to him; and two of the flags that he carried to the North Pole in 1909; all of which have been arranged together in a single case. Important additions to the collection of memorials of the Bailey-Myers-Mason family were received from Mrs. Julian James; valuable memorials of the Salter and Codwise families of colonial and revolutionary New York and New Jersey were lent by Miss Louise Salter Codwise; and inter- esting relics of the Schenck family of New Jersey dating back three generations were contributed by Dr. Clara 8. Ludlow. The Gustavus Vasa Fox collection of Russian memorials was materially increased, and 11 pieces of furniture that once belonged to Gen. Rufus Putnam were received as a gift from his great-grandson, the late Judge H. M. P. Brister. An inhaler of the type used by Dr. William T. G. Morton in 1846, in the first operation which he performed with the use of ether as an anesthetic, and two busts of Dr. Morton were presented. NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART. The paintings of the National Gallery of Art continue to be exhibited in the large middle hall of the new building, the central part of which was specially fitted up for the purpose in 1910. While these quarters are already too re- stricted for the needs of the Gallery, the excellent lighting of this space makes possible an entirely satisfactory installation, which has attracted much attention. Mr. William T. Evans, of New York, added 13 canvases to his notable collec- tion of the works of contemporary American painters, which now comprises 127 pictures representing 90 artists. Mr. Evans also presented 81 examples of a series of 100 proofs designed to illustrate the work of the foremost American wood engravers, which he announced some time ago his intention to contribute. Mr. Charles L. Freer, whose important gift to the Nation of American and ori- ental art still remains in his keeping at Detroit, Mich., secured many valuable additions for his collection during an extended trip abroad, much of which was spent in China. The Gallery was fortunate in obtaining several interesting loans, including numerous examples of the paintings of early masters, and contributed to a number of important exhibitions held in other cities. ART TEXTILES. The loan collection of laces and other art textiles, which occupies one of the northern ranges in the older Museum building, was very largely increased both numerically and in the variety of its contents. Thirty-two loan contri- butions and three gifts, comprising 249 specimens, many of great beauty and value, brought the total number of specimens on exhibition up to 1,007. The supervision of the collection has been continued by Mrs. James W. Pinchot, to whose initiative and subsequent efforts, with the active cooperation of a number of ladies of Washington, the movemert owes its success. MISCELLANEOUS, Of duplicate specimens taken from the collections, over 3,000, principally of recent animals and fossils, were distributed to schools and colleges, and about 23,500 were used in making exchanges. Approximately 24,600 specimens of various kinds were sent for study to specialists both in this country and abroad, mainly to be worked up and identified for the Museum. 30 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. The total number of visitors to the older Museum building was 207,010, to the Smithsonian building 167,085, and to the new Museum building 151,112. Considering that the buildings have been opened only during working hours on week days, this is to be regarded as a fair attendance. That it was smallest at the new building was owing to the fact that less than one-sixth of the exhibition space had been made ready for the public. The publications issued comprised the annual report for 1910, two volumes of Proceedings, five bulletins, one volume of Contributions from the National Herbarium, and a large number of separate papers belonging to three unfin- ished volumes of Proceedings and two of Contributions. With the exception of the annual report, all were descriptive of material in the Museum collections. The number of copies of the various publications distributed was over 110,000. By the addition of 6,127 books, pamphlets, and periodicals, the Museum library was increased to 40,211 volumes and 66,074 unbound publications. The auditorium in the new building was used on several occasions for meet- ings of important scientific bodies. The sessions of the First American Intetr- national Humane Congress, in connection with which an interesting exhibit was installed, were also held here from October 10 to 15, 1910. The position of head curator of the department of biology, made vacant by the designation of Dr. I’. W. True as an Assistant Secretary of the Institution on June 1, was filled by the appointment of Dr. Leonhard Stejneger, curator of reptiles and batrachians. For convenience of administration, the divisions of invertebrate paleontology, vertebrate paleontology, and paleobotany were combined, under the title of sections, in a single division of paleontology, with Dr. R. 8. Bassler as curator. Respectfully submitted. RICHARD RATHBUN, Assistant Secretary in Charge, U. S. National Museum. Dr. CHARLES D. WALcoTT, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, NOVEMBER 18, 1911. Appenprx If. REPORT ON THE BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY. Srr: I have the honor to present the following report on the operations of the Bureau of American Ethnology during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1911, con- ducted in accordance with the provisions of the act of Congress approved June 25, 1910, authorizing the continuation of ethnological researches among the American Indians and the natives of Hawaii, under the direction of the Smith- sonian Institution, and in accordance with the plan of operations approved by the Secretary June 15, 1910. The systematic ethnological researches of the bureau were continued during the year with the regular scientific staff, consisting of nine ethnologists, as follows: Mr. F. W. Hodge, ethnologist in charge; Mr. James Mooney, Dr. J. Walter Fewkes, Mrs. Matilda Coxe Stevenson, Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt, Dr. John R. Swanton, Dr. Truman Michelson, Dr. Paul Radin, and Mr. Francis La Flesche. In addition the services of several specialists in their respective fields were enlisted for special work, as follows: Dr. Fravz Boas, honorary philologist, with several assistants, for research in connection with the preparation and publication of the Handbook of American Indian Languages. Miss Alice C. Fletcher and Mr. Francis La Flesche, for the final revision of the proofs of their monograph on the Omaha Indians for publication in the twenty-seventh annual report. Miss Frances Densmore. for researches in Indian music. Mr. J. P. Dunn, for studies of the tribes of the Middle West. Mr. Jehn P. Harrington, for researches among the Mchave Indians of rhe Colorado Valley. Rey. Dr. George P. Donehoo, for investigations in the history, geography, and ethnology of the tribes of Pennsylvania for incorporation in the Handbook of American Indians. Mr. William R. Gerard, for studies of the etymology of Algonquian place and tribal names and of terms that have been incorporated in the English language for use in the same work. Prof. H. M. Ballou, for bibliographic research in connection with the com- pilation of the List of Works Relating to Hawaii. Mr. James R. Murie, for researches pertaining to the ethnology of the Pawnee Indians. The systematic ethnological researches by members of the regular staff of the bureau may be summarized as follows: Mr. F. W. Hodge, ethnelogist in charge, in addition to conducting the admin- istrative work of the bureau, devoted attention, with the assistance of Mrs. Frances S. Nichols, to the final revision of the remaining proofs cf Part 2 of the Handbook of American Indians (Bulletin 30), which was published in January, 1911. This work met with such great popular demand that the edition of the two parts became exhausted immediately after publication, causing the bureau much embarrassment owing to the thousands of requests that it has 81 32 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. not been possible to supply. To meet this need in part, the Senate, on May 12, adopted a concurrent resolution authorizing the reprinting of the entire hand- book, and at the close of the fiscal year the resolution was under consideration by the Committee on Printing of the House of Representatives. The Superin- tendent of Documents has likewise been in receipt of many orders for the work, necessitating the reprinting of part 1 some months after its appearance, and about the close of the fiscal year another reprint of this part was contemplated. Much material for incorporation in a revised edition for future publication was prepared during the year, but lack of funds necessary for the employment of special assistants prevented the prosecution of this work as fully as was desired. The bureau has been interested in and has conducted archeological explora- tions in the Pueblo region of New Mexico and Arizona for many years. Since the establishment of the School of American Archeology in 1907, following the revival of interest in American archeology, by the Archeological Institute of America, that body likewise commenced systematic work in the archeology of that great region. In order to avoid duplication of effort, arrangements were made between the bureau and the school for conducting archeological investiga- tions in cooperation, the expense of the field work to be borne equally, a moiety of the collections of the artifacts and all the skeletal remains to become the property of the National Museum, and the bureau to have the privilege of the publication of all scientific results. Active work under this joint arrangement was commenced in the Rito de los Frijoles, northwest of Santa Fé, New Mexico, in July, 1910, work having already been initiated there during the previous summer by the school inde- pendently, under the directorship of Dr. Edgar L. Hewett. In August, 1910, Mr. Hodge visited New Mexico for the purpose of participating in the work on the part of the bureau, and remained in the field for a month. The great prehistoric site in the Rito de los Frijoles is characterized by an immense circular many-celled pueblo ruin, most of the stone walls of which are still standing to a height of several feet, and a series of cavate dwellings hewn in the soft tufa throughout several hundred yards of the northern wall of the canyon. Accompanying the great community ruin and also the cavate dwellings are underground kivas, or ceremonial chambers. In front of the eavate lodges were originally structures of masonry built against the cliff and forming front rooms, but practically the only remains of these are the founda- tion walls and the rafter holes in the cliff face. The débris covering these structures has been largely cleared away and the foundations exposed, and the walls of about two-thirds of the great pueblo structure in the valley have been bared by excavation. At the western extremity of the canyon, far up in the northern wall, is a natural cavern, known as Ceremonial Cave, in which are a large kiva, remarkably well preserved, and other interesting remains of aborig- inal occupancy. This great archeological site in the Rito de los Frijoles is important to the elucidation of the problem of the early distribution of the Pueblos of the Rio Grande Valley, and there is reason to believe that when the researches are completed much light will be shed thereon. There is a paucity of artifacts in the habitations uncovered, aside from stone implements, of which large numbers have been found. At the close of the work in the Rito de los Frijoles the joint expedition pro- ceeded to the valley of the Jemez River, near the Hot Springs, where a week was spent in excavating the cemetery of the old Jemez village of Giusiwa. About 30 burials were disinterred here, and a few accompaniments of pottery vessels and other artifacts were recovered; but in the main the deposits had been completely destroyed by aboriginal disturbance, caused in part by cover- ing the burials with heavy stones and partly by displacing the skeletons pre- REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 33 viously buried when subsequent interments were made. Giusiwa was inhabited in prehistoric times and also well within the historical period, as is attested py its massive, roofless church, built about the beginning of the seventeenth century. Nevertheless, no indication of Spanish influence was found in the ancient cemetery, and it is assumed that burial therein ceased with the com- ing of the missionaries and the establishment of the campo santo adjacent to the echureh. All collections gathered at Giusiwa have been deposited in the National Museum. Other immense ruins on the summits of the mesas bounding the valley on the west were examined with the view of their future excavation. The exact posi- tion of the Jemez tribe among the Pueblo peoples is a problem, and both archeological and ethnological studies thereof are essential to its determination. On completing this reconnoissance excavation was conducted in a cemetery at the great stone pueblo of Puye, on a mesa 8 miles west of the Tewa village of Santa Clara. About 50 burials were exhumed and sent to the National Museum, but artifacts were not found in abundance here, and as a rule they are not ex- cellent in quality. In the joint work in the Rito de los Frijoles the expedition was fortunate in haying the cooperation of Prof. Junius Henderson and Prof. W. W. Robbins, of the University of Colorado at Boulder, who, respectively, while the excavations were in progress, conducted studies in the ethno-zoology and the ethno-botany of the Tewa Indians, and also on the influence of climate and geology on the life of the early inhabitants of the Rito de los Frijoles. At the same time Mr. J. P. Harrington continued his researches in Tewa geo- graphic nomenclature and cooperated with Professors Henderson and Robbins in supplying the native terms for plants and animals used by these Indians as food and medicine in ceremonies and for other purposes. The expedition was also fortunate in having the services of Mr. Sylvanus G. Morley in connection with the excavations in the Rito, of Mr. K. M. Chapman in the study of the decoration of the pottery and of the pictographs of the entire upper Rio Grande region, of Mr. Jesse L. Nusbaum in the photographie work, and of Mr. J. P. Adams in the surveying. Valued aid was also rendered by Messrs. Neil M. Judd, Donald Beauregard, and Nathan Goldsmith. The scientific results of the joint research are rapidly nearing completion and will be submitted to the bureau for publication at an early date. Throughout almost the entire year Mr. James Mooney, ethnologist, was oc- cupied in ‘the office in compiling the material for his study of Indian population covering the whole territory north of Mexico from the first white occupancy to the present time. By request of the Nebraska State Historical Society he _was detailed in January, 1911, to attend the joint session of that body and the Mississippi Valley Historical Association, at Lincoln, Nebraska, where he de- livered three principal addresses bearing particularly on the method and results of the researches of the bureau with the view of their application in local his- torical and ethnological investigations. On June 4 Mr. Mooney started for the reservation of the East Cherokee in North Carolina to continue former studies of the sacred formulas and general ethnology of that tribe, and was engaged in this work at the close of the month. At the beginning of the fiscal year Dr. J. Walter Fewkes, ethnologist, was in northern Arizona examining the great cave pueblos and other ruins within the Navaho National Monument. He found that since his visit in 1909 con- siderable excavation had been done by others in the rooms of Betatakin, and that the walls of Kitsiel, the other large cliff ruin, were greatly in need of re- pair. Guided by resident Navaho, he visited several hitherto undescribed cliff dwellings and gathered a fairly good collection of objects illustrating prehistoric eulture of this part of northern Arizona, which haye been deposited in the 30/34°-—sm 19] 1—— 3 34 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. National Museum. In order to faciliate the archeological work and to make the region accessible to students and visitors it was necessary to break a wagon road from Marsh Pass through the middle of the Navaho National Monument to the neighborhood of Betatakin, and by this means the valley was traversed with wagons for the first time. On the return journey to Flagstaff, Dr. Fewkes visited the ruins in Nitsi, or West Canyon, and examined Inscription House, a prehistoric cliff dwelling of considerable size, hitherto undescribed, the walls of which are built of loaf- shaped adobes strengthened with sticks. On account of the size and great interest of these ruins, it is recommended that the area covered thereby be included in the Navaho National Monument and the ruins permanently pre- served, and that either Betatakin or Kitsiel be excavated, repaired, and made a “type ruin” of this culture area. Along the road to Flagstaff from West Canyon, Dr. Fewkes observed several ruins and learned of many others ascribed to the ancient Hopi. He visited the Hopi pueblo of Moenkopi, near Tuba, and obtained considerable new ethnological material from an old priest of that village regarding legends of the clans that formerly lived in northern Arizona. He learned also of a cliff, or rock, covered with pictographs of Hopi origin, at Willow Spring, not far from Tuba, the figures of which shed light on Hopi clan migration legends. Returning to Flagstaff, Dr. Fewkes reoutfitted in order to conduct investiga- tions of the ruins near Black Falls of the Little Colorado River, especially the one called Wukoki, reputed to have been the last habitation of the Snake clans of the Hopi in their southern migration before they finally settled near the East Mesa. So eee Bonnet monkey (Macacus sinicus)—----~ 1 | Eskimo dog (Canis familiaris) ______ Macaque monkey (Macacus cynomol- Dingo (Oants dingo) ]222 2 eee Gus ALOE Ew VINES League a 5 | Gray wolf (Cunis occidentalis) _______ Pig-tailed monkey (Macacus nemestri- Black wolf (Canis occidentalis) _____~ EL Si) ie te ie A Rees OP ene ge eect 3 | Coyote (Canis latrans) _-..-.-..--_~ Rhesus monkey (Macacus rhesus) —~----~ 5 | Woodhouse’s coyote (Canis frustror) __ Brown macaque (Macacus arctoides) _—_ 4 | Crab-eating dog (Canis cancrivorus) —_ Japanese monkey (Macacus fuscatus)_— 4 | Red fox (Vulpes pennsylwanicus) ____ Formosan rock-macaque (Macacus cy- Swift fox (Vulpes velow).._-_-_-___ CGlopts)) ease 22 oe 1 | Arctic fox (Vulpes lagopus) ___..-.—~ Black ape (Cynopithecus niger) —~---~ 1 | Gray fox (Urocyon cinereo-argenteus) — Anubis baboon (Papio anubis) ________ 1 | Striped hyena (Hyena striata)______ East African baboon (Papio cynoceph- African palm civet (Viverra civetta) — CUS) Serie. BET ee eA ee aR 1 } Common genet (Genetta genetta)____ Chacma (Papio porcarius)__-_---__- 1 |, Sudan; lion, (Helis riled)! 2222 nee Mandrill (Papio maimon) -.-.~..__=-_ 4 | Wilimanjaro lion (Felis leo sabakien- Drill (Banie) lecopnwus) 2 1 S18) a ee ee ee zray spider monkey (Ateles geoffroyi) — a tiger (helisuttoiis 222. er White-throated capuchin monkey (Cebus RY DOLECUCUS) ase eer SS Brown monkey (Cebus fatwellus)— ___~ Weeper monkey (Cebus capucinus) —-—~ Ruffed lemur (Lemur varius) ~~ -----_~ Ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta)----- Tenrec (Centetes ecaudatus)________ Polar bear (Thalarctos maritimus) ~~~ European brown bear (Ursus arctos) —-~ Kadiak bear (Ursus middendorffi) ___-~ Yakutat bear (Ursus dati) ---=——=—-_ Alaskan brown bear (Ursus gyds) ~~~ Kidder’s bear (Ursus kidderi) _-______ Himalayan bear (Ursus thibetanus) ___ Grizzly bear (Ursus horribilis) _._____ Black bear (Ursus americanus) —~____-~ Cinnamon bear (Ursus americanus) ~~~ Sloth bear (Melursus ursinus) —-----~ Kinkajou (Cercoleptes caudivolvulus) — Cacomistle (Bassariscus astuta) -~--_~ Gray coatimundi (Nasua narica)—-~~~ Raccoon, (Procyon lotor)—~=-- = STOR HR WORH HE ORF Re woh Nb ew WwW Cougar (Felis oregonensis hippolestes) vyaguar: (Melis sonca)\222- 323 f ee ea Mexican jaguar (Felis onca goldmani) leopard (Hels pandas) ==. Black leopard (Felis pardus)—~---_~ Servaloc(relis: tserval) i. Lose ort Se Ocelot. (Melis, pardalis))_ 2235282525 ee Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis) —-__~ Bay lynx i Chyne rufus)... =—— Spotted lynx (Lynz rufus texensis) _— Florida lynx (Lyne rufus floridanus) — Steller’s sea lion (Humetopias stelleri) California sea lion (Zalophus californi- OnuUg) oo eS SS ee ee eee Harbor seal (Phoca vitulina) _.-_----_ Fox squirrel (Sciuwrus niger) _------- Western fox squirrel (Sciurus ludovi- GUINUS) Xoo a 2 eee Gray squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) __ Black squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) — Prairie dog (Cynomys ludovicianus) —_ Alpine marmot (Arctomys marmottia) — ee ONFrRONNW RR ARE ORI Cm Rte he be _ oom owt 4 ake REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Woodchuck (Arctomys tionar) —----- American beaver (Custor canadensis) — Coypu (Myocastor coypus) ~--------- Hutia-conga (Capromys pilorides) ~~~ Indian porcupine (Hystrix leucura) —- Mexican agouti (Dasyprocta mexicana) Azara’s agouti (Dasyprocta azar@) —-~- Golden agouti (Dasyprocta aguti) ~~~ Hairy-rumped agouti (Dasyprocta mrymnolophna)——=—— Paca (Cw@logenys paca) Guinea pig (Cavia cutleri) __-_------- Patagonian ecavy (Dolichotis patago- nica) Domestie rabbit (Lepus cuniculus) _--~ Cape hyrax (Procavia capensis) —__----~ Indian elephant (Hlephas mavimus) —- Brazilian tapir (Tapirus americanus) — Grevy’s zebra (Hquus grevyi) -------- Zebra-donkey hybrid (Hquus grevyi- asinus) Grant’s zebra (Equus burchelli granti) — Collared peccary (Dicotyles angulatus ) — Wild=boar: (Sus: serosa). === == Northern wart hog (Phacocherus afri- CONUS) se ee Ea Hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphib- FS) ee Guanaco (Lama huanachus) --~~---~-- amas (hane glama)=———=—— = == Alpaca, (Gand. 0acos)) = = = Vieugna (Lama vicugna) —____-___-—— Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus)_— Muntjac (Cervulus muntjac)_--------- Sambar deer (Cervus aristotelis) ----~- Philippine deer (Cervus philippinus) —- Hog deer (Cervus porcinus) ——______- Barasingha deer (Cervus duvaucelii) —— Ais deer (Cervus) G018)) = = = Japanese deer (Cervus sika)—~-_----~-- Red deer (Cervus elaphus) —---------~-~ American elk (Cervus canadensis) ~~~ Fallow deer (Cervus dama) —--------+--+-~ European blackbird (Merula merula) — Catbird (Dumetella carolinensis) ~---~- Brown thrasher (J'ovosioma rufwim) —— Japanese robin (Liothrix luteus) —~-~ Laughing thrush (@Garrulaz leucolo- PILLS) ee ee ee Orange-checked waxbill (Hstrelda mel- OO OG) an re i Cordon-bleu (Hstrelda phenicotis) _--~ Cut-throat finch (Amadina fasciata) —~ Zebra finch (Amadina castanotis) -~--_ Black-headed finch (Munia_ atrica- Diller = 8 ae an ae eee om White-headed finch (Munia maja) ---- Nutmeg finch (Munia punctularia) —-~ Java sparrow (Munia oryzivora)—--- White Java sparrow (Munia oryzi- CCG) Ee ae ee i ae ee ae Parson finch (Poéphila cincta) Bearded finch (Spermophila sp.)----- Madagascar weaver (Foudia madagas- cariensis ) Red-billed weaver (Quelea quelea) —---- mh bo bo Ob ol Cee mee Wl DWH b mmowo Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) ~-----__ Virginia deer (Odocoileus virginianus) — Mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) ——~—~ Columbian black-tailed deer (Odocoileus Columuianius)) 22 ee ee ees Cuban deer (Odocoileus sp.) --------- Prong-horn antelope (Antilocapra amer- ACONW) (Saw ees ees ee ee Coke’s hartebeest (Bubulis cokei) ----~- Bontebok (Damaliscus pygargus) ——~-~-~ Blessbok (Damaliscus albifrons) _----~ White-tailed gnu (Connochetes gnu) _- Defassa water buck (Cobus defassa) ~~ Indian antelope (Antilope cervicapra) — Springbuck (Antidorcas euchore)-—-~--~ Grant’s gazelle (Gazella granti)_----_- Nilgal (Boselaphus tragocamelus) ~~-~ Congo harnessed antelope (7'ragelaphus gratus) East African eland (Oreas canna pat- COTS OMMIONUS) oe Chamois (Rupicapra tragus) ---------~ Tahr (Hemitragus jemlaicus) Common goat (Capra hircus) _-_--~--~ Angora goat (Capra hircus) --___---_~ Barbary sheep (Ovis tragelaphus) —--~ Barbados sheep (Ovis_ aries-tragela- phius) ae =e oe ee a Anoa (Anoa depressicornis) _____-_--_~ East African buffalo (Buffelus neu- MONNG Hse ee ee a Zen CBt008 ANGACUs) =e Yak (Poephagus grunniens) —---------~ : American bison (Bison americanus) ~~~ Hairy armadillo (Dasypus villosus) —~—~ Wallaroo (Macropus robustus) ~-----~ Red-necked wallaby (Macropus ruficol- Ui) oe eS a ee ee Brush-tailed rock kangaroo (Petrogale DP CNACLLIOLO) Sa eee Virginia opposum (Didelphys marsupi- Gs) S2 ese Sees Nes Se es Zs BIRDS. Nok wOO to NR Re = oF Ub wero oe Whydah weaver (Vidua paradisea) ~~~ Painted bunting (Passerina ciris) _--~ Red-crested cardinal (Paroaria cucul- UGt@)) a2 oa te a te Common cardinal (Cardinalis cardi- NOUS) es hee Se Rose-breasted grosbeak (Zamelodia lu- AGUiCLONG) = es Se Siskin (Spinus spinus) —-..-----—-—- European goldfinch (Carduelis_ ele- LTS) ee ee Yellow hammer (Hmberiza citrinella) — Common canary (Serinus canarius) —~ Bullfinech (Pyrrhula europ@a) ——-----~ Cowbird (Molothrus ater) ----------- Purple grackle (Quwiscalus quiscula) —— Red-winged blackbird (Agelaius phe- niceus ) Common mynah (Acridotheres tristis) — European raven (Corvus coraa)—---- American rayen (Corvus corax sinu- 55 hor ht ee NER OE HEED is) Or RO WOH = ra Ce de I to - to to He bo Oo = 56 European magpie (Pica pica) -----~-- American magpie (Pica pica hud- ROIECIH i re ee ees Piping crow (Gymnorhina tibicen) --- Giant kingfisher (Dacelo gigas) ------ Sulphur-crested cockatoo (Cacatua ga- UNGER AEB) ea af ea White cockatoo (Cacatua alba) ~----- Leadbeater’s cockatoo (Cacatua lead- EC GLET.) ee ee Bare-eyed cockatoo (Cacatua gym- NODtS i Roseate cockatoo (Cacatua roseica- (DUT) eee Se ee eS SSS Gang-gang cockatoo (Callocephalon GQLCOWUM) pane eee Yellow and blue macaw (Ara ararau- TCO) nr eee Red and yellow and blue macaw (Ara MOCIO) ee ee Red and blue macaw (Ara _ chlorop- UA) See ey Se ee ee Great green macaw (Ara militaris) —- Nenu (CNECSLOPANOU@OLITS) = Mexican conure (Conurus holochlorus) Carolina paroquet (Conuropsis caro- linensis ) Tovi parrakeet (Brotogerys jugularis) — Cuban parrot (Amazona leucocephala) - Orange-winged amazon (Amazona-ama- 2ON1CO) Se ee Porto Rican amazon (Amazona vit- HONK) ee ee Yellow-shouldered amazon (Amazona OCRTODLETO) a ee eee ee Yellow-fronted amazon (Amazona och- TOCEDIGLG) ee ee ee Yellow-headed amazon (Amazona levail- LON ti) ee ee ee ee Lesser vasa parrot (Coracopsis nigra) — Pigeon parrakeet (Palwornis colum- boides) Love bird (Agapornis pullaria) —----~- Green parrakeet (Loriculus sp.) -~---- Pennant’s parrakeet (Platycercus cele- OTH OED) eS Pale-headed parrakeet (Platycercus pal- UELCCTS)) ee ee Shell parrakeet (Melopsittacus undu- Latus) == 2 ee eee Great horned owl (Bubo virginianus) — Arctic horned owl (Bubo virginianus SU0arCclicus)) 2222-22 SS eee Sereech owl (Otus asio)—-----_---_-- Barred owl (Strix varia) -———=-—==— == Barn owl (Aluco pratincola) —-------- Sparrow hawk (Falco sparverius) —---~ Bald eagle (Haliwétus leuwcocephalus) - Alaskan bald eagle (Haliwétus lewco- CEnhalus |Alascanus))\ —————— Short-tailed eagle (Terathopius ecauda- 1S gee ee eee Harpy eagle (Thrasaétus harpyia) —--- Crowned hawk eagle (Spizaétus coro- WRLUUEG)) ete te a ne es Hast African hawk (Buteo sp.)-----~--~ Red-tailed hawk (Buteo borealis)-—__-_ ebb to to = ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911, Red-shouldered hawk (Buteo lineatus) — Sharp-shinned hawk (Accipiter velox) — Venezuelan hawk=2S222_ Caracara (Polyborus cheriway) —------ Lammergeyer (Gypaétus barbatus) ~~~ South American condor (Sarcorham- phus Grypnus))——— ee California condor (Gymnogyps califor- NONUS VLE aS ee eee Griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus) —-----~-~ Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnop- t6rus)\s2e2es2 52522". SS Pileated vulture (Neophron pileatus) ~~ Turkey vulture (Cathartes aura) —~---~- Black vulture (Catharista urubi) ----- King vulture (Gypagus papa) ~----~-- Ring dove (Columba palumbus)—~—~-~ Red-billed pigeon (Columba flaviros- Mourning dove (Zenaidura macroura) — Peaceful dove (Geopelia tranquilla) —— Cape dove (Gina capensis) _~-----_-_ Crested pigeon (Ocyphaps lophotes) ~~~ Chachalaca (Ortalis vetula) ~--------~ Purplish guan (Penelope purpuras- Gens) Sahat SS eee Mexican curassow (Crag globicera) —-~ Chapman’s curassow (Crar chapman) — Daubenton’s curassow (Craxr dauben- tont)\jerssce tet esse eee Wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo sil- vestris)ssec ees Vie eee Peafowl (Pave cristata) ee Jungle fowl (Gallus bankiva) —-~------~- Reeves’s pheasant (Phasianus reevesi) — Golden pheasant (Thawmalea picta) ——~ Silver pheasant (Luplocamus nycthem- Crus) 222. == 2 eee Black cock (Lyrurus tetriz) —-=-2—== == European quail (Coturniz communis) —_ Hungarian partridge (Perdixz perdiz) — Bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) -----~ Mountain quail (Oreortyxr picta)----~- Sealed quail (Callipepla squamata) —— California quail (Lophortyx califor- N1CG) es a eee Massena quail (Cyrtonyz montezwme) — Purple gallinule (Porphyrio cerulea) — Black-backed gallinule (Porphyrio me- lEnotis)\'. 2S a American coot (Fulica americana) —-~ Flightless rail (Ocydromus australis)— Common cariama (Cariama cristata) _— Demoiselle crane (Anthropoides virgo) — Crowned crane (Balearica pavonina) — Sandhill crane (Grus mezicana) —---~ Australian crane (Grus_ australasi- ONG) 'socc2 ees ie eee NUS) 222-222 ee eee Thick-knee (Qdicnemus grallarius) —— Ruff (Machetes pugnar) —----_-----— Black-crowned night heron (Nyctico- raze nycticorar nevius) _——_____-_--— Little blue heron (Florida cerulea) —- Louisiana heron (Hydranassa tricolor TURCOLNS) oe ee eee a bo YeRoOe eH we Wis oO bo ee Oe eb REPORT OF Reddish egret (Dichromanassa rufes- CYR) ee Snowy egret (Hgretta candidissima) —- Great white heron (Herodias egretta) — Great blue heron (Ardea herodias) ~~~ Boat-bill (Caneroma cochlearia) ~—~~--~ Black stork (Ciconia nigra) --------- White stork (Ciconia ciconia) ------ Marabou stork (Leptoptilus dubius) —-- Wood ibis (Mycteria americana) ----- Sacred ibis (/bis wthiopica) --------- White ibis (Guara alba) ------------ Roseate spoonbill (Ajaja ajaja) —_---- European flamingo (Phanicopterus an- Viquorum) —--------_- =< - Trumpeter swan (Olor buccinator) —--~ Whistling swan (Olor colwmbianus) —- Mute swan (Cygnus gibbus) -------- Muscovy duck (Cairina moschata) --- White muscovy duck (Cairina mos- Gini) tA ee ee a aos Wandering tree-duck (Dendrocygna ar- Egyptian goose (Chenaloper egypti- ; CLC 158) ee eS es ee ee eee eS Brant (Branta bernicla glaucogastra) — Canada goose (Branta canadensis) --~ Hutchins’s goose (Branta canadensis RULCHINS1)) =e ee Lesser snow goose (Chen hyperbo- MEUS) oe eee ee Greater snow goose (Chen hyperboreus POC) === Ree a eae Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) ~~ Painted turtle (Chrysemys picta) ~~--- Diamond-back terrapin (Malacoclemys LUSUNTS)) fae ee ee a Three-toed box-tortoise (Cistudo triun- OPED) a= ee Se Se ee Painted box-tortoise (Cistudo ornata) — Gopher turtle (Yerobates polyphemus) — Duncan Island tortoise (Testudo ephip- MVUN, ae Se eee ks eke CUND) eee ee eee ee Soa Comb lizard (Ctenosaura sp.) -------- Alligator lizard (Sceloporus undula- CHS) Bawa. a See ees tees Horned lizard (Phrynosoma cornu- LALIT Vig eee Be Gila monster (Heloderma suspectum) — Green lizard (Lacerta viridis) ------- Anaconda (Hunectes murinus) ~------ Common boa (Boa constrictor) -------~ Antillean boa (Boa diviniloqua) —-----~ Cuban tree-boa (Hpicrates angulifer) —~ THE SECRETARY. American white-fronted goose (Anser 3 albifrons) gambeli= =" == ee a 4 Chinese goose (Anser cygnoides) _---_ 1 | Red-headed duck (Marila americana) — 4 | Wood duck (Aia sponsa) ——~-_--~----- 2 | Mandarin duck (Dendronessa galeri- a CULATO)Y 22 oS ee St ee oe OV Pintaile (Dajte acuta) =-- => = 1 Shoveler duck (Spatula clypeata) —--~ 2 | Blue-winged teal (Quwerquedula dis- 4 CONS) ae ee ere 2 ee eS 21 | Green-winged teal (Nettion carolin- 3 CPU SO) a Bi ap aan a a Black duck (Anas rubripes) --------- 6 | Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) ~~-----~ 2 | American white pelican (Pelecanus 2 Crythrounynchnos) 22-- n= 2s 2} European white pelican (Pelecanus 2 ONOGKOTGWUS)" Bases Se a eee Roseate pelican (Pelecanus roscus) ~~~ 3 | Brown pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis) Black-backed gull (Larus marinus) ~~~ 7 Herring gull (Derus argentatus) —~----~- American herring gull (Larus argenta- 2 LUST SIMUCRSONMLANUS )) ee eee Laughing gull (Larus atricilla) ------- Gannet (Sula bassana) 2222-52 222>=— 1 Florida cormorant (Phalacrocoraz auri- TUSSOTICANUS) eae ee ee ee 1 | Mexican cormorant (Phalacrocorax vi- 1 gua mevicanus) —--.---_------____ 8 | Water turkey (Anhinga anhinga) ----- Somali ostrich (Struthio molybdo- 4 DRGMECR) ose t s oe Paes tap oe ee Common cassowary (Casuarius galea- 2 bus) Nee Wee SER eee ee WEE es Common rhea (Rhea americana) —~---~ 1 | Emu (Dromeus nove hollandie) ------ REPTILES. 16 | Spreading adder (Heterodon platy- 4 Ps ip St ane wey Green snake (Cyclophis e@stivus)——~--~ 1 | Black snake (Zamenis constrictor) —___ Coach-whip snake (Zamenis flagellum) — 6° | Corn snake (Coluber guttatus) —-___-- 5 | Common chicken snake (Coluber quad- 1 PUOUTCEDTUS \ en eee by Ye 2S EBRTS “oe eke) Gopher snake (Compsosoma corais cou- 2 FIC RD) eee ee er ee Ee ee ee Pine snake (Pityophis melanoleucus) — 2 | Bull snake (Pityophis sayi) _-__-_-_.--_ 1 | Texas chicken snake (Ophibolus calli- OOS Ler) RSUS bees Lee Se ean 2 | King snake (Ophibolus getulus) ~_---- Texas garter snake (Hutenia proxvima) — 1 | Water moccasin (Ancistrodon pisciv- 4 OTUS))\ a SS Se a ks ee 1 | Copperhead (Ancistrodon contortriz) — 2 | Diamond rattlesnake (Crotalus ada- 1 MONLEUS) aaa a a ae eee 1 | Banded rattlesnake (Crotalus horri- 3 AS) a ee GIFTS. Mr. and Mrs. Franklin Adams, Pan American Union, two Haitian solenodons. Miss M. Alexander, Moorefield, W. Va., a brown Capuchin monkey. 58 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. Dr. Paul Bartsch, Washington, D. C., two common crows. Frederick Carl, jr., Washington, D. C., two screech owls. Miss Catharine Carroll, Washington, D. C., a barn owl. E. S. Case, Takoma Park, D. C., three blue jays. Miss M. B. Cole, Washington, D. C., an alligator. Mrs. Mary IF’. Crown, Washington, D. C., a yellow-headed Amazon parrot. Mrs. R. 8. Day, Washington, D. C., a common canary. Boris de Street, Washington, D. C., an alligator. J. R. Eddy, Lamedeer, Mont., an American badger. Mr. Eustis, Leesburg, Va., a red-tailed hawk. Dr. Cecil French, Washington, D. C., four Hungarian quail. Guy M. Gribble, Buckhannon, W. Va., a red-tailed hawk. Jesse Hand, jr., Belleplain, N. J., two king snakes. Mr. C. A. Holland, Fenwick, Va., a bittern. Clarence Howard, Washington, D. C., a copperhead snake. HH. C. Howe, Washington, D. C., two alligators. W. H. Kelly, Sandusky, Ohio, two bald eagles. Mr. Lansdale, Washington, D. C., two common opossums. Carvel Leary, Washington, D. C., a guinea pig. Miss Frances McMullen, Largo, Fla., an alligator snapping turtle. C. W. Marks, Berryville, Va., a black snake. S. S. Paschals, Chevy Chase, Md., two zebra finches. L. E. Perry, Gorgona, Canal Zone, a spider monkey. I. W. Pilling, Washington, D. C., 10 common canaries, 1 red-crested cardinal and 2 white Java sparrows. Mrs. J. K. Pleitner, Washington, D. C., a green Amazon parrot. N. Schutz, Washington, D. C., a screech owl. John B. Smith, Renovo, Pa., a banded rattlesnake. Mrs. H. Clay Stewart, Washington, D. C., two common canaries. J. P. Taylor, Washington, D. C., a copperhead snake and a black snake. Dr. James R. Tubman, Washington, D. C., a great horned owl. United States Bureau of Fisheries, two northern fur seals. James Worcester, Washington, D. C., an alligator. Unknown donors, a hawk, a parrakeet, and a woodchuck. LOSSES OF ANIMALS. The most important losses during the year were a pair of clouded leopards, a lion, and a young Alaskan brown bear from parasitism; a leucoryx, a water buck, and a nilgai, from tuberculosis; a female American bison and a caribou, in the collection for 10 years, from peritonitis; two solenodons from sep- ticemia, and two young fur seals from enteritis and heat stroke. Dead animals, to the number of 142, were transferred to the United States National Museum. Autopsies were made, as usual, by the Pathological Division of the Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agriculture. 1The causes of death were as follows: Pneumonia, 10; tuberculosis, 8; pulmonary edema, 1; aspergillosis, 7; pseudomembranous tracheitis, 1; enteritis, 9; gastritis, 1; gastroenteritis, 7; pneumoenteritis, 1; intestinal coccidiosis, 7; peritonitis, 6; nephritis, 2; fatty degeneration of liver, 1; parasitism, 3; stomatitis, 2; strangulated hernia, 1; rupture of gizzard, 1; internal hemorrhage, 1; abscess of scrotum, 1; abscess of head, 1; unable to deliver young, 1; duodenitis, 1; colitis, 1; echinococcosis, 1; necrobacillosis, 1; pyoscianeusbacillosis, 1; porocephalosis, 1; septicemia, 3; enterotoxism, 1; cystitis, 1; endocarditis, 1; visceral gout, 1; sarcomatosis, 2; cancer of pouch, 1; leukemia, 1; icterus, 1; impaction, 3; duodenal obstruction, 1; starvation, 2; accidents and injuries, 13; killed because unfit for exhibition, 4; result of autopsy indeterminate, 3; no cause found, 4 altel REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 59 Statement of the collection. ACCESSIONS DURING THE YEAR, [IPT CSONGCC ae et ere nda ald ert ef ed ee 65 Received: trom) Yellowstone National. Parks 21-0 =~ 22222) fo ue ewe 1 Received inkexGhan gests. £2 ao te eee Seen ee ee eee 13 DMs Ge cements oper bey oe Sek oe trek Eh a ay eee eh Beer EL nal PCH a GGG Baril eB Ett eee hei eel tt eh ee spe ee Ep de 130 Bornand hatched; ine NationalsZoological; Park 3... 24 Se ten 2 115 MING Gai sco Se Se sn Se ee a ee a ees 335 SUMMARY. Baris ONTHANG hlty iy VOLO ws oo Soe ee oe 1, 424 PRE CON SIONS MOULIN SHUM Onn Ce teers mete te ty Se ee eee re oe 335 Total____--- oe od aie la le erro sah tha) sermerttvay re 1, 759 Deduct loss (by exchange, death, and returning of animals) -~---________ 345 Om davai ayo lea Uap) Ue (Ih ee ee ee ee ee ee eee 1, 414: Class. Species. eer aaa Mammals-= o.saciecc-2 5 ese Maat ase RisiNReee Ole) s manele ae Be ae ioe tis oes eee ee maracas 157 636 THREE. Soh GhSed SoS SBOE CATES Ce ET a Se ches ND a WA Ea Sea 186 685 ROTIGHES bene eeemrac omens sper siaccies Rae se aclestinSespeite mus - acl anaiciels neice simalsicie’selaelaicte 33 93 Waal -crwien set. ee cinco: oft act. glind. assed J. Linge. 376 1,414 VISITORS. The number of visitors to the park during the year was 521,440, a daily average of 1,428. The largest number in any one month was 95,5385, in April, 1911, a daily average for the month of 3,184. During the year there visited the park 169 schools, Sunday schools, classes, ete., with 4,966 pupils, a monthly average of 414 pupils. This number is an increase over the previous year of 14 schools, 1,083 pupils, and an increase in the monthly average of 90 pupils. While, most of the classes were from the District of Columbia, 47 of them were from neighboring States, and classes came from Meriden, Hopedale, Norton, North Attleboro, Clinton, Hudson, and Whitman, Massachusetts; Dover, Peterboro, Lancaster, and Exeter, New Hamp- shire; Bath, Augusta, Biddeford, Gardiner, and Sanford, Maine; Bellows Falls, Vermont; Raleigh, North Carolina; Middleport (two) and Penn Yan, New York; Waynesburg, Pennsylvania; and Hartford, Connecticut. IMPROVEMENTS. _ A house for zebras, a frame building 35 feet square, was constructed, pro- viding four good-sized stalls with yards attached. This is now occupied by a male Grant’s zebra, the male Grevy’s zebra, which was returned from the experiment station of the Bureau of Animal Industry at Bethesda, Maryland, after use there in breeding, and a hybrid from the latter animal and a do- mestic ass. The existing yards on the west side of the antelope house were too small, and the fences around them, which were of temporary character, had seriously 60 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. deteriorated. 'The construction of new steel fences was begun, inclosing a considerably larger area than the former yards, and was nearly completed by the close of the year. The yards on the north and east sides of the antelope house, which had been begun during the previous year, were completed. The temporary bird house, which had been in very bad condition, was exten- sively repaired. New roof covering was put on, and the wooden floor, some of the walls and cages, and much other interior work were renewed. Some alterations were made in the large cages in the lion house to permit more convenient handling of the animals during feeding and the cleaning of the cages. The woodwork of this portion of the building was also refinished. The public comfort room for women, which was in a very dilapidated condi- tion, was removed to make way for the yards of the antelope house, and a new comfort room was constructed beneath the outdoor cages of the small mammal house. A small frame building for the same purpose was erected near the Adams Mill Road entrance, that portion of the park being a much frequented resort for women with young children. A new public comfort room for men was also constructed in the basement of the antelope house, providing permanent conveniences, which are much better and more adequate than have existed heretofore. The drainage culvert in the beaver valley was extended to the flying cage, a distance of 800 feet, thus providing sewerage, as well as for the carrying away of surface water without the erosion which had occurred previously. Foundations were laid for cages on the east side of the small mammal house, and a concrete walk was constructed there. Various small improvements and repairs were made. A cage was built in the lion house with a pool for the young hippopotamus, which was received in May; a paddock with shelter was built for the chamois; an inclosure and pool for fur seals; the condor cage and cage for horned owls were extensively re- paired; an inclosure with shelter was built for kangaroos; an additional watch house was built; new wagon scales were set near the shop and coal vault; and the heating conduit and mains from the central heating plant were ex- tended to the elephant house and zebra house. The cost of this work was: Flousestorizebrasseibi ee. ah iy, A er ee ee eee $2, 500 New, yardsizon west sidevot antelopeshouses= 3 ee (5) Completing yards on north and east sides of antelope house____________ 250 Repairs to temporary bird house___-__--__---_--_~- LEMS ain eS 1, 000 Adierations and)repairsioslion) houses. ie ee ee ee 600 Gagerforshippopotamusese'.): 1 ho ern. Ate ee ee oe ee eee 275 Paddockdorchamoisss:. of funds it has been impossible to carry out several plans looking to the gen- eral improvement of the work. Had a capital fund been available in the begin- ning of the enterprise, it would not have been necessary for the subscription price to be placed at such a high figure. Consequently, a larger edition could have been disposed of and at a lower rate to each subscriber. At the session of the convention on July 138, methods of administration were discussed and the- following resolution passed: REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. gf That each regional bureau be requested to prepare a list of journals in each science which the catalogue will completely index in the annual issue following the year of publication, and that the central bureau be authorized to publish the lists thus prepared. The new List of Journals will consist of titles of publications devoted almost exclusively to scientific matters, and these journals will be given precedence in the work of the regional bureaus, though references to scientific papers published in other than regular scientific journals will eventually find a place in the catalogue. Some such action was necessary on account of the impossi- bility of dealing promptly with the vast number of semiscientific journals now published throughout the world, and, as promptness of publication is one of the most desirable features in an index-catalogue, it was necessary to find some means whereby an index to the more important papers could be prepared practically as soon as the papers themselves were published. To render it possible to promptly publish future volumes of the catalogue the following resolution was adopted : That the resolution of the year 1900 authorizing the central bureau to close these volumes at different stated dates, each volume to correspond to the literature of a period of 12 months, be confirmed. The effect of this resolution will be that the separate volumes of the catalogue will not necessarily cover the whole calendar year but will cover a period of 12 months. A number of discussions then followed, pertaining to plans for improvements in the organization and general work of the regional bureaus. It was then resolved: That in view of the resolution adopted unanimously by the representatives of the various countries constituting the convention, desiring the Royal Society to continue its responsibility for the publication of the International Catalogue for a further period, the committee appointed be instructed: (1) To take all possible steps to prevent reduplication by the publication of several annual and similar catalogues and indexes on the same subject, by making arrange- ments such as those now in force with the Zoological Society of London. (2) To obtain further assistance and cooperation in the preparation of the material of the catalogue from the principal scientific societies and academies and the organizations which collect materials for indexing scientific literature. The idea now seems to prevail that the organization of the International Catalogue of Scientific Literature will gradually be able to cooperate with the present editors and publishers of the various scientific indexes and yearbooks, so that the annual volumes of the International Catalogue will eventually entirely supersede and take the place of all similar publications. This will not only be of common benefit to the International Catalogue and to the societies and private individuals now doing such work, but will greatly assist scientific investigators and librarians in whose interest the International Cata- logue is prepared. The question of publishing a decennial index was then discussed and it was decided that on account of the great expense necessarily involved the work could not for the present be undertaken. The matter was left for the action of the next international council, which will be held within the next two years. During the meeting of the convention the foreign delegates were the recipients of numerous and gracious hospitalities from the Royal Society, the Royal Society Club, and individually from the English members of the convention. Very respectfully, yours, LEONARD C. GUNNELL, Assistant in Charge. Dr. CHARLES D. WALCOTT, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Appenpix VIII. REPORT ON THE PUBLICATIONS. Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the publications of the Smithsonian Institution and its branches during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1911: The total number of copies of publications of the Smithsonian Institution and its branches distributed during the year was 197,206. This aggregate in- cluded 643 volumes and separates of Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, 35,935 of Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, 19,622 special publications, in- cluding 2,743 volumes on the Harriman Alaska expedition; 518 publications not included in the Smithsonian series; 22,482 annual reports and bulletins of the Bureau of American Ethnology, and 110,000 copies of the various publica- tions of the National Museum. I. SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO KNOWLEDGE. The Langley Memoir on Mechanical Flight which was begun by the late Sec- retary Langley in 1904, and continued by Mr. Charies M. Manly, assistant in charge of experiments, was in type and nearly ready for distribution at the close of the year. This work forms a part of volume 27 of the Contributions to Knowledge. Il. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS. In the series of Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections were published (1) cover and preliminary pages for volume 51; (2) two papers of volume 53, with cover, preliminary pages, and index, completing that volume; (3) thirteen papers of volume 56; (4) four papers of volume 57; (5) and the Smithsonian Physical Tables, by F. E. Fowle, forming part of volume 58. The issues of the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections during the year were as follows: 1928. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections. Cover and preliminary pages for volume 54. Octavo. Pages v. 1934. Cambrian Geology and Paleontology. No. 6: Olenellus and other Genera of the Mesonacide. By Charles D. Walcott. Published August 12, 1910. Octavo. Pages 231-422 (unpaged index), with Plates 23-44. Volume 53, No. 6. 1939. Cambrian Geology and Paleontology. No. 7: Pre-Cambrian Rocks of the Bow River Valley, Alberta, Canada. By Charles D. Walcott. Published August, 1910. Octavo. Pages 423-431, with Plates 45-47. Volume 53. No. 7. 1940. Cambrian Geology and Paleontology. II. Abrupt Appearance of the Cambrian Fauna on the North American Continent. By Charles D. Walcott. Published August 18, 1910. Octavo. Pages 1-16. Volume 57, No, 1. 78 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 79 1941. Notes on a Horn-feeding Lepidopterous Larva from Africa. By August Busck. Published July, 1910. Octavo. Pages 2, with 2 plates. Volume 56, No. 8. 1942. Description of Seven New Species of East African Mammals. By Edmund Heller. Published July 22, 1910. Octavo. Pages 5, with three plates. Volume 56, No. 9. 1943. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections. Cover and preliminary pages for volume 51. Octavo. 1944. Smithsonian Physical Tables. Fifth Revised Hdition. By F. E. Fowle, aid, Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. Published May 17, 1911. Oc- tavo. Pages xxxiy, 318. Volume 58, No. 1. 1945. New Landshells from the Smithsonian African Expedition. By William Healey Dall. Published July 22,1910. Octavo. Pages 3. Volume 56, No. 10. 1946. Development of the Digestive Canal of the American Alligator. By Albert M. Reese, Professor of Zoology, West Virginia University. Published October 29, 1910. Octavo. Pages 25, with 15 plates. Volume 56, No. 11. 1947. The Flying Apparatus of the Blow-Fly. By Dr. Wolfgang Ritter. Hodg- kins Fund. Published May 11, 1911. Octavo. Pages 76, with 20 plates. Volume 56, No. 12. 1949. Cambrian Geology and Paleontology. By Charles D. Walcott. Cover, preliminary pages, and index for papers 1 to 7. Published June 1, 1911. Octavo. Pages ix, 488-498. Volume 53. 1988. Two New African Ratels. By N. Hollister. Published October 10, 1910. Octavo. Pages 3. Volume 56, No. 13. 2003. Descriptions of Ten New African Birds. By Edgar A. Mearns. Pub- lished December 23, 1910. Octavo. Pages 7. Volume 56, No. 14. 2004. New Species of Insectivores from British Hast Africa, Uganda, and the Sudan. By Edmund Heller. Published December 23, 1910. Octayvo. Pages 8, with one plate. Volume 56, No. 15. 2005. Some Results of Recent Anthropological Exploration in Peru. By Ales Hrdli¢ka. Published April 26, 1911. Octavo. Pages 16, with four plates. Volume 56, No. 16. 2006. New Species of Rodents and Carnivores from Equatorial Africa. Pub- lished February 28, 1911. Octavo. Pages 16. Volume 56, No. 17. 2007. Bibliography of the Scientific Writings of R. EK. C. Stearns. By Miss Mary R. Stearns. With Biographical Sketch by William H. Dall. Pub- lished April 12, 1911. Octavo. Pages 15, with one plate. Volunte 56, No. 18. 2008. The Silver Disk Pyrheliometer. By. C. G. Abbot. Published March 31, 1911. Octavo. Pages 10, with one plate. Volume 56, No. 19. 2009. Cambrian Geology and Paleontology. II. No. 2. Middle Cambrian Merostomata. By Charles D. Walcott. Published April 8, 1911. Octavo. Pages 17-40, with six plates. Volume 57, No. 2. 2010. Descriptions of Fifteen New African Birds. By Edgar A. Mearns. Pub- lished April 17, 1911. Octavo. Pages 11. Volume 56, No. 20. 2011. Cambrian Geology and Paleontology. II. No. 3: Middle Cambrian Holo- thurians and Meduse. By Charles D. Waleott. Published June 138, 1911. Octavo. Pages 41-68, with Plates S-18. Volume 57, No. 3. 2012. Cambrian Geology and Paleontology. II. No. 4: Cambrian Faunas of China. By Charles D. Walcott. Published June 17, 1911. Octavo. Pages 69- 108, with Plates 14-17. Valume 57, No. 4. 80 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. The following papers of Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections were in press at the close of the year: 2014. Cambrian Geology and Paleontology. II. No. 5: Middle Cambrian An- nelids. By Charles D. Walcott. Pages 109-144, with Plates 18-23. Volume bi, INO:{5: 2015. Description of 1 New Genus and Species of Hummingbird from Panama. By EH. W. Nelson. Volume 56, No. 21. Ill. SMITHSONIAN ANNUAL REPORTS, The annual report for 1909 was published in January, 1911. 1986. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, showing Operations, Expenditures, and Conditions of the Institution for the year ending June 30, 1909. Octavo. Pages x, 751, with 78 plates and 4 maps. Containing publications 1915, 1916, and 1950-1985. Small editions of the following papers, forming the general appendix of the Annual Report of the Board of Regents for 1909, were issued in pamphlet form: 1950. The Future of Mathematics. By Henri Poincaré. Pages 128-140. 1951. What Constitutes Superiority in an Airship. By Paul Renard. Pages 141-156. 1952. Researches in Radiotelegraphy. By J. A. Fleming. Pages 157-183, with two plates. 1953. Recent Progress in Physics. By Sir J. J. Thomson. Pages 185-205. 1954. Production of Low Temperatures, and Refrigeration. By lL. Marchis.- Pages 207-224. 1955. The Nitrogen Question from the Military Standpoint. By Charles FE. Munroe. Pages 225-2386. 1956. Simon Newcomb. By Ormond Stone. Pages 237-242, with one plate. 1957. Solar-radiation Researches, by Jules César Janssen. By H. de le Baume Pluvinel. Pages 248-251, with one plate. 1958. The Return of Halley’s Comet. By W. W. Campbell. Pages 253-259, with four plates. 1959. The Upper Air. By E. Gold and W. A. Harwood. Pages 261-269. 1960. The Formation, Growth, and Habit of Crystals. By Paul Gaubert. Pages 271-278. 1961. The Distribution of Elements in Igneous Rocks. By Henry 8S. Wash- ington. Pages 279-3804. 1962. The Mechanism of Volcanic Action. By H. J. Jonston-Lavis. Pages 305-315, with 3 plates, 1963. Conservation of Natural Resources. By James Douglas. Pages 317-829. 1964. The Antarctic Land of Victoria. By Maurice Zimmermann. Pages 331-558. 1965. Some Results of the British Antarctic Expedition, 1907-9. By KE. i. Shackleton. Pages 355-368, with 6 plates and 3 maps. 1966. The Oceanography of the Sea of Greenland. By D. Damas. Pages 369-3883, with 2 plates. 1967. From the Niger, by Lake Chad, to the Nile.- By Lieut. Boyd Alexander. Pages 385-400, with 3 plates. 1968. Mesopotamia: Past, Present, and Future. By Sir William Willcocks, Pages 401-416, with 4 plates and 1 map. : 1969. Albert Gaudry and the Evolution of the Animal Kingdom. By Ph. Glangeaud. Pages 417-429. 1970. Charles Darwin. By August Weismann. Pages 431-452. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 81 1971. Present Problems in Plant Ecology: Problems of Local Distribution in Arid Regions. By Volney M. Spalding. Pages 453-463. 1972. The Instinct of Self-concealment and the Choice of Colors in the Crustacea. By Romuald Minkiewicz. Pages 465-485. 1973. The Origin and Development of the Parasitical Habits in the Cuculide. By C. L. Barrett. Pages 487-492, with 2 plates. 1974. Some Remarks on the Protective Resemblance of South African Birds. By Alwin Haagner. Pages 493-504, with 2 plates. 1975. An inquiry into the History of the Current English Names of North American Land Birds. By Spencer Trotter. Pages 505-519. 1976. Condition of Wild Life in Alaska. By Madison Grant. Pages 521-529, with 1 plate. 1977. Recent Discoveries Bearing on the Antiquity of Man in Hurope. By George Grant MacCurdy. Pages 5381-583, with 18 plates. 1978. European Population of the United States. By W. Z. Ripley. Pages 585-606. 1979. The Republic of Panama and its People. By Eleanor Yorke Bell. Pages 607-637, with 14 plates. 1980. Ceramic Decoration: Its Evolution and Applications. By Louis Fran- chet. Pages 639-650. 1981. Some Notes on Roman Architecture. By F. T. Baggallay. Pages 651-667, with 4 plates. 1982. The Relation of Science to Human Life. By Adam Sedgwick. Pages 669-682. 1983. Intellectual Work among the Blind. By Pierre Villey. Pages 683-702. 1984. The Relation of Mosquitoes, Flies, Ticks, Fleas, and other Arthropods to Pathology. By G. Marotel. Pages 7038-722. 1985. Natural Resistance to Infectious Disease and its Reinforcement. By Simon Flexner. Pages 723-788. The report of the executive committee and Proceedings of the Board of Regents of the Institution, as well as the report of the Secretary, for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1910, both forming part of the annual report of the Board of Regents to Congress, were published in pamphlet form in December, 1910, as follows: 2001. Report of the Executive Committee and Proceedings of the Board of Regents for the year ending June 30, 1910. Pages 21, with 1 plate. 2002. Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution for the year end- ing June 30, 1910. Pages 89. The general appendix to the Smithsonian Report for 1910 was in type, but actual presswork could not be completed before the close of the fiscal year. In the general appendix are the following papers: Melville Weston Fuller, 1883-1910, by Charles D. Walcott. Ornamentation of Rugs and Carpets, by Alan §S. Cole. Recent Progress in Aviation, by Octave Chanute. Progress in Reclamation of Arid Lands in the Western United States, by F. H. Newell. Hlectric Power from the Mississippi River, by Chester M. Clark. Safety Provisions in the United States Steel Corporation, by David 8S. Beyer. The isolation of an Ion, a Precision Measurement of its Charge, and the Cor- rection of Stokes’s Law, by R. A. Millikan. The Telegraphy of Photographs, Wireless and by Wire, by T. Thorne Baker. Modern Ideas on the Constitution of Matter, by Jean Becquerel. Some Modern Developments in Methods of Testing Explosives, by Charles B, Munroe. 38734°—sm 1911——-6 82 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. Sir William Huggins, by W. W. Campbell. The Solar Constant of Radiation, by C. G. Abbot. Astronomical Problems of the Southern Hemisphere, by Heber D. Curtis. The Progressive Disclosure of the Entire Atmosphere of the Sun, by Dr. H. Deslandres. Recent Progress in Astrophysics in the United States, by J. Bosler. The Future Habitability of the Earth, by Thomas Chrowder Chamberlin. What Is Terra Firma? A review of current research in isostasy, by Bailey Willis. Transpiration and the Ascent of Sap, by Henry H. Dixon. The Sacred Ear-Flower of the Aztecs, by William Hdwin Safford. Forest Preservation, by Henry 8S. Graves. Alexander Agassiz, 1885-1910, by Alfred Goldsborough Mayer. Recent Work on the Determination of Sex, by Leonard Doncaster. The Significance of the Pulse Rate in Vertebrate Animals, by Florence Buchanan. The Natural History of the Solitary Wasps of the Genus Synagris, by E. Roubaud. A Contribution to the Ecology of the Adult Hoatzin, by C. William Beebe. Migration of the Pacific Plover to and from the Hawaiian Islands, by Henry W. Henshaw. The Plumages of the Ostrich, by Prof. J. EK. Duerdex. Manifested Life of Tissues Outside of the Organism, by Alexis Carrel and Montrose T. Burrows. The Origin of Druidism, by Julius Pokorny. Geographical and Statistical View of the Contemporary Slav Peoples, by Lubor Niederle. The Cave Dwellings of the Old and New Worlds, by J. Walter Fewkes. The Origin of West African Crossbows, by Henry Balfour. Sanitation on Farms, by Allen W. Freeman. Epidemiology of Tuberculosis, by Robert Koch. IV. SPECIAL PUBLICATIONS. The following special publications were issued during the year: 1871. A Reprint of Smithsonian Mathematical Tables: Hyperbolic Kunctions. By George F. Becker and C. H. Van Orstrand. Published June, 1911. Octavo. Pages li, 321. 1982. Classified list of Publications available for distribution May, 1910. Octavo. Pages 37. July, 1910. : 1988. Opinions Rendered by the International Commission on Zoological No- menclature. Opinions 1 to 35. Octavo. Pages 62. July, 1910. 1989. Opinions Rendered by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. Opinions 26 to 29. Octavo. Pages 63-68. October, 1910. The following special publication was in type but had not been issued at the close of the year. 2018. Opinions Rendered by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. Opinions 80-37. HARRIMAN ALASKA SERIES. The Institution received from Mrs. Edward H. Harriman several thousand copies of volumes descriptive of the Harriman expedition to Alaska in 1899. Special Smithsonian title pages were added to the volumes before distribution by the Institution. The subjects were as follows: 1990. Volume I: Narrative, Glaciers, Natives. By John Burroughs, John Muir, and George Bird Grinnell. Pages 184, with 60 plates and-4 maps. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 83 1991. Volume II: History, Geography, Resources. By William H. Dall, Charles Keeler, B. H. Fernow, Henry Gannett, William H. Brewer, C. Hart Merriam, George Bird Grinnell, and M. L. Washburn. Pages 200, with 64 plates and 1 map. 1992. Volume III: Glaciers and Glaciation. By Grove Karl Gilbert. Pages 231, with 17 plates and 1 map. 19938. Volume IV: Geology and Paleontology. By B. K. Emerson, Charles Palache, William H. Dall, HE. O. Ulrich, and F. H. Knowlton. Pages 178, with 83 plates and 1 map. 1994. Volume V: Cryptogamic Botany. By J. Cardot, Clara E. Cummings, Alexander W. Evans, C. H. Peck, P. A. Saccardo, De Alton Saunders, I. Theriot, and William Trelease. Pages 424, with 44 plates. 1995. Volume VIII’: Insects. Part I. By William H. Ashmead, Nathan Banks, A. W. Caudell, O. F. Cook, Rolla P. Currie, Harrian G. Dyar, Justus Watson Folsom, O. Heidemann, Trevor Kineaid, Theo. Pergande, and H. A. Schwarz. Pages 238, with 17 plates. 1996. Volume IX: Insects. Part II. By William H. Ashmead, D. W. Coquillett, Trevor Kincaid, and Theo. Pergande. Pages 284, with 4 plates. 1997. Volume X: Crustaceans. By Mary J. Rathbun, Harriet Richardson, S. J. Holmes, and Leon J. Cole. Pages 337, with 26 plates. 1998. Volume XI: Nemerteans. By Wesley R. Coe. Bryozoans. By Alice Robertson. Pages 251, with 25 plates. 1999. Volume XIJ: Enchytreids. By Gustay Hisen. Tubicolous Annelids. By KXatherine J. Bush. Pages 355, with 44 plates. 2000. Volume XIII: Land and Freshwater Mollusks. By William H. Dall. Hydroids. By C. C. Nutting. Pages 250, with 15 plates. VY. PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. The publications of the National Museum are: (a) The annual report to Congress; (b) the Proceedings of the United States National Museum; and (c) the Bulletin of the United States National Museum, which includes the Con- tributions from the United States National Herbarium. ‘The editorship of these publications is in charge of Dr. Marcus Benjamin. The publications issued during the year comprised the annual report for 1910; papers 1750 to 1771 of volume 38, proceedings; papers 1772 to 1845 of volumes 39 and 40, proceedings; papers 1846, 1847, 1849-1852, 1854, and 1855 of volume 41, proceedings; five bulletins and seven parts of volumes of Contribu- tions from the National Herbarium. The bulletins were as follows: No. 71. A Monograph of the Foraminifera of the North Pacific Ocean. Part IT, Textulariide. By Joseph Augustine Cushman. No. 73. An account of the Beaked Whales of the Family Ziphiide in the Collec- tion of the United Staté&s National Museum, with Remarks on some Specimens in other American Museums. By Frederick W. True. No. 74. One some West Indian Echinoids. By Theodor Mortensen. No. 75. North Pacific Ophiurans in the Collection of the United States Na- tional Museum. By Hubert Lyman Clark, No. 76. Asteroidea of the North Pacific and Adjacent Waters. By Walter Kendrick fisher. In the series of Contributions from the National Herbarium there appeared: Volume 15. The North American Species of Panicum. By A. S. Hitchcock and Agnes Chase. 1 Volumes VI and VII have not yet been prepared for publication, 84 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. Volume 14, Part 2. History of the Coconut Palm in America. By O. F. Cook. Volume 13, Part 6. The Type Localities of Plants First Described from New Mexico. A Bibliography of New Mexican Botany. By Paul C. Standley. Volume 18, Part 7. A Preliminary Treatment of the Genus Castilla. By Henry Pittier. Volume 13, Part 8. The Genus Talinum in Mexico, by J. N. Rose and Paul C. Standley ; and Two new Species of Harperella, by J. N. Rose. Volume 13, Part 9. Studies of Mexican and Central American Plants. No. 7. By J. N. Rose. Volume 13, Part 10. Miscellaneous Papers. By Albert W. C. T. Herre, William H. Brown, Joseph H. Painter, Paul C. Standley, Edward S. Steele, and H. A. Goldman. VI. PUBLICATIONS OF THE BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY. The publications of the bureau are discussed in detail in another appendix of the Secretary’s report. The editorial work is in charge of Mr. J. G. Gurley. The following eight bulletins were published by the bureau during the year: Bulletin 80. Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico. Edited by Frederick Webb Hodge. Part 2. Published 1911. Octavo. Pages iv, 1221, with many figures. Bulletin 37. Antiquities of Central and Southeastern Missouri. By Gerard ~ Fowke. (Report on explorations made in 1906-1907 under the auspices of the Archeological Institute of America.) Published 1910. Octavo. Pages . vii, 116, with 19 plates and 20 figures. Bulletin 40. Handbook of American Indian Languages. By Franz Boas. Part 1. With illustrative sketches by Roland B. Dixon (Maidu), P. BE. Goddard (Athapasean: Hupa), William Jones, revised by Truman Michelson (Algon- quian), John R. Swanton (Tlingit, Haida), William Thalbitzer (Eskimo) ; (Franz Boas: Introduction, Chinook, Kwakiutl, Tsimshian; John R. Swanton and Franz Boas, Siouan). Published 1911. Octavo. Pages vii, 1069. Bulletin 48. Indian Tribes of the Lower Mississippi Valley and Adjacent Coast ‘of the Gulf of Mexico. By John R. Swanton. Published 1911. Octavo. Pages vii, 387, with 32 plates (including 1 map) and 2 figures. Bulletin 44. Indian Languages of Mexico and Central America, and their Geo- ~ graphical Distribution. By Cyrus Thomas, assisted by John R. Swanton. Accompanied with a linguistic map. Published 1911. Octavo. Pages vii, 108, and 1 map. Bulletin 45. Chippewa Music. By Frances Densmore. Published 1910. Oc- tayo. Pages xix, 216, with 12 plates, 8 figures, and many musical pieces. Bulletin 50. Preliminary Report on a Visit to the Navaho National Monument, Arizona. By Jesse Walter Fewkes. Published 1911. Octavo. Pages vii, 35, with 22 plates and 3 figures. Bulletin 51. Antiquities of the Mesa Verde National Park: Cliff Palace. By Jesse Walter Fewkes. Published 1911. Octavo. Pages 82, with 35 plates and 4 figures. VII. PUBLICATIONS OF THE SMITHSONIAN ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY. There were no new publications issued by the Astrophysical Observatory dur- ing the year. VIII. AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. The annual reports of the American Historical Association are transmitted by the association to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution and are REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 85 communicated to Congress under the provisions of the act of incorporation of the association. Volume I of the report for the year 1908, sent to the printer in June, 1909, was published in July, 1910. Its contents were as follows: Report of the Proceedings of the Twenty-fourth Annual Meeting of the American Historical Association. By Waldo G. Leland, secretary. Report of the Proceedings of the Fifth Annual Meeting of the Pacific Coast Branch. By Jacob N. Bowman, secretary of the branch. Report of Conference on Relations of Geography to History. By Erle Sparks. Proceedings of Conference on History in Secondary Schools. Edited by Andrew C. McLaughlin. Report of Conference on Research in English History. By Edward P. Cheyney. Report of Conference on Research in American Colonial and Revolutionary His- tory. By Herbert L. Osgcod. Report of Conference on Research in Southern History. By Lyon G. Tyler. Report on Fifth Annual Conference on the Problems of State and Local His- torical Societies. By St. George L. Sioussat. The Viceroy of New Spain in the Highteenth Century. By Don E. Smith. Notes Supplementary to any Edition of Lewis and Clark. By Frederick J. Teggart. The Historical Value of the Census Records. By Joseph A. Hill. The American Newspapers of the Eighteenth Century as Sources of History. By William Nelson. The Wilderness Campaign: 1. Grant’s Conduct of the Wilderness Campaign. By Gen. Edward P. Alex- ander, Confederate States Army. : 2. Lee’s Conduct of the Wilderness Campaign. By Col. William R. Liver- more, United States Army. 3. The Wilderness Campaign from Our Present Point of View. By Maj. Hben Swift, United States Army. Ninth Annual Report of the Public Archives Commission. By Herman V. Ames, chairman. Appendix A. Report on the Archives of the State of Maine. By Allen Johnson. Appendix B. Report on the Archives of the State of Missouri. By Jonas Viles. Appendix C. Report on the Archives of the State of Washington. By Jacob N. Bowman. Appendix D. List of the Journals of the Councils and Assemblies and the Acts of the 18 Original Colonies in America Preserved in the Public Record Office, London. Edited by Charles M. Andrews. Volume ITI of the 1908 report, sent to the printer April 26, 1910, had not been entirely completed June 380, 1911. It will be made up, for convenience, in two parts, pages 1-807, 8OS-1617, containing Parts II and III of Texas Diplomatic Correspondence. Edited by Prof. George P. Garrison. The manuscript of the 1909 report, to form one volume, was sent to the printer January 10, 1911, and was practically all in type before June 30, 1911. The manuscript of the 1910 report was sent to the printer June 3, 1911. IX. SOCIETY OF THE DAUGHTERS OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. The manuscript of the Thirteenth Annual Report of the National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution, for the year ending October 11, 86 4 NNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. 1910, was received from the society February 24, 1911, and was communicated to Congress on February 27, in accordance with the act of incorporation of that organization. X. SMITHSONIAN ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON PRINTING AND PUBLICATION. The editor has continued to serve as secretary of the Smithsonian advisory committee on printing and publication. To this committee have been referred the manuscripts proposed for publication by the various branches of the Insti- tution as well as those offered for printing in the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections. The committee aiso considered forms of routine blanks and vari- ous matters pertaining to printing and publication, including the qualities of waper suitable for text and plates. ‘Twenty-four meetings were held and 115 manuscripts were acted upon. Respectfully submitted. A. Howarp Crark, Hditor. Dr. CHARLES W. WALCOTT, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. a Appenpix IX. — REPORT ON CONGRESS OF ARCHIVISTS AND LIBRARIANS, AND CON- GRESS OF BIBLIOGRAPHY AND DOCUMENTATION. Sir: I have the honor to present the following report as the representative of the Smithsonian Institution at the International Congress of Archivists and Librarians and the International Congress of Bibliography and Documentation, held at Brussels, Belgium, in August, 1910. The Congress of Bibliography and Documentation, the first of the two congresses at Brussels, held its meetings from Thursday, August 25, through Saturday, August 27. On the printed list of members there were enrolled 24 associations, bureaus, and other organizations; 34 individual libraries and other institutions; and 160 persons by name, including duplications on lists. Forty-six countries were scheduled as in relation with the congress or with the Institut International de Bibliographie, under whose auspices this congress was held, and there were actually present representatives from at least 16 countries, including, besides the United States, Great Britain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, Austria, Russia, Sweden, Switzerland, Spain, Bul- garia, Denmark, Norway, Monaco, and Turkey, about a hundred persons being actually present at most of the meetings. This congress was officially opened by M. Paul Otlet, one of the secretaries. He spoke cf the work of the Institut International de Bibliographie in collect- ing catalogue cards for every known scientific publication and their arrange ment according to the Dewey decimal classification system; also an author’s eatalogue arranged alphabetically; a collection of picture postal cards of institutions and public buildings from all parts of the world, as well as of prominent persons, and a collection of photographic negatives covering all subjects, from which prints could be made, for persons pursuing a certain line of study. He explained that by documentation was meant the collection and preserving for reference of a series of newspaper and magazine clippings with their illustrations. He referred to the International Exchange Service and mentioned in glowing terms the work of the Smithsonian Institution in organ- izing and conducting the service in the United States. The congress then pro- ceeded to consider the following subjects: I. Documents: 1. Books, reviews, journals; 2. Illustrations, foreign photographs; 3. Archives, ancient and administrative. II. Works and collections: 1. Editing; 2. Library cataloguing. 3. Collections; 4. Eneyclopedic arrangement. III. Methods: 1. Cards; 2. Rules and classification. 87 88 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. IV. Service, loan copies and exchanges: 1. Partial, general, and special; 2. National; 38. International, special; 4. International, scientific. The subject of “ International Exchanges” was briefly reviewed, and the fol- lowing resolution was passed: It is desirable to promote further developments of international exchange service, especially in obtaining frequent dispatch, in increasing the number of countries taking part in the international convention, and in providing for gratuitous transmission of all correspondence relative to request for exchanges, to the receipts for publications and to their return. It is especially desirable to admit free or beneficial associations and institutions to such exchange. It is desirable that the Smithsonian Institution, the initiator of the service of international exchanges, should itself promote the revision of the international convention of 1885 for the purpose of realizing these improvements. The congress officially visited the Congo Museum at Tervueren and closed with a banquet on the evening of August 27. The Congress of Archivists and Librarians, second to assemble, but first in point of numbers and scope, met at Brussels from Sunday, August 28, through Wednesday, August 31, under the auspices of the Association of the Belgian Archivists and Librarians, M. Louis Stainier, administrator-inspector of the Royal Library of Belgium, being the official in charge of the preliminary prepa- rations. The printed list showed 18 countries represented by national com- missions (with especial reference to archives), 12 countries represented by offi- cial delegates, delegations from 9 Belgian learned societies, 49 libraries and other institutions entered on the registry and 889 individual names, these last, of course, representing the personnel of the representative delegations as well as individual members. These 889 enrolled participants represented 21 different countries, including, besides the United States, England, Canada, Germany, France, Belgium, Holland, Austria, Hungary, Spain, Switzerland, Portugal, Rus- sia, Italy, Brazil, Cuba, Denmark, Sweden Norway, Luxemburg, and Monaco. This congress was convened on the afternoon of the 28th of August with addresses of welcome, and immediately divided into two sections, the archivists and the librarians, which held separate meetings. My time was largely de- voted to the library section, and the discussions relating particularly to library methods included cataloguing, classification, and the placing of books upon the shelves. My paper on the International Exchange Service, having been printed in advance and distributed, was read by title. This paper is as follows: There is no more important subject to be discussed at the Congrés Inter- national des Archivistes et des Bibliothecaires than that of the international exchanges, as the value of that service to libraries can not be overestimated. The time has come when the scientific and learned institutions, the public, the research workers, and the students of literature demand the scientific and literary publications of the world. Considering the question “Dans quel sens a-t-il lieu de réorganiser et d’étendre le service des échanges internationaux ”’ from an American point of view, it does not appear that reorganization is what is needed, for a system of international exchanges working with the hearty cooperation of all nations has not yet ever been developed on the lines of the existing conventions. The present international exchange service is operating under two conven- tions made between certain powers, and the work is based upon them. One of these, signed at Brussels in 1886 and officially proclaimed in 1889, made provision for the exchange of official documents and scientific and literary publications. ‘The other, which was concluded and proclaimed at the same time, provided for the immediate exchange of the official journal, as well as of the parliamentary annals and documents of the contracting- parties. The REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 89 conventions were broadly worded and allowed for the adherence of other states than those that became signatories at the time. The signers were the plenipotentiaries of the United States of America, Belgium, Brazil, Italy, Portu- gal and the Algarves, Servia, Spain, and the Swiss Confederation. Later the Argentine Republic, Paraguay, and Uraguay signified their adherence, while Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, France, Liberia, the Netherlands, New South Wales, Peru, Queensland, and Russia have established international exchange bureaus without, however, giving their formal adherence to the con- ventions. From this it will be seen that there are eleven states that have adhered to the conventions and an equal number that have established bureaus without adherence, while Great Britain, Germany, and the other countries contribute no funds toward the organization of this movement. It is therefore obvious that under the existing conditions it is not reorganiza- tion but organization that is needed, and this may readily be accomplished under the conventions now in force, as they form a firm foundation for a great international institution. The provisions in these conventions made twenty years ago may need revision in order to conform to recent international advance- ment, and it is possible that the powers that have already agreed to the con- ventions and lent their support might be willing to reopen them, provided that the powers that have not come in are willing to join in the organization of an international exchange service. The international exchanges as now carried on are of two classes—scientifie and literary publications and official Government publications. The first named of these is of the utmost importance to the cause of education, both scholastic and technical, which the present service has materially advanced by enabling individuals and institutions of learning to disseminate knowledge without restriction and practically without cost to themselves. The scientific institutions are appreciating more and more the fact that their endowments are entirely inadequate to provide for the many calls made upon them, and if in addition to printing their own publications they should have to purchase those of foreign institutions and pay the cost of transportation it would mean that some part of their work would have to be abandoned. It is therefore to a system of international exchanges that they must look for relief in this matter. The Government exchanges are necessary in order that Governments may ascertain what is being accomplished along similar lines in other countries, and as such publications are issued at the expense of the Governments they should also be distributed at their expense. The International Exchange Service of the United States is under the direc- tion of the Smithsonian Institution, and was originally inaugurated for the purpose of transmitting publications presented by institutions and individuals in the United States to correspondents abroad, in exchange for like contribu- tions from such recipients, as one of the most efficient means for the “ diffusion | of knowledge among men,” and the entire expense, including that for the exchange of documents published by the Government from 1850 to 1881, was paid from the private funds of the Institution. Through the action of Congress, upon recommendation of the Department of State, the Smithsonian Institution is recognized by the United States Govern- ment as the American agency for the international exchange of governmental, scientific, and literary publications. By the congressional resolutions passed in 1867 and 1901 a certain number of United States Government publications are set aside for exchange with those of foreign countries, to be sent regularly to designated depositories. In accordance with those resolutions there are now forwarded abroad 55 full sets of United States official publications and 33 partial sets; the official journal of the proceedings of Congress, the Congressional Record, is transmitted by mail daily to each of the Parliaments that is willing to reciprocate. During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1909, the number of packages for- warded through the international exchanges of the United States amounted to 228,875. These packages were sent direct from this country to the one for which they were intended, and from long experience this has been found to be the quickest and most satisfactory method. During the last year nearly 2,000 boxes were shipped in this way without the loss of a single consignment. Shipments are made regularly at least once a month, should the sending be but one package, and to the larger countries every week. A card index is kept of all correspondents, and upon these cards are recorded the packages sent and received by each institution and individual. 90 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. There are now in the United States 3,900 institutions and 8,000 individuals recorded in this index, while the foreign institutions number 16,500 and indi- viduals 34,252. = SS ee REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTER. beginning of the fiscal year, and amounts unexpended on 95 June 30, £9: Available aiaacee ; Balance utter Daly 1, | June 30, 1911. Appropriations committed by Congress to the care of the Institution: International Exchanges, 1909........--....----- Sate oe eeseaee le $0. 34 1 $0. 34 International Exchanges, SNORE sate enema hes Bat a ie PHAN ed Svcs SIN Soe ee 5, 506. 23 11. 47 International Exchanges, TS Oe ae ait ee San eae Me Ing a Li oe 32, 000. 00 2,323. 68 Le HORA TMA OAC SS eesseceeneeatGe so-esb--Seeese: Secseraao a7 1215 Waals) AMERICA UMNOLO mye) LOL Os eeteemacie see eels = soe ae ae ee eee 3,890. 50 237. 06 Aimenicai HW immolo py MOM ees Soot oe cet ams reels senses se eetels a5 eter 42,000. 00 2,644. 60 Astrophysical Observatory, 1909... --.- Bite Seem 2 a A sec, Mats ORS ak ae ea 314. 50 1 306. 50 Astrophysical Observatory, 1910...-..----- Dee See SBE ae CE RE 699. OL 119. 42 GOD MSI Cali OMSL VALOL iis cl ON Ue atl ieleeiclee aril ee ee ae ee 13,000. 00 1,063. 22 International Catalogue, AO a he cia ray, 9 MR TE By eee es 2.97 12:97 Minendaiional CatalormeslOlO! sn eee jee ae acti (resis nest ass See ato 212051 7 itreniavionali Catalogue. 190i: foe je feos ee. LS. JOU ery! URS sees 15s 7,500. 00 | 437.12 Meyatorsaomiihsoniqn Building. -.- 9. \2ese coud Soa ee eee eee ae 10,000. 00 | 946. 06 National Museum— Hurmituresand fxtures; 19095352522 Soe setoese + oo =~ e Pee ae en 66. 61 1 66. 61 Furniture and fixtures, 1910..-.- Se aR AAR nears Seared aeienis ciscje cea ste Oe 87, 885. 97 60. 20 Furniture and fixtures, OMT eee Slee ene ra Fe EE OA Fine See 125, 000. 00 34, 166. 16 Heating and lighting, 1909.............-.-.---- il Saas PSRAREE EE 137. 16 1 137.16 Eleatmovandunchitine Ol Qe eet. cn oe eee ee asses > = ee nein er earner 14, 526. 90 3,592. 42 Heatineandehtine Oli ss ok ene ee ee. neat ela de ce seersis oe Joc 50,000. 00 9,658. 11 resenvanlOonONcOleccionS.y G0OMs sere see erart ts are: een teenie Setar 322. 30 1 253. 68 ipresenvatiomorcollections: 19102 cena c= acon is = te ae aooce 23, 790. 15 8,461. 84 Preservation ofcollections, OURS Se Sede a ee ce ses eben 300, 000. 60 20, 623. 80 NES 0 KS LO (99 eee ete eee terse elms ae acme eee atone isis 77.05 ne) Books, UOTE Qoseec/ = eSB eS ose eS oceans so ee aan ene 1,302. 08 19. 56 Books, ON ee oe oR Sane DROS GCOS Ee Gn Santo Fe Ser ee eS asec cre eerie 2,000. 00 608. 05 TEGRETOL UY ht er SS ee ee es SRE ee ees ente tes SOONOOH Shes. seee ane Building mejoemiisy, IG) 36 8 8 Ss see pases eB aoeee dose ecearBeseerme ese 26. 62 1 26. 62 isyatllohiipes meni, MNO) = Oe shad Soo Soo a pees ao coors eee Sees tonsaseeana 6, 486. 3 20. 30 BuUcine Te pansy LOE ec ko RE Se Le hs tes ee sasas Bales 15,000. 00 3, 513. 87 REM LOM OLKSUOPS GUO meet oem ese ents eee itr eee een eles . 08 1.08 Temporary occupancy of Government buildings for tuberculosis con- STRESS epee eae ee eee eae ee wer aee aa shee eee a tens ea anlar 15, 678. 92 115,678. 92 Transfer of Greenough statue of Washington.......-..----- Se fee 409. 74 1 409. 74 Movin collections to mew HUUGING cess ook ce se ceee soe ee Selerse = 24. 73 124.73 Buildings NationalaMuserm ss 9) oes 2. So ee oe ee eS eee 77,000. 00 22,902. 78 WanlonalevoolozicaliePark 9098s iessce a= oan ser oes reece eae ence es 13. 25 113. 25 National Zoological Park, 1O1ORS- 2 2-2 a Cie re T Saeco ae eree 5, 276. 60 4. 56 Nationnle7oolopicalvParky 101l 432 cask cens os tae ces cha tie mee cm cene. 115,000. 00 6, 589. 53 1 Carried to credit of surplus fund. Statement of income from the Smithsonian fund and other revenues, accrued and prospective, available during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1912. Balance June 30, 1911 Interest cn fund deposited in United States Treasury, uUCr Tvl. Oi aang yams Is MOTOS ety ee eee A $56, 695. 00 Interest on West Shore R. R. bonds, due July 1, 1911, SUT Claee date eee eee oa ane eee eee ee SE 1, 680. 00 Exchange repayments, sale of publications, rentals, etc__ 8, 562. 48 DEpOSsits Mor specific: purposes 22 28) Se i es ars 12, 000. 00 Total available for year ending June 30, 1912_______________ Respectfully submitted. A. O. Bacon, 111, 363. 425. 66 $29, 78. 937. 14 ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, JoHN DawzeLt, Haecutive Committee. Wasuineron, D. C., December 5, 1911. PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITH- SONIAN INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, LE At a meeting of the Board of Regents held December 14, 1909, the following resolution was adopted: Resolved, That hereafter the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institu- tion shall hold their annual meeting on the second Thursday in December and a supplementary meeting on the second Thursday in February. In accordance with this resolution the board met at 10 o’clock a.m., on December 8, 1910, and on February 9, 1911. ANNUAL MEETING, DECEMBER 8, 1910. Present: The Hon. James §. Sherman, Vice President of the United States; the Hon. John M. Harlan, presiding Justice of the United States Supreme Court; Senator 8. M. Cullom; Senator Henry Cabot Lodge; Senator A. O. Bacon; Representative John Dalzell; Representative James R. Mann; Representative William M. Howard; Dr. Andrew D. White; the Hon. John B. Henderson; Mr. Charles F. Choate, jr.; and the secretary, Mr. Charles D. Walcott. The meeting was called to order by the Vice President. DEATH OF THE CHANCELLOR. The secretary announced the death of the chancellor of the Smith- sonian Institution, Melville Weston Fuller, Chief Justice of the United States, which occurred at Sorrento, Maine, on July 4, 1910. The intelligence of this sad event was received at the Institution in the absence of the secretary, and Mr. Richard Rathbun, the acting secretary, sent a telegram of condolence, both official and personal, to Mrs. Nathaniel Francis, who was with her father at the time of his death. Mr. Rathbun attended the obsequies at Sorrento as the repre- sentative of the Institution, and accompanied the funeral party to Chicago, where interment took place on July 8. The secretary stated that the advice and suggestions of the chan- cellor in relation to matters affecting the Institution that were brought to his attention had always been most helpful. He added that he had enjoyed a personal acquaintance with the chancellor that had extended over 20 years, and that it was with a deep sense of the 96 —— PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. 97 loss sustained by the Institution as well as by himself personally that he formally announced his death to the Board of Regents. Senator Bacon then presented the following resolutions, which on motion, were adopted: Whereas the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution have received the sad intelligence of the death, on July 4, 1910, of Melville Weston Fuller, Chief Justice of the United States, and for 22 years chancellor of the Institu- tion; therefore be it : Resolved, That we desire here to record our profound sorrow at the sever- ing of the tie that has bound us to him for so long a period of honored service; that we feel keenly the loss of a wise presiding officer, whose vast store of learning and gracious dignity have proved so invaluable in the deliberations of this board, and whose loyal interest in the Smithsonian Institution has been a source of inspiration to his colleagues. Ja Resolved, That we share in the grief of the nation at the passing away of one who was at once a distinguished leader of the greatest legal tribunal of our land, an eminent jurist, a patriotic citizen, a shining example of Christian gentleness, and who also possessed so charming a personality as a man and as a friend. Resolved, That we respectfully tender to the members of the family of our late associate our sincerest sympathy in their great bereavement. Resolved, That an engrossed copy of these resolutions be transmitted to the family of the late chancellor. ELECTION OF CHANCELLOR. The chairman announced as the next business in order the elec- tion of a chancellor to succeed the late Chief Justice Fuller. Senator Lodge moved— That the Vice President of the United States be elected chancellor of the Smithsonian Institution. Senator Lodge put the question, and, there being a unanimous vote in the affirmative, announced that the Vice President was duly elected. RESOLUTION RELATIVE TO INCOME AND EXPENDITURE. Senator Henderson, chairman of the executive committee, pre- sented the following customary resolution, which was adopted: Resolved, That the income of the Institution for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1912, be appropriated for the service of the Institution, to be expended by the secretary, with the advice of the executive committee, with full discretion on the part of the secretary as to items. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Senator Henderson submitted the report of the executive com- mittee for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1910, stating that the members of the board had already been supplied with copies in printed form. On motion the report was adopted. 38734°—sm 1911——7 9 98 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, I9II. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE PERMANENT COMMITTEE. Senator Henderson presented the following report: To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution: GENTLEMEN: The only matter of unfinished business in the hands of this committee is the Andrews will case. A report upon the case was made to the board at the meeting of February 10, 1910, which after discussion was referred back to the committee with power to act. As a result of a very thorough consideration of the matter, it is recom- mended by the committee that all proceedings in the Andrews will case be dropped. JOHN B. HENDERSON, Chairman. On motion the report of the permanent committee was adopted. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. The secretary stated that his report for the year ending June 30, 1910, had been printed and sent to the members of the board. Delay in formal opening of the new building for the National Museum.—The secretary said that on account of the nondelivery of cases it had been impossible to install the exhibition series in time for the opening of the building before the present Congress adjourned. In view of this and of the great desirability of first having the com- plete exhibition series thoroughly installed and the entire building in condition for critical inspection he had thought it best to postpone the formal opening until later. In the meantime the collections in cases were so arranged as to be viewed by visitors. Additions to art collections——The secretary remarked further that Mr. William T. Evans had presented 32 more paintings to the col- lections illustrating the work of American artists, and that he under- stood that Mr. Evans contemplated assembling also a collection illus- trative of wood engraving, an art which, because of the development of the various photo-engraving processes, had practically fallen into disuse. He added that Mr. Charles L. Freer had returned to China for the purpose of enlarging his great collection illustrating the early devel- opment of Chinese art, all of which it was expected would come to the Institution. Many of these articles were exceedingly rare and very difficult to obtain, and the Institution would be most fortunate in securing them. Smithsonian African expedition—tThe secretary stated that Col. Roosevelt’s final account of the éxpedition would be found in the secretary’s report to the board. This, however, gave the scientific results of the expedition in general terms only. He would state that the total amount subscribed for the expedition was $51,700, and that the expenditures to date amounted to $48,353.09, leaving a balance of $3,346.91, which was being held for expenditures necessary to the PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. 99 completion of the final reports on the expedition being prepared by the Smithsonian members of the party. The secretary added that the collections were being permanently arranged by the experts of the National Museum. It was intended to mount certain of the animals in groups, with accessories, so as to show their environment and habits. On motion the secretary’s report was accepted. LANGLEY MEMORIAL TABLET. Senator Lodge, chairman of the committee on the Langley me- morial tablet, reported that the desire of the board that this tablet should commemorate the work of Mr. Langley in aerial navigation had been carried out in a design representing him as seated, engaged in a profound study of the great preblem. ‘The committee had en- tered into an arrangement with a New York sculptor to design a tablet 4 feet 6 inches high by 2 feet 5 inches wide. It had been ex- pected that the model could be exhibited at this meeting, but a letter had been received from the artist stating that an accident to the model necessitated the working over of a large portion of it, and therefore it could not be submitted at this meeting. BIOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE PANAMA ZONE. The secretary stated that the plan for a biological survey of the Panama Canal Zone, under the direction of the Smithsonian Insti- tution, was described in his annual report, which had already been distributed to the Regents. Since the preparation of the report, a letter had been written to the President outlining the plan, and asking if it would meet his approval if cooperation were asked of the Isthmian Canal Com- mission of the War Department, the Bureau of Fisheries of the De- partment of Commerce and Labor, and the Biological Survey and Bureaus of Entomology and Plant Industry of the Department of Agriculture. The President gave his approval and authorized the secretary to communicate with the departments mentioned, which was done. All have signified their desire to cooperate and have assigned experts to aid in the work. The estimated cost of the survey which would have to be met by the Institution is $11,000, of which $5,750 has been subscribed. For several years American and foreign naturalists have been asking that a biological survey of the Canal Zone be undertaken, and various attempts have been made to arrange for such a work. The only plan that had materialized was one by the Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, for the collection and study of the fishes of the Canal Zone. By agreement, this work will now be carried on in conjunction with that of the Smithsonian Expedition, 100 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. In answer to Senator Bacon’s inquiry as to the scope of the work intended, the secretary said it was to cover studies of the animal and plant life of the land and waters of the Canal Zone. Such a survey is necessary before the canal is completed, as it is believed that conditions will be changed after the canal is opened to commerce and the waters of the Atlantic Ocean are joined with those of the Pacific. The organisms of the various watersheds would then be offered a ready means of mingling together, the natural barriers would be obliterated, and the data for a true understanding of the fauna and flora placed beyond reach. THE HARRIMAN TRUST AND GIFT. The secretary stated that he was desirous of establishing at the Institution a number of research associateships. He wished to give exceptionally strong men an opportunity to do research work with- out the care and burden of administrative duties, and with full knowledge that as long as their work was properly conducted it would be continued and that in the event of incapacity for active work, provision would be made for them. As an illustration, he cited the case of Dr. C. Hart Merriam, who has been provided for through the lberality of Mrs. Edward H. Harriman. He also mentioned that the Carnegie Institution of Washington has a number of men engaged in special fields of work, but added that there would be no probability of duplication of work. The Carnegie Institution does not undertake exploratory work such as that of the African expedition or the biological survey of the Panama Canal Zone. The field for scientific investigation is exten- sive and there are numerous worthy projects that can not be under- taken because of lack of means. In this connection the secretary announced that Dr. Merriam’s splendid collection of American mammals had been purchased by Mrs. Harriman for $10,000 and presented to the Institution. HODGKINS GOLD MEDAL. The secretary called the attention of the board to the establishment some years ago of a gold medal under the name of “'The Hodgkins Medal of the Smithsonian Institution.” This was in honor of Mr. Thomas George Hodgkins, the donor of the Hodgkins fund, and was to be awarded for exceptional contributions to our knowledge of the nature and properties of atmospheric air, or for original and practical applications of existing knowledge of the air to the welfare of mankind. The first Hodgkins medal was awarded in 1898 to Prof. James Dewar for his researches on the liquefaction and solidification of PROCREDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. 101 atmospheric air and for his discovery of the extraordinary magnetic properties of liquid oxygen. The second award of the medal was to Prof. J. J. Thomson in 1902 for his investigations on the conduc- tivity of gases, especially on the gases that compose atmospheric air. It is now proposed to award a third Hodgkins medal, provided it is determined that sufliciently meritorious discoveries or investiga- tions of the character mentioned have been made, and in order to pass upon the matter an advisory committee on award has been appointed. PUBLICATION FUND FOR THE INSTITUTION. The secretary stated that under the general appropriation for public printing and binding, the Institution is allotted $10,000 for the printing of its annual reports, but that its other publications were paid for from private funds of the Institution. He exhibited a set of the publications issued by the Institution and its branches during the past two years, many of which had been published at the cost of the Institution. Mr. Mann inquired if the secretary would lke to have a larger edition of the annual report, to which the secretary repled that it would be desirable. Mr. Mann responded that this might be possible by a special resolution for any one year. There was some further discussion, during which it was suggested that it would be proper for the secretary to speak of the matter of an appropriation for the publications of Smithsonian works when he was before the Committee on Appropriations. DEATH OF OCTAVE CHANUTE. The secretary recalled to the board that when the committee on award of the Langley medal was appointed, Mr. Octave Chanute was designated its chairman. Mr. Chanute died on November 23 last. His eminence as an engineer and his own important work in the science of aeronautics peculiarly fitted him for the duties of chairman of this committee, and his death will be a severe blow to the new science. The secretary added that it seemed best to defer the selection of his successor as chairman of the committee for the present. FULLER MEMORIAL SERVICE. Senator Cullom said that he thought some more formal action should be taken in regard to the death of Chief Justice Fuller than had been adopted at this meeting, and inquired whether the matter was being considered. 102 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. The secretary replied that it had been his intention to request certain members of the board to prepare sketches of Chief Justice Fuller’s life, which might later be printed in the annual report. Senator Cullom added that he would like very much to have an address delivered before the Regents by Justice Harlan, who above all others was the most competent to prepare it. After further discussion, Senator Cullom moved— That Mr. Justice Harlan be requested to deliver, under the auspices of the Board of Regents, and at such time as will best suit his convenience, an address upon the life and work of the late Chief Justice Melville W. Fuller. The motion was carried, and Justice Harlan said that he would be glad to deliver the address and that he would confer with the secretary on the subject. ADJOURNMENT. There being no further business to come before the board, on mo- tion the meeting adjourned and the Regents inspected the exhibit of skins and mounted specimens from the African expedition collection. REGULAR MEETING, FEBRUARY 9, 1911. Present: The Hon. James S. Sherman, Vice President of the United States (chancellor), in the chair; the Hon. Edward Douglass White, Chief Justice of the United States; Senator S. M. Cullom, Senator A. O. Bacon, Representative John Dalzell, Representative James R. Mann, Dr. James B. Angell, the Hon. John B. Henderson, the Hon. George Gray, and the secretary, Mr. Charles D. Walcott. ORDER OF BUSINESS. In accordance with the previously adopted order of business, the following matters were next reported on by the secretary: Appointment of Regents—Section 5580 of the Revised Statutes provides that the Chief Justice of the United States shall be a Regent of the Smithsonian Institution. The vacancy in the office of Chief Justice caused by the death of Chief Justice Fuller has been filled by the appointment by the President of Mr. Justice Edward Douglass White, who therefore, under the operation of the section named, becomes a Regent ex officio, Dr. James B. Angell has been reappointed for a term of six years by joint resolution of Congress. Closing up of Andrews will case—At the annual meeting held December 8, 1910, the board adopted a recommendation of the per- manent committee that all further proceedings in the Andrews will case be dropped. The instructions of the board have been complied with. PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. 108 Fuller memorial meeting.—lt having appeared to be the wish of the board at its annual meeting on December 8 last that a formal meeting in memory of the late Chief Justice Fuller should be held by the Regents, a resclution was then adopted inviting Justice Har- - lan to deliver such an address on a suitable occasion, the time of which was to be left entirely to his convenience. The secretary re- grets to report that Justice Harlan has written him to say that he finds himself unable in the near future to comply with the wishes of the board. After discussion, in which it was suggested that the proposed trib- ute to the late chancellor take the form of a memorial to be published in the annual report, the following resolution was adopted: Resolved, That the secretary be requested to prepare a suitable memorial of the life and work of the late Chief Justice Melville Weston Fuller, chancellor of the Smithsonian Institution from 1S88 to 1910, which memorial is hereby de- ciared approved for inclusion in the next annual report of the Board of Regents. Langley memorial tablet —At the last meeting of the board it was reported that the Langley memorial tablet had met with an acci- dent and would have to be remodeled. This work of repair has been going on, but no photograph showing the present condition of the tablet has been submitted by the sculptor. Hodgkins gold medal of tke Instituzion—The committee ap- pointed by the secretary to consider whether sufficiently important investigations into the phenomena of atmospheric air in relation to the welfare of mankind had been made to merit the award of the third Hodgkins gold medal have reported their findings with a recommendation, which report is now being considered. Biological survey of the Panama Canal Zone—vThe secretary stated that the board would recall that at the late annual meeting ke had spoken of the organization of a biological survey of the Panama Canal Zone to include studies of the life of the land and waters of that region, and had explained the necessity for immediate action, as the opening of the canal would mingle the waters of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, which might permanently destroy the possibility of a true understanding of the fauna and flora now existing there. Since that meeting a party of naturalists designated to carry on the work has reached the zone, and the collections resulting from their work are already arriving. Those engaged in the survey are the following: Prof. S. E. Meek, of the Field Museum of Natural History; Prof. Henry Pittier, of the United States Bureau of Plant Industry; Mr. KE. A. Goldman, of the United States Biological Survey; Mr. S. F. Hildebrand, of the United States Bureau of Fisheries; Mr. E. A. Schwarz and Mr. August Busck, of the United States Bureau of 104 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. Entomology; and Mr. William R. Maxon, of the United States National Museum. Much interest is being manifested in this survey both here and in the zone. The Republic of Panama is so impressed with the im- portance of the work that it has invited the Institution to extend the survey into that country. The Institution is indebted to the Departments of State, Agricul- sure, Commerce and Labor, the War Department, and the Panama Railroad & Steamship Co. for courtesies which have insured the success of the enterprise. As previously stated, a very considerable part of the funds neces- sary for the survey has been received by subscription. Appointment of an additional assistant secretary—The secretary called attention to the large increase in the work of the Institution and its branches, brought about by the natural growth of their activities and the addition of new interests, and stated that there was need for the appointment of an additional assistant secretary. He desired the permission of the board to appoint to that position before the close of the present fiscal year Dr. Frederick William True, who entered the service of the Institution in 1878, who was a zoologist of established reputation, and who was now head curator of the Department of Biology in the United States National Museum. After discussion, the following resolution was adopted: Resolved, That the proposed appointment by the secretary of Dr. Frederick William True as assistant secretary of the Smithsonian Institution be approved. Bequest of George W. Poore.—The secretary announced that since the annual meeting notice had been received that the Institution had. been made the residual legatee of the late George W. Poore, of Lowell, Mass., who left an estate estimated to be $40,000, under the condition that the income from this sum should be added to the prin- cipal until a total of $250,000 should have been reached, and that then the income only was to be used for the purposes for which the Insti- tution was created. The portions Bs the will relating to the bequest are as follows: re IreM 7. The large and small photographs of myself I desire given to the Smithsonian Institute hereinafter mentioned; to be given a place in their Insti- tute where they may be seen, as one of the conditions of the gift to them herein made by me. Irem 8. All the rest, residue, and remainder of my estate, real, personal, and mixed, of whatever name or nature and wherever found or situate, of which I shall die seized, possessed. or entitled, whether at law or in equity, I give, devise, and bequeath to the Smithsonian Institute, at Washington, D. C., but in trust nevertheless and upon the condition, in addition to the condition as to photographs of myself as above, that the fund realized from my estate and from turning the real and personal estate into money shall be held for- ever by said Smithsonian Institute as a fund to be called the Luey T., and George W. Poore fund, and upon condition that the income only of said fund PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. 105 shall be used for the purposes only for which said Smithsonian Institute was created, said Lucy T. and George W. Poore fund to be kept separate from all other funds, and the income from the same not to be used until the principal, by accumulation of the income to be added to the principal from year to year. shall have reached the sum of two hundred and fifty thousand dollars. I make this gift not so much because of its amount as because I hope it will prove an example for other Americans to follow, by supporting and encouraging so wise and beneficent an institution as I believe the Smithsonian Institute to be, and yet it has been neglected and overlooked by American citizens. “The secretary said: “At my request the Institution’s interests in the matter are being looked after by Mr. Choate, of the Board of Regents, who has assured me that he will be glad to act as agent or attorney for the Institution without charge.” The Paul J. Rainey expedition to Africa—The secretary said that Mr. Paul J. Rainey, of New York City, recently called at the Institution and stated that it was his intention to make a hunting and collecting trip in Africa, and asked if a man could be sent with him to prepare the specimens which he wished to present to the Institution. The route of travel was to be north of that of the recent Smithsonian expedition, through the country lying between the northern portion of British East Africa and the southern part of Abyssinia. Mr. Rainey agreed to bear all expenses in connection with the trip. Tt was thought desirable to accept this offer, as it was hoped to add new material to the present collections; and Mr. Edmund Heller, who was one of the field naturalists on the Smithsonian expedition, and who was now engaged in working up that collection, had been authorized to suspend work upon it temporarily. and de- tailed to accompany Mr. Rainey. He expected to sail on February 18, and to be absent about eight months. Portrait of Washington—tThe secretary called attention to a por- trait of Gen. Washington, which was hanging in the room in which the board was then meeting. _ This portrait was part of the Lewis collection of Washington relics purchased by the Government in 1878 and stored for a time at the Patent Office. When the collection was transmitted to the National Museum in 1883, the Commissioner of Patents retained this picture, and it is only recently that the matter came up, with the result that the portrait was sent to the Institution by the Secre- tary of the Interior, Mr. Ballinger. The picture has been attributed to Gilbert Stuart, but a careful investigation fails to reveal anything to substantiate the claim, and it is now recorded as having been painted by an unknown artist. By some it is regarded as a copy of an original painting. Mrs. Lewis had said that there was a tradition in the family that this was con- sidered the best likeness of Washington ever painted. 106 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. American Indian memorial and museum building.—It was stated by the secretary that a request to Congress to erect in Washington an American Indian memorial and museum building, under the con- trol of the Secretary of the Interior, had been embodied in two iden- tical bills designated as follows: House joint resolution 274 and Sen- ate bill 9830. This subject is one which, by direction of Congress, has long been fostered by the Smithsonian Institution through the National Museum and the Bureau of American Ethnology, all material objects being deposited in the former, and all records of investigations in the latter. The Museum collection is the richest in the world as regards the Indians of North America, to which the proposed new building is intended to be devoted. In extent and variety the col- lections of the National Museum are not what they might and should be, but this is due to the fact that appropriations sufficient to perfect these collections have never been obtainable. The founding of a new museum, especially under the proposed auspices, could only result in the partial duplication of objects and records and in an increase in the cost of bringing together a proper representation of the North American Indians. Should Congress take any action in this matter, it would seem desirable that it be directed toward giving increased funds for the use of the Institution and Museum. If the movement is one tending to bring individual help from different parts of the country, such cooperation could best be turned toward increasing the present collections, which are already extensive and important, Commercial museum.—The subject of establishing at the National Capital a trade or commercial museum to be maintained at the ex- pense of the Government has been recently agitated in connection with the Board of Trade of Washington. While no bill in support of such a measure has been submitted to Congress as yet, it is appar- ently the intention to request congressional action in connection with any celebration which may be held here in commemoration of the completion of the Panama Canal. While such a museum would follow lines in large part not thetildell in the plan of the National Museum, yet in some respects the tendency would be to duplicate its collections. It would, furthermore, appear to those who have given the matter consideration that Washington is not the proper place for the loca- tion of a museum of this kind. It should be established and con- ducted in a large commercial center like New York City. Prehistoric ruins —The secretary exhibited a number of photo- graphs showing the excavations among prehistoric cliff dwellings and pueblo ruins in New Mexico resulting from the joint work of the Bureau of American Ethnology and the Archeological Institute PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. 107 of America. In one canyon in which these excavations were con- ducted the cliff dwellings extend along the wall of the canyon for about 2 miles, while in another locality in the same general region one of the many pueblo ruins covers an area of about 600 feet square. Other photographs were presented showing the excavation and re- pair of the celebrated Balcony House in southern Colorado, conducted under the joint auspices of the Smithsonian Institution and the Colo- rado Cliff Dwellers Association. Excavations were made also in newly discovered cliff dwellings and other archeological remains in northwestern Arizona. Field work has been conducted by the Bureau of American Eth- nology among the tribes which composed the Creek Confederacy of the oe States; the Tewa Indians of the Rio Grande Valley, New Mexico; the MWaaneanko Indians of Wisconsin and Nebraska; the Piegan, Blackfeet, Cheyenne, and Menominee Indians of the Algonquian family; the Chippewa Indians, especially with reference to their music; the Osage Indians, now in Oklahoma, and the Iro- quois in New York. A study of the past and present population of the Indians, with the various causes of their decrease, is being con- ducted, and a bibliography of the Hawaiian Islands is in prepa- ration. Resignation of Senator Henderson.—Senator Henderson stated that he had served the Institution as a Regent for 19 years, but that he had now reluctantly come to the conclusion that it was neces- sary to relieve himself of all possible work, as the condition of his health would not permit him to continue his duties with satisfaction. to himself and justice to the Institution. He therefore desired to tender his resignation as a Regent to take effect at such time as would best suit the board’s convenience. After discussion, the Senator first submitted his resignation as a member of the executive committee to take effect at once, and on motion it was carried— That the resignation of the Hon. John B. Henderson, chairman of the execu- tive committee, as a member of that committee, be accepted with regret. The Senator then presented his resignation as a Regent to take effect March 1, 1911. Judge Gray offered the following resolution, which was unani- mously adopted: Whereas the board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution having learned that the Hon. John B. Henderson has tendered his resignation as a Regent, a position he has filled with signal ability for 19 years; Resolved, That the Regents desire here to express to him their high apprecia- tion of his services as a member of the board, their sincere regret at the termi- nation of his official connection with the institution, and their cordial good wishes for his future health and happiness. 108 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. Mr. Mann then offered the following resolution, which was adopted: Resolved, That the resolution in relation to the resignation of the Hon. John B. Henderson as a Regent of the Smithsonian Institution be engrossed and transmitted to him. The chancellor stated that the secretary would communicate to Con- gress the announcement of Senator Henderson’s resignation. Executive committee vacancy filled—The matter of the vacancy in the membership of the executive committee was brought up, and Senator Bacon was nominated for the position. After discussion, the following resolution was adopted: Resolved, That the vacancy in the membership of the executive committee, caused by the resignation of the Hon. John B. Henderson, be filled by the election of the Hon. A, O. Bacon. Models of patents——Mr. Mann said that there were pending in Congress bills providing for the destruction of the old models that had been on deposit in the Patent Office for many years, and asked if the Smithsonian Institution could make any use of them. The secretary explained that this matter had been brought to the Institution’s attention two or three years since, and that about 12,000 of the models had been selected for the use of the industrial exhibit in the Museum. Those left were not suited to museum pur- poses. . Adjournment.—There being no further business to be transacted, on motion the board adjourned. GENERAL APPENDIX TO THE SMITHSONIAN REPORT FOR 1911 ADVERTISEMENT. The object of the GENERAL APPENDIX to the Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution is to furnish brief accounts of scientific dis- covery in particular directions; reports of investigations made by collaborators of the Institution; and memoirs of a general character or on special topics that are of interest or value to the numerous correspondents of the Institution. It has been a prominent object of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, from a very early date, to enrich the annual report required of them by law with memoirs illustrating the more remarkable and important developments in physical and biological discovery, as well as showing the general character of the operations of the Institution; and this purpose has, during the greater part of its history, been carried out largely by the publication of such papers as would possess an interest to all attracted by scientific progress. In 1880 the secretary, induced in part by the discontinuance of an annual summary of progress which for 30 years previous had been issued by well-known private publishing firms, had prepared by com- petent collaborators a series of abstracts, showing concisely the prom- inent features of recent scientific progress in astronomy, geology, meteorology, physics, chemistry, mineralogy, botany, zoology, and anthropology. This latter plan was continued, though not altogether satisfactorily, down to and including the year 1888. In the report for 1889 a return was made to the earlier method of presenting a miscellaneous selection of papers (some of them original) embracing a considerable range of scientific investigation and dis- cussion. This method has been continued in the present report for 1911. 110 THE GYROSTATIC COMPASS.! [With 3 plates. ] By H. MarcHanp. The gyrostatic compass may be looked upon as one of the most interesting inventions made during recent years. The gyroscope is familiar to all. Nor are we ignorant to-day of the fundamental laws which govern it. The great physicist Fou- cault first completely formulated them as the result of his profound researches on the subject. The first of these laws is that a gyroscope with perfect freedom of movement—that is, the power to move in any direction, and free from the action of gravity—will tend to maintain the initial position given to it. The second law is that if a gyroscope has only two degrees of freedom, in such a way that it can undergo displacement in two planes only; it must, if subject to the action of gravity, and provided that it is not at the poles of the earth, tend to place itself so that its axis is parallel to that of the earth and accordingly will indicate the direc- tion of true north. A system of this kind is free from the errors which affect the mag- netic compass, and therefore the idea of taking advantage of it for navigation must have early attracted the attention of investigators, especially as the general use of steel in the construction of vessels entails grave difficulties in the use of magnetic instruments. Formerly the means at hand were insufficient for constructing a satisfactory, practical instrument, and so, during the time of Foucault, and even much later, the numerous scientists who approached the problem did not meet with much success. A German investigator, Dr. Anschiitz, has recently succeeded in constructing an instrument on gyrostatic principles which is prac- tical. In 1900 he commenced the study of a gyroscope with perfect freedom of movement. Later, however, in 1906, be abandoned that for one having only two degrees of freedom. Even with the latter conditions the problem required great nicety. A grave difficulty comes from the fact that such a device is affected, under ordinary circumstances, not only by the rotation of the earth but also by all the forces to which it is subjected because of the rolling 1 Translated by permission from Cosmos, Paris, New Series No. 1385, Aug. 12, 1911, pp. 181-184. lll 112 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. of the ship. Therefore, in order to get a good result, it was necessary for the compass to have a very great gyrostatic resistance, so termed, opposing energetically any force tending to change the direction of its axis of rotation, and that the friction of its bearings should be made as small as possible. A consequence of the latter condition, however, would be that the gyrostat would come to its normal position only after a relatively long time, oscillating to and fro about that normal position. Meanwhile it would be subject to new perturbations. Accordingly one great desideratum was to provide some device for lessening these oscillations; at first, Anschiitz tried for this purpose a second gyrostat; later he developed a much more simple and effi- cient method. His gyrostatic compass was tried on the steamer Deutschland in 1908 and has since been used in the German Navy. It has just been adopted by the English Navy, and other navies are also trying it. Let us consider its principles: We know that a gyroscope once started tends to maintain its axis in an invariable direction, and that if any force is applied tending to change this direction, preces- sional movement takes place, which displaces the axis perpendicular to the direction of the disturbing force. Such being the case, let us imagine a gyroscope, inclosed in an appropriate box, suspended from a float which rests in a liquid bath in such a manner that the gyro- scope is perfectly free to swing in any direction like a pendulum which is at rest; the center of gravity of the system is below the metacenter; the gyroscope is mounted at the lowest point possible. Because of its weight the axis of the gyroscope tends to maintain itself, as well as the whole attached mechanism, in a horizontal position. Let us set the gyroscope disk rotating. In the past such rotation could be effected only by rough and very unsatisfactory means; now we have a much more advantageous method at our disposal. We may, for instance, drive it by alittle three-phase motor fed by means of fine conducting wires so that the rotation may be kept up indefinitely. As soon as the gyroscope disk is in rapid rotation with its axis hori- zontal, then if this axis is not in the plane of the terrestrial meridian, the rotation of the earth will tend to alter the axis from its original position. The gyroscope tends to respond, but, restricted by its weight, which forces the axis to remain horizontal, it will undergo only a horizontal displacement. This leads it to take a north and south direction, because as long as its axis is not parallel to that of the earth, the cause of this movement is still effective, so that if it is sufficiently free to move, it will indicate true north. Plate 1 shows a model designed to show experimentally this action. - It consists of a small gyroscope, driven by a small three-phase elec- THE GYROSTATIC COMPASS—-MARCHAND. 113 tric motor, and entirely free to turn in any direction were it not for two small springs, which serve to represent the attraction due to gravity and tend to keep the gyroscope’s axis tangent to the surface of the sphere upon which it is mounted. This apparatus may be slipped along a large movable metallic circle representing a meridian. When the springs are detached the axis of the gyroscope tends to take an invariable direction and to depart from it only because of the inevitable friction which is present at the pivots. However, once these springs are attached, if the meridian circle is moved to another place on the globe, then the axis will change so as to come into the plane of the circle, one of its extremities being directed toward the upper pole of the circle. According to the direction of the gyroscope and that of the circle, one or the other end of the axis moves so as to point to this upper pole. In the Anschiitz compass, of which fig- ure 1 is asectional and plate 2 a perspective view, the gyrostat is similarly driven by a three-phase electric motor; the float from which the gyroscope is suspended is a hollow Fia. 1.—Anschiitz gyrostatic compass. Vertical section. A, three- Pou] of.stoel bantinlly, pete sugnecarms noms bbes 3 (Oerebe ative moe immersed in a mer- float, floating in the mercury Q and counterbalancing the weight curybath contained in of! meviag rstem: , compass or, sree a esl by an annular box ; also of ors for leading in two branches of the three-phase current, the third steel. To the top of sae let made through the floating ring and the surrounding this float is fixed the compass card. The north-south line of the card coincides exactly with the direction of the axis of the gyrostat. The small motor which rotates the gyrostat disk is so constructed that its stationary part is built on the box of the gyrostat. The electrical connections to the exterior are made for two of the circuits through small cups of mercury. The third circuit passes through the mercury bath containing the float and then through the case itself. The rotor is rigidly built on the gyrostat disk. It is of one piece, spindle and all, and made of nickel steel. It is provided with bail bearings of extra-hard steel and makes 20,000 revolutions per min- ute. The axle is of the Laval type or ‘‘flexible axle.” Its great 38734°—sm 1911——8 114 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. velocity of rotation frees it from any danger of deformation due to shocks. A small level is attached to the compass card to assure that the instrument is horizontal. The whole system is mounted on gymbals and attached to the binnacle with springs after the usual manner with marine magnetic compasses. The damping of the oscillations of the compass is effected in a very ingenious manner. Near the center and on both sides of the gyrostat box are bored small holes. A third hole is bored in the surrounding case. The rotation of the gyrostat produces a current of air within and a pressure toward the exterior. The jet of air at its exit is cut by a small blade attached to a pendulum. When the compass is exactly horizontal, the jet is divided equally on both sides of the blade. If it is not horizontal, the pen- dulum displaces the blade with reference to the aperture; then the divided portions of the jet of air are no longer equal and a damping couple is produced. As with other compasses, this, too, is subject to disturbing influences. But a great advantage of the gyrostatic compasses lies in the fact that in all cases the causes of the disturbances are independent of the special instrument and may be corrected by specially prepared tables. Another important property is that the directing force can be made much greater than is possible with the magnetic needle. Generally it is five times that of an ordinary well-constructed magnetic compass. Further, since the axis remains both in the meridional and in the horizontal planes, the dial can oscillate only slightly about the north and south direction. This renders it easy to fix contact points at the extremities of the east and west line for the electrical transmission elsewhere of the indications of the compass. A gyrostatic compass equipment consists of a master compass, provided with a transmitter, and secondary compasses connected electrically with the master. The master compass, together with the transmitter, is placed in a convenient, well-protected place, and the secondary ones placed wherever they are needed; or two master compasses may be used with two systems of secondary ones. The master compass, with its transmitter, of which a photograph is shown in plate 3, figure 1, differs from the others in that the binnacle is moved by a reversible electric motor controlled by contacts under the gyrostat itself, so that it turns rapidly when necessary and follows at all times the motions of the axis of the gyrostat. It is this moving binnacle which sends the currents controlling the secondary compasses and keeps them in synchronism with the master compass. The latter carries on its axis the necessary commutator. Special secondary compasses are employed, as shown in the illus- tration (pl. 3, fig. 2). It may be noted that it has at its center a THE GYROSTATIC COMPASS—MARCHAND. 115 second limb, which makes one complete rotation for each 10 degrees of deviation and thus renders visible very small deviations. The current for the motors of the gyrostat and of the transmitter is fur- nished at 120 volts, 333 periods per second by a 16-pole motor generator working on an ordinary direct-current lighting circuit. It runs at a speed of 2,500 turns per minute. The motor of the gyrostat is bipolar. An Anschtitz compass uses normally 700 watts. Besides the apparatus already described, there is furnished a short description, with the necessary directions for starting the compass and regulating it. Ammeters are placed in each of the three circuits, and a voltmeter may be connected between any two of them. For each wire there is a pair of fuses so contrived that, by means of a quick-working switch, if one of the fuses fails the other may be quickly inserted. ¢ fees oe Ee aes Sader: gait. coum earn? BOR Bist hanray a pee PLATE 1. Smithsonian Report, 1911.—Marchand. DEMONSTRATION MODEL OF GYROSTATIC COMPASS. Smithsonian Report, 1911.—Marchand. PLATE 2. GYROSTATIC COMPASS. Smithsonian Report, 1911.—Marchand. 1. COMPASS AND TRANSMITTER. MASTER COMPASS. 2. RECEIVER. SECONDARY COMPASS. PLATE RADIOTELEGRAPHY.1 [With 1 plate.] By ComMENDATORE G. Marconi, LL.D., D.Sc. The practical application of electric waves to the purposes of wire- less telegraphic transmission over long distances has continued to extend to a remarkable degree during the last few years, and many of the difficulties, which at the outset appeared almost insurmountable, have been gradually overcome, chiefly through the improved knowl- edge which we have obtained in regard to the subject generally and to the principles involved. The experiments which I have been fortunate enough to be able to carry out, on a much larger scale than can be done in ordinary laboratories, have made possible the investigation of phenomena often novel and certainly unexpected. Although we have—or believe we have—all the data necessary for the satisfactory production and reception of electric waves, we are yet far from possessing any very exact knowledge concerning the con- ditions governing the transmission of these waves through space, especially over what may be termed long distances. Although it is now perfectly easy to design, construct, and operate stations capable of satisfactory commercial working over distances up to 2,500 miles, no really clear explanation has yet been given of many absolutely authen- ticated facts concerning these waves. Some of these hitherto apparent anomalies I shall mention briefly in passing. Why is it that when using short waves the distances covered at night are usually enormously greater than those traversed in the day time, while when using much longer waves the range of transmission by day and night is about equal and sometimes even greater by day ? What explanation has been given of the fact that the night dis- tances obtainable in a north-southerly direction are so much greater than those which can be effected in an east-westerly one? Why is it that mountains and land generally should greatly obstruct the propagation of short waves when sunlight is present and not dur- ing the hours of darkness ? 1 Reprinted by permission from author’s separate of Proceedings of the Royal Institution. Read before Royal Institution of Great Britain at weekly evening meeting, Friday, June 2, 1911. 117 118 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. The general principles on which practical radiotelegraphy is based are now so well known that I need only refer to them in the briefest possible manner. Wireless telegraphy, which was made possible by the fields of research thrown open by the work of Faraday, Maxwell, and Hertz, is operated by electric waves, which are created by alternating currents of very high frequency, induced in suitably placed elevated wires or capacity areas. These waves are received or picked up at a distant station on other elevated conductors tuned to the period of the waves, and the latter are revealed to our senses by means of appropriate detectors. My original system as used in 1896 consisted of the arrangement shown diagrammatically in figure 1, where an elevated or vertical wire was employed. : This wire some- : times terminated In a capacity or was connected to A earth through a spark gap. By using an in- duction coil or a other source of sufficiently high tension electricity sparks were made to jump across the gap; thisgave rise to oscillations of high frequency in the elevated conductor and earth, with the result that energy in the form of electric waves was radiated through space. At the receiving station (fig. 2) these waves induced oscillatory currents in a conductor containing a detector, in the form of a coherer, which was usually placed between the elevated conductor and earth. Although this arrangement was extraordinarily efficient in regard to the radiation of electrical energy, it had numerous drawbacks. The electrical capacity of the system was very small, with the result that the small amount of energy in the aerial was thrown into space in an exceedingly short period of time. In other words, the energy, instead of giving rise to a train of waves, was all dissipated after only a few oscillations, and, consequently, anything approaching good tuning between the transmitter and receiver was found to be unobtainable in practice. Fig. 1. Fia. 2. RADIOTELEGRAPH Y—MARCONI. 119 Many mechanical analogies could be quoted which show that in order to obtain syntony the operating energy must be supplied in the form of a sufficient number of small oscillations or impulses properly timed. Acoustics furnish us with numerous examples of this fact, such as the resonance produced by the well-known tuning fork experiment. Other illustrations of this principle may be given; e. g., if we have to set a heavy pendulum in motion by means of small thrusts or impulses, the latter must be timed to the period of the pendulum, as otherwise its oscillations would not acquire any appreciable amplitude. In 1900 I first adopted the arrangement which is now in general use, and which consists (as shown in fig. 3) of the inductive associa- tion of the elevated radiating wire with a condenser circuit which may be used to store up a considerable amount of electrical energy and impart it at a slow rate to the radiating wire. As is now well known, the oscillations in a condenser circuit can be made to persist for what is electrically a long period of time, and it can be arranged moreover that by means of suitable aerials or antennz these oscillations are radiated into space in the form of a series of waves, which through their cumulative effect are emi- nently suitable for enabling good tuning and syntony to be obtained between the transmitter and receiver. The circuits, consisting of the condenser circuit and the elevated aerial or radiating circuit, were more or less closely coupled to each other. By adjusting the inductance in the elevated con- ductor, and by the employment of the right value of capacity or inductance required in the condenser circuit, the two circuits were brought into electrical resonance, a condition which I first pointed ‘out as being essential in order to obtain efficient radiation and good tuning. The receiver (as shown in fig. 4) also consists of an elevated con- ductor or aerial connected to earth or capacity through an oscil- lating transformer. The latter also contains the condenser and detector, the circuits being made to have approximately the same electrical time period as that of the transmitter circuits. At the long distance station situated at Clifden, in Ireland, the arrangement which has given the best results is based substantially upon my syntonic system of 1900, to which have been added numerous improvements. e : tA 8 Fi@. 3. 120 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. An important innovation from a practical point of view was the adoption at Clifden and Glace Bay of air condensers, composed of insulated metallic plates suspended in air at ordinary pressure. In this manner we greatly reduce the loss of energy which would take place in consequence of dielectric hysteresis were a glass or solid dielectric employed. A very considerable economy in working also results from the absence of dielectric breakages, for, should the potential be so raised as to even produce a discharge from plate to plate across the condenser, this does not permanently affect the value of the dielectric, as air is self-healing and one of the few commodities which can be replaced at a minimum of cost. Various arrangements have been tried and tested for obtaining continuous or very prolonged trains of waves, but it has been my expe- rience that, when utilizing the best re- ceivers at present available, itis neither economical nor efficient to attempt to make the waves toocontinuous. Much better results are obtained when groups of waves (fig. 5) are emitted et regular intervals in such manner that their cumulative effect produces a clear musical note in the receiver, which is tuned not only to the period- icity of the electric waves transmitted but also to their group frequency. In this manner the receiver may be doubly tuned, with the result that a far greater selectivity can be obtained than by the employment of wave tun- ing alone. Tn fact, it is quite easy to pick up simultaneously different messages transmitted on the same wave length, but syntonized to different group frequencies. As far as wave tuning goes, very good results—almost as good es are obtainable by means of continuous oscillations—can be achieved with groups of waves, the decrement of which is in each group 0.03 or 0.04, which means that about 30 or 40 useful oscillations are radiated before their amplitude has become too small to perceptibly affect the receiver. The condenser circuit at Clifden has a decrement of from 0.015 to 0.03 for fairly long waves. This persistency of the oscillations has been obtained by the employment of the system shown in figure 6, which I first described in a patent taken out in September, 1907. This method eliminates e @ 5 Fia. 4. RADIOTELEGRAPH Y——MARCONT. 12a almost completely the spark gap and its consequent resistance, which, as is well known, is the principal cause of the damping or decay of the waves in the usual transmitting circuit. . The apparatus shown in figure 6 consists of a metal disk a, having copper studs firmly fixed at regular intervals in its periphery and placed transversely to its plane. This disk is caused to rotate very rapidly between two other disks, 6, by means of a rapidly revolving electric motor or steam turbine. These side disks are also made to slowly turn round in a plane at right angles to that of the middle disk. The connections are as illustrated in the figure. The studs are of such length as to just touch the side disks in passing, and thereby bridge the gap between us the latter. RESONANCE CURVE 2 With - a or CLIFDEN = quency employe at Clifden, name- PRIMARY CIRCUIT Z ly, 45,000, when § perAT = 025 ac a potential of totarresistance 455 3 15,000 volts is INCLUDING SPARK Saami aie s = Wave re J used on the con- dus SR BShSS SSSR IN FEET denser, the. spark KE BREAK gap is practically closed during the time in which one complete oscilla- OSCILLATIONS CORRESPONDING TO ABOVE RESONANCE CURVE tion only is taking place, when the peripherical speed of the disk is about 600 feeta SERIES OF WAVE. TRAINS RADIATEL from CLIFDEN AERIAL SPARK FREQUENCY S00 ER SEC. Fia. 5. second. ‘The re- sult is that the primary circuit can continue oscillating without material loss by resistance in the spark gap. Of course the number of oscillations which can take place is governed by the breadth or thickness of the side disks, the primary circuit being abruptly opened as soon as the studs attached to the middle disk leave the side disks. This sudden opening of the primary circuit tends to immediately quench any oscillations which may still persist in the condenser circuit; and this fact carries with it a further and not inconsiderable advantage, for if the coupling of the condenser circuit to the aerial is of a suitable value the energy of the primary will have practically all passed to the aerial circuit during the period of time in which the 122 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. primary condenser circuit is closed by the stud filling the gap between the side disks; but after this the opening of the gap at the disks prevents the energy returning to the condenser circuit from the aerial, as would happen were the ordinary spark gap employed. In this manner the usual reaction which would take place between the aerial and the condenser circuit can be obviated, with the result that with this type of discharger and with a suitable degree of coupling the energy is radiated from the aerial in the form of a pure wave, the loss from the spark gap resistance being reduced to a minimum. I am able to show a resonance curve taken at Clifden which was obtained from the oscillations in the primary alone (fig. &): An interesting feature of the Clif- den plant, espe- cially from a prac- tical and engineer- ing point of view, is the regular em- ployment of high- tension direct cur- rent for charging the condenser. Continuous cur- rent at a potential which is capable of being raised to 20,000 volts is ob- tained by means DISK DISCHARGER of special direct- CORTMUOUS CURALRT current genera- tors; these ma- chines charge a storage battery consisting of 6,000 cells, all connected in series, and it may be pointed out that this battery is the largest of its kind in existence. The capacity of each cell is 40 ampere-hours. When employing the cells alone the working voltage is from 11,000 to 12,000 volts, and when both the direct-current generators and the battery are used together the potential may be raised to 15,000 volts through utilizing the gassing voltage of the storage cells. For a considerable portion of the day the storage battery alone is employed, with a result that for 16 hours out of the 24 no running Fia. 6. RADIOTELEGRAPH Y—MARCONIT. 123 machinery need be used for operating the station, with the single exception of the small motor revolving the disk. The potential to which the condenser is charged reaches 18,000 volts when that of the battery or generators is 12,000. This poten- tial is obtained in consequence of the rise of potential at the con- denser plates, brought about by the rush of current through the choking or inductance coils at each charge. These coils are placed between the battery or generator and the condenser c, figure 6. No practical difficulty has been encountered either at Clifden or Glace Bay in regard to the insulation and maintenance of these high- tension storage batteries. Satisfactory insulation has been cbtained by dividing the battery into small sets of cells placed on separate stands. These stands are suspended on insulators attached to girders fixed in the ceiling of the battery room. A system of switches, which can all be operated electrically and simultaneously, divides the battery into sections, the potential of each section being low enough to enable the cells to be handled without inconvenience or risk. The arrangement of aerial adopted at Clifden and Glace Bay is shown in figure 7. This system, which is based on the result of tests which I first de- scribed before the Royal Society in June, 1906,1 not only makes it pos- sible to efficiently radiate and receive waves of any desired length, but it also tends to confine the main portion of the radiation to any desired direction. The limitation of transmission to one direction is not very sharply defined, but nevertheless the results obtained are exceedingly useful for practical -working. In a similar manner, by means of these horizontal wires, it is possible to define the bearing or direction of a sending station, and also limit the receptivity of the receiver to waves arriving from a given direction. The commercial working of radiotelegraphy and the widespread application of the system on shore and afloat in nearly all parts of the world has greatly facilitated the marshaling of facts and the observation of effects. Many of these, as I have already stated, still await a satisfactory explanation. A curious result which I first noticed over nine years ago in long- distance tests carried out on the steamship Philadelphia, and which still remains an important feature in long-distance space telegraphy, Fia. 7. 1“On methods whereby the radiation of electric waves may be mainly confined, ete.’? Proc. Roy. Soc., A, vol. 77, p. 413. 124 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911, is the detrimental effect produced by daylight on the propagation of electric waves over great distances. The generally accepted hypothesis of the cause of this absorption of electric waves in sunlight is founded on the belief that the absorp- tion is due to the ionization of the gaseous molecules of the air - affected by the ultra violet light, and as the ultra violet rays which emanate from the sun are largely absorbed in the upper atmosphere of the earth, it is probable that that portion of the earth’s atmosphere which is facing the sun will contain more ions or electrons than that which is in darkness, and therefore, as Sir J. J. Thomson has shown,! this illuminated or ionized air will absorb some of the energy of the electric waves. The wave length of the oscillations employed has much to do with this interesting phenomenon, long waves being subject to the effect of- daylight to a very much lesser degree than are short waves. Although certain physicists thought some years ago that the day- light effect should be more marked on long waves than on short, the reverse has been my experience; indeed, in some transatlantic experi- ments, in which waves about 8,000 meters long were used, the energy received by day at the distant receiving station was usually greater than that obtained at night. Recent observation, however, reveals the interesting fact that the effects vary greatly with the direction in which transmission is taking place, the results obtained when transmitting in a northerly and south- erly direction being often altogether different from those observed in the easterly and westerly one. Research in regard to the changes in the strength of the received radiations which are employed for telegraphy-across the Atlantic has been recently greatly facilitated by the use of sensitive galvanom- eters, by means of which the strength of the received signals can be measured with a fair degree of accuracy. In regard to moderate power stations such as are employed on ships, and which, in compliance with the international convention, use wave lengths of 300 and 600 meters, the distance over which communica- tion can be effected during daytime is generally about the same, whatever the bearing of the ships to each other or to the land stations —whilst at night interesting and apparently curious results are obtained. Ships over 1,000 miles away, off the south of Spain or round the coast of Italy, can almost always communicate during the hours of darkness with the post-office stations situated on the coasts of England and Ireland, whilst the same ships, when at a similar distance on the Atlantic to the westward of these islands and on the usual track between England and America, can hardly ever communi- 1 Philosophical Magazine, ser. 6, vol. 4, p. 253. RADIOTELEGRAPH Y—MARCONI. 125 cate with these shore stations unless by means of specially powerful instruments. It is also to be noticed that in order to reach ships in the Mediter- ranean the electric waves have to pass over a large portion of Europe and, in many cases, over the Alps. Such long stretches of land, especially when including very high mountains, constitute, as is well known, an insurmountable barrier to the propagation of short waves during the daytime. Although no such obstacles lie between the English and Irish stations and ships in the North Atlantic en route for North America, a night transmission of 1,000 miles is there of exceptionally rare occurrence. The same effects generally are notice- able when ships are communicating with stations situated on the Atlantic coast of America. Although high power stations are now used for communicating across the Atlantic Ocean, and messages can be sent by day as well — as by night, there still exist periods of fairly regular daily occurrence during which the strength of the received signals is at a minimum. yERy i IN STRENGTH VARYING & +> ae & > Seace = rae NIGHT OVER Mm 2 “6 Scommeoes se iruarmuncds se "WHOLE ATLANTIC & a Gy ARE VERY VARIABLE VP ag Fie. 8. Thus in the morning and the evening, when, in consequence of the difference in longitude, daylight or darkness extends only part of the way across the ocean, the received signals are at their weakest. It would almost appear as if electric waves, in passing from dark space to illuminated space and vice versa, were reflected and refracted in such a manner as to be diverted from the normal path. Later results, however, seem to indicate that it is unlikely that this difficulty would be experienced in telegraphing over equal dis- tances north and south on about the same meridian, as, in this case, the passage from daylight to darkness would occur more rapidly over the whole distance between the two stations. I have here some diagrams which have been carefully prepared by Mr. H. J. Round. These show the average daily variation of the signals received at Clifden from Glace Bay. The curves traced on the diagram (fig. 8) show the usual varia- tion in the strength of these transatlantic signals on two wave lengths —one of 7,000 meters and the other of 5,000 meters. 126 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. The strength of the received waves remains as a rule steady during daytime. Shortly after sunset at Clifden they become gradually weaker, and about two hours later they are at their weakest. They then begin to strengthen again, and reach a very high maximum at about the time of sunset at Glace Bay. They then gradually return to about normal strength, but through the night they are very variable. Shortly before sunrise at Clifden the signals commence to strengthen steadily, and reach another high maximum shortly VARIATION OF SIGNALS = after sunrise at Clif- AT CLIFDEN den. The received VARIATION SICNALE DURING APRIL (91! FROM MAY 1910 ro APRIL 1911 = energy then steadily : CURVE) FOR FIRST DAY: OF > /deerdades ASAIN UEll oa EACH MONTH GEING SHEWN . st DATE som 2ReEien tome ib Teaches a very oe Han Reeeatthtine” marked minimum, a Ren ff short time beforesun- anes rise at Glace Bay. Na a ae After that the signals VN as : gradually come back ae wae net! Py tee Es to normal day oa ws 2 sere es aee strength. ; Naor eanm SEP 13 ' : f It can be noticed merans Tas anit eg ' that, although the ola ee Oe ee —— shorter wave gives on ooh nv} the average weaker eae a Be \ signals, its maximum and minimum varia- sho tions of strength very Siege sensibly exceed that ws} ia of the longer waves. mania a Figure 9 shows the 7 SSE variations at Clifden ae wore during periods of 24 : hours, commencing at Fig. 9. Fia. 10. 12 noon throughout the month of April, 1911, the vertical dotted lines representing sunset and sunrise at Glace Bay and Clifden. Figure 10 shows the curve for the first day of each month for one year, from May, 1910, to April, 1911. I carried out a series of tests over longer distances than had ever been previously attempted, in September and October of last year, between the stations of Clifden and Glace Bay, and a receiving station placed on the Italian Steamship Principessa Mafalda, in the course of a voyage from Italy to Argentina (pl. 1, fig. 1). Smithsonian Report, 1911.—Marconi. PLATE 1. CUrDEN UTH ATLANTIC 1. Lona DISTANCE WIRELESS TESTS IN 1910. 2. RECORD OF WIRELESS SIGNALS. RADIOTELEGRAPH Y—MARCONI. 127 During these tests the receiving wire was supported by means of a kite, as was done in my early transatlantic tests of 1901, the height of the kite varying from about 1,000 to 3,000 feet. Signals and mes- sages were obtained without difficulty, by day as well as by night, up to a distance of 4,000 statute miles from Clifden. Beyond that distance reception could only be carried out during nighttime. At Buenos Aires, over 6,000 miles from Clifden, the night signals from both Clifden and Glace Bay were generally good, but their strength suffered some variations. It is rather remarkable that the radiations from Clifden should have been detected at Buenos Aires so clearly at nighttime and not at all during the day, whilst in Canada the signals coming from Clif- den (2,400 miles distant) are no stronger during the night than they are by day. Further tests have been carried out recently for the Italian Gov- ernment between a station situated at Massaua in East Africa and Coltano in Italy. Considerable interest attached to these experi- ments, in view of the fact that the line connecting the two stations passes over exceedingly dry country and across vast stretches of desert, including parts of Abyssinia, the Soudan, and the Libyan Desert. The distance between the two stations is about 2,600 miles. The wave length of the sending station in Africa was too small to allow of transmission being effected during daytime, but the results obtained during the hours of darkness were exceedingly good, the received signals being quite steady and readable. The improvements introduced at Clifden and Glace Bay have had the result of greatly minimizing the interference to which wireless transmission over long distances was particularly exposed in the early days. The signals arriving at Clifden from Canada are as a rule easily read through any ordinary electrical atmospheric disturbance. This strengthening of the received sigyals has moreover made possible the use of recording instruments, which will not only give a fixed record of the received messages, but are also capable of being operated at a much higher rate of speed than could ever be obtained by means of an operator reading by sound or sight. The record of the signals is obtained by means of photography in the following manner: A sen- sitive Einthoven string galvanometer is connected to the magnetic detector or valve receiver, and the deflections of its filament caused by the incoming signals are projected and photographically fixed on a sensitive strip, which is moved along at a suitable speed (pl. 1, fig. 2). On some of these records, which I am able to show, it is interesting to note the characteristic marks and signs produced amongst the signals by natural electric waves or other electrical disturbances of 128 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. the atmosphere, which, on account of their doubtful origin, have been called ‘X’s,” Although the mathematical theory of electric wave propagation through space was worked out by Clerk Maxwell more than 50 years ago, and notwithstanding all the experimental evidence obtained in laboratories concerning the nature of these waves, yet so far we understand but incompletely the true fundamental principles con- cerning the manner of propagation of the waves on which wireless telegraph transmission is based. For example, in the early days of wireless telegraphy it was generally believed that the curvature of the earth would constitute an insurmountable obstacle to the trans- mission of electric waves between widely separated points. For a considerable time not sufficient account was taken of the probable effect of the earth connection, especially in regard to the transmission of oscillations over long distances. Physicists seemed to consider for a long time that wireless teleg- raphy was solely dependent on the effects of free Hertzian radiation through space, and it was years eatin i Bag before the probable effect of the ge Foe a 32S conductivity of the earth was con- ‘ Las XS sidered and discussed. Lord Rayleigh, in referring to transatlantic radiotelegraphy, stated in a paper read before the Royal Society in May, 1903, that the results which I had obtained in signaling across the Atlantic suggested ‘‘a more decided bending or diffraction of the waves round the protuberant earth than had been expected,” and further said that it imparted a great interest to the theoretical problem.* Prof. Fleming, in his book on electric wave telegraphy, gives diagrams showing what may be taken to be a diagrammatic representation of the detachment of semiloops of electric strain from a simple vertical wire (fig. 11). As will be seen, these waves do not propagate in the same manner as does free radiation from a classical Hertzian oscillator, but instead glide along the surface of the earth. Prof. Zenneck? has carefully examined the effect of earthed receiv- . ing and transmitting aerials, and has endeavored to show mathe- matically that when the lines of electrical force, constituting a wave front, pass along a surface of low specific inductive capacity— such as the earth—they become inclined forward, their lower ends being retarded by the resistance of the conductor, to which they are 1 Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. 72, p. 40. 2 Annalen der Physik,” vol. 23, p. 846, ‘‘ Physikalische Zeitschrift,”’ 1908, pp. 50, 553. RADIOTELEGRAPH Y—MARCONI. 129 attached. It therefore would seem that wireless telegraphy as at present practiced is, to some extent at least, dependent on the con- ductivity of the earth, and that the difference in operation across long distances of sea compared to over land is sufficiently explained by the fact that sea water is a much better conductor than is land. The importance or utility of the earth connection has been some- times questioned, but in my opinion no practical system of wireless telegraphy exists where the instruments are not in some manner con- nected to earth. By connection to earth I do not necessarily mean an ordinary metallic connection as used for wire telegraphs. The earth wire may have a condenser in series with it, or it may be con- nected to what is really equivalent, a capacity area placed close to the surface of the ground. It is now perfectly well known that a condenser, if large enough, does not prevent the passage of high- frequency oscillations, and therefore in this case, when a so-called balancing capacity is used, the antenna is for all practical purposes connected to earth. I am also of opinion that there is absolutely no foundation in the statement which has recently been repeated to the effect that an earth connection is detrimental to good tuning, provided of course that the earth is good. Certainly, in consequence of its resistance, what electricians call a bad earth will damp out the oscillations, and in that way make tuning difficult; but no such effect is noticed when employing an efficient earth connection. In conclusion, I believe that I am not any too bold when I say that wireless telegraphy is tending to revolutionize our means of communi- cation from place to place on the earth’s surface. For example, com- mercial messages containing a total of 812,200 words were sent and received between Clifden and Glace Bay from May 1, 1910, to the end of April, 1911; wireless telegraphy has already furnished means of communication between ships and the shore where communication was before practically impossible. The fact that a system of imperial wireless telegraphy is to be discussed by the imperial conference, now holding its meetings in London, shows the supremely important position which radiotelegraphy over long distances has assumed in the short space of one decade. Its importance from a commercial, naval, and military point of view has increased very greatly during the last few years as a consequence of the innumerable stations which have been erected, or are now in course of construction, on various coasts, in inland regions, and on board ships in all parts of the world. Notwithstanding this multiplicity of stations and their almost con- stant operation, I can say from practical experience that mutual interference between properly equipped and efficiently tuned instru- 38734°—sm 1911——9 130 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. ments has so far been almost entirely absent. Some interference does without doubt take place between ships, in consequence of the fact that the two wave lengths adopted in accordance with the rules laid down by the international convention, are not sufficient for the proper handling of the very large amount of messages transmitted from the ever increasing number of ships fitted with wireless teleg- raphy. A considerable advantage would be obtained by the utiliza- tion of a third and longer wave to be employed exclusively for com- munication over long distances. In regard to the high-power transatlantic stations, the facility with which interference has been prevented has to some extent ex- ceeded my expectations. At the receiving station situated at a dis- tance of only 8 miles from the powerful sender at Clifden, during a recent demonstration arranged for the Admiralty, messages could be received from Glace Bay without any interference from Clifden when this latter station was transmitting at full power on a wave length differing only 25 per cent from the wave radiated from Glace Bay, the ratio between the maximum recorded range of Clifden and 8 miles being in the proportion of 750 to 1. Arrangements are being made to permanently send and receive simultaneously at these stations, which, when completed, will consti- tute in effect the duplexing of radiotelegraphic communication be- tween Ireland and Canada. The result which I have last referred to also goes to show that it would be practicable to operate at one time, on slightly different wave lengths, a great number of long-distance stations situated in England and Ireland without danger of mutual interference. The extended use of wireless telegraphy is principally dependent on the ease with which a number of stations can be efficiently worked in the vicinity of each other. Considering that the wave lengths at present in use range from 200 to 23,000 feet, and moreover that wave group tuning and direc- tive systems are now available, it is not difficult to foresee that this comparatively new method of communication is destined to fill a position of the greatest importance in facilitating communication throughout the world. Apart from long-distance work, the practical value of wireless telegraphy may perhaps be divided into two parts, (1) when used for transmission over sea and (2) when used over land. Many countries, including Italy, Canada, and Spain, have already supplemented their ordinary telegraph systems by wireless-telegraphy installations, but some time must pass before this method of commu- nication will be very largely used for inland purposes in Europe generally, owing to the efficient network of land lines already existing which render further means of communication unnecessary; and RADIOTELEGRAPH Y—MARCONI. 131 therefore it is probable that, at any rate for the present, the main use of radiotelegraphy will be confined to extra-European countries, in some of which climatic conditions and other causes absolutely pro- hibit the efficient maintenance of land-line telegraphy. A proof of this has been afforded by the success which has attended the working of the stations recently erected in Brazil on the upper Amazon. By the majority of people the most marvelous side of wireless telegraphy is perhaps considered to be its use at sea. Up to the time of its introduction, ships at any appreciable distance from land had no means of getting in touch with the shore throughout the whole duration of their voyage. But those who now make long sea journeys are no longer cut off from the rest of the world; business men can continue to correspond at reasonable rates with their offices in America or Europe; ordinary social messages can be exchanged between passengers and their friends on shore; a daily newspaper is published on board most of the principal liners, giving the chief news of the day. Wireless telegraphy has on more than one occasion proved an invaluable aid to the course of justice—a well-known instance of which is the arrest, which took place recently through its agency, of a notorious criminal when about to land in Canada. The chief benefit, however, of radiotelegraphy lies in the facility which it affords to ships in distress of communicating their plight to neighboring vessels or coast stations; that it is now considered indispensable for this reason is shown by the fact that several govern- ments have passed a law making a wireless-telegraph installation a compulsory part of the equipment of all passenger boats entering their ports. MULTIPLEX TELEPHONY AND TELEGRAPHY BY MEANS OF ELECTRIC WAVES GUIDED BY WIRES: [With 1 plate.] Dr. GroraeE O. SQurIER, Major Signal Corps, United States Army. I.—INTRODUCTION. Electrical transmission of intelligence, so vital to the progress of civilization, has taken a development at present into telephony and telegraphy over metallic wires; and telegraphy, and, to a limited extent, telephony, through the medium of the ether by means of electric waves. During the past 12 years the achievements of wireless teleg- raphy have been truly marvelous. From an engineering viewpoint, the wonder of it ‘all is, that, with the transmitting energy being radiated out over the surface of the earth in all directions, enough of this energy is delivered at a single point on the circumference of a circle, of which the transmitting antenna is approximately the cen- ter, to operate successfully suitable receiving devices by which the electromagnetic waves are translated into intelligence. The “plant efficiency” for electrical energy in the best types of wireless stations yet produced is so low that there can be no com- parison between it and the least efficient transmission of energy by ‘conducting wires. | The limits of audibility, bemg physiological functions, are well known to vary considerably, but they may be taken to be in the neighborhood of 16 complete cycles per second as the lower limit and 15,000 to 20,000 cycles per second as the upper limit. If, there- fore, there are impressed upon a wire circuit for transmitting intelli- gence harmonic electromotive forces of frequencies between 0 and 16 cycles per second, or, again, above 15,000 to 20,000 cycles per second, it would seem certain that whatever effects such electric-wave fre- quencies produced upon metallic lines, the present apparatus em- ployed in operating them could not translate these effects into audible signals, 1A paper presented at the twenty-eighth annual convention of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, Chicago, Ill., June 26-30, 1911. Copyright, 1911, by A. I. E. E. Reprinted by permission from Proceedings of the Institute for May, 1911, pp. 857-905. 133 134 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. There are, therefore, two possible solutions to the problem of multiplex telephony and telegraphy upon this principle by electric waves, based upon the unalterable characteristics of the human ear, viz, by employing (1) electric waves of infra sound frequencies, and (2) those of ultra sound frequencies. One great difficulty in design- ing generators of infra sound frequencies is in securing a pure sine wave, as otherwise any harmonic of the fundamental would appear within the range of audition. Furthermore, the range of frequencies is restricted, and the physical dimensions of the tuning elements for such low frequencies would have a tendency to become unwieldy. The electromagnetic spectrum at present extends from about four to eight periods per second, such as are employed upon ocean cables, to the shortest waves of ultra-violet light. In this whole range of frequencies there are two distinct intervals which have not as yet been used, viz, frequencies from about 3x10" of the extreme infra- red to 5X10!°, which is the freqeuncy of the shortest electric waves yet produced by electrical apparatus, and from about 80,000 to 100,000 cycles per second to about 15,000 to 20,000 cycles per second. The upper limit of this latter interval represents about the lowest frequen- cies yet employed for long-distance wireless telegraphy. Within the past few years generators have been developed in the United States giving an output of 2 kilowatts and above at a fre- quency of 100,000 cycles per second, and also capable of being ope- rated satisfactorily at as low a frequency as 20,000 cycles per second. Furthermore, these machines give a practically pure sine wave. The necessary conditions for telephony by electric waves guided by wires are an uninterrupted source of sustained oscillations and some form of receiving device which is quantitative in its action. In the experiments described in multiplex telephony and telegraphy it has been necessary and sufficient to combine the present engineering practice of wire telephony and telegraphy with the engineering practice of wireless telephony and telegraphy. The frequencies involved in telephony over wires do not exceed 1,800 to 2,000, and for such frequencies the telephonic currents are fairly well distributed throughout the cross section of the conductor. As the frequency is increased the so-called “skin effect’? becomes noticeable, and the energy is more and more transmitted in the ether surrounding the conductor. It has been found possible to superimpose, upon the ordinary tele- phonic wire circuits now commercially used, electric waves of ultra sound frequencies without producing any harmful effects upon the operation of the existing telephonic service. Fortunately, therefore, the experiments described below are constructive and additive, rather than destructive and supplantive. e MULTIPLEX TELEPHONY AND TELEGRAPHY—SQUIER. 139 Electric waves of ultra sound frequencies are guided by means of wires of an existing commercial installation and are made the vehicle for the transmission of additional telephonic and telegraphic messages. APPARATUS AND EQUIPMENT. Under a special appropriation granted to the Signal Corps by Con- gress in the army appropriation act of 1909, a small research labora- tory has been established at the Bureau of Standards, in the suburbs of the city of Washington. This laboratory is equipped with the latest forms of apparatus now employed in the wireless telephone and telegraph art, and also with the standard types of telephone and telegraph apparatus now used upon wire circuits. The small con- struction laboratory of the United States Signal Corps is located at 1710 Pennsylvanue Avenue and is also equipped with the usual types and forms of apparatus used in transmitting intelligence by electrical means. Each of these laboratories is supplied with a wireless tele- phone and telegraph installation with suitable antenne. In addi- tion, these two laboratories are connected by a standard telephone cable line about 7 miles in length, which was employed in the experi- ments described below. THE 100,000-CYCLE GENERATOR.! The high-frequency alternator, which is shown complete with driving motor and switchboard in the accompanying illustrations, is a special form of the inductor type designed for a frequency of 100,000 cycles with an output of 2 kilowatts, making it adapted for use in wireless telephony or telegraphy (pl. 1). Driving motor—The motor is a shunt-wound 10-horsepower ma- chine with a normal speed of 1,250 revolutions per minute. It is connected by a chain drive to an intermediate shaft which runs at a speed of 2,000 revolutions per minute. The intermediate shaft drives the flexible shaft of the alternator through a De Laval turbine gearing, having a ratio of 10 to 1. The flexible shaft and inductor thus revolve at a speed of 20,000 revolutions per minute. Field coils —The field coils, mounted on the stationary iron frame of the alternator, surround the periphery of the inductor. The magnetic flux produced by these coils passes through the laminated armature and armature coils, the air gap, and the inductor. This flux is periodically decreased by the nonmagnetic sections of phos- phor-bronze embedded radially in the inductor at its periphery. Armature coils—The armature or stators are ring-shaped and are made of laminated iron. Six hundred slots are cut on the radial face of each; a quadruple silk-covered copper wire, 0.016 inch (0.4 1 Alexanderson, Trans. Amer. Inst. Electr. Eng., vol. 28, p. 399, 1909. 136 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. millimeter) in diameter, is wound in a continuous wave up and down the successive slots. The peripheries of the armature frames are threaded to screw into the iron frame of the alternator. By means of a graduated scale on the alternator frame, the armatures can be readily adjusted for any desired air gap. Inductor.—The inductor or rotor has 300 teeth on each side of its periphery, spaced 0.125 inch (3.17 millimeters) between centers. The spaces between the teeth are filled with U-shaped phosphor- bronze wires, securely anchored, so as to withstand the centrifugal force of 80 pounds (36.3 kilograms) exerted by each. Since each tooth of the inductor gives a complete cycle, 100,000 cycles per second are developed at 20,000 revolutions per mmute. The diame- ter of the disk being 1 foot (0.30 meter), the peripheral speed. is 1,047 feet (319 meters) per second, or 700 miles (1,127 kilometers) per hour, at which rate it would roll from the United States to Europe in four hours. By careful design and selection of material, a factor of safety of 6.7 is obtained in the disk, although the centrifugal force at its periphery is 68,000 times the weight of the metal there. Bearings.—The generator has two sets of bearings, as shown in the illustrations, the outer set being the main bearings which support the weight of the revolving parts. These bearings are self-aligning and are fitted with special sleeves, which are ground to coincide with longitudinal corrugations of the shaft, thus taking up the end thrust. A pump maintains a continuous stream of oil through these bearings, thus allowing the machine to be run continuously at full speed without troublesome heating. The middle bearings normally do not touch the shaft, but take up excessive end thrust and prevent excessive radial vibration of the flexible shaft. An auxiliary bearing or guide is placed midway between the gear box and the end bearing. Its function is to limit the vibration of that portion of the shaft. Critical periods.—In starting the machine, severe vibration occurs at two distinct critical speeds, one at about 1,700 and the other at about 9,000 revolutions per minute. The middle bearings prevent this vibration from becoming dangerous. Voltage.—With the normal air gap between the armatures and revolving disk of 0.015 inch (0.38 millimeter), the potential developed is 150 volts with the armatures connected in series. It is possible, however, to decrease the air gap to 0.004 inch (0.10 millimeter) for short runs, which gives a corresponding increase in voltage up to nearly 300 volts. It is considered inadvisable, however, to run with this small air gap for any considerable length of time. The machine is intended to be used with a condenser, the capacity reactance of which balances the armature induction reactance, which Smithsonian Report, 1911.—Squier. PLATE 1. FRONT AND REAR VIEW OF HIGH-FREQUENCY ALTERNATOR, DRIVING Motor, AND SWITCHBOARD. oor: Ramen oe ou MULTIPLEX TELEPHONY AND TELEGRAPHY—SQUIER. Vor is 5.4 ohms at 100,000 cycles. This would require a capacity of about 0.3 microfarad for resonance at this frequency, but in the experiments conducted at 100,000 cycles it was found necessary to decrease this amount on account of the fixed auxiliary inductance of the leads. CONSTANTS OF THE TELEPHONE LINE. The telephone line used in these experiments extends from the Signal Corps laboratory at 1710 Pennsylvania Avenue to the Signal Corps research laboratory at the Bureau of Standards. This line is made up of the regular standard commercial equipment and consists of paper-insulated, twisted pairs in lead-covered cable, placed in conduit in the usual manner employed for city installation. For the sake of convenience, one of the pair is designated as No. 1 wire and the other as No. 2 wire. he air-line distance between the two laboratories is a little over 3 miles (4.8 kilometers), but the telephone line, by passing through three exchanges, covers about 7 miles (11.27 kilometers). The course of the line, with the size and type of conductor, is as follows: Laboratory to main exchange, underground cable, No. 22 B. & 8. Main exchange to west exchange, underground cable, No. 19 B. & S. West exchange to Cleveland exchange, underground cable, No.19 B. & S. Cleveland exchange to Bureau of Standards, underground cable, No. 19 B. & S. All underground cable except from Bureau of Standards to Wisconsin Avenue and Pierce Mill Road, about 3,400 feet, which is aerial cable. This line is equipped with protective heat coils of a standard type, one in each wire of the metallic circuit, at the Cleveland exchange and the main exchange, but none at the west exchange. The constants of each of these coils are as follows: Perec, current resistance Of 6d° Fs.2 5. 2 ode. 5 noes ine Ss che tbe eee ohms.. 3.8 Size of wire, No. 30B. & S. SEMA OM WARDS nee RC in Paes Ce Seco Et eee See an eke shoe cm... 40 Hrenperiosn urs in each eoil, aboutes 5 Jeo isnt Le) A aa 38 Measured inductance at 70,000 cycles...............---2.-.22-2222-22-- cm.. 4,400 Or 4.4X10~ henry. The above constants were measured from a sample of one , of these coils selected at random. esisian COmOmMmedllicreIreUites. = css cate ee oe eee RR ohms.. 776 Capacity measured (one minute electrification) between No. 1 and No. 2 wires Fe SE OS BS ARS Ie Oe SE ae os BES cers Seer a art meee Me ate Harte microfarad.. 0. 69 Insulation resistance: ibetweow No. L wire: and. earth. 200205 fies s0 se os cee ase megohms.. 0.9 Between No. 2 wire and earth........... Picts sxcid eee GO ee oie Between No. 1 and No. 2 wires in mn parallel aad Bari eee see eh fo aa doz>s: 2028 between ‘Noo and No sa wites.2:05.bete oi) 00 ey oo iidoss VOEk The line included the usual uous: wc at each station, which was undisturbed in taking the measurements. 138 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. IIl.—DUPLEX-DIPLEX TELEPHONY OVER WIRE CIRCUITS. Such has been the development of telephone engineering that at present any proposal which requires for its success the supplanting of the present low-frequency battery system would be mostradical. It would surely be admitted that any plan which permits the present engineering telephone system to remain intact and superimpose thereon additional telephone circuits would possess cardinal advan- tages. Accordingly, the first preliminary experiments were directed to the inquiry as to whether or not it is possible to superimpose upon the minute telephonic currents now employed in telephony over wires, electric waves of ultra-sound frequencies without causing prohibitive interference with the battery telephone currents. Manifestly, this fundamental point can best be determined by experiments, at the generator itself, with the most sensitive part of the telephone equip- ment, viz, the telephone receiver. Accordingly, experiments were first conducted with various forms and types of telephone receivers in connection with local circuits at the generator. Such is the sensibility of the telephone receiver that it was thought possible that, although currents of frequencies entirely above audition were applied to the receiver from a dynamo as a source, there might be some frequency or frequencies from the operation of the apparatus which would be within the range of audition. Such was found, in fact, to be the case at cer- tain critical frequencies of the machine, but they were of no practical importance, as will be shown later. With a collection of telephone receivers ranging from about 50 to over 8,000 ohms and of a variety of designs, a series of tests was made under severe conditions to determine the above point. It was found, in general, that alternating currents of frequencies ranging from 30,000 to 100,000 cycles per second, when coupled conductively, inductively, or electrostatically to local circuits from the generator produced abso- lutely no perceptible physiological effects in the receivers, excepting only that at certain of the lower frequencies a distinct audible note could be faintly heard in one of the receivers of about 250 ohms resistance. A search for the cause of this note showed that it is due to a slight variation of the amplitude of the high-frequency current of the gen- erator, since no evidence of it could be detected on the battery tele- phone side of the circuit. It appears to be caused by a very slight vibration of the rotor as a whole in the magnetic field of the generator. It was almost entirely removed by the simple device of opening out the stators, which increases the clearance and materially cuts down the flux of the machine. In practice it is a distinct advantage, how- ever, to have a trace of this note still left on the high-frequency side of the circuit, otherwise there is no ready means of determining at the “MULTIPLEX TELEPHONY AND TELEGRAPH Y—SQUIER, 139 receiving end of the cable line whether or not the high-frequency cur- rent is present on the line, whereas this note, which has to be searched for in tuning and which was entirely tuned out when speech was best, gave a very convenient method of testing for the presence of high- frequency current. Having determined the general nature of this disturbance and its comparative unimportance, no further investigation of it was consid- ered necessary at that time. The next fundamental point to determine was whether or not at these frequencies a telephone can receive enough energy to make it operative for producing sound waves in air. Since the self-induction of a standard telephone receiver is high, energy at these frequencies is effectively barred from it. In the wire- less telegraph art, where the frequencies involved are from one hun- dred thousand to several million per second, this problem has been uniformly solved by the introduction of some form of detector for electromagnetic waves, whose function is to transforma the energy of the high-frequency oscillations into other forms suitable to a type of instrument such as a telephone receiver. The next step, therefore, consisted in introducing various forms of detectors, such as are now used in wireless telegraphy, between the telephone receiver itself and the energizing circuit. Since the fre- quencies being here considered are entirely above audition it was necessary, in order to produce a physiological effect, to introduce another element in this transformation, viz, some method of modify- ing the continuous train of sustained oscillations from the generator into groups or trains, the period of which falls within the litnits of audition. This was accomplished by employing the regular forms of automatic interrupters, such as are now used in wireless telegraphy, with the expected result that with these two additional and essential pieces of apparatus operatively connected between the telephone receiver and the generator, the energy of the generator was delivered to the ear in a form well suited for physiological effects. Since it is well known that the human ear is most sensitive at a period of about 500 cycles per second, or 1,000 alternations, interrupters giving this frequency were employed. The presence of the detectors in this chain of transformations is necessitated by the use of the telephone receiver as a translating device. Although some of the detectors for electric waves are very sensitive to electrical energy they are here employed not because they are more sensitive to electrical energy than is the telephone receiver itself, which is not the case, but becausethe telephone receiver is not adapted, for the reasons stated above, to translate electrical energy of these fre- quencies into movements of its diaphragm. 140 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. The elements of the apparatus thus far include a generator of sus- tained high-frequency oscillations, an interrupter to modify the am- plitude of these oscillations into groups of a period within the range of audition, some form of detector to rectify these oscillations, and a tele- phone receiver. Manifestly here are all of the elements that are neces- sary for telegraphy, using the telephone receiver to interpret the signals. If in the above mentioned chain of apparatus the interrupter is replaced by some form of telephone transmitter, such as the micro- phone, this is all that is necessary for the transmission of speech. Experiments were made over local circuits with apparatus arranged in this order over a range of frequencies from 20,000 to 100,000 per second, with the result that speech was transmitted very satisfac- torily. Upon removing the detector from the above arrangement all perceptible effect in the telephone receiver ceased; in fact no arrange- ment of connections of a telephone receiver to such a high frequency circuit which did not include some form of detector was found to be operative for telephony, unless certain low resistance telephones were used in which case the speech was so much weaker as to be of an entirely different order of magnitude. The presence of a detector in this chain of operations, is not abso- lutely necessary in the case of telegraphy, since if the interrupter automatically produces a definite number of wave-trains per second, each train consisting of at least several complete oscillations, an effect may be produced upon a telephone receiver directly without a detector. The pysiological effect, however, is quite different, the clear funda- mental note corresponding to the frequency of the interrupter being no longer audible, but, instead, a peculiar dull hissing sound. If, how- ever, a telephone receiver was used, which, instead of having a per- manent magnet as a core, had one of soft iron, no effect without the detector was produced with the energy used. As stated above in the case of telephony, the energy required for telegraphy without a detector is of a different order of magnitude. Having determined the necessary and sufficient conditions for the accomplishment of telegraphy and telephony by means of electric waves guided by wires upon local circuits, the next step was to apply these means and conditions to an actual commercial telephone cable line, the constants of which have been given above. The machine was run at a frequency of 100,000 cycles per second with the circuit arrangements as shown in figure 1, where one wire of the telephone cable was connected to one terminal of the secondary of an air-core transformer, the other terminal being connected to earth. At the receiving end of the line, which was the Signal Corps con- struction laboratory, at 1710 Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington, MULTIPLEX TELEPHONY AND TELEGRAPH Y—SQUIER. 141 D. C., this wire was connected directly to earth through a “‘perikon”’ crystal detector, such as is well known in wireless telegraphy, and a high resistance telephone receiver of about 8,000 ohms was shunted around the crystal. In this preliminary experinfent no attempt was made at tuning, either at the transmitting end or at the receiving end of the line. In the primary circuit of the generator, arrangements were made by which either an interrupter and telegraph key or a telephone transmitter could be inserted by throwing a switch. In the line circuit a hot wire milliammeter was inserted in a con- venient position so that the effect of the operation of either the telegraph key or of the human voice upon the transmitter could be observed by watching the fluctuations of the needle of the milliam- meter. A loose coupling was employed between the two circuits at the transmitting end, and the line circuit adjusted by varying the coup- ling until the current in the line was 20 to 30 milliamperes. With this arrangement (1) telegraphic signals were sent and easily received, and (2) speech was transmitted and received successfully over this single wire with ground return. The ammeter showed marked fluctuations from the human voice and enabled the operator at the transmitting station to be certain that modified electric waves were being transmitted over the line. The actual ohmic resistance of the line apparently played an unimportant part for telegraphy at 100,000 cycles, since with one of the wires of the pair and a ground return, the effect of doubling the conductivity of the wire by joining both wires in parallel, although this arrangement increased the capacity of the wires, could not be detected with certainty by an operator listening to the signals and unaware of which arrangement was being used. Inserting in the line wire a noninductive carbon rod resistance of 750 ohms, which is practically the resistance of the line itself, could not be detected by any change in the intensity of the received signals. : The next experiment was to determine what effect, if any, such sustained electrical oscillations would have upon the minute tele- phonic currents employed in battery telephony. DUPLEX TELEPHONY, USING ONE GROUNDED CIRCUIT. To determine the fact that electric waves of ultra sound frequency produce no perceptible effect when superimposed on the same circuit over which telephonic conversation is being transmitted, the next step was to use such a train of sustained oscillations as the vehicle for transmitting additional speech over the same circuit. For this 142 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. purpose the twisted-pair telephone line was equipped with a com- plete standard local battery telephone set, as installed for commercial practice, and in addition one of the wires of the pair was equipped as in figure 1, the circuit being shown diagrammatically in figure 2. This particular arrangement was employed in this experiment for the reason that it was desired to have the battery telephone operate on its usual circuit with the introduction of ground connections at the ends of the BUREAU LABORATORY line for the super- STANDARDS aoe ie SIGNAL corPs position of the high- frequency circuit. When such ground r) connections were a introduced directly without tuning ele- ments therein the metallic circuit ex- perienced the usual disturbances found under city conditions, but the metallic circuit could be reduced to silence again by introducing in the ground connections the necessary tuning elements of magnitudes suited to wireless telegraphy. Next, the twisted-pair telephone line was equipped with a com- plete standard local battery telephone set, as installed for commercial practice, with the exception that the local battery circuit of the transmitter tele- phone set was opened and a few turns of coarse wire inserted in series with the two dry cells which are nor- mally used, as shown in figure 3. Induc- tively connected with this coil was the armature circuit of the generator. A hot wire milliammeter was placed in the line circuit to indicate the magnitude of the high-frequency current which was flowing on the line. With this arrangement tests were made to determine whether or not there were any effects upon the transmission of speech, due to superimposing high-frequency currents upon the battery telephone sets. With an operator at each end of the line, using the equipment in the regular commercial way, the direct-current voltage and the alternating-current voltage in series with it in the Fig. 1. MULTIPLEX TELEPHONY AND TELEGRAPH Y—SQUIER. 143 primary circuit of the transmitter were varied individually and rela- tively in a variety of ways, with the striking result that just at the point where the direct-current voltage was decreased, so that no sounds were received, the line became absolutely silent, although the alternating voltage in the circuit was at its largest value, or, again, speech would reappear at the receiving station at the moment when sufficient direct-current voltage was introduced to produce it, and the simultaneous presence of both the maximum direct voltage and maximum high-frequency voltage in a circuit. produced exactly the same result as the maximum direct-cur- GFR gyi b rent voltage did alone. Wn When, however, the | | Coltaiiba ah, amie animreRa = klr sieesa CRIES high-frequency cur- iit ri ace sale) | rentin the local circuit i (O08) al was forced to a point NGA which caused ‘burn- ing” in the transmit- ter itself, then, and then only, did the Ot Re high-frequency cur- WV ici area | rent in any way inter- | Coase 5 fere with the trans- mission. By transferring this coil from the local circuit of the tele- phone set directly into the line itself, so that the high-frequency oscillations would be superimposed upon the line beyond the iron- cored induction coil of the telephone transmitter, it was not possible to detect the presence or absence of high-frequency currents. As a test under severest conditions the effect was noted upon speech received at the same station at which the high-frequency current is being impressed, for here are the attenuated telephonic currents at the receiving end of the telephone line, on which is super- imposed a high-frequency current of vastly greater magnitude at the same point. No effects of any kind could be detected under these conditions. From the above experiments it appears that in any attempt at multiplex telephony by means of electric waves of ultra sound frequencies superimposed upon the minute telephonic currents employed in battery transmission there is nothing to fear from disturbances of such currents upon the operation of the ordinary battery equipment. Fia. 3. 144 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. SILENT EARTH CIRCUITS. The electromagnetic constants of the apparatus employed in tele- graphy and telephony over wire circuits are of the order of magnitude of microfarads and henrys, and since no attempt is made at tuning, these are constructed at present with no provision for continuously varying the units. In wireless telegraphy and telephony these electromagnetic con- stants are of the order of magnitude one thousand times smaller, or are expressed in thousandths of microfarads and of henrys; further- more, these forms of apparatus are provided with convenient means of continuously varying their values for tuning. In the operation of providing tuning elements for earth connections there is at the same time afforded a certain means of eliminating any harmful disturbances from the earth, for the condensers employed for tuning to frequencies above audition possess an impedance to the frequencies involved in speech and also any disturbances from the earth, which effectively prevents the passage of any disturbance of audible frequency. These condensers offer a comparatively free pas- sage to the electrical oscillations of the frequencies here being con- sidered. When such earth connections are selectively tuned with the line to frequencies entirely above audition it is evident that no audible frequencies, either in the earth itself or from the line, can pass. Sim- ple experiments proved the efficiency of this arrangement, and when the metallic telephone circuit, equipped with a standard local battery set, was connected to earth in the manner described, the operation of the battery set was perfectly quiet and equally good with and with- out such earth connections. The point was now reached where the road was clear for duplex telephony, and for this purpose the apparatus and methods employed _- in wireless telephony were applied to one of the wires of the metallic circuit as though it were an antenna. The actual arrangement of this circuit is shown in figure 4, in which G is the source of sustained high frequency oscillations; C’ is the tuning condenser of the oscillatory circuit; L’ is the tuning inductance of the oscillatory circuit; P is the primary of the oscillation transformer; A is the ammeter; M is the transmitter microphone; S is the secondary of the ocsillation trans- former in the line circuit; C is the tuning condenser in the line circuit; Lis the tuning inductance in the line circuit; A’ is the ammeter in the line. At the receiving end of the line C, is the line tuning condenser; L, is the line tuning inductance; P, is the primary of the oscillation transformer; S, is the secondary of the oscillation transformer; L,’ is the tuning inductance in the oscillatory circuit; e,’ is the tuning condenser in the oscillatory circuit, between which and the tele- MULTIPLEX TELEPHONY AND TELEGRAPHY—SQUIER. 145 phone. F’ the detector D is operatively connected; E is the earth connection. The local battery telephone sets are connected across the two line wires in the usual manner. In both sets 1 is the microphone trans- mitter; 2 is the local battery; 3 is the induction coil; 4 is the ringing system, including the bell and hand generator; 5 is the switch hook; 6 is the telephone receiver. Jt was found that cross-talk was heard in the detector circuit from the battery transmitter at the transmitting end when the detector circuit alone was connected directly to earth from the line without any tuning coil or condenser. If, however, the tuning condenser was inserted, this cross-talk entirely disappeared, even though the tuning coil was not inserted. This is because the impedance of the small tuning condenser is large for telephonic frequencies, while the tuning coil impedance admits these telephonic frequencies. Both elements of tuning are required for selective absorption of energy, so that the high-frequency circuit is available as an additional telephonic circuit. With this arrange- ment talking in the transmitter of the high-frequency side of the system was heard only in the detector and there was no. cross-talk from the ordinary local battery cir- cuit. Similarly, there was no effect of the high-frequency transmission on the local battery transmission, and the two telephonic messages were com- pletely separated. Both circuits were entirely free from earth dis- turbances. The volume of speech at the receiving end of the cable is greatly increased by simply inserting the transmitter in the dynamo circuit and operating this circuit at or near resonance. In addition, the coupling at both transmitting and receiving stations should be so designed as to permit adjustment for optimum. The frequency used in this experiment was about 100,000 cycles per second. The talk on the regular battery circuit was of the usual high standard both ways, so that the only reason at this point why complete duplex-diplex telephony was not obtained was the fact that there was no high-frequency dynamo available at the laboratory. There is, however, available at this laboratory one of the latest forms of the high-frequency arc, and accordingly this was arranged with suitable electromagnetic constants to give a period of about 71,000 38734°—sm 1911——10 Tia. 4, 146 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. cycles per second, as measured by a standard wave meter such as is now commonly used in wireless telephony and telegraphy. This source of high-frequency electromotive force was induced upon the high-frequency line wire in a similar manner to that described in the station at the Bureau of Standards, with the result that one of the wires of the twisted pair was made to carry simultaneously the bat- tery telephonic currents from the two transmitters, the high-frequency oscillations of about 100,000 cycles per second, applied at the Bureau of Standards, and the high-frequency oscillations of about 71,000 cycles per second, applied at the laboratory. No influence from these conditions was perceptible upon the excellence of the battery trans- mission and reception of speech either way. DUPLEX TELEPHONY, USING METALLIC CIRCUIT. (A) BRIDGING ARRANGEMENT. The next experiments pertained to the standard metallic circuit as universally used on telephone toll lines in congested districts. The electric constants of this line have already been given. The next step was to remove entirely the earth connections from the metallic circuit and superimpose both telephonic circuits upon the same pair of wires, as shown in figure 6, in which the high-fre- quency apparatus, shown diagrammatically in figure 5, is bridged across the line wires A and A’. G is the source of sustained high- frequency oscillations; C, is the tuning condenser of the oscillatory circuit; L, is the tuning coil of the oscillatory circuit; P is the pri- mary of the oscillation transformer; A is the ammeter; M is the © transmitter microphone; S is the secondary of the oscillation trans- former in the line circuit; C is the tuning condenser in the line circuit; L is the tuning inductance in the line circuit; A, is the ammeter in the line. At the receiving end of the line, C’ is the line tuning con- denser; L’ is the line tuning inductance; P’ is the primary of the oscillation transformer; 8’ is the secondary of the oscillation trans- former; L’’ is the tuning inductance in the oscillatory circuit; C’’ is the tuning condenser in the oscillatory circuit, between which and the telephone F the detector D is operatively connected. The local battery telephone sets are connected across the line wires in the usual manner. In both sets, 1 is the microphone transmitter; 2 is the local battery; 3 is the induction coil; 4 is the ringing system, including the bell and hand generator; 5 is the switch hook; 6 is the telephone receiver. Since the high-frequency apparatus as commercially developed in the wireless telegraph art was used, each of the units was variable and had been previously carefully calibrated by reference to the standards of the Bureau of Standards. The coupling coils were of MULTIPLEX TELEPHONY AND TELEGRAPH Y—SQUIER. 147 the design adapted for wireless telephony, the coefficient of coupling being adjustable between wide limits. It was therefore a matter of hours to run through a large number of experiments in which various combinations were tried. The transmitters first tried were those of the microphone type inserted in the armature circuit of the dynamo and provided with water cooling when currents of several amperes were to be used. It was soon found, however, that the efficiency of transmission of this cable line was so good for electric waves of these frequencies that a very small current, in the neighborhood of 2 milliamperes, sent into the line was amply sufficient for good speech at the re- ceiving end about 7 miles distant. No attempt was made to determine to what lower limit the transmission current could reach in this respect, but such small currents enabled the ordinary telephone transmitter to be used without any provision for cooling, especially when it was inserted in the line circuit instead of in the armature circuit of the dynamo. The telephone receivers were those regularly furnished for wireless telephony, ranging in resistance from 2,000 to 8,000 ohms. Resonance.—As was expected, the phenomena of resonance under Via. 6. the conditions which here obtained were very pronounced and highly consistent, since there is here a definite circuit free from the disturb- ances and variations inherent in radio telegraphy and telephony. In wireless telegraphy and telephony it is well known that within a few minutes transmission will drop off many fold from causes not en- tirely understood, and from diurnal variations and electrostatic dis- turbances, effective transmission is often prevented. In general, the different circuits were tuned to resonance in the same manner, for the same purpose, and with-the same effect as in wireless telephony and telegraphy. 148 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. The line circuit itself was readily tuned to resonance for the par- ticular frequency of the dynamo by noting the maximum reading of the hot wire ammeter A, in the line itself. This maximum is readily found by varying either the capacity C or the inductance L, or both. At the receiving end of the line, coil L’ and the condenser C’, as well as the coil L’’ and the condenser C’’, were tuned to give a maximum intensity of signals in the receiving telephone of the audion. The audion, a detector of the so-called vacuum type, consists of an exhausted bulb containing (a) a tungsten filament maintained at in- candescence by a current from a local battery of 6 volts and (6) two platinum electrodes insulated from the filament and from each other. To these electrodes, one of which isa platinum plate and the other a platinum grid, there are applied through the high resistance receivers about 35 to 45 volts from a local battery. The brilliancy of the fila- ment is controlled by a small series rheostat, and the voltage applied to the insulated terminals by a local potentiometer. The gases in the bulb, becoming ionized by contact with the glowing electrode, serve as a conductor of electricity, having a high unilateral conductivity. If the platinum wire grid is close to the hot filament and the plate at some greater distance, the direction of greater con- ductivity is from the plate through the gas by the ionic path to the grid, so that if the positive terminal of the telephone battery is ap- plied at the plate terminal and the negative at the grid terminal, a sufficient current to operate the telephone will flow. If the terminals of the condenser of a resonant receiving circuit are connected to the grid and to one terminal of the filament the high frequency e.m.f. impressed from this resonant circuit will cause a greater current to flow through the gas in one direction than in the other, as in the case of the direct-current potential applied through the telephone receiver. This rectifying effect will be reproduced in the telephone receivers, causing them to make audible the received signals. By changing the coefficient of coupling or the potential across the audion, which is adjustable, or the amount of ionization of the gases in the tube by adjusting the current through the filament, or any combination of these, it was found that the receiving operator could bring out the speech to suit his particular fancy. As stated above, the dynamo operated regularly at ranges from 100,000 cycles per second down to 20,000 cycles per second. It was therefore possible to try the effect of a comparatively wide range of frequencies in these experiments, covering three octaves, the induc- tances and capacities being chosen to correspond to each particular frequency. It was found that more energy was delivered over this particular type and length of circuit by using the lower frequencies of SQUIER, 149 MULTIPLEX TELEPHONY AND TELEGRAPHY this range than the higher ones, although efficient results were easily obtained at any point. The battery telephone side of the equipment was left absolutely intact, as it would be commercially used, and severe tests were made, employing four operators, to determine the efficiency of two simulta- neous conversations over this same pair of wires. _ The ringing circuit was operative both ways with no apparent effect on the high frequency telephone transmission. This ringing circuit develops a comparatively large alternating current flowing in the wire at about 30 cycles per second and at a voltage of many times that of either the high frequency or the battery side of the circuit. Articulation tests, including music, numerals and other difficult combinations, gave satisfactory results, with no interference what- ever between the two sides of the circuit. By holding one telephone receiver to one ear and the other receiver to the other ear the receiving operator could hear two entirely different conversations simultaneously over the same pair of wires. (B) SERIES ARRANGEMENT. A circuit was next made up with high-frequency apparatus inserted directly in the line in series, instead of in the bridging arrangement shown in figure 5. The circuit used is shown dia- ~~ Sana E racy MRI, 7 a grammatically in figure 7, ; e in-whichdand lL’ aré the: ~~ R ae secondary coils of the L transmitter and receiver, ; respectively. C and C’ ° Fig. 7. represent variable con- densers of the order of magnitude used in wireless telegraphy and serve as low impedance paths for the high-frequency oscillations, and at the same time prevent the short circuiting of the low-frequency battery telephone current. It was found that this arrangement gave appar- ently as good results as the bridging arrangement of the circuit. IIT.—_DUPLEX-DIPLEX TELEGRAPHY. Having described in detail the experiments for obtaining the simultaneous transmission of two telephonic messages over a single circuit, it will be apparent that the problem of transmitting two telegraphic messages over the same circuit may be solved by methods and apparatus as far as the high-frequency side of the circuit is con- cerned, which are practically identical with those described above. In this connection the metallic circuit referred to was equipped with a standard Morse set for manual operation, and upon this cir- 150 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911, eult was superimposed an equipment for transmitting in one direction telegraphic messages by means of sustained high-frequency oscilla- tions, employing the telephone as the means for receiving the signals. The circuit used is shown diagrammatically in figure 8, in which, in the Morse set, there are shown between the line wire and the ground G, the line relay S, the key K, and the line battery B; and the local battery 6 and the sounder s; and in which, in the high-frequency set, are similarly shown between the line wire and the ground G the tuning elements C and L; and at the transmitting end the oscillation transformer T, the primary of which is in circuit with the dynamo as a source of sustained oscillations, the telegraph key K’, the inter- rupter I and the tuning elements C’ and L’, and at the receiving end the oscillation transformer R in the secondary circuit of which are included the usual tuning elements and operatively connected to them the detector and its telephone as a means of receiving the signals. As noted in the case of the preliminary local circuit tests, it was found that over this particular line it was not necessary to use a a ns nn a oe oe ee ee ee Os ~ we eee mee ewe Ho is — detector for electromagnetic waves, since enough energy was delivered to operate the telephone receiver by connecting it directly between the line and the earth. The sound produced, however, was characteristically different in the two cases. With the detector the individual signals had the eharacteristic tone corresponding to the interrupter at the trans- mitting end of the line, whereas without the detector this tone was entirely absent, and a general dull sound, due to the resultant action of the wave-trains was heard. If, however, a telephone receiver was employed with a soft iron core, instead of a permanent magnet, no result was obtained with the limited power used on this line. Although little mention of telegraphy by high-frequency electric waves has been made thus far, as a matter of fact it was found convenient during the experiments upon telephony actually to MULTIPLEX TELEPHONY AND TELEGRAPHY—SQUIER. 151 employ telegraphy as a quick and ready means of determining resonance between the circuits in each particular case. When any particular arrangement was being employed the first steps were invariably to send simple Morse signals over the circuit until the operator at the distant end of the line reported maximum loudness in the receiving telephone, which indicated that the ter- minal apparatus with the line circuit was properly tuned. This being accomplished, it was necessary only to throw a switch to substitute for the automatic interrupter and telegraph key the telephone transmitter, and the experiments could then proceed on telephony without any material change being made at the receiving station. Telephony and telegraphy thus proceeded hand in hand as a mere matter of convenience, and one of the practical advantages in the use of electric waves for transmitting intelligence is that the whole set-up of apparatus is practically the same for each and they can be used interchangeably over the same circuit. Considering the Morse equipment, indicated in figure 8, the electro- magnetic units involved are of the order of magnitude of microfarads and henrys, and the period of the interrupted direct current for Morse sending is not more than the equivalent of about 10 complete cycles per second, whereas in the high-frequency side of the circuit the electromagnetic units are of the order of magnitude of thousandths of a microfarad and of thousandths of a henry and with frequencies not less than 2,000 times greater than those involved in manual Morse sending. Furthermore, the ohmic resistance of the line which plays a prominent part in limiting the distance and speed of Morse working, is comparatively unimportant in the case of electric waves guided by wires. The operation of the line equipped as in figure 8 was perfectly satisfactory, there being no perceptible interference between the two messages in either direction. Since the standard telegraph circuits of the world use a ground return, this same equipment was arranged to operate on one of the wires of the twisted-pair in the telephone cable as such a circuit with earth connections at each end, and its operation was equally successful. Since it is a well-known characteristic of high-frequency apparatus used in tuned circuits that there shall be no iron involved in the circuit, 1 is evident that in cases where such a high-frequency cur- rent is to be superimposed upon a line comprising way stations, where line relays are inserted directly in the circuit, it will be neces- sary and sufficient to shunt such way stations by condensers of the order of magnitude of thousandths of a microfarad. Such con- densers offer a comparatively free path for the high-frequency electric waves, but interpose a practical barrier to the Morse frequencies. 152 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. The same general statement can be made relative to any of the standard forms of low-frequency telegraphy over wires as now practiced, such as the polar duplex, the differential duplex, and the duplex-diplex, employing alternating currents of low frequency and standard keys, relays, and sounders. Inserting a regular 150-chm telegraph relay in series in the line cuts down the high-frequency current to a small percentage of its original value, which indicates the marked influence of the presence of iron in such a circuit. Furthermore, it was noted that at 100,000 cycles the hysteresis of the iron core was so great that it became heated very perceptibly in a few moments. Since a portion of the telegraph lines now used is still composed of iron wires, it would be expected that electric waves would be propagated over such wires less efficiently than over copper wires, although it is well known that electric waves penetrate only about one-thirteenth as deeply into soft iron for a given frequency as into copper, but this is modified by the fact that the iron in telegraph wires is not soft iron and in addition is galvanized. [Section 4 of this paper, giving details of measurements of electric waves of frequencies from 20,000 to 100,000 cycles per second on a standard telephone cable line, is omitted from the present reprint by the Smithsonian Institution.] SUMMARY. Radiotelegraphy has no competitor as a means of transmitting intelligence between ships at sea and between ships and shore stations, and on land it is also unique in its usefulness in reaching isolated districts and otherwise inaccessible points. To what extent it may be also developed to furnish practical intercommunication according to the high standard now enjoyed in thickly populated districts it is not attempted to predict. The foregoing experiments indicate that either the existing wire system, or additional wires for the purpose may be utilized for the efficient transmission of telephonic and telegraphic messages, and the former without interfering with the existing telephone traffic on these wires. The fact that each of the circuits created by the use of super- imposed high-frequency methods is both a telephone and a telegraph circuit interchangeably, makes it possible to offer to the public a new type of service, which it is believed will offer many advantages to the commercial world. This type of circuit should be particularly applicable to press association service, railroad service, and leased wire service of all kinds. The experiments described should not be interpreted as in any way indicating limitations to radio telegraphy and telephony in the future, for their present rapid development gives justification for great pros- MULTIPLEX TELEPHONY AND TELEGRAPH Y—SQUIER, 153 pect for the future. It is rather considered that the whole system of intercommunication, including both wire methods and _ wireless methods, will grow apace, and as each advance is made in either of these it will create new demands and standards for still further development. We need more wireless telegraphy everywhere, and not less do we need more wire telegraphy and telephony everywhere and, again, more submarine cables. The number of submarine cables connecting Europe with America could be increased many times and all of them kept fully occupied, provided the traffic were properly classified to enable some of the enormous business which is now carried on by mail to be transferred to the quicker and more efficient cablegram letter. That time will surely come when the methods of electrical intercommunication will have been so developed and multiplied that the people of the different countries of the world may become real neighbors. Accustomed to the methods of transmitting energy for power pur- poses by means of wire, it is a matter of wonder that enough energy ean be delivered at a receiving antenna from a transmitting point thousands of miles distant to operate successfully receiving devices. The value of a metallic wire guide for the energy of the electric waves is strikingly shown in the above experiments, and it furnishes an efficient directive wireless system which confines the ether dis- turbances to closely bounded regions and thus offers a ready solution to the serious problems of interferences between messages which of necessity have to be met in wireless operations through space. The distortion of speech, which is an inherent feature of tele- phony over wires, should be much less, if not practically absent, when we more and more withdraw the phenomena from the metal of the wire and confine them to a longitudinal strip of the ether which forms the region between the two wires of a metallic circuit. The ohmic resistance of the wire as shown can be made to play a comparatively unimportant part in the transmission of speech, and the more the phenomena are of the ether, instead of metallic con- duction, the more perfectly will the modified electric waves, which are the vehicle for transmit‘ing the speech, be delivered at the receiv- ing point without distortion. It has been shown that the phenomena of resonance, which are met with in so many different branches of physics, exhibit very striking and orderly results when applied to electric waves propagated by means of wires. By utilizing this principle it has been shown that the receiving current at the end of the line may be built up and amplified many times over what it would be with untuned circuits. The tuned: electrical circuit at the receiving end readily admits electromagnetic waves of a certain definite frequency, and bars from entrance electromagnetic waves of other frequencies. This permits the possibility of utilizing a single circuit for multiplex telephony and telegraphy. : RECENT EXPERIMENTS WITH INVISIBLE LIGHT.1 [With 6 plates.] By R. W. Woop, LL. D., Professor of Experimental Physics, Johns Hopkins University. By far the greater proportion of the discoveries which have been made in natural science up to the present time depend upon observa- tions made with the eye, either with or without the aid of optical instruments. The eye is, however, sensitive to only a very small part of the total radiation which reaches it, and it seems not unlikely that, if its range could be extended, many new phenomena would immediately come to light. By the employment of photography and of instruments which detect and measure the intensity of the infra- red or heat rays, much new information has been gathered, especially in the science of spectroscopy; but usually these methods have been applied only in cases where the invisible radiations were known to be present. It seemed quite probable that if photographic methods were applied to various physical phenomena which excluded the action of any but invisible rays, new facts would probably be dis- covered. I can illustrate what I mean by taking two striking cases which were found at the very outset of the investigation, and which will be more fully discussed presently. If the finger be dipped into powdered zine oxide and rubbed over a sheet of white paper, eye observation is absolutely unable to detect the presence of the streaks made by the white powder, unless it has been very thickly applied. If, however, we photo- graph the paper with ultra-violet light we obtain a picture in which the streaks are as black as if made with powdered charcoal. This suggests that if we apply the process to the photography of themoon and planets, we have some reason to suspect that substances which can not be detected visually may come out in the photographs, a surmise which has been justified in one case at least. This and other similar cases will be taken up in detail presently. As an illustration of how the method may be applied to the inves- tigation of various physical phenomena, we may take another interesting case, in which a new radiant emission from the electric spark has been discovered. It was suspected that the very short 1 Lecture before the Royal Institution of Great Britain, Friday, May 19,1911. Reprinted by permission from author’s separate of Proceedings of the Royal Institution. 155 156 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. waves discovered by Schumann, which are powerfully absorbed by air, might possibly render the air fluorescent, the emitted light being invisible, however, on account of its short wave length. A heavy spark discharge was accordingly placed behind a small disk of metal, which cut off all the direct light, and the surrounding region photo- graphed with a quartz lens, which is transparent to the ultra-violet rays. Jt was found that the air in the neighborhood of the spark actually did give off actinic invisible rays, the photograph giving the impression of a luminous fog surrounding the metal disk. T will now show you an experiment which illustrates that two objects which can not be distinguished under ordinary illumination may appear quite different when the light which illuminates them is restricted to certain regions of the spectrum. I have here two pieces of scarlet suk which can not be distinguished the one from the other in the light of the incandescent electric lamps which illuminate this room. J now extinguish the lamps and place the two pieces of silk under this Cooper-Hewitt mercury arc lamp, and as you see, one of them still appears scarlet as before, while the other appears very dark blue, almost black, in fact. The peculiarity of the mercury lamp lies in the fact that it-gives out little or no red light, consequently red objects in general appear almost black. The peculiarity of this particular piece of silk, by virtue of which it appears quite as red as in ordinary lights, lies in the fact that the red dye with which it is colored is fluorescent under the action of the green rays from the lamp; the red light is manufactured, so to speak, from the green light by the coloring matter of the silk. If I place the arc lamp and the piece of silk behind this large sheet of red glass, you will observe that the fabric is actually brighter than the lamp itself, probably eight or ten times as bright. We can form an image of the lamp on the silk with a lens, and the image will be many times brighter than the Jamp, which might be taken as a refutation of the old and well-known theorem in optics that no optical system can yield an image brighter than the source (!) Here is another piece of white silk upon which I have made some red spots with this same dye. By the ordinary illumination of the room it is seen to be white, with large pink polka dots, something quite suitable for a young lady’s summer gown. I now place it behind the red screen under the mercury are and it at once becomes quite diabolical in appearance, bluish-black with flaming spots of scarlet, entirely unsuitable for the aforementioned purpose. The dye which was used for coloring these fluorescent fabrics was rhodamin. The conditions of ilumina- tion and observation are, of course, rather special in these cases, and I have introduced them merely to illustrate how the eye may be deceived under certain conditions. EXPERIMENTS WITH INVISIBLE LIGHT——-WOOD. 157 Practically all sources of light in ordinary use give out more or less ultra-violet light which piays.no part in vision, but which can be rendered apparent in various ways. I have on the table a new arrangement by which these rays can be separated from the visible ones. The apparatus is practically identical with the device quite recently used by Prof. Rubens and myself for isolating the longest heat waves that have been discovered up to the present time. It can be used as well for the isolation of the ultra-violet, since its action depends upon the high refractive index which quartz has for these two types of radiation. The source is, in this case, an electric spark contained in this box, and the ultra-violet rays are brought to a focus upon a small circular aperture in a cardboard screen. The focal length of the lens is so much greater for visible light that these rays do not come to a focus at all, but are spread over a circular area of a diameter nearly half that of the lens. A penny has been fastened to the center of the lens with wax, and this shields the aperture from the cone of visible rays coming from the central portions of the lens. If I hold a sheet of white paper above the aperture you observe that it remains dark—that is, no visible rays pass through to the paper; if, however, I substitute for the paper this mass of uranium nitrate crystals, the presence of the ultra-violet rays is made manifest, the crystals shining with a brilliant ereen light. Certain vapors shine with a brilliant light when exposed to these invisible rays. One of the most striking is the vapor of metallic mercury, which I can show you by boiling the metal in this flask of fused quartz placed above the aperture. The metal is boiling now, and you can all see the brilliant cone of green light which marks the path of the ultra-violet rays through the metallic vapor. If I hold a thin sheet of glass between the aperture and the flask, you will observe that the vapor instantly becomes dark, for the glass stops completely the rays in question. The vapor of mercury exhibits an absorption band in the ultra- violet region which resembles the band at wave-length 5893 shown by dense sodium vapor. So powerful is this absorption that I have detected it in the vapor of mercury at room temperature. It occurred to me that this light instead of being absorbed might possibly be reemitted by the vapor laterally in all directions. To test this point I sealed up a drop of mercury in an exhausted flask of quartz, and focused the light of the mercury are (burning in a silica tube) at the center of the bulb, which was not heated. The bulb was then photo- graphed with a quartz lens, and the picture clearly showed the cone of focused rays precisely as if the bulb were filled with smoke. This is another very good example of how new discoveries may be made by ultra-violet photography. 158 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. If the object to be photographed gives off visible rays in addition to the invisible ones, it is necessary to remove these by a suitable screen or ray filter. We will begin by considering some remarkable effects which are obtained when sunlit landscapes are photographed by means of the obscure rays at the extreme red end of the spectrum. A screen can be prepared which transmits these rays, and is at the same time opaque to all other radiations, by combining a sheet of the densest blue cobalt glass with a solution of bichromate of potash or some suitable orange dye. Such a screen transmits a region of the spectrum comprised between wave lengths 6900 and 7500. Though this region is visible to the eye if all other rays are cut off, it is so feeble in its action that it plays no part in ordinary vision, being overpowered by the other radiations. We may thence, for convenience, call photographs made through such a screen infra-red pictures, though the infra-red region is usually considered as beginning at the poimt where all action upon the human retina ceases. The photographs which I am now going to show you were taken through such a screen, with the spectrum plates made by Wratten and Wainwright. The time of exposure was about three minutes in full sunlight, with the lens stop set at f/8. The views were, for the most part, made in Sicily and Italy, and have a very curious appearance, for while the sky comes out in all of them almost as black as mid- night, the foliage of the trees and the grass come out snow white. This peculiar effect results from the failure of the atmosphere to scatter these long rays. ‘The green leaves, however, reflect them very powerfully, or, more correctly, transmit them, since we are dealing with pigment or transmission color. If we look at a landscape through the screen, carefully protecting the eye from all extraneous light with a black cloth, we shall find that the trees shine with a beautiful rich red light against a black sky. This condition obtains only on very clear days, for the presence of the least haze in the air enables it to scatter the long rays, and you will notice that in those pictures which show the sky down to the horizon there is a pro- gressive increase in its luminosity as we pass from the zenith down- ward, as a result of the greater thickness of the mass of air sending the scattered rays to the camera. Another point to be noticed is the intense blackness of the shadows in the infra-red pictures, due to the fact that most of the ight comes directly from the sun and little or none from the sky, which reminds one forcibly of the conditions which obtain on the moon, where there is no atmosphere at all to form a luminous sky. When we come to the subject of photographs made with ultra- violet light, we shall find that we have the conditions reversed, for EXPERIMENTS WITH INVISIBLE LIGHT—-WOOD. 159 practically all of these very short waves are scattered by the atmos- phere, and we have no shadows even in full sunlight. We will now run through the series of infra-red pictures as rapidly as possible, for I have a considerable number of them. The one which is on the screen is one of the finest in the collection (pl. 1). It vas made in the park at Florence, and shows the long drive, over- shadowed by trees, the one in the foreground being particularly fine in appearance. The next one (pl. 2) was made at the bottom of one of the old quarries or latomiz at Syracuse, the view looking out through a cavelike formation at a group of almond trees, with which the quarry is overgrown. Here is a fine row of cypresses growing by an old gate, taken on a somewhat hazy day, with the sky appearing a little lighter than usual. Some of the pictures show the advantage gained in bringing out the detail of distant objects seen through the atmospheric haze, and it does not seem impossible that photographs of the brighter planets made through an infra-red screen might prove interesting if the planets are surrounded by a light scattering atmosphere, for we must bear in mind that the surface of the earth, as seen from a neigh- boring planet, would be seen through a luminous haze, equal in brilliance to the blue sky on a clear day; that is, it would present much the same appearance as is presented by the moon when seen at noonday. We will now look into the question of how things would appear if our eyes were sensitive only to ultra-violet light. In applying the same method which we have used for the infra-red, we require a screen which is opaque to all visible light, but which transmits the ultra-violet. Glass is opaque to these rays, cutting them off almost completely, and for this reason we can not employ glass lenses. Quartz, on the other hand, is exceedingly transparent to these invisible rays, but it is a little difficult to find a medium which is transparent to them and at the same time quite opaque to visible light. Indeed, there is only one substance known which completely fulfills such a condition, namely, metallic silver. If we deposit chemically a thin film of metallic silver on the surface of a quartz lens, a certain amount of ultra-violet radiation between 3000 and 3200 is able to struggle through and form an image on the plate. I have used silver films through which the filament of a tungsten lamp is invisible. The best thickness is that at which the tungsten lamp is just barely discernible. If the objects to be photographed are illuminated with the light of an electric spark, or some other source, rich in ultra-violet rays, much thinner films of silver can be employed, but in the case of sunlight, which has passed through the earth’s atmosphere, the ultra-violet in the region for which silver has 160 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. its lowest reflecting power and greatest transparency has been so tremendously weakened by atmospheric absorption, that it is neces- sary to employ thick films and long exposures, otherwise the action upon the photographic plate results chiefly from the violet and ultra- violet rays, which are capable of traversing glass. As an illustration of the behavior of silver films of different thick- nesses, used as ray filters, we may take some pictures which were made for the purpose of studying the reflecting power of various metals, suitable for telescope mirrors, for ultra-violet photography. As silver reflects only about 4 per cent of the ultra-violet in the spectrum range for which it is transparent, a silvered glass reflecting telescope for this purpose is obviously out of the question. Speculum metal is fairly suitable, but speculum mirrors of large size are trouble- some, and difficult to procure. I accordingly worked out a method of depositing nickel on glass. The glass is first silvered, and then electro-plated with nickel, by a process which I have described recently in the Astrophysical Journal (Dec., 1911). The double sulphate of nickel and ammonia is used with one or two dry cells. The solution must be very dilute (10 grams or less to the liter), otherwise the nickel strips the silver from the glass. We have here four pictures of a silvered glass dish, partially plated with nickel (pl. 3, fig. 1). The silvered portion is marked Ag, the nickel Ni, while at G we have a spot of clear glass from which the metal has been removed. The dish stands against a flat plate of polished speculum metal Sp, and the metal surfaces reflect the light of the sky to the camera. The first picture was made by blue and violet light without any ray filter, and as you see the glass surface G is quite black, while the silver reflects much more powerfully than the nickel. The following three pictures were made with a quartz lens, coated with silver films of increasing thickness. The silver and nickel reflect to about the same degree in the second picture, in the third the silver is much darker than the nickel, while in the fourth the silver is seen to reflect no more than the spot of clear glass G. This last was made through a film, through which a tungsten lamp was invisible. If these ultra-violet rays were visible to us, metallic silver would appear to have about the same reflecting power and appearance as anthracite coal. We will next take up the action of our atmosphere on these ultra- violet rays. I have taken two photographs of a man standing in the road in full sunshine, in the one case by ordinary light and in the other by ultra-violet radiation. In the latter the shadow is com- pletely absent. Ultra-violet behaves in exactly the opposite way to the infra-red. The infra-red rays are enabled to drive through the atmosphere without being scattered laterally by the molecules of the air or the dust particles. The short or ultra-violet rays, on the other PLATE 1. Smithsonian Report, 1911.—Wood. PHOTOGRAPHED BY INFRA-RED RAys. PARK IN FLORENCE. Smithsonian Report, 1911.—Wood. PLATE 2. QUARRY IN SYRACUSE. PHOTOGRAPHED BY INFRA-RED RAYS. EXPERIMENTS WITH INVISIBLE LIGHT—-WOOD. 161 hand, are completely scattered, so that the greater part of the ultra- violet light which reaches the surface of the earth comes from the sky and not directly from the sun. If our eyes were sensitive only to ultra-violet we should find the world appearing not greatly different from the aspect which obtains at the time of light fog. We should, indeed, see the sun, but it would be very dull, and there would be no ° shadows, just as there are none on a foggy day. Weshould walk the earth like Peter Schlemeil, the shadowless man of the German fable. The next picture (pl. 3, fig. 2) illustrates the opacity of ordinary window glass to ultra-violet radiation. It will be noticed that there is no trace of the landscape seen through the glass window, although it is clearly rendered in the companion picture taken with visible light. Another difference to be noted in these pictures is that the flowers in the garden, which are white in the picture taken with visible light, disappear entirely in the picture taken by means of the ultra-violet radiation. The white garden flowers become almost black, as is shown in plate-4, figure 1, which shows white phlox photographed by visible and ultra-violet light. It occurred to me that this ability of the white flowers to absorb the ultra-violet rays might play some economic part in the growth of the plant. I therefore experimented with some flowers which had been grown under glass, and had thus been deprived of ultra-violet, but I was unable to find any marked difference between those which had been grown in the open and others which had been deprived of their full quota of this radiation. It is possible that if the experiments were carried on through the course of a number of generations, we should find a difference. I have found, however, that all white flowers are not equally dark when photographed with ultra-violet light. White geraniums, for example, come out much lighter than common white phlox, which is practically black when photographed through the silvered quartz lens. In order to demonstrate the difference in the appearance of one of the common pigments when viewed respectively with visible light and with ultra-violet radiation, some letters were painted in Chinese white on a page of amagazine. In the photograph (pl. 4, fig. 2) taken with visible light the Chinese white appears as white as the paper itself, if not indeed whiter; but, photographed with the ultra-violet radiation, it comes out absolutely black. One may say that what is Chinese white in visible light becomes Japan black in ultra-violet. Under this radiation also black printer’s ink becomes lighter than in visible light. This failure in the reflecting capacity of Chinese white is a source of some annoyance in reproducing drawings executed in part in this medium, as has been pointed out by Mr. A. J. Newton. In working with my Chinese white I made a mistake in one letter in the word ‘“‘appears,” and carefully wiped it out, leaving no trace of the 38734°—sm 1911——11 162 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. correction discernable in visible light; but when the photograph was made with the ultra-violet, the erasure, otherwise invisible, showed as a black smudge. The ultra-violet camera is evidently very much more sensitive than the eye to the presence of traces of Chinese white on the printed page, for so far as I could see every particle of the - pigment had been removed. Whether this has any bearing upon the detection of forgeries has yet to be discovered. Another class of work in which this comparative study is likely to be of-service is the photography of celestial bodies.. For the full moon the exposure through the silver screen was two minutes with ultra-violet light belonging to the region 3000 to 3200. This length of exposure necessitated an equatorial telescope with some means of driving it to compensate for the moon’s movement. The support for my telescope was the framework of an old bicycle minus the wheels. This carried a 4-inch refractor and a quartz-silver telescope, and by the operation of a little screw it was possible to follow the moon accurately for half an hour. It will be seen at once (pl. 5) that there is very little difference between the ordinary image of the moon and the one which is shown us by the ultra-violet radiation. Nevertheless in the neighborhood of Aristarchus, which is the brightest crater on the lunar surface, the photograph taken with the ultra-violet rays shows a dark patch which is absent on the one taken with visible light. I made an enlargement of the region in which this crater appears, and it is evident that there is in its neighborhood a large deposit of some material which can only be brought out by means of the ultra-violet. These photographs of the moon make it appear extremely probable that by carrying on experiments of this nature on a larger scale we might get a good deal of new information as to the materials of which the moon is composed. It is possible to examine the igneous rocks of the earth under the different radiations, and then compare them with the pictures of celestial objects obtained at thesame wave-lengths. Ihave found that some rocks, which when illuminated by ultra-violet rays appear darker than others, are lighter than the others in visible light. [Note added October, 1911.] [I have had constructed a 16-inch mirror of 26-feet focus which I have coated with nickel, for extending the study of the ultra- violet photography of the moon and planets. This is now being used in combination with a plate of the new ultra-violet glass, 12 centi- meters square and 1 millimeter thick, heavily silvered. The plate was made by Zeiss, and I find that it is quite as transparent as quartz for the rays transmitted by the silver filter. This reflector was mounted on the 23-inch equatorial of Princeton University, and some very fair pictures have been obtained, though the moon’s motion Smithsonian Report, 1911.—Wood. PLATE 3. VISIBLE LIGHT. ULTRA-VIOLET LIGHT. Ries 2: Smithsonian Report, 1911.—Wood. PLATE 4. VISIBLE LIGHT. ULTRA-VIOLET LIGHT. Fic. 1. VISIBLE LIGHT. ULTRA-VIOLET LIGHT. Fig. 2. EXPERIMENTS WITH INVISIBLE LIGHT—WOOD. 163 in declination could not be followed with sufficient accuracy to secure the best results. Figure 7 (pl. 5) shows two views of the region around Aristarchus (indicated by an arrow), one made with yellow, the other with ultra-violet light. The dark deposit to the right of the bright crater comes out very clearly in the latter. The markings to the right of this region are quite different in the two pietures. Immediately below the pictures of the moon are three photographs made of two samples of volcanic “tuff” arranged one upon the other, with the crater Aristarchus marked with white chalk (as a check upon the exposure). The left-hand picture was made with yellow light, and the central specimen is lighter than the one surrounding it. The right-hand one was made -with ultra-violet, and shows the central specimen distinctly darker. The middle - picture was taken with violet light, which shows the two specimens of very nearly the same luminosity. I made an analysis of the fragment of tuff which photographed dark in ultra-violet light, and found that it contained iron and traces of sulphur. Photographs of rocks stained with iron oxide did not show the required peculiarity, and J accordingly attributed the result to the sulphur. A light deposit of sulphur was formed on the surface of a piece of light-gray rock by directing a fine jet of sulphur vapor against it. The deposit was so slight that absolutely no trace of it could be detected by the eye. The specimen was then photographed ‘with yellow, violet, and ultra- violet light, and it was found that the deposit was quite invisible in the first picture, faintly visible in the second, and quite black in the third—precisely the peculiarity shown by the deposit surrounding the crater Aristarchus. Plate 6, a, b, c, show the gradual appearance of the deposit, which is an oval spot in the center of the specimen. I feel inclined, therefore, to attribute this spot to an extensive deposit of sulphur, resulting from vapor ejected from the crater. The shape and vast extent of the deposit has always suggested to me that it resulted from material driven out in a volcanic blast.] Returning now from the moon to the physical laboratory, we will consider a further phenomenon which has been discovered and studied by means of photography in the ultra-violet region. The vapor of mercury has an absorption band in this region at wave length 2536, which I have made the subject of a somewhat extended investigation. At low pressures the line is very narrow, resembling one of the D lines of sodium, and I have detected its presence in mercury vapor at room temperature by employing a tube 3 meters long closed with quartz plates. It occurred to me that this vapor might prove to be the substance which I have long sought for the study of what I have named resonance radiation, i.e., a re-emission of light by absorp- ing molecules, of precisely the same wave length as that of the light absorbed. Sodium vapor was found to exhibit the phenomenon, 164 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. but the experimental difficulties were so great that very little was accomplished. A small box was made of brass and square plates of quartz. The inside was varnished and blackened with soot, a drop of mercury introduced, and the box exhausted. The camera with its quartz objective was now trained on the box, and a beam of light from a mercury lamp (quartz) focused at the center of the box. Though the eye could see no trace of the cone of rays, the photograph brought it out as distinctly as if the box was full of smoke. An ex- posure of only 1 second was necessary, and with a 10-second expo- sure the spectrum of the light scattered by the vapor was secured. It was found to consist of a single line only (the 2536 line), though the light entering the box was the total radiation of the mercury arc, the spectrum of which contained hundreds of lines. The pressure of the mercury vapor was about 0.001 millimeter, in other words, zsaoo0 of the pressure of the air in the room. It seems most extraordinary that a vapor at such a very low pressure and at the temperature of the room should glow so brilliantly with invisible ight. 30 OT CR am ere aero arctan nie ots ehh aioe - Soa c eial Greenwich........ sh Os Uw Pe KEIN OULLY ore erase nace neice cose sii oe nae le ease (6 Kou Bese ay oem Str ee OO IMOXI COs eisai: coach ae tecet eee seb A Jane MexiGosssascosase —6 36 26.7 INewioundlands 2-6 Sal eboe% oi: s cease. oe Sta JONNS a= se see — 3 30 48. New Southiw alesinio 225 j5<< pace. aera ae Greenwich. ......-. 10.70) 210 ING WeZCGIATIG Sage ne te mte nic dies cas ois na ec eae Noe Sct dow. lil 30) 0 INICATAP UA) cic ticas cence tee eaaide es ene Manactia ees sss- ce —5 45 10 INGE WAY 4 SSSR ARE a ER CADRE LE Greenwich.......- stool cterO vem AIAN eos alors ee aie eta note aoe ee ce eects ease Goss r eon sae Om SO IROEU Cros wack acces ae aces saisisine cies is Soe ccs celseeee donee seen a —5 0 0 Portugal, with Whydah and the islands |...-. Gomes te seee 0250) <0 St. Thomas and Principe. Portugal: Azores and Cape Verde Islands.........|..... GON ee cueeenas = Oh Madeira, Portuguese Guinea..-.........)..... Gos esei babes| =o O10 Mauritius Island. 5.252 ¢ 322555 e Le | ee Gov eee eS Aah 05220 Macao, Portuguese Timor...............]..... dO. se eee oleae o om Oh 0 Queensland=:ss2-4--h <> BS 2a eey ean rr ee ee Osseo sect On Ol sO ROUMaRA SAN ekeh = Aas asl ae ete see ee eae WOScseceate ese eer a0 RUSSIA Ae Sees oe dead BAS PulkOws ./cs-eoeeh 20s) 1h 1856 PoE \12) 0 (e) ch aera ee fatal ae ae ae Se Be San Salvador... ..- — 5 56 32.6 CLVAR Scere ieee aan ee ae nL Greenwich........ =e 0. Pal eas ect sae Soe eee enone secs ee oecte amine dolce On Altra) Dwiedeniie onesie tt en ea ey ee sa leo doe saa34 alist 0:80 DWAtZerlanG en jane Meese ince cance scat sieleemas Girt sees coe =f ORO Remarks. Railroads. Official time. Legal time. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Railroads. Railroads, ports. Railroads. Do. Legal time. Do. Official time. Legal time. Railroads. Legal time. Do. Do. Legal time. Railroads. Official time. Legal time. Railroads. Do. Legal time. Railroads. Official time. Legai time. Do. 252 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. The systems of time in various countries—Continued. Region or country. Meridian. Difference. Remarks. PRASMaMIA! so Fic ce eee ack cee See eee Greenwich.......- +10 0 0 Legal time. ERUIDKO VS seems aerate acids Secece eee eee do ao 0 O Railroads. United States: Hasternistandand es. -seeee sere eae ee see Co (oe ay eee ra —5 0 0 Legal time. Centralistandard 22-0 ys eee eee eas Goes 2222925) 6s 0-0 Do. Mountain standard ss. o- sone ee eeer eee ee leeeee Gots cess be —-7 0 0 Do. Pavificstandard’ cue esate ee een ema Comes ae —8 0 0 Do. PAU AS Toa 2 Ses 3 0 stents SAS ae nie Soe ee eee Goer see SL. == 19 OMA Do. Walle Re es eis erp ee oe mee meee Gossrsseseceet —10 30 0 Do. POT LOMRACO Ga eee ce as are ee ee cy an | Raa Goss nee eee —-4 0 0 Do. IPH p pines! o.oo ase ae oe te see eewe COM ate eee +8 0 0 Do. RU BU yee coe Sects ee Sen epee ees Montevideo. ...--. — 3 44 51.4 | Railroads. IMeneztiela nese oe sa Se Sivciscie eek oc ee Caracas. i223 soe: —4 27 48.6 Wil CLOIG ee een Scouse aoe ee eerie Greenwich= =. -f2-- +10 0 O Legal time. This table makes easy not only the transformation of a given time to the corresponding time at Greenwich but also its conversion to that of any other place. For instance, when it is 6 hours a. m. in Chicago, in Manila it is 6+6+8=20 hours, or 8 hours p. m. . Upon the terrestrial map given here, the 24-hour zones have been indicated; the central line of the first passes through Greenwich, The countries and territories which have not yet adopted the inter- national system of time are tinted blue, the others rose. For great extents of country like the United States of America it is easy to see at a glance the time in each region. THE INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE. It is well known that if we go westward from America to Asia, we find our date one day behind time when we reach Asia; if we travel eastward over the same route we find our date one day ahead of time when we reach America. In order to avoid this confusion of dates, it is customary, in cross- ing the one hundred and eightieth meridian from Greenwich, to ‘ump’ a day, if traveling toward the west, and to repeat a day if traveling toward the east. However, because of geographical and political conditions, the international date line does not coincide exactly with the one hundred and eightieth meridian. It is an irregular line so situated that all eastern Siberia has the same date, the Aleutian Islands and Hawaii the same date as the United States of America, and, finally, the Fiji Islands and Chatham Island that of Australia. This line is shown on the accompanying map. LEGAL TIME IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES—PHILIPPOT. 253 THE TIME SERVICE OF VARIOUS COUNTRIES. The knowledge of the exact time is of the utmost importance for the transaction of the business affairs of all the nations; especially so for those who have charge of the means of transportation and of rapid communication. This is the case for railroad and telegraph com- panies and especially for maritime commerce. The captains of vessels, at the moment of clearing for sea, must be able to regulate their chronometers with precision, for upon these instruments depends the determinations, during their voyage, of the geographical positions of their vessels. Accordingly, at the principal ports of the world, a special device (time ball) is used to give the mariners the exact time at known moments. Indeed, in certain ports, special bureaus for this purpose are at the service of sea captains during their stay in port; here they may deposit their chronometers so that their conditions and daily rates may be determined. These time-service bureaus are generally in direct communication with an astronomical observatory, which assures them of the time used. Various countries of the world have organized, according to their means and local necessities, more or less extensive time services. Generally, in countries covered by a network of telegraph and telephone lines, a service is established such that the various bureaus connected by wire receive daily the necessary time signal. Those wishing signals can apply to these offices or rely on time furnished to exterior clock dials either at railroad stations or at post offices. In the United States of America the time is sent over all its im- mense extent of land. It is transmitted at noon by an accurately regulated pendulum which automatically sends currents of electricity over all the telegraph lines of the country. These currents actuate receiving instruments at all the telegraph stations. The duration of the transmission lasts five minutes. They aresent out from the Naval Observatory at Washington for all the region east of the Rocky Mountains, and from the observatory at Mare Island, Cal., for that to the west. Besides these noon signals, others can be sent during the course of the day when required. In Portugal the Lisbon-Tapada Observatory furnishes telegraphi- cally the time to the whole country, to the time ball at the arsenal at Lisbon, and to the chronometer station of the meteorological observ- atory of Ponta Delgada (S. Miguel, Azores). In Belgium the time is sent daily by telephone to the time-service office at the port of Antwerp where an assistant is detailed to compare such chronometers as may be deposited. An accurate Riefler clock serves to maintain the requisite time and work the time ball. The observatory sends the time also to the central bureau of the tele- 254 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. graphs which in turn distributes it to all the telegraph and eyes stations of the kingdom. The precise time is sent also to the various civic incon aa as well as to certain private institutions to which it is essential. The transmission of the time is made as follows: As soon as the one in charge of the station is in telephonic communication with some one wishing the time, he states the time he is going to indicate, to the exact minute generally, then, 10 seconds before that time he calls, ‘‘attention,” and then accurately at the minute he says, ‘‘tip.’”’ His ‘tip’ is rarely out by two-tenths of a second. facific Sland, q ra Fime —-——---— Mountain Standard Timé XVII m™ £a slern Sandard. me a} x 2] x a a o = lar PO * ro Be Bs r " Le ihe ; y 9 fu! "; ° ve DOV" ooo prt VA > 2 . .n sew , SMITHSONIAN REPORT, 1911.—PHILIPPOT. Xx! maa ome, Tire ae ) i ndardTime + altme Slerte We. Tosmania Y Countries which have not adopted taondara sime Courrries which have agqpled Slandard 7/72 Mountain Standard Time Pacific Sle, LasternStondar Ze CCnlral Tine XV xv! xvii xvii i tt WV Vv vi Vil Vill IX A x) Xl Xill XIV SYSTEM OF TIME IN THE DIFFEREN! COUNTRIES. XX! XXII XXUll 0 I roe ae 2 ” ala ‘tae et Wid ee a wee = cS “es eee ea ee ee he i ~ ee. oe ell 2 ae . * ox .. ee t- pt w é ah "= iq : bt fa? y : bot... 3. r. i Tree ta THE cit SYS TEA SOME RECENT INTERESTING DEVELOPMENTS IN ASTRONOMY .'-. By J. 8. Prasxert, B. A., Dominion Observatory, Ottawa, Canada. It has been the custom for the newly elected president of an astronomical society to give in his inaugural address a review of the progress of the science of astronomy during the year just closed, and I am partly complying with that custom in what I have to say to you to-night. I do not propose, however, to attempt to give you a review of the whole field of astronomy. That would be quite impossible in one address. All I shall attempt, therefore, is to select from the material at hand some of the most important results recently attained, and from these again those which are likely to prove of the greatest general interest. In this selection, it is very likely that I shall be guided by my own particular preferences, and I do not, therefore, claim that what I have to lay before you will be entirely representative of the progress of the science. In my opinion there has been no time in the history of astronomical science when progress has been so rapid and when we seem to be on the eve of so many interesting developments, and I might almost say generalizations, as at the present time. One of the most significant indications of such development in astronomy is the remarkable coordination and correlation that is being so rapidly developed among the different sciences. A few years ago the astronomer made no use of any science but his own, with, of course, its indispensable adjunct mathematics; but now progress in astronomy is impossible without the aid of physics and chemistry, geophysics and geology. We do not know, indeed, how soon we shall be applying biology, with its allied sciences, in the study of such a subject as ‘‘Life in other worlds,” on which we had recently such an eloquent and instructive address by Prof. Aitken. Another significant fact pomting toward rapid developments and deductions is the completion or approaching completion of many 1 Address before the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada, Ottawa. Feb. 23,1911. Reprinted by per- mission from the Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada, July-August, 1911, pp. 245-265. 255 256 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. extensive researches in our science. Astronomy is, perhaps more than any other, a science which requires long continued and system- atic investigations to be carried through with faithfulness, unsel- fishness, and untiring perseverance before any definite results can be attained. All honor to the astronomers of the past, who spent their lives in making observations of which they themselves could not hope to reap any fruit, and all honor to the astronomers of the present, who are unselfishly collecting data which only a future generation can use. The results of past observations are beginning, in many different branches of our science, to be of inestimable service in unravelling some of the mysteries of the universe. Let us begin our review of the progress of our science at our own globe, and though one would hardly state that the science of geo- physics, as the study of the form and constitution of the earth is called, is astronomy, yet it can not be disputed that only by know- ing exactly the dimensions of our earth can we determine the dimen- sions and distances of the heavenly bodies; and only from a study of the constitution and physical condition of our globe, which must include careful measurements of the spectra of terrestrial elements, can we determine the constitution, the physical conditions, and the radial motions of the heavenly bodies. We have to proceed to the inaccessible by a study of the accessible, and to investigate the the unknown by attacking the knowable, and hence we may safely say that a knowledge of the dimensions and form, the constitution and physical condition, of the earth is a first requisite for a satis- factory study of the heaveniy bodies. The science of geodesy, which treats of the figure and size of the earth, is making substantial progress all over the world, and new and more accurate data are constantly being obtained. It is a great satisfaction to me to record that, under the able superintendence of Dr. King, good progress is being made in an accurate geodetic survey of Canada. This work, which has only recently been organized, will furnish at the same time results of the greatest practical usefulness, as well as of the highest scientific value. The allied branches of seismology, terrestrial magnetism, and of the determination of gravity are, along with geodesy, gradually changing and crystallizing our notions of the structure of the interior of the earth from the old idea of a thin crust surrounding a molten interior to that of a solid globe whose density and elasticity increase with the depth, at least for some distance, and which acts on the whole as if it possessed the rigidity of steel. Geodetic measurements show that all local irregu- larities on the surface such as mountains and valleys are completely compensated for at a depth of about 75 miles. This means that if, from the boundaries of equal areas on any part of the earth’s sur- face, lines are drawn toward the center to a depth of 75 miles from DEVELOPMENTS IN ASTRONOMY—PLASKETT. 257 sea level, the amount of matter inclosed is the same in each. This is called the isostatic layer and acts as if it were floating in equili- brium on a liquid at that depth. The comparatively new science of seismology—in which our observatory is so ably represented by Dr. Klotz, whose method of recording the earth disturbances is, I may say, now being extensively copied—on the other hand shows, from the form and velocity of propagation of earth disturbances, that the interior must be about as rigid as steel. This is further corroborated by measurements, by a kind of seismograph, of the deformation of the solid earth by the luni-solar attraction, which in the sea produces the tides but which also sets up, though, of course, very much reduced in magnitude, a similar effect upon the land. The more recent advances in seismology have been in the direction of improving the sensitiveness of the instruments and the methods of discussion of data, so that we may hope to gradually obtain definite knowledge of the density, rigidity, and elasticity of the interior, layer by layer. The increase of data in terrestrial magnetism, on the other hand, seems to have complicated rather than simplified the problem, which is, of course, naturally the case when the fundamental underlying cause or principle is unknown; and this, it must be confessed, is the case in this science. There can be no doubt, however, of its ultimate solution; and, indeed, we are beginning to see some glimmerings of light in the magnificent work being carried on at the solar observa- tory on Mount Wilson, where one of the most recent and wonderful results has been to definitely prove that there are magnetic fields in the neighborhood of sun spots. That changes in the terrestrial mag- netic elements and solar activity are in some manner connected has long been inferred from the frequent, nearly coincident appearance of violent magnetic storms following the central transit of prominent sun spots. We pass naturally, then, from the earth to the sun, to us the most important heavenly body, as on it is dependent all life on our planet. Very great advances have been made in recent years in the study of the constitution of our luminary, and a great deal of attention is now being paid to researches in this most important branch of astronomy. The International Union for Cooperation in Solar Research, a society, or rather group of societies, which was organized about five years ago, and which embraces the workers on the sun in all civilized countries, has done much toward unifying and rendering effective the great amount of material collected. A meeting of this society, which I had the honor and privilege of attending as representing this observ- atory and also our Royal Astronomical Society, was held last sum- mer at the Mount Wilson Observatory, at which many important 38734°—sm 1911——17 258 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. questions were discussed and plans for future work outlined. The work of the union is carried on by several committees, which report ‘at the triennial meetings. ] Probably the most important action taken was the adoption of a new system of wave lengths of light. The system in use for the last 20 years was introduced by Rowland, the values being obtained from measurements of spectra made with concave gratings. This system was far in advance of previous ones and was for a long time considered practically perfect. More recent investigations have shown, however, that not only were his absolute values in error, every wave length being too great by about 1 part in 30,000, which is not a matter of much moment, but that also—a much more serious question—there were relative errors of the order of about 1 part in 100,000 among the different lines. These errors, due to unknown | defects in the gratings, were only discovered when new measure- ments were made by a different method, that of interference. The new primary standard was first determined by Michelson in 1892 by actually counting the number of waves of the red line in the spec- trum of cadmium in a known fractional part of the standard meter. He found that there were 1,553,163.5 waves in a meter, equivalent to a wave length 0.00064384722 mm., or, as it is usually written, 6438.4722A. This value has more recently been confirmed by Fabry and Perot and is accepted as the primary standard of the new sys- tem. Secondary standards are composed of the wave lengths of 50 lines, in the are spectrum of iron between 44282 and 46495, which have been independently measured by interference methods by three observers—Fabry and Buisson at Marseille, Eversheim at Bonn, and Pfund at Baltimore. The accordance of these measures is so good that the range is generally less than one part in a million, and the mean of the three is certainly correct, considerably within that margin of error. From these secondary standards tertiary standards are to be obtained by interpolation from grating spectra, and after these tertiary standards have been obtained new measures of the wave lengths of all lines in solar and terrestrial spectra will be required. The importance of this work in solar and stellar investigations can not be overestimated, as many important results depend on the accuracy of wave-length values, and incorrect values may lead to erroneous conclusions. This is an instance of what I previously said of the necessary interrelation of astronomy and physics and the impossibility of successfully attacking modern astronomical prob- lems without the aid of the allied sciences. One of the important conclusions reached by the committee on sun spots was the practically unchanging character of sun-spot spectra. To this may be added the fact, conclusively proved by ‘DEVELOPMENTS IN ASTRONOMY—PLASKETT. 259 Prof. Hale, that the umbra of sun spots is at a lower temperature than the rest of the sun’s surface, and that in sun spots, as first found by Prof. Fowler, of London, we have the spectra of some chemical compounds, such as titanium oxide, magnesium and cal- cium hydride, further showing that the temperature is sufficiently reduced to allow the formation of such compounds, which do not appear in the normal solar spectrum. Again, we have the discovery of Evershed, of Kodaikanal, India, of radial motions of the vapors ‘ around sun spots, and the final discovery by Hale that many, if not all, sun spots are surrounded by whirls, and that electrically charged particles, which, it has been further shown, are negatively charged, are carried around by these whirls and produce the mag- netic field which is shown to exist around sun spots. At the high temperature of the sun, magnetism as we know it can not exist, and the field must be produced by such whirls or vortices. The manner in which the magnetic field in sun spots was detected and proved is a splendid example of experimentation to test scientific deductions and a full justification of the expenditure on the powerful apparatus needed for such work. The whirls sur- rounding sun spots are shown on photographs of part of the sun’s - surface in the light given by the red line of hydrogen. Such pho- tographs are made by the spectroheliograph, an instrument which enables us to photograph the sun’s surface in the light of different gases or vapors, and hence records the distribution of these vapors. The great resemblance between these whirls and the lines of force around a magnet, as shown by iron filings, led Prof. Hale, the in- ventor of the spectroheliograph and the discoverer of this effect, to suspect the presence of a magnetic field; and the next question was to verify this suspicion. It was found several years ago by Zeeman that if a luminous vapor is produced between the poles of a magnet, many of the lines of its spectrum are widened. Prof. Hale found that the spectrum of a sun spot, with the high dispersion available on Mount Wilson, showed some of the same lines widened, strength- ening his suspicion. Furthermore, when the widened lines produced by a magnetic field in the spectrum of a luminous vapor are examined through a polarizing apparatus, many of the lines are split up into doublets, triplets, quadruplets, or even sextuplets; and a similar test applied to a sun-spot spectrum gave a similar, though much weaker, effect, conclusively proving the presence of a magnetic field. Com- parison showed that its strength was about one-quarter of that needed to saturate iron, too weak to produce any magnetic disturb- ance on the earth, and therefore incapable of explaining the frequent coincidence of magnetic storms and large sun spots. The fact that sun spots are at a lower temperature than the rest of the photosphere has been corroborated by the work of Prof. Abbot, 260 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. who, in his determination of the solar constant (the amount of heat received from the sun), shows that this is 1 or 2 per cent less at sun spot maximum than at minimum. The absolute amount of the sun’s heat at the surface of the earth is 1.9 calories, which may be more simply stated as the amount of heat per square centimeter which will raise 1 cubic centimeter of water 1.9° C. or 3.5° F. in temperature in one minute, if the atmospheric absorption is neglected. It has also been proved by Prof. Abbot that there are irregular variations in this quantity, and it is hoped that a knowledge of these variations may be * of value in helping to predict temperature and meteorological changes on the earth; a problem whose solution, even with all the advances in science, seems as far off as ever. Another interesting problem, which at the meeting of the solar union was advanced a stage, is the determination of the solar rota- tion by the displacement of the spectral lines at opposite limbs of the sun. Owing to the rotation of the sun on its axis in about 26 days, one limb approaches and the other limb recedes from us, with a velocity at the equator of about 2 kilometers per second. If the spectra of the two limbs are brought side by side on the plate, the lines of the former will be displaced to the violet, of the latter to the red; and with a high dispersion spectrograph this displacement will be quite noticeable, of the order of one-tenth of a millimeter. Some work has been done on this problem by Duner at Upsala and by Halm at Edinburgh visually, and more recently by Adams at Mount Wilson photographically. Besides determining the rate, and the law of decrease of rotation with different latitudes, there are other interesting problems, such as variations of the rate for lines of different substances, which require solution. A combined attack by six institutions, of which the Dominion Observatory is one, on different well-distributed regions of the spectrum has been arranged, and, in addition, each observer is to measure a common region for comparison of results and removal of systematic error. Besides these definite advances, much other work in the distribu- tion of the gases and metallic vapors over the photosphere, in com- paring the spectra of the limb and center of the sun and along many other lines, has been recently accomplished; and we may confidently look for rapid development and increase of our knowledge of the con- stitution of our luminary in the near future. Although the study of the sun is most intimately connected with that of the stars, which was recognized at the solar union by the appointment of a committee to discuss the question of the classifica- tion of stellar spectra, yet we may perhaps turn for a moment to the other members of our solar system and see if any new light has recently been thrown upon the interesting question of conditions on other planets. The perennial question of the objective existence of DEVELOPMENTS IN ASTRONOMY—PLASKETT. 261 the fine geometrical markings on Mars, commonly ¢alled canals, has been, during the last opposition of 1909, strenuously and ably sup- ported by Lowell and one or two adherents, and equally strenuously and ably combated by many astronomers, chief among whom was Antoniadi. As is well known, the majority of astronomers are unable to see these fine sharp lines, although plenty of other detail is visible. During the last opposition photography was used to a much larger extent, but I question whether it has settled the matter. Lowell says the principal canals show on his photographs, while others are unable to see them. The only way this question can be settled is, as Aitken suggested, for Lowell to invite some well-known observers, such as Barnard, Burnham, and others, to Flagstaff at the next opposition and let the whole question be fought out. Another disputed point is the question of water vapor on Mars. The detection of this water vapor depends upon the visibility of a small band or group of lines in the red end of the spectrum produced by the presence of water vapor. Slipher, Lowell’s assistant, photo- graphed the spectrum of Mars and then the spectrum of the moon. The light from Mars, which is, of course, reflected sunlight, passes twice through Mars’ atmosphere and then through the earth’s atmos- phere. The light from the moon, which has no atmosphere, passes through the earth’s atmosphere only. If now there is water vapor in appreciable amount in the atmosphere of Mars this band should be stronger in the spectrum of Mars than in that of the moon. Slipher found that it was stronger in the Martian spectrum, but unfortunately some little time elapsed between the two exposures, and there is a possibility that the greater strength of the band was due to change in the amount of water vapor in the earth’s atmosphere. Director Campbell, of the Lick Observatory, considered the question of sufficient importance to organize an expedition, carrying instruments to the summit of Mount Whitney, elevation 14,500 feet, at which altitude only one-fifth of the earth’s water vapor is above and four- fifths below. Any small difference between the moon and Mars bands will show relatively more conspicuously than at the elevation of Flagstaff, which is about 7,000 feet. His photographs were made within a few moments of one another, and with Mars and the moon at the same altitudes, and are, hence, directly comparable. I saw them myself last summer at Mount Wilson, and I can say that there is no discernible difference in the vapor bands in the two spectra. The bands are very weak and evidently due to the small amount of water vapor present in the earth’s atmosphere above Mount Whitney. Campbell comes to the conclusion that there is no spectroscopic evi- dence of the existence of water vapor on the planet. Although he specifically states that he does not contend that Mars has no water vapor he says that it is too slight to be detected by the spectroscopic 262 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. method and is probably considerably less in quantity than that present in the earth’s atmosphere above the summit of Mount Whitney. The question of the suitability of Venus for organic life seems to depend upon the determination of its rotation period. If, as is now mostly believed, it always turns the same face to the sun then the one side will be baked and the other frozen. If, on the other hand, it turns on its axis in about 24 hours, then it is practically certain to be ina condition to support life. The only possible test between the two theories is the spectroscopic one, as in the solar rotation, by observing the line shift at opposite limbs. In this case, however, we have difficulties owing to the bad seeing at the comparatively low altitude of Venus and the disturbance of the image, so that it is diffi- cult to determine in what region of the planet the spectra were made. The advent of Halley’s Comet proved possibly as disappointing to astronomers as to the general public, for it did not show many unusual features, and not much additional knowledge concerning the nature of comets was obtained. The motion of a detached part of the tail, as determined from three photographs at Williams Bay, Hono- lulu, and Beirut, showed the presence of an accelerating force, as its velocity relative to the head increased from 23 miles to 37 miles a second in seven or eight hours. To my mind the most remarkable feature of its return was the accuracy of the computation so success- fully carried through by Messrs. Cowell and Crommelin, in which they predicted its perihelion passage within less than three days. When considered in connection with the large number of disturbing ele- ments to be taken into account and the exceedingly complex and cumbersome calculations required, their ephemeris was a marvelous piece of work, and they well deserved the recognition it received. Before discussing some of the advances in our knowledge of the sidereal universe it has seemed desirable to refer to the improvements effected in apparatus for observation. At the head comes naturally the large reflecting telescope with a mirror of 60 inches diameter, recently installed on the summit of Mount Wilson, California, at an elevation of 5,886 feet. This telescope was designed and the mirror was figured by Prof. G. W. Ritchey, superintendent of instrument construction of the Solar Observatory, who also is doing much of the photographic work with the telescope. I had the privilege of carefully examining the mechanism and of observing with the tele- scope, and it is certainly a superb instrument. The optical proper- ties are practically perfect; and the difficulty of temperature changes, the most troublesome met with in reflectors, has been successfully overcome. The mechanical construction is also unexcelled, and the instrument, although its moving parts weigh 23 tons, drives with the greatest smoothness and ease. The most magnificent photographs DEVELOPMENTS IN ASTRONOMY—PLASKETT. 263 of star clusters and nebule ever made have already been obtained with the instrument, and its light efficiency in spectrographie work is wonderful. It can obtain in five minutes a spectrum of a fifth magnitude star that requires with our refractor over an hour. It is no wonder that such an instrument excited the envy of all astrono- mers who saw it, and Prof. Ritchey was pardonably proud of his masterpiece. We turn from this to, comparatively speaking, a rather insignificant instrument, for measuring the brightness of the stars. The subject of stellar photometry has always been a difficult one, as all the photometers hitherto devised have depended upon eye estimates or comparisons of the relative brightness of the star with either another star or an artificial light, made by ingenious devices to resemble and be brought close beside the star to be measured. There is, in all such methods, the possibility of psychological errors, and it has not been possible to obtain, except in special cases, results with a lower probable error than about one-tenth of a magnitude. In the case of the comparison of two stars brought into the one field and equalized in intensity by polarizing apparatus, the probable error is, perhaps, as low as three or four hundredths of a magnitude. In another method also, in which out-of-focus images of the stars are photographed, the density of the resulting disks have then to be measured by a photometer and we have errors of the same order. The new method, however, does not depend on eye estimates but on the change in electrical resistance of the element selenium when exposed to light. Ifa selenium cell is placed on the end of a telescope and an image of a star to be measured thrown on it, the change of resistance can be measured by a Wheatstone bridge arrangement and very accurate values of the brightness obtained. Prof. Stebbins, who has been working with much ability and energy on this problem for the iast three years, deserves much credit for his success in a difficult research. He has recently made new measures of the light curve of the well-known variable star Algol, and the probable error of a determination at maximum is + .006 mag., at minimum + .023 mag. The accuracy of his observations enabled him to detect a secondary minimum which had never before been seen and which indicates that the companion whose eclipse of the bright star causes the variability is not dark but light. Taking the most probable value of the parallax or distance of the star, he finds that the bright star, which has about the same diameter as the sun, gives 240 times as much light, while the faint hemisphere of the companion gives 16 and the bright hemisphere 28 times the light of the sun. Such results as these are most interesting, and it is only by combi- nation of several different methods, in this case of the light variation by a photometer, the orbital elements by the spectroscope, and the 264 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. distance by parallax measurements, that we can obtain them, and that we can hope to increase our knowledge of stellar systems. Another interesting variable is wu Herculis, whose orbital elements were determined by Schlesinger at Allegheny from radial velocity measurements with the spectroscope. He finds that the brighter star is about 5,000,000 miles in diameter—six times our sun—is 7.5 times as massive but only one twenty-seventh as dense as the sun. The fainter star is 2.9 times as massive but only one-seventieth as dense. ‘The parallax of this star is not known, but if it is as luminous as Algol the brighter star must give out about 8,000 times as much light as the sun. There has been a very marked advance in recent years in stellar spectroscopy, particularly in the line of the determination of the radial velocities of the brighter stars, and several observatories are now engaged in this work. Accurate radial velocity measures were first obtained by Prof. Campbell at the Lick Observatory in 1896 or 1897, and for many years he was practically the only one doing that work. Campbell’s work has been the determination of the radial velocity of all stars in the sky, containing spectra with well measur- able lines, which are brighter than the fifth visual magnitude. This work is now practically completed, and a preliminary value of the direction and magnitude of the sun’s motion in space, with numerous other interesting and valuable deductions, are just being published. In his work and that of Frost, of the Yerkes Observatory, who is measuring the radial velocities of Orion type stars, many spec- troscopic binaries—stars whose radial motion varies, and which are hence accompanied by invisible companions, as distinguished from visual binaries where both stars are seen—have been discovered, and it is believed that not fewer than one in three of all stars must have a companion of approximately the same size, thus eliminating in these cases all possibility of a planetary system like our own. Great advances have been made in determining the orbits, the char- acter of the motion around one another, of these binaries, and the two institutions most active in this line of work are the Allegheny and the Dominion Observatories. Of the 70 spectroscopic binary orbits determined, our observatory has obtained 16, which, con- sidering that the aperture of its telescope is only half or less that of others engaged in the work and that it has been established only a comparatively short time, is a creditable showing. The great strides made in the determination of spectroscopic binary orbits has led to no less than three summaries of the results, containing deductions of important conclusions from them, by Campbell, Schlesinger, and Ludendorff. I have not time to enter into the results deduced from these discussions except to say that it was shown that most binary systems probably originate from a revolving DEVELOPMENTS IN ASTRONOMY—PLASKETT. 265 parent nebula which, while condensing, separates into two masses, and that these masses, as condensation proceeds, and by the influ- ence of tidal action, gradually increase their distance from one another, this being accompanied, of course, by an increase in the period and also, as the results show, by an increase in the eccen- tricity—a greater departure from the circular form—of their orbits. There is no sharp line of distinction between spectroscopic and visual binary orbits except that the latter have much longer periods and generally higher eccentricities. The information already obtained, and that which will in the near future be obtained, about these spectroscopic binary systems, has a most important bearing on the problem of the constitution of the sidereal universe, and we must now come to consider recent progress in our knowledge of the extent and form and motion of its parts. This is certainly the most important problem in astronomy, as practi- cally all observing data, whether astrometrical or astrophysical, whether dealing with the absolute positions, proper motions, and radial velocities of the stars, with their distances, dimensions, and densities, with their evolution and spectral type, or with the investi- gation of variables and binary systems, are all either directly or indirectly obtained with this end in view and all are, undoubtedly, directly of use in its solution. As I said in the early part of the paper, there has been no time when so many different investigations were converging toward this end, and I will try and give you some details of the principal results. One of the most striking of recent advances has been the discovery of star drifts and star streams in the sidereal universe. These have been discovered by statistical methods applied in the discussion of the absolute positions and proper motions of stars and also by the aid of their radial velocities. The one man to whom we owe more than any other the development of this work is Prof. Kapteyn, who is director of what is called the astronomical laboratory of Groningen, where the instruments of research are not telescopes and spectro- scopes but measuring machines and mathematical tables, where no observations are taken but photographs are measured and observa- tions discussed. I will try and give you a general idea of the present state of our knowledge in regard to the motions of the stars. Although we call them the fixed stars the term is a misnomer, for they are all in motion. We can measure this motion in two components. First, the motion at right angles to the line of sight} across the sky, deter- mined from successive observations of the star’s position in the sky and measured by the change of position in seconds of arc in a year or a century. The change of position varies between about 9’’ per year and 0; the average annual proper motion, as it is called, for first magnitude stars being }’’ and for sixth magnitude about 31,’ 266 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. or 4’’ per century. Second, the motion in the line of sight, or radial velocity, measured by the spectroscope, which again varies between 0 and about 250 kilometers per second, the velocity of a faint star in the Southern Hemisphere determined last year. It is evident that in order to get the true direction and velocity of a star we must know, in addition to its radial motion, its velocity in kilometers per second at right angles to the line of sight. If its proper motion is known this can be readily computed when we know its distance, and hence we can obtain the direction and magnitude of its motion. In determining these motions we have to remember that we are on a moving body, the earth, which has a velocity of revolution around the sun of about 20 miles per second, and we must also remember that the sun, which is one of the stars, is also in motion. That this is the case has long been recognized, and the direction of this motion was determined from the proper motions of the stars by Sir William Herschel over 100 years ago. The method of doing this can be readily understood, for if we imagine the stars to be moving in all directions at random, it is, nevertheless, evident that in the portion of the sky which we are approaching, the general tendency will be for them to open out, while they will tend to close in in the opposite direction, and to drift backward at the sides. Hence, if the motion of the stars is at random, it is only a question of mathematics to determine the direction and magnitude of the sun’s motion in space. Over 20 different determinations, based upon the proper mo- tions of different numbers of stars, have been worked out, which all agree reasonably well in showing the sun to be moving toward the dividing line between Lyra and Hercules just a little south and east of the bright star Vega. This point has shifted around considerably between Hercules and Lyra, but the last determination, from Boss’s Preliminary General Catalogue, issued only last year, places it where I have just stated (R. A. 270.5°, Dec. +34.3°). If we consider, on the other hand, a determination of the apex of the sun’s way, as this point is called, derived from the radial velocities of stars, we find it to be in a somewhat different position. We have had three or four determinations of the solar apex from radial velocity measures; but none of these need be considered here except that obtained last year by Prof. Campbell, director of the Lick Observa- tory, the pioneer and foremost exponent of accurate radial velocity determinations, whose methods have been universally followed and their accuracy never excelled. I place the results of his 14 years’ work as the most important astronomical result announced during the year. In determining the velocity and direction of the sun’s motion, the radial velocities of 1,073 stars brighter than the fifth magnitude, well distributed over the sky, were used, 1,020 of which DEVELOPMENTS IN ASTRONOMY—PLASKETT. 267 were determined by spectrographs at Lick and Santiago, 40 were obtained from other observations and 13 were of nebule visually observed by Keeler. The position of the apex, or point toward which the sun is moving, is somewhere, about 7° south of that obtained from the proper motions of the stars (R. A. 272° + 2.5°, Dec. 27.5° +3°), nearly 10° due south of Vega. Of the two determinations, the one obtained from a discussion of the proper motions is of the greater weight, for two reasons—first, the method is more suitable for determining direction; second, the number of stars employed is considerably greater. On the other hand, the discussion of radial velocities gives us a much more reliable value of the velocity of the solar system than proper motions. The velocity from Campbell’s discussion comes out as 17.77 kilometers (11 miles per second), and this is undoubtedly very near the truth. Many other interesting conclusions were reached by Campbell, but time will not permit me to dwell on them, and we must consider further the question of motion of the stars. Itis evident that if acomparison of the motions of the stars shows the sun to be moving toward Vega, then the apparent motions of the stars themselves must, on the whole, be to a point on the celestial sphere directly opposite. Such a motion of the stars, made up not of motions all in the one direction, but of motions in all directions with a preponderance in one direction, is called a drift of the stars; and there is thus a drift of the stars due to the solar motion toward or having as apex a point in the Southern Hemisphere nearly opposite Vega, with a velocity of about 11 miles per second. About five years ago Kapteyn, from a careful examination and dis- cussion of the proper motions of the Bradley stars, came to the con- clusion that there is not one drift of stars, that due to the solar motion, but two drifts, moving in different directions. This conclusion has been confirmed by Eddington, Dyson, Hough, and Halm, and the latest values by Eddington from the proper motions of Boss’s Catalogue place the apexes of these two drifts as follows: Drift I toward the constellation Lepus between Canis Major and Orion, about 10° west of Sirius (R. A. 90.8°, Dec.—14.6°; drift II toward the southern constellation Pavo or away from the northern constellation Camelo- pardalis (R. A. 287.8°, Dec.—64.1°). He finds that drift I is moving apparently nearly twice as fast as drift II and contains about 60 per cent of the stars. When, however, allowance is made for the solar motion we find that these two drifts are moving, one toward the constellation Orion about 8° northeast of a Orionis (Betelgeux), R. A. 94.2°, Dec.4+11.9°, and the other in the opposite direction; exactly as if we were in the midst 268 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. of two sidereal systems interpenetrating one another—a very fas- cinating hypothesis. This hypothesis of the two drifts deduced from a discussion of the proper motions of the stars is strongly confirmed by Campbell’s inves- tigation of the radial velocities. We should expect, if there are two drifts of stars toward and from this point in Orion, that the radial velocities of stars in this and the opposite point of the sky should be greater than at points at right angles to these directions. Campbell found that the velocities in the vertex and antivertex are 33 per cent greater than at points about 90° from these. Besides the two drifts of stars we have smaller groups of stars in different regions of the sky, all the stars in a group having a motion approximately in the same direction and of the same velocity. Such groups are quite different from drifts. where there is only a pre- ponderance of motion in one direction, and are called star streams. Perhaps an analogy may help to make the matter of star drifts, star streams, and solar motion clearer. If you imagine yourself walking in a park where there are many people moving about at random itis evi- dent that, speaking generally, the space between those you are approach- ing opens out, between those you are moving away from closes in, while people at either side, on the whole, appear to move backward. The apparent motion of the mass due to your own motion is analogous to the star drift due to the solar motion. If among the people there are, say, a company of soldiers or a picnic party moving in a given direction we have an analogue of a star stream. It was first pointed out by R. A. Proctor, about 40 yearsago, that five of the stars of the Dipper have proper motions in the same direc- tion and of approximately the same magnitude; and this stream has within the last two years been thoroughly investigated by Luden- dorff, of Potsdam, who determined their radial velocities, and more recently by Herzsprung, who found that the stars Sirius and a Coronse Borealis, as well as some fainter stars, also belong to the group. It is a comparatively simple problem mathematically to determine the mean parallax or distance of such a stream when we know the con- vergent point or apex and the proper motions of the group with the radial velocities of two or three of them. The parallax of the five stars of the Dipper comes out as .0352’’, which is equivalent to a light journey of about 90 years, while they are all moving at a velocity of 20 kilometers per second toward a point in the southern part of the constellation Sagittarius (@=303.2°, d= —36.6°). It is shown further that the stars of this group are at the same order of distance apart as the sun is from some of the nearest stars—about 20 or 30 light years—and that they are about 100 times as bright as the sun. Another group or star stream has recently been found in the con- stellation Taurus by Prof. Boss, consisting of 39 stars, forming a DEVELOPMENTS IN ASTRONOMY—PLASKETT. 269 roughly globular cluster about 15° in diameter. These stars are all moving with a velocity of about 40 kilometers (25 miles) per second toward a point in the northeastern part of Orion, about 35° from the center of the group. Their parallax, computed as before, is 0.025’’, or 130 light years distant. Boss has calculated that in 65,000,000 years they will form a globular cluster about 21’ in diameter and of magnitudes 9 to 12. The most recent discoveries in star streams were given by Prof. Kapteyn, at the solar union meeting, on Mount Wilson, last August. He has found, by selecting from Boss’s Catalogue all the stars of the Orion type characterized by the appearance of helium lines in their spectrum and so called since most of the stars in the constellation of Orion are of this class, that in a large region of the sky they are moving in nearly the same direction and at nearly the same rate. This region contains the constellation Scorpio and Centaurus, cover- ing 4,500 square degrees and extending roughly from 12" to 18" R. A. to and from Dec. 0° to —60°. In another region of 1,300 square degrees in Perseus from 2" 50™ to 48 30™ R. A. and from 415° to +55° in Dec., all the stars of the same type are moving in a different direction. When motion of the sun among the stars is allowed for, Prof. Kapteyn finds that these apparent motions are equivalent to streams moving in exactly opposite directions and at equal rates. He finds these stars are very distant from the sun—from about 125 to 500 light years. It is evident that the sidereal universe is a complex structure and having complex drifts and motions of stars and systems of stars in its part. We may be able to get a further idea of the magnitude of the problem by considering some of the recent results obtained for stellar distances. We all know, of course, that the nearest fixed star, a Centauri, is slightly over 4 light years distant, about 275,000 times the distance of the earth from the sun, 25 millions of millions of miles. There has been a very marked advance in recent years in the determination of the distances of the stars, so that we now know with reasonable accuracy by direct methods the parallax or distance of about 200 stars. There are several indirect methods, one of which has been mentioned in connection with star streams, which give us what may be called mean or average parallaxes of groups of stars. I have not time to go into these methods, but it may suffice to give a couple of tables indicating in a general way the average distances of stars of different magnitudes and of different types. If we take the blue stars, those of the second magnitude are on the average 100; of the fourth, 200; of the sixth, 400; of the eighth, 800; of the tenth, 1,600; and so on, light years away, doubling for a change of 2 mag- nitudes, while if we consider stars of different types we have from a 270 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. recent paper of Kapteyn’s that the average distance of fifth magni- tude stars is for the helium stars 500 light years; for the hydrogen, 300; for the solar, 130; for the late solar or fluted spectra, 270; and for the carbon or deep red stars, 4,500 light years. Recent spectroscopic studies of some of the nebule have indicated, from the fact that their spectra are somewhat similar to our sun, that they are probably composed principally of solar type stars. If we consider the Great Nebula in Andromeda, which is a typical example, we are forced to the conclusion, if such is the case, that it must be thousands of light years distant and probably forms a uni- verse by itself. Indeed, it is practically certain that the globular clusters, like that in Hercules, which some of you have seen through the telescope, are compact aggregations of stars whose average dis- tances from one another are of the same order as the distances of our sun from the nearer stars, say 5 to 20 light years, and, in that case, the clusters are of the order of 10,000 light years distant from us. It is quite certain then that the visible sidereal universe is of almost inconceivable dimensions and of a structure so complex that, although we are gradually obtaining a knowledge of some of the motions and some idea of its form and arrangements in part, we are yet far from any clear notion of its constitution. Yet when we consider how the human mind, though inhabiting for only a few years this minute planet, accompanying a comparatively insignificant star of the sys- tem, has been able to reach out to the inconceivable depths of space and reduce some of the confusion of stars to orderly systems, has been able to deduce the laws which govern these systems, thus unify- ing, in a certain degree, all the wonderful phenomena of suns and planets, comets, stars, nebule and clusters, into one whole, we do not lose hope that eventually it will be able to much further unravel the mystery of the universe. THE AGE OF THE EARTH! By J. Jory, F.R.S. The recent contributions to the data bearing on the subject of the age of the earth have strengthened the evidence derived by two very different methods of computation; that based on the study of solvent denudation and that based on the accumulation of radioactive waste products in minerals. While the indications of both lines of inquiry seem individually rendered more definite by these advances, the diver- gence in their final results have, if anything, become intensified. I propose in the following pages to review the opposing methods, as briefly as the many details permit, and to discuss the possibility of reconciliation. THE AGE OF THE OCEAN DERIVED FROM SOLVENT DENUDATION. Three recent contributions to this subject have appeared: Prof. Sollas’s Presidential Address to the Geological Society of London, 1909; a paper on “‘A preliminary study of chemical denudation,” by F. W. Clarke (Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. 56, June, 1910); and a paper by G. F. Becker on “The age of the earth” (Smith. sonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. 56, June, 1910). These recent discussions chiefly center round the ascertainment of the true present rate of supply of sodium to the ocean. The limita- tions of the method are also discussed. My own original estimate of the age of the ocean ? was based on the only data then available—the estimates made by Sir John Murray of the average chemical composition of river water and the probable total annual discharge of the rivers into the ocean. Calculating from its estimated volume and mean chemical composition the mass of sodium now in the ocean, and dividing this by the calculated amount of sodium entering annually from the rivers, the uncorrected age of 99.4 million years was obtained. To this I applied certain corrections, to some of which I shall refer later. The final result of these correc- tions left the age as from 80 to 90 million years. 1 Reprinted by permission, after revision by the author, from the Philosophical Magazine, London, S. 6, vol. 22, No. 122, September, 1911, pp. 358-370. 2Trans. Roy. Dublin Soc., vol. 7, 1899. 271 272 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. Prof. Sollas approaches the question by a recalculation of the average amount of sodium discharged by the rivers annually. He finds that the added results available, as derived from the rivers of North and South America and Europe, give the uncorrected age as 78 million years. After a careful and detailed discussion of the correc- tions, Sollas concludes that the age lies between 80 and 150 million years; the latter figure being based on extreme assumptions. Clarke bases his discussion of the question upon what he terms the denudation factor, i. e., the number of metric tons annually removed in solution from a square mile of drainage area. This is estimated for a number of important rivers of the world, accounting in this way for a drainage area of 28 millions of square miles out of the total of about 40 millions which drain to the ocean. The mean value found for the denudation factor is 68.4 tons. Assuming that this denudation factor is a fair average for the whole, the entire matter in solution discharged into the ocean in a year is 2,735 millions of tons. From the chemical analyses of this saline matter for the several rivers, an average com- position for each continent is found. When this is weighted for the quantity of water contributed by each continent, a final weighted mean composition is obtained which may be applied to determining the integral of the sodium passing annually from rivers to ocean. In this way it is found that 175,040,000 metric tons of sodium are annu- ally discharged into the sea. Clarke next finds the total amount of sodium in the ocean to be 14,13010" tons. My own results were based on a slightly higher value—15,611X10" tons. From his fig- ures, Clarke now gets the lara age as 80,726,000 years. Ri wooen the numerous analyses which go to build up this result are not of equal value, there are certain oe ae features in the computation. It is explained by Clarke that in the wonderfully detailed analyses of the Mississippi by Dole and Stabler, taken along with their work on other great rivers of North America and with the observations of Forbes and Skinner for Colorado, data have been obtained for the United States which are not likely to be much altered by any future analyses. Twenty-two river basins enter into the mean for the United States, giving a mean denudation factor of 79 tons. For the rest of North America an estimate only is possible; but, for reasons given, Clarke concludes that ‘‘if we assume that 6 millions of square miles of North America lose 79 metric tons in solution per square mile per annum, and that the composition of the saline matter so transported is that found for the United States alone, we shall not be very far from the truth.” Possessing thus a standard based on the drainage of a great continent, we feel confidence in our criticism of other data. The quantity of water thus dealt with is rather more AGE OF THE EARTH—JOLY. 273 than one-fourth of that supplied by the entire drainage areas of the earth. It will be seen from the tables given by Clarke that the mean denudation factor of 68.4 tons is in good agreement with the stand- ard result from North America, nor is it very largely departed from by the factors derived from other continents. There can, I think, be little doubt that the results arrived at by Clarke and Sollas are not likely to be seriously disturbed in the future. It is most improbable that they require amendment to the extent of 50 per cent. This being so, we conclude that the uncor- rected estimates of the age of the ocean as based on solvent denuda- tion is of the order of 100 million years. It remains now to consider the legitimate corrections to be applied to this figure. At the present moment the most important aspect of this method of evaluating the age of the ocean is involved in its degree of relia- bility as affording a maximum value of the time elapsed since solvent denudation began. This point I shall therefore specially consider. The errors affecting the crude result found by dividing the sodium of the ocean by the annual river supply, and tending to make this estimate too small, are: (a) Underestimation of the sodium now in the ocean. (6) Neglect of sodium which at some period in the past may have been in the ocean, but is now removed from it. (c) Overestimation of the legitimate river supply of sodium. (Z) Decreased river supply of sodium in the past. Of these possible sources of crror (a) may be at once dismissed. The average depth and area of the ocean and its average chemical composition are sufficiently well known to preclude the possibility of any serious error. In considoring (}) it is necessary to bear in mind the magnitude of the quantities involved. The saline matter in the ocean would rep- resent a volume of over 4,800,000 cubic miles on Clarke’s estimation. { have formerly pointed out that the rock salt alone would suffice to cover the land area of the globe to a depth of 122 meters. In com- parison with quantities so vast all the salt deposits known sink into insignificance; nor is it likely that deposits adequate to enter into consideration exist. The errors referred to in (c) must be of the nature of cyclic sodium— that is, sodium which circulates from the sea to the land and back through the rivers to the ocean. Cyclic sodium exists in the form of wind-borne spray, which, descending on the land with the rainfall, © augments that which is truly derived by denudation. In arid regions it may settle as dust, to be, under special circumstances, washed ultimately into the sea. Again, the sodium which the rivers 33734°—su 1911——18 274 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. may derive from the ancient salt deposits which have been impounded from the sea is cyclic. The influence of wind-borne sodium has been fully discussed by Sollas, Clarke, and Becker. There can be no doubt that it is rela- tively unimportant. My own original correction was 10 per cent of the river supply. Becker, by examining typical cross sections of the isochlors, determined for the rainfall of western North America by the United States Geological Survey, finds that an allowance of 6 per cent is sufficient. Sollas shows that these isochlors indicate that but a small fraction of the sodium chloride of the American rivers can be referred to this source. Clarke, by a somewhat different line of attack, concludes that a correction of 7 per cent on the sodium conveyed by the rivers of the United States is a maximum allowance. Clarke further considers that a correction for sodium chloride carried as dry dust is unnecessary. In a paper contributed by me to the Geological Magazine (May, 1900) I considered the possibility of oceanic sodium existing dissemi- nated in the sedimentary rocks. Such sodium would be of course cyclic. It was easy to show that, even on excessive estimates of the occluded sodium chloride in such rocks, taken in conjunction with their rate of removal by denudation, this source of supply to therivers is less than 1 per cent. Clarke reconsiders the question and finds the allowance would not be more than 1 per cent. Three per cent is regarded by Clarke as a maximum deduction for sodium artificially supplied in modern times to the rivers. Oceanic salt deposits are not very abundant over the surface of the earth, being generally confined to particular formations. That they seriously affect the river analyses of all the great rivers of the world is in the highest degree improbable. In any case if we deduct all the chlorinated sodium from the river supply we must include also all sea-derived sodium. If we effect this calculation, we obtain an age of about 150 million years. I do not think it will be disputed that this figure is in its nature excessive. There remains the possibility (d) that the assumed uniformity of past and present conditions is illusory; in other words, that special conditions now exist tending to bring about an abnormally great river supply of sodium. The present is admittedly a period of large land exposure. This, however, involves a fact which must be held in mind. At the pres- ent time the land area actually draining into the ocean is about 39.7 millions of square miles. The total land area is, however, rather over 55 millions of square miles. It follows that about 30 per cent of the land area contributes nothing to the ocean. Or, again, the areas which are classed as ‘‘rainless”—that is, which have less than an annual rainfall of 10 inches and have no run-off—are estimated as AGE OF THE EARTH—JOLY. Oe one-fifth of the whole. Under such circumstances transgression of the ocean upon the land simply results in the diminution or disap- pearance of the great continental desert regions. It has been shown by Murray that it would require a vertical depression relatively to the ocean of 600 feet in order to reduce the existing land area by 26.7 per cent. Penck, on the same data, concludes that a submergence of 200 meters would reduce the area 29 per cent. A submergence of nearly 1,500 feet is required to diminish the land area 50 per cent. It is for geologists to judge whether world-wide transgressions of these magnitudes obtained for any long periods in the past. So far as I know, paleography would not support such transgressions. A recent study of the Paleography of North America by C. Schuchert ! leads to the conclusion that the mean area of that continent through- out the past has been about eight-tenths of its present area. In his Traité de Géclogie, De Lapparent, in a series of well-known restora- tions of ancient geography, shows how far, as judged by the sedi- ments, there was transgression of the sea upon the land at various epochs. It does not appear that we can infer, even at the climax of the great Cenomanian transgression, that the existing land was at any time covered to one-half its extent. And mindful of the fact that the area of denudation,is in most cases much greater than that of deposition, when the latter is greatest the necessity of accounting for the former involves the assumption that tracts of land now sub- merged were then exposed. Without assuming the former exist- ence of lost continents in the central oceanic basins, there seems very strong evidence for the disappearance of former land. The evidence is found in our own islands, in North America, in India, South Africa, and Australia and elsewhere. We have to recognize continual fluctuations, but the evidence for a prevailing reduction of continental areas by as much as 50 per cent, or even 25 per cent, in the past is, so far as I know, not forthcoming. We might go further and state that so great a diminution of existing land area as 50 per cent certainly did not prevail in the past. Such a reduction in- volves about 25 per cent of the present rate of solvent denudation and increases the age accordingly. Meteorological conditions, unless oceasioned by a prevailing change in the amount of solar heat, can not be supposed to have steadily affected in one direction the rate of denudation. It is worthy of note that the testimony derived from the solvent denudation of the continents shows that climatal conditions do not, within the limits, seriously affect the rate of solvent denudation. ‘This finds explana- tion in the extremely complex nature of the factors concerned in rock weathering and rock solution. Now, the mere abundance of 1 Bull. Gvol. Soc. America, vol. 20; 1910. 276 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. life throughout the world in every age since the Cambrian, and very certainly in pre-Cambrian times also, is sufficient indication that climatal conditions can not have been so extreme as to seriously inhibit denudation. It would be easy to cite evidence from sun- cracked sediments dating back to Torridonian times from teeming oceanic life now confined to tepid seas, but at various periods of geological history inhabiting every part of the ocean, and finally from forest growth and insect life on the land, that there i is no evl- dence for continued lessened solar heat in past ages. ; But existing soil conditions might be exceptional. There are to-day great sheets of glacial clays spread over the northern lands of the earth. May they not affect the river discharge of sodium? The answer is to be found in the river analyses. It is sufficient to refer to the figures cited by Clarke in his Data of Geochemistry. There is no indication of excessive supplies from northern rivers. I am not aware of any sources of error other than those now con- sidered. It would appear that solvent denudation estimated in the only manner open to us assigns an age to the ocean which at its probable maximum does not exceed 100 million years. Assuming that certain sources of error combined to lower this age, for instance, that more complete knowledge will reveal a lesser sodium supply than has been determined on existing data; that the cyclic sodium should be taken as somewhat more than we have assumed; that former fluctuations of land area on the whole produced an effect on solvent denudation; assuming all this, we might be somewhat out in our reckoning. We have, however, neglected all those sources of error tending to increase the age unduly. Chief among these are the following: Primitive sodium existing in the ocean; marine solvent denudation effected directly on the coasts and sediments; sodium supplied with volcanic ejectamenta; sodium supplied by submarine rivers and springs. For a discussion of these sources of error I must refer to the several papers cited above. It is generally conceded that any precise evaluation of their effects is not possible; so that a considerable margin must be left when considering the minor limit of the age of the ocean by this method. They certainly produce some effect as a set off to the corrections already dealt with. When all is considered, I believe it will be found that the most probable result based on solvent denudation is 100 million years, or close to this, and rather under this than over. It is against probability to add 50 per cent to this value. We can only double it by appealing purely and simply to the imagination for effects of which we possess no indication, and the existence of which is at variance with what we know. The age as determined is based upon the summation of the sodium supplied by the rivers during geological time. This integral can, AGE OF THE EARTH—JOLY. Ae i obviously, give us no information as to the relative durations of the geological epochs. The latter question can be approached in two ways. (1) By means of the stratigraphical column or measured maxima of detrital and chemical deposits, assuming that these were laid down at an approximately uniform rate; and (2) by the radio- active method. I shall first consider the former method. THE AGE FROM THE SEDIMENTARY COLUMN. As the result of the observations of geologists in many parts of the world, the maximum thickness of the strata deposited in the various geological periods may be estimated as follows: Feet FRECeHL aid PICISLOCEN ES sae cor one Oe ee ciy aston ec 4, 000 Pira@ONe. ea ee eee eae Gate SNE LENSER ES Ma eA 13, 000 Wiocene fi tear ein: Briel sy. “Figeg iti. es ate 14, 000 WH SOCeMC es car ec ne sls marcia ea ioe passa se. o eames .- 12,000 POCORN See ee ere eR ate IN Mes al AN cee rar ged ett 20, 000 ——— 63, 000 Wichem@retaccOUR Cra akin n eel as eee ee eros 24, 000 Hower Cretaceoussts). 4.0 i Sr aes Se 20, 000 PIRPOSSIC? Soest ine Sse rE Gear eye dS ERR eae os 8, 000 LST Yce oe eee ae ee ESE M nines ae Be CORY Ee 17, 000 69, 000 1 STENTS] eae Vea ae LS PN ge) GL el UR RRM 12, 000 Carboniferous............ eR ete ite as eh ale ...- 29, 000 Devonian...... SERRE Ge Pes ea ee eee Pt SC AR 22, 000 63, 000 PUES pects ogee eh oS tot tht A otc kta tA tralt aaat es 15, 000 MRO NACHT ean ee fe eee A Ag ihe ar fa 17, 000 AD SINE VT LR TU ere Me ce tele eM og ti WIG Ste ey sere hia De Se 26, 000 58, 000 HGEWOBRA Wall Soeae 4. JUGAL 2. PEE SSE, 50, 000 TEST SOVI GUN egae ee Septet oe tye ent eS Se BTR ae a ee Pee ee 14, 000 {BQ BSG] ay TT Sal fag ew Cea eat a NN eda PG, Dry Sag a) PR 18, 000 82, 000 JAS VEEN Dy pulls deat aes a eet eal ata eit ao A a aaa ? fog NO oar SES Le ae aka fm a Oa Ae De re ga Aer 335, 000 This compilation is due to Prof. Sollas.! It is not probable that there will be in the future any very large amendment of these figures so far as they refer to post-Algonkian time. The Jurassic, as Sollas observes, seems deficient. The pre- Cambrian is the most obscure among the estimates. It claims our special attention, not only with reference to the thickness of accu- mulated sediments, but in so far as the observations may throw light on the denudative conditions of the time. In no part of the world are pre-Cambrian rocks better developed and exposed than in and around the Archean shield of Canada; and 1 Presidential Address, Geological Society, London, 1909. 278 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. fortunately no rocks have been more carefully studied within recent years. The appearance of the monograph of Van Hise and Leith * places the known facts at our disposal along with explanatory remarks of the most helpful character. It will be remembered that most American geologists now sub- divide pre-Cambrian rocks as follows: Keweenawan. Upper Huronian (Animikian). Middle Huronian. Lower Huronian. Laurentian. Kewatin. Algonkian Archeean { Prior to 1904 the Lower and Middle Huronian were together called Lower Huronian. Alternative names for the three divisions of the Huronian are Lower, Middle, and Upper Marquettian. The lines represent unconformities. A study of the recorded facts shows that the higher estimates of Keweenawan rocks include preponderating amounts of igneous rocks, both effusive and volcanic. The time value of these materials is prob- ably—nay, certainly—small. Van Hise cites a case where the accumu- lation of 7,000 to 8,000 feet of Huronian volcanic materials is paral- leled by the collection elsewhere of 700 to 800 feet of ordinary sedi- ments.2. The estimates which approximate to as much as 45,000 feet include some 30,000 feet of igneous or mixed igneous and sedimentary materials.2 No sedimentary column thicker than 17,000 feet is cited. The Huronian, or lower division of the Algonkian, is nowhere, save jn an early estimate of Winchell’s, found to embody more than 15,000 feet of sediments. Winchell’s estimate‘ is obscured by the nomen- clature, and would seem to include Archean rocks. If his Marquet- tian, which name he applies to rocks formerly known as Kewatin, includes Lower Huronian only, we have an estimate of 27,000 feet for this division. The estimate would be unique. The highest distinct estimate of Lower Huronian which I have found in the Bulletin is ‘‘a possible maximum thickness” of 16,000 feet, of which 5,000 feet are true sediments.® The Algonkian generally is variously estimated, but in no case is a thickness greater than 50,000 feet cited. In the Cordilleras the Belt series—30,000 feet—plus the Cherry Creek series may amount to more. It does not seem likely, however. The former series is char- acterized by Van Hise and Leith as unique among the pre-Cambrian series of North America for wide extent, thickness, and lack of defor- mation. There is no apparent unconformity between the Cherry 1 Bulletin 360, U.S. Geol. Survey, 1909. 4 Loc. cit., p. 206. 2 Loc. cit., p. 146. 5 Loc. cit., p. 164, 3 Loc. cit., p. 191. AGE OF THE EFARTH—JOLY. 279 Creek series and the gneissic rocks beneath. In the Selkirk Range 40,000 feet of deposited rock are recorded, but the correlation is some- what obscure, suggesting that its age may not be entirely pre-Cam- brian. In Nova Scotia sedimentary rocks, probably Algonkian, amount to 26,000 feet. The Canadian Huronian (equivalent to Algon- kian) has been estimated up to 50,000 feet. Itis largely volcanic, and contains unstratified igneous masses. It is remarkable that recent work has in many cases tended to reduce the estimates of earlier observers. Chamberlin and Salisbury ! point out the lability to overestimation which exists in these cases. These same observers state :? The maximum thickness of the system (Keweenawan) has been estimated as nearly 50,000 feet, but it is not impossible that this estimate is an exaggerated one. Ifit be correct, the Keweenawan is the thickest body of post-Archzan rock referred to any one period. This seemingly incredible thickness may merely mean inclined deposition and subsequent tilting and shearing and the estimate be altogether correct. And of the proterozoic systems collectively in the Lake Superior region they write: Tfnone of the estimates are exaggerated, there is an aggregate of more than 30,000 feet of sedimentary rock in the proterozoic systems, It would appear, then, that the Keweenawan at its maximum, so far as observed, is less than 50,000 feet, and its true sedimentary thick- ness evidently considerably less. The Huronian does not appear to have been reliably estimated as above 15,000 feet. Together the max- imum estimates for the Algonkian are not above 60,000 to 65,000 feet, inclusive of igneous materials. In its great development in the Cor- dilleras it would appear that a maximum of 40,000 feet of true sedi- ments would be safe, on the existing data. With the Archean we are not here concerned. Van Hise and Leith briefly summarize our knowledge of the earlier rocks in these words: 4 The Algonkian is characterized by well-assorted fragmental and chemical sediments giving evidence of extensive decomposition of land areas and of the passage of normal cycles oferosion. Igneous rocks are abundantly present, but for the most part are sub- ordinate in amount to the sediments. The Archean is characterized mainly by igne- ous rocks with the sediments in very small quantity. The Archean sediments, more- over, are frequently of wacke type, and, so far as known, are not largely of the cleanly assorted kinds resulting from complete decomposition as in the Algonkian. Similar testimony is borne by Chamberlin and Salisbury.5 According to the definition of Algonkian and Archean we must draw a line at the base of the former as representing that limit at which geological time, as an era of sedimentation and solvent denuda- tion, began. ‘The Archean was essentially a period of world-wide vulcanism, and in the relative proportions of rocks of igneous and sedi- i Textbook of Geology, p. 257. 4 Loc. cit., pp. 21-22. 2 Loc. cit., p. 192. 5 Textbook of Geology, vol. 2, p. 199. 3 Loc. cit., p. 198. * 280 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. mentary origin represents a departure from the uniformity of condi- tions of later geological times.”’ } ; Turning to the pre-Cambrian geology of other parts of the world we find that the Torridonian and Lewisian of northwest Scotland in their mutual relations and petrographical characters resemble the Algonkian and Archean divisions of North America. The aggregate thickness of the Torridonian has been estimated at not less than 10,000 feet. To this the Dalradian has, possibly, to be added. The pre-Cambrian rocks of Finland have been divided by Sederholm as follows: | Jotnian. Jatulian, Upper. Jatulian, Lower. Kalevian, Upper. Kalevian, Lower. Bottnian. Ladogian. Katarchean. Sederholm makes the same statement regarding the Jotnian, Jatulian, Kalevian, and Bottnian as has been made with reference to the Algonkian. Sederholm says: At least as far back as during Bottnian time the climatic conditions were not sensibly different from those of later geological periods, as shown by the existence of rocks which, in spite of their metamorphic character, show themselves to be sediments with the same regular alternation of clayey and sandy material (annual stratification) as the glacial clays of that same region, explainable only by assuming a regular change of seasons.” The parallel suggested by Sederholm with the Lake Superior rocks is as follows: Jotnian equivalent to Keweenawan. Jatulian equivalent to Animikian or Upper Huronian. Kalevian equivalent to Lower Huronian. Van Hise and Leith further suggest the correlation of the Ladogian and Katarchean with the Kewatin and Laurentian; the Ladogian being intruded by the granites and gneisses of the Katarchean. In China a basal complex of gneisses having very subordinate masses of sedimentary materials underlie four sedimentary groups, originally muds, grits, conglomerates, and limestones; having, in fact, all the characteristics of the Algonkian. In short this prevailing relation of an older gneissic and dominantly igneous system with an uncon- formably overlying metamorphosed sedimentary and_ volcanic 1Van Hise and Leith, loc. cit., p. 30. 2 Sederholm, J.J., Bull. Comm. Géol. de Finlande, No. 23, p. 95, 1907. AGE OF THE EARTH—JOLY. 281 series—which again is divided by unconformities—is a significant feature observed in many widely separated parts of the world. The above cited facts seem to show (1) that we are entitled to com- mence our reckoning of the sedimentary column at the base of the Algonkian; (2) that the existing sedimentary deposits of that epoch are probably not greater than the more or less concordant observa- tions from several localities indicate; (3) that the early sedimentation was similar in character to that which proceeded in subsequent periods. Although much is gained by these deductions, it is difficult to deter- mine any approximate time equivalent for these ancient deposits. Itis true that there is no reason to suppose that their derivation proceeded at a different rate from more recent ones; their rate of accumu- lation, however, may have been and indeed probably was quickened by less stable crust conditions, permitting more localized depressions and greater concentration. The geographical disposition of the earlier sediments sometimes affords evidence of this. There are, again, several unconformities in the pre-Cambrian succession which do not appear to be represented in the known sedimentary accumulations. Van Hise and Leith recognize the principal unconformity as separat- ing the Archean from the Algonkian. Adams, however, recognizes one of equal significance beneath the Upper Huronian. Three uncon- formities occur within the Algonkian. That these are indicative of - considerable lapses of geological time is highly probable. A discussion of the time allowance for these early unconformities would lead us too far into speculation. It may be observed, however, as regards the evidence for prolonged periods of denudation deduced from regional base leveling, that the instability of the early crust must again be kept in mind. It is probable that the Algonkian mountains were not of the dimensions of those of later periods and that, therefore, they were at once more rapidly formed and more rapidly removed. Van Hise and Leith suggest that the unconformi- ties may represent as much sediment again as now remains to observa- tion. This, of course, can only be matter of opinion; and I have as far as possible endeavored to exclude what is purely matter of opinion from this review of the subject. It would seem, however, that Sollas’s estimate of 82,000 feet of sediment includes such an allowance as ap- pears possible to Van Hise and Leith. Taking all into account—and much has been omitted which might be said upon the subject—it does not appear that Prof. Sollas’s com- pilation of the stratigraphical column need be seriously disturbed. Ti we double the estimate for the Jurassic we at least tend to reduce the possibility of error of deficiency in the thickness assigned to this system. ‘This brings the column up to, say, 345,000 feet. What now, finally, is the time value of this enormous total? Un- fortunately the average rate of collection is a very indeterminate 282 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. quantity. We are, I believe, at liberty to assume that the rate of deposition and sinking was anything from, say, 1 foot to but a few inches in a century. A rate of accumulation of 4 inches in a century interprets the geological column as indicating 103 millions of years. Three inches gives us 148 millions. The order of the time value is probably indicated in these figures. It is important to note that the facts of solvent denudation place a quite definite limit on the amount of sediments which have been formed during geological time. The sodium which has reached the ocean has originated in the conversion of igneous into sedimentary rocks. It is easy to calculate from the composition of a generalized igneous and a generalized sedimentary rock and from the quantity of sodium in the ocean that the denudation of about 84 million cubic miles of igneous rock, producing about 60 million cubic miles of sediment, accounts for the sodium in the ocean. Such a quantity of sedimentary rock would, if all was now on the land, cover the present land area (55 million square miles) to a depth of a little over 1 mile.? As it can be shown that somewhat less than a third of the sediments have been precipated as oceanic deposits,’ the average depth of the sedimentary rocks on the land is less than 1 mile; about 4,000 feet. The total sedimentation throughout geological time must berestricted _-within this limit. Possibly the limit is too high, for there may have been some sodium in the primitive ocean. It is difficult to show wherein it is too low. This limit must define not only sediments which keep their recognizable characters as such, but those which may possibly have been metamorphosed beyond certain recognition. It is significant that the guesses (for they ean only claim to be such) of several writers as to the amount of recognizable sediment upon the land areas, do not diverge very far from the suggested limits. Thus Van Hise thinks these rocks may be taken as on an average covering the continents to a depth of 2 kilometers. Clarke thinks thatthe sediments certainly do not occupy a bulk equal to the whole land extending above sea level. This would amount to less than an aver- age of 2,411 feet deep over the continents. The sediments in the sea would be additional to this.2 These estimates may be guesses, but it is improbable that they are several times in error. The observed amounts of sediment are not then in discord with the limitations imposed by solvent denudation. THE AGE OF THE EARTH BY RADIOACTIVITY. The radioactive investigation of the age of the earth is based upon the accumulation in minerals of the inert products, helium and lead. The rate of production of helium by a given amount of uranium 1 Trans. Roy. Dublin Soc., vol. 7, 1899, p. 48. 2 Address to section C, British Association, 1908, p. 6. 3 Data of Geochemistry, p. 29. AGE OF THE BARTH—JOLY. 2838 may be regarded as known with considerable accuracy. It may be assumed that 1 gram of uranium in equilibrium gives rise to, closely, 10.710 cubic centimeters of helium (measured under standard conditions) per year. Thorium and its products of change are just as widespread in occurrence as uranium. The contribution of helium derived from the thorium group must, therefore, in most cases be also taken into account. Failing direct measurements of the rate of generation of helium by thorium, it is possible to estimate this in terms of the output due to uranium by a comparison of the ionization effects of the two families of substances. This comparison has been made by Boltwood. Allowance has further to be made for the differ- ent ionizing activity of the alpha rays from the uranium and thorium series due to their differing velocity and range. The final result is that 1 gram of thoria (ThO,) is equivalent, in its rate of production of helium, to 0.203 gram of U,O,. The “helium ratio” of a mineral is the helium in cubic centimeters per gram of ‘total equivalent” uranium oxide present. This is the usage adopted by Strutt. Ina recent paper ' Strutt experimentally verifies this procedure by direct measurement of the helium evolved by minerals rich in uranium and thorium. The use of lead as a measure of geological time involves the assump- tion that Boltwood’s theory is correct, i. e., that lead is the final product of decay in the uranium series. There is strong evidence in favor of this view. Notably the fact that the atomic weight of uranium, less that of the eight alpha particles which are known to be emitted during its several stages of disintegration, descends to that of lead. The universal association of the two elements and the con- nection of this association with geological time, constitute further evidence. The mass of lead generated in one year per gram of uranium is easily found from a knowledge of the mass of helium produced. The latter, calculated from the volume, is found to be 1.88107" gram. The associated lead will be 1.22107" gram. That is, the presence of one gram of uranium involves the production of 1.22 x 107 gram of lead per annum. A small correction may be required for the exhaustion of the uranium. The most obvious criticism which the radioactive method suggests may be embodied in the following possibilities: (a) Risk of the original presence of helium or Jead in the minerals investigated. (b) Risk of loss of helium or lead, or their gain from spurious sources. As regards the first of these heads there is evidence that helium or lead may be originally present in the substance. In fact, we may 1 Proc. Roy. Soc., October, 1910, 284 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. in a general way consider that the same causes which lead to the segregation of uranium or thorium most probably led to the concen- tration of other substances. This at least is probable where, as in the case of zircon, none of the substances dealt with are essential parts of the molecule of the mineral. The magma or menstruum from which the parent radioactive substances are derived may be very rich in helium or lead, and the amounts of these constituents which enter into the mineral may be considerable. It follows that the absolute value of the helium or lead ratio involves the events attending the genesis of the mineral. It is even quite probable that substances crystallized out within a plutonic mass, and which, at first sight, might be thought secure from impurities of this sort, would be seriously affected. Consider the case of a mineral of early consolidation such as biotite. It is held by many petrologists that the substances first to crystallize are not necessarily those whose molecules were first formed in the magma. Biotite or hornblende may, indeed, crystallize in advance of feldspar or quartz, but they do so in presence of already formed molecules of these bodies or of molecules which are forerunners of these bodies. If this were not the case the adjustment of the alumina to the potash, soda, and lime which appear in the feldspars would be inexplicable.t. On this view a clear explanation is found of the heterogeneous concentra- tion of elements in bodies of early consolidation. These minerals, in a sense, are residual, receiving those elements which have been excluded from taking part in earlier molecular grouping. The final result is a ‘‘forced isomorphism.” The same phenomena, on an intensified and more demonstrable scale, appear in the formation of pegmatitic minerals. Here very often it may be inferred that mother liquors rich in the rarer elements and the products rejected by the magma, generate on a large scale minerals which are quite subordinate within the mass of the rock. Extruded gases, under great pressure, also act under such conditions. In the internal cavities and druses of granites, doubtless, all these factors operate. Under such circumstances are generated the beryls and zircons which find their way into museum collections. In keeping with the conditions attending vein minerals Strutt found that such minerals from the Cornish granite contained more helium, relatively to the radioactive elements present, than did the granite itself; although the vein must be younger than the rock con- taining it. The fact, also shown by Strutt, that beryls often contain a quite unaccountable quantity of helium, probably finds its expla- nation in the original occlusion of this substance. Brégger, in writing of the syenitic pegmatites of Norway, concludes that the minerals of the thorite-orangite group, including urano- 1 Harker, The Natural History of Igneous Rocks, London, 1909, p. 167. AGE OF THE EFARTH—JOLY. 285 thorite, crystallized in the first phase of vein formation, “that of magmatic consolidation with the cooperation of pneumatolytic proc- esses,’ and that in the second and principal phase of pneumatolytic activity galena crystallized out. If the undifferentiated magma has been fairly radioactive, may not the pegmatitic substances, representing a large part of the rejected elements of the magma, be rich in the products of radioactive decay? It would seem that we are reasonably entitled to expect this. There might even be a cer- tain proportionality between the amounts of radioactive bodies and segregated products of decay. The results of the experiments themselves alone can indicate how far sources of error of this kind have operated. The final ratio— whether of helium or lead—to the parent radio-active substance is, we may suppose, compounded of two ratios, a segregation ratio which obtained from the first, and a generative ratio which kept on increasing throughout geological time. Consider the case of lead. We have no prima facie right to conclude that the originally segre- gated lead is, relatively to the uranium, more for, say, Archean minerals than for Devonian. If, then, the gross lead ratio for the former is very much greater than for the latter, the effect of the occluded lead must only exercise an insignificant influence in invali- dating the results regarding Archean time. To take a concrete example. The assumption that of the total lead found in Devonian minerals a quantity equal to 2 per cent of the uranium present in each case is not of radioactive origin but was originally introduced, amounts to saying that one-half the ratio (about) is due to original segregation and one-half to radioactive genesis. The time value of the corresponding deduction from Devonian time (as derived from the gross ratio) is about 160 million years. A quantitatively equal correction applied to the ratio observed in Archean minerals will not be very important, as will presently be seen. Unless, then, we have some reason to infer that the conditions attending the forma- tion of the minerals having the higher ratios were such as to lead to the inclusion of greater relative amounts of lead, the objection under this head is not of serious weight, at least in the case of the higher ages which have been arrived at. Acting either to increase or diminish the observed deduced age, errors under the head (6) may exist. The volatile escape of helium has been demonstrated by Strutt. Under past conditions of heat- ing and percolation, etc., its escape is very probable. On the other hand, the accretion of radium is not impossible, for radium is known to migrate from its parent elements, and in considerable amounts. Lead is certainly at least equally liable to migration under suitable —————— eee ae em a ee a i Brogger, Die Mineralien der Syenitpegmatitgange, pt. 1, pp. 160, 164, and pt. 2, p. 10. 286 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. conditions. These sources of error would also tend to go on aug- menting with the lapse of time. Unless, however, it can be shown that a special sort of selective absorption for one or more of the elements likely to bring in error is exercised within the minerals dealt with, the error can be apprised at its true worth by compara- tive observations upon associated substances which do not contain appreciable amounts.of the parent radioactive bodies, and which have been exposed to like vicissitudes of history. The earliest determination of age by the radioactive method is, so far as I am aware, that made by Rutherford. The helium in a speci- men of fergusonite was determined by Ramsay and Travers as amounting to 1.81 cubic centimeters per gram. The mineral con- tained about 7 per cent of uranium. From this Rutherford deduced the age as about 240 millions of years. The geological position of this mineral is not specified, nor is the possible influence of thorium taken into consideration. The principal development of the method by helium ratio is due to Strutt, whose work upon the subject has appeared in five papers in the Proceedings of the Royal Society (1908-1910). These experi- ments deal with phosphatized fossil remains and nodules, hematite and other iron ores, zircons, and sphenes. Some of these determina-’ tions are evidently not available as an estimate of the time since their formation, being plainly deficient in helium. Such results of course strengthen the conviction that loss of helium must occur in some cases. The results arrived at by Strutt are not always concordant. Thus we find two sphenes of Archean age and from the one locality (Ren- frew County) affording 222 and 715 millions of years; and again two Archean sphenes from the one locality (Twederstrand, Norway) 213 and 449 millions of years. Zircons show for Paleozoic time 140.8 to 321 millions of years. Here the lower figures are supported by results on hematite. This one mineral gives for the time since the BHocene age 30.8, since the Carboniferous 141, and since the Devonian 145 millions of years. Limonite gives for post-Carboniferous time 145 million years. These are closely agreeing results. Other iron ores give, however, inconsistent results. All are, of course, recon- cilable if we assume that the lower results are in every case due to loss of helium. It is a little unfortunate in this connection that the minerals used for the greater ages are more retentive in their nature (sphene and zircon) than the substances dealt with for determination of the lesser periods of time. Strutt, in his final paper, selects from his results the following as summarizing the data of his earlier papers: i Phil. May., October, 1906; p. 368. AGE OF THE EARTH—JOLY. 987 Years. Spherosiderite from Rhine Provinces—Oligocene............ 8.4108 Hematite, County Antrim—Eocene ....... arse} hale Slee el OS Hematite, Forest of eae caronimnoee: usbnewien = 150 G18 Sphene, Renfrew County, Ontario—Archean...........-... 710 X<10° These are advanced as minimum values, the loss of helium being impossible to estimate. oleae first investigated the age by the accumulation of lead. Very high figures were obtained, ranging from 246 to 1,320 millions of years. Becker criticizes these results,? pointing out that certain radioactive minerals of well-determined age (Llano Group, not far below the Cambrian) afford on the same principles ages which are quite incredible, ranging from 1,671 to 11,470 millions of years. Bolt- wood questions the suitability of the minerals on the score of incipient or advanced alteration. Becker in reply urges that there is no evi- dence to show that alteration can affect the ratios. Becker considers, further, that Brégger’s views, as cited above, show that lead may be occluded as an impurity in such minerals, and that the amount of this impurity will vary from crystal to crystal, in accord with the results of the observations. The subject of the lead ratio has been lately taken up by A. Holmes.3 Holmes selects minerals from the intrusive nephelene syenite of the Christiania district, supposed by Brégger to be of Middle or Lower Devonian age; most probably the latter. Seventeen minerals are investigated, among which are thorite, biotite, zircon, egerine, nephe- line, feldspar, etc. The ratio of lead to uranium ranges from 0.041 to 0.500. There is found to be an increase in the value of the ratio with diminution in the amount of uranium; a result suggesting the pres- ence of original lead. Holmes, accordingly, rejects about half the results (those which give the higher ratios) and finds a mean among eight results which range from 0.043 to 0.050. The mean of these gives for post-Lower Devonian time 370 million years. It must be admitted that this result is not entirely satisfactory; it contains an element of arbitrary choice, and although it is possibly true that the minerals with least uranium contain too much original lead to be reliable, we are by no means sure that even larger amounts of origi- nal lead did not enter into the constitution of the others. The agree- ment among the ratios renders this improbable, however. Holmes enters into the question of the geological positions of the | resulis cited by Boltwood, and concludes that they may be tabulated as follows. His own mean result is included in the table. 1 Amer. Journ. Sci., vol. 23, 1907. 3 Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., vol. 19, p. 113, 1998. Proc. Roy. Soc., June, 1911. 288 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. _ Geological period. Millions of Pp/U. years. The Swedish minerals are from pegmatites of an age younger than Jatulian. The results obtained from them show, among 17 specimens examined, two well-marked groups, having the ratios tabulated. There is nothing in the rocks to indicate any difference in age. Of the United States minerals, those having the lesser ratio are from granites intruded into the Llano Group (Texas) of metamorphosed sediments. Their age is, therefore, younger than the sediments, which are early Algonkian. Those with the higher ratio are from Burnet County, Tex., and Douglas County, Colo. The geological evidence is similar to that of Llano County. The evidence for the pre-Cambrian age of the Ceylon thorianite is the resemblance of the rocks to the fundamental complex of India. The tabulated values are the means of several results cited by Bolt- wood, some of which are in closer mutual agreement than others. These results greatly transcend Strutt’s in the antiquity they assign to Paleozoic and pre-Cambrian time. This fact can be explained by the escape of helium. ‘The possibility of occluded lead entering se- riously into such determinations will, doubtless, form the subject of future research. Meanwhile it seems improbable that the higher average ratios of the oldest minerals can find explanation in this manner. I have already dwelt sufficiently, in view of our very deficient knowledge, on these points. The discordance between the radioactive indications of time and those derived from the stratigraphical column appears clearly when we plot one against the other (fig. 1). The assumption made in plot- ting the sedimentary thicknesses is that these, inter se, are roughly comparable as regards the rate of accumulation. As I have already pointed out, this seems probable save in the case of the earlier pre- Cambrian sediments, which we might expect would have been accu- mulated morelocally. The thicknesses of the severalstrata Ihave laid out according to the data collected by Sollas. The radioactive times are plotted above the points on the base line to which their geological positions assign them. We have from the lead ratios two early- AGE OF THE EARTH—JOLY. 989 Algonkian results and two post-Jatulian results. The Archean re- sults by helium and lead can not be located on the base line save by the indications of the other results. If there was accord between the stratigraph- ical column and the radioactive data, the latter should be ranged on straight lines which necessarily pass through the origin (present time). We find them, however, ranged upon curves. I have plotted a rather excessive value of the age of the ocean as deter- mined by solvent denudation, erect- ing for this pur- pose an ordinate of 150,000,000 of years at the begin- ning of Algonkian time. Joining the summit of this or- dinate to the ori- gin we see that the curves for helium and lead flow into this line in recent periods. If now we as- sume that the time indications of the lead ratios are correct, we are presented with the following alternatives as regards the amendment of the sedimentary column. 38734°—sm 191119 Fia. 1. SS Qe ss TES) Ss 8 FALE OZ 7 .% 19 Ft. M' 0° boc \Creraceous\ Lf Cunozorc 290 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. We assume that the stratigraphical column for post-Carboniferous time is in actuality much as we have plotted it, and draw a right line from the origin through the three results for the age of Carboniferous, Devonian, and Silurian-Ordovician periods as derived from the lead ratio. This is equivalent to assuming that the error in the strati- graphical record is to be sought mainly in the pre-Cambrian records. We therefore plot the early Algonkian and post-Jatulian results on this line. We have now to make the following amendment on the recorded thicknesses of the pre-Cambrian sediments. Algonkian sediments rise from 82,000 feet to 381,000 and 441,000 feet (A, or A, on the diagram), according to which of the two early Algonkian results we select. Keweenawan sediments rise from 50,000 feet to 245,000 or 359,000 feet (K, or K,), according as we select among the two Jatulian results. While it is true that important unconformities exist in the pre- Cambrian succession, the sedimentation equivalents of which are not found as yet, it seems incredible that amounts of sediments consider- ably greater than the entire thickness of post-Algonkian rocks and from 60 to 70 miles in cumulative depth can have escaped investiga- tion. There is another point. The calculation which equates the amount of sodium in the ocean with the estimated bulk of the detrital sediments, knowing the loss by solution attending the derivation of these from the average igneous rock, has, as we have seen, been found to give results in fair agreement with the measurements of all the quantities involved. The radioactive results must now postulate an amount of pre-Cambrian denudation much greater than would have attended the formation of the whole amount of sediment previously estimated. This point is really quite apart from the question of the age of the ocean. It is purely one of loss and gain, of balance of accounts. Nor can evasion of the difficulty be found by ascribing exceptionally local restrictions to pre-Cambrian denudation. It is probable that none was more world-wide in its effects. Uf these conclusions appear untenable, we may deal with the results in another way. The ages found from the higher lead ratiog may be placed at a reasonable distance from the base of the Cambrian and joined by a right line to the origin. To bring them on to the line so determined, the results for the Carboniferous, Devonian, and Silurian- Ordovician must be shifted to the left. This procedure is equivalent to assuming that while the total thickness ascribed to the strati- graphical column is approximately correct, the proportionate thick- nesses assigned to pre-Carboniferous and post-Carboniferous strata are erroneous; too much has been assigned to the latter. The read- justment of the strata involves diminishing the post-Carboniferous deposits about 50 per cent and increasing the pre-Carboniferous by nearly 40 per cent. AGE OF THE FARTH—JOLY. 291° The assumptions involved in making these adjustments are inher- ently improbable, and it might be thought easier to assume that the time values'of the post-Carboniferous strata were, as compared with the earlier strata, less. This emendation requires us to assume that the more recent materials were laid down about three times as fast as the earlier. These are the alternative modes of adjustment of radioactive time to the stratigraphical column, leaving the latter on the whole intact. If we assume that the recent sediments have been overestimated in thickness, we can, by discarding about one-half the recorded thick- nesses since Carboniferous time, produce an effect on the diagram equivalent to moving the origin to the right. With this particular numerical assumption the lead line will become steeper than it appears. on the chart, and the early Algonkian point will remain at such a distance to the right of the Cambrian as will ascribe to the pre- Cambrian sediments a thickness equal to that of the whole post- Algonkian accumulation. The important question is, of course, as to how far such assumptions are permissible consistent with any degree of probability. There is much that is uncertain about data respecting rock thickness, not only as regards the actual field observations, but as to the real significance of whatis observed. Again, the relative time equivalents of deposited rocks are not really known to us. Whether it is a detrital sediment forming in an estuary or a coral-reef building in clear water, the rate of growth must depend to some extent on the dowtiward movement of the sea bottom, either induced by the load or taking place from other causes. Some sediments are, however, plainly of rapid and some of slow growth. Amidst such considerations we find no very definite grounds for numerical computation. So far as crustal yield- ing affects the question, the probable inference is, as I have stated above, that the earlier strata were in their greatest development more localized, and hence their time value should be less than the more recent. As regards the vertical distribution of definitely fast or slow collecting materials, a careful comparison of the materials throughout the geologic column is required in order to gather any evidence that may be forthcoming from these indications. At present, however, there seems nothing to support the different time values or amended thicknesses which must be assumed if we are to adjust the radioactive results in any way to the sedimentary record. What will prima facie appear most difficult to credit in the fore- going assumptions is the extremely slow rate which must be ascribed to the accumulation of the sediments even at their maximum. If the recorded depths of sediment have taken 1,400,000,000 years to collect, the average rate has been no more than 1 foot in 4,000 years! This seems incredible; and if we double the depth of maximum sedi- 292 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. mentation it still remains incredible. But, if possible, stil more incredible is the conclusion respecting solvent denudation to which radioactive time drives us. Jf the sodium wn the ocean has taken 1,400,000,000 years to accumulate, the rivers are now bearing to the sea about fourteen times the average percentage of the past—not less than nine times. It seems quite impossible to find any explanation of such an wnerease. With these difficulties in view it is excusable to direct attention to the foundations of the radioactive method and ask how far they are secure. The fundamental assumption is that the parent radioactive substance, uranium, has always in the past disintegrated at the present rate. Is this assured? I am not now suggesting that the -rate of change has been effected by external physical conditions, such as heat or pressure, but I assume that there may have been a different, and from the evidence as well as from probability, a greater rate of decay in the past, arising intrinsically, and ultimately due possibly to conditions of origin. I venture to suggest—I do so with difiidence—that our assumption of a constant rate of change for the parent substances—uranium or thorium—is really without any very strong basis. It rests upon analogy with the behavior of the substances which have been derived from them. But there may be a very profound distinction. The latter are of radioactive origin. That particular distribution of stability or of intrinsic energy among the atoms of these bodies obtaining at the moment of their formation, upon which the subse- quent constant change rate depends,! may be conditioned by the events of radioactive transformation, or by their past history, or by both. In a word, a radioactive origin may be essential. Now we know nothing as to the origin of the primary radioactive elements. No substances of greater atomic weight are known from which they may be derived. Nor is it unphilosophic to assume that they have had some other mode of origin, seeing that the radioactive ascent must terminate somewhere. Uranium can not be regarded, therefore, as in all senses one of a series any more than we should regard lead as such. The matter seems to turn upon the legitimacy of the assumption that the mere existence of radioactive change progressing in the sub- stance involves such a particular distribution of instability among its atoms as will insure that a constant fraction of these disintegrate each unit of time from their first origination—however this was brought about—till all are transformed. If such an hypothesis is not sufficiently secure to overbear the opposing evidence we must agree to judge the former by the latter. In this case the accumulation of 1 See Sir J. J. Thomson’s Presidential Address to the British Association, 1909. AGE OF THE EARTH—JOLY. 293 transformation products in minerals, in place of being a measure of geologic time, serves to shed light upon the rate of transformation of the primary radioactive bodies in the past. Apart from its interest in other respects, the importance of such a conclusion to geologic science would be great. If we supposed the curve, found by plotting the time results derived from lead ratios against the sedimentary thicknesses, represented an approximation to the facts, the rate of change of uranium 150,000,000 years ago may have been many times what it now is. The radiothermal effects of the whole series must have been proportionately increased, and the convergence of the radioactivity must have had an influence upon the secular cooling of the earth. July 18, 1911. Pea ue . of ae a a aaa Piece * has pei oe igi ety odd BAsonigiie Oye TD *Motarnt biome 1 burimb eManeg hideiss ain uke A ay pen ary 16: INTERNATIONAL AIR MAP AND AERONAUTICAL MARKS.1 By Cx. LatteEMAND,? President of the French Association for the Advancement of Sciences. 1. PRELIMINARY ACCOUNT. The dirigible air balloon, and more especially the aeroplane, which are scarcely out of the period of research and experiment, will soon enter into the area of practical politics. To-day, still mere instru- ments of sport or of military reconnaissances, they will become, to-morrow, valuable means of transport. It is time that aviators were given means for finding their way, similar to those which, for a long time, have existed for navigation and travel. Whether on sea, land, or in the air, the pilot has always before him the same triple problem to be solved. He must from time to time— ‘ 1. Recognize his position. 2. Determine the direction of the point to be reached. 3. Rapidly estimate the distance remaining to be covered. For terrestrial locomotion, the solving of these various problems was greatly simplified by producing special maps for the use of tray- elers and by erecting along the principal routes easily visible signs, such as mulestones, plates indicating the names and distances of more or less remote towns, signposts at.road junctions, etc. But the mark- ing or buoying of routes presupposes a course fixed in direction and limited in extent. Admirably suited for travel by land, this system is still, to a certain extent, applicable to coasting trade, that is, for sea voyages along coasts or in estuaries. But, on the other hand, for travel on the high sea this method is unsuitable, and for aerial navigation quite useless in foggy weather or at night. In the latter case it is necessary to use a compass. In spite of fog, darkness, or the absence of marks, the use of the compass enables the pilot to follow the desired direction, which direction has been previously 1 British Association, Portsmouth, fain act i ledserse sits ie el eG ED a Journal, London, vol. 38, No. 5, November, 1911. 2 Inspecteur-Général des Mines, Directeur du Service du Nivellement général de la France, Membre de l'Institut et du Bureau des Longitudes. 295 296 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. marked off on the map, and, in the case of aerial travel, determined by a prominent object on the horizon, such as a clock tower, an isolated tree, etc. Knowing his speed, the pilot may, at any subse- quent time, roughly estimate the distance already run and approxi- mately deduce his proper position. This position will, of course, be very frequently rectified, according to the indications of the map compared with the features of the terrain. The aviator will endeavor to recognize characteristic points, such as a high building, for instance, or the crossing of a canal with a railway line, or the junction of two rivers, etc. Now, the compass will not always suffice. Unknown to the pilot, a water current may cause the ship to drift; similarly, an unseasonable change of wind may pull the dirigible or aeroplane out of its course, when traveling in log or above the clouds. Both the seaman and the aerial pilot, when opportunity occurs, by the lifting of the fog or daylight reappearing, must recognize their position and, if necessary, rectify their route. For this the seaman must make use of the sun or stars and deduce from their observation the geographical coordinates, that is, the lon- gitude and latitude of his position. Owing to the rather precarious conditions of the arrangements on board it would be pretty difficult for airmen to use this method. Fortunately for them traveling over sea is rather an exception. They would be saved any reckoning by placing all over the country, at convenient intervals, aeronautical marks, that is, by writing, on the ground itself or on the roofs of build- ings (by means of conventional signs or very conspicuous numerals) the longitude and latitude of the corresponding site. Having read these, the pilot with the help of a map, would be enabled to recog- nize his proper position and to reckon the distance of his destination, as well as its new orientation, that is, the inclination, to the meridian, of the new direction to be followed. Notwithstanding every artifice, however, this method is still long and difficult enough, and would only be useful were it possible to exactly follow the are of a great circle cutting the pilot’s destination which, as a matter of fact, is rendered impossible by side winds and terrestrial obstacles. Airmen, like most seamen, will prefer to mark off the point on a map, or more simply to trace it on a simplified sketch, such as the index diagram (fig. 1, showing the fitting together of the sheets of the detailed map), upon which can be read the approximation of both required elements—distance and orientation. For instance, an aviator flying over Bourges (the town marked by a black point at the bottom of sheet 72 of the index diagram) toward Pau (black dot in the lower half of sheet 39) would at once see that the distance remaining to be covered is nearly equal to 4.25° of latitude measured on the diagram. Each degree being 67 miles long, the required distance would be roughly 285 miles. Moreover, the INTERNATIONAL ATR MAP—LALLEMAND. 997 direction to be followed is 26° to 27° W. of the meridian to the south, say, magnetic S. 40° W. (the magnetic declination at Bourges being 13.5° W.). The compass should therefore show the complement, say, N. 140° W. If necessary, this diagram could even suffice for traveling. A straight line having been drawn joining starting point and destina- tion,. the pilot can see that his way will run successively right across the upper left angle of sheet 62, then cross the lower half of sheet 61, thereafter cut the upper edge of sheet 51 about the center, pass through the right-hand corner of the lower half of sheet 50, cut diago- nally across sheet 40, graze the upper left corner of sheet 30, and finally end about the middle of the lower half of sheet 39. Let us suppose that at any moment the pilot observes on the ground below a mark similar to that of figure 2, with the two figures 5 and 0 on either side, respectively, and with a large dot occupying the proper position of the town of Angouléme in the upper part of sheet 50 of the index map. He would at once conclude that he had deviated to the right of his route, and after a rough estimation he would incline 25° to 30° to the left. But, in every case, a detailed map would be necessary for landing. Having examined many systems, the permanent committee for aerial navigation of the public works department of the French Goy- ernment recently proposed for this map and for aeronautical signs the following solutions that seem to be the simplest ones and also the most likely to be adopted by other countries: 2. AIR MAP. In order to attain the required object and to keep to the necessary clearness, an air map must show only the details required by airmen, either for finding their way or for landing. To the first category belong the characteristic geographical features of the terrain, such as railways, main roads, channels, streams and rivers, lakes, forests, bushes, clumps ot isolated trees, large areas of a similar cultivation, large boroughs with their outline and principal streets, chimneys of factories, clock towers, high towers, and, briefly, all objects liable to attract the attention of the pilot from a distance, either by means of their shape, dimensions, color, or situation. To the second category belong turf pits, thick hedges, irrigation or drainage canals, electrical power lines traversing fields, and generally ali objects Liable to impede landing; and, in addition, gasometers, aerodromes and sheds where, if necessary, refuge or help could be obtained. ‘ In the opinion of all competent authorities, the scale of 1 to 200,000 seems to be the most convenient one. On a smaller scale the map would be less clear; on a larger scale unwieldy without 298 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. Longitudes East ¢om theAntiméridion of Greanwich: , ras 6° 8° 9° }80° y2 22 ge 4° "se \6e° 7 2408 S jc Ya? % vat? 0 z —— vd a ” 3 £ : 3 o o —_ f 33 = ho 0 0 Beesle te MF Hee. =" _ = uileey Ay : o4¢° yas 9 Sté xl \ 6 Ne ae a 6 eS 2 DaDNG —~4.geF We 134" Vea a a; x Es 2 43° OAR, : 139° a a SS 19% at 4° 3? es js gee a? 4° o-, G mane Longitude West Longitude, East atic Sector So | Sector J! Fic. 1.—Index diagram showing for France the sheet lines of the Air Map. Limits of the sheets of the Air Map. Limits of the sheets of the World Map. 37..-.72 Numbers of the sheets PAU .... BOURGES, ete. 30, 31, 32 Numbers of the sectors of the World Map. K, L, M Letters of Zones of the World Map. @ Chief towns of Departments. ach eee Itinerary from Bourges to Pau. Fia. 2.—Aeronautical mark. Erected on the roof of a building in the environs of Pau, which occupies, in the lower half of sheet 29, the relative position represented by the large dot, both on the above frame and on theindex diagram (fig.1). The coordinates of the SW. corner of the sheet 39 are: 133° south polar distance and 179° new longitude E. reckoned from meridian 180° E. or W. of Greenwich (that is, 43° lat. N. and 1° long. W. of Greenwich). INTERNATIONAL AIR MAP—LALLEMAND. 299 appreciable advantage. In many countries maps on this scale already exist, but having been produced with special objects, either economical or strategical, they only imperfectly satisfy the wants of airmen. A new special map is therefore necessary. A provisional model, submitted by the Aero Club of France, showing specially the typical buildings by their profile in black, was adopted by the com- mittee. ; At my suggestion it was decided that the new map should be a subdivision of the International Map of the World, on a scale of 1 to 1,000,000,* for the production of which, on the happy initiative of England, a common agreement was recently arrived at between the principal States of the civilized world. The ‘‘world map” would furnish index diagrams for the fitting together of the sheets of the “air map,’’ It would also be useful for drawing up schemes for long journeys, or for measuring the dis- tance between two widely separated points and obtaining the orienta- tion of the line adjoining them. The ‘“‘world map”’ is to be designed with the meter as unit of lengths, and the meridian of Greenwich as origin of the longitudes. The sheets are limited by meridians drawn out at successive intervals of 6°, extending from Greenwich, and by parallels traced out at suc- cessive intervals of 4°, reckoning from the Equator. The meridian sectors, from longitude 180° east or west of Greenwich, are given numbers from 1 to 60, increasing in an easterly direction. The zones, extending from the Equator on each side to 88° latitude, are given letters from A to V preceded by the words “north or south.” The polar areas are lettered Z. Each sheet shall bear the name of the locality or most important geographical feature on the territory represented, and in addition the number of the sector and the letter of the zone crossing each other on the sheet in question. For example, the sheet of Paris will be named “North M. 31.” For each sheet the corresponding part of the terrestrial ellipsoid is represented by a modified polyconic projection constructed on its central meridian. The meridians are straight lines and the parallels ares of circles the centers of which lie on the prolongation of the cen- tral meridian, so that the radius of each one is equal to the generatrix of the cone tangent to the ellipsoid along the corresponding parallel. The alterations of angles, distances, and areas are practically small enough to be neglected. On the other hand, the sheets of the air map will be limited by meridians and parallels at successive intervals of 1°, reckoned from the same origins as for the world map. Each sheet should cover an area of 1° of longitude and 1° of latitude. Twenty-four sheets of this map will therefore cover the same area as the corresponding sheet of 1 That is not to say that the air map will be an exact amplification of the world map, but nearly so. 300 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. the world map on the scale of 1: 1,000,000. As the scale is five times as large, each of these sheets will be of approximately the same dimen- sions as the corresponding sheet of the 1: 1,000,000 map. It is necessary, however, to introduce a more simple method of notation. It is customary to distinguish between longitudes east and west of the initial meridian and between latitudes north and south of the Equator. The nomenclature of the latitude and longi- tude therefore changes as one passes across either of these lines of origin. In other words, degrees of longitude increase to the right cr left from the initial meridian and degrees of latitude increase both north and south from the Equator. This notation is apt to cause trouble. . In order to overcome this disadvantage, the committee at my sug- gestion has decided to number the longitudes from 0° to 360° in an easterly direction, commencing from longitude 180° east or west of Greenwich, and to substitude for latitudes polar distances meas- ured from the South Pole and reading from 0° to 180°. This is done in order that in the Northern Hemisphere, in which are situated most of the inhabited countries, the number may increase as usual from the Equator northward. Moreover, in the Northern Hemisphere the units of degrees would be the same for a south polar distance as for the corresponding latitude. The units of the longitude thus adopted will be the same, between 180° and 360°, as they are now for longi- tudes east of Greenwich. The tens of degrees, in the case of south polar distances, will be increased by 9 units, sme in the case of longi- tudes east of Greenwich by 18 units. In the Southern Hemisphere the polar distances will be the com- plements of the corresponding latitudes, and in the hemisphere extending from 0° to 180° of longitude the new longitudes of places will be the supplements of the present longitudes west of Greenwich. In addition to the usual notations, these new ones should be printed on the world map and on the index diagram, figure 1. Each sheet of the air map will bear the name of the most important locality on the area covered by it and shall be numbered by the coordinates of its southwestern corner. This number shows the number of degrees of longitude and south polar distances in the coordinates of any point in the sheet, and in order to obtain the com— plete coordinates of any given point it will be sufficient to add to these figures the tenths of degrees or minutes obtained from the marginal scales. The air map will be constructed on the same modified polyconic projection as that used for the world map. Hach sheet shall be 56 centimeters, or 22 inches, high and from 41 centimeters to 34 centi- meters broad (in France). The corresponding breadth near London would be 12 inches. Each sheet in France would therefore cover an INTERNATIONAL AIR MAP—-LALLEMAND. 801 area of 111 kilometers, or 67 miles, north and south and from 82 to 68 kilometers (61 to 41 miles) east and west. In this system the distortion, which increases as the square of the distance from the central meridian, would be 36 times as small in the air map as in thé world map, since a sheet of the air map covers only 1° of longitude instead of 6°. As, however, the scale of the air map is five times as large, the errors from this source are reduced to one-seventh of those in the world map. In order to facilitate handling, each sheet should be cut in half, the cutting lines running east and west, each half measuring some 28 by 38 centimeters (11 by 15 inches). The two half sheets should be pasted on either side of a piece of cardboard, and should have the name and number of the sheet shown in a conspicuous manner. The Aero Club of France have prepared, this year, three trial sheets of this map, covering the area to be used in the next military maneuvers, with a view to obtaining the remarks of the aviator officers previous to publishing a final edition. 3. AERONAUTICAL MARKS. As has been previously mentioned, each mark shall show the approximate longitude and polar distance of the point over which the aviator is flymg. The sign adopted by the committee consists of half a rectangle (fig. 2) reproducing, on a sufficiently large scale, the frame of the half sheet of the air map in which the mark lies. The sides of this frame appear as broad lines, except the side where the cut is, which is shown by a fine dotted line; thus it is easy to distinguish between the upper and lower halves of a sheet. In this frame a large black dot will indicate the correct position, on the sheet, of the mark of the ground. The half rectangle is correctly oriented, the small sides, parallel — to the meridians, being due north and south. Two large figures, reading toward the north, will be marked on either side of this rectangle, the left one giving the numter of the units of degrees of the polar distance, and the right one the number of the units of degrees of the longitude. The combination of these two figures, forming a number easy to read and remember, will be sufficient to define the number of the corresponding sheet of the map, and to give the rough coordinates of the mark itself. In every case where confusion might exist, each of the figures should be underlined. Owing to the absence of the digits showing the hundreds and tens of degrees of longitude and polar distance, any two marks which are 10° or a multiple of 10° apart will have the same number. The disadvantage of this would not be of great importance. For an airman to confuse two such marks would mean that he would make 302 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. an error of 10° of either longitude or latitude. In latitudes between 40° and 50° this error would amount to 1,100 kilometers (700 miles) of latitude, or from 700-800 kilometers (400-500 miles) of longitude. In an area covering the whole of France, only the extreme points of Brittany and the Vosges will have marks showing the same num- bers. Consider, for instance, the marks numbered 39 in the environs of Pau. The same number as this, on land, would not occur again nearer than points in Algeria, England, Belgrade, or Hamburg, and would not appear at all in Spain or Italy. To mistake such dissimilar countries would be practically impossible. To determine the correct coordinates of a mark, an aviator would only have to add to the number shown the hundreds and tens of degrees of polar distance and longitude. The remainder, with an error of perhaps a tenth of a degree (or afew minutes), could be esti- mated by examining the position of the dot, with reference to the sides of the mark. The position of the mark could thus be estimated with an error of less than 10 kilometers (6 miles) in either direction. 4. CONCLUSION. The initiative thus taken by France in producing an air map and establishing aeronautical marks will very probably be followed by other countries. In such a case it would be necessary to have an international agreement to give definitely the conventional signs of the air map and other details. In May last the cartographical committee: of the International Aeronautical Federation, which met in Brussels to consider such questions, adopted in principle the meridian of Greenwich as the origin of the longitudes, a scale of 1:200,000 for the air map, and for the limits of the sheets, meridians and parallels one degree apart, starting from Greenwich and the Equator, and decided that electrical power lines, which are so dangerous for airships and aeroplanes when landing, should be shown on the map. As regards the aeronautical marks, this committee did not venture to select any one system out of the numerous ones that were pro- posed, and only suggested that the names of the respective localities should be marked, in large letters, on roofs, especially on those of railway stations. As many stations, however, would thus show the same name, this would be a source of error and confusion; in addition to this, the aviator would have to consult a dictionary of names of boroughs, in order to find the number of the sheet of the air map which he requires. A system of marks showing the cutting lines of the sheet concerned, together with an abbreviated distinguishing number, seems to be much more precise, significant, and certain. It is there- fore to be hoped that sooner or later this system will be universally adopted. GEOLOGIC WORK OF ANTS IN TROPICAL AMERICA. [With 1 plate.] By J. C. BRANNER. INTRODUCTORY. In 1900 I published a short paper on the geologic work of ants in the Tropics.?. Since then a good many additional observations, notes, and photographs have been made, and the most important of them are here brought together in a single article. There are many brief notes on the work of ants scattered through the writings of travelers in tropical countries, but these notes are for the most part repetitions of rather vague and sensational stories which make no claim to accuracy of statement, so that they would add little or nothing to the value of the article. No attempt has there- fore been made to use such notes except in so far as they seem to afford new or important corroborative evidence. At the same time it is realized that some of the things that ants do in tropical countries are so remarkable that those who have no personal experience of them may be pardoned for regarding the stories told about them with a certain amount of suspicion. For this reason I have confined myself to my own observations and to some of our most trustworthy scientific writers, such as Bates, Belt, and Spruce, who are naturalists to be taken seriously. ) The best anyone can do who has not seen the work of ants in trop- ical countries is to turn to what can be seen in temperate regions. But the work done by ants in temperate zones is, with a few excep- tions, of no geologic importance at all as compared with that done by them in some parts of the Tropics. The work of the ants, in so far as it is of geologic importance, con- sists chiefly of their nests, habitations, refuse heaps, or mounds, above ground and their burrows, tunnels, passageways, and other excava- tions beneath the surface, and the opening up of the soil and the subjacent rocks to the various atmospheric influences. 1 Read before the Cordilleran Section of the Geological Society of America Mar. 25, 1910. Manuscript received by secretary of the society Apr. 29,1910. Published Aug. 20,1910. Reprinted by permission (condensed by author) from Bulletin of the Geo ogical Society of America, vol. 21, pp. 449-496. 2 Journal of Geology, vol. 8, pp. 151-153. Chicago, 1900. 803 304 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. In the United States we have very little evidence of ants making either underground passageways or mounds of sufficient size or extent to have attracted much attention. Indeed, it seems to be generally conceded by entomologists that the ants of the northern part of North America are not as enterprising as those farther south, or even as those of Europe. Forel seems to have found the structures of our North American ants so insignificant that he avoided speaking of them as having mounds at all. Certainly the little ant hills we have seen in most parts of the United States are too insignificant to attract the attention of geologists. In the South and Southwest they are somewhat more conspicuous, and in the semiarid portions of western Texas and in Arizona, New Mexico, and parts of California they have attracted not a little attention. The western halves of Oklahoma, Kansas, and Nebraska and the eastern portion of Colorado are inhabited by mound-building prairie ants that are sufficiently abundant and sufficiently pugnacious to have attracted the attention of farmers and entomologists, if not geologists. In the Western States generally ants are more abundant than they are in the Hast, but a writer on the ant hills of southwestern Wisconsin says that in that part of the country he knows at least a hundred so-called ant hills within a radius of 5 miles, and he appears to regard this number as quite striking. Their mounds, he says, are as much as 75 centimeters in diameter and 40 centimeters in height.2 These cases are mentioned simply for the purpose of contrasting the size and number of ant hills in a region that seems to be regarded as pretty thickly inhabited with some of the typical localities in the tropical portions of South America. Furthermore, in the tropical parts of America ants are not the — simple and easily ignored insects with which we are acquainted in the temperate zones of the earth. Save in the cities, they are almost omnipresent. To the housekeeper they are not only never-sleeping pests, but they are bold and defiant robbers or sneak thieves, as cir- cumstances require or permit. To the planters they are veritable plagues; they destroy the growing crops as completely as if they had been burned over. They do not wipe out a field of grain in a few hours as completely as do the locust swarms of Argentina, and then disappear, but they stay with their work right alongside of the crops, and with time they destroy them no less certainly. Unlike the locusts, they do not come and depart, but they stay right in one cir- cumscribed area all their lives. Farinha de mandioca, the meal pre- pared from the cassava plant, or grain of any kind and of a‘size small 17. J. Headlee and George A. Dean: The mound-building prairie ant (Pogonomyrmez occidentalis Cresson). Bull 154, Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station. Manhattan, 1908. 2 Hermann Muckermann: Psyche, vol. 9, pp. 355-360, Boston, 1902, _ GEOLOGIC WORK OF ANTS—BRANNER. 305 enough for them to carry, require to be guarded with constant care. I have known entire bagfuls of farinha de mandioca to be carried away by them. In short, the inhabitants have to be constantly on their guard against the ants, both indoors and out of doors, to say nothing of the mere inconvenience of their presence. Nor can their importance be regarded as whimsical in any sense; indeed, I am convinced that they are social, and even national, factors that are not to be ignored. Nothing in the way of a biologic or systematic study of tropical ants is attempted in the present paper. However valuable such a study might be, it is the number of individuals, rather than the number of species, that concerns the geologists, though it is recognized, of course, that some species are much more active agents than others. We need concern ourselves with only two large orders—the true ants belonging to the Hymenoptera, and the termites, or so-called white ants, neurop- teroid insects which belong to the /soptera, and are known all over Brazil by the popular Indian name of “‘cupim.”’ And nothing is attempted in the way of a study of the architecture of their nests and under- ground passages, save in so far as such details will give a better idea of the geologic bearing of these matters. In studying the work of ants in the Tropics one is constantly reminded of Mr. Darwin’s studies of the work of earthworms. Mr. Darwin was able to give the quantitative results of his studies; in the case of the ants, unfortunately, quantitative results have not been possible. The time occupied by them in doing a given amount of work varies so much that quantitative observations, in order to have any value, would have to be carried on upon many colonies and for a long period of time. The results given at page 316 are an attempt at quantitative determination, but it will be observed that it is not known how many individuals took part in the work or how long they were at it. To illustrate this article especial pains have been taken to get as many photographs and sketches as possible of the above-ground structures of ants and termites, and the accompanying illustrations have been carefully made from photographs, most of them taken in Brazil. It seemed better to have the drawings made rather than to use the original photographs, in spite of the evident suspicion of exaggeration or alteration, whether intentional or accidental, to whieh all drawings areopen. This redrawing was the more necessary because the photographs were taken hastily and under many unfavor- able circumstances, and they are therefore often not good, or they are not available for reproduction as photographs. Abundant illustra- tions are given because it is felt that they are the most trustworthy witnesses one can put in evidence regarding the subject. 38734°—sm 191120 306 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. THE TRUE ANTS. ABUNDANCE. Although ants are not everywhere equally abundant in tropical South America, their numbers are so large on an average as to promptly attract the attention of travelers, even when they do not excite their wonder. Residents, who might be expected to have con- servative views on the subject, often speak of them as the owners of the land. Such a remark is at first regarded as merely facetious, but - the character of some of the writers who make it entitles it to serious consideration. As long ago as 1648 Piso said that the Portuguese not inappropriately called the ant the ‘‘king of Brazil.” ? Another naturalist who spent some time in the country says, ‘*Brazil is one great ants’ nest.’’? Belt says, ‘‘They are one of the greatest scourges of tropical America.” ° A Brazilian traveler says of the region of the upper Rio, Paraguay, “The ant and the different kinds of termites own the land.” 4 Another puts it in this fashion: “. . . ants . . . deserve to be considered the actual owners of the Amazon Valley far more than the red or the white man.” ® These characterizations and others that might be. given are so sweeping that, taken alone, they are open to the suspicion of being merely picturesque and extravagant ebullitions rather than serious statements of fact. If they are based on some knowledge of the ants, these expressions seem to spring from more or less personal animosity toward those insects. And yet this very animosity, if it really exists, must come from a pretty uniform personal experience of them. ‘Dr. Auguste Forel says that ‘‘the ant fauna of South America is perhaps the richest in the world from the systematic point of view.”® In the book cited 440 species of true ants are noted as inhabiting Brazil, out of a total of 2,000 known in the world. But though it is with the number of individuals rather than the number of species that we are concerned, it is worth remembering that in many considerable regions a single species may occupy about all the ground space that it is possible for ants to occupy. A single species may thus fairly swarm and do a vast deal more work than several different species. The true ants, evidently of a large number of species, are so abundant and are such serious pests in some places that the land is 1 Formice autem he (Rey do Brasil Lusitanis non immerito dictz, quod perpetuam tyrannidem exer- ceant) aliquee Europzearum plane similes, aliquz triplo majores & alate, omnivore sunt. De Aeribus, Aquis, & Locis. Gvilielmi Pisonis Historic Naturalis & Medic, p. 9. Amsterdam, 1658. 2 Rev. H. Clark: Letters home from Spain, etc., pp. 131, 173. London, 1867. 8 Thomas Belt: The naturalist in Nicaragua, p. 79. London, 1874. 4 Dr. Jo&io Severiano da Fonseca. Viagem ao redor do Brazil, vol. 1, p. 352. Rio de Janeiro, 1880. 6 Richard Spruce: Notes of a botanist on the Amazon and Andes, vol. 2, p. 366. London, 1908. 6A. Forel: A fauna das formigas do Brazil. Bol. do Museu Paraense, vol. 1, p. 89. Para, 1895. GEOLOGIC WORK OF ANTS——-BRANNER. 307 practically preempted by them. Travelers passing the night in the open have to be constantly on their guard against colonies of ants. Fighting such colonies under the circumstances is simply out of the question. When one finds himself in disagreeable proximity to them, the only thing to be donesris to move at once and leave the ants masters of the situation. Bates, speaking of a certain species, says (page 354): These Ecitons are seen in the pathways of the forest at all places on the banks of the Amazons, traveling in dense columns of countless thousands. On the Rio Tapajos, in the Amazon Valley, he noted the quantity of drowned winged ants along the beach; they were all of one species, the terrible formiga de fogo (Myrmica sevissima), the dead or half-dead bodies of which were heaped up in a line an inch or two in height and breadth, the line continuing without interruption for miles at the edge of the water. The countless thousands had been doubtless cast into the river while flying during a sudden squall the night before, and afterwards cast ashore by the waves.' . . . Iwas told that this wholesale destruction of ant life takes place annually, and that the same compact heap of dead bodies which I saw only in part extends along the banks of the river for 12 or 15 miles (op. cit., p. 206). I have seen similar accumulations of dead female ants on the lower Sao Francisco and the Rio Paraguay, near Corumba, and at two places on the shores of estuaries near Aracaju, in the State of Sergipe. Bates says the formiga de fogo, or fire ant, was so abundant at one place on the Tapajos that there was scarcely a square inch of ground free from them. (Op. cit., p. 202.) The only figures I am able to give in regard to the sizes of ant colonies are the estimates given by Azevedo Sampaio, a Brazilian entomologist who has studied the satibas. He estimates the colonies at from 175,000 to 600,000 individuals.? DESTRUCTIVENESS. The destruction wrought by the true ants is confined chiefly, but not entirely, to agricultural products. It is no uncommon thing to find spots where certain ants are so abundant and so destructive that the planters simply leave them alone. Sometimes it happens that after clearing a piece of land, and beginning their planting, the farmers find the ants so destructive that those particular fields are abandoned. In the coffee regions certain ants, popularly known as the saibas, are so destructive that a systematic and unceasing war has to be waged upon them in order to save the coffee trees. But their attacks are not confined to coffee trees by any manner of means. Theycut and carry away the leaves of the mandioca plants, orange and lemon trees, 1H. W. Bates: The naturalist on the River Amazons, 4th ed., p. 201. London, 1875. 2 Azevedo Sampaio: Sauva ou Manhu-udra, pp. 50, 54. S. Paulo, 1894. 308 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. and all kinds of garden vegetables. Indeed, there seem to be very few or no cultivated plants that they do not attack. They generally move along well-beaten paths that are almost as wide and as well defined as sheep paths in a pasture. The expense of fighting these ants is a really serious item in the cost of the production of Brazilian coffee. A distinguished Brazilian planter says, with perfect justice, that “‘among the obstacles with which the planters have to contend * * * there stands perhaps in the front rank the destructive force represented by the saiba.”’ 1 One can get some idea of the economic importance of ants in Brazil from the fact that in the seventies and early eighties an enormous number of privileges or patents were asked of the Brazilian Govern- ment for machines and devices of various kinds for killing ants, and especially the saibas. In 1857 the Province of Rio de Janeiro voted a reward of $25,000 for the discovery of a means of destroying saibas.” It is impossible to keep things out of their reach on any large scale. Certain devices are used with more or less success for protecting things indoors when they are constantly watched, but standing crops or considerable stores require constant watchfuiness and war. In regard to the satibas in the Amazon region Bates says: This ant (the sat%iba) is seen everywhere about the suburbs, marching to and fro in broad columns. From its habit of despoiling the most valuable cultivated trees of their foliage, it isa great scourge to the Brazilians. In some districts it is so abundant that agriculture is almost impossible, and everywhere complaints are heard of the terrible pest.® ATTACKS ON MAN. The formaga de fogo, or fire ants, are so called on account of the pain- fulness of their sting. .When they are met with in large numbers there is simply no withstanding them. One of the reasons for calling ants the kings, rulers, and owners of the country is due to the vicious attacks they make upon all kinds of animals. Bates tells of one case in which a town on the Tapajos was actually depopulated by ants of this kind. This statement seems so remarkable that it is quoted here at length: * Aveyros was deserted a few years before my visit on account of this little tormentor {formiga de fogo), and the inhabitants had only recently returned to their houses, thinking its numbers had decreased. It is a small species, of a shining reddish color, not greatly differing from the common red stinging ant of our own country (Myrmica rubra), except that the pain and irritation caused by its sting are much greater. The soil of the whole village is undermined by it; the ground is perforated with the en- 1 Henrique de Paula Mascarenhas: Revista Agricola do Imperial Instituto, vol. 14, p. 215. Rio de Janeiro, December, 1883. 2 Auxiliador da Industria Nacional, vol. 37, p. 64. Rio de Janeiro, 1869. 3H. W. Bates: The naturalist on the River Amazons, 4th ed., p.9. London, 1875. 4 Naturalist on the Amazons, p, 205. GEOLOGIC WORK OF ANTS—BRANNER. 309 trances to their subterranean galleries, and a little sandy dome occurs here and there, where the insects bring their young to receive warmth near the surface. The houses are overrun with them; they dispute every fragment of food with the inhabitants, and destroy clothing for the sake of the starch. All eatables are obliged to be suspended in baskets from the rafters and the cords well soaked with copauba balsam, which is the only means known of preventing them from climbing. They seem to attack per- sons out of sheer malice; if we stood for a few moments in the street, even at a distance from their nests, we were sure to be overrun and severely punished, for the moment an ant touched the flesh he secured himself with his jaws, doubled in his tail, and stung with allhismight. When we were seated on chairs in the evenings in front of the house to enjoy a chat with our neighbors, we had stools to support our feet, the legs of which, as well as those of the chairs, were well anointed with the balsam. The cords of ham- mocks are obliged to be smeared with the balsam in the same way to prevent the ants from paying sleepers a visit. Anyone who wishes to get a clear understanding of the seriousness of the bite of these ants should read Dr. Richard Spruce’s account of his personal experience of them: August 15, 1853.—Yesterday I had the pleasure for the first time of experiencing the sting of the large black ant called tucandera in Lingoa Geral. * * * I had gone after breakfast to herborise in the caapcera north of San Carlos, where there were a good many decayed trunks and stumps. I stooped down to cut off a patch of a Moss on a stump, and remarked that by so doing I exposed a large hollow in the rotten wood; but when I turned me to put the moss into my vasculum I did not notice that a string of angry tucanderas poured out of the opening [ had made. I was speedily made aware of it by a prick in the thigh, which [ supposed to be caused by a snake until, springing up, I saw that my feet and legs were being covered by the dreaded tucandera. There was nothing but flight for it, and I accordingly ran off as quickly as I could among the entangling branches, and finally succeeded in beating off the ants, but not before I had been dreadfully stung about the feet, for I wore only slippers without heels, and these came off in the struggle. I was little more than five minutes’ walk from my house, * * * and J wished to walk rapidly, but could not. I was in agonies, and had much to do to keep from throwing myself on the ground and rolling about as I had seen the Indians do when suffering from the stings of thisant. * * * BENEFICIAL ANTS. Not all the ants, however, are to be looked upon as pests. Certain carnivorous ants are rather to be regarded as beneficial to agriculture, and to mankind generally, on account of their destruction of caterpil- lars and other noxious insects. In districts where cotton is grown the larve of the cotton moths are kept in check by the ants destroying the young ones, especially during the early part of the season. The invasion of houses by ant colonies is a common occurrence in every part of Brazil. Ordinarily these invasions are only temporary. Dur- ing the hour or two when these ants swarm through one’s house or rooms they are certainly annoying, but they soon disappear, and one feels that he has been relieved to a considerable extent from the cock- roaches and other more offensive and more serious plagues. 1 Richard Spruce: Noies of a botanist on the Amazon and Andes, vol. 1, pp. 362-364. London, 1908. 310 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. Many writers have described the operations of these ants, but the following, quoted from Dr. Richard Spruce, will give a clear idea of them: ? One morning soon after sunrise the hut was suddenly filled with lerge blackish ants, which ran nimbly about and tried their teeth on everything. My charqui proved too tough for them; but they made short work of a bunch of ripe plantains, and rooted out cockroaches, spiders, and other such like denizens of a forest hut. So long as they were left unmolested they avoided the human inhabitants; but when I attempted to brush them away they fell on me by hundreds and bit and stung fiercely. Thomas Belt has a good deal on the swarms of ants in Central America. The following extract is from his ‘‘Naturalist in Nica- ragua,’ page 17: One of the smaller species (Eciton predator) used occasionally to visit our house and swarm over the floors and walls, searching every cranny and driving out the cock- roaches and spiders, many of which were caught, pulled, bitten to pieces, and carried off. The individuals of this species were of various sizes, the smallest measuring one and a quarter lines and the largest three lines, or a quarter of an inch. I saw many armies of this, or a closely allied species, in the forest. My attention was generally first called to them by the twittering of some small birds, belonging to several different species, that follow the ants in the woods. On approaching, a dense body of the ants, three or four yards wide, and so numerous as to blacken the ground, would be seen moving rapidly in one direction, examining every cranny and under- neath every fallen leaf. On the flanks and in advance of the main body smaller col- umns would be pushed out. These smaller columns would generally first flush the cockroaches, grasshoppers, and spiders. The pursued insects would rapidly make off, but many in their confusion and terror would bound right into the midst of the main body of ants. Bates has the following regarding the Ecitons, page 354: When the pedestrian falls in with a train of these ants, the first signal given him is a twittering and restless movement of small flocks of plain-colored birds (ant thrushes) in the jungle. If this be disregarded until he advances a few steps farther, he is sure to fall into trouble, and find himself suddenly attacked by numbers of the ferocious little creatures. They swarm up his legs with incredible rapidity, each one driving its pincer-like jaws into his skin, and with the purchase thus obtained, doubling in its tail, and stinging with all its might. There is no course left but to run for it; if he is accompanied by natives, they will be sure to give the alarm, crying, ‘‘ Taudca!’”’ and scampering at full speed to the other end of the column of ants. The tenacious insects who have secured themselves to his legs then have to be plucked off one by one, a task which is generally not accomplished without pulling them in twain, and leaving heads and jaws sticking in the wounds. The errand of the vast ant armies is plunder, as in the case of Eciton legions; but from their moving always amongst dense thickets, their proceedings are not so easy to observe as in that species. Wherever they move, the whole animal world is set in commotion, and every creature tries to get out of their way. But it is especially the various tribes of wingless insects that have cause for fear, such as heavy-bodied spiders, ants of other species, maggots, caterpillars, larvee of cockroaches, etc., all of which live under fallen leaves or in decaying wood. The Ecitons do not mount very high on trees, and therefore the nestlings of birds are not much incommoded by them. 1 Richard Spruce: Notes of a botanist on the Amazon and Andes, vol. 2, pp. 371-373. London, 1908. GEOLOGIC WORK OF ANTS—BRANNER. DB ANTS AS FOOD. In the Amazon region some of the ants are even used by the Indians for food. The head and thorax are the parts eaten, the abdomen being nipped off (at San Carlos I constantly see them eaten entire), and it is eaten uncooked. The taste to me is strong, fiery, and disagreeable, but those who have eaten the bachaco fried in turtle oil tell me it is quite palatable.} Orton ? says the satibas ‘‘are eaten by the Rio Negro Indians, and esteemed a luxury, while the Tapajos Tribes use them to season their mandioca sauce.” In the more thickly settled parts of Brazil the custom of eating these ants is either not practiced nowadays, or, if it is, it is not generally known. Inthe early history of the country, however, when the native Indians were much more abundant than they are now, the custom appears to have been common. STRUCTURES ABOVE GROUND. Origin of the structures.—The word ‘‘nests” frequently applied to the superficial structures of ants should not be understood to mean nests in the ordinary signification of the word. These structures sometimes contain the queens, eggs, and larve, but at other times these are kept in excavations below the surface. The mounds made by the true ants all begin as small funnel-shaped ridges around the excavations started by individual females. The large mounds are the results of the work of many generations and of a vast number of individuals. Without going into any detailed description of the habits of the ants, it is worth while to give, for those unfamiliar with their habits, a general idea of the methods followed by these ants in establishing new colonies and in increasing them. When the swarming or mating sea- son of the satba ant comes, the young females leave their homes and fly away. ‘They seem to fly about very much at random—at least, I have rarely seen them going in any particular direction—and when they have been seen going together it was apparently due to the direc- tion of the wind or the position of the sun at the time, rather than to any definite purpose on their part. When the female alights after a flight of only a few minutes, she breaks off her wings and at once falls to work at excavating a burrow. All kinds of places are selected for these burrows. It does not appear that the selection is deliberate, but it seems to be determined by the accident of alighting from an aimless flight. Judging from the large number of individual females I have frequently seen in the air and on ‘ Richard Spruce: Notes of a botanist on the Amazon and Andes, vol. 1, p. 484. London, 1908, 2 James Orton: The Andes and the Amazon, 3d ed., p.301. New York, 1876. 312 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. the ground at one time, the great majority of these young colonies must fail to survive. Often I have seen the young females so abun- dant that there must have been an individual to every square meter of land surface over areas of many hundreds of acres. In some places where the new arrivals alight the mounds are already so thick that there is little or no room for new colonies, and it is probable that some of these young females must either be adopted into the old colonies or they are killed or die. It is evident from the nature of the case that where such a large number of new colonies is started most of them must perish from™ mere overcrowding, if for no other reason. The excavation first made by a young female is small and simple, and the earth taken from it is heaped about the opening without any apparent order. Dr. Huber, in the paper just cited, states that at Para, in a colony started by a single female, the first workers appear at the end of 40 days. Shortly thereafter the queen, or founder of the colony, ceases to be an active worker, and all subse- quent excavating is done by the constantly increasing number of workers. As the colonies increase in numbers more underground room is required, and the amount of earth excavated and carried to the surface increases proportionately. This earth is brought to the surface in the jaws of the workers in the form of small pellets which are thrown down apparently without any other object than to be rid of them. Sometimes they are heaped up in funnel-shaped pits; sometimes they are thrown out on the downhill side of the opening. At first these bits of earth form heaps of loose, incoherent material, but in time, and with rain and sunshine, it packs down until it is often as hard as an unbaked brick. As long as the colony is active and growing, additions are constantly being made to these accumu- lations, and these additions may be at any point over the sides or at the top. Passageways are either kept open through these heaps of earth or they are reexcavated. This is demonstrated by digging into the mounds, but it is evident without opening them, from the fact that the fresh material is brought out and spread over any and all parts of the surface. Size of the mounds.—It might be inferred that there would be practically no limit to the size of the mounds built in this fashion, and I am not sure that there are any limits save those which may be imposed by certain physical conditions, such as the amount and dis- tribution of the rains, the character of the soil, the area over which the necessary plants or food can be obtained, ete. Of course, the mounds are of different sizes according to their ages; but consid- 1 Just how new colonies of saubas can be established by a single female is described by Dr. J. Huber in Biologisches Centralblatt, vol. 25, pp. 606-618, 624-635, and in the Boletim do Museu Goeldi, vol. 5, pp. 223-241. Para, 1907-8. Also in the Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution for 1906, pp. 355-367. GEOLOGIC WORK OF ANTS—-BRANNER. 818 ering only the largest and oldest ones made by a single species, and found in various different localities, it is noteworthy that there is a great difference in the sizes of the largest of them. Just what deter- mines this variation I can not say positively, but the influences referred to above—that is, rainfall, character of soil, and vegetation— naturally suggest themselves as possible influences. Nowhere do I remember to have seen more or larger ant hills than along Rio Utinga, in the diamond regions of the interior of the State of Bahia. From the town Riachao, down the river to the village of Pegas, the examples are big and abundant. In a few places they are so close together that, big and little, they appear to cover half of the ground. My notes, written on the spot, say ‘‘more than half of the ground.” Such places, however, are exceptional. The distribution is always more or less irregular—bunched apparently on account of characteristics of soil or drainage, or for some other reason that does not appear. In some areas of from 10 to 20 acres the ant hills occupy from a fifth to a third of the ground, while over larger tracts they take up from one-eighth to a seventh of the ground. In height the mounds are often as much as 5 meters high, with bases 15 or 16 meters in diameter. In the forests these mounds are generally over- grown with young trees. On many of the big mounds I have seen trees more than 30 centimeters in diameter. At the village of Antonio Jose the people have planted pineapples upon the mounds. At fazenda Bello Horizonte, about 18 kilometers north of the village of Pegas, the ant hills are so large and stand so thickly upon the ground that they form one of the most striking illustrations I have ever seen of the work of these insects. An area of some 30 acres or more is there covered with mounds resembling haycocks. They probably average 2 meters in height and a diameter of 4 or 5 meters at the base. At a place called Ponte Nova, on Rio Utinga, 8 kilometers north of the village of Pegas, the ant hills are a remarkable feature of the landscape. To the east and northeast of the Protestant college the mounds cover the old fields. One of the accompanying photographs (fig. 2, pl. 1) and text figure 1 were made in this region. Six kilometers north of the station one was found by measurement to be 1.8 meters high and 4.5+ meters wide at the base. This mound was not regarded by the people of the locality as anything unusual. To the east of Serrinha several mounds were observed with a height of 3 meters and a diameter at the base of 10 meters. These mounds, therefore, contain each 78.5 cubic meters of earth. Along the western half of the Bahia and Minas Railway, that starts from the coast near Caravellas, in the southern part of the State of 314 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. Bahia, and runs west 376 kilometers into the State of Minas Geraes, ant hills are big and abundant. The newer ones are steeply conical, but with age they become more or less rounded and flattened. In SS ee ee Py 7 ¥ == DS eA A = a SS=s b . * x eR : ¢2 - aor Re = L Kiet iS \ SR, = ’ ¥ A = ~ eS, ¢ + 4 ANT G fa) 2 > ah 2 | Awe 27, (KA Dad a mete Set am toon: am | ed be Geo, SHE er ‘, » Us Le wad gD 1A A Yon SEG s 2 Fig. 1.—Ant hills cn Rio Utinga, near the village of Pegas, State of Bahia. [From a photograph by R. Crandall, 1907.] the vicinity of Urucu Station (kilometer 226) the mounds are so thick and so close together that the country looks like a field of gigantic potato hills. Smithsonian Report, 1911.—Branner. PLATE 1. 1. NEWLY CLEARED FIELD COVERED WITH MOUNDS OF ANTS NEAR RIO UTINGA, STATE OF BAHIA, BRAZIL. The largest of these mounds have bases of six or seven meters. Photograph by R. Crandall, 1907. 2. MOUNDS OF TERMITES IN AN OLD FIELD NEAR QUELUZ, STATE OF MINAS GERAES, BRAZIL. White spots in the background are the mounds. Photograph by Dr. Gonzaga de Campos, 1909. GEOLOGIC WORK OF ANTS—BRANNER. 815 In some places they stand so close that their bases touch each other, though such cases appear to be rather exceptional. The mounds in this part of Minas and Bahia that appear to have reached their full development range from 1 to 44 meters in height and from 3 to 10 meters in diameter at the base. The biggest of these mounds— that is, one 4.5 meters high and 10 meters in diameter—contains approximately 117 cubic meters of earth. At one place in the Rio Utinga region, where the forests had been cleared away so that the mounds were clearly visible, I selected a Fie, 2.—Ant hill (Formiga de mandioca) near Mundo Novo, State of Bahia, Brazil. [From a photograph by R. Crandall, 1907.] spot where they were strikingly abundant, and measuring a space 100 by 100 meters, as nearly as it could be done by pacing, counted the mounds within the area and estimated their heights and diam- eters at the base. The slopes of these mounds vary from less than 30 degrees up to 47 degrees, and on some parts of them there are even perpendicular places. It was thought that 38 degrees was a fair average for the ones in this particular area. 316 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. The figures obtained are given in the table below: Table of areas and cubical contents of mounds of different sizes within an area of 10,000 square meters. [All measurements are in meters. ] | | Area of Total con- Number of | Diameter | each in ieee Heicht Cubical tents in mounds. | of base. | square ss peor IBA. | contents. eubic meters. i meters. Kh 15 176. 71 176.71 4.5 265 265 2 il 95. 03 190. 06 4.2 133 266 6 10 78. 54 471. 24 3.9 102 612 8 8 50. 26 402. 08 Beal 51 408 12 vé 38. 48 460. 76 2.9 37 444 5 6 28. 27 141.35 2.3 21 106 4° 5 19. 63 78. 52 2.0 13 52 7 4 12. 56 87.92 Wf 7 49 8 t 3 7. 06 56. 48 1.2 3 24 1 | eae eee ese | Arar POSS IS 2 ahs clas oes ee ee tt 2, 225 | | This estimate makes the area actually covered by the mounds close to one-fifth of the total area under consideration. My notes show that within areas of afew acres the ground covered by the mounds is sometimes as high as one-half of the total area. The cubical con- tents of the mounds, if evenly distributed over the entire 10,000 square meters, would have a thickness of 22.25 centimeters. Although the mounds within the area here considered were large, they were not the biggest I have seen, nor do they average as large as can be found. ‘The largest ones measured were on the upper drainage of Rio Utinga; several of these were found to be 5 meters high and 16 and 17 meters in diameter at the base, and each contained, there- fore, about 340 cubic meters of earth. There were no other mounds closer to these than 10 or 15 meters. The reader should be reminded, however, that this sort of thing is not to be seen in all parts of the country, by any manner of means. So far as my own observations go, ant mounds are unusually large and unusually abundant in this particular part of Brazil. Age of the mounds —The amount of work done by these ants in a region where they seem to be favorably located is fairly well shown in the preceding table. Trustworthy data for calculating the time required to build a mound of a given size or to do any given amount of work are lacking. Necessarily the time must vary with the size of the colonies, other things being equal. The colonies, however, appear to have their ups and downs, for while some of them increase in numbers and continue to add to the mounds for long periods, others appear to be less active, while still others disappear, whether by migrating or through the death or captivity of the members is not certainly known at present. It is interesting to note that the Brazilians generally regard the size of the ant hill as directly related GEOLOGIC WORK OF ANTS—BRANNER. 817 to the age of the colony. At Serrinha, on the Sao Francisco Railway, I was told that mounds about 2 meters high and having a base of about 5 meters were probably as much as a hundred years old. This was an expression of views based simply upon a general impres- sion and not upon records. UNDERGROUND WORK. So far as I can learn, there has never been any careful examination or study of the character, extent, and uses of the underground excava- tions made by ants in the Tropics. What is known about them has been learned accidentally, and our knowledge of the passages is, therefore, fragmentary. I have frequently dug into the mounds, ete eee a 7 Fic. 3.—Ant hills made by the “‘ Formiga de mandioca,” near Ventura, State of Bahia, Brazil. {From a photograph by R. Crandall, 1907.] but always without the time necessary for satisfactory results. The most J have been able to make out in these hasty explorations is that the superficial mounds are penetrated in every direction with passageways. The large mounds were in no case opened down to the original surface of the ground; but when small mounds were opened they were found to connect through small tunnels with the under- ground excavations. A pit started by the removal of a large ant hill east of Timbo, in the interior of Bahia, and continued to a depth of about 4 meters, showed the arrangement of the underground tunnels better than I have seen it 318 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. elsewhere. The section did not pass through the main shaft or tunnel that connected the ant hill with the subterranean excavations, but a little to one side of it. The upper layer of the earth, to a depth of half a meter, was undisturbed; then there was one tunnel with a flat floor, about 20 to 25 centimeters across, and having a low arched roof; below this, at a distance of about 25 centimeters, were two tunnels at the same level and of about the same size and shape; below these, at a further depth of about 25 centimeters, were three similar openings. This arrangement continued to a depth of nearly 2 meters, the tunnels being more numerous always at the lower levels. The tunnels at the lowest level did not form a complete row, but the work seemed to have been commenced at the outside. This same arrangement of the tunnels has been seen frequently in railway cuts and ditches, but nowhere else have J seen so many levels or such a clearly defined plan in the placing of the excavations. In some other cases noted the number of tunnels connecting the above-ground mounds with the underground galleries seemed to vary Fia. 4.—Nest of leaf-cutting ant. After Belt. ‘‘The Naturalist in Nicaragua,”’ p. 80. with the size of the mounds—that is, the more ground the mound covered, the more passageways there seemed to be to connect with the galleries beneath. The section through the burrows given by Belt is reproduced in figure 4. This section, however, is diagrammatic, and does not claim to show the great extent of the galleries. Belt tells, however, of . galleries 1.5 meters in depth (p. 76). The best evidence I have been able to gather in regard to the depth to which the ants penetrate has been obtained in cuts along railways and canals, and in deep ditches often dug to serve as fences. On Rio do Peixe, near Serro, in the State of Minas Geraes, J found the galleries as deep as 2.5 meters at several places along a canal under construction. Most of them, however, were only about 1.5 meters below the surface at the deepest points exposed. At Bomfim, on the Bahia and Sao Francisco Railway, I found the burrows exposed in a deep ditch at a depth of 2.1 meters. GEOLOGIC WORK OF ANTS—BRANNER. 319 Sampaio, a Brazilian entomologist who has given much attention to the satiba ants, shows one burrow as much as 3.5 meters below the surface. Dr. Jaoquim Lustosa, of Lafayette, State of Minas Geraes, Brazil, writes: ; Competent persons assure me that the true ants burrow to a depth of 10 meters or more, and that they exhibit a strange and remarkable intelligence, and that they even cross wide and deep streams by means of tunnels so deep as to avoid the infiltra- tion of the water. The length of the tunnels has often been demonstrated by forcing smoke through them. I have myself seen fumes blown-into one opening and issuing from others as much as 300 meters away. Ants excavated a tunnel under the bed of the River Parahyba, at a place where it is as broad as the Thames at London Bridge. At the Magoary rice mills, near Para, these ants once pierced the embankment of a large reservoir; the great body of water which it contained escaped before the damage could be repaired? Another writer, Rev. J.C. Wood, tells of the satibas having ‘“‘ruined a gold mine for a time, breaking into it with a tunnel some 80 yards in length and letting in a torrent of water, which broke down the machinery and washed away all the supports, so that the mine had to be dug afresh.” § The diameter of an underground passage varies from 1 or 2 centi- meters up to 5 centimeters or more. They widen out and narrow down without.any apparent reason, and those made by the saubas that have been examined have here and there local enlargements that are commonly from 1 to 2 decimeters in height and from 1 to 3 deci- meters in length. These chambers, when freshly opened, I have generally found filled, or partly filled, with loose, moldy masses of dead leaves. Belt describes the underground passages in Nicaragua as follows: ‘ In our mining operations we also, on two occasions, carried our excavations from below up through very large formicariums, so that all their underground workings were exposed to observation. I found their nests below to consist of numerous rounded chambers, about as large as a man’s head, connected together by tunneled passages leading from one chamber to another. RELATIONS TO THE SOIL. The distribution of ant colonies as shown by their mounds suggests, if it does not prove beyond question, that the character of the soil has an important influence on the distribution of the ants themselves. 1A. G.de Azevedo Sampaio: Sauva ou Manhu-uara, pp. 22, 52, 64. Sao Paulo, 1894. 2H. W. Bates: Naturalist on the Amazons, 4th ed., pp. 9-15. London, 1875. 8 Charles Waterton: Wanderings in South America. Explanatory Index, Rev. J. G. Wood, p. 47. London, 1882. 4 The Naturalist in Nicaragua, p. 80. 320 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. In view of the habits of ants, it seems highly probable that at the time of leaving their nests the young females scatter over the surround- ing region pretty much at random. When they alight, some of them find themselves in locations where ant colonies, on account of the character of the ground, can not possibly survive, and as these young females break off their wings as soon as they alight, they can not renew their flight and seek more favorable ground, but they must perish without having founded a new colony. And this must happen over and over again, with the final result that localities unfavorable for ants do not have ant colonies, while the favorable localities may have a superabundance of them. Favorable and unfavorable con- ditions are not always sharply defined, but merge into each other. In some cases it is quite evident what constitute unfavorable condi- tions. Ground that is constantly wet or liable to inundation can not be occupied; hard, rocky surfaces, or even very thin soils, are not available; soils so sandy or friable that underground tunnels dug in them will not stand are evidently not available for the establishment of colonies. Between soils most favorable and unfavorable ones there are all sorts of gradations, so that one is prepared, for this reason alone, to find the ant hills bigger and more abundant in some places than in others. It is evident that it is all a question of adaptability, how- ever, rather than a matter of choice on the part of the ants. Just what kind of soil is most favorable for the ants I can not state positively. My general impression is that the mounds are most abundant on clayey soils, whether the clay comes directly from the decomposition of feldspathic rocks or from the disintegration of shales and slates. This preference for the clayey soils is well shown at many places through the diamond-bearing highlands of the interior of Bahia, where the diamond-bearing quartzites, known as the Lavras series, are underlain by a thick series of shales called the Caboclo series. The Lavras beds being quartzites, or sandstones, break down into a very sandy soil, while the Caboclo shales form a stiff, clayey soil, and as they are adjacent to each other the line of demarcation between the two soils is usually well defined. While traveling through that district in 1907, I was frequently able to locate myself geologically by the abundance or absence of the ant hills. Not infrequently the line of parting between the two series was concealed by a thick soil and overgrown with forests, but the distribution of the mounds would often show the line of parting within 20 or 25 meters. My former assistant, Mr. Roderic Crandall, who has traveled exten- sively in Bahia, Pernambuco, Piauhy, Minas, and Goyaz, writes, in reply to my inquiries, as follows regarding the preference of the ants for certain soils: ‘In Bahia the ants of all kinds show a preference for GEOLOGIC WORK OF ANTS—BRANNER. 321 the Estancia and Cabocla shales; next to these the granites seem to have the biggest nests.” I infer that the smaller number of the mounds on the sandy soil is due to the fact that during the rainy season water soaks through into the burrows, and the excavations do not stand up where the soil is wet. Thinking it possible that the exposure of the mounds or of the ground on which they stand to the sun might influence location and distribution, an outlook has been kept with these questions in mind. It does not appear thus far that such exposure influences the location or size of the mounds, even in the southern part of Brazil, where the sun is on the north most or all of the year. THE WHITE ANTS, OR TERMITES. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. The so-called white ants, or termites, belong to the Jsoptera, and are therefore not ants at all. They are included in this paper solely on account of the geologic work done by them in the Tropics, which bears a certain similarity to the geologic work of the true ants. In Brazil the white ants are commonly known by the name of cupim. In their habits the white ants both resemble and differ from the true ants. They generally avoid the light, carrying on their work, even when it is above ground, in galleries which they con- struct as they go. Their nests are sometimes attached to tree trunks or rocks, but they are often built directly upon the ground. Not infrequently these nests are as large, or even larger, than the nests of the true ants, but they are very different in shape and character. ABUNDANCE. Here, again, | am unable to give anything regarding the biology of the white ants.’ Dr. Fritz Muller, who lived for many years in southern Brazil, reports 15 or 16 species of termites in that part of the country, but not all of these live on or in the ground. M. Jules Desneux, in his monograph on the Termitide, reports 45 species from Brazil and some 15 or more from other tropical parts of America. White ants, like otiier animals, are not evenly distributed in the tropical parts of South America. They are so much less obtrusive and pugnacious, however, that they do not attract the attention as promptly as do the true ants. 1 For the benefit of those who are interested in the biology of white ants I cite the following. K. Escherich: Die Termiten oder weissen Ameisen. Eine Biologische Studie, vol. 12, p.198. Leipzig. 1909. Genera Insectorum publies par P. Wytsman. Fase. 25, Isoptera, fam. Termitide: par Jules Desneux, Bruxelles, 1904. 38734°—sm 1911——21 822 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. The fact that the white ants live and work entirely under cover might naturally lead one to infer that they were much less abundant than the true ants. But nowhere have I found the ground as thickly covered with the termites’ nests as with those of the true ants, a fact probably due to some extent to the methods by which the two kinds of insects procure their food supplies. I have never been able to estimate the number of individuals in the old colonies, nor have I found such an estimate made by any- one else. In the matter of numbers we are obliged to depend on general impressions gained from the abundance of the above-ground structures of the separate colonies and from certain of their habits. For example, it is stated that the queen of an allied species whose habits have been studied has ‘‘an egg-laying rate of 60 per mintute, or something like 80,000 per day.” ! ANIMALS FEEDING ON TERMITES. As the white ants have no means of defense against their natural enemies, they are easily destroyed and are preyed on by many other insectivorous animals. Indeed, one of the impressive evidences of the great numbers of the white ants in South America is the existence there of certain large vertebrate burrowing animals that are said to feed almost exclusively upon the white ants.’ The great ant-eater, known in Brazil as the tamandud bandeira, is said to live entirely on ants. Brazilians acquainted with the habits of the tamandué tell me, however, that the ant-eater does not eat the satibas or other biting or stinging ants, but that it lives chiefly and almost exclusively on the cupim, or so-called white ant. To give an idea of the size of the animal, I quote the followmg measurements of an ant-eater as given by Wells: Head, 16 inches; back, 4 feet; tail, 4 feet; total length, 9 feet 4 inches.* The existence of an animal as big as an ordinary dog, over 2 feet high at the shoulder, with its long, slender muzzle, its powerful forelegs and claws adapted to the excavation and exploration of ant-mounds, and its tongue nearly a yard in length, and living chiefly, if not entirely, upon white ants, is an important witness on the side of the abundance of termites in the region in which it lives. Bates reports four species of ant-eaters in the Amazonas region, two of which are large and two small ones (op. cit., 2d ed., p- 110), while Wallace says there are five species in tropical America, besides one extinct form.‘ 10. L. Marlatt: Circular 50, p. 3, 2d ser., Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington, 1908. 2 Holes often found in the mounds of the true ants show that some of these large ant-eating animals feed on the true ants also. 3J. W. Wells: Three thousand miles through Brazil, vol. 2, p. 141. London, 1886. 4A. R. Wallace: The geographical distribution of animals, vol. 2, p. 247. New York, 1876. GEOLOGIC WORK OF ANTS—BRANNER. 323 The armadillos, known in Brazil as fatiéis, are also ant-eaters. As Mr. Wallace points out,'! the armadillos are highly characteristic of tropical South and Central America, and at the time of the publica- tion of his famous work on the geographical distribution of animals they embraced 6 genera and 17 species, to say nothing of many extinct species found by Lund in the caves of Minas Geraes. Some of these armadillos are so large that a single individual will weigh as much as 75 pounds, or even more. They live upon insects chiefly, and the white ants seem to be their favorite food. They enter the nests by digging openings at the base of the cones with their powerful fore feet.? The white ants also form the principal food of the South American ostrich (Rhea americana), which is the largest bird in tropical America.* In addition, there are large numbers of birds and reptiles, such as toads, frogs, lizards, and snakes, that habitually feed upon these insects. The true ants are enemies of the white ants worthy of especial mention. The abundance of the ants and their pugnacious disposi- tions make them serious obstacles to the development of the termites’ colonies, and they are probably their worst natural enemies. The termites have in their colonies forms that are known among biologists as soldiers, but so far as I have been able to determine from personal observations these soldiers do not attack the true ants, though they do take the place of soldiers in obstructing the passage of the ants into the termites’ nests and galleries. The result of the relations existing between the true ants and the termites is that the two kinds do not thrive together; at least I have never found the termites’ nests where the sa%bas or other true ants were notably abundant.. Preyed on by the true ants and by animals of so many different kinds, and even by insects themselves, it occurs to one that their chances of survival in the midst of so many enemies must be very small. That survival appears to be due largely to their habit of living and working under the protection of their covered roadways, and to the fact that their roads are constructed of mate- rials that are remarkably inconspicuous. Nothing could look more thoroughly abandoned and lifeless than the common run of white ants’ nests and their covered passages; yet if one breaks through these coverings he will usually find them fairly swarming with life. My general impression is that those white ants which build mounds of earth are especially abundant in the highlands of Minas Geraes and through the semiarid portions of Sergipe, Bahia, Goyaz, Matto 1 Alfred R. Wallace: The geographical distribution of animals, vol. 1, pp. 245-246. New York, 1876. 2 The flesh of the tatts is very much prized for food, and this naturally leads to the hunting and killing of these animals, which should be protected. 3 George Gardner: Travelsin the interior of Brazil, p. 280. London, 1846, 324 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. Grosso, and the interior of Ceardé, Maranhéo, and Piauhy. Mr. Cran- dall tells me that he finds them most common on the Diamantina Plateau. STRUCTURES ABOVE GROUND. General characteristics—The nests of the white ants, or cupim, have no visible external openings. When a mound is new or is ‘ AMEE tex, 2 Kl _ nil 5 Ck SAarlea Fig. 5.—Above-ground structure of white ants. {Seven kilometers west of Queluz, between Piquiry and S. Gongales, State of Minas Geraes, From a photograph by the author, Aug. 4, 1907.) being added to, the outside of the new portion is so soft that it can be readily broken off with a stick; but with time the outside usually becomes as hard as a sun-dried brick. This hard outside covers the entire mound, and is usually about 6 inches thick, but in the very GEOLOGIC WORK OF ANTS—BRANNER. 325 big nests it is sometimes nearly or quite a foot thick. Inside of this hard, thick covering the materials are quite soft and brittle, and the partitions are sometimes almost as thin as paper, though thicker in the larger nests. Where the mound stands on the ground, the eavi- vat yi Wat AN i} VAN Fia. 6.—Mound of termites or white ants, State of Minas Geraes, Brazil. [From a photograph by R. Crandall, July, 1909.) ties of the upper portion connect through the perforated base with subterranean excavations. Parts of the nests are made of the excrement of the inhabitants. I have often broken the nests or the covered roads of these insects 526 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. in order to observe the workers repair them. In every case observed the repairs were made by building up a wall or covering of excre- ment or something of the kind. At least it is voided from the poste- rior part of the body in a plastic condition, and is smoothed down on the sides so that the later layers always override the earlier ones on both sides of the wall. An examination of their construction, however, shows that they are made partly of clay or the earth about the nest and partly of woody fiber. These two substances are variously mixed in structure, sometimes one being more abundant, sometimes the other. An examination of the materials of the out- side part of the 'arge and old nests, however, shows that this part of the nest at least contains fragments of quartz, sand grams, and such like rock fragments that could not possibly have passed through the bodies of the insects. The structure of some of the nest walls suggests that these walls are constructed partly of earth and rock fragments brought up from beneath the ground and built into the nests by cementing them together with excrement or some other adhesive- substance. The outer parts of the nests, when they stand on the ground, are, so far as my observations go, always made of earth cemented in a thick, hard wall. In the inner portions of the nest the partitions are thinner, and though they are made largely of an easy-spreading clay, they are often made partly, or at least overspread, with a dark, friable sub- stance that has the appearance of being masticated wood, leaves, or other organic matter. The openings through the mass of the nests are pretty uniform in size, being from 3 to 10 millimeters in diameter and averaging close to 5 or 6 millimeters. The openings within the nests sometimes have the appearance of being arranged in rude tiers; sometimes they are appar- ently haphazard labyrinths. The external forms of the nests vary considerably, but unfortu- nately I do not know whether this variation is due to difference in the species of termites, to difference in the nature of the ground, or to other causes. As arule, the mounds are rudely domed, rounded or conical, and the method of adding to the outside gives them a bumpy, lumpy appear- ance, so that, as Burmeister suggests, they resemble gigantic Irish potatoes. In some localities they are mostly tall and slender. Most of the tall, slender forms observed have been in wet ground or on ground that is sometimes overflowed. For this reason it is inferred that these forms are due to the presence of water rather than to a dif- ferent species of termites. In size they also vary greatly. I have seen them as much as 6 meters high and 8 meters in circumference, but these very large ones are exceptional. GEOLOGIC WORK OF ANTS——-BRANNER. 327 In southern Minas, south of Barbacena, Dr. R. Walsh notes mounds of the white ants 10 or 12 feet high.! In the vicinity of Caximbu, in southern Minas, white ants’ nests are said to be 4 meters high and nearly 2 meters in diameter at the base. In the vicinity of Tatabics Sao Paulo, they are often 2.4 meters high, while about the city of Sio Paulo eS usually are 1 meter and less in height. Over the level table-lands of the interior of Piauhy, where the soil is red clay, the mounds of white ants are abundant and often 6 or 8 feet high.? At and about Asuncion, in Paraguay, I found the nests very abun- dant on the clayey soils, and many of them as much as 3 meters high. 2 a ee Pe aa : eg i Cs ae 2 ee s ert PAY: poet HE \ , >; he $ pA ae We the } OF voy ity a Ys NL KGL DE LAR Mion Fia. 7.—White ants’ nest built of earth, in the State of Minas Geraes. [From a photograph by R. Crandall, July, 1909.] The outer portion of the nest being thick, hard, and compact, and the inside being friable and easily removed, it is a custom in the inte- rior of Brazil and Paraguay to scoop out the inside of white ants’ nests and to use them for ovens. ‘The door is cut near the base of the cone, and the inside parts removed through it. The accompanying illustrations ill probably give a better idea of the sizes and shapes of the nests than verbal descriptions. Sir Woodbine Parish speaks of ‘‘Corrientes and Paraguay, where whole plains are covered with their dome-like and conical edifices, rising 5 and 6 feet and more in height.’’® 1 Rev. R. Walsh: Notices of Brazil in 1828 and 1829, vol. 2, p.50. Boston, 1831. 2 George Gardner: Travels in the interior of Brazil, p. 280. London, 1846. 3 Sir Woodbine Parish: Buenos Ayres and the Provinces of Rio de la Plata, 2d ed., p. 252. London, 1852, 328 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. In the region about the headwaters of the Paraguay the nests of the white ants are extremely abundant in favorable localities, and the forms of the nests are different from those noted in other parts of trop- ical America. The tall and very slender forms are especially notice- able in the low, flat prairie lands south of Cuiaba. (Seefig.8.) These slender forms are known in that part of Brazil by the Indian name of tacurt. Age of the mounds.—The method of building the mounds and the habits of the termites, so far as I am acquainted with them, lead to the conclusion that the size of a mound is determined by its age and by the . size of the colony building it. Just how long it requires to build the large mounds I have but little means of judging. One frequently sees nests built on houses and fences, and in these cases it has been possible to determine the maximum ages of these particular nests. These ae Fig. 8.—White ants’ nest of earth in Matto Grosso, on the plains of the Upper Paraguay. [Sketch by J. C. Branner.] cases, however, afford only a suggestion. The oldest nests I have seen, and of which I could get an idea of their ages, were not more than 50 years old, and the biggest of them contained a little less than 1 cubic meter of earth, the estimate being made without reference to the cavities within the mass. It is evident that the size and age in one of these cases may or may not help one to determine the time occupied in the construction of one of the very large nests figured in this paper, for the rates of building may have been very different. ; UNDERGROUND STRUCTURES. The above-ground structures of the white ants connect with under- ground .passageways, but wherever I have seen these passageways opened they appeared to have been excavated and then to have been GEOLOGIC WORK OF ANTS——BRANNER. 329 filled with smaller chambers made of materials like that used to make the chambers of the mounds above ground. An examination of the thin chamber walls found in some of the underground excavations shows that they have been constructed of soft, plastic materials, so piled up that each later addition overlaps the preceding one on both sides of the wall. The materials are partly of reddish clay like that of the ground in which the nest is made and partly of a dark brown substance that I take to be organic matter—probably masticated plants. I have never seen the excavations made by the white ants more than a meter and a half below the surface, but I have heard of them being found considerably deeper. My friend, Dr. Joaquim Lustosa, of Lafayette, State of Minas Geraes, writes me on this subject: “As for the depth to which they penetrate the ground, it is my impression that it is but little more than 3 meters.” RELATION OF NESTS TO THE SOIL. The white ants do not seem to be so dependent on the character of the soil as do the true ants. This is probably due to the fact that when the true ants excavate their tunnels in the earth they depend on the character of the ground and the form of the excavations to support the structures. The white ants, on the other hand, depend ’ partly on the nature of the soil, but partly on their method of cement- ing the materials of which their nests are made. The preference, however, of the termites for certain soils and certain localities is very evident in some districts. On the upper Paraguay places have been seen where the nests are quite thick over certain areas, while there were none, or but few, on an adjoining area. Wher- ever these marked contrasts have been observed, however, they have apparently been due to a difference in the amount of moisture in the ground. I have thought that the white ants are sometimes found in rather wet ground, because they are there comparatively free from the attacks of their enenties, the true ants. Opinions of Brazilians in regard to the distribution of the termites’ nests vary considerably; some think they are more abundant in the open campo regions than in the forests; others think they prefer fields; still others think they are favored by a dry climate. AT) of these views appear to have more or less support. I have much doubt, however, about the theory of their preferences for campos. It is true that they do appear very abundant in the campo regions, but I am of the opinion that the apparent abundance is deceptive and due to the fact that all the nests are visible at once over a wide area (pl. 1, fig. 2), while in a forest-covered area no nests, or but few nests, can be seen on account of their being concealed by the dense vegetation. This im- 380 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. pression has been deepened by the fact that in several instances where the forests have been cleared away the mounds of the white ants appear to be quite as abundant as they are in the old clearings or on the open campos. Further support is given this theory by Maximilien, Prince de Wied-Neuwied, who, in speaking of the white ants’ nests near Con- quista, in the southwestern part of the State of Bahia, says that they are extremely abundant in covered and wooded places. RELATIONS TO VEGETATION. Compared with the true ants, the white ants are harmless. At least they do not attack crops and animals or render certain localities unin- habitable. The harm they do to agriculture is confined to the mere encumbrance of the ground by their big, hard, rock-like nests. They do, however, destroy wood used in the construction of fences, houses, bridges, and furniture, and they sometimes burrow into books and papers that are left to stand for a long time undisturbed. I quote below some remarks of other writers in regard to the destruction of timbers by termites, but I must add that I am disposed to question the rate at which these insects are said to destroy wood. My own observations lead me to conclude that the idea expressed by Drummond and others that a piece of furniture may be destroyed in a night is simply a picturesque way of putting it. In the first place, there are certain kinds of wood Gn Brazil at least) that the termites do not attack at all. Iam unable to say just now what kinds they are, but it is a matter of common information among Brazilian carpenters and cabinetmakers. In the second place, the method of discovery of their destructive work frequently leaves an erroneous impression. In accordance with their general habit of keeping away from the light, termites attack a piece of wood that forms a part of a building from within. Their work does not appear at the surface at all, and it may be carried on for months, or even for years, without its being discovered. But some day a window sill crushes in, a doorpost is shattered by a trifling blow, or a rafter gives way without its ever having been sus- pected that they were being attacked by the cupim. The suddenness of the discovery not unnaturally leads to the unwarranted inference that all this work was done during the preceding night. It should be noted that although the white ants are abundant in forests, I am not aware that they ever attack the living trees. They appear to eat only the dead trunks or dead limbs or bark. Many of them build their nests on the trees. Nests found high up on tree trunks are always, so far as J have observed, made of woody matter —— 1 Voyage au Brésil, vol. 3, p. 129. Paris, 1822. GEOLOGIC WORK OF ANTS—BRANNER. 331 and not of earth. Those on trunks, only a meter or two above the ground, are often made partly of woody matter and partly of earth. GEOLOGIC WORK. EARTH MOVED. The amount of earth brought to the surface by ants in a few instances has been given. ‘The calculations at page 316 show that in one case the earth brought up would cover the ground to a depth of 22.25 centimeters. An estimate by Gounelle! makes the earth brought up 15 centimeters thick. In neither of these cases is it known how long the building of the mounds occupied. Mr. Darwin’s study showed that the earthworms in many parts of England bring to the surface annually 10,516 kilograms of earth to the Fia, 10.—White ants’ nest in a tree, Salitre Valley, State of Bahia. {J. C. Branner, 1907.) acre.” In order to compare the work of ants with that of earthworms, it would be necessary to know how long the ant hills were in process of formation. Unfortunately, I have no trustworthy means of deter- mining the ages of the mounds. If we assume an average of 100 years for the age of the mounds over the area measured (an average which seems to me quite conservative in this case), the total work of worms and ants would compare as follows: Total weight of earth brought to the surface in 100 years over 1 hectare (10,000 square meters): Kilograms. 1 aWOrMist WBC LANE 5 selec ase oe a A aS acne 2, 598, 500 TE AaiNe Ase by o) VAC yaaa, palemaaettanet ea proe i te Tete alana aa, 3, 226, 250 1 KE, Gounelle: Ann. Loc. Entom. France, 7 ser. No. 6, 1896, pp. 332-333. 1 Charles Darwin: The formation of vegetable mold through the action of worms, p. 305. New York, £882. oa2 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. It is to be noted that the amount of work done in both instances is rather exceptional—that is, localities were selected favorable for exhibiting the activities of worms in one case and of ants in the other. T have no trustworthy data showing the amount of earth brought to the surface by termites over a definite area. The places seen where the nests were most abundant were in low, inaccessible grounds on the upper Paraguay. My impression is that in those particular localities there was less earth brought up than in the case of the true ants cited above. The sizes of individual white ants’ nests were frequently measured. One of the largest I ever saw in Minas Geraes was 6 meters high and 8 meters in circumference 2 meters above the ground, and contained 30.55 cubic meters of earth, no account being taken of the porous nature of the structure, which would probably reduce this total by 3 or 4 cubic meters. Another unusually large mound in the State of Minas was 4 meters high and 7 meters in circumference 2 meters above the base, and con- tained 15.59 cubic meters of earth. These are individual cases, however, and I am unable to say how large an area the contents can properly be distributed over, how long the termites were in doing the work, or how large the colonies were that made them. In the case of the white ants, the earth undergoes some process of digestion and passes through the bodies of these insects, so that the chemical effect is probably more important than the mere upturning it gets from the true ants. ORGANIC MATTER. The true ants carry into their burrows enormous quantities of leaves and other organic matter. These leaves must yield either directly or indirectly organic acids, which help attack the soil, the minerals, and the rocks with which they come in contact. The organic matter carried into their burrows by the termites con- sists chiefly of the decayed wood and other vegetation eaten by them. These materials, however, can not fail to contribute organic acids that help attack the minerals of the soil and adjacent rocks. OPENINGS IN THE SOIL. The extensive subterranean excavations, especially those of the true ants, permit the freer circulation of atmospheric air and of carbon dioxide. These channels must also serve from time to time for the. passage of meteoric waters, and their great extent and ramification must hasten very considerably all the processes of atmospheric disin- tegration and alteration of soils, minerals, and rocks. Unfortunately we have no observations at present that enable us to give quantitative values to these underground agencies and activities. GEOLOGIC WORK OF ANTS—BRANNER. 3383 We only know that the openings beneath the surface are rudely equal to the amount of sojl in the above-ground structures. RESUME. Ants and termites are vastly more numerous in tropical America than they are in the temperate regions. They show a marked preference for, or rather their structures stand up better on, clayey than on sandy soil. They affect the geology, especially the soil and subsoil, both directly and indirectly. Directly: 1. By their habits of making underground excavations that radiate from a central nucleus and often aggregate several miles in length. . By opening the soil to atmospheric air and gases. . By bringing to the surface large quantities of soil and subsoil. . By introducing into their subterranean excavations large quantities of organic matter which must yield acids that affect the soil and the subjacent rocks. 5. By using these excavations for habitations and the produc- tion of gases that attack the soil and its contained min- erals. Indirectly: 6. By the periodic passage and circulation of meteoric waters through their extensive tunnels. 7. By affecting the availability of the soil for agricultural pur- poses. 8. By affecting the habitability of the land by man. 9. By the destruction of crops. 10. By the consumption (by termites) of dead plants and of tim- bers and lumber used in houses and for the manufacture of furniture, machinery, etc. Although the data available are defective, we seem to be warranted in concluding that ants and termites are quite as important geologic agents in tropical America as are the earthworms of temperate zones. They are also factors of great importance from an agricultural, economic, and social point of view. Be CO bo se ts va bi as ae: ri: rahi" 7 bag NaC ie aut aye oe isi , ait i, otat ees ; Be as waa fe Soh pains Hy as, : - if Atop Sipe. Feed paee 4 sf ae Patt $4.65 dis i sit negli setae ee tes nds a ne £; aie se he Coe ae “4 ere : 5 f 4 > s.'¢ Pry, a et 4 9 PE fo se oi ni - =X, Pay “4 fee's ROW oes eg is po. i bao STS es eh ST ae ‘ i iy a ~ 4 1: a f Ly Ros epee ee rae “ats et iain a) iy ire Pays a tai 45 Pi eae h 6-4 : epee feo 3 fide. ie roby kb Teas ‘fb Paty i ALLE, Beye sell ; Tin titece cf Vuh bl bs . ver we ear Prange , oll tearadavot Lowady aaicoae weit Digit Tita To. Puli airtel salaua oft os it sAeict ls ‘ane nH jaheeants Pith "Hes Dap Tee aa Py Jabat stochar antigen. ‘oinetia eg pee Sy : ROY ye hutowe nidia ot) ‘bre oi sien; vat tag BMT alate a a attotja tase) piety ery “s sin Go: xs (780, ait Ais 1a fie: 5 Bit He a dad iY gies Rr PGK Laay) Sie eae TP Eel aes RACHEL S, te Pid fay b4) ND rs ae a We mbt mrtg: be Gade shi PS bath “ama sibiotiey a 52 elaine OL Ose aE path chy “uous Mie Lewiilowrd 1) ling atk tev hiatinesa: oid grtioaBe as iM | Aa. ie ites inl taf % iii siae) i >. PZ - ae orie 4; if rok Pes hing what Ag Oe i ‘Cestints aid cqeaiizante i actus eta ree i, mney )unefe Be ‘ot baa Best : at AL ti et a a wy 33e are sy aw 2 Sper, byte botgnrass Wy as ns 02 ra Poens a merida Si) ys Se Siar 3A. didi ae mTiUrn Bae ; salt Rod otawadiia? Io saKiOWwe ube alee Al Petiud: fee neheehiy L337) a ras recevt ne achat et he aiginsl SMe si Digit Or ie” are yy no Rathi ieee pe ae EOD Arte, A tai j DS wae E ol SRA mayer ths may he cay] ‘a ) am * DP : 2 a haw, . LUBE uEMhMae ee | CS me py Doped ee : re One at dag poe ae AN arash id NEN Hats int bles: ace +3" Pa m ne Bh a aa ae AS sr ey ON THE VALUE OF THE FOSSIL FLORAS OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS AS EVIDENCE OF GEOLOGICAL CLIMATES.! By Prof. A. G. Natnorst, of Stockholm. Translated from the French original? by E. A. Newreit Arser, M. A., F.G.S. Among the problems which are constantly ealled to mind during geological explorations in the Arctic regions, that of the climates of the past naturally demands special attention. The contrast between the present and the past is there more striking than in any other region. Beneath the snow and ice bordering the Arctic Sea one marvels to find, for example, large corals in beds belonging to the Carboniferous system, or again the remains of saurians, ammonites, or nautiloids in those of Triassic age. But when one bears in mind the extreme richness of the invertebrate fauna of the Arctic Seas to-day, when one remembers the colossal whales which find their subsistence in these waters, one may be inclined to ask if it has not been an error to conclude, from the occurrence of the fossils above mentioned, that the climate was formerly more genial than it is to-day. / Should we not be underestimating the creative power of life if we imagine that, among the saurians, the ammonites, and the nautiloids, no species has been able to develop which was adapted to life in the ‘Arctic Seas? If the reindeer and the musk ox were extinct, who would imagine that these beasts were able to flourish on the scanty vegetation of the high parallels north of 80° of latitude? And who would suppose that such monsters as the mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros could find sufficient nourishment in the poor vegetation of the tundras or the coniferous forests? Such examples teach pru- dence; there is certainly no question which requires so much caution as the problem of deducing from the faunas of the past the climatic conditions under which they flourished. This remark applies with equal force to the floras. Although to-day the cycads only occur im warm regions, it would be an error 1 A paper read before the Eleventh International Geological Congress on Aug. 25,1910. ‘‘Surla valeur des flores fossiles des régions arctiques comme preuve des climats géologiques,’”’ Stockholm, 1910. Also in Compt. Rend. Eleventh Intern. Geol. Congr., Stockholm, 1912. Reprinted by permission from the Geo- logical Magazine, London, Decade V, vol. 8, No. 563, pp. 217-225, May, 1911. 3 The English translation has been revised by Prof. Nathorst, and references added. 335 336 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. to conclude that the cycadophyta of the past have always flourished . under similar conditions. On the contrary, we must admit that dur- ing the Mesozoic period, when these plants were abundant, it would no doubt have been possible to find several species which had adapted themselves to an Alpine climate if such a one had then existed. And if, since then, the differentiation of climates has begun to make itself felt, it would be again a case of overlooking the creative power of life if we assumed that none of the species of cycadophytes were able to adapt themselves to a temperate climate in the Polar regions. Again we meet with difficulties, even when we study the plants of the Tertiary period, which are assigned to genera still living. Our common juniper (Juniperus communis, Linn.), which exists in northern Europe as far north as the North Cape, exceeds by 20 to 25 degrees of latitude, in the Eastern Hemisphere, the northern limit, not only of the other species of this genus, but also the whole family of the cupressinee. Now, if one imagined that the common juniper were extinct, one would naturally draw conclusions relative to the fossil remains from the distribution of the other species, and one would consequently suppose that it lived under a climate much warmer than is actually the case. One would scarcely imagine that we were concerned with a plant adapted not only to temperate but also to Arctic climates. (One finds the juniper, on the western side of Greenland, up to the sixty-fourth parallel.) These examples counsel prudence, and the matter should be treated with judgment and circumspection. But, even if it is necessary to make reservations, when one seeks to determine from the fossil plants the nature of the former climates in the Arctic regions, at least one can not doubt that they were distinctly warmer than that of the present day. The difficulty of explaining these former climates, especially when one has to take into consideration the length of the winter night, is without doubt the reason which has led some scientists to evade the question, instead of seeking to solve it. It is indeed a case of evading the question when it is boldly asserted that the plant- remains, on which Heer! has based his theories of ancient Arctic climates, have been drifted by marine currents to the places where they have been found. It is not to be disputed that plant débris may be transported in water for a very great distance without being damaged, provided that they are carried at a sufficient depth to escape the influence of the movements of the surface layers of the water. When Agassiz was engaged in dredging on the American coasts, he found that the bottom of the sea—sometimes to a depth of nearly 3,000 meters—was covered with plant débris, such as wood, branches, leaves, seeds, and fruits, Pal 1A eT RARE NEE nt ee PE I EE 10. Heer, Flora fossilis arctica, vols. 1-7, Ziirich, 1868-1888. FOSSIL FLORAS OF ARCTIC REGIONS—NATHORST. 837 in all stages of decay. Also, in certain places, these remains were still fairly abundant at a distance of 1,100 to 1,200 kilometers from the shore. This distance corresponds to about 10 degrees of latitude. It is thus proved that the remains of plants may be transported for very considerable distances. But this is true only of marine deposits. If we are concerned with fresh-water sediments, the example given has no bearing on the case. One might, however, reasonably suppose that a river, flowing in the “heat ae the dion from south to north, might have paeed from the southern regions leaves and other Mee of vegetation which became buried in some deposit of the stream itself, or of a lake, which it traversed, or of its delta. This is a possibility which must not be neglected, but on the other hand it must not be treated as though it were an ascertained fact, since we do not know how far it applies to the case in point. The fact is, it is puerile to attempt to draw conclusions as to the ancient climates of the Arctic regions, before the nature of the deposits in which the fossil plants have been found has been ascer- tained. It is especially important that an attempt should be made to answer the question, Did the plants once flourish in the neighbor- hood of the deposits in which they are found, or were they trans- ported from far-away lands? It is this question which an attempt will here be made to solve, by furnishing a concise résumé of the principal beds containing fossil plants in the Arctic regions. In Bear Island,’ and-in Ellesmere Land,? beds extremely rich in plant remains are met with belonging to the Devonian system. The fossil plants of Bear Island occur in the series of beds which also include several seams of coal. Beneath the coal, which is composed essentially of the bark and trunks of Bothrodendron, one finds, as elsewhere, bituminous schists containing roots, and from this one can show that the plants of which we speak flourished, at least in part, in situ. This is likewise proved by the actual nature of the plants, as much in the older beds with Archzopteris jfimbriata Nath., as in the more recent with Pseudeborma ursina Nath. The lateen species has been found with large stems or rhizomes, as well as very small ones, only a few millimeters in diameter, to which extremely delicate, almost membranous, leaves are still attached: It is hence quite certain that there is here no question of the plants having come from distant regions. The materials have not been sorted out. One sees a medley of branches, small and large, and the perfection of the 1A, G. Nathorst, ‘Zur Oberdevonischen Flora der Biren Insel:”? Kong]. Svenska Vet.-Akad. Hand]. vol. 36, No. 3, Stockholm, 1902. 21d., ‘Die Oberdevonische Flora des Ellesmere Landes:”’ Rep. 2nd Norweg. Arctic Exped. in the Fram vol. 1, Christiania, 1904. 38734° 338 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. preservation of their delicate leaves demonstrate conclusively that they have not undergone transportation from afar. The same applies to Archzxopteris fimbriata. The beds of coal, the clay with rootlets, and the very nature of the plants themselves, all point to the same conclusion, namely, that we have here a flora which flourished in part on the very spot where it is now found. As I have already pointed out in my description of the Devonian flora of Ellesmere Land, one arrives at the same conclusions here also, and it is unnecessary to enter into further details. In the Arctic regions, culm deposits, yielding fossil plants, are known from Spitsbergen,’ from the northeast of Greenland,? and probably from the south of Melville Island, in the Arctic Archipelago of America. We will here concern ourselves only with Spitsbergen, although it may be mentioned in passing that the flora of the culm discovered by the Danish expedition to Northeast Greenland, in latitude 81° north, consists of nearly the same species as that of Spitsbergen. The latter flora has been observed in many localities up to 79° of latitude. It is characterized by the presence of Stigmaria, with appendicular organs radiating in all directions, still in continuity, and penetrating the clay beneath. We are thus able, in several places, to observe the presence of Stigmaria in situ, which furnishes undeniable evidence of the fact that the plants lived in the place where we now find them. The stems of Lepidodendron found in the same place have a diameter of at least 40 cm. It would be superfluous to give other examples, for one can scarcely doubt that the plants of the culm have flourished in the very place in which they are now found, or in its vicinity. On the other hand, the observations which relate to the Triassic plants of Spitsbergen and eastern Greenland are somewhat different. The latter ones belong to the Rhetic Series and include several species of Pterophyllum, Podozamites, Cladophlebis,? etc. In Spitsbergen one finds them as far north as 78°. Neither there nor in Eastern Green- land, where one meets with them between the 70th and 71st parallel, are they associated with beds of coal, but the manner in which they occur in Greenland indicates that in no case have they traveled from very distant localities. One has not with certainty observed any marine petrifactions associated with the plants, but it has not yet been clearly determined whether the Triassic beds with fossil plants of Spitsbergen are of marine or of freshwater origin. 1A. G. Nathorst, ‘Zur Paliiozoischen Flora der Arctischen Zone:” Kongl. Svenska Vet.-Akad. Handl., vol. 26, No. 4; Stockholm, 1894. 2Td., “Contributions to the Carboniferous Flora of Northeastern Greenland:” Meddelelser om Gronland, vol. 43; Copenhagen, 1911. 8N. Hartz, “ Planteforsteninger fra Cap Stewart i Ostgrénland:’’ Meddelelser om Grénland, vol. 19; Copenhagen, 1896. FOSSIL FLORAS OF ARCTIC REGIONS—-NATHORST. 839 The most ancient Jurassic sediments of Spitsbergen are marine, and belong to the Sequanian stage. There was consequently a long interruption in sedimentation after the formation of the Rhetic beds.t. The upper part of the Jurassic formation (Portlandian) furnishes a series of plant-bearing sandstones, seams of coal, and beds of undoubted fresh-water origin, containmng Unio and Lioplax polaris. The fossil plant remains belong to two different floras,” one, the more ancient, being characterized by the presence of Ginkgo digitata Brongn., sp.; the other, the more recent, by Elatides curvifolia Dkr., sp. The two floras are associated with beds of coal, and one may here also put forward the view that the plants originally flourished in the place where they are now found. One of the coal seams at Cape Boheman furnishes a great abundance of Podozamites and Pityophyl- lum; sometimes the surface of the schists is as completely covered with the leaves of Ginkgo digitata, as the soil beneath a living ginkgo tree may bein autumn. Since branches and seeds of the same plant are also associated, it is natural to suppose that a ginkgo forest occurred not far away from this spot. The same observation applies to Elatides curvifolia of the more recent flora, which occurs locally in the fresh-water beds containing Unio and Lioplaz. Floras of the same age and composition are also known from King Karls Land, the islands of New Siberia,? from Northern Siberia, and Arctic Alaska. The Neocomian series of King Karls Land is overlain by sheets of basalt, often amygdaloidal, and containing chalcedony and agates. Fragments of silicified woods, large and small, also occur here, and these, without doubt, owe their mineralization to the volcanic phenomena. Some of these trunks are fairly large, and I have myself measured one, which, although incomplete, was 70-80 cm. in diameter, and showed 210 annular rings. Some of these remains consist of the lower portion of the trunk and the primary ramifica- tions of the roots. The microscopic examination of these specimens, undertaken by Dr. W. Gothan,‘ has shown that the annual rings of the fossil stems from King Karls Land were much more accentuated than those of stems found in the corresponding beds of the European continent, which indicates that the trees lived in a region where the difference between the seasons was extremely pronounced. ‘They can not there- fore have been transported from the south by marine currents, and as 1A. G. Nathorst, “‘ Beitrige zur Geologie der Biren Insel, Spitzbergens, und des Kénig Karl Landes”’: Bull. Geol. Inst. Upsala, vol. 10, 1910. 2A. G. Nathorst, ““Zur Mesozoischen Flora Spitzbergens”: Kongl. Svenska Vet. Akad. Handl., vol. 30, No. 1; Stockholm, 1897. 3Td., “Uber Trias und Jurapflanzen von der Insel Kotelny”: Mém. Akad. Imp. Sci. St. Pétersbourg, ser. 8, vol. 21, No. 2, 1907. 4W. Gothan, “Die fossilen H6lzer von K6nig Karls Land’”’: Kongl. Svenska Vet.-Akad. Handl., vol. 43, No. 10; Stockholm, 1907, 340 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. the trunks found in the corresponding beds of Spitsbergen! show the same peculiarity, it is quite safe to conclude that we are here concerned with large trees, which have actually flourished in these latitudes, and which have not been transported from more southern regions.” The Cretaceous system, as we know it, is represented in western Greenland, between the parallels of 69° and 71°, by an important series of beds containing fossil plants belonging to the Urgonian, Cenomanian, and Senonian, the two first mentioned containing coal seams. I have been able to show, as the result of the studies which I made in Greenland in 1883, that beds, full of roots, underlie those containing fossil plants at Unartoarsuk, as well as at Igdlokanguak. Without doubt the Urgonian flora, like the Cenomanian flora, is a relic of vegetation which once flourished in the same regions where we now find the fossils. But, on the contrary, the Senonian flora, or flora of Patoot, is in part contained in marine beds, containing Inoceramus, etc., and thus it may have been transported from some distance. The Urgonian flora, or flora of Kome, is composed of ferns, cycadophytes, and conifers, while the Cenomanian or Atane flora, in addition to arborescent ferns (Dicksonia) and cycadophytes (Pseudocycas),? is particularly rich in the leaves of Dicotyledonous trees, among which are found those of planes, tulip trees, and bread fruits, the last mentioned closely resembling those of the bread-fruit tree (Artocarpus incisa)* of the islands of the southern seas. In the limited space at my disposal I have had to be content with a brief summary of the strata containing fossil floras of Paleozoic and Mesozoic age. But from what has been said it is clear that we have every reason to regard the flora of the Devonian, Culm, Jurassic, and Cretaceous of the Arctic regions as being composed of plants which flourished in these very regions. There are no proofs that the Triassic flora has been transported from more southern regions by marine currents, but there is, however, some uncertainty on this point. 1Jd., ‘Die fossilen Holzreste von Spitzbergen”’: Kongl. Svenska Vet.-Akad. Handl., vol. 45, No. 8; Stockholm, 1910. 2It may be mentioned here that a silicified Dadorylon, from the Carboniferous deposits of Spitsbergen, described by Dr. Gothan (loc. cit.) does not show any annual rings at all, as is precisely the case with the corresponding Paleozoic stems of Europe. As has been pointed out to me by Dr. Th. Halle, this isa most curious circumstance, since the darkness during the long winter night in these regions—provided that the position of the North Pole were the same as now—ought to have caused an interruption of growth, even if the climate was a warm and genial one. As the specimen, however, was not found in situ, it is possible that it originates from some marine deposit into which the wood had been brought by ocean cur- rents from more southern latitudes. Buta Dadozylon from the Triassic of Spitsbergen also shows only slight indications of annual rings (Gothan, loc. cit.). 3A. G. Nathorst, “‘ Palaobotanische Mitteilungen, 1. Pseudocycas, eine neue Cycadophytengattung aus den Cenomanen Kreideablagerungen Grénlands’’: Kongl. Svenska Vet.-Akad. Handl., vol. 62, No. 5; Stockholm, 1907. 41d., “Uber die Reste eines Brotfruchtbaumes, Artocarpus Dicksoni, n. sp., aus den Cenomanen Kreide- ablagerungen Gronlands”’: Kongl. Svenska Vet.-Akad. Handl., vol. 24, No. 1; Stockholm, 1890. FOSSIL FLORAS OF ARCTIC REGIONS—-NATHORST. 341 In relation to the present problems, the Tertiary floras are un- doubtedly the most important, and for this reason I will enter into the subject in some detail. But the materials are so wonderfully rich that I shall have to restrict myself to giving some examples indicating the nature of the beds containing the Tertiary plants in Spitsbergen, Iceland, and Greenland. More especially, I shall recall that they are found at 79° of north latitude in Spitsbergen; on the east coast of Greenland between 74° and 75°, and on the west coast between 69° and 73°; at Lady Franklin Bay, in Grinnell Land (81° 42’’); in Ellesmere Land between 77° and 78°; on the River Mackenzie at 65°; in Alaska south of 60° (and therefore outside the Polar Circle); and, lastly, in the islands of New Siberia (75°). Iceland, it is true, is outside the Polar Circle, but nevertheless its Tertiary flora may be included in this consideration. The Tertiary formations of Spitsbergen, which have a thickness of perhaps 1,200 meters or thereabout, contain fossil plants and seams of coal, both in the upper and lower beds, though the middle portion is marine. As an example of the deposits with fossil plants from the base of this formation the shales called the ‘‘Taxodium Shales,’ at Cape Staratschin, may be mentioned. These are fine-grained black soft shales, which form the roof of a small bed of coal. In the shales the leafy branches, the flowers, the seeds, and the ovuliferous scales of the Swamp Cypress (Zazodiwm distichum miocenum), the leafy branches of Sequoia Nordenskisldi Hr., and Librocedrus Sabiniana Hr., are particularly common. There are also associated a large number of remains of graminez, cyperacez, several species of pines and firs, a Potamogeton, and the leaves of various dicotyledonous trees. Thus, as Heer has shown, one is dealing here with fresh-water sediments, in the neighborhood of which it is evident that the swamp cypresses have formed forests, as in the swamps in the southern portion of the United States to-day. This conclusion is also confirmed by the occurrence of the remains of rather numerous insects, among which there are a score of coleopterids, two of which are hydrophilous coleopterids (Hydrobiws and Laccophilus). These beds with fossil plants, at the base of the Tertiary formations of Spitsbergen, are overlain by thick marine sediments. In their upper portion the latter show indications of a retreat of the ocean and a recurrence of fresh-water conditions. It is possible that the leaves found in the lower part of the higher horizon containing fossil plants have been transported from afar by a river, and deposited near its mouth, but as regards the upper portion deposition must have taken place in vast swamps, on which the majority of the plants actually lived. In these beds one notices thin seams of coal, a reat quantity of leafy branches, and also cones of Sequoia Langsdorfii 342 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. Brongn., (closely allied to the redwood of California, Sequoia sempervirens Endl.) and the swamp cypress (TYaxodium distichum miocenum). Here and there a large horsetail (Hawsetitcs Norden- skidldi Nath.) occurs in such abundance that one would imagine that it formed small forests. There are also associated rhizomes, with their roots and tubercles still attached. I may mention im passing that Hquisetum arcticum Heer, occurs in the same manner in the lower zone of the plant-bearing beds. There is also found a great abundance of Osmunda spetsbergensis Nath., and on the same horizon nodules of clay ironstone, entircly filled with leaves and stems of the latter plant, in which the tissues have been so completely mineralized that one can study the microscopic structure as minutely as in the living Osmunda. One sees in the carbonaceous petrified layers rootlets and spores of ferns, as well as fragments of branches, etc. This might justly be called a mineralized peat. Among the dicoty- ledonous trees, the leaves of which occur in great quantity, one finds leaves of all dimensions belonging to the more common species. T have examples, among others, of the leaves of Ulmiphyllum asperrimum Nath., varying from 1-17 cm. in length. All the obser- vations indicate that we have here a deposit formed by the delta of a stream passing through a marsh on which grew trees requiring humidity, while the remains of other plants which lived at some distance away have been transported, either by the wind or by water, and become mingled with those of the marsh. The beds of this horizon, discovered at Cape Lyell, are remarkable for the enormous quantity of leafy branches of Sequoia Langsdorfii, leaves of Grewia crenata Hr. and of Acer arcticum Hr., the fruits of the last mentioned also occurring. 6), . Spectrum of Phengodes laticollis © (original). reum, B. phosphorescens, and Bacillus photogenus (Mo- lisch 52; Mangold 45), 9. Spectrum of Photobactertwm in- dicum (Barnard 23), 10. Spectrum of Mycelium X (Mo- lisch 58; Mangold 45), 11. Spectrum of luminous bacteria from sea fish (Forster; Man- gold 45), 8 12. Spectrum of Agaricus (Ludwig; { t Mangold 45), 1 ' t —_ to ~J 13. Fluorescent spectrum of flucr- 9 escent material (luciferesceine) from Photinus pyralis (Co- blentz #1; 52), ‘ 10 insects. Numbers 8, 9, and 11 are ' from microorganisms. Numbers 10 { A and 12 are from fungi. 11 Only the extreme ends of the bands are shown, no attempt being made to indicate the relative density of differ- ' ! { 4 ee the maximum intensity is confined to a very much narrower band than shown for the whole spectrum. 13 Fig. 1.—Spectral ranges of light from different organisms. emitted in most of these cases is very feeble and that the human eye is decidedly more sensitive to the greenish tones than to others, it may be simply that the amount of radiation, other than that giving the sensation of green, produced by these reactions is insufficient to cause the human retina to respond. However, it is difficult to class the production of light by living forms as other than a vital expression of LIGHT BY LIVING ORGANISMS—McDERMOTT. 349 chemiluminescence, and the fact (to be referred to in the next section) that the luminous tissues may be removed from the organism and desic- cated and still induced to produce light under certain circumstances, confirms the view that the only essential difference between the two phenomena is that biophotogenesis takes place in a living organism instead of a test tube. A comparison of the spectral ranges of the light from different organisms is of some interest, and the accompanying chart has been compiled from data from the references given, and redrawn to a uniform scale, the extreme left-hand end representing wave length 0.704 and the extreme right-hand end wave length 0.39; afew of the more important Fraunhofer lines are shown in the first spectrum, and the sodium D line is continued through the series by the dotted line. 2. THE CHEMISTRY OF THE PHOTOGENIC PROCESS. Our knowledge of the chemical processes involved in biophoto- genesis is rather meager. It is fairly well established that all photo- genic organisms require at least two constant chemical factors in addition to the specific photogenic substance in order to exhibit their luminous property, viz, the presence of oxygen and of moisture. Dubois’s (718) theory assumes the oxidation of a substance of un- known composition, to which he has given the name “‘luciferine,”’ through the agency of the oxidase ‘‘luciferase.”” Prof. Kastle in his monograph on ‘‘The Oxidases and Other Oxygen-Catalysts Con- cerned in Biological Oxidations”’ (**) refers to this claim of Dubois that the photogenic process in organisms involves the action of ‘luciferase.’ Prof. Kastle’s observations on this point led him to believe that no oxidase was present, but that peroxidase and catalase were present; he found that aqueous extracts of the luminous tissue of the common firefly failed to turn tincture of guaiacum blue, except in the presence of hydrogen peroxide, and the bluing in the presence of the latter was accompanied by the rapid disengagement of oxygen. Quite recently Dubois (°) has put forth the view that luciferase is a peroxidase, for the reason that it can be replaced to some extent by hydrogen peroxide. Loew (*°) found that the lumin- ous tissue of the firefly showed no greater catalase activity than other tissues from the same insect. Lund (4) has made similar observations on the enzymes in these insects. Until more definite data are at hand, it would seem that the enzyme theory requires some caution in acceptance, but the facts so far as known certainly present some analogy to other known biologic processes of an enzy- motic nature, and it is not at all impossible that his explanation may be correct. Watasé (7°) expresses the view that in Noctiluca miliaris and other simple luminous forms the ‘‘phosphorescence”’ 300 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. is associated with the contractility of protoplasm, as a potential property of all protoplasm, whether exhibited or not, and he rather leaves the reader with the impression that he believes that the par- ticles of food materials are actually burned in the living tissues with the production of an incandescent temperature. There has been a gocd deal of discussion, to and fro, as to whether the chemical processes involved in the production of light by the firefly and analogous forms are really oxidations, and evidence both for and against the oxidation hypothesis has been offered. At present the _ great weight of the evidence is that in all cases the fundamental process is an oxidation, though not necessarily the oxidation of the same photogenic substance. Polimanti (*) has asserted that the luminous process in Pyrosoma elegans can not be an oxidation, and gives several arguments in favor of the nonoxidative nature of the process, one of which is that the light has a greenish tone. In view of the fact that, as mentioned before, a good many chemiluminescent reactions known to be oxidations produce the sensation of green upon the human retina, this argument certainly does not seem to be valid. Lund (#) states that while oxygen is a necessary factor to light production in the Lampyride, this does not prove that the et process is an oxidation. Jousset de Bellesme (**) in 1880 stated that he believed the light to be due to the spontaneous combustion of phosphine, liberated by the decomposition of protoplasm, and Sir Humphry Davy (*) noted that Lavoisier held a similar view. The nature of the substance con- sumed in this biologic oxidation—the Noctilucin of Phipson (*”) the Luciferine of Dubois (7 1% 7°) and the Photogen of Molisch ()—has been variously regarded by different authors. Many seem to have regarded it as a fat or a fat-like substance; Phipson, who apparently isolated and analyzed a culture of photogenic bacteria, concluded that it contained nitrogen; Kélliker (7) and Macaire (*) believed it to be an albuminous body. Embryologically, it appears to be an extension of the fat layer in many, though not in all cases. (See Dahlgren and Kepner (’).) Of the more recent theories, Dubois (°) states that the photogenic material of Pholas dactylus gives some reactions for a nucleo-albumin, while Polimanti (*) regards the luminous secretion of Pyrosoma elegans as of a fatty nature; McDermott (°°) is inclined to regard the. active substance as a lipoid or phosphatid.t Golodetz (7°) has shown that the blackening of fats by osmic acid is due to the presence of the oleic (or other unsaturated) acid radical; the present interest in this point is that the luminous tissues of the Lampyride and of Phengodes laticollis blacken intensely on exposure to osmic acid, indicating 1 However, it must be said that both Dubois (private communication) and the author have failed to extract a photogenic lipoid with the usual lipoid solvents, LIGHT BY LIVING ORGANISMS—McDERMOTT. 351 generally, the presence of a reducing agent, and more particularly, probably of an unsaturated fatty-acid radical. Lund (*) has recently brought forth some evidence tending to show that in the photogenic process in the Lampyride, there is an actual using up of some material by oxidation, with the deposition of a crystallin waste product in the tissues, forming to so-called urate or reflecting layer, and states that it appears that there is present a substance related to if not identical with some of the derivatives from nucleic acids. His work is also strongly in support of the oxidation hypothesis, or at least that the process requires the presence of oxy- gen, even if it be not a simple oxidation. He suggests that the reduc- tion of osmic acid may be due to the presence of a ‘‘reductase;” the latter, however, might still be dependent on an unsaturated fatty- acid radical for its activity. Coblentz (*) also notes the expenditure of the photogenic substance, without regeneration. All attempts to isolate and analyze the active substance have failed. When the luminous organs of the firefly are treated with alcohol or ether in an atmosphere of hydrogen, the liquid acquires a yellow color, but no light emission occurs when it is exposed to the air or treated with hydrogen peroxide. Lecithin does seem to exist in the insect in small amount. Emmerling (?) has studied the hydrolysis products of Noctiluca and finds a number of the ordinary physiologic amino acids. Lan- Kester (**) remarks that the products of metabolism in Noctiluca are albuminoid and fatty granules. The interesting fact that the photogenic tissue of luminous life forms preserves after desiccation the power to evolve light on the applcation of water in the presence of air or oxygen, has long been known, and it at once suggests other known instances of the preserva- tion of biologic activity by drying, as exemplified by the yeasts and ferments. By drying the photogenic tissue of Photinus pyralis over sulphuric acid in hydrogen or a hydrogen vacuum, dry material has been prepared which has retained its photogenic activity apparently without loss when kept in sealed tubes for over 18 months. Indeed, there seems to be no good reason why, under these circumstances, it should deteriorate. In its conduct toward various chemical sub- stances, the dried tissue, after moistening, does not differ essentially from the live insect or the freshly detached luminous organ. It glows on moistening in the air, somewhat brighter on moistening in oxygen, and but dimly or not at all when moistened in nitrogen, hydrogen, and carbon dioxide. Moistened with 3 per cent hydrogen peroxide instead of water, the dried tissue produces a much brighter light than with water alone, accompanied by the decomposition of the peroxide. Lund (‘) also calls attention to the effect of hydrogen peroxide on the fresh tissue. 852 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. McDermott (*°) has recently recorded the results of some experi- ments with liquid air, which show that exposure of the photogenic tissue, fresh or desiccated, to this temperature, and grinding while so exposed does not in the least affect the ability of the substance to produce light upon restoration to the normal temperature. Macfad- yen (4) found that, while exposure of the luminous bacteria to the temperature of liquid air did not inhibit their ability to produce growth and light upon return to the normal conditions, trituration at this temperature permanently destroyed the photogenicity. It would appear, then, that there is some essential difference between the microorganism and the insect in this regard. The photogenic bacteria present many interesting problems; their ability to grow and luminesce in a medium consisting only of a solu- tion of 3 per cent of sodium chloride and 1 per cent of asparagin in water; the dependence of the marine species on the presence of certain mineral salts, and these in certain concentrations, and upon the pres- ence of oxygen, for light production; the pathogenic and symbiotic relations existing between some species of these photobacteria and some higher organisms are all matters of great interest. McDer- mott (*°) made some experiments with the view of determining any chemical resemblances that might exist between these bacteria and the fireflies. The work was on the whole inconclusive, but indicated that if proper conditions could be arranged liquid cultures of the bacteria might be dried and afterwards caused to produce light on moistening. Molisch (°*) found that the thicker layers of growth of photobacteria on solid media could be dried and would exhibit their photogenic activity on moistening. The well-known work of Radziszewski (°°) has already been referred to, and also the more recent researches of Trautz (°’). Delépine (*) has experimented with a large series of thiocarbonic esters and related bodies, which appear to be “ phosphorescent”’ as the result of oxidation, a phenomenon to which this writer has given the name ‘“Oxyluminescence.”’ Hernandez and Cerdan (*) have questioned Delépine’s view of the nature of the “phosphorescence” in these cases, and refer it to a form of triboluminescence. In any event, work along this line has some bearing on the problems of biophoto- genesis, and it seems not too much to expect that it may develop that in organic chemistry there will be found to be ‘‘photophore’”’ or ‘“photogen” groupings, just as we now have chromophore and fluoro- phore groupings, fluorogens, etc. Various observers have found the urates and phosphates of ammo- nium, sodium, potassium, and calcium in the luminous tissue and its ash. Dubois at one time seems to have rejected the oxidation theory and to have believed that the light was due to the spontaneous crystallization of ammonium urate (crystallo luminescence). LIGHT BY LIVING ORGANISMS—McDERMOTT. a00 Guanine appears to have been found in the reflecting layers of the photogenic organs of some marine forms, and Lund () states that the dorsal layer in the firefly’s organ gives the test for guanine under some conditions. In summary it may be said that the biophotogenic process is prob- ably an oxidation in all cases, and that the substances whose oxidation produces light is a complex product of cell metabolism containing both fatty and albuminous radicals, and probably differing in com- position in each type of organism. The mechanism of the process may vary—the oxidation may be direct or indirect—according to the type of photogenic organ and the particular species of organism in point. Light is a form of energy, just as are heat, electricity and chemical affinity. We know that in many chemical reactions a great deal of the energy of chemical affinity is transformed, probably directly, into heat, and sometimes some of it appears as electricity. If sufficient heat is generated, a portion of the original chemical energy may be transformed into light indirectly through the agency of the heat, the phenomenon being known as incandescence. But there appears to be no good reason why some of the chemical energy might not appear directly as light if the conditions are favorable, and indeed it is quite evident that such is sometimes the case, unless we adopt the view of the ‘‘combustion of food particles in the tissues,’’ referred to Watasé a little while ago. For instance, the lght-producing reaction between hydrogen peroxide and an alkaline solution containing pyrogallol and formaldehyde, generates considerable heat, enough to make the container uncomfortable to holdin the hand, yet nothing approaching that required for incandescence, and it is certainly incon- ceivable that there could be particles heated to incandescence by chemical action in a solution. It seems possible, however, that in the lecture experiment described by Schwersenski and Caro (*'), in which it appears that alcohol is oxidized by ozone in the presence of the powerful dehydrating agent sulphuric acid, there may actually be small explosions, with incandescent temperatures, in the liquid, though it is not impossible that the flashes of ight observed result from the direct transformation of chemical into radiant energy. If, in the pyrogallic acid reaction, solid sodium peroxide be used instead of alkaline hydrogen peroxide, a flame may be produced, but the charac- teristic light in the solution is produced at the same time, and it seems probable that the flame is due to the combustion of the vapor of formaldehyde (driven off by the heat of the reaction) in the oxygen- rich atmosphere produced by the evolution of oxygen during the solution of the sodium peroxide. It is of some interest in connection with Radziszewski’s work, that in both this reaction and that of Schwersenski and Caro the active substance may be an aldehyde. 38734°—smM 1911 23 354 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. 3. THE EFFECT OF CHEMICAL REAGENTS, ETC., ON THE LUMINOUS TISSUE. During the summer of 1909 the writer was associated with Prof. Joseph H. Kastle in a study of the effect of various chemical reagents on the luminous tissue of Photinus pyralis.(*) Prof. Kastle and the writer tried the effect of a large number of chemical substances upon the live insect, the freshly detached luminous organ, and the luminous tissue which had been dried in hydrogen, and some of these results seem worthy of special attention. Taking first the live insect: Injections of solutions of the metallic nitrates, of strychnin, and of adrenalin caused the emission of light. Immersion of the insect in methyl and ethyl alcohols, in ether and in chloroform, resulted in the production of light. Immersion in pure oxygen appeared to stimulate the photogenic function somewhat, but not as much as might have been expected. Immersion in nitrous oxide caused a considerable increase in the intensity of the light. In the cases of injection and immersion in liquids, the reagents kill the insect, but not until they have caused light emission. Nitrous oxide narcotizes the insect, but in the air it recovers again. Hydro- eyanic acid and cyanogen kill the insect, of course, but not until they have caused the emission of light. The luminous organ of one of the local species of Lampyride has been observed to glow in the mixture of air and prussic acid in the cyanide killing bottle for over an hour, long after the actual death of the insect. Ammonia water causes the evolution of light either by injection or immersion; Watasé is authority for the statement that if a tissue suspected of being luminous refuses to give light with any other stimulus, it will, if a true photogenic tissue, slow on moistening with dilute ammonia water. The injection of 3 per cent hydrogen peroxide solution also caused the evolution of light. Lund () has also studied the effect of H,O, on the tissue. With the freshly detached luminous segments, the most notable results were obtained with the vapors of methyl and ethyl alcohols, carbon tetrachloride and bisulphide, and mononitrobenzene acting in the presence of air. All of these reagents caused light emission and the light given out was not the continuous faint glow frequently the result of weak chemical stimuli, but was copa by a series of distinct flashes or pulsations of light similar to the normal ‘flashes of the insect. With the Heinened organ, the effect of powerful poisons was in almost every instance to produce the evolution of light, sometimes faint and of short duration, but definite. As examples of poisons acting thus may be cited hydrofluoric acid, iodine cyanide, and bromine. LIGHT BY LIVING ORGANISMS—McDERMOTT. 355 Thus far one substance alone has conducted itself as a positive inhibitor of the photogenic function. This is sulphur dioxide. Carradori observed this fact with the Luciola italica over 100 years ago, and Dubois has made a similar observation with regard to the cucuyo. The live insect, the freshly detached luminous organ, and the dried tissue, placed in this gas, all fail to glow, or glow but weakly and momentarily, and are dead to all other stimuli when removed from it. As a rule even those substances which tend to poison the luminous tissue caused the evolution of a dim light at first, but not so with sulphur dioxide in the majority of cases in which we used it. It has since been found by McDermott (*°) that liquid sulphur dioxide and liquid ammonia both destroy the photogenic power of the dried tissue. ‘ Mechanica! stimuli, such as friction and percussion, and physical stimuli, such as electricity and heat, also cause the production of light by the luminous organs of the firefly, whether attached to the living insect or detached. The effects of various temperatures and of electric discharges of various strengths have been extensively studied by other observers. Lund’s (%) observations on the effect of heat on the tissues are very interesting and important, as showing definite temperatures as the fatal points for light production, reduction of O,O,, etc. Transferring the detached luminous organs from one gas to another, even though one or both be chemically neutral, may cause light production, apparently due to some osmotic effect. Currents of air and other gases exert an effect on these detached organs, which Prof. Kastle has compared to the effect of air currents on the strych- ninized frog. It is obvious from these facts that the luminous tissue is one of great irritability. Some of these results indicate that the effect of reagents is exerted on the nervous system rather than directly on the luminous tissue, and this probably accounts for some of the irregular and conflicting results obtained by those who have experimented in this field. The significant fact that osmic acid is reduced by the luminous tissue has already been referred to. It has been observed that fixing fluids containing this oxide increase the intensity of the light of fresh luminous organs placed in it, but whether this is due to direct oxidation by the osmic and chromic acids present, or to irritation of the nervous system produced by them, can not be said. The writer has observed that liquid luminous cultures of Pseu- domonas lucifera are extinguished and killed by the addition of solutions of hydrogen peroxide and sodium perborate, and of mononitrobenzene, but that the effect of adding solutions of potassium perchlorate was, if anything, to increase the intensity of the light, and the culture was not killed in two days. 356 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. 4, THE PHOTOGENIC ORGANS. The luminous apparatus of the male of Photinus pyralis—the more commonly seen of the sexes—occupies the entire ventral surfaces of the two abdominal segments next to the last, and a portion of the preceding segment. That of the female is a small rectangular area on the third abdominal segment from the last; both sexes have also two very small points of luminous tissue on the last abdominal segment. In general the luminous apparatus of other Lampyride is confined to a similar location on the body, though some species of Phausis and Phengodes show a wider distribution of the organs. The luminous organ of Photinus pyralis, in common with those of the other Lampyridz which have been studied, consists of two layers of cells, under the outer transparent chit. These layers of cells are penetrated by numberless trachez, the ends of which are connected by a network of very fine tracheoles, the whole system resembling the finer veining of aleaf. On the inner surface of the organ these trachez unite to form larger passages, which unite near the spiracle with the breathing tracher. It is practically certain that during the life of the insect these trachee are filled with air. Of the two cell layers, the outer consists of a mass of some special type of nucleated cell, of unknown nature, penetrated by the aerophore cylinders, while the inner layer is composed mainly of urates, and probably serves as a sort of reflector. Several studies of the structures in different species of Lampyridez have been made, which agree with each other in a general way. McDermott and Crane (*?) have shown that the structures in Photinus pyralis, P. consanguineus, and Photuris pennsylvanica are quite similar, and agree very well with those described by Townsend (*) for Photinus marginellus. The organs of Photuris presented some slight differences from those of the other species. Lund (”) has recently examined the photogenic tissues in a number of Lampyrids, and come to very similar conclusions. Bongardt () has studied the photogenic organs of Phausis (Lam- pyris) splendidula, Lampyris noctiluca, and Phosphaenus hemipterus, three European Lampyrids, and apparently failed to find anastomosis of the tracheoles. However, the author has recently examined some sections of the luminous tissue of Lampyris noctiluca (female), and had little difficulty in seeing the tracheolar anastomosis; the struc- tures differed somewhat from the American Lampyride, the distribu- tion of the tracheal branches being less regular, and the ‘‘cylinders”’ (as in Photuris also) less sharply defined than in Photunus. He has also examined the tissues of Photinus scintillans and Lecontea lucifera and found them to be practically identical with those in the insects previously studied. LIGHT BY LIVING ORGANISMS—-McDERMOTT. 357 The luminous organs of Phengodes laticollis (female) present a different structure. The photogenic tissue does not show the definite ‘and more or less regular boundaries seen in the other species studied, but seems to be simply small masses of tissue, without regular margins; the urate layer, moreover, appears to be entirely absent. As com- _pared with the tissues of the Lampyride above described, the indi- vidual cells are very much smaller, and the number of trachee is much less. At this time nothing can be said regarding the arrange- ment and distribution of the tracheal capillaries, except that only a very few have been observed and none could be traced to points of - anastomosis. Among the other luminous organisms, considerable attention has been directed to the fish, the sea-stars (Ophurians), the Annelids (Odontosyllis) and Achole, and to a variety of other marine forms. Much of the more recent work is contained in Mangold’s monograph, and treated therein quite exhaustively. Briefly, many of the photo- genic organs in marine forms appear to be typically gladular, and of degrees of complexity varying from simple secreting cells to complex arrangements of glands, reflectors, and lenses. Pitter (°) has divided biophotogenicity into intra- and extra- glandular processes and into intra- and extra-cellular luminescence. Under this classification the process in the fire-flies, the fish investi- gated by Steche (°), etc., is intra-glandular and intra-cellular. In the cephalopods and certain fish which are supposed to secrete a photo- genic product in one portion of the organ and then utilize it in another portion serving as a receptacle, the process is intra-glandular and extra-cellular, while in the annelids (Odontosyllids) [Galloway and Welch (°*8)], Achole [Kutschera (7)], the myriapods [Dubois (%%), Thomas (*) and others], certain prawns [Alcock (‘)], and some species of cephalopods [Hoyle (*)], the process is extra-glandular and extra- cellular. (‘‘Intra-” and ‘‘extra-organic’’ would perhaps be better general words than intra- and extra-glandular.) The photogenic organs of some fish and cephalopods show a net- work of blood vessels, corresponding roughly to the aerophore trache- oles of the fire-flies. Many of the organs in these forms and in certain crustaceans (see Mangold), show a ‘‘search-light” or ‘‘bull’s-eye” structure in which there is more or less well-defined lens, a light- producing body, and a reflecting layer of approximately parabolic outline. There is a considerable field for further investigation in this matter of the structure of the light-giving organs of different forms, and some. of the work that has been done is in need of confirmation. We can not but wonder at the processes which during the ages have operated to produce these structures in present-day organisms—how they 358 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. originated, and why? The phylogenetic problems are certainly very interesting, and present remarkable instances of ‘‘convergence.” It is hoped to collect some of these cases and develop them in a future paper. 5. FLUORESCENT SUBSTANCES IN LUMINOUS INSECTS. An interesting circumstance in this connection is the existence in certain luminous organisms of a substance whose solutions exhibit a brilliant blue fluorescence. Dubois (? ™“) found this substance in the cucuyo, and in Lueciola atalica, and named it ‘‘Pyrophorine,”’ from Pyrophorus noctilucus, the entomologic name of the cucuyo. More recently Coblentz (*) has found it in Photinus pyralis, Photinus cor- rusus, and Photuris pennsylvanica, and the author has found it in Photinus consanguineus, P. scintillans, and Lecontea lucifera. It is also present in the larva of Photinus pyralis, and in other lampyrid larve. Dubois (2 1 ™) regarded this substance as a glucoside, analogous to esculin (a glucoside which is present in the bark of the horse-chestnut, and whose solutions possess a blue fluorescence), while the present author (7) concluded that it had an alkaloidal nature, and not at the time being aware that Dubois had offered the name ‘‘Pyrophorine” for the fluorescent material from the cucuyo, suggested the name ‘‘Luciferesceine” for the substance from the Lampyridae. Neither view as to its chemical nature is at all definite, however, and more work will be necessary to elucidate this point. Fluorescent extracts of the pyralis are produced by extraction with alcohol, ether and water, but not by chloroform, benzene, or carbon tetrachloride. The fluorescent material is not precipitated by lead acetate, mercuric chloride, ammonium sulphate, nor chlorplatinie acid. It appears to be a solid at ordinary temperatures, though as emitted by the insect it is contained in a sticky exudation, which soon hardens in the air. Luciferesceine dissolves readily in liquid ammonia, the solution presenting the blue fluorescence characteristic of aqueous and alco- holic solutions, the solution itself being very pale yellow. Dubois seems to have regarded this substance as of use to the insect in transforming useless into visible radiation, and thus improv- ing the quality or intensity of the emitted ight; and he states that on this theory he first advanced the idea of the use of fluorescent mate- rials with artificial iluminants to improve the quality of the light, as is now done in the use of rhodamine with the mercury vapor are. Two things, however, stand in the way of the acceptance of the view that the fluorescent property of this substance is of use to the insect; first, the internal juices of the insects (at least of Photinus pyralis) are slightly but distinctly acid, and it has been found that even a weak acid reaction destroys the fluorescence; second, Ives and Co- LIGHT BY LIVING ORGANISMS—McDERMOTT. 359 blentz (ante) photographed the spectrum of the fluorescent light from solutions of luciferesceine and of the emitted light of the fire-fly itself, and showed that the spectra are almost complementary, and that the fluorescent spectrum does not appear on the plates of the emitted light of the insect, although these plates were sensitive to the wave-lengths embraced in the fluorescent spectrum. In any event the intensity of the fluorescence of the material in a single insect would be too slight to have any appreciable effect in modifying the color of the emitted light. (See Coblentz (*) ). In fact it seems probable from the work of Tappeiner and Iodlibauer (*“) that if the substance should actually fluoresce in the bodies of the insects, it would kill them. Pigments and other substances showing fluorescence are not unecmmon in animals; Stiibel (®) has claimed that all animal tissues exhibit fluorescence when exposed to ultraviolet light, while Arndt (private communication) states that he has observed the presence in most insects of substances which are fluorescent under the influence of the X-rays. Personally, the writer is inclined to regard the fluorescence simply as an incidental property dependent on the structure of some com- . pound frequently met with in insects of this nature, much as Jordan (*) regards the fluorescent pigment of Bacillus fluorescens liquefaciens. Dr. Coblentz finds that these fluorescent extracts exert a strong + rotation on polarized light. 5. BIOLOGIC RELATIONS OF THE PHENOMENA. There has been a good deal of discussion as to the significance of the photogenic functions for the forms possessing it. There are four recent papers of considerable importance in this connection. Galloway (?) [Galloway and Welch (?3)] has observed the use of ‘“‘phosphorescence”’ as a mating adaptation in an Odontosyllid, Odonto- syllis Enopla Verrill, this apparently being the first instance in which the relation between this function and the reproductive life of the organism has been definitely established. McDermott (*) has con- firmed the old and frequently over-looked observation of Osten- Sacken (**) that the photogenic function plays an important part in the mating of Photinus pyralis, and has extended the observation to a few other species of Lampyridae. Mast (*) has confirmed this result as applied to Photinus ardens, and brought out the bearing of the phenomenon on the problems of phototaxis and orientation. Lund (* 47) has made observations on Odontosyllids, Lampyrids, and Elaterids, which tend to support the observations recorded in the above-mentioned papers. An extended study of the relation of the photogenic function to the reproductive life of a large number of species of Lampyridae of different genera would be of great interest, especially as the females of a great many of the species of this family 360 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. are unknown, while in some other instances, the females alone are known. A number of observations of the relations between size of eyes, length and complexity of antennae, and the development of the photogenic function in the sexes have been made, the extreme of which appears to be reached in forms like Phengodes laticollis, where the male is winged, has very large eyes, large, plumose antennae and is non-luminous, while the female is intensely luminous from a large number of photogenic organs, is entirely apterous, has very small eyes, and only rudimentary antennae. The reported luminosity of midges (Chironomus) has long been a, matter of curiosity and speculation. It has at last been proven by Issatschenko (*°)—as was previously suspected—that the light emis- sion in these insects is due to bacterial infection, apparently patho- genic. This strongly recalls Giard’s observation (*) of the patho- genic relation of a species of photogenic microorganism to Talitrus. It may also have a confirmatory value toward the explanation offered by Distant (*°) of the alleged luminosity of Fulgora. In view of the known propensity of owls to hide during the day in hollow trees, and the frequent infection of such trees by photogenic molds, etc., it seems that a similar explanation might be advanced for the occasional] instances in which these birds have been reported to be luminous, such as those cited by Dobbs and Moffatt ("), and Purdy (**). A number of observers have, at various times, reported the lumi- nosity of various species of earth-worms. Walter (°) attributes this property to the secretion of certain glands in the skin of the worm, which is of interest when considered with the studies of Galloway (74, 23) on the related marine Odontosyllids, and those of Kutschera (8) on Acholoe; in this latter instance the luminosity appears to have a defensive function. So far as marine forms in general are concerned, the photogenic function appears to have a variety of uses, its significance to a given organism depending on the method of life of the species. Alcock (‘) brings out this variation in the use of the function in marine organ- isms very well. Nutting (*) has also had a very interesting paper on this phase of the subject. With the increasing knowledge of the existence of light-giving structures in numbers of species of fish, cephalopods, crustanceans, and many lower forms, the views as to the use of such organs to their possessors are gradually broadening, and the conception of the conditions of life in the depths of the sea becoming more and more definite and interesting. Several studies of the structure and development of the luminous organs in various fish have been made, perhaps the most interesting and complete of which are those of Greene (27) and Gatti (4); neither of these papers can be conveniently quoted here, but both are important. LIGHT BY LIVING ORGANISMS—McDERMOTT. 361 7 It seems to the author that the question of the relation of the photogenic function to the lives of the creatures possessing it has not had the attention it deserves. Reliable and definite observations are scattered, and sometimes conflicting, and there is much ground that has not been covered that would form an inviting field for some extremely interesting biologic studies. Moore (**) has made the interesting observation that certain luminous marine organisms show a diurnal periodicity of light- emission, even when kept in complete darkness for several days; this periodicity shows itself by the appearance of light at approxi- mately the same time in the evening and its cessation at about dawn, even though the creatures are kept away from light during the whole time of observation. CONCLUSION. We can not say now what possibilities lie before us in the discovery of the ‘‘secret of the firefly,”’ particularly as to the kind of “‘oil’”’ he uses in his little lamp. Perhaps it will be discovered and turned to practical account. The emitted light of the firefly is far from being a good light for general illumination, in spite of its high luminous efficiency, on account of the very limited range of color effects pos- sible under it. A single firefly has been variously estimated to give from #5 (Coblentz,**) to 757 (Langley and Very,*) of a candle power, so we would need quite a high “firefly power” to light our homes and streets by biophotogenic light. There are still many gaps in our knowledge of this interesting subject, in spite of the large amount of work that has already been done, but one by one we hope to close these up and discover the secret of the cheapest form of light. REFERENCES TO THE LITERATURE. 1 Alcock, A., ‘A Naturalist in Indian Seas,” Lond., 1902. 2 Barber, H. S., Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash., 1908, vol. 9, pp. 41-43. 2a Barnard, J. E., Knowledge, 1911, vol. 34, pp. 190-192. 3 Bongardt, J., Zeitschr. wissensch. Zool., 1903, vol. 75, pp. 1-45. 4Coblentz, W. W., Physikal. Zeitschr., 1909, vol. 10, pp. 955-956. 5 Coblentz, W. W., Electr. World, 1910, vol. 56, pp. 1012-1013. 5a Coblentz, W. W., ‘A Physical Study of the Firefly.’’? Publication No. 164, Carnegie Inst., Wash., DOS M912: 6 Coblentz, W. W., Canad. Entomol., 1911, vol. 43, pp. 355-360; Physikal. Zeitschrift, 1911, vol.12, pp. 917-920. 6a Conroy, Nature, London, 1882, vol. 26, p. 319. 7 Dahlgren and Kepner, “‘ Principles of Animal Histology,” chap. x, pp. 122-140, N. Y., 1908. 8 Davy, H., Beddoes Contr. Phys. and Med. Knowledge, 1799, p. 143. 9 Delépine, M., Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci., Paris, 1910, vol. 150, pp. 876-878; ibid. , 1911, vol. 153, pp. 279-282. 10 Distant, W. L., Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1895, p. 429. ll Dobbs and Moffatt, Irish Nat., 1911, vol. 20, pp. 124-131. 12 Dubois, R., Bull. Soc. Zool. France, 1886, vol. 11, pp. 1-275. 18 Dubois, R., ““Legons de la Physiologie generale et comparée,” Paris, 1892. 14 Dubois, R., Ann. Rept., Smithsonian Inst., 1895, pp. 413-431. 18 Dubois, R., Compt. Rend. Soc. Biol., 1886, vol. 3, ser. 8, pp. 518-522. 16 Dubois, R., Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci., Paris, 1893, vol. 117, pp. 184-186. 17 Dubois, R., Compt. Rend. Soc. Biol., 1900, vol. 52, pp. 569-570. 18 Dubois, R., Compt. Rend. Assn. Franc. Av. Sci., Toulouse, 1910. 362 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. 19 Dubois, R., Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci., Paris, 1911, vol. 153, pp. 208-210. 209 Dubois, R., Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci., Paris, 1911, vol. 153, pp. 690-692. 22 Emmerling, O., Biochem. Zt., 1909, vol. 18, pp. 372-374. 21 Forsyth, R. W., Nature, London, 1910, vol. 83, p. 7. 22 Galloway, T. W., School Science and Mathematics, Decatur, Ill., May, 1908. 23 Galloway and Welch, Trans. Amer. Micros. Soc., 1911, vol. 30, pp. 13-38. 24 Gatti, M., Ann. Agricolt., Roma, 1904, No. 233, pp. 7-126. % Giard and Billet, Compt. Rend. Soe. Biol., 1889, vol. 1, ser. 9, p. 593; ibid., 1890, vol. 2, ser. 9, pp. 188-191. 26 Golodetz, Chem. Rey. Fett Harz. Ind., 1910, vol. 17, pp. 72-73. 21 Greene, C. W., Journ. Morphol., 1899, vol. 15, pp. 667-696. 28 Hernandez and Cerdan, Anales soc. espa. fis. quim., 1911, vol. 9, pp. 17-26. 29 Hoyle, W. E., Rept. 77th Meeting, Brit. Assn. Adv. Sci., 1907, pp. 520-539. 39 Tssatschenko, B., Bull. Jard. Imp. Bot. St. Ptrsbrg., 1911, vol. 11, pp. 31-43. 31 Tves and Coblentz, Proc. 3d Ann. Convent. Illuminating Engr. Soc., Sept. 30, 1909, N. Y.; Bull. Bur. Stand., Wash., D. C., 1910, vol. 6, pp. 321-336. 32 Ives, H. E., Electr. World, 1910, vol. 56, pp. 864-865; Physical Rev., 1910, vol. 31, pp. 637-651. #a Jordan, Botan. Gaz., 1899, vol. 27. 33 Jousset de Bellesme, Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci., Paris, 1880, vol. 90, pp. 318-321. 34 Kastle, J. H., “‘The Oxidases and other oxygen-catalysts concerned in biological oxidations,” Bull. No. 59, Hygienic Laboratory, U.S. P. H. & M. H.S., Washington, D. C., 1909. 3 Kastle and McDermott, Amer. Journ. Physiol., 1910, vol. 27, pp. 122-151. 36 Knab, F., Canad. Entomol., 1905, vol. 37, pp. 238-239. 37 K6lliker, A. v., Verhandl. Wurzburg phys. med. Gesellsch., 1857, vol. 8, pp. 217-224; ibid., 1859, vol. 9, pp. 28-29. 38 Kutschera, F., Ztschrft. wissen. Zool., 1909, vol. 92, pp. 75-102. 39 Langley and Very, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 1901, vol. 41, publication No. 1258. 392 Lankester, HE. Ray, ‘‘ Treatise on Zoology,’’ vol. 1, p. 189 (Willey and Hickson). 49 Loew, O., “‘Catalase, a new enzym of general occurrence,” Rept. No. 68, U. S. Dept. Agricult., 1901, pp. 35-36. 41 Lund, E. J., Johns Hopkins University Circular, 1911, Feb., pp. 10-13. @ Lund, E. J., Journ. Experiment. Zool., 1911, vol. 11, pp. 415-467. 43 Macaire, Ann. chim. phys., 1821, vol. 17, pp. 151-167. 44 Macfadyen, A., Royal Inst. Great Britain, June 8, 1900; Prac. Roy. Soc., 1902-3, vol. 71, pp. 76-77. 45 Mangold, E., ‘“‘Die Produktion von Licht,””? Hans Winterstein’s Handbuch der vergleichende Physi- ologie, vol. 3, 2d half, Jena, 1910. 45a Mast, S. O., Science, 1912, vol. 35, p. 460. 46 McDermott, F. Alex., Canad. Entomol., 1910, vol. 42, pp. 357-363. 47 McDermott, F. Alex., Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1911, vol. 33, pp. 410-416. 48 McDermott, F. Alex., Sci. Amer. Suppl., 1911, No. 1842, pp. 250-251. 49 McDermott, F. Alex., Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash., 1911, vol. 24, pp. 179-184. 6@ McDermott, F. Alex., Journ. Amer, Chem. Soc., 1911, vol. 33, pp. 1791-1796. 61 McDermott, F. Alex., Canad. Entomol., 1911, vol. 43, pp. 399-406. 58 McDermott and Crane, Amer. Nat., 1911, vol. 45, pp. 306-313. 52a Molisch, H., ‘‘ Leuchtende Pflanzen,’ Jena, 1904. 53 Molisch, H., Rept. Smithsonian Inst., 1905, pp. 351-362 (No. 1685). 63a Moore, B., Bio.-Chem. Journ., 1909, vol. 4, pp. 18-29. 54 Muraoka, Ann. Chem. u. Physik, 1896, vol. 295, pp. 773-781. 6 Nutting, C. C., Proc. 7th Internat. Zool. Cong., Boston, 1907. 56 Osten-Saaken, v., Stettin. Entomol. Zt., 1861, vol. 22, pp. 54-55. 57 Phipson, T. L., Chem. News, 1876, vol. 32, p. 220; Journ. Franklin Inst., 1876, vol. 101, pp. 68-72. 588 Polimanti, Osw., Zeitschrift. f. Biol., 1911, vol. 55, pp. 505-529. sa Purdy, R. J. W., Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc., 1908, vol. 8, pp. 547-552. 69 Pitter, A., Ztschr. allg. Physiol., 1905, vol. 5, pp. 17-53. 69 Radziszewski, Liebig’s Ann. d. Chem., 1880, vol. 203, pp. 305-336. 61 Schwersenski and Caro, Chem. Ztg., 1898, vol. 22, p. 58. 6la Singh and Maulik, Nature, Lond., 1911, vol. 88, p. 111. 62 Steche, O., Ztschrft. wissensch. Zool., 1909, vol. 93, pp. 349-408. 63 Sttibel, H., Ach. f. d. ges. Physiol., 1911, vol. 142, pp. 1-14. 64 Tappeiner, H. v., Ber. d. deut. Chem. Gesellsch., 1903, vol. 36, pp. 3035-3038, and Iodlbauer, Arch- Kin. Med., 1905, vol. 82, pp. 520-546, and other papers. 6 Thomas, R. H., Nature, Lond., 1902, vol. 65, p. 223. 66 Townsend, A. B., Amer. Nat., 1904, vol. 38, pp. 127-151. & Trautz, Ztschr. physikal. Chem., 1905, vol. 53, pp. 1-111. 6 Turner, Psyche, 1882, vol. 3, p. 309. 69 Walter, A., Tray. Soc. Nat., St. Ptrsbrg., 1909, vol. 40 (Livr. 1 C. R.), pp. 136-137. 70 Watasé, S., Biologic Lectures, Woods Hole, Mass., 1898, pp. 177-192. ORGANIC EVOLUTION: DARWINIAN AND DE VRIESIAN. By N. C. Macnamara, F.R.C.S., Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons of England, and also of the Royal College of Surgeons of Ireland; Fellow of the Calcutta University. The term “organic evolution”’ implies that existing organisms are children of the past and the parents of the future. As biologists we hold that this order of things is the result of natural processes of growth and change working throughout past ages; in fact, that existing plants and animals are the lineal descendants of ancestors on the whole somewhat simpler in organization, and that these are derived. from still simpler forms, and so backward to pre-Cambrian geo- logical periods, when we have reason to believe that living organic matter first came into existence on the earth. Of one thing we may be sure, which is that evolution, according to the above definition, depends on the fact that the living substance which constitutes the essential part of organisms on the one hand is capable of passing its form and functions on to its descendants, and on the other hand possesses an organic changefulness which we call variability.t Organic evolution implies a definite structural arrangement and combination of an aggregate of elements into a form which constitutes a unit or cell; one or it may be a mass of these units form the body of an organism. ‘This form of matter is known as protoplasm or the basis-substance of life, because the complete series of phenomena which collectively we call life are manifested through the instru- mentality of this kind of matter.’ The protoplasm of living cells, among its other constituents, inva- riably contains a chemical compound known as protein, a wonder- fully complex substance. For instance, the protein which exists in our red blood cells is said to be composed of molecules having a chemical formula Of Coo) Hygo Ny54F'eO,7,, whereas the formula of water is H,O. And just as the peculiar properties.of water are given to it by the 1 Heredity, by J. Arthur Thomson, p. 12, London, J. Murray, 1908. 2 These phenomena include the power possessed by living protoplasms of replacing its worn-out elements from surrounding materials without changing its form or functions, of reproducing its like, of respiring, and by chemical action of forming enzymes; it is also capable of being modified by external and internal forces in such a way as to become a transformer of energy into psychical and other processes. 363 364 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. properties of the hydrogen and the oxygen which combine to form it, so the marvelous properties of protein are due to the assemblage of the properties of the carbon, hydrogen, and other elements which enter into its composition. The molecules of pretein, in some at present unknown way, are built up so as to form the still more complex body, living protoplasm.! The fundamental principle we have to bear in mind is that living protein, without alteration in its chemical composition, is capable of existing in a multitude of forms. As Prof. W. B. Hardy states, all proteids are not the same proteids; there are proteids of men, others of beasts, others of fishes, and others of birds. The properties of a complex substance like protein are defined not so much by. the kind of atoms or number of elements of which it is built up, as by the structural arrangement and the motion of those atoms in space? He gives as an example the molecules of two chemical substances, benzonitrile and phenylisocyanide, each of these being composed of seven atoms of carbon, five of hydrogen, and one of nitrogen. There is a small difference in the arrangement of these atoms; this differ- ence so alters the properties of the two substances that one is a harm- less fluid with an aromatic smell; the other an offensive poison. It is evident from the complex nature of the elements of a proteid that its molecules must be of far larger dimensions than the molecules of inorganic substances; but the larger the size the greater the proba- bility of variation of its elements in detail by the action upon them of various forms of energy. As we have elsewhere stated, it is, we hold, in consequence of the unique structural arrangement and motion of the elements which constitute protoplasm, that it acts as a trans- former of chemical and other kinds of energy into phenomena char- acteristic of living matter.® The majority of persons who have studied the subject are of opinion that organic evolution is a natural process, the existing orders of ani- mals and plants having been progressively developed out of specially adapted protoplasmic elements. Nevertheless, a considerable num- ber of educated people have misgivings on this subject, for they fail to comprehend how, if the various classes of animals have been gradu- ally evolved out of a common form of organic matter, it comes to pass that some of them should possess a nervous system, through means of which they have gained the power of guiding their actions 1 The Doctrine of Evolution, by Prof. H. E. Caen Pp. 22. 2 Science Progress, vol. 1, p. 195. 3Tt may be shown that we can fix certain Caahties on the surface layer of solids such as protoplasm by the use of minute amounts of salts. The salts may be washed out, but its effects remain and exert a direct influence on the succeeding molecular events, so far this action lasts for all time in the absence of active chemical intervention. See Journal de Chem. Physique, vols. 2 and 3, pp. 61, 50; Human Speech, by N. C. Macnamara, International Scientific Series, vol. 95, p. 12. Prof. Villa, in his admirable work on Contemporary Psychology, states ““What we call ‘life’ or biological organization is the result of a peculiar combination of elements,’”’ pp. 268, 271. ORGANIC EVOLUTION—-MACNAMARA. 365 by intelligent thought, while other classes of beings, derived from the same forms of matter, have failed to develop these powers, their movements being governed by automatic and reflex processes. In attempting to give a reason for this state of affairs, we assume that at a certain stage of our earth’s formation an aggregation of elements came into existence such as that to which we have above referred.1 Our object is, if possible, to ascertain under what conditions and demonstratable properties, this organic matter has developed into the orders of animals and plants now living in the world. In attempting to master the complex mass of phenomena which are involved in the solution of a problem of this kind, there is only one rational course to pursue in order to get a view of its cause; we must invent an hypothesis—that is, we must place before ourselves some more or less likely supposition respecting the cause; and, having framed our hypothesis, we must endeavor, on the one hand, to prove that the supposed cause exists in nature, that it is com- petent to account for the phenomena, and that no other known cause is competent to account for them.? Various hypotheses have from time to time been promulgated to account for the natural evolution of animals and plants. Of these theories two at present occupy the serious attention of biologists. The one known as Darwin’s hypothesis, or natural selection, assumes the progressive evolution of the simpler into more complex orders of beings. The other is De Vries’s hypothesis of mutation, which assumes that new species of animals and plants have suddenly been produced from preexisting fully formed beings.’ We may best appreciate Darwin’s hypothesis by referring to his own remarks on the subject. He states that in his opinion “animals have descended from at most only four or five progenitors, and plants from an equal or lesser number. This would lead us one step further, namely, to the belief that all animals and plants have descended from some one prototype.” * We may suppose that the primeval prototype began by producing beings like itself, or so slightly affected by external influences as at first to be scarcely distinguishable from their parent. When the progeny multiplied and diverged, they came more and more under the influence of ‘‘natural selection,’”’ and thus through countless generations under the operation of this law human beings were finally developed. Darwin refers to the multitude of the individuals of every species, which from one or another cause perish either before or soon after attaining maturity. He states that in consequence of the struggle 1 Evolution Darwinian and Spencerian. The Herbert Spencer Lecture, by Raphael Meldola, F. R.S., p. 20. Also Human Speech, by N. C. Macnamara, p. 12. ‘ 3 Huxley’s Essays. Phenomena of the Origin of Matter. Everyman’s Library Edition, p. 247. 3 Species and Varieties: their Origin by Mutation, Heredity, and Evolution. By Hugo de Vries. 4 Origin of Species, p. 484. - 366 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. for existence, any variation however slight, and from whatever cause proceeding, if it be in any degree profitable to an individual of any species in its infinitely complex relation to other beings, and to its environment, will tend to protect that individual and will generally be inherited by its offspring. Darwin calls the principle by which each slight useful variation of an organism was preserved, the principle of natural selection, in order to emphasize its relation to man’s power of selective breeding. For it is well known that by careful selection of the stock, we can adapt organic beings to our own use through the accumulation of slight but useful variations. Natural selection, however, is a power constantly ready for action, and is as immeas- urably superior to man’s efforts as the work of nature is to that of art.’ Darwin repeatedly insists on the fact that natural selection could not have been effective, unless very long periods of time were allowed for its complete action. It is evident that time must have been an all-important factor if we are to suppose, that by the interaction of the inherent properties possessed by the elements of living organic matter, its structural arrangement became gradually modified in such a way, that the existing classes of animals and plants have been evolved out of it. For, as the late Prof. Huxley states, natural selection implies not only the existence of organic matter, but also’ its tendency to transmit its properties, and its tendency occasionally to vary; and lastly, given the conditions of existence, that these put together are the cause of the present and the past conditions of organic nature. The only evidence we can bring to bear on the subject of the pro-' gressive evolution of the animal kingdom is derived from a study of their fossil remains, in the various geological strata of our own, and other parts of the world? The length of time these strata have taken to form is an open question, but we may be sure that our chalk rocks, for instance, consist of the shells of marine species of animals, and that these remains of once living beings must have taken long periods of time to have been deposited layer upon layer at the bottom of thesea. Darwin states that the fineness of gradation in the shells of successive substages of the chalk formations led him to maintain the gradual as against the ‘sudden evolution of species. The fossil shells in these rocks have been thoroughly investigated by Mr. A. W. Rowe, who states that ‘‘the white chalk of England offers 1 On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, by Charles Darwin, M. A., 1859, p. 61. 2 Many of the attacks made upon the hypothesis of natural selection have been founded on the imper- fection of geological records to show the transitional links, which, according to this theory, must have connected the closely allied species of animals. If, however, we take into account the perishable nature of the bodies and limbs of these creatures, the probable changes that have occurred in the surface of the earth since thay were deposited, and the imperfect state of our geological records, we can readily understand the reason for there being missing links in the fossil remains of former geological periods. ORGANIC EVOLUTION—-MACNAMARA. 367 an almost unique field for observation, on account of its thickness (considerably over 1,000 feet), its slow, uniform, and continuous deposit in a sea of moderate depth, with no closely adjacent land, the abundance and wonderful state of preservation of its fossils, together with the facility with which they can be cleared of their chalky covering.” Among the most common chalk fossils is the flattened, heart- shaped sea-urchin. These are first found in their shelled, sparsely ornamented forms, from which spring, as we ascend the zone, all the other species of the genus. The progression is unbroken and minute in the last degree. We can connect together into continuous series each minute variation and each species of gradation of struc- ture so insensible that not a lmk in the chain of evidence is wanting. In the other common sea-urchin of the chalk, although evidence derived from the details of structure is not equally available, that afforded by the gradual variation in shape as we ascend through the zones of formation is convincing and complete. Equally clear proof of continuous evolution is provided by the study of the belem- nite Actinocamax. Although this genus reaches at definite zonal levels a sufficiently accentuated degree of variation in its intrinsic character to warrant, for purely stratigraphical purposes, the use of trivial titles, the fact remains that these so-called species are but landmarks in the progressive and unbroken evolution of a single though somewhat plastic genus. The bearing of this evidence upon the question of continuity or discontinuity in evolution is of para- mount importance. Nowhere has evidence been collected so fully as in the case of the white chalk; nowhere have such conclusive proofs of continuity in evolution been established.? Prof. W. B. Scott, referring to the evolution’ of the existing species of horses, states that in the Lower Tertiary deposits of North America, “each one of the different EKocene and Oligocene horizons has its characteristic genus of horses, showing a slow, steady progress in a definite direction, all parts of the structure participating in the advance—which, it should be emphasized, the changes are gradual and uninterrupted.’* This series of fossils points to the fact that existing species of horses are derived from individuals less highly capable of evading enemies, and obtaining food; that is, they point to progressive improvement through long periods of time in structural arrangement of this species of animals. Prof. E. B. Poulton was much impressed by the series of mammalian skulls from the Lower Tertiary beds of North America, arranged in 1 Darwin and his Modern Critics, by E. B. Poulton. The Quarterly Review, July 1909, p. 19. 2 Prof. E. B. Poulton. The Quarterly Review, p. 20, July, 1909. 8 The Cambridge Darwin Memorial Volume, p. 190. 868 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. the American Museum of Natural History, New York, in the order of succession in time as determined by the strata from which the fossils had been taken. Oneseries showed the most gradual and continuous modification in the characters of teeth, another a similarly continuous evolution of horns. Again, the well-known fossil Archaeopteryx, found in a series of slates in Germany, would certainly seem to constitute a link between groups now widely separated by divergence in evolution from the same ancestors. This animal is at once a feathered flying reptile and a primitive bird with many reptilian structures. Although Archaeopteryx was a primitive bird, it is in a true sense a ‘‘link” between reptiles and the group of modern birds; the gap between these types is filled up by fossil forms like Hesperornis, whose remains are found in strata of a later date. ‘‘That these links are not unique is proved by numerous other examples known to science, such as those which connect amphibia and reptiles, ancient reptiles, and primitive mammals, as well as those which come between the differ- ent orders of certain vertebrate classes. The important element in these examples of evolution is, first, their adaptation; secondly, the origination of new parts, and thirdly, the retention of the better invention.”’1 Evidence of this kind does not enable us to decide upon the cause of evolution; but in the instances referred to pro- gressive development has occurred gradually, and not by mutation or sudden leaps.2. On the other hand, they have much to do with the building up of the fittest. As Darwin states: ‘‘The tendency to the preservation (owing to the severe struggle for life to which all organic beings at some time or generation are exposed) of any variation in any part, which is of the slightest use or favorable to the life of the individual which has thus varied, together with the tendency to its inheritance. Any variation which was of no use whatever to the individual would not be preserved by the process of natural selection.’ 3 Another kind of evidence favoring the idea of the progressive evolution of human beings from simpler orders of animals is the presence of what are known as nonfunctional vestigial structures, relics of past phases of existence, such, for instance, as the unused external muscles of our ears and rudimentary third eyelids; the gill-clefts of reptiles, birds, and mammals, and the hind limbs of whales. The study of these vestigial structures is of importance in showing that ancestral features have great power of hereditary 3 E. B. Poulton, The Quarterly Review, July, 1909, p. 18. 3 More Letters, 1. Pp. 126. Quarterly Review, July, 1909, p. 26. Also The Evolution of Living Pur- posive Matter, by N. C. Macnamara, vol. 97, International Scientific Series, pp. 2, 53. ORGANIC EVOLUTION—-MACNAMARA. 369 persistence. These traces of ancestral history are intelligible only by means of the hypothesis of natural selection.! Prof. G. Elliot Smith insists on the fact that a knowledge of the evolution of the brain affords us a reliable and important clue in understanding the factors which have led to the making of mammals what they are, as well as supplying evidence to show whence they came. He demonstrates the fact that from the earliest development of the structures forming the cerebral cortex (or that portion of it in- cluded in the neopallium), its function has been to regulate ‘‘skilled’’ movements of the animal’s body.? The superior development of the brain of Pithecanthropus with its rudimentary sensori-motor center of speech, gave this order of beings an advantage over its nearest competitors, the anthropoid apes, and as the progressive evo- lution of the brain of man was raised to a higher standard by the exercise of his skilled movements, so his psychical powers increased, and Jed him to manufacture weapons and implements of various kinds, and to appreciate the use of fire to aid his brute force. Thus the gap between man and apes widened more and more as the reasoning power of the former increased through successive gen- erations.* Having thus given an outline of the evidence which leads us to accept Darwin’s hypothesis as being as near an approximation to the truth as, for example, the Copernican hypothesis was to the true theory of the planetary motions, we must refer to some of the reasonable objections that have been advanced against this theory. As far back as the year 1863 Huxley found he was unable, without reserve, to accept the theory of natural selection, because although in his opinion this theory accounted for the structural origin of species, it was incapable of explaining their physiological differences.’ For, he argued, it was a well-known fact that distinct species in a state of nature were, when crossed, incapable of perpetuating the species. Qn the other hand, selective breeding was incapable of producing species which on crossing were, as a rule, sterile. Since Huxley’s time, however, it has been proved that fertile pairing between distinct species of animals is by no means a rare occurrence.® We have already referred to another difficulty experienced by many educated people in accepting, without reserve, the theory of natural selection; they are unable to conceive how slight beneficial 1 Heredity, by Prof. J. A. Thomson, p. 127. 2 British Association for the year1911. Sec. D. ‘‘The Origin of Mammals.’”’ 2 Prof. H. E. Crampton, ‘‘The Doctrine of Evolution,’’ p. 175. Human Speech, by N. C. Macnamara, Dp. 210, figs. 37 and 42. 4 Huxley’s Essays, p. 100. 5 Huxley’s Essays, p. 228. 6 J. A. Thomson on Heredity, pp. 338, 387. 38734°—sm 1911——24 370 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. variations in the structural arrangement of the protoplasmic ele- ments of living organisms could have become established, and sub- sequently developed in succeeding g®erations, in the constantly changing environment (climatic and otherwise) to which these organ- isms must have been exposed. It certainly seems necessary, that the modes of energy which, by their action on the living elements of protoplasm had caused its molecular modifications, should have con- tinued to act on these elements for considerable periods of time, in order that these beneficial variations should be established and become hereditary. This objection, if valid, would seem seriously to affect the soundness of the foundations on which the theory of natural selection rests. This difficulty, however, is one capable of being satisfactorily met; for there is good reason to suppose that, in spite of the adverse influences to which primitive organisms must have been subjected, certain of the forces acting upon their living protoplasm have been continuously in operation; such, for instance, as that form of energy we call light, which we may suppose by its constant action on these elements gradually changed their molecular structures, and adapted them to its own specific mode of action. To illustrate our meaning we may take, as an example, the develop- ment of structures such as those which enter into the formation of the eyes of two different classes of animals, viz, mollusks and vertebrates. It seems probable that these structures were derived from a com- mon ancestral stock, for they both consist of similar tissues adapted to concentrate a definite mode of energy on a specialized form of nervous elements, which, in conjunction with work performed by corre- sponding cerebral matter, gives rise to visual sensations. There is, however, a difference in the arrangement of the internal structures of the eyes of mollusks and vertebrates, especially in those tissues which are concerned in the adjustment of the focus of the eyes to near and distant objects, and also in its nervous apparatus. The question is: How are we to account for these differences, supposing the eyes of these creatures to have been evolved from a common ancestral stock ? It seems unlikely that the delicate tissues entering into the for- mation of the eyes of vertebrates and mollusks have been built up on. similar lines by thé play of chance variations in their protoplasmic elements, produced in response to the action of a constantly varying environment. Even supposing slight identical beneficial changes in the living matter of these structures had thus been effected, this ° action must have been persistent, otherwise these molecular changes would soon have become obliterated; but, as above stated, it would be different supposing light acted continuously and directly on the protoplasmic elements, so as to change its molecular structure and ORGANIC EVOLUTION—-MACNAMARA. 871 to adapt it to its own specific mode of action. The resemblance of the tissues of the eyes of vertebrates and mollusks would thus be referable to an identical force or cause. The more and more complex eyes of vertebrates would be something like the deeper and deeper impression of light on a substance, which, being organized, possesses a special aptitude for receiving it. In many unicellular and some invertebrate beings, red spots of coloring matter may be seen on their outer surface. These are known as ‘‘eye-spots,’”’ for in some of them lens-like structures exist which are analogous to those of the eyes of the higher orders of animals. There is reason to suppose that by the action of light on the substance forming these eye-spots, organisms possessing these structures are enabled to distinguish light from darkness. Animals having more highly developed eye spots seem to be sensitive to alterations in the intensity of light; their rudimentary organs of vision may therefore, in a vague way, assist these organisms to guide the move- ments of their bodies.” There must have been very many stages in the evolution of eye- spots into structures such as those which constitute the eyes of mollusks and vertebrates, and some of these stages may be traced from one to another through the ascending order of beings. Each stage consisting in the purposive adaptation of the structures entering into the formation of the eye to the requirements of each order of indi- viduals. Beyond this natural selection is no longer operative, because a further specialization of structures entering into the construction of the organ of vision would not assist this particular order of beings in their struggle for existence. It would, for instance, be of no advan- tage to a scallop, as it is to human beings, to possess a complex arrangement of structure adapted to instantaneously focus its eyes on near and distant objects. So far as our knowledge extends regarding existing orders and species of animals, we do not find any indications of sudden changes taking place in the structures entering into the construction of their organs of vision. On the other hand, we can account for their undoubted progressive development by supposing their eyes to have been evolved by the continued action of light on living matter, which under the operation of the laws of natural selection has gradually been molded into a form adapted to respond to this mode of energy. In other words, the action of light on the living purposive elements of 1Creative Evolution, by H. Bergson, p. 73. It is as Prof. Crampton remarks (Doctrine of Evolution, p.31) that organisms are in a true sense complicated chemical mechanisms adapted to meet the conditions under which they must operate. 2The rudimentary eyes of these lower kinds of beings have been developed from the living protoplasm of the outer layers of their body (somatic) cells by chemico-physical action, the color producing enzymes of thisspecialized form of matter being stimulated and brought into action by energy derived from sun- light. 3 The Evolution of Living Purposive Matter, by N. C. Macnamara, p. 32. O72 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. a differentiated form of protoplasm has gradually produced changes in the structural arrangement of its molecules, whereby they have effectively responded to the exigencies of their environment. Struc- tural changes thus effected have a tendency to become hereditary qualities. To this extent light may be said to have evolved the structures which enter into the formation of the eyes of the various classes of animals. Herbert Spencer, when referring to molecular changes of the kind to which we have referred, states that there go on in all organisms certain changes of structure and functions that are directly consequent on changes in the incident forces, inner changes by which outer changes are balanced, and the equilibrium restored—rearrangements which produce an exactly counterbalanc- ing force.t| But the result, though as a rule progressive under the laws of natural selection, is not always so, as for instance in the case of internal parasites which lack even a digestive tract, because a stomach is unnecessary in an animal which lives bathed in the nutrient fluids of its host. The other hypothesis which we mentioned as, at present, engaging the attention of biologists to enable them to explain the origin of new species of animals and plants, is the theory which has been advocated by the well-known Dutch botanist, Prof. Hugo de Vries. De Vries, in the preface to his work ‘‘Species and Varieties, their Origin by Mutation,” observes that the current belief assumes that species are slowly changed into new types. In contradiction to this conception, the theory of mutation assumes that new species and vari- eties are produced from existing forms by sudden leaps. The parent type itself remains unchanged throughout this process, and may repeatedly give birth to new forms. These may arise simultaneously, and in groups, or separately at more or less widely distant periods. De Vries lays stress on the difference between slight structural changes in plants, and mutations; the former he holds are subject to fluctuations and occur continually from one to other generations. Mutations, on the other hand, are rare and occur intermittently; they do not show any ascending law of frequency. Fluctuations do not lead to a permanent change in the increase of the species unless there be very rigorous selection, and even then, if the selection be slackened, there is regression to the old mean; mutations lead per saltum to a new specific position, and there is no regression to the old mean. De Vries maintains that fluctuations do not yield any- thing really new, they imply a little more or less of characters already present; mutations are novelties, they imply some new pattern, some new position of organic equilibrium. De Vries holds that no new species can be established without mutation. ‘‘When a mutation has 1 Principles of Biology, by H. Spencer, vol. 1, pp. 434, 442. ORGANIC EVOLUTION—MACNAMARA, 373 occurred a new species is already in existence, and will remain in existence unless all the progeny of the mutatien are destroyed.” According to De Vries, therefore, species originate by mutation instead of by continuous selection. He adds: ‘‘Natural selection may explain the survival of the fittest, but it can not explain the arrival of the fittest.’’! It is clear that De Vries’s hypothesis of evolution of species by mutation, if established, would mean a profound change in the ideas received from Darwin. The survival of the fittest among a crowd of fresh elementary species or subspecies ready-made by mutation is a different conception from that of the progressive building up of the fittest types, by the improvement through selec- tion of existing characters and qualities, and the gradual addition of a unit here and a unit there to a complex structure of species. Darwin, as far back as the year 1859, stated that it was the fine- ness of gradation in the shells of substages of the chalk formations, which led him to maintain the gradual, as against the sudden evolu- tion of species. The evidence upon which De Vries founds his hypothesis as to the sudden production of new species from existing types—that is, by mutations—is largely derived from his own observation of changes which took place in specimens of plants of the evening primrose (Zno- thera lamarckiana) he found growing in the sandy soil of a field at Hilversum. De Vries took seeds from two species of these wild plants and sowed them in a well-manured garden in Amsterdam. Seeds collected from these cultivated plants produced, according to De Vries, seven constant elementary species of the evening primrose; but these species differed so slightly from one another and from the parent stock, that we should rather refer them to varieties than as constituting distinct species. Varieties of this kind might be ac- counted for by a change of environment, the plants having origi- nally grown in a sandy soil and been transferred to a well-manured garden. De Vries, however, attributes the changes observed in these plants to the latent qualities possessed by the parent stock, He assumes that the characters of organisms are made up of ele- ments that are sharply separated from each other, and that at certain periods these elements become impressed by an impulsive mutability. It was at one of these periods De Vries supposes he chanced to secure his evening primrose, hence the changeful state of the plant and its production of seven elementary species within a short time. 1 Heredity, by J. Arthur Thomson, M. A., regius professor of natural history in the University of Aber- deen, pp. 90, 98. 2 The Quarterly Review, July, 1909, p. 26. E.B. Poulton, Darwin and his Modern Critics. 374 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. The history of the Maltese family of Kelleia is often referred to as an example of mutative changes in the case of human beings, The father and mother of this family had the ordinary number of toes and fingers, but their eldest son possessed six fingers on each hand and six toes on each foot. This child, Gratio, subsequently married and had children, several of them having six fingers and toes. This malformation was absent in the following generation, but reappeared in the succeeding family; it then seemed to have died out. Another remarkable instance of this kind is that of the flock of Massachusetts Ancon sheep. The deformity which charac- terized these sheep, however, disappeared in the course of a few years, it is said in consequence of the introduction of the Merino sheep into the United States. In both these cases of the sudden development of monstrosities it can not be said that new species, but only varieties, had suddenly come into being. Our knowledge, however, concerning the evolution. of the simpler into complex orders of plants, like that of animals, must to a large extent be guided by information we derive from the study of their fossil re- mains—a branch of science which has only been taken seriously in hand within the last few years. Palaeobotanists of repute, such as MM. Barrois, Bertrand, and Cayeux, are of opinion that in the earliest sedimentary or pre-Cambrian formations they have obtained evidence of the existence of rudimentary animals and plants, in the shape of protophytes and protozoans.1 However this may be, we know that numerous species of diatoms, seaweeds, and fungi exist in a fossil state in the coal measures of England and other parts of the world, and that the structure of these beings resembled those now flourishing. The higher plants, however, on which these fungi fed ‘“‘have changed profoundly since’ the coal-measure epoch, “‘stimulated by ever-changing surroundings.”? All the plants which existed during the Carboniferous period have become extinct; they were flowerless and otherwise differed from those of the present day; but this difference was in outward form, or the grouping of their cells, rather than in the functions performed by their vascular, respiratory, and other structures. Thus we find in fossil plants of our coal measures a layer of chlorophyll bearing cells situated beneath their epidermis, indicating the existence of a starch-forming system, worked by energy derived from sunlight. In each succeed- ing geological period the main types of vegetation changed, and each succeeding change advanced a step toward the types of the existing flora.s It was not, however, until we arrive at the Creta- ceous epoch that the existence of fossil flowering plants appear. 1 Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution for the year 1903, p. 512. 2 Ancient Plants, by M. C. Stopes, D. Sc., p. 165. 3Tdem, p. 40. ORGANIC EVOLUTION—-MACNAMARA. 375 The advent of these plants in the flora of this period, according to existing fossils, appears somewhat sudden, so much so that palaco- botanists have been disposed to think that this epoch indicates the existence of a mutative period in plant life. In fact, that during the time the chalk rocks were forming that plants suddenly all over the world produced species differing essentially from those which had preceded them. It is necessary, however, to take into consideration the existence of a group of fossil plants known as Cycads, which were probably derived from a common stock and ‘‘which are in close connection with the ancestors of modern flowering plants; thus flowering plants can be linked on to the series that runs through the Cycads directly to the primitive ferns.” It is only within the last few years that the important extinct group of plants—Pteridosperms—has been recognized. Nevertheless, they form the most numerous plants of the Carbon- iferous period and have displaced the ferns from the position they were hitherto supposed to hold as the dominant plants of the coal measures. facts such as these render us cautious in accepting the idea that the flowerless flora of the ancient world became suddenly changed during the Cretaceous epoch into flowering plants. It is clear that the vascular and reproductive organs of the plants of ancient geological periods, as they grew taller and canie to inhabit a dry soil, must, under the laws of natural selection, have undergone certain modifications. From the microscopical examination of the tissues forming these primitive plants we find that alterations in their structure have gradually taken place, culminating in the appearance of the flowering plants of the Cretaceous epoch. Dr. M. C. Stopes in the concluding chapter of his excellent work on “Ancient Plants”’ (p. 178) states that ‘‘the group of fossil plants do not now appear isolated by great unbridged gaps, as they did even 20 years ago;”’ by means of the fossils either direct connections or probable links are discovered which connect series and fami- lies. We may add that plants now growing in the Nile Valley are similar in character to those represented on the monuments of the earliest Egyptian dynasties. In the stable climate and conditions of the Nile Valley these plants for thousands of years have retained their character; but if removed to a different soil and climate such as that of England, in the course of a few generations they become variable and thus undergo marked modifications. We hold this result to be attributable to the response of their living protoplasm to the action of changes of environment, which in the course of time we believe, under the influence of natural selection, might possibly lead to the production of new varieties, if not actual species. The following details concerning a remarkable series of variations in certain Fox- 1 Ancient Plants, by M. C. Stopes, p. 108, 376 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. glove plants appear to afford us reliable evidence in favor of the idea, that under certain unknown conditions the flowers of a wild plant may become suddenly and completely altered in character, and that variations of this description are passed on from one to succeeding generations by means of the germ cells." From a packet of Fox-glove seeds (Digitalis purpurea) sown in the year 1906, 54 plants were, in June, 1907, planted in a shrubbery of fir trees with an undergrowth of laurels. Of these plants, 51 grew into normal Fox-gloves, but the 3 remaining plants were sports, which we may distinguish by the letters A, B, and C. | A. In this plant the flowers of the lower half of the stem possessed only a bifid upper petal and seven stamens united at their bases. The flowers of the upper part of the spike were normal. B. A fine, well-grown plant 44 feet high; throughout the whole length of the spike the flowers consisted of a bifid upper petal, seven stamens, and style. The upper part of this spike was isolated; it produced abundant self-fertilized seed. C. The spike of this plant grew to be 5 feet high; from base to apex its flowers consisted of nine stamens and a style, with no vestige of petals. It is unnecessary to follow the history of plant A, as it was only the lower part of the spike in which the flowers were abnormal, and the stem was not isolated. Seed taken from the upper covered part of the plant B, whose flowers consisted of a bifid petal, 7 stamens, and a style, germi- nated abundantly; 21 of these plants flowered in 1909. Thirteen of these 21 plants produced spikes of the parent type, and 8 of the 21 plants produced normal Fox-glove flowers. One of the 13 plants grew to be 5 feet 1 inch high, its spike producing 1 bifid petal and a style; but its terminal flower consisted of 22 stamens and a large flask-shaped carpel (divided into 7 compartments) and style, but having no corolla; that is, it had no petals. (As shown in photograph exhibited.) The season of 1909 was sunless, with constant rain; consequently, all covered plants suffered much from mildew, but I managed to col- lect some self-fertilized seed from the terminal flower of the plant referred to, and this seed germinated and flowered in 1911. Every one of the 12 plants I reared from the seed of the terminal flower pro- duced flowers precisely like the parent. Two of these plants were isolated and their self-fertilized seed germinated freely (September, — 1911). The seed originally collected from the covered part of plant C of 1907 had produced plants which, in 1909, gave flowers precisely 1N. C. Macnamara, on Mutations in Fox-glove Plants. Linnean Society of London, General Meeting Nov. 16, 1911. ORGANIC EVOLUTION—-MACNAMARA., 8% similar to the parent plant. Self-fertilized seed from these plants (1909) in 1911 produced plants exactly like those of 1907—1. e., flowers having nine stamens and a style, but no petals. Self-ferti- lized seed from these plants are now (September, 1911) germinating freely. Some of the plants, however, of 1909, in place of a tall single spike, grew some seven or eight shorter spikes, each flower of which had nine stamens but no petals. It seems that a certain number of the Fox-glove seeds sown in the year 1906 contained elements in a condition such as that de- scribed by De Vries as being ‘impressed by an impulsive muta- bility,”’ for some of the flowers produced by these seeds were sports. Seeds from these sports produced their like in 1909; and, further, these latter plants bore some terminal flowers totally different in character from the parent sport from which they were derived. Seeds from these terminal flowers produced their like in the year 1911, so that I have now two different strains of Fox-glove plants derived from the seed sown in 1906, and these strains have resulted from self-fertilized flowers—that is, from flowers carefully protected from insects or other means of cross fertilization. It is, however, doubtful if these varieties would have been maintained in a state of nature. While specific stability under constant conditions appears to be the rule in nature, it is widely different in cultivation. When a plant is brought under cultural conditions it maintains its type for some time unaltered, then gives way and becomes practically plastic.1 It is certain, therefore, that before we can accept De Vries’s hypothesis of the origin of species by mutation we must have further and more conclusive evidence on the subject than that which is now available. On the other hand, Huxley’s conclusion regarding the Darwinian hypothesis still holds good. He states that all species have been produced by the development of varieties from common stocks; the conversion of these, first into permanent races, and then into new species, by the process of natural selection, which process is essentially identical with that of artificial selection by which man has originated the races of domestic animals, the struggle for existence taking the place of man; and exerting, in the case of natural selection, that selective action which he performs in artificial selection. : The evidence brought forward by Darwin in support of his theory is of three kinds. First, he endeavors to prove that species may be originated by selection; secondly, he attempts to show that natural causes are competent to exert selection; and, thirdly, he tries to prove that the most remarkable and apparently anomalous phe- nomena exhibited by the distribution, development, and mutual 1 Nature, Nov. 28, 1907. 378 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. relations of species can be shown to be deducible from the general doctrine of their origin which he propounds, combined with the known facts of geological change; and that, even if not all these phenomena are at present explicable by it, none are necessarily inconsistent with it; on the other hand, since Huxley’s time Darwin’s theory has been strengthened by many new facts.' 1 Huxley’s Essays. Everyman’s Library, p. 331. See also The International Scientific Series, vols. 95 and 97. Kegan Paul. London, 1908 and 1910. MAGNALIA NATUR: OR THE GREATER PROBLEMS OF BIOLOGY . By D’Arcy Wentworth THompson, C. B., Professor of Natural History in University College, Dundee ( University of St. Andrews). The science of zoology, -all the more the incorporate science of biology, is no simple affair, and from its earliest beginnings it has been a great and complex and many-sided thing. We can scarce get a broader view of it than from Aristotle, for no man has ever looked upon our science with a more farseeing and comprehending eye. Aristotle was all things that we mean by “naturalist” or “biologist.” He was a student of the ways and doings of beast and bird and creeping thing; he was morphologist and embryologist; he had the keenest insight into physiological problems, though his age lacked that knowledge of the physical sciences without which phys- fology can go but a little way; he was the first and is the greatest of psychologists; and in the light of his genius biology merged in a great philosophy. I do not for a moment suppose that the vast multitude of facts which Aristotle records were all, or even mostly, the fruit of his own immediate and independent observation. Before him were the Hippocratic and other schools of physicians and anatomists. Before him there were nameless and forgotten Fabres, Resels, Réaumurs, and Hubers, who observed the habits, the diet, and the habitations of the sand wasp or the mason bee; who traced’ out the little lives and discerned the vocal organs of grasshopper and cicada; and who, together with generations of bee-keeping peasants, gathered up the lore and wisdom of the bee. There were fishermen skilled in all the cunning of their craft, who discussed the wanderings of tunny and mackerel, swordfish or anchovy; who argued over the ages, the breeding places, and the food of this fish or that; who knew how the smooth dogfish breeds, two thousand years before Johannes Miiller; who saw how the male pipefish carries its young, before Cavolini; and who had found the nest of the nest-building rockfishes before 1 Presidential address delivered to the zoo.ogical section of the British Association Aug. 31, 1911. Reprinted by permission from author’s printed copy. 379 380 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. Gerbe rediscovered it almost in our own day. There were curious students of the cuttle fish (I sometimes imagine they may have been priests of that sea-born goddess to whom the creatures were sacred), who had diagnosed the species, recorded the habits, and dissected the anatomy of the group, even to the discovery of that strange hec- tocotylus arm that baffled Della Chiaje, Cuvier, and Koelliker, and that Vérany and Heinrich Miller reexplained. All this varied learning Aristotle gathered up and wove into his great web. But every here and there, in words that are unmistakably the master’s own, we hear him speak of what are still the great problems and even the hidden mysteries of our science; of such things as the nature of variation, of the struggle for existence, of specific and generic differentiation of form, of the origin of the tis- sues, the problems of heredity, the mystery of sex, of the phenomena of reproduction and growth, the characteristics of habit, instinct, and intelligence, and of the very meaning of life itself. Amid all the maze of concrete facts that century after century keeps adding to our store, these, and such as these, remain the great mysteries of natural science—the magnalia nature, to borrow a great word from Bacon, who in his turn had borrowed it from St. Paul. Not that these are the only great problems for the biologist, nor that there is but a single class of great problems in biology, for Bacon himself speaks of the magnalia nature, quoad usus humanos, the study of which has for its objects ‘‘the prolongation of life or the retardation of age, the curing of diseases counted incurable, the mitigation of pain, the making of new species and transplanting of one species into another,’ and so on through many more. Assuredly, I have no need to remind you that a great feature of this generation of ours has been the way in which biology has been justified of her children in the work of those who have studied the magnalia nature, quoad usus humanos. But so far are biologists from being nowadays engrossed in practical questions, in applied and technical zoology, to the neglect of its more recondite problems, that there never was a time when men thought more deeply or labored with greater zeal over the fundamental phe- nomena of living things; never a time when they reflected in a broader spirit over such questions as purposive adaptation, the harmonious working of the fabrie of the body in relation to environment, and the interplay of all the creatures that people the earth; over the problems of heredity and variation; over the mysteries of sex and the phe- nomena of generation and reproduction, by which phenomena, as the wise woman told, or reminded, Socrates, and as Harvey said again (and for that matter, as Coleridge said, and Weismann, but not quite so well)—by which, as the wise old woman said, we gain our glimpse of insight into eternity and immortality. These, then, together with GREATER PROBLEMS OF BIOLOGY—THOMPSON. 381 the problem of the origin of species, are indeed magnalia nature; and I take it that inquiry into these, deep and wide research specially directed to the solution of these, is characteristic of the spirit of our time and is the password of the younger generation of biologists. Interwoven with this high aim which is manifested in the biological work of recent years is another tendency. It is the desire to bring to bear upon our science, in greater measure than before, the methods and results of the other sciences, both those that in the hierarchy of knowledge are set above and below and those that rank alongside of our own. , Before the great problems of which J have spoken the cleft be- tween zoology and botany fades away, for the same problems are common to the twin sciences. When the zoologist becomes a student not of the dead but of the living, of the vital processes of the cell rather than of the dry bones of the body, he becomes once more a physiologist, and the gulf between these two disciplines disappears. When he becomes a physiologist, he becomes, ipso facto, a student of chemistry and of physics. Hven mathematics has been pressed into the service of the biologist, and the calculus of probabilities is not the only branch of mathematics to which he may usefully appeal. The physiologist has long had as his distinguishing characteristic, giving his craft a rank superior to the sister branch of morphology, the fact that in his great field of work and in all the routine of his experimental research, the methods of the physicist and the chemist, the lessons of the anatomist, and the experience of the physician, are inextricably blended in one common central field of investigation and thought. But it is much more recently that the morphologist and embryologist have made use of the method of experiment and of the aid of the physical and chemical sciences—even of the teachings of philosophy—all in order to probe into properties of the living organism that men were wont to take for granted or to regard as beyond their reach under a narrower interpretation of the business of the biologist. Driesch and Loeb and Roux are three among many men who have become eminent in this way in recent years, and their work we may take as typical of methods and aims such as those of which I speak. Driesch, both by careful experiment and by philosophic insight; Loeb, by his conception of the dynamics of the cell and by his mar- velous demonstrations of chemical and mechanical fertilization; Roux, with his theory of autodetermination and by the labors of the school of Entwickelungsmechanik which he has founded, have all in various ways, and from more or less different points of view, helped to reconstruct and readjust our ideas of the relations of embryological processes, and hence of the phenomenon of life itself, on the one hand, to physical causes (whether external to or latent in the mecha- 382 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. nism of the cell), or, on the other, to the ancient conception of a vital element, alien to the province of the physicist. No small number of theories or hypotheses, that seemed for a time to have been established on ground as firm as that on which we tread, have been reopened in our day. The adequacy of natural selection to explain the whole of organic evolution has been assailed on many _ sides; the old fundamental subject of embryological debate between the evolutionists or preformationists (of the school of Malpighi, Haller, and Bonnet) and the advocates of epigenesis (the followers of Aris- totle, of Harvey, of Caspar Fr. Wolff, and of Von Baer) is now discussed again, in altered language, but as a pressing question of the hour; the very foundations of the cell theory have been scrutinized, to decide, for instance, whether the segmented ovum, or even the complete organism, be a colony of quasi independent cells or a living unit in which cell differentiation is little more than a superficial phenomenon; the whole meaning, bearing, and philosophy of evolu- tion has been discussed by Bergson, on a plane to which neither Darwin nor Spencer ever attained; and the hypothesis of a vital principle, or vital element, that had lain in the background for near a hundred years, has come into men’s mouths as a very real and urgent question, the greatest question for the biologist of all. In all ages the mystery of organic form, the mystery of growth and reproduction, the mystery of thought and consciousness, the whole mystery of the complex phenomena of life, have seemed to the vast majority of men to call for description and explanation in terms alien to the language which we apply to inanimate things; though at all times there have been a few who sought, with the materialism of Democritus, Lucretius, or Giordano Bruno, to attribute most, or even all, of these phenomena to the category of physical causation. For the first scientific exposition of vitalism we must go back to Aristotle, and to his doctrine of the three parts of the tripartite soul; according to which doctrine, in Milton’s language, created things ‘‘by eradual change sublimed, to vital spirits aspire, to animal, to intel- lectual.” The first and lowest of these three, the ¢uzi ) Ooextexn, by whose agency nutrition is effected, is } zowty guy}, the imsepa- rable concomitant of life itself. It is inherent in the plant as well as in the animal, and in the Linnzan aphorism, vegetabilia crescunt et vivunt, its existence is admitted in a word. Under other aspects it is all but identical with the guyz) a&éqtex) and yevyyte), the soul of growth and of reproduction; and in this composite sense it is no other than Driesch’s ‘‘Entelechy,” the hypothetic natural agency that pre- sides over the form and formation of the body. Just as Driesch’s psychoid or psychoids, which are the basis of instinctive phenomena, of sensation, instinct, thought, reason, and all that directs that body ———E GREATER PROBLEMS OF BIOLOGY—THOMPSON. 383 which entelechy has formed, are no other than the aéo@ytex), whereby animalia vivunt et sentiunt, and the dcavontexj, to which Aristotle ascribes the reasoning faculty of man. Save only that Driesch, like Darwin, would deny the restriction of vodc, or reasoning, to man alone, and would extend it to animals, it is clear, and Driesch himself admits,} that he accepts both the vitalism and the analysis of vitalism laid down by Aristotle. The zvedua of Galen, the vis plastica, the vis vite formatrix, of the older physiologists, the Bildungstrieb of Blumenbach, the Lebenskraft of Paracelsus, Stahl, and Treviranus, “‘shaping the physical forces of the body to its own ends,” ‘‘dreaming dimly in the grain of the prom- ise of the full corn in the ear’’? (to borrow the rendering of an Oxford scholar), these and many more, like Driesch’s ‘“‘Entelechy”’ of to-day, are all conceptions under which successive generations strive to depict the something that separates the earthy from the living, the living from the dead. And John Hunter described his conception of it in words not very different from Driesch’s, when he said that his principle, or agent, was independent of organization, which yet it animates, sustains, and repairs; it was the same as Johannes Miller’s conception of an innate ‘‘unconscious idea.”’ Even in the Middle Ages, long before Descartes, we can trace, if we interpret the language and the spirit of the time, an antithesis that, if not identical, is at least parallel to our alternative between vitalistic and mechanical hypotheses. For instance, Father Harper tells us that Suarez maintained that in generation and development a divine interference is postulated, by reason of the perfection of living beings; in opposition to St. Thomas, who (while invariably making an excep- tion in the case of the human soul) urged that, since the existence of bodily and natural forms consists solely in their union with matter, the ordinary agencies which operate on matter sufficiently account for them. But in the history of modern science, or of modern physiology, it is, of course, to Descartes that we trace the origin of our mechanical hypotheses—to Descartes, who, imitating Archimedes, said: “Give me matter and motion and I will construct the universe.” In fact, leaving the more shadowy past alone, we may say that it is since Descartes watched the fountains in the garden and saw the likeness 1 Science and Philosophy of the Organism (Gifford Lectures), ii. p. 83, 1908. 2 Cit. Jenkinson (Art. “ Vitalism”’ in Hibbert Journal, April, 1911), who has given me the following quota- tion: ‘‘Das Weitzenkorn hat allerdings Bewusstsein dessen“vas in ihm ist und aus ihm werden kann, und tratimt wirklich davon. Sein Bewusstsein und seine Tratime modgen dunkel genug sein”; Treviranus, Erscheinungen und Gesetze des organischen Lebens, 1831. 3 “Cum formarum naturalium et corporalium esse non consistat nisi in unione ad materiam, ejusdam agentis esse videtur eas producere, cujus est materiam transmutare. Secundo, quia cum hujusmodi forme non excedant virtutem et ordinem et facultatem principiorum agentium in natura, nulla videtur necessitas eorum originemin principia reducere altiora.’? Aquinas, De Pot. Q., iii.ail. Cf. Harper, Metaphysics of the School. iii. 1. p. 152. 304 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. between their machinery of pumps and pipes and reservoirs to the - organs of the circulation of the blood, and since Vaucanson’s mar- velous automata lent plausibility to the idea of a “‘living automaton,” it is since then that men’s minds have been perpetually swayed by one or other of the two conflicting tendencies, either to seek an expla- nation of the phenomena of living things in physical and mechanical considerations, or to attribute them to unknown and mysterious causes alien to physics and peculiarly concomitant with life. And some men’s temperaments, training, and even avocations, render them more prone to the one side of this unending controversy, as the minds of other men are naturally more open to the other. As Kithne said a few years ago at Cambridge, the physiologists have been found for several generations leaning, on the whole, to the mechanical or physico-chemical hypothesis, while the zoologists have been very generally on the side of the vitalists. The very fact that the physiologists were trained in the school of physics, and the fact that the zoologists and botanists relied for so many years upon the vague, undefined force of ‘“‘heredity” as suffi- ciently accounting for the development of the organism, an intrinsic force whose results could be studied but whose nature seemed remote from possible analysis or explanation, these facts alone go far to illustrate and to justify what Kihne said. Claude Bernard held that mechanical, physical, and chemical forces summed up all with which the physiologist has to deal. Ver- worn defined physiology as ‘‘the chemistry of the proteids”; and I think that another physiologist (but I forget who) has declared that the mystery of life lay hidden in ‘‘the chemistry of the enzymes.” But of late, as Dr. Haldane showed in an address a couple of years ago, it is among the physiologists themselves, together with the embryolo- gists, that we find the strongest indications of a desire to pass beyond the horizon of Descartes, and to avow that physical and chemical methods, the methods of Helmholtz, Ludwig, and Claude Bernard, fall short of solving the secrets of physiology. On the other hand, in zoology, resort to the method of experiment, the discovery, for instance, of the wonderful effects of chemical or even mechanical stimulation in starting the development of the egg, and again the ceaseless search into the minute structure, or so-called mechanism, of the cell, these I think have rather tended to sway a certain number of zoologists in the direction of the mechanical hypothesis. But on the whole, I think it is very manifest that there is abroad on all sides a greater spirit of hesitation and caution than of old, and that the lessons of the philosopher have had their influence on our minds. We realize that the problem of development is far harder than we had begun to let ourselves suppose; that the problems of organogeny and phylogeny (as well as those of physiology) are not GREATER PROBLEMS OF BIOLOGY—-THOMPSON. 385 comparatively simple and well-nigh solved, but are of the most formidable complexity. And we would, most of us, confess, with the learned author of The Cell in Development and Inheritance, that we are utterly ignorant of the manner in which the substance of the germ cell can so respond to the influence of the environment as to call forth an adaptive variation; and again, that the gulf between the lowest forms of life and the inorganic world is as wide, if not wider, than it seemed a couple of generations ago.! While we keep an open mind on this question of vitalism, or while we lean, as so many of us now do, or even cling with a great yearning to the belief that something other than the physical forces animates and sustains the dust of which we are made, it is rather the business of the philosopher than of the biologist, or of the biologist only when he has served his humble and severe apprenticeship to philosophy, to deal with the ultimate problem. It is the plain bounden duty of the biologist to pursue his course, unprejudiced by vitalistic hypoth- eses, along the road of observation and experiment, according to the accepted discipline of the natural and physical sciences; indeed I might perhaps better say the physical sciences alone, for it is already a breach of their discipline to invoke, until we feel we absolutely must, that shadowy force of “heredity,” to which, as I have already said, biologists have been accustomed to ascribe so much. In other words, it is an elementary scientific duty, it is a rule that Kant himself laid down,’ that we should explain, just as far as we possibly ean, all that is capable of such explanation, in the light of the prop- erties of matter and of the forms of energy with which we are already acquainted. It is of the essence of physiological science to investigate the mani- festations of energy in the body, and to refer them, for instance, to the domains of heat, electricity, or chemical activity. By this means a vast number of phenomena, of chemical and other actions of the body, have been relegated to the domain of physical science, and withdrawn from the mystery that still attends on life, and by this means, continued for generations, the physiologists, or certain of them, now tell us that we begin again to descry the limitations of physical inquiry, and the region where a very different hypothesis insists on thrusting itself in. But the morphologist has not gone nearly so far as the physiologist in the use of physical methods. He sees so great a gulf between the crystal and the cell that the very fact of the physicist and the mathematician being able to explain the form of the one, by simple laws of spatial arrangement where molecule fits into molecule, seems to deter, rather than to attract,’ —ll 1 Wilson, op. cit., i906, p. 434. ?Tn his Critique of Teleological Judgment. 38734°—sm 1911——25 386 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. the biologist from attempting to explain organic forms by mathe- matical or physical law. Just as the embryologist used to explain everything by heredity, so the morphologist is still inclined to say, ‘‘the thing is alive, its form is an attribute of itself, and the physical forces do not apply.’ If he does not go so far as this, he is still apt to take it for granted that the physical forces can only to a small and even insignificant extent blend with the intrinsic organic forces in producing the resultant form. Herein hes our question in a nut- shell. Has the morphologist yet sufiiciently studied the forms, external and internal, of organisms, in the light of the properties of matter, of the energies that are associated with it, and of the forces by which the actions of these energies may be interpreted and de- scribed? Has the biologist, in short, fully recognized that there is a borderland not only between physiology and physics, but between morphology and physics, and that the physicist may, and must, be his guide and teacher in many matters regarding organic form? Now, this is by no means a new subject, for such men as Berthold and Errera, Rhumbler and Dreyer, Biitschli and Verworn, Driesch and Roux have already dealt or deal with it. But, on the whole, it seems to me that the subject has attracted too little attention, and that it is well worth our while to think of it to-day. The first point, then, that I wish to make in this connection is that the form of any portion of matter, whether it be living or dead, its form and the changes of form that are apparent in its movements and in its growth, may in all cases alike be described as due to the action of force. In short, the form of an object is a ‘‘diagram of forces’’—in this sense, at least, that from it we can judge of or deduce the forces that are acting or have acted upon it; in this strict and particular sense it is a diagram: in the case of a solid of the forces that have been impressed upon it when its conformation was produced, together with those that enable it to retain its con- formation; in the case of a liquid (or of a gas) of the forces that are for the moment acting on it to restrain or balance its own in- herent mobility. In an organism, great or small, it is not merely the nature of the motions of the living substance that we must interpret in terms of force (according to kinetics), but also the con- formation of the organism itself, whose permanence or equilibrium is explained by the interaction or balance of forces, as described in statics. If we look at the living cell of an Ameeba or a Spirogyra, we see a something which exhibits certain active movements and a certain fluctuating, or more or less lasting, form; and its form at a given moment, just like its motions, is to be investigated by the help of physical methods and explained by the invocation of the mathe- matical conception of force. GREATER PROBLEMS OF BIOLOGY—THOMPSON. 387 Now, the state, including the shape or form, of a portion of matter is the resultant of a number of forces which represent or symbolize the manifestations of various kinds of energy; and it is obvious, accordingly, that a great part of physical science must be under- stood or taken for granted as the necessary preliminary to the dis- cussion on which we are engaged. I am not going to attempt to deal with or even to enumerate all the physical forces or the properties of matter with which the pursuit of this subject would oblige us to deal—with gravity, pres- sure, cohesion, friction, viscosity, elasticity, diffusion, and all the rest of the physical factors that have a bearing on our problem. I ‘propose only to take one or two illustrations from the subject of surface tension, which subject has already so largely engaged the attention of the physiologists. Nor will I even attempt to sketch the general nature of the phenomenon, but will only state a few of its physical manifestations or laws. Of these the most essential facts for us are as follows: Surface tension is manifested only in fluid or semifluid bodies, and only at the surface of these, though we may have to interpret surface in a liberal sense in cases where the interior of the mass is other than homogeneous. Secondly, a fluid may, according to the nature of the substance with which it is in contact, or, more strictly speaking, according to the distribution of energy in the system to which it belongs, tend either to spread itself out in a film or, conversely, to contract into a drop, striving in the latter case to reduce its surface to a minimal area. Thirdly, when three substances are in contact and subject to surface tension, as when water surrounds a drop of protoplasm in contact with a solid, then at any and every point of contact certain definite angles of equilibrium are set up and maintained between the three bodies, which angles are proportionate to the magnitudes of the surface ten- sions existing between the three. Fourthly, a fluid film can only remain in equilibrium when its curvature is everywhere constant. Fifthly, the only surfaces of revolution which meet this condition are six in number, of which the plane, the sphere, the cylinder, and the so-called unduloid and catenoid are important for us. Sixthly, the cylinder can not remain in free equilibrium if prolonged beyond a length equal to its own circumference, but, passing through the unduloid, tends to break up into spheres, though this limitation may be counteracted or relaxed, for instance, by viscosity. Finally, we have the curious fact that in a complex system of films, such as a homogeneous froth of bubbles, three partition walls and no more always meet at a crest, at equal angles, as, for instance, in the very simple case of a layer of uniform hexagonal cells; and (in a solid system) the crests, which may be straight or curved, always meet, also at equal angles, four by four, in a common point. From these 388 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. physical facts or laws the morphologist as well as the physiologist may draw important consequences. It was Hofmeister who first showed, more than 40 years ago, that when any drop of protoplasm, either over all its surface or at some free end (as at the tip of the pseudopodium of an ameba), is seen to ‘‘round itself off” that is not the effect of physiological or vital contractility, but is a simple consequence of surface tension— of the law of the minimal surface; and on the physiclogical side, Engelmann, Biitschli, and others have gone far in their development of the idea. Plateau, I think, was the first to show that the myriad sticky drops or beads upon the weft of a spider’s web, their form, their size, their distance apart, and the presence of the tiny inter- mediate drops between, were in every detail explicable as the result of surface tension, through the law of minimal surface and through the corollary to it which defines the limits of stability of the cylinder; and, accordingly, that with their production the will or effort or intelligence of the spider had nothing to do. The beaded form of a long, thin pseudopodium, for instance, of a Heliozoan, is an identical phenomenon. It was Errera who first conceived the idea that not only the naked surface of the cell but the contiguous surfaces of two naked celis, or the delicate incipient cell membrane or cell wall between, might be regarded as a weightless film whose position and form were assumed in obedience to surface tension. And it was he who first showed that the symmetrical forms of the unicellular and simpler multicellular organisms, up to the point where the develop- ment of a skeleton complicates the case, were one and all identical with the plane, sphere, cylinder, unduloid, and catenoid, or with combinations of these. Berthold and Errera almost simultaneously showed (the former in far the greater detail) that in a plant each new cell partition follows the law of minimal surface and tends (ac- cording to another law, which I have not particularized) to set itself at right angles to the preceding solidified wall, so giving a simple and adequate physical explanation of what Sachs had stated as an empirical morphological rule. And Berthold further showed how, when the cell partition was curved, its precise curvature, as well as its position, was in accordance with physical law. There are a vast number of other things that we can satisfactorily explain on the same principle and by the same laws. The beautiful catenary curve of the edge of the pseudopodium, as it creeps up its axial rod in a Heliozoan or a Radiolarian, the hexagonal mesh of bubbles or vacuoles on the surface of the same creatures, the form of the little groove that runs round the waist of a Peridinian even (as I believe) the existence, form and undulatory movements of the undulatory membrane of a Trypanosome, or of that around the tail of the spermatozoon of a newt—every one of these, I declare, is a GREATER PROBLEMS OF BIOLOGY—THOMPSON. 389 case where the resultant form can be well explained by, and can not possibly be understood without, the phenomena of surface tension. Indeed, in many of the simpler cases, the facts are so well explained by surface tension that it is difficult to find place for a conflicting, much less an overriding force. I believe, for my own part, that even the beautiful and varied forms of the foraminifera may be ascribed to the same cause, but here the problem is a little more complex, by reason of the successive consolidations of the shell. Suppose the first cell or chamber to be formed, assuming its globular shape in obedience to our law, and then to secrete its calcareous envelope. The new growing bud of protoplasm, accumulating outside the shell, will, in strict accordance with the surface tensions concerned, either fail to “wet” or to adhere to the first-formed shell, and will so detach itself as a unicellular indi- vidual (Orbulina); or else it will flow over a less or greater part of the original shell, until its free surface meets it at the required angle of equilibrium. Then, according to this angle, the second chamber may happen to be all but detached (Globigerina), or, with all inter- mediate degrees, may very nearly wholly enwrap the first. Take any specific angle of contact, and presume the same conditions to be maintained, and therefore the same angle to be repeated as each successive chamber follows on the one before; and you will thereby build up regular forms, spiral or alternate, that correspond with marvelous accuracy to the actual forms of the foraminifera. And this case is all the more interesting, because the allied and successive forms so obtained differ only in degree, in the magnitude of a single physical or mathematical factor; in other words, we get not only individual phenomena, but lines of apparent orthogenesis, that seem explicable by physical laws, and attributable to the continuity between successive states in the continuous or gradual variations of a physical condition. The resemblance between allied and related forms, as Hartmann demonstrated, and Giard admitted years ago, is not always, however often, to be explained by common descent and parentage.! In the segmenting egg we have the simpler phenomenon of a laminar system, uncomplicated by the presence of a solid framework; and here, in the earliest stages of segmentation, it is easy to see the correspondence of the planes of division with what the laws of surface tension demand. For instance, it is not the case (though the ele- mentary books often represent it so) that when the totally segment- ing egg has divided into four segments, these ever remain in contact at asingle point; the arrangement would be unstable, and the position untenable. But the laws of surface tension are at once seen to be 1 Cf. Giard, ‘‘ Discours inaugurale,”’ Bull. Scientif., iii, p. 1, 1888. 390 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. obeyed, when we recognize the little cross-furrow that separates the blastomeres, two and two, leaving in each case three only to meet at a point in our diagram, which point is in reality a section of a ridge or crest. Very few have tried, and one or two (I know) have tried and not succeeded, to trace the action and the effects of surface tension in the case of a highly complicated, multisegmented egg. But it is not surprising if the difficulties which such a case presents appear to be formidable. Even the conformation of the interior of a soap froth, though absolutely conditioned by surface tension, presents great difficulties, and it was only in the last years of Lord Kelvin’s life that he showed all previous workers to have been in error regarding the form of the interior cells. But what for us does all this amount to? It at least suggests the possibility of so far supporting the observed facts of organic form on mathematical principles as to bring morphology within or very near to Kant’s demand that a true natural science should be justified by its relation to mathematics.!. But if we were to carry these principles further and to succeed in proving them applicable in detail, even to the showing that the manifold segmentation of the egg was but an exquisite froth, would it wholly revolutionize our biological ideas? It would greatly modify some of them, and some of the most cherished ideas of the majority of embryologists; but I think that the way is already paved for some such modification. When Loeb and others have shown us that half, or even a small portion of an egg, or a single one of its many blastospheres, can give rise to an entire embryo, and that in some cases any part of the ovum can originate any part of the organism, surely our eyes are turned to the energies inherent in the matter of the egg (not to speak of a presiding entelechy), and away from its original formal operations of division. Sedgwick has told us for many years that we look too much to the individuality of the individual cell, and that the organism, at least in the embryonic body, is a continuous syncytium. Hofmeister and Sachs have repeatedly told us that in the plant, the growth of the mass, the erowth of the organ, is the primary fact; and De Bary has summed up the matter in his aphorism, Die Pflanze bildet Zellen, nicht die Zelle bildet Pflanzen. And in many other ways the extreme position of the cell theory, that the cells are the ulimate individuals, and that the organism is but a colony of quasi independent cells, has of late years been called in question. There are no problems connected with morphology that appeal so closely to my mind, or to my temperament, as those that are related 1 “‘Tch behaupte aber dass in jeder besonderen Naturlehre nur so viel eigentliche Wissenschaft angetrofien werden kénne, als darin Mathematik anzutreffen ist.” Kant, in Preface to Metaphys. Anfangsgriinde der Naturwissenschaft (Werke, ed. Hartenstein, vol. iv., p. 360). GREATER PROBLEMS OF BIOLOGY—THOMPSON. 891 to mechanical considerations, to mathematical laws, or to physical and chemical processes. T love to think of the logarithmic spiral that is engraven over the grave of that great anatomist, John Goodsir (as it was over that of the greatest of the Bernouillis), so graven because it interprets the form of every molluscan shell, of tusk and horn and claw, and many another organic form besides. I like to dwell upon those lines of mechanical stress and strain in a bone, that give it its strength where strength is required, that Hermann Meyer and J. Wolff described, and on which Roux has bestowed some of his most thoughtful work; or on the kindred conformations that Schwendener, botanist and engineer, demonstrated in the plant; or on the ‘‘stream- lines” in the bodily form of fish or bird, from which the naval archi- tect and the aviator have learned so much. I admire that old paper of Peter Harting’s, in which he paved the way for investigation of the origin of spicules, and of all the questions of crystallization or pseudocrystallization in presence of colloids, on which subject Lehmann has written his recent and beautiful book. I sympathize with the efforts of Henking, Rhumbler, Hartog, Gallardo, Leduc, and others to explain on physical lines the phenomena of nuclear division. And, as I have said, I believe that the forces of surface tension, elasticity, and pressure are adequate to account for a great multitude of the simpler phenomena, and the permutations and combinations thereof, that are illustrated in organic form. I might well have devoted this essay to these questions, and to these alone. But I was loath to do so, lest I shouid seem to overrate their importance and to appear to you as an advocate of a purely mechanical biology. I believe all these phenomena to have been unduly neglected, and to call for more attention than they have received, but I know well that though we push such explanations to the uttermost and learn much in the so doing, they will not touch the heart of the great problems that lie deeper than the physical plane. Over the ultimate problems and causes of vitality we shall be left wondering still. To a man of letters and the world like Addison, it came as a sort of revelation that light and color were not objective things but subjective, and that back of them lay only motion or vibration, some simple activity. And when he wrote his essay on these startling discoveries, he found for it, from Ovid, a motto well worth bearing in mind, causa latet, vis est notissima. We may with advantage recollect it when we seek and find the force that produces a direct effect, but stand in utter perplexity before the manifold and trans- cendent meanings of that great word cause. The similarity between organic forms and those that physical agencies are competent to produce still leads some men, such as 392 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. Stephane Leduc, to doubt or to deny that there is any gulf between and to hold that spontaneous generation or the artificial creation of the living is but a footstep away. Others, like Delage and many more, see in the contents of the cell only a complicated chemistry and in variation only a change in the nature and arrangement of the chemical constituents. They either cling to a belief in “heredity” or (like Delage himself) replace it more or less completely by the effects of functional use and by chemical stimulation from without and from within. Yet others, like Felix Auerbach, still holding to a physical or quasi physical theory of life, believe that in the living body the dissipation of energy is controlled by a guiding principle, as though by Clerk Maxwell’s demons; that for the living the law of entropy is thereby reversed; and that life itself is that which has been evolved to counteract and battle with the dissipation of energy. Berthold, who first demonstrated the obedience to. physical laws in the fundamental phenomena of the dividing cell or segmenting egg, recognizes, almost in the words of John Hunter, a quality in the living protoplasm, sui generis, whereby its maintenance, increase, and repro- duction are achieved. Driesch, who began as a ‘‘mechanist,”’ now, as we have seen, harks back straight to Aristotle, to a twin or triple doctrine of the soul. And Bergson, rising into heights of metaphysics where the biologist, qua biologist, can not climb, tells us (ike Duran) that life transcends teleology, that the conceptions of mechanism and finality fail to satisfy, and that only ‘‘in the absolute do we live and move and have our being.” We end but a little way from where we began. With all the growth of knowledge, with all the help of all the sciences impinging on our own, it is yet manifest, I think, that the biologists of to-day are in no self-satisfied and exultant mood. The reasons that for a time contented a past generation call for reinquiry, and out of the old solutions new questions emerge, and the ultimate problems are as inscrutable as of old. That which, above all things, we would explain baffles explanation; and that the living organism is a living organism tends to reassert itself as the biologist’s fundamental con- ception and fact. Nor will even this concept serve us and suffice us when we approach the problems of consciousness and intelligence and the mystery of the reasoning soul; for these things are not for the biologist at all, but constitute the psychologist’s scientific domain. In wonderment, says Aristotle, does philosophy begin,! and more than once he repeats the saying-and more than once he rings the changes on the theme. Now, as in the beginning, wonderment and admiration are the portion of the biologist, as of all those who con- template the heavens and the earth, the sea, and all that in them is. 1 Metaph., I, ii, 9820, 12, ete. GREATER PROBLEMS OF BIOLOGY—THOMPSON. 393 And if wonderment springs, as again Aristotle tells us, from ignor- ance of the causes of things, it does not cease when we have traced and discovered.the proximate causes, the physical causes, the efficient causes of our phenomena. For behind and remote from physical causation lies the end, the final cause of the philosopher, the reason why, in the which are hidden the problems of organic harmony and autonomy, and the mysteries of apparent purpose, adaptation, fitness, and design. Here, in the region. of teleology, the plain rationalism that guided us through the physical facts and causes begins to disappoint us, and intuition, which is of close kin to faith, begins to make herself heard. And so it is that, as in wonderment does all philosophy begin, so in amazement does Plato teach us that all our philosophy comes to an end.t. Ever and anon, in presence of the magnalia naturae, we feel inclined to say with the poet, Od ydo te viv ye KayOEc, GAN’ det rote Zod tairca, Kobdste otdev éF Otov ’pdyy. ‘These things are not of to-day nor yesterday, but evermore, and no man knoweth whence they came.” JT will not quote the noblest words of all that come into my mind, but only the lesser language of another of the greatest of the Greeks: ‘‘The ways of His thoughts are as paths in a wood thick with leaves, and one seeth through them but a little way.” 1 Cf. Coleridge, Biogr. Lit. A HISTORY OF CERTAIN GREAT HORNED OWILS.! [With 8 plates.] ; By Cuartes R. Keyes. My experiences with great horned owls (Bubo virginianus, espe- cially with a pair under my observation for several years, have often suggested a contrast and comparison with Mr. Finley’s work on the California condor. In several respects our subjects and experiences show a certain broad resemblance. Both birds belong to the family of birds of prey, the one being the largest of the North American vul- tures, the other the greatest of all the owls. The condor has passed into legend and literature as the largest bird of flight and the most graceful when on the wing; the great horned owl occupies a place no less important in legend and literature as the symbol of brooding wis- dom and solemn mystery. In both our studies, too, the rare privilege was enjoyed of extending our observations over the whole home period of the bird’s life, from the eggs in the nest to the young ready for their first excursion into the outside world. In most respects, however, our stories are as much in contrast as they could well be. The condors had their home in one of the wildest and most inaccessible of Californian mountain regions; from their nest rim the owls could look out upon five farmhouses, with their numerous outbuildings, and one schoolhouse, all within a radius of 500 yards, and all neighbors of other homesteads and schoolhouses set down in the very peaceful and nonmountainous State of Iowa. The con- dors, in their wild environment, were tame and well-disposed from the first and grew constantly more docile as the study of their home life proceeded, proving to be, apparently, the gentlest of all the raptorial birds; the great horned owls, with surroundings that would seem to teach peace, had bad dispositions to begin with, and these con- stantly grew worse, until, after six weeks of suspense and with the longest of our claw marks still unhealed, my assistant and I felt a sense of relief when the young owls finally took to the tree tops, leaving us with fairly whole physiognomies and the feeling that we 1 Reprinted by permission from The Condor, a magazine of western ornithology, Hollywood, Cal., vol. 13, No. 1, January-February, 1911, pp. 5-19. 395 396 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. had done the best we could, under the circumstances, to preserve the record of an unusual set of conditions. The great horned owls had proved to be, without much doubt, the fiercest of all the birds of prey. In one further respect, unfortunately, our experiences were in contrast to those of Mr. Finley and Mr. Bohlman. We found it impossible, by any means at our command, to secure satisfactory negatives of the adult birds... We were unable to take them at distances of less than 30 feet, and in every case they so blended with their background of gray bark, or gray bark and patches of snow, as not to be worth while. We regretted our inability to try the effect of a blind to operate from, but the mechanical difficulties in the way of such an attempt demanded more time for their solution than we had to give. We therefore gave our attention to the nest and contents, or rather as” much attention as the old birds would allow us to give. As the adults were necessarily much under observation, it is hoped that a record of their conduct may add some interest to the present article. The beautiful deciduous forest, stretching for miles along the north bluffs of the Cedar River to the west of Mount Vernon, had by 1890 been reduced to various detached groves of from 10 to 100 or more acres each in extent. About February of this latter year I was hunting through one of the larger of these groves, which, if one struck straight across the fields, was only a mile and a half from town. I remember watching the short, uneasy flights of a great horned owl, but without locating his mate. I also remember talking with Mr. McFarland, a sturdy Scotchman who has occupied his homestead just across the road from the owls’ hunting grounds since the early fifties, and learning that ‘“‘big hoot owls have always been in that timber.’ Soon after the great oaks and hard maples of the eastern two-thirds of the grove fell under the ax, leaving to the west only a 25-acre remnant and, in the cut-over area, only some old white elms and a few young maples and lindens. Among these latter the forest soil soon gave way to a thick carpet of blue grass, and so what had been heavy forest was gradually transformed into a rather open and still very beautiful timber pasture. It was taken for granted that the owls had moved elsewhere, and for a series of years what had been famous Sugar Grove was practically forgotten. From 1901 on, how- ever, my way several times led across the pasture and into the timber tract, and I was surprised to note there each time the presence of great horned owls. Once or twice I even took some pains to find a possible nesting site. There appeared to be none, so I concluded that the owls were merely transients. On February 6, 1906, just at nightfall a friend and I were walking along the public highway which 1 The portrait of the adult owl shown herewith (pl. 2,) was taken several years ago from a fine specimen brought in to the Cornell College biological laboratory. The picture was made by a student of zoology, who left the negative as property of the college. HISTORY OF CERTAIN GREAT HORNED OWLS—KEYES. 397 forms the north boundary of the pasture and the woods. Suddenly the hooting of big owls boomed out from a near-by linden of the timber pasture, and there, sure enough, were both birds engaged in ardent courtship and not minding our presence in the least. They stood facing each other on the same branch and, with feathers ruffled and heads bobbing, were hooting in low tones as they side-stepped toward one another and greeted one another with low bows. Finally they flew away, side by side, into the timber tract. That these were transient birds was beyond belief; so, on February 17, after allowing what seemed to be a fair margin of time, I decided to give the vicinity a thorough search. To make the story short, the nest was at last found in the very place where previously it had not seemed worth while to look. It was not in the heavy timber at all, but in one of the large elms of the pasture, and, moreover, hardly more than 50 yards removed from the above-mentioned public road where teams were constantly passing. ‘Toward the south the view was wild, open, and picturesque enough; to the west, north, and east, at distances varying from 200 to 500 yards, were the schoolhouse and farmhouses, as above stated. A more fortunate set of conditions for the study of the owls’ home life could hardly be hoped for. The short distance from town has already been indicated. The nest was in a large shallow hollow, 28 by 32 inches in diameter at the bottom, with an entrance 18 by 20 inches in diameter set at an angle of 45° and facing toward the south- east. The hollow was only 8 inches deep on the exposed side, thus permitting fairly good illumination. Of still more importance the nest site was only 22 feet from the ground and a strategic branch some 5 feet above the nest afforded a point of attachment for a ladder combination from which pictures might be taken. As great horned owls generally make use of old hawks’ nests placed in the tops of the largest trees the good fortune of this modest elevation can readily be appreciated. At the very moment when this nest was discovered a second pair of these birds was domiciled in a redtail’s nest placed in a tall white elm in heavy timber 34 miles to the northwest and just -92 feet above the ground. Further, the proximity of farmhouses made certain the necessary supply of ladders and ropes. Mr. Bene- dict, who lived just across the road and only 200 yards to the east, and Mr. McFarland, whose house stood only 75 yards farther to the east, were our interested and generous benefactors. Our oppor- tunities were indeed great and, as I said, we greatly regretted our inability to make better use of them. The weather on February 17 was fairly moderate, with the snow melting shghtly, though the preceding days from February 6 had been stormy enough, with temperatures as severe as 10 below zero. But the sittmg bird was wonderfully protected from the storm > 398 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. winds of the north and west and flushed from three large perfect eggs that lay in a slight hollow of the decayed wood on the north side of the cavity. It seemed to me out of the question, with such temper- atures as February and March were sure to bring, to obtain any pictures without having the owls put their date a little later in the season; so, after a little quick thought, I pocketed these eggs and - went home. My conviction that the owls would not abandon so ideal a site after a probable occupancy of years was fully confirmed when, on March 23, three more eggs were found, just like the first and lying in exactly the same little hollow. Saturday, April 7, was the first warm day of spring. On this day Mr. W. W. White, a student in Cornell College, and I made the first attempts to secure pictures of the owls’ home and surroundings. Mr. White’s ingenuity proved greater than my own and to him are to be credited the scheme for getting a camera within range of the nest and the successful picture of the eggs in situ. He also took the front view of the nest tree, looking northwest and showing the general situation and the interesting structure of the big elm itself. I merely helped him with the necessary ladders and ropes. Our two 20-foot ladders, lashed together and drawn up with a guy rope so as to rest on the aforesaid strategic branch, made anything but a solid founda- tion from which to work. Nevertheless all the near views of the nest were taken from this unsteady perch, the camera being tied with strings to the sides and rungs of the topmost ladder. On April 14 two young were found in the nest and the remaining ege was much pipped. Both young were entirely blind and only one gave much sign of life. This was done by uttering a querulous little note somewhat like that of a very young chicken when excited but not sufficiently frightened to peep. The older one was able to hold its head up slightly while the smaller was entirely helpless. Both shivered as if from cold, the day being cool and showery. In the nest cavity were a headless bobwhite and the hind parts of an adult cottontail rabbit. The weather conditions prevented our trying to secure a negative. On April 19 only two young were found in the nest, with nothing at all to indicate the fate of the third egg. The young appeared quite lifeless, allowing their bills, which were of a slaty color with darker tips, to rest in the decayed wood of the nest bottom. The feather sheaths were pushing out on the dorsal and scapular tracts, and at the tips of these the brown juvenile plumage was beginning to show. The primary quills were also sprouting but the feathers themselves were still entirely concealed. The nest cavity contained a headless adult rabbit and a headless coot, also the hind parts of a young rabbit about the size of a striped gopher. No assistant was available on this day. On April 21 the young showed very noticeable increase in size, the brown feathers now showing HISTORY OF CERTAIN GREAT HORNED OWLS—KEYES. 399 all over the dorsal and scapular areas. The eyes had partially opened in the form of a rather narrow ellipse. Still quite listless the young emitted the querulous note as described but did not snap their mandibles. The view inside the nest hollow was rather a pitiful one. In addition to half a coot and half a rabbit (probably the leavings of two days before) there lay scattered about four young cottontails hardly as large as an adult striped gopher. Two were whole, one headless, and only the hind parts of the fourth remained. A high wind and a chilly day caused Mr. White and me to lose this extraordi- nary picture. By April 26 the eyes of the young birds were nearly or quite open, the iris being of a milky yellow or light lemon yellow. The mandibles, which were now grayish yellow in color, were snapped vigorously. The primary quills were an inch and a half long, the feathers just beginning to show at the tips. The food in the nest consisted of the hind parts of an adult cottontail, an entire striped gopher and a headless bobwhite. Various feathers of a flicker also indicated a capture of this species. I was again without an assistant. On April 28, with the help of Mr. George H. Burge, I was able to repeat Mr. White’s performance of three weeks before and get a successful negative of the nest and contents. The young were now 2 weeks old, still quite drowsy and inert, and entirely disinclined to open their eyes toward the light. The only food in the nest was the hind quarters of an adult cottontail. Thus, for 1906, weather conditions thought to be insuperable and frequent inability to get a helper when one was needed had permitted a net return of only three good negatives. Further trips were made alone to the owls’ home and a few further observations recorded. By May 9 the young seemed to have doubled in size and were wide- awake and combative. In size they were even then, at 3} weeks, as large in appearance as a two-thirds grown Plymouth Rock hen. In the nest lay the hind quarters of an adult rabbit, a headless young rabbit about one-third grown, and a large headless brown rat. Being away from town myself, on May 16 Mr. White, with a student assistant, went to the timber pasture intending to secure a fourth picture. The nest was found empty, the owlets having occupied it this season only about 4 weeks. Soon after that, as I learned from one of the neighbors, two little girls gathering flowers in the timber tract came across both owlets as they were scrambling along the ground and evidently still unable to fly. The girls reported the strange creatures to a hired man who was temporarily in the neighbor- hood and he hunted up the ‘‘varmints”’ and clubbed them to death. The real neighbors of the owls would not have done this. They were all interested in the big birds and all reported that their large flocks of chickens had not suffered from their presence. 400 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. A further word should be added on the behavior of the adult birds during the first season. With two of us at the nest their demonstra- tions, although energetic enough, never proved dangerous. Both birds merely came near, flying back and forth at distances varying from 30 to 100 feet, snapping their mandibles, ruffling their feathers, and hooting out vigorous protests. It was different when one person was at the nest alone. On April 28 I had arrived at the old elm about 20 minutes ahead of Mr. Burge and, standing on the next to the top round of a 20-foot ladder, was making some examination of the young and the other contents of the nest cavity. The ladder necessarily stood as nearly vertical as possible to reach the cavity at all and, as the big tree was about 5 feet in diameter just below the hollow, the hold was none too secure. Fortunately a small hori- zontal branch shot out from the heavy trunk on the northeast side and against this the top 3 inches of the ladder found some support. Without this I dislike to thnk what might have happened when that stunning blow came in from the south quarter. It was absolutely unexpected and so violent as to leave the left side of my head quite numb. With my hand I discovered that blood was running down my cheek and a quick glance around showed my assailant step- ping up and down on a nearby limb and clearly ready to come again. Under the circumstances I slid down the ladder to firmer vantage ground. The slash, which began on the left cheek and ran across the left ear, was rather ugly but not dangerous. Considering the eight claws of a great horned owl, each 14 inches in length, I had gotten off easily. Evidently only one claw had taken effect, the curvature of the great tree trunk and my clinging position over the nest rim having given, doubtless, some protection. The numbness was probably caused by the stroke of a rushing wing. When on May 9 I was again compelled to visit fhe nest alone I knew what to expect and so was constantly on my guard. About 3 seconds’ study of the young birds and nest contents was alternated with about the same amount of scrutiny of the immediate horizon. In this way it was possible to define an adult owl’s manner of attack. Three times on this occasion one of the birds flew in from a neigh- boring tree and with strong stroke of wing came straight at my head. It was not at all the stoop of hawk or falcon, but rather the onrush of a heavy projectile with a very flat trajectory. Like a large projectile, too, the flight was visible and so all the more disconcert- ing; unlike a projectile, it was noiseless as a flying shadow. Audubon speaks of the hunting flight of the great horned owl as possessing incomparable velocity and, kind reader, I am quite ready to agree with him. The big bird, perched on a branch from 30 to 50 feet away, first shifts nervously from one foot to the other, then launches swiftly into space. There is just time to brace oneself a little, swing HISTORY OF CERTAIN GREAT HORNED OWLS—KEYES. 401 a one’s cap, and quickly duck one’s head as the great missile rushes past. The owl keeps straight on her course and alights with heavy impact on a branch of a neighboring tree. Here she faces about and very likely comes straight back again. This process became finally a bit too exciting and, after making certain that the headless quad- ruped lying in the nest over behind the owlets was just a big house rat, I slipped down the ladder and went home. February 7, 1907, was cold and clear after the terrific snowstorm of the night before. On this day Mr. James R. Smith, a young farmer of the vicinity who had always been interested in birds and who was destined to be my skillful assistant throughout the season, accom- panied me to the snow-covered timber pasture. As we approached the nest tree of the year before a fox squirrel leaped from one of the smaller adjacent trees and, starting up the big elm, ran along the rim of the great knothole which formed the owls’ doorway and _ scampered onto a topmost branch. If the owl were at home the saucy fellow surely passed within 10 inches of her face. For a moment we felt dubious as to the nest being occupied. As we approached the tree, however, a great horned owl flew from one of the higher branches, aroused either by the squirrel or, more likely, by our own approach. This was more favorable. We gave the tree a few kicks, when the sitting bird hopped up lightly to the rim of the cavity, looked across the white landscape for several seconds, then spread her nearly 5 feet of wings and flew silently away. Our first mistake for 1907 was in not looking into the nest on this first day. Our reasons for not doing so were the belief that the set of eggs could hardly be complete at this time and especially the fear that the egg or eggs could not stand exposure even for a short time on so cold a day. My present belief is that this fear was unfounded. Just two days later, on February 9, at about 3 o’clock in the afternoon, I visited the nest again and found the set of three eges complete. These were lying in a slight hollow as before, but as far back in the cavity as possible. Except for a small space about the eggs the house was filled, even to the doorsill, with snow. It was a picture, indeed, but one over which we did not dare tarry in freezing weather. All the eggs were nest stained and it did not look as if any one of them had been laid that day. However, this was uncertain, and I had lost a possible opportunity of learning just when the set became complete. This was regrettable, for no one seems to know the period of incubation of an egg of the great horned owl. The older ornithologists made their guess at 3 weeks. Bendire later expresses his belief that this period is too short and that 4 weeks is probably nearer to the truth. I have not determined the point, though my data still possesses some interest. Toward the end of the 38734°—sm 1911——26 402 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. td month I began to visit the nest as often as possible to ascertain as nearly as I could when the chicks appeared and how long the hatch- ing process lasted. It was not until March 6, at 2 p. m., that I found one of the eggs pipped, a small round area no larger than a pea being broken. On March 7 at the same hour the broken area was the size of a dime. I could distinctly hear, however, several times repeated, the low twittered note of the still imprisoned chick. The other eggs still showed no sign. Bad weather and pressure of other work now prevented a further visit until March 11 at 2.30 o’clock. Two very callow owlets were now in the nest and one slightly pipped egg. The young birds were not completely protected by their white down as yet, the bare skin being visible between the tracts. On March 16 three young owls of different sizes were found in the nest, one being quite markedly smaller than the other two. The query remains: How long does it take a great horned owl’s egg to hatch? The above are the data kept and anyone can make estimates on them. It seems certain that these birds did not lay an egg oftener than once in two days and that the period of incubation could not have been less than 30 days, with the probabilities on the side of a rather longer pericd. Yor our second year’s work we had the experience of the first to go on, we were more confident of the owlets’ ability to bear exposure, and so decided to photograph them at least once a week, let the weather offer what it would. And the offerings were of sufficient variety. On March 16, with the young 4, 6, and 8 days old, approxi- mately, the temperature was well above freezing and comfortable, but we were unable to expose a plate until 4 p. m., the sun became covered with black clouds, and we were on the shady side of the tree. We were not hopeful, but a long exposure accomplished our purpose. In addition to the parts of three adult cottontails and one bobwhite, which the camera shows, a fourth rabbit and a second bobwhite, also a plump field mouse, do not appear in the picture, being tucked away under the overhanging roof to the left or buried under other remains. It was chilly on March 30 and a high wind was blowing in from the northwest. On April 13 we had a regular northwest gale to contend with and freezing temperature added. We varied our work with the camera by runs across the frozen timber pasture. Why it was that our negatives taken on these last two dates did not show motion we have never satisfactorily explained to ourselves, for only time expo- sures could be used. Certain it is that both the big elm and our nearly 30-foot stretch of ladder were swaying back and forth under the lash of that roaring wind. The gentle rain that was falling when, on April 18, Mr. Benedict helped me bring the now lively owlets to the base of the old nest tree, proved to be really no obstacle at all. It splashed water against the lens of the camera but the negatives HISTORY OF CERTAIN GREAT HORNED OWLS—KEYES. 403 eave no sign. The first fine weather of spring was calling forth the backward buds of the young hard maples when, on April 22, the owlets posed for the last time on an old oak stump, just east of the nest tree. The weather encountered on dates not mentioned was composed of variations of the above, but the rule was freezing tem- peratures, with high winds. Under all the conditions the young owls thrived and did not seem to mind seriously our intrusion into their home life. During the season of 1907 the food contents found in the nest cavity were as follows: Five bobwhites, 2 meadow mice, 1 domestic pigeon, 1 flicker, 2 American coots, 1 king rail, 19 adult cottontails. This list is not, of course, an accurate account of the various captures brought to the nest. It merely records what was seen there on the 16 trips made. The same bird or mammal was doubtless sometimes counted twice, and captures were in all probability brought in of which no remnants were seen. J think net more than 3 different bobwhites were seen, quite likely only 2, and the number of cotton- tails is also probably too high. The fact seems to be that both birds and quadrupeds of the larger size, after being eaten from the head to the tougher hind parts, were then left two or three days untouched and finally removed from the nest altogether. These were not dropped about the base of the tree, however, and in fact no trace of food remnants was found at any time except in the nest itself. That some refuse was removed from the nest seems probable from such facts as the following: The above-mentioned 2 bobwhites, 1 meadow mouse, and 4 rabbits found in the nest cavity on March 16 were all in fairly whole condition, aside from the heads. On March 23 parts of 5 rabbits were found, represented by the hind quarters only, and 1 bobwhite with the breast eaten away. These were mostly rather desiccated remnants and I took them to be, for the most part, leftovers from the week before. On March 30 the nest was entirely clean except for a freshly killed white pigeon. Generally speaking, the nest cavity was well kept, a fact which seemed to indi- cate removal of the excrement of the young by the old birds. Our second season’s active work with the owls was not without its exciting features. Twice when alone I had had, in spite of close watchfulness, pretty close brushes with one of the old birds. But it was not until the young were removed from the nest for the last two attempts to get clearer pictures that there was any real element of danger. With the three pugnacious owlets grouped on the ground at the base of the nest tree, both old birds now closed in, teetering and dancing and hooting on branches about 30 feet from our heads or brushing close past us as they took up new positions or sought for an opening. Mr. Benedict, who was my helper this time, literally stood guard over me as, with camera close to the ground, I stooped 404 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. under the focusing cloth. Except for his full-voiced yells and well- aimed sticks I am sure my position would have been utterly untenable. The last try for pictures, when the young were placed on the old stump a few feet to the east of the big elm, did not pass off so smoothly. Whether the city friend who had become interested in the proceed- ings and who was this time trusted as my bodyguard was less effective with voice and missiles than he should have been, or whether the owls no longer feared an ordinary demonstration, it would be hard to say. Two of the youngsters were already on the oak stump and I was somewhere aloft in quest of the third. Presumably I was either just reaching over the nest rim for the last snapping owlet or else had just started down with him. My memory has never been clear on the point nor was my excited friend ever able to elucidate fully. At any rate my position for the moment must have been strategically bad. The sharp ery ‘‘Look out” barely gave me time to duck my head, when a resounding whack was administered across my shoulders. This was not damaging, but the return stroke would come quickly and doubtless be better placed. It came and I ducked again, but not quite far enough, or possibly not at exactly the right instant. The shock was profound. The list of damages showed three scalp wounds from 1 inch to nearly 3 inches in length, while my cap had disappeared entirely from the scene. This was later found under a tree some hundred yards to the south, a punctured souvenir of our last intimate contact with the great horned owls. After each sitting the young were replaced in the nest and two days after the stormy last one, on April 24, the house was found empty and the family was in the treetops. It will be noted that the owlets remained in the nest about two weeks longer in 1907 than in 1906. One youngster was in the very top branches of the old elm of his nativity, fully 50 feet above the deserted home or more than 70 feet above the ground; another was 100 yards away in the timber tract and some 18 feet up in a linden; both were motionless and inconspicuous among the budding branches. In the time at disposal the third brother could not be found. Two days before this the young had shown neither inclination nor ability to fly. It seems certain that no one of them could have mounted a vertical distance of 50 feet through any powers of his own. The conclusion seems inevitable that in some way the old birds carried the young to the places where I found them. But the secret belongs to the owls, for no one witnessed the leave-taking. A little more than two months passed by and on a walk through their now heavily foliaged retreat two great heavy owls, seemingly, and doubtless actually, larger than adults, were startled from the ground near some prostrate tree trunks, from which they flew slowly into the nearby trees. Almost at the same moment a third dropped HISTORY OF CERTAIN GREAT HORNED OWLS—KEYES. . 405 from the lower branches of an oak and took up a new position, deeper in the shadows of the woods. So far as mere size was concerned the owlets had reached and even surpassed the adult owl estate, though probably still under the care and tutelage of their elders. From now on they would need to shrink and harden into the strength and agility necessary to enter the competition of adult owl life and maintain themselves in the general struggle for existence. February of 1908 again found Mr. Smith and me rapping anxiously at the old elm of the timber pasture. With the facilities at our dis- posal we could accomplish little more with the young birds, but during the year we had formulated a plan by which there might be a bare possibility of securing a portrait of the old owl as she sat within her doorway. Our hopes were raised by the reports of both Mr. Benedict and Mr. McFarland that, as the nesting season approached, the owls had been heard hooting as usual. Our misgivings began when we found piled about the nest tree the cordwood from a number of the neighboring young lindens. The old nest cavity was found empty. The owls were able to endure intrusion into their home life for two seasons, but evidently did not take kindly to radical changes in their immediate environment. A mile west of the old home is another forest fragment of perhaps 60 acres and in this a pair of red-tailed hawks had built their bulky aerie in a tall white-ash tree, 75 feet from the ground. Following the custom of most of their tribe when suitable hollow trees are no longer to be had, the big owls appropriated this new refuge and in it, in spite of rain, sleet, snow, and wind, successfully raised their brood, To be sure we had no exact proof that these were the very owls with which we had dealt in other years, nevertheless we felt morally certain. The new locality was the nearest available one and for many years, until 1908, had not boasted its pair of owls. The years 1909 and 1910 add nothing new to the history of the owls except that in the former year a January gale destroyed the nest in the ash tree and the valiant pair were apparently forced to a new, but similar, retreat. Their history, so far as we were concerned, was aclosed one. During the season of 1907 I had located five pairs of great horned owls within a radius of 7 miles of Mount Vernon. None of these could be intimately studied except the pair whose history I have tried to trace. In February of 1910 I again tried to locate breeding birds of this species, but without success. In spite of the big fellow’s tenacity in clinging to a locality once chosen, in spite of his clever- ness in escaping observation, it almost seems now that the coming of the shotgun army and the going of the protecting forests were gradually making the great horned owl, along with many another species without which the woods are stiller and humanity poorer, in the more settled parts of our country at least, a member of a slowly vanishing race. vat Biro iLawol’ rd wire “| 3LV1d ssokay— 1161 ‘Hodey uxiuosyziws Smithsonian Report, 1911.—Keyes. PLATE 2. Fic. 1.—ADULT MALE GREAT HORNED OWL; DuRING A DAY’S CAPTIVITY HE WAS SILENT, PROUD, AND DEFIANT. Fic. 2.—A PORTION OF THE OWLS’ HUNTING RANGE AS SEEN FROM THE PUBLIC HIGHWAY; Nest TREE ON EXTREME RIGHT. Smithsonian Report, 1911.—Keyes. PLATE 3. Fic. 1.—THE Owls’ NESTING TIME; FROM TOWN THE TIMBER TRACT AND ENVIRONMENT ARE SEEN IN PANORAMIC VIEW. Fie. 2.—THE OLD ELM WITH THE NEST CAVITY IS IN ITSELF A NATURAL Curiosity; VIEW NORTHWEST Smithsonian Report, 1911.—Keyes. PLATE 4. FEBRUARY 7, 1907; THE GRAY PLUMAGE AND WHITE THROAT PATCH OF THE OLD OWL SITTING ON THE RIM OF THE NEST CAVITY BLEND PERFECTLY WITH THE BARK AND SNOW. Smithsonian Report, 1911.—Keyes. PLATE 5. = Wig es Fe Fic. 1.—MarcH 16, 1907; WHERE THE DEAD ARE More IN EVIDENCE THAN THE LIVING; OWLETS 4, 6, AND 8 DAYS OLD. Fic. 2.—MARCH 30, 1907; OWLETS 18, 20, AND 22 Days OLD. PLATE 6. Fic. 2.—APRIL 18, 1907; AT THE BASE OF THE OLD NEST TREE; YOUNG 37, 39, AND 41 Days OLD. PLATE 7. Smithsonian Report, 1911.—Keyes. Q Zz < te a uw of > - 5 = < (9) [og Ww Ww g P, SS a n nD = > iu < Ss Q ° Ps eae H a: 216) <5 > as at aq > Zz Sp fee Gite) ra ao ke s Sz as cr 8 re Ea ro] ce =! a a < < if | - a 2 S jie —= ir PLATE 8. Smithsonian Report, 1911.—Keyes. THE OWL Home oF 1908; A VAIN Look ALOFT. THE PASSENGER PIGEON. [With 1 colored plate.] Accounts by Preur Kaw (1759) and Jonn James AUDUBON (1831). [The former habitat of the passenger pigeon (Ectopistes migratorius) as given by the American Ornithologists’ Union check list (third edition, 1910) is as follows: ‘Bred formerly from middle western Mackenzie, central Keewatin, central Quebec, and Nova Scotia south to Kansas, Mississippi, Pennsylvania, and New York; win- tered principally from Arkansas and North Carolina south to central Texas, Louisiana, and Florida; casual in Cuba, eastern Mexico, and Nevada; now probably extinct.” There is one living bird left. This is in the Cincinnati Zoological Gardens. The causes of the extermination of this pigeon are chiefly the greed of civilized man. The destruction of forests within its range greatly reduced its natural food supply, and the killing (by netting, shooting, clubbing, etc.) of enormous quantities in the end produced the same effect as with the bison. When these pigeons were still numerous great numbers were used in trap shooting. In a wild state the pigeon became extinct about the year 1900—possibly a few lingered after that date, yet Mershon? estimates (p. 92) that a total of 1,000,000,000 were killed in the Michigan ‘‘nesting” of 1878.] I.—A DESCRIPTION OF THE WILD PIGEONS WHICH VISIT THE SOUTH- ERN ENGLISH COLONIES IN NORTH AMERICA, DURING CERTAIN YEARS, IN INCREDIBLE MULTITUDES. By Peur Kaw (1759).? In North America there is a species of wild pigeons* which, com- ing from the upper part of the country, visits Pennsylvania and others of the southern English settlements during some years, and in marvelous multitudes. They have, however, already been described and exceedingly well illustrated in lively colors by the two great ornithologists and match- 1 Readers wishing to pursue the subject further should consult W. B. Mershon’s book, The Passenger Pigeon, 1907, New York, from which the colored plate herewith is reproduced. 2 Translated by S. M. Gronberger from Kongl. Vetenskaps-Akademiens Handlingar, for ar 1759, Vol. 20, Stockholm, 1759. Reprinted by permission from The Auk, Vol. 28, Jan., 1911. 3 The names given by ornithologists and others to these pigeons are as follows: Columba (macroura) cauda cuneiformi longa, pectore purpurascente. Linn. Syst. X, T. 1, p. 164. Columba macroura. The long-tailed dove. Edwards’s History of Birds, T. I, p. 15, t. 15. Palumbus migratorius. The pigeon of passage. Catesby’s Nat. Hist. of Carolina, Vol. I, p. 23, t. 23. Dufvor, Villa Dufvor [pigeons, wild pigeons], so called by the Swedes in New Sweden. Pigeons, wild pigeons, by the English in North America. Tourtes, by the French in Canada. 407 408 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. less masters of bird drawing, Catesby and Edwards; but as I have had occasion to notice with regard to the description proper and especially as regards the living habits of these pigeons various things which these gentlemen have either left entirely unmentioned, or which at their places of residence they have not been able properly to ascertain, it is my desire to deliver a short account of this subject before the Royal Academy of Sciences, using the notes from my American diary. Although these pigeons have been splendidly illustrated by ornith- ologists, they have not been able to reproduce their beautiful colors in true accordance with nature, in one respect, at least; the color indicated on either side of the neck should extend much higher up. [Technical descriptions follow in Latin and are here omitted.] The size of these pigeons is about that of a ringdove. Their long tail distinguishes them from other pigeons. The splendid color which the male and the female have on the sides of the neck and even a little beyond it is also peculiar in that the feathers in that region are as if covered with a finely resplendent copper [color], with a purple tint, which back of the neck shifts more into green, particularly with reference to its position toward the light. Rarely is this color more finely reproduced than in this bird. Mr. Catesby calls it a golden color, but it can hardly be termed that. In the copy of Mr. Catesby’s work which I have seen both the head and the back are of a darker color, and the breast is also of a redder color than the bird actually has. This I could very well see when I laid a recently killed male beside Mr. Catesby’s figure, as it is the male which is reproduced in his work. Mr. Edward [sic] has entirely omitted the above-mentioned copper color both in his description and his figure. It may be that some of the young ones do not have it; but it was found on all those which I have handled, and which were killed in the spring.’ Quite a number of these pigeons may be seen every summer in the woods of Pennsylvania and New Jersey and the adjoining prov- inces, in which region they live and nest; and it is very seldom that a greater number of them are not observed there in the spring, during the months of February and March, than in the other seasons of the year. But there are certain years when they come to Penn- sylvania and the southern English provinces in such indescribable multitudes as literally to appall the people. I did not, however, have the opportunity of witnessing such personally (although the spring of the year 1749, when I was there, was considered as one of those in which a greater number of these pigeons appeared than had 1 Edwards’s figure represents a distinct,species of another genus, namely, the Columba (=Zenaidura) macroura. THE PASSENGER PIGEON—KALM AND AUDUBON. 409 been the case for some years previously; yet it was not one of the particular or more unusual ones); but all persons who had observed these happenings and lived long enough to remember several of them recited several incidents connected therewith. Some had even made short notes of various details, of which I will cite the following: In the spring of 1740, on the 11th, 12th, 15th, 16th, 17th, 18th, _ and 22d of March (old style), but more especially on the 11th, there came from the north an incredible multitude of these pigeons to Pennsylvania and New Jersey. Their number, while in flight, extended 3 or 4 English miles in length, and more than 1 such mile in breadth, and they flew so closely together that the sky and the sun were obscured by them, the daylight becoming sensibly dimin- ished by their shadow. The big as well as the little trees in the woods, sometimes covering a distance of 7 English miles, became so filled with them that hardly a twig or a branch could be seen which they did not cover; on the thicker branches they had piled themselves up on one another’s backs, quite about a yard high. When they alighted on the trees their weight was so heavy that not only big limbs and branches of the size of a man’s thigh were broken straight off, but less firmly rooted trees broke down completely under the load. The ground below the trees where they had spent the night was entirely covered with their dung, which lay in great heaps. As soon as they had devoured the acorns and other seeds which served them as food and which generally lasted only for a day, they moved away to another place. The Swedes and others not only killed a great number with shot- guns, but they also slew a great quantity with sticks, without any particular difficulty; especially at night they could have dispatched as many as their strength would have enabled them to accomplish, as the pigeons then made such a noise in the trees that they could not hear whether anything dangerous to them was going on, or whether there were people about. Several of the old men assured me that in the darkness they did not dare to walk beneath the trees where the pigeons were, because all through the night, owing to their numbers and corresponding weight, one thick and heavy branch after another broke asunder and fell down, and this could easily have injured a human being that had ventured below. About a week or a little later subsequent to the disappearance of this enormous multitude of pigeons from Pennsylvania and New Jersey, a sea captain by the name of Amies, who had just arrived at Philadelphia, and after him several other seafaring men, stated that they had found localities out at sea where the water, to an extent of over 3 French miles, was entirely covered by dead pigeons of this 410 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. species. It was conjectured that the pigeons, whether owing to a storm, mist, or snowfall, had been carried away to the sea, and then on account of the darkness of the following night or from fatigue, had alighted on the water and in that place and manner met their fate. It is said that from that date no such tremendous numbers of this species of pigeon have been seen in Pennsylvania. In the beginning of the month of February, about the year 1729, according to the stories told by older men, an equally countless mul- titude of these pigeons as the one just mentioned, if not a still larger number, arrived in Pennsylvania and New Jersey. Even extremely aged men stated that on three, four, five, or several more occasions in their lifetime they had seen such overwhelming multitudes in these ° places; and even the parents of these people had in their turn told them that the same phenomenon had occurred several times during their own lives; so that 11, 12, or sometimes more years elapse between each such unusual visit of pigeons. From Lawson’s History of Carolina (p. 141), I see that in the winter of 1707, which was the severest known in Carolina since it was settled by Europeans, an equally awe-inspiring number of these pigeons had made an appearance in Carolina and the other southern English set- tlements, driven thither by causes which I will now mention. The learned and observant Dr. Colden told me that during his stay in North America, where he had been since the year 1710, at his country place, Coldmgham, situated between New York and Albany, he had on two distinct occasions, although at an interval of several years, witnessed the arrival of these pigeons in such great and unusual numbers that during two or three hours, while they flew by his house, the sky was obscured by them, and that they presented the appear- ance of a thick cloud. All the old people were of the opinion that the months of Febru- ary and March is the single season of the year when the pigeons swoop down upon Pennsylyania and the adjacent English provinces in such marvelous quantities; at other seasons of the year they are not to be seen in any great numbers. The cause of their migrations from the upper part of the country in such great quantities at this season is twofold—first, when there is a failure of the crop of acorns and other fruit in the places where they otherwise generally spend the winter, thus rendering their supply of food insufficient to last until the ensuing summer; and, second, and chiefly, when an unusually severe winter with abundant and long- remaining snow happens to occur in their customary winter haunts, thus covering the ground and making it impossible for them to secure theacorns, beechnuts, and other fruit and seeds on which they otherwise feed at this season; in such cases they are forced to leave these locali- ties and seek their food down along the seacoast, where the winters, THE PASSENGER PIGEON—-KALM AND AUDUBON. 411 owing to the sea air, are always milder, and the ground more and earlier free from snow. Experience has shown that both of these circumstances have caused their migrations to take place in such great multitudes. A peculiar fact, and one which older persons have unanimously maintained to be true, is that on all occasions which they could. remember, when the pigeons appeared in such great numbers, there had always been during the preceding autumn, in Pennsylvania and. adjacent localities, an abundant crop of acorns and other arboreal seeds, excelling that of several previous years; but during their stay the pigeons had so carefully searched and ransacked all possible nooks and corners that after their departure it was almost impossible to find a single acorn in the woods. Several extremely aged men also declared that during their child- hood there were, in summertime, many more of the pigeons in New Sweden than there are now; the cause of this is that the country is at present much more populous and cultivated and the woods more cleared off, and as a result the pigeons have either been killed off or scared away. As nearly all the mhabitants of Pennsylvania and the English set- tlements in the South did not quite know whence these numberless swarms of pigeons came from, they entreated me to ascertain, during my journeys in the interior of the country, where so many were to be _ found in summertime, what their food and other economic require- ments were at that time of the year, and so on. During my journey to and within Canada I found the desired occasion of learning all of this, which I will now briefly relate. When toward the end of June, 1749 (new style), I had left the English colonies and set out for Canada through the wilderness which separates the English and French colonies from each other, and which to a great extent consists of thick and: lofty forests, I had an opportunity of seeing these pigeons in countless numbers. Their young had at this time left their nests, and their great numbers dark- ened the sky when they occasionally rose en masse from the trees into theair. Insome places the trees were full of their nests. The French- men whom we met in this place had shot a great number of them, and of this they gave us a goodly share. These pigeons kept up a noisy murmuring and cooing sound all night, during which time the trees - were full of them, and it was difficult to obtain peaceful sleep on account of their continuous noise. In this wilderness we could hear in the nighttime, during the calmest weather, big trees collapsing in the forests, which, during the silence of the night, caused tremendous reports; this might in all probability be ascribed to the pigeons, which, according to their custom, had loaded a tree down with their numbers to such an extent that it broke down; although other causes might 412 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. also be found, whereof more is mentioned in the third volume of my American Journey. The additional observations which I hadocca- sion to make as to their economy and manner of life during my stay in North America, both in Canada, the wilderness of the English colo- nies, and in the land of the savages, are as follows: The birds spend the entire summer in Canada, and particularly do they nest in the vast wild forests and wastes which abound there, where no men are to be found and where seldom any human being ventures. When in summer a person travels through these forests he might easily become terrified by the enormous number of these birds, which in some places almost entirely cover the branches of the trees, and when taking wing obscure the sky. These pigeons have, however, their distinct boundaries, outside of which they do not often venture; as, for example, somewhat south of Bay St. Paul, which is 20 French miles north of Quebec, not very many of them nest in the woods; and the cause of this is said to be that the oak and the beech tree, which supply them with their principal food, are here arrested in their growth, and grow no farther north. In forests where there are human settlements, or where the country is inhabited, only a few are to be seen; and as the land is being gradu- ally cultivated by man the pigeons move farther away into the wilder- ness. It is maintained that the cause of this is partly that their nests and young are disturbed by boys, partly their own sense of a lack of safety, and finally that during a great part of the year their food is shared by the swine. They build their nests in high trees, pine trees as well as deciduous ones; often as many as 40 or 50 nests are to be found in the same tree. Some maintain that they raise two broods of young every summer. In places where they nest in abundance the ground is often covered with their droppings to a thickness of 1 to 2 feet. While these birds are hatching their young, or while the latter are not yet able to fly, the savages or Indians in North America are in the habit of never shooting or killing them, nor of allowing others to do so, pretending that it would be a great pity on their young, which arould in that case have to starve to death. Some of the Frenchmen told me that they had set out with the intention of shooting some of them at that season of the year, but that the savages had at first with kindness endeavored to dissuade them from such a purpose, and later added threats to their Se when the latter were of no avail. In Canada it is almost everywhere the custom for young farm hands and boys to investigate where the pigeons have their nests, and as soon as the young are able to fly they are taken from the nest and brought to the farm, where they are afterwards kept in THE PASSENGER PIGEON—-KALM AND AUDUBON. 413 suitable quarters and industriously fed, whereupon they are killed and eaten. To make doubly sure that they do not escape, one of their wings is generally cut short, so that even in case they do get out they can not fly away. Such nestlings-have a good appetite. thrive comfortably, become quite tame, and within a short time, if well taken care of, accumulate so much fat that they afford a most palatable dish. For food these pigeons select the following fruits, which I will name in the order that they mature: Seeds of the red-flowered maple (Acer); these mature in Penn- sylvania at the end of May, but somewhat later farther north. Seeds of the American elm (Ulmus americana); these mature in Pennsylvania in the beginning or middle of June, but farther north somewhat later. When on our journey through the wilds between Albany and Canada we cut up some of the pigeons which the French had shot and given us, their crops were generally found to be full of elm seeds. Mulberries, which ripen in Pennsylvania in the beginning of June (new style), are relished by these pigeons almost above everything else. During my stay in the last-mentioned locality, in 1750, I noticed that as soon as the mulberries became ripe the pigeons put in their appearance in great numbers. Wherever a mulberry tree grew wild it was at this time generally full of pigeons, which devoured the berries. They often caused me much vexation, because if I had located a mulberry tree in the woods with the intention of securing seeds when the berries became ripe and it should happen that I did not watch out for the proper time, the pigeons had generally, in the meanwhile, been so industrious in their picking that on my arrival scarcely a single berry was left. If some of them were shot the others generally flew away a little distance, but returned within a few minutes to the same mulberry tree; so that a person who owned such trees found no difficulty to obtain daily a sufficient quantity of choice meat as long as the mulberries lasted. They consume all kinds of grain with the single exception of corn, which is left untouched by them, although it has other enemies. I noticed that they were particularly fond of the following kinds of grain: They ate rye, although not with particular avidity, but rather as if in the absence of something else more palatable. Some persons assured me that they had seen with their own eyes how these pigeons, during summer time, when they had come to a ripe wheat field, alighted on the fences, vomited up the rye on which they had pre- viously feasted, and then swooped down upon the wheat field, where they gorged their crops with wheat, as being more appetizing. 414 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. Wheat is one of their most coveted foods, which may be seen from what has already been stated, as well as from many another experience. As soon as the wheat fields become ripe they swoop down on them in enormous numbers and take considerable toll of them. When the wheat is stacked up in the field they also visit it and devour all too much of it, if they should happen to be in the least hungry. Jn the fall, when the wheat is recently sown, they alight in full force in the fields and not only pick up the grains which are more or less in broad daylight but also poke up those which the plow has not sunk sufficiently deep. In order to prevent such a damage boys as well as others are seen at this season of the year running around armed with guns and other “contraptions” to kill or scare them away. On such occasions, however, they are not in general particularly timid, especially the young ones, so that; when a few of them have been shot at a stack the others oftentimes fly away only a short distance to another stack, and hence the gunner, albeit he has made some lucky shots, generally becomes exhausted before the birds become scared. In Pennsylvania th’s species of grain, as well as the rye, commonly ripens about midsummer (old style) and sometimes earlier, but farther north it ripens later. Buckwheat they are also very fond of, and levy considerable tribute on it. The buckwheat matures in Pennsylvania in the middle of September (old style). The berries of the tupelo or sour-gum tree (Nyssa) they also consume with great avidity. In Pennsylvania these ripen in Sep- tember. This tree does not grow in Canada. Most forests in North America consist of oak, of which arboreal genus there are several species; of these the greater part have nearly every year a great number of acorns which in the autumn fall off in such quantities that quite often the ground below the oaks is covered by them one hand high and sometimes more. ‘These serve as food for several kinds of animals and birds, as, for instance, squirrels of several species, forest mice, wild pigeons, etc., in addition to which, in places inhabited by Europeans, they serve as the staple food of hogs during the greater part of the year. During certain years the numberless swarms of wild pigeons already described come to Penn- sylvania and the other English provinces in search of these acorns. In Pennsylvania and other localities in North America the acorns mature in September and the following months. They are also very fond of beechnuts. There is a great abundance of beech trees in Canada, but farther south they grow somewhat more sparsely. In Canada the nuts become ripe in the middle of Sep- tember. These, together with acorns, constitute the principal food of the pigeons during the entire latter part of the fall and throughout the winter. THE PASSENGER PIGEON—-KALM AND AUDUBON. 415 In addition to the kinds already enumerated, they also consume various other seeds and berries of trees and plants which grow in this country. The trees above referred to, the seeds and berries of which the pigeons are so fond of, grow in the forests of North America nearly everywhere in great abundance. In a good many places, especially farther inland, oaks, elms, beeches, and the red-flowered maple con- stitute almost alone, with the addition of the walnut tree, the entire forest tract. Thus it will be seen how the all-wise Creator, even in the case of these birds, has so wisely adapted the size of the food sup- ply to the number of mouths to be fed. T have also observed that the pigeons have a special fondness for the kind of soil which is much mixed with common salt [alka- line deposits]; this soil serves them as food, as a spice to blend with the food, or for its medical properties, I do not know which. At the salt springs of Onondago [sic], in the tribe of the Iroquois Indians, where the soil is so strongly mixed with salt that the ground during a severe drought becomes entirely covered with it and as white as frost, making it impossible for plants to grow, I noticed with aston- ishment, in the month of August, 1750, how covetous the pigeons were of this kind of soil. The savages in Onondago had built their huts on the sides of this salt field, and here they had erected sloping nets with a cord attachment leading to the huts where they were sitting; when the pigeons arrived in swarms to eat of this salty soil, the savages pulled the cords, inclosing them in the net, and thus at once secured the entire flock. At certain times, when they came in such numbers that the ground could hardly be seen for them, the savages found it more advisable to use a gun, as by a single discharge of birdshot they could sometimes kill as many as 50 or more; and this proved a splendid source of food supply. These wild pigeons fly in the same manner as other pigeons; and as soon as they have alighted in a tree or other place they have a habit of making a clapping sound with their wings which, according to some, is a signal for all the others to alight. At times, and when they have had sufficient food, they are quite timid, especially the old birds. Therefore, when one wishes to shoot them it is best to walk to and fro among them, on the ground, as if one did not see them; then they are not so timid, nor do they take wing so soon. | In the vast forests of Canada they remain to the end of August or beginning of September (new style); i. e., until the grain has been stored for the winter. A great number, however, remain until late in the autumn, when the first snow begins to fall, which finally drives them all away. As their food mostly consists of acorns, beechnuts, and the seeds and fruits of other trees which become hidden under the snow, they are obliged to leave these places and 416 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. betake themselves farther south, where the ground is bare all winter. Not one of them remains in Canada throughout the winter; but they generally spend this season in the vast forests of the Illinois, who live at about the same latitude as Pennsylvania and Virginia. They do not willingly migrate toward the seaboard, where the country has been extensively cultivated by the English, and the forests are much cut down; partly because they can not there secure a sufficient food supply, and partly to avoid running the risk of getting killed by the number of people and gunners in that section. They prefer the vast and dense forests in the interior of the country, where there are no human habitations for many miles around. But should it happen during a certain year that there is a failure of the crop of acorns or other food suitable for them, or an unusually severe winter with great snowfall sets in, which to some extent covers the ground, then they are forced to leave their usual winter quarters and seek their way to the English settlements down the seaboard. It is on these occasions that they swarm into Pennsylvania in such enor- mous numbers; but as soon as the weather changes a little and be- comes milder, they again retire farther inland. Here they remain until the last snow disappears in the spring. As the snow gradually melts away in the spring the pigeons migrate farther and farther north and when northern Canada is free from snow, which generally occurs toward the end of April or the beginning of May, the pigeons arrive in their old haunts and commence their mating, nesting, hatching of eggs, and the rearing of their young, ete. The French in Canada, who annually catch a number of young pigeons alive which they thereafter rear at their homes, have taken much pains to tame these birds, although with but little success. It is very easy, when they are kept in suitable quarters, to make them so tame as to feed from one’s hands, in the manner of any other domesticated pigeon; but as soon as they are let out into the open hardly a few days pass before they fly away to the woods, nevermore to return. It was, however, emphatically asserted that some had succeeded in taming them to the same extent as the domesticated pigeons. As they fly in great flocks and keep close together, whether on the wing, on the ground, or in the trees, so poor a marksman as to fail to make a hit is difficult to find. Several persons told me that a man who lived at Schenectady, between Albany and Col. John- son’s farm, had killed 150 of these birds with two discharges of bird- shot, and in Canada there are said to have been several cases where 130 had been killed in a single shot. Their flesh is a delight to the epicure, and especially is the meat of the young pigeons scarcely second in delicacy to that of any other bird. THE PASSENGER PIGEON—KALM AND AUDUBON. 417 The great French Admiral Marquis de la Galissoniere, who in deep knowledge of various sciences, but especially in natural history and its advancement, has had or has very few equals, and who at the time of my arrival in Canada occupied the office of Governor General of that country, told me that he had once brought with him several of these pigeons from Canada to France, and that he had allowed them to escape in the French forests. At this time he had again collected a great number of live birds which, in the fall of 1749, he brought with him to France, inclosed in large cages, in order to set them free in the woods upon his safe arrival there, with the intention of introducing this handsome as well as useful American bird into Europe. In addition to the authors referred to above, the following learned men have also mentioned something in their writings concerning these pigeons: P. de Charlevoix, Histoire de la Nouvelle France, vol. 5, pp. 251-252; Salmon’s Modern History, vol. 3, p. 440; Wil- liams’s Key into the Language of America, p. 91. Others whose works I have not had the opportunity of seeing may also have men- tioned something concerning this subject, but they have at least re- lated nothing of any particular value. II—THE PASSENGER PIGEON. By Joun James AupUBON (1831).! The passenger pigeon, or, as it is usually named in America, the wild pigeon, moves with extreme rapidity, propelling itself by quickly repeated flaps of the wings, which it brings more or less near to the body, according to the degree of velocity which is required. Like the domestic pigeon, it often flies, during the love season, in a circling manner, supporting itself with both wings angularly elevated, in which position it keeps them until it is about to alight. Now and then, during these circular flights, the tips of the primary quills of each wing are made to strike against each other, producing a smart rap, which may be heard at a distance of 30 or 40 yards. Before alighting, the wild pigeon, like the Carolina parrot and a few other species of birds, breaks the force of its flight by repeated flappings, as if appre- hensive of receiving injury from coming too suddenly into contact with the branch or the spot of ground on which it intends to settle. I have commenced my description of this’ species with the above account of its flight, because the most important facts connected with its habits relate to its migrations. These are entirely owing to the necessity of procuring food, and are not performed with the view of escaping the severity of a northern latitude, or of seeking a southern 1 Ornithological Biography, vol. 1, 1831, pp. 319-327. 38734°—sm 1911——27 418 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. one for the purpose of breeding. They consequently do not take place at any fixed period or season of the year. Indeed, it sometimes happens that a continuance of a sufficient supply of food in one dis- trict will keep these birds absent from another for years. I know, at least, to a certainty that in Kentucky they remained for several years constantly, and were nowhere else to be found. They all suddenly disappeared one season when the mast was exhausted, and did not ohare for a long period. Similar facts have been observed in other tates. Their great power of flight enables them to survey and pass over an astonishing extent of country in a very short time. This is proved by facts well known in America. Thus, pigeons have been killed in the neighborhood of New York, with their crops full of rice, which they must have collected in the fields of Georgia and Carolina, these dis- tricts being the nearest in which they could possibly have procured a supply of that kind of food. As their power of digestion is so great that they will decompose food entirely in 12 hours, they must in this case have traveled between 300 and 400 miles in 6 hours, which shows their speed to be at an average about 1 mile in a minute. A velocity such as this would enable one of these birds, were it so inclined, to visit the European Continent in less than three days. This great power of flight is seconded by as great a power of vision, which enables them, as they travel at that swift rate, to inspect the country below, discover their food with facility, and thus attain the object for which their journey has been undertaken. This I have also proved to be the case, by having observed them, when passing over a sterile part of the country, or one scantily furnished with food suited to them, keep high in the air, flying with an extended front, so as to enable them to survey hundreds of acres at once. On the contrary, when the land is richly covered with food, or the trees abundantly hung with mast, they fly low, in order to discover the part most plentifully supplied. . Their body is of an elongated oval form, steered by a long well- plumed tail, and propelled by well-set wings, the muscles of which are very large and powerful for the size of the bird. When an indi- vidual is seen gliding through the woods and close to the observer, it passes like a thought, and on trying to see it again, the eye searches in vain; the bird is gone. The multitudes of wild pigeons in our woods are astonishing. In- deed, after having viewed them so often, and under so many cir- cumstances, I even now feel inclined to pause and assure myself that what I am going to relate is fact. Yet I have seen it all, and that too, in the company of persons who, like myself, were struck with amazement. THE PASSENGER PIGEON—-KALM AND AUDUBON. 419 In the autumn of 1813, [left my house at Henderson, on the banks of the Ohio, on my way to Louisville. In passing over the Barrens, a few miles beyond Hardinsburg, I observed the pigeons flying from northeast to southwest in greater numbers than I thought I had ever seen them before, and feeling an inclination to count the flocks that might pass within the reach of my eye in one hour, I dismounted, seated myself on an eminence, and began to mark with my pencil, making a dot for every flock that passed. In a short time finding the task which I had undertaken impracticable, as the birds poured in in countless multitudes, I rose, and counting the dots then put down, found that 163 had been made in 21 minutes. I traveled on, and still met more the farther I proceeded. The air was literally filled with pigeons; the light of noonday was obscured as by an eclipse; the dung fell in spots, not unlike melting flakes of snow; and the continued buzz of wings had a tendency to lull my senses to repose. Whilst waiting for dinner at Young’s inn, at the confluence of Salt- River with the Ohio, I saw, at my leisure, immense legions still going by with a front reaching far beyond the Ohio on the west, and the beechwood forests directly on the east of me. Not a single bird alighted; for not a nut or acorn was that year to be seen in the neigh- borhood. They consequently flew so high, that different trials to reach them with a capital rifle proved ineffectual; nor did the reports dis- turb them in the least. I can not describe to you the extreme beauty of their aerial evolutions, when a hawk chanced to press upon the rear of a flock. At once, like a torrent, and with a noise like thunder, they rushed into a compact mass, pressing upon each other toward the -center. In these almost solid masses, they darted forward in undula- ting and angular lines, descended and swept close over the earth with inconceivable velocity, mounted perpendicularly so as to resemble a vast column, and, when high, were seen wheeling and twisting within their continued lines, which then resembled the coils of a gigantic serpent. Before sunset I reached Louisville, distant from Hardinsburg 55 miles. The pigeons were still passing in undiminished numbers, and continued to do so for three days in succession. The people were all in arms. The banks of the Ohio were crowded with men and boys, inces- santly shooting at the pilgrims, which there flew lower as they passed the river. Multitudes were thus destroyed. For a week or more, the population fed on no other flesh than that of pigeons, and talked of nothing but pigeons. The atmosphere, during this time, was strongly impregnated with the peculiar odor which emanates from the species. It is extremely interesting to see flock after flock performing exactly the same evolutions which had been traced, as it were, in the air by a preceding flock. Thus, should a hawk have charged on a group at a certain spot, the angles, curves, and undulations that have been 420 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. described by the birds, in their efforts to escape from the dreaded talons of the plunderer, are undeviatingly followed by the next group that comes up. Should the bystander happen to witness one of these affrays, and, struck with the rapidity and elegance of the motions exhibited, feel desirous of seeing them repeated, his wishes will be gratified if he only remain in the place until the next group comes up. It may not, perhaps, be out of place to attempt an estimate of the number of pigeons contained in one of those mighty flocks, and of the quantity of food daily consumed by its members. The inquiry will tend to show the astonishing bounty of the great Author of Nature in providing for the wants of His creatures. Let us take a column of 1 mile in breadth, which is far below the average size, and suppose it passing over us without interruption for three hours, at the rate mentioned above of 1 mile in the minute. This will give us a parallelogram of 180 miles by 1, covering 180 square miles. Allowing 2 pigeons to the square yard, we have 1,115,136,000 pigeons in one flock. As every pigeon daily consumes fully half a pint of food, the quantity necessary for supplying this vast multitude must be 8,712,000 bushels per day. As soon as the pigeons discover a sufficiency of food to entice them to alight, they fly round in circles, reviewing the country below. During their evolutions, on such occasions, the dense mass which they form exhibits a beautiful appearance, as it changes its direction, now displaying a glistening sheet of azure, when the backs of the birds come simultaneously into view, and anon, suddenly pre- senting a mass of rich deep purple. They then pass lower, over the woods, and for a moment are lost among the foliage, but again emerge, and are seen gliding aloft. They now alight, but the next moment, as if suddenly alarmed, they take to wing, producing by the flappings of their wings a noise like the roar of distant thunder, and sweep through the forests to see if danger is near. Hunger, however, soon brings them to the ground. When alighted, they are seen indus- triously throwing up the withered leaves in quest of the fallen mast. The rear ranks are continually rising, passing over the main body, and alighting in front, in such rapid succession, that the whole flock seems stillonthe wing. The quantity of ground thus swept is astonish- ing, and so completely has it been cleared, that the gleaner who might follow in their rear would find his labor completely lost. Whilst feeding, their avidity is at times so great that in attempting to swallow a large acorn or nut they are seen gasping for a long while, as if in the agonies of suffocation. On such oceasions, when the woods are filled with these pigeons, they are killed in immense numbers, although no apparent diminu- tionensues. About the middle of the day, after their repast is finished, THE PASSENGER PIGEON—-KALM AND AUDUBON. 421 they settle on the trees, to enjoy rest, and digest their food. On the ground they walk with ease, as well as on the branches, frequently jerking their beautiful tail, and moving the neck backward and for- ward in the most graceful manner. As the sun begins to sink beneath the horizon, they depart en masse for the roosting place, which not unfrequently is hundreds of miles distant, as has been ascertained by persons who have kept an account of their arrivals and departures. Let us now, kind reader, inspect their place of nightly rendezvous. One of these curious roosting places, on the banks of the Green River in Kentucky, I repeatedly visited. It was, as is always the case, in a portion of the forest where the trees were of great magnitude, and where there was little underwood. I rode through it upward of 40 miles, and, crossing it in different parts, found its average breadth to be rather more than 3 miles. My first view of it was about a fort- night subsequent to the period when they had made choice of it, and I arrived there nearly two hours before sunset. Few pigeons were then to be seen, but a great number of persons, with horses and wagons, guns and ammunition, had already established encamp- ments on the borders. Two farmers from the vicinity of Russell- ville, distant more than 100 miles, had driven upward of 300 hogs to be fattened on the pigeons which were to be slaughtered. Here and there, the people employed in plucking and salting what had already been procured, were seen sitting in the midst of large piles of these birds. The dung lay several inches deep, covering the whole extent of the roosting place, like a bed of snow. Many trees 2 feet in diameter, I observed, were broken off at no great distance from the ground, and the branches of many of the largest and tallest had given way, as if the forest had been swept by a tornado. Everything proved to me that the number of birds resorting to this part of the forest must be immense beyond conception. As the period of their arrival approached, their foes anxiously prepared to receive them. Some were furnished with iron pots containing sulphur, others with torches of pine knots, many with poles, and the rest with guns. The sun was lost to our view, yet not a pigeon had arrived. Everything was ready, and all eyes were gazing on the clear sky, which appeared in glimpses amidst the tall trees. Suddenly there burst forth a gen- eral cry of “Here they come!”’ The noise which they made, though yet distant, reminded me of a hard gale at sea passing through the rigging of a close-reefed vessel. As the birds arrived, and passed over me, | felt a current of air that surprised me. Thousands were soon knocked down by the pole men. The birds continued to pour in. The fires were lighted, and a magnificent, as well as wonderful and almost terrifying sight presented itself. The pigeons, arriving by thousands, alighted everywhere, one above another, until solid 499 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. masses as large as hogsheads, were formed on the branches all round. Here and there the perches gave way under the weight with a crash, and falling to the ground, destroyed hundreds of the birds beneath, forcing down the dense groups with which every stick was loaded. It was a scene of uproar and confusion. I found it quite useless to speak, or even to shout to those persons who were nearest to me. Even the reports of the guns were seldom heard, and I was made aware of the firing only by seeing the shooters reloading. No one dared venture within the line of devastation. The hogs had been penned up in due time, the picking up of the dead and wounded being left for the next morning’s employment. The pigeons were constantly coming, and it was past midnight before I perceived a decrease in the number of those that arrived. The uproar con- tinued the whole night, and as I was anxious to know to what distance the sound reached, I sent off a man accustomed to perambulate the forest, who, returning two hours afterwards, informed me he had heard it distinctly when 3 miles from the spot. Toward the approach of day, the noise in some measure subsided; long before objects were distinguishable, the pigeons began to move off in a direction quite different from that in which they had arrived the evening before, and at sunrise all that were able to fly had disappeared. The howlings of the wolves now reached our ears, and the foxes, lynxes, cougars, bears, raccoons, opossums and _ polecats were seen sneaking off, whilst eagles and hawks of different species, accompanied by a crowd of vultures, came tosupplant them, and enjoy their share of the spoil. It was then that the authors of all this devastation began their entry amongst the dead, the dying, and the mangled. The pigeons were picked up and piled in heaps, until each had as many as he could possibly dispose of, when the hogs were let loose to feed on the re- mainder. Persons unacquainted with these birds might naturally conclude that such dreadful havoc would soon put an end to the species. But I have satisfied myself, by long observation, that nothing but the gradual diminution of our forests can accomplish their*decrease, as they not unfrequently quadruple their numbers yearly, and always at least double it. In 1805 I saw schooners loaded in bulk with pi- geons caught up the Hudson River, coming into the wharf at New York, when the birds sold fora cent apiece. I knew a man in Pennsylvania who caught and killed upward of 500 dozens in a clapnet in one day, sweeping sometimes 20 dozens or more at a‘single haul. In the month of March, 1830, they were so abundant in the markets of New York, that piles of them met the eye in every direction. I have seen the negroes at the United States salines, or salt works of Shawneetown, wearied with killing pigeons, as they alighted to drink the water issuing from the leading pipes, for weeks at a time; and yet, in 1826, THE PASSENGER PIGEON—KALM AND AUDUBON. 423 in Louisiana, I saw congregated flocks of these birds as numerous as ever I had seen them before, during a residence of nearly 30 years in the United States. The breeding of the wild pigeons, and the places chosen for that pur- pose are points of great interest. The time is not much influenced by season, and the place selected is where food is most plentiful and most attainable, and always at a convenient distance from water. Forest trees of great height are those in which the pigeons form their nests. Thither the countless myriads resort, and prepare to fulfill one of the great laws of nature. At this period the note of the pigeon is a soft coo-coo-coo-coo, much shorter than that of the domestic species. The common notes resemble the monosyllables kee-kee-kee-kee, the first being the loudest, the others gradually diminishing in power. The male assumes a pompous demeanor, and follows the female whether on the ground or on the branches, with spread tail and drooping wings, which it rubs against the part over which itis moving. The body is elevated, the throat swells, the eyes sparkle. He continues his notes and now and then rises on the wing, and flies a few yards to approach the fugitive and timorous female. Like the domestic pigeon and other species, they caress each other by billing, in which action, the bill of the one is introduced transversely ~ into that of the other, and both parties alternately disgorge the contents of their crop by repeated efforts. These preliminary affairs are soon settled, and the pigeons commence their nests in general peace and harmony. ‘They are composed of a few dry twigs, crossing each other, and are supported by forks of the branches. On thesame tree from 50 to 100 nests may frequently be seen: I might say a much greater number were I not anxious, kind reader, that however won- derful' my account of the wild pigeon is, you may not feel disposed to refer it to the marvelous. The eggs are two! in number, of a broadly elliptical form, and pure white. During incubation, the male supplies the female with food. Indeed, the tenderness and affection dis- played by these birds toward their mates, are in the highest degree striking. It is a remarkable fact, that each brood generally consists of a male and a female. Here, again, the tyrant of the creation, man, interferes, disturbing the harmony of this peaceful scene. As the younger birds grow up, their enemies, armed with axes, reach the spot, to seize and destroy all they can. The trees are felled, and made to fall in such a way that the cutting of one causes the overthrow of another, or shakes the neighboring trees so much, that the young pigeons, or squabs, as they are named, are violently hurled to the ground. In this manner also, immense quantities are destroyed. The young are fed by the parents in the manner described above; in other words, the old bird introduces its bill into the mouth of the 1 Later observers report that in fully half the nests only one egg was deposited.— Ed. 424 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. young one in a transverse manner, or with the back of each mandible opposite the separations of the mandibles of the young bird, and disgorges the contents of its crop. As soon as the young birds are able to shift for themselves, they leave their parents and continue separate until they attain maturity. By the end of six months they are capable of reproducing their species. The flesh of the wild pigeon is of a dark color, but affords tolerable eating. That of young birds from the nest is much esteemed. The skin is covered with small white, filmy scales. The feathers fall off at the least touch, as has been remarked to be the case in the Carolina turtle.1_ I have only to add that this species, like others of the same genus, immerses its head up to the eyes while drinking. In March, 1830, I bought about 350 of these birds in the market of New York at 4centsa piece. Most of these I carried alive to England, and distributed amongst several noblemen, presenting some at the same time to the zoological society. Adult male: Bill straight, of ordinary length, rather slender, broader than deep at the base, with a tumid fleshy covering above, compressed toward the end, rather obtuse; upper mandible slightly declinate at the tip; edges inflected. Head small, neck slender, body rather full. Legs short and strong; tarsus rather rounded, anteriorly scutellate; toes slightly webbed at the base; claws short, depressed, obtuse. Plumage blended on the neck and under parts, compact on the back. Wings long, the second quill longest. Tail graduated, of 12 tapering feathers. Bill black. Iris bright red. Feet carmine purple, claws blackish. Head above and on the sides light blue. Throat, fore neck, breast, and sides light brownish-red, the rest of the under parts white. Lower part of the neck behind, and along the sides, changing to gold, emerald green, and rich crimson. The general color of the upper parts is grayish blue, some of the wing coverts marked with a black spot. Quills and larger wing coverts blackish, the primary quills bluish on the outer web, the larger coverts whitish at the tip. The two middle feathers of the tail black, the rest pale blue at the base, becoming white toward the end. Length 164 inches; extent of wings 25; bill along the ridge 3; along the gap 173; tarsus 14; middle toe 1. The colors of the female are much duller than those of the male, although their distribution is the same. The breast is light grayish- brown, the upper parts pale reddish-brown, tinged with blue. The changeable spot on the neck is of less extent, and the eyeof a somewhat duller red, as are the feet. Length 15 inches; extent of wings 23; bill along the ridge 3; along the gap 3. 1 Now called the mourning dove.—Ed. Smithsonian Report, 1911—Kalm and Audubon x : an PLATE I. ee fouls Gassiz Faeries BREUKER & KESSLER CO. PHILA PASSENGER PIGEON (Courtesy of W. B. Mershon) “i a NOTE ON THE IRIDESCENT COLORS OF BIRDS AND INSECTS.1 [With 3 plates.] By A. Mattock, F. R. S. Considerable interest attaches to the origin of certain forms of vriliant coloring which are of frequent occurrence in the animal world, though hardly represented among plants.? The colors in question are those which are not due to ordinary pigment, and which change with the angle of incidence of the light. The most brilliant examples are to be found amongst birds and insects. Fishes, and a few reptiles, exhibit colors of the same kind, but not so con2 spicuously. ° During the last 10 or 12 years I have examined some hundreds of cases of this sort of color production, and quite recently Michelson 3 has published investigations on the same subject, and refers to a somewhat similar paper by Walter, “Oberflichen und Schillerfarben,”’ dated 1895, of the existence of which I was not before aware. The conclusions of these authors are that the colors in question are, in most cases, due to selective reflection from an intensely opaque material, and, in some few, to diffraction from a finely striated surface. Their reasons for adopting the hypothesis of selective reflection rather than interference are the close similarities as regards the reflection of polarized light found between the natural iridescent colors and dry films of aniline dyes. In the present note I give some reasons for the belief that in the majority of cases interference of some sort is the active cause, although in others the possibility of selective reflection is not excluded. The question really turns on the size of the ‘‘grain”’ of the color-producing structure. Is it comparable with the wave length of light or of molecular dimensions ? If the colors are due to interference, the first supposition must be true; but if selective reflection is the agent, a comparatively small 1 Reprinted by permission from Proceedings of The Royal Society, London, Series A, vol.85, No. A 582, Nov. 30, 1911, pp. 598-605. (Received by the society Sept. 12; read Noy. 2, 1911.) 2 Some Lycopodiums exhibit traces of iridescent color. 3 «Metallic coloring in birds and insects,” Phil. Mag., April, 1911. 425 426 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. group of molecules may cause selective reflection. It seems clear that this property can not belong to individual molecules, at any rate in the case of the aniline dyes, for their solutions absorb impar- tially all the colors which are not transmitted, and it is only in the solid state that their peculiarities as regards reflected light become apparent; at the same time there is no change in the light transmitted whether the dye is in solution or a dry film. Before entering in detail into the reasons which seem to point to interference rather than selective reflection as the origin of iridescent colors, some general remarks may be made on the character of the structures examined. These structures have been either feathers of birds or the scales of insects. There are few orders of birds in which examples of iridescent coloring can not be found, but without doubt the humming birds are the most brilliant, although peacocks, trogons, and many others are not very far inferior. In the insect world the finest examples are to be found amongst butterflies and the day-flying moths of the genus Urania. Some beetles also are provided with vividly colored scales. These belong mostly to the weevils (which include the Brazilian diamond beetle). Many-.other insects among the Diptera, Neuroptera, and Hymenop- tera show brilliant metallic colors on their intezuments, but these are not provided with scales, and in many cases the color fades more or less when the specimens become dry. These I have not examined. Feathers and scales, however, are remarkable for the permanence of their iridescent coloring, and it is to these only that the present observations apply. Some of the peculiarities of the structures as regards change of color with the point of view depend on the shape of the surface on which the color-producing material lies. If the surfaces are flat or nearly flat, reflection takes place as from a looking glass, and the angle through which the specimen can be turned while still showing the characteristic color is small. Often, however, the surfaces are convex bosses or ridges, and then the angle of inci- dence and reflection is that contained between the direction of the incident light and the normal to the tangent plane at the point where reflection takes place, and is therefore to a great extent inde- pendent of the position in which the specimen is held, since there will always, within wide limits, be tangent planes to the convex surfaces which reflect the incident light in the line of sight. In these cases the colors might at first sight be taken as due to pigment, both on account of their comparatively low intensity and from the small change in tint and intensity which is produced by altering the inclina- tion of the general surface to the direction of the illumination. The IRIDESCENT COLORS OF BIRDS AND INSEOTS—-MALLOCK. 497 low intensity is of course due to the small area of each convex surface which reflects light in any given direction. In attempting to investigate the origin of the colors many methods were employed, the first and most obvious being to cut thin sections normal to the color-producing surface and then to examine them with the highest microscopic power available. If the colors are analogous to those of thin plates, it is.clearfrom the high intensity of the reflected light that more than one pair of surfaces must cooper- ate in the reflection. In general the reflected light is not even approximately monochromatic, and this fact limits the number of surfaces which can be supposed to act, but if the surfaces are supposed to be separated by air and placed at the most favorable intervals their number need not exceed three or four to account for the observed intensity and tints. The most favorable spacing for the successive layers is that their thickness and the intervals between them should be a multiple of the half wave-length of the mean ray, reckoned in the length of the waves within the material of the layer, and it was thought possible that the thin sections might show a laminated structure. For the material of feathers and insects’ scales, » is somewhere about 1.5 or 1.6, so that the least thickness for the plates of refractive material would be of the order of one one-hundred-and-fifty-thou- sandth and the air intervals one one-hundred-thousandth of an inch— both beyond the resolving power of the microscope; but from the composition of the reflected light it seemed likely that the intervals might be two or three half wave-lengths, which would be readily seen as far as adequate separation of the images is concerned. In nearly all the sections examined bands of this order of thickness appeared with some forms of illumination, but it was impossible to be sure that they were not due to diffraction effects from parts of the section slightly out of focus. There are many difficulties in preparing sections thin enough for the advantageous use of objectives with large angular aperture. When a section is to show a stratified structure its thickness should certainly not be greater than the distance between the successive strata, and may with advantage be much less. It was not difficult to cut sections about one twenty-thousandth of an inch thick, but this is three or four times too thick to show with certainty stratification whose pitch is one sixty-thousandth or less. Occasionally, by accident, thinner sections (perhaps one forty- thousandth) would be cut, and these showed apparent stratification most plainly, but in no case was the image free from the effect caused by some part of the thickness of the section being out of focus, and, in all yrobability, what appeared to be stratification was in reality a series 428 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. of diffraction bands. Insufficient thinness, however, is by no means the only obstacle to resolving the grain in the structure. Thin sections are in general very transparent, and the only source of variation of intensity in the image formed by the microscope de- pends on the varying amount of retardation affecting the waves which traverse their different parts, that is (since the section is of uniform thickness) on differences of refractive index; but, in order to view such sections at all, it is necessary to mount them in some refractive medium, and this greatly reduces the chance of detecting a fine- grained structure. I have tried washing out the bedding material and examining the sections when dry, but, although great care was taken in keeping the cutting edge of the knife smooth and sharp, strize always appeared in the direction of the cut, which quite obscured the real structure. The fact is, that there are a very few objects on which the highest micro- scopic powers can be used with advantage. Even the test diatom, A. pellucida, which, of course, has to be mounted dry, or in a medium whose refractive index greatly exceeds that of silica, is too thick to give a satisfactory image, and small solids, whose dimensions are less than a wave length, give images which are not their enlarged geo- metrical outlines, but phenomena depending on the wave length. Although the microscope, in my hands, at any rate, has failed to give direct evidence of a ‘‘ periodic”’ structure, other tests point strongly to ‘‘interference’’ as the origin of the colors. In some cases the color-producing film is backed by an extremely opaque layer, and in others the whole of the structure is transparent, and transmits the complementary color with nearly the same intensity as the color reflected. Even where there is an opaque backing, this is often thin enough to allow of examination by strong transmitted light, and the prevailing color is a brown, tinged with the unabsorbed complementary to the color reflected. ‘These opaque backings are present in most feathers and in some insect scales, but in the majority of cases the scales of insects are transparent. Both theory and observation show that, when the reflected color depends on interference the tint will change toward the blue as the angle of incidence increases, so that reds become yellows, yellows change to greens, and greens to blues, and also that if the color- producing structure is immersed in a refractive fluid instead of air the reflected color will change toward red and have its intensity reduced. Two causes are operative in producing this change: In the first place, if the color-producing film is protected from the fluid by an imperme- able outer layer with which it is in optical contact the only effect of the fluid is to diminish the angle of incidence of a ray of given obliquity in air, so that the color reflected is that due to the smaller angle of incidence. Secondly, if the fluid penetrates the layers in IRIDESCENT COLORS OF BIRDS AND INSECTS—-MALLOCK. 429 which interference takes place, the interval between the layers, now reckoned in wave lengths in the refractive fluid, is increased, and therefore also the wave length which is reflected for a given angle of incidence. At the same time the intensity of the reflected light is greatly reduced, and if the fluid has the same refractive index as the structure itself, reflection ceases and nearly white light is trans- mitted. Observation of reflection from films of aniline dyes, etc., shows that the color changes in the same direction—that is, toward the blue—as the angle of incidence increases, but as regards the character of the change when the film is covered by a refractive fluid there is a great difference. In some cases (methylene green, for instance) for one particular angle of incidence the color reflected in air is unchanged when the film is covered with cedar oil, for smaller angles of incidence the reflected light is of shorter average wave length, and for greater angles longer than that of the color in air. For this particular dye the color reflected in air is a very red-purple at small angles of incidence, changing to bluish-green when the angle is large. Under cedar oil the colors are respectively greenish-yellow and an orange-yellow. The transmitted color, however, does not change perceptibly either with the angle of incidence or with the medium in which reflection takes place, and this applies, as far as my obser- vation goes, to all substances which give selective metallic reflection. The transparency, or at any rate the vanishing of the character- istic transmitted color in the case of all animal tissues when immersed and permeated by a fluid of the same refractive index, is strongly in favor of interference being the source of the color, but even stronger evidence is given by the behavior of the structure under mechanical pressure. If the grain or peculiarities which favor the reflection or transmission of particular colors is of molecular size, there is no reason to suppose that pressure insufficient to cause molecular disruption would alter the action of the material on light. On the other hand, if the colors are due to interference—that is, to cavities or strata of different optical properties—compression would alter the spacing of these, and thus give rise either to different colors or, with more than a very slight compression, to the transmission and reflection of white light. In every experiment of this kind which I have made either on feathers or insect scales the effect of pressure has been to destroy the color altogether. 1 The dispersion of the fluid, as well as the refractive index, must be the same as that of the structure if the transmitted light is white, 430 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. Where the scales are transparent, white light is transmitted, but with feathers, where the color film is generally backed by dark pig- ment, the pigment color appears untinged with the complementary to the color naturally reflected. With many feathers the color returns when the pressure is taken off, but with insect scales the structure seems to be permanently injured by compression, and though when allowed to expand again the material is not colorless the brilliancy which belonged to the uninjured. scale is gone, and the color in general changed. The facts above mentioned seem to offer stronger reasons in favor of interference than the polarization phenomena referred to by Michelson and Walter’ do against it. The ellipticity, ete., found in the reflected beams may, although functions of the wave length, accompany the production of color without being necessary to it—that is, they may depend on the molecular, while the colors depend on the mechanical structure. All Lepidopterous scales, whether colored by pigment or giving roetallic reflection, are traversed by a series of fine lines or dots arranged in lines and very evenly spaced, and the universality of these lines on all such scales, whether with or without color, is a good reason for not regarding diffraction as an explanation of the metallic colors. In many insects these lines are as close as 36,000 to 40,000 per inch, and when light is transmitted through a single scale or a few scales placed side by side very fine diffraction spectra are formed, but no corresponding effect is seen by reflection, what effect there may be being masked by the other form of color production. The beetle scales which { have examined were, as a rule, without linear markings, and where lines existed they were not very regular. The surface was always mapped out into unequal polygonal areas, and cross sections (pl. 2, figs. 5a, 5b) showed that the scale consisted of a flattened sac of transparent material containing a cellular structure in which the color originated. When an unbroken scale is immersed in cedar oil, the outer walls prevent the fluid reaching the color-producing layer and but little change results either in the reflected or transmitted light; but when the seale is broken or has a piece cut off the oil penetrates the interior and all trace of color disappears. Occasionally when a viscous fluid is employed the penetration is not complete and the character of the cellular layer is then indi- cated by the parts which still show color. Figures 1 to 4, plates 1, 2, illustrate this. Figure 1 is an unbroken scale of Entimus imperialis showing the polygonal areas. Figure 2 1 Polarized light should be used for this observation. IRIDESCENT COLORS OF BIRDS AND INSECTS—MALLOOK. 481] shows the same scale partly penetrated by a solution of celluloid in amyl acetate; figure 3, ditto Gm which the penetration is not so complete) more highly magnified ; figure 4, threescales completely pene- trated and quite colorless. Figures 5a and 5b are cross sections of the seale (thickness of section about one twenty-thousandth of an inch). Feathers are impermeable to most fluids, but when acted on by acid (nitric, acetic, or hydrochloric) they change color toward the red; after washing and drying, however, they regain their original tint. The subjects from which the above notes have been made include among birds various species of hummingbirds, peacocks and pheas- ants, sunbirds, trogons, and others; among Lepidoptera, the genera Eupleea, Morpho, Calligo, Argynnis (in which silver markings are common), Vanessa, Callicore, Lyczna, Thecla, Papilio, Ornithoptera, some of the Hesperidx and moths of the genus Urania. The only beetles examined were Entimus imperialis and two species of Cyphus. To the physicist who is also a naturalist the great variety in the character of the surfaces on which these metallic colors are devel- oped, as well as the beauty and brilliancy of the colors themselves, offers matter of exceptional interest, but it would occupy too much space to enter here into a detailed description of even the typical forms. A rather curious fact, however, may be mentioned with regard to the scales of Lepidoptera. Nearly all such scales when black or colored by pigment have the free end deeply scalloped and presenting what may be called an ornamental outline, but the scales which show metallic reflections are invariably (as far as my observation goes) merely rounded off or have very slight indentations. Figures 6 and 7, plate 3 (which are respectively colored and black scales from Orni- thoptera Poseidon), ulustrate the difference. Although all the colors referred to in these notes are probably the result of interference, the ways in which the interference occurs may be very various. Feathers by their behavior suggest an action analogous to that of a Lippmann film, but it is difficult to imagine matter optically dense enough to behave as the silver particles in the film being produced in an organic structure. In most of the scales it seems that the interfering rays are reflected from the surfaces of very thin flat cells, but it is possible that in some cases the effect may be due to reflection from a single dimpled surface. The colored central images sometimes given by diffraction gratings are exam- ples of this sort of interference, but in order that the colors so formed should be as brilliant as possible the depressions or dimples should be closely but irregularly distributed over the surface (if regu- lar much of the light goes in lateral spectra), but of uniform depth and section. I have succeeded in making colored rings of some 432 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. brilliancy by holding a piece of glass over the smoke of an arc formed between metal electrodes, iron, nickel, silver, and copper being used. In the most successful trials the rings were brighter than the colors of soap films, and, as might be expected, the intensity of the color increased with the angle of incidence, but the rings did not show with normal reflection nor until the incidence exceeded 30°. In the spectroscopic examination of the color, it was found conven- ient to focus the much enlarged image of the surface on the slit of the spectroscope. By this means, and using the sun or an arc lamp, there was sufficient light to show the spectrum from a small part of a single scale. When cutting thin sections of chitin or feathers, it is important that the embedding material should be of the same consistence and hardness as the object to be cut. For this purpose shellac gave the best results. The hardness could be regulated by the time allowed for drying. The compression tests were carried out by placing the specimens on a slide under a convex lens of about a foot radius. The objects compressed were generally thin enough to allow of the Newton rings of the higher orders being recognized between the lens and slide before any compression occurred, and by centering the object in these the pressure could be applied in the right place. Since writing the above I have examined the colors of some of the iridescent Diptera (chiefly of the genus Lucilia), using the pres- sure apparatus. It was found that with them, as with the scales and feathers, the color disappeared under compression, and it seems probable, therefore, that interference of one kind or another is the true cause of natural iridescent color in all cases. It may be remarked that the intensity and composition of the light reflected from the integument of the flies is such as would be accounted for by the interference of a single film or pair of surfaces. DESCRIPTION OF PLATES Fig. 1.—Scale of Entimus imperialis. X 490. 2.—The same partly permeated with celluloid solution. x 490. 3.—The same. X 1750. 4.—Three scales of same completely permeated. 490. 5.—Cross section of scale. 1750. 6.—Iridescent scale of Ornithoptera Poseidon. X 1170. 7.—Black scale of same. X 1170. Smithsonian Report, 1911.—Mallock. REATEsit: STEER OSES EP Br 4 1. SCALE OF ENTIMUS IMPERIALIS, X 490. 2. THE SAME PARTLY PERMEATED WITH CELLULOID SOLUTION, X 490. 3. THE SAME, X 1750. Smithsonian Report, 1911.—Mallock. PLATE 2 4. THREE SCALES OF ENTIMUS IMPERIALIS COMPLETELY PERMEATED, X 490. 5b. CROSS SECTION OF SCALE, X 1750. PLATE 3. Smithsonian Report, 1911.—Mallock. 6. IRIDESCENT SCALES OF ORNITHOPTERA POSEIDON, X 1170. 7. BLACK SCALE OF SAME, X 1170. ON THE POSITIONS ASSUMED BY BIRDS IN FLIGHT: [With 8 plates.] By BentteEy Brera, F. Z.S. I.—STARTING. The flight of birds must ever remain a source of interest and inspiration to man, for should he eventually master aerial as suc- cessfully as he has terrestrial locomotion, birds would, by reason of their inherent sensibility to gauge the varying aircurrents, still remain vastly his superior in the art, if not in actual pace at least in the finer manipulations. But whether we regard flight from the standpoint of the ornitholo- gist or the aviator, the actions of these naturally equipped per- formers can not be too closely regarded. The great difficulty met with in studying the flight of birds is the indefinite and almost inexpressible nature of much of our observa- _tion. We see a bird make a sudden turn or falter in its course; a little thing, yet even if we could analyze its actions, which is improb- able, it would take a page or two of writing before we could be sure that another would understand the positions and actions as we saw them. In our present lack of intimacy with the subject words are quite inefficient, and we must largely rely on pictures, photographs by preference, wherewith to record our observations. The slower and individual movements of the wings and tails of such large birds as herons, gulls, or eagles, are easy to perceive, and in many cases their object or result can be appreciated, if only one can get close enough. Unfortunately, however, our near glimpses of large birds on the wing are usually but momentary, and it is only by piecing together little isolated scraps of observation that we can get a consecutive idea of what has taken place. Often the combina- tion of our eyes and brain is far too slow to analyze and follow the different movements, and the only impression the mind receives is one of rapid beating motion, as is so noticeable in the flight of bees and 1 Reprinted by permission from British Birds, Witherby &Co., London, vol. 4, June, 1910-May, 1911, pp. 162-168, 198-203, 350-356. 38734°—sm 1911——28 433 434 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. other insects. Too often is this the case when trying to follow the flight of some small bird, the beating of the little wmgs being quite too rapid for our senses. We will here confine ourselves to those birds possessed of ample expanse of wing, for, generally speaking, the larger the wing the less rapid is the beating, and therefore the more easily can we follow its movements. To gain the velocity in order to create the resistance necessary for the support of all heavier-than-air ‘‘machines,” some birds run or swim, others simply spring into the air and by the vigor of their flapping achieve the same result; while others, again, launch them- selves from some coign of vantage—a tree or rock—and in falling gain the desired resistance. In this article I give some particulars regarding the latter method, illustrated by photographs of the Gannet (Sula bassana). Stepping to the cliff edge, and, if there is no cause for undue haste, having raised and partly unfolded its wings, the bird prepares to dive into space. This dive, it should be noted, is not directed down- ward, but rather as horizontally outward from the cliff as may be (sometimes it appears to have even an upward tendency). If the bird is one possessed of broad large wings not muth altitude is lost, and it skims through the air in much the same fashion as does a piece of cardboard thrown horizontally. If, however, as in the case of auks, the wings are small and narrow and the body heavy, then the bird at first drops nearly vertically, only being able to gain a more horizontal course as its velocity increases. Sometimes birds of this latter class, presumably through mis- judgment of the space they have to work in, do not get the horizontal course in time, and crash into the rocks or sea at the foot of the cliff. This is very noticeable when a group of puffins (/ratercula arctica) hurriedly takes flight from a steep bowlder-strewn slope. Under these circumstances I have frequently seen quite a number of birds come to grief on the rocks within 30 yards of starting. Most of these, though somewhat dazed by the impact, flutter and claw their way on to the top of some big bowlder, and after a moment’s pause again dive forth, but not infrequently with no better result. The first failure is, I believe, often caused by their paying too much attention to and looking behind at whatever startled them, instead of gauging their proper angle. The raising and unfolding of the wings is worthy of a little con- sideration. The former usually takes place not after, but previous to, the diving or springing forward, while generally the whole “‘foot”’ is at rest upon the rock. Of course, when suddenly alarmed birds sometimes cast themselves from the cliff without first raising their wings, and in consequence fall rapidly. POSITIONS ASSUMED BY BIRDS IN FLIGHT—BEETHAM. 435 In plate 1, figure 1, the gannet has not even risen to its feet prior to lifting the wings, but is sitting on the edge of the nest. The apparent leg supporting it on the near side is a delusion, for instead of being the metatarsus, as it seems, it is really the closed webbed toes hanging downward from the raised and hidden leg, only the claws really touching the nest. The reason for this peculiar position is the newly-hatched chick, hardly discernible, lying in the nest, which would inevitably have been crushed had the bird rested on its expanded foot. : This raising of the wings preparatory to diving forth is perhaps more convincingly shown in figure 2, as the photograph is taken from a point on the same level as the bird, and shows the wings held up far above the bird’s head. This picture, as also figure 1, embraces another and more important pomt—that the unfolding or straightening of the wing takes place, if again there is no extreme haste, subsequent to the raising. ‘This especially refers to the pinion. It will be noticed that although the humeri are raised almost to meeting above the back (pl. 1, fig. 2) the ulne are not fully extended and in line with them, while the pinions are little divergent from the latter, still making an acute angle with them. Casually one might have expected that, had there been any precedence, the pinion being the most important factor, would have been the first to assume the position requisite for flight, but if these two photographs be carefully examined the reverse appears to be the case. In short, it may be said that the unfolding of the units of the wing seems to be sequential, starting with the humerus, and not simultaneous. This is, I fear, directly at variance with the writings of many leading ornithologists and anatomists, and I can only put forward the photographs in support of my observations. Undoubtedly the arrangement and articulation of the wing-bones appear to indicate that the unfolding will take place mechanically throughout on any one part being extended, but laboratory theories, however much they may be upheld by inanimate evidence, can not pass unchallenged when they are found to be in apparent contradiction to observation of the living action supported by corroborative photographs. In plate 2, figure 1 shows the bird at the very moment it is diving from the cliff, only the tips of its toes touching the rock, and it will be noticed, as intimated before, that the slope of the body is strongly upward. The wings have not even yet been fully straightened. This final unfolding and stiffening appears, so far as I can ascertain, to take place at the very moment of departure, and had this photo- graph been taken a minute fraction of a second later it would no 436 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. doubt have revealed the wings as fully extended as in figure 2. Here the wings are just beginning to feel the weight of what they are to support and are commencing their first downward beat. And now, though it has only traveled a few inches from the rock and the feet have not yet been tucked away under the tail, the gannet is fairly on the wing, exasperatingly able and wishful to go beyond the range of our lens or even of our observation. II.—STEERING, SLOWING-UP, AND TURNING. The old idea that the wings of a bird simply flap up and down, and that by some means the body travels steadily along on a level hori- zontal course, has long been dispensed with. It is, however, difficult to realize, but none the less true, that at each full wing beat the body is raised as well as propelled. Perhaps this can be more readily appreciated by reference to a photograph, such as that represented in plate 3, figure 2. By good fortune the two gannets shown there so near together exhibit the two extremes of the positions which these birds ordinarily assume in flight. In the top left-hand bird the wings are raised and the body seems to be dependent from them, while in the lower bird the wings are far depressed and the body appears pushed up and supported by them; and this is precisely its position. The wings in their rapid descent found resistance in the air, and as soon as this resistance exceeded the force of gravity acting on the bird the body was elevated at the same time that it was driven forward, only, of course, to sink once again on the wings being raised. Thus the path of a flying bird is a succession of ups and downs, but the movements of the wings being so very much greater in extent cloak those of the body, and so gracefully and smoothly are the actions performed that we do not realize the undulatory nature of the course. The attitude of the right-hand top bird, a kittiwake, in the same photograph (pl. 3, fig. 2), is interesting, as it shows the bird steering by the aid of its feet. The very extensive use some birds make of their feet during flight requires consideration. Not only are they freely used for steering, but they are also often employed as brakes to lessen speed, much in the same way as a drag is used to take way off an incoming vessel. In plate 4, figure 1, the immature gannet there depicted is trailing its partly expanded and lowered feet, thereby causing considerable resistance to its forward progress. To birds which quarter the surface of the ocean for a livelihood, feet have yet another use during flight. As the bird swoops downward to snatch its swimming prey the legs are dropped, and the moment the quarry has been seized, if not before, the feet are plied vigorously to run along the surface of the water and thus not only act as buffers and 1 The tip of the left wing of the bird in this figure has been retouched, as owing to an accident a portion of the photograph (involving about half of the primaries) had become obliterated. The other photographs have not been retouched in any way and have been chosen to illustrate the various points discussed rather than because they were good photographs. POSITIONS ASSUMED BY BIRDS IN FLIGHT—-BEETHAM. 437 prevent the body from striking the water, but also help to increase the velocity necessary to enable the bird to rise again. In plate 4, figure 2, although the feet of the kittiwake have ceased to touch the surface, the bird is still running, as it were, in space. Another method often practiced by birds to lessen speed is that of depressing the tail, and so offering a resistance to the air rushing along the under surface of the body, and this is illustrated in the gannet shown in plate 5, figure 1. This use of the tail is very similar in its purpose and result to the use of the feet as brakes. Steering is also, of course, aided by the tail, it being visibly turned from side to side, raised or dépressed, when flight is being executed amid tumul- tuous currents. But this method of steering by the tail is rather corrective than initiative in its use, being principally employed to compensate for irregularities in the air currents. When a bird is suddenly and deliberately changing the direction of its course— turning an aerial corner, so to speak—the plane of the wings is changed from the horizontal position assumed when gliding to a more or less vertical position, the inclination depending on the abruptness of the turn and the pace at which it is executed. If the turn is to the right, then the left wing is raised and the right depressed, and, of course, vice versa for a turn to the left. When writing here of one wing being raised and the other depressed, I refer to their positions relative to each other, and not to their relation with the body. That is to say, the wings and body may be held rigidly in one plane, the inclination of this as a whole being changed from the horizontal to toward the vertical. This vertical position has been almost reached by the bird, of which, unfortunately, only a portion is shown, in the upper part of plate 5, figure 2. It will be noticed .that the left wing is depressed and the right raised; the bird is there- fore sweeping around to the left. J have seen birds when thus sud- denly altering the direction of their course actually exceed the vertical position, turning the plane of their surface through an angle of about 105°, thus making an angle of about 75° with the horizon, their backs then, of course, being on the underside. The question of air currents is of paramount importance in flight, though it is probable that owing to their invisibility we have as yet little idea of how extensive and acute these movements are. If, however, we watch small companies of gulls flying leisurely in the same direction, we shall often see them pass through such local air currents, whose existence is plainly indicated by the sudden and harmonious wheeling of the birds. It is often very noticeable, too, how precisely in the same manner all the birds will compensate for the current. This is suggested in plate 6, figure 1, where the four central birds are passing through a disturbance, and it will be noticed how each is “‘trimmineg’”’ for it in much the same way, even to the awkward bend in the neck, 438 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. III.—ALIGHTING. The act of alighting appears to be not the least difficult part in the performance of flight; indeed, whether it be regarded from man’s standpoint or from the bird’s, it may well be accounted the most difficult. On a boisterous day when a bird wishes to alight at some particular point, its powers are often taxed to the utmost. The obvious signs of this being so are the abrupt and spasmodic turns, and the flapping of the wings, and the jerky, erratic course immediately preceding the alighting; while not infrequently the clumsy and hurried actions on touching the ground, plainly show how comparatively little the flight had been under control the moment before alighting. That this is a real difficulty of which the birds are fully conscious is, I think, shown by their preparing for alighting long before they actually do so. Their first care is apparently to reduce their speed as much as possible, so as still to leave them sufficient “way” to insure some stability in the air, and some power of guidance. They soar round and round or approach slowly on a long, wavering course, trailing their feet as brakes, or advance in a vertically zigzag course, finding much resistance in short but steep ascents. But even after these and many other preliminary devices have been tried, birds often get sadly knocked about on really boisterous days when alighting on the cliffs. The difficulty lies not so much in the mere act of alighting, as in the settling at some particular spot. A bird must slow up, or the impact would be too great for its leg muscles to cope with; and the difficulty is that when slowing up and almost at a stand- still in the air, so to speak, it is greatly at the mercy of the air cur- rents—a swirling gust of wind being able then to carry it this way and that, whereas were it in full flight an equal gust might hardly affect its onward course. JI have seen guillemots and puffins when on the point of alighting, and despite their rapidly beating wings, bodily blown over in the air and hurled backwards 30 feet from where they intended to set foot. Frequently, too, a bird, in wild weather or when agitated, will fail to effect a landing, on a cliff for example at the first attempt, perhaps finding it has too much pace to risk a contact with the rocks, or, having too little, a gust of wind will ‘“‘take hold” of it and bear it past the place it intended to alight upon. As when dealing with “Taking flight,” I illustrated my remarks by photographs of the gannet, it may be well now to continue with the same bird, and to try to follow some of its actions when alighting. In plate 6, figure 2, the gannet is approaching, intent on alighting. The pace is comparatively slow, and is being continually lessened, and the course of the bird is being steadied by the trailing feet. The position of its home is not indicated in the picture; it was on the POSITIONS ASSUMED BY BIRDS IN FLIGHT—BEETHAM. 439° top of the column of rock, the base of which is vaguely suggested at the left-hand side of the print. Each time the bird approached its method was the same. It flew along the cliff-face until it reached a point nearly opposite to the nest, but considerably below it; then it swept round abruptly until it faced the cliff, at the same time giving its course a strong upward tendency, still trailing its feet. Plate 7, figure 1, shows the bird just after it had faced round to the cliff and was sweeping upward. As soon as it arrived directly opposite to its nest, its one thought was to stop the forward and upward impetus produced by the great soaring approach. Plate 7, figure 2, shows plainly the measures adopted by another bird—which, by the way, advanced in a more direct and horizontal course, and had, therefore, a more direct forward momentum to counteract. It flew straight for its nest, sweeping slightly upward until it found itself almost opposite the place, and perhaps some 5 or 6 yards distant from it. Then by a dexterous turn it threw the plane of its great surface into a vertical position and at right angles to the direction of its course, thus offering the maximum amount of resist- ance possible. The whole area of the wings, body, and tail is directly opposed and spread out to resist the bird’s forward passage through the air, and it is interesting to note how the tail has been extended to the utmost, fan wise, so as to increase as much as possible the effective area. It will be noticed that the feet are thrust forward and the webs extended in anticipation of the coming contact. That a great strain is being placed upon the wings and that therefore a ereat resistance 1s being encountered is indicated by the curve of the primaries. Plate 8, figure 1, shows the position a moment later. The bird has now got its feet upon the rock (or rather one foot, for the other is thrust out horizontally on the nest, having no doubt missed its mark, and can be of little, if any, support), and appears to be almost stationary, but as a matter of fact it has still a forward impetus which the raised wings are trying to counteract. The bird has, indeed, just set foot upon the ledge, and is falling forward in the direction of its approach. The last photograph (pl. 8, fig. 2) again carries us on a brief moment. Now the bird has pitched forward on to its breast, its wings having failed to find sufficient resistance in the air to counteract the body’s momentum, and in consequence the wings have come crashing down upon the rocks at the end of their strenuous beat. The position of the tail is interesting; in plate 7, figure 2, it is seen fully expanded and depressed in order that its ventral surface may oppose the forward progress, and now it is turned upward above the back so that its dor- sal surface may find resistance and try to counteract the tendency to pitch forward on to the breast. Smithsonian Report, 1911.—Beetham. PLATE 1. Fic. 1.—RAISING THE WINGS PREPARATORY TO GOING. (Photographed by Bentley Beetham.) eee = Fia. 2.—ABoOUT TO DIVE FORTH. , (Photographed by Bentley Beetham.) Smithsonian Report, 1911.—Beetham. PEAT EC. 7 FiG. 1.—GOINQ. (Photographed by Bentley Beetham.) Fia. 2.—GONE. (Photographed by Bentley Beetham.) Smithsonian Report, 1911.—Beetham. PLATE 3. 2 te ee eee core SEEEEEeneeEe Fig. 1.—FAIRLY ON THE WING. (Photographed by Bentley Beetham.) | | t | — Seer eS a ee Siena SEES FiG. 2.—THE TWO EXTREMES OF POSITION. (Photographed by Bentley Beetham.) Smithsonian Report, 1911.—Beetham. PLATE 4. Fic. 1.—THE FEET USED AS BRAKES. (Photographed by Bentley Beetham.) Fia. 2.—RUNNING, AS IT WERE, IN SPACE. (Photographed by Bentley Beetham.) Smithsonian Report, 1911.—Beetham. PLATE 5. Fic. 1.—THE DEPRESSED TAIL USED AS A BRAKE. (Photographed by Bentley Beetham.) os SRM ae dn SENSU Nose aca tad Fic. 2.—NEARLY VERTICAL IN POSITION. (Photographed by Bentley Beetham.) Smithsonian Report, 1911.—Beetham. PLATE 6. Fic. 1.—SUDDENLY AND HARMONIOUSLY WHEELING. (Photographed by Bentley Beetham.) Fic. 2.—INTENT ON ALIGHTING. (Photographed by Bentley Beetham.) Smithsonian Report, 1911.—Beetham. PLATE 7. Fia. 1.—SWEEPING UPWARD. (Photographed by Bentley Beetham.) a od Fic. 2.—MAXIMUM OF RESISTANCE. (Photographed by Bentley Beetham.) Smithsonian Report, 1911.—Beetham. PLATE 8. Fia. 1.—JustT SET Foot UPON THE LEDGE. (Photographed by Bentley Beetham.) Fig. 2.—THE WINGS HAVE COME CRASHING DOWN UPON THE ROCKS. (Photographed by Bentley Beetham.) THE GARDEN OF SERPENTS, BUTANTAN, BRAZIL. By Prof. 8. Pozzz1, Member of the Academy of Medicine, Paris, in charge of scientific expedition to Brazil and the Argentine Republic. I passed but 12 days in Brazil on my way back from Buenos Aires to Europe. There is much to be said about the medical institutions of the two large cities where I stopped, Rio de Janeiro and St. Paul. I wish that I could express all the admiration I have for my colleagues, the physicians and surgeons of Brazil, and tell of all I saw and appre- ciated; but I can cite only afewnames: At Rio de Janeiro, Prof. Feijo, jr., head of the faculty; Dr. Aug. Brandao, professor of gynecology; Dr. Daniel d’Almeida, Dr. Magalhaes, Dr. H. de Toledo-Dodsworth, Dr. Antonio Rodriguez Lima, the Drs. Hilario and Nabuco de Govea, Dr. Olympio da Fonseca; the general secretary of the Academy of Medicine, Dr. Aloysio de Castro, and others. At St. Paul, I would mention especially the Drs. Alves de Lima; my excellent pupil, Dr. Arnado Carvalho; Dr. Synesio Rangel Pestana, and Dr. Oliveira Botelho, formerly minister of agriculture and a distinguished gynecol- ogist. Toward all I have a deep feeling of gratitude for my pleasant reception. But I must limit myself. So I will choose from among my experi- ences my visit to the antivenom therapeutic institution at Butantan near St. Paul. This institution has at its disposal incomparable means for this ~ study and work because of its situation in a region where snakes abound. Our eminent compatriot, Prof. Calmette, of Lille, one of the pioneers in the scientific vaccination against snake bites, has been too often impeded and limited in his laboratory work because of the difficulty in procuring the exotic snakes whose venom was necessary . for his researches. At Butantan, the country people from all sides bring in their captured snakes, in exchange for which they receive tubes of the beneficial serum. 1 Abstract of a lecture given by Prof. S. Pozzi, at the Henri de Rothschild Polyclinic, Mar. 29, 1911. Translated by permission from Revue Scientifique, Paris, Apr. 22,1911. The illustrations in the origi. nal paper here omitted. 441 4492 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. Brazil may be considered as one of the countries most infested by venomous serpents. Though they have completely disappeared from the most frequented places, they are still extremely numerous in the surrounding country, and their bites are a fearful source of danger to the workmen of the coffee or sugar plantations who go with naked feet. Two great genera of serpents live in Brazil, the Crotalus and the Bothrops. . They are found in the forests, the thickets, and the damp places. Naturally rather timid, they flee as soon as disturbed by a noise, but if by chance one of them is touched it turns upon and angrily bites whoever molests it. So that if a passerby inadvert- ently puts his foot on one he is at once bitten. This happens very frequently to beasts or horses when they disturb the peace of a snake. Hunters dread them for their dogs when the latter search in the brushwood. According to statistics, up to 1906 there died annually in the State of St. Paul alone more than 240 persons from the bites of snakes of the Crotalus and Bothrops genera. Since the distribution of serum from the serotherapeutic institution of Butantan, the number of fatal cases has diminished at a rapid rate. This serotherapeutic institution consists of a large number of buildings separated by courts. They include the laboratory, the celis for the snakes, the stables for the inoculated horses, the store- houses for the manipulation of the serum, and the dwellings of the staff. Everything is perfectly organized. Many obscure points relative to the physiology of serpents still require study. In order to better know the habits and all the details of the lives of serpents, Dr. Vital Brazil, the eminent director of this institution, conceived a surely novel idea. He has made an inclosure with thick walls, not so high but that one can easily look over them. Within there is a large space, a kind of rustic inclosure, covered in places with luxuriant vegetation, traversed by wide paths, with glades here and there. A large interior ditch, close to the wall and filled with water, forms a second barrier and prevents the escape of the dangerous guests that people these thickets. The most venomous serpents are to be placed here where they are to live at liberty. When I was at Butantan last year the construction of this place was almost complete. At the present time, without doubt, Dr. Vital Brazil and his fellow workers have already made many curious observations while walking to and fro in this frightful paradise, in this garden of snakes. Before proceeding it will be well to state some theoretical concep- tions which will help to explain the importance of the work accom- plished by this institution. GARDEN OF SERPENTS—POZZI. 443 The pathological physiology of venom poisoning has become very well known through the researches of Calmette and V. Brazil. The poisoning resulting from the bite of a Bothrops is hemorrhagic in nature. After a bite there occurs a decomposition of the blood which escapes from the capillaries, causing profuse hemorrhage in the subcutaneous and submucous tissues, accompanied by acute congestion of the liver, kidneys, and brain. It is a sort of acute purpura. The Crotalus venom, on the contrary, is a paralyzing poison. It produces bulbar paralysis with disturbances of the respiration, the vision, and the circulation. Local reaction at the seat of the wound is absent or extremely slight. Death of the victim, if a man, results after a vari- able time, generally about 24 hours. Vital Brazil has made elaborate studies of the effects of venoms upon animals. The poison of the Crotalus terrificus kills a pigeon when one one-thousandth of a milligram is injected into its veins. The fatal doses for other venoms vary slightly. I will now describe in a few words the preparation of the antivenom serum at Butantan. The serum prepared at Lille by Dr. Calmette has little efficacy in Brazil. Indeed, he himself says in his remarkable book, Upon Venoms, ‘‘For each venom there is a corresponding serum.” Since the serum of the institution at Lille is almost wholly prepared with the venom of Asiatic snakes, although excellent for counteracting the bites of European vipers, it is useless against the bites of the Brazilian Bothrops or Crotalus. Accordingly Dr. Vital Brazil has prepared two specific serums, one anticrotalic, the other antibothropic, each having, in small doses, a particular efficacy against the bites of the corresponding snakes. But as it is rare that the kind of snake producing a bite is known, it was important to have also a polyvalent serum, that is one equally active against all venoms. Such a serum Dr. Brazil has made. The animal used to furnish the antitoxic serum is the horse. A young and healthy animal is taken, free from any disease, and particularly from glanders. Horses are very sensitive to the venom from snakes. At first a minimum does is injected, five one-hundreths of a milligram; then the does is increased. The injections are repeated every five or six days; as soon as the animal seems to suffer or to lose weight the injections are stopped. It is a curious fact that as soon as the immunization is complete the animal seems to thrive from the absorption of the poison; it grows fat, its weight increases. And yet further, a horse in the process of immunization, if the injections are stopped, pines away somewhat as does a morphio- maniac when the latter is deprived of his habitual poison. The horse has become, in fact, a seromaniac. 444 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. The immunization lasts about a year, and toward the end enor- mous doses are given reaching 1 gram. The horse is then ready and the serum from its blood is antitoxic for the venom with which it has been inoculated. In such manner is prepared at Butantan the anticrotalic, the antibothropic and the polyvalent serums. The last is obtained by alternating the injections, using the venom first from one kind, then from the other kind of snake, and, as its name indicates, it is valuable as a remedy for the bites of all Brazilian snakes. It is therefore of exceptional practical value. An immunized horse will furnish serum for a very long time, provided that from time to time new injections of the venom are administered. After each bleeding necessary for a supply of serum, the antitoxic power of the horse diminishes rapidly but recovers several days afterwards. In the case of man, the injection of the serum under the skin should be made during the 12 hours following a bite. If the kind of snake producing the bite is known, the serum specific to that kind is the more efficient toxin to employ in doses of from 10 to 20 c.c¢., for it works more quickly and with special efficacy. If the kind of snake is not known, as is usually the case, then the polyvalent serum must be injected in doses up to 60 ¢. ¢. in serious Cases. The serum is furnished to the public in sealed tubes packed in little wooden boxes. A minimum price is charged. Further, the institute at Butantan distributes the serum free to hospitals, to cities, and to the very poor, together with injection syringes and the necessary directions for its use. The only remuneration asked by Dr. Brazil, at times, in exchange for the serum, is the snakes which are essential to him; and so by bringing a cascavel or a jararaca, the Brazilian countryman receives a tube of the liquid serum. _ [ was very curious to visit the institution at Butantan during the few days I stopped at St. Paul near the outskirts of which it is situated. My distinguished colleague and friend, Dr. Alves de Lima, whom I can not thank too much for his generous hospitality, kindly offered to accompany me there. I copy the following account from the note book of my travels: A powerful 40-horsepower automobile carried us, raising clouds of dust, along the route which traversed a smiling country dotted with trees and exotic shrubs. After a ride of about half an hour we stopped at the gate of a kind of large chalet which belonged to a group of new buildings, the serotherapeutic institution of Butantan. A man of about 40 years of age, tall, energetic, sun burned, wearing a black mustache, with remarkably deep, black eyes, a reserved and deliberate manner in marked con- trast with his southern appearance, received us on the threshold. He wore a long white coat, such as surgeons and physiologists wear. Such was Dr. Vital Brazil, director of the institution and a great philanthropist. To him Brazil, and indeed all the other countries of South America, owe the systematic production of the serum : GARDEN OF SERPENTS—POZZI. 445 which cures the bites of the numerous snakes of those tropical regions, deadly bites which but lately killed more than 1,000 persons a year. He commenced his study by himself; he is indeed a ‘‘self-made” man; later he con- tinued his studies at Paris with Roux, at Lille with Calmette, and at Berlin with Koch. He speaks French very purely although not very fluently. Indeed he talks very little. Tt was always necessary to ask for explanations from this modest and somewhat taciturn man. We at once entered the laboratory, a great hall with rows of jars containing snakes inalcohol. There were snakes ofall sizes, of all colors, of all forms, whole and dissected to show their various organs and with some of them (who would have believed it?) full of parasites peculiar to the snakes. In other jars there were horrible, venomous insects, enormous scorpions, and great spider crabs. We had but little time to devote to this visit, we were therefore in a hurry and Dr. Vital Brazil realized it. He knew of a special attraction for us, a snake eater of snakes, the good snake, so to speak, which, inoffensive himself, destroys his venomous confreres whose bites are harmless tohim. TI asked Dr. Brazil to show us this curiosity. He was prepared for my request and very courteously acquiesced. Only the good serpent had already eaten some eight days ago, and for a snake digestion is very slow and the appetite long in return- ing; nevertheless he let us see. And here we saw the good serpent: It was taken from a box by means of a long crooked stick, with a handle, which seized the snake by the middle, like a common sausage, and deposited it on the ground near us. It was a kind of great adder, about a meter long, of a blue color having the sheen of steel, so shiny that it seemed wet. It crawled slowly, erecting its flat head, darting out its tongue, and seemed formidable despite its good reputation. In order to reassure us, Dr. Brazil took it in his hands and twined it about his arms; he told us at the same time the snake’s scientific name, Rachidelus brasili, locally known as the ‘‘Mussurana.’”’ The natives and especially the hunters have known it for a long time, but until very recently were ignorant of its habits and its so useful tastes. With the same crooked stick he took from a box another serpent, this time an exceed- ingly venomous one, the terrible Lachesis lanceolatus, the ‘‘Jararaca” of the Indians. Its bite in a few minutes kills man or animal. We recoiled instinctively. He placed it close to the good Mussurana, and, at a respectful distance, we formed a ring about them. I confess I looked back of me to see whether an open door was at hand. The two snakes lay there almost motionless, side by side, and apparently seemed to take no notice of each other. Dr. Brazil thought surely that the Mussurana, having just eaten his fill, would not “‘make a march,”’ if I may so express myself. Suddenly it made a movement and drew nearer to its formidable victim. The latter, as well as we, had seen the undulation of his adversary; it also stirred. Did it wish to escape or did it rely upon its irresistible fangs? With incredible quickness which told . plainly that its apparent torpor was only tactical, the good serpent darted its open mouth upon the neck of its prey, evidently aiming to get hold of the nape of its neck in order to render its opponent helpless. The latter, upon its guard, quickly turned and darted its fangs into the body of the other. The good serpent is, however, immune to the poison by nature. And see, in an instant the Lachesis is enlaced, twisted about in the muscular spiral formed by the body of its adversary; they roll convulsively, one about the other, one within the folds of the other, and I wondered for a minute whether the Mussurana was not trying to choke the Jararaca. Very soon I discovered the purpose of this maneuver; it had seized the enemy lower than it had wished at the first grasp, and little by little was advancing its hold gradually until it had its mouth up close to that of the Jararaca. Now it had a firm grip close to the lower jaw; it had the jaw asin a vice with its little flat head, which looked like an instrument of a surgeon or of a torturer, closed nippers of steel. 'The venomous head, lamentably open and as if disjointed in the constant effort to escape, extended several centimeters 446 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. . beyond the coils which enfolded the body and about which they were entwined. The last turns formed a kind of block upon which rested and was thrown back the stretched neck like the cord on a capstan. The whole body of the wicked serpent had disappeared within the folds of the good serpent; its extremities alone remained visible, the helpless head on one s‘de, the slowly moving tail at the other. ‘‘He is going to dislocate the cervical vertebre,’’ Dr. Brazil whispered to me, ‘‘you will see; it is very curious.’’ Indeed it was very curious and even rather horrible to see. But we were as if fascinated by this spectacle, the contest between the good and the bad reptile, between Ormuzd and Ahriman. During several minutes, which seemed to me interminable, Ormuzd had stretched the neck of his half-dead adversary, using some of his own entwining coils as a ful- crum, and ingen‘ously employing the principle of the lever. Then he commenced to twist slowly from right to left, from left to right, the stretched, taut neck. Was Ahriman dead when f left this spectacle to see the rest of the institution? I would not venture to say that he was entirely dead when Ormuzd, after our departure, commenced to swallow him. An hour later, when we returned, the deed was almost done. The good Mussurana was stretched at full length upon the ground where we had left them rolled up asin a ball. We could distinctly see by the abrupt swelling of the steely armor the point to which the swallowing of the prey had progressed. The latter had disappeared, swallowed up close to the tail; and a detail which struck me and which moved me despite my knowledge of the unconsciousness of reflex movements, that little tail was coiled about one of the legs of a table and clung to it yet with convulsive tremblings. ; SOME USEFUL NATIVE PLANTS OF NEW MEXICO. [With 13 plates.] By Paut C. STANDLEY. When the Spanish conquistadores journeyed northward from the mountains and plains of Mexico into what is now the United States, their initial expeditions led them along the narrow valley of the Rio Grande. Near the banks of this stream, or sometimes at some dis- tance from its waters, they found pueblos or Indian villages whose inhabitants supported themselves principally by agriculture. The surrounding regions were peopled by nomadic tribes who derived their sustenance from the untilled resources of an apparently unpro- ductive land. A not uncommon belief among people who have never visited the far Southwest—that part of the United States consisting of New : Mexico, Arizona, western Texas, and the adjacent lands—is that it is a vast desert. By a desert is generally understood a region where the water supply is scanty or lacking and the vegetation sparse. That such a condition is characteristic of large portions of New Mexico must be acknowledged. Not a small proportion of that State consists of sandy plains with but a thin mantle of vegetation, or of barren rocky hills and great malpais—areas invested with compara- tively recent lava flows. But there remains a considerable area com- posed of fertile river valleys artificially watered by the streams which flow through them, and a still larger region of high mountains cov- ered with heavy forests and luxuriant herbage. Among the thickly scattered ranges rise many high peaks upon which snow remaing through nearly the entire year. In the most arid desert regions plant life is abundant, even if incon- spicuous, and the variety of species to be found there is greater than one would infer from the number of individual plants. Many among: these have proved useful to man and were of the greatest importance in the economy of the early inhabitants. Existence must have been one continuous struggle among the aborigines, situated in. a country 447 448 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. ~ where climatic conditions from an ordinary point of view are unfa- vorable. They had to depend almost wholly upon the natural resources of their homes until the Spaniards introduced domestic animals and improved methods of agriculture, and they were there- fore forced to utilize every possible source of food, whether among plants or animals. There have come down to us accounts of the employment for food of many plants which, to the people of to-day, would seem impossible of being thus utilized. The Zufiis, for instance, gathered and ate the inner layer of the bark of the yellow pine, a substance most difficult of digestion and at best very low in nutritive value. Tradition has failed to record the foods to which the people were driven in times of unusual want, but in such periods almost every plant not absolutely poisonous must have been requisitioned. With the advent of civilization, and especially in recent years with the development of the railroads, making it possible to import provi- sions, the use of many substances which formerly served as food has been discontinued, even by the least civilized tribes. While the earlier inhabitants of New Mexico depended upon dozens or even hundreds of the native plants, present inhabitants disregard all but a few, now that more suitable food can be so easily secured. There are, however, a number of plants which are still used extensively by the natives of the country for different purposes, and some have even attracted the attention of the recent immigrants. Most important among native economic plants, at least to the | .original population, were those which furnished food. Not less deserving mention here are some that are or have been employed for fuel, in basketry, as dye plants, and for certain other purposes. The most interesting, certainly the most remarkable, group of southwestern plants consists of the members of the Cactacez or cactus family. These at once attracted the attention of the early explorers, and no stranger visiting this region, whether he be interested in the botanical features of a region or not, fails to remark upon these peculiar forms of vegetation. Over 70 species of this group are known to occur in New Mexico, ranging in size from the small globular Mamillarias or pincushion cactuses, often less than an inch in diame- ter, to the large branched cholla or cane cactus, frequently 10 feet high or more. Almost all the representatives of this family bristle with spines, which fortify them against the assaults of animals, or possess other adaptations for maintaining themselves amid the most unfavorable surroundings. They are found everywhere in New Mexico except upon the high mountains, but they are by far most numerous in the southern part of the State. Here on a single small calcareous hill no less than 15 species have been collected, each rep- resented.by hundreds of individuals. USEFUL NATIVE PLANTS OF NEW MEXICO—STANDLEY. 449 For the greater part of the year cactuses are little more than masses of spines, of bizarre but scarcely beautiful appearance; but in the spring with the advent of warm weather their buds develop and the plants are transformed into clusters of resplendent flowers. No southwestern plants produce more showy blossoms; hence they are admirably suited for cultivation in arid districts, where it is difficult or impossible to grow the ornamental plants favored elsewhere. The most beautiful of all our native cactuses are the species of the genus Echinocereus. These are characterized by spiny cylindrical stems, seldom more than 1 foot high and 3 or 4 inches in diameter, growing singly or in clumps. Their flowers, borne profusely along the angles of the stems, are very large, often 6 inches long, and of bright and rich hues ranging through yellow, pink, scarlet, salmon, crimson, and purple. At the New Mexico Agricultural College beds of some of the different species have been established, each containing several hun- dred plants. When in full flower these present a display of color sel- dom equaled by any of our cultivated plants. Unfortunately they do not bloom all summer, but usually continue in flower several weeks. Other groups of the Cactacee are almost equally handsome. The prickly pears are covered in early summer with yellow or whitish flowers. The cane cactus (Opuntia arborescens) bears hundreds of large red blossoms. The flowers of the Mamillarias are generally bright pink but too small to be showy, and those of the species of Echinocactus are small and of dull tints. The most widely distributed of the cactuses are the prickly pears or flat-jointed Opuntias, whose repaesentatives in New Mexico number about 30 species, at least one or two of which occur in every section of the State (pls. 2,3). This is the group to which the so-called ‘“‘spine- less cactus” belongs. While there are no native species in New Mexico that are completely spineless, at least two are practically so. The spineless sorts which are reputed to have been developed in culti- vation are tender and can not endure the winters of even the southern part of the State. The common spiny prickly pears, the nopales of the Spanish-speaking people, are used as food for stock, especially when seasons of drought have depleted the ranges. They are less extensively utilized in New Mexico than in some other parts of the Southwest, chiefly because the stockmen of the State are unac- quainted with their possibilities. To prepare them for cattle feed the spines are singed off with a torch, after the plants have been hauled to some central point or while they are standing in the field. Experiments: have been made to ascertain the feasibility of growing prickly pear in quantity for stock feed, but these have so far resulted in failure, chiefly because cottontails and jack rabbits eat them as rapidly as they grow and seem to prefer the cultivated plants. When 38734°—sm 1911——29 450 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. hard pressed by hunger cattle will eat cactuses, spines and all, even attacking the very spiny chollas. The joints of the chollas are readily detached from the plants and are often seen clinging to the animals’ bodies. In some parts of the Southwest the young pads of the prickly pear are prepared for human food, the tender joints being peeled and cooked in various ways. They are not likely to become a popular vegetable since they are nearly flavorless and their large amount of mucilaginous matter is unpleasant to most people. The joints have been used as poultices and their juice is occasionally employed in siz- ing rough walls preparatory to the application of paper. The fruit of the prickly pear, known as the tuna (pl. 4, B), is highly prized in Mexico, where it is gathered in great quantities. The kinds © erowing there have larger and more paiatable fruits than any of the New Mexican forms. Some of the northern species produce a dry fruit consisting of little but spines and seeds, and consequently inedible. Others of the tunas are large and juicy and beautifully col- ored, but even they have large seeds. The fruit has a pleasant flavor and a taste for it does not have to be acquired, as it must for so many of the unusual tropical or semitropical fruits. Some of the other cactuses have still better flavored fruits, best of all being those borne by the different species of Echinocereus. In this genus the seeds are small and can be eaten along with the pulp. In the earlier days, and to some extent at the present time, the different cactus fruits were gathered by the Indians, who ate the fresh ones either raw or cooked, and often dried them in the sun for use in winter. The tunas are coy- ered with very fine spines which must be removed, the Indians resort- ing to small brushes of dried grass for the purpose. The Echinocereus fruits, besides being much more finely flavored than the tunas, are easier to eat because they are protected only by large spines that are easily removed with the fingers when the fruit is fully ripe. Tunas have not been utilized extensively in New Mexico by recent immigrants who often eat them when they happen upon ripe fruits but seldom make any definite effort to gather them in quantity. Sometimes they are collected and their juice extracted and used mm the preparation of jellies and sirups, the products thus obtained com- paring favorably in flavor and appearance with any similar ones from other fruits. It has been discovered that a valuable coloring matter, a rich red similar to that of cochineal, can be extracted from them to be used in tinting candies and pastry. The prickly pear, inciden- tally, is often a host of the cochineal insect which in spring and early summer often completely covers the plants with its white webs. In the southern part of New Mexico, on the mesas bordering the Rio Grande, is one of the most remarkable cactuses, known as the fish- hook or barrel cactus or viznaga (Echinocactus wislizeni, pl. 6, A). USEFUL NATIVE PLANTS OF NEW MEXICO—STANDLEY. 451 This was unknown to botanists until the year 1846, when it was dis- covered by Dr. Wislizenus who was making a journey of scientific exploration through the Southwest. He first saw the viznaga near the village of Dona Ana at the lower end of the Jornado del Muerto, on August 5, and speaks of it in these words: Before reaching Dofiana I met on the road with the largest cactus of the kind I have everseen. It was an oval Echinocactus with enormous fishhook-like prickles, measur- ing in height 4 feet and in the largest circumference 6 feet 8 inches. It had yellow flowers and at the same time seed, both of which I took along with some of the ribs. These specimens ultimately reached Dr. George Engelmann of St. Louis, the first botanist to make an extensive study of our North American Cactacez, who named the species in honor of its discoverer. This viznaga is seen in cultivation in the Southwest and occasionally in the East. The plants that have been mutliated assume strange forms, and bifurcate or cristate stems are not uncommon. The barrel cactus is a potential source of water in extreme need. When its top is removed and the juicy white pulp macerated with a club a quantity of a clear watery liquid is extracted from it. While this will serve as a substitute for water in cases of severe thirst its taste is not altogether agreeable, and fortunately in New Mexico water is rarely so scarce as to necessitate such a substitute. The pulp of the viznaga is used more satisfactorily for another purpose. When cut into strips or cubes, boiled several hours until tender, then cooked in a thick sirup which is usually prepared from the crude brown sugar so largely used in Mexico, molded into rough cones known as pilon- cillos, the resultant product is a candied pulp similar to candied pine- apple or citron, of a delicious flavor (pl. 5). Large quantities of it are made every spring by the native people and sold by vendors about the streets of nearly all southwestern towns. It is known as dulce de viznaga. More recently another possible use for the plant has been found. The flesh after being cut into long thin strips and, treated with a glycerin solution forms a sort of vegetable leather which has been manufactured into souvenirs for the tourist trade. Remarkable among the novel curios to be found in the shops of the towns frequented by tourists are the canes made from the stems of the cholla (Opuntia arborescens). These are long narrow cylinders of wood composed of a network of coarse woody bundles with many interstices. They are the woody part of the cholla from which flesh and spines have been removed. Although easy to prepare, to one who is ignorant of the method of manufacture they appear to have been whittled from a solid stick of wood with painstaking care. This tree cactus is another of the plants first made known to science through the explorations of Dr. Wislizenus. Among the Spanish people it is sometimes known as velas de coyote (coyote candles). “452 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. Almost as conspicuous as the cactuses are the Yuccas, a group of desert plants whose members are variously known as Spanish dagger, soapweed, Spanish bayonet, palma, palmilla (pl. 1), or datil. There are seven species that grow in New Mexico, at least one of them in every part of the State except the higher mountains, and one species does extend into some of the ranges as high as 9,000 feet. Usually they grow on the plains and mesas or in the foot hills. Most of them are low, consisting of a cluster of long, narrow, more or less rigid, sharp-pointed leaves 2 feet long or shorter, arising from a short stem orcaudex. From this mass of leaves appears the inflorescence, which takes the form of a raceme or panicle crowded with nearly white, bell-shaped flowers (pl. 7). In southern New Mexico three species grow much larger, having trunks often 6 or 8 and rarely 15 feet high, surmounted by a cluster of leaves above which are thrust up the panicles to a height of 3 to 5 feet more. The yucca which is of greatest economic importance, perhaps, is the datil (Yucca baccata, pl. 8), which grows in the foothills of the northern part of the State in great abundance, and extends in lessened numbers south to the Mexican border. It is one of the low forms, never more than 2 or 3 feet high, but it is noteworthy from the fact that its fruit, unlike that of other species, is fleshy and edible. In form the fruit is cylindrical or conical and usually 6 inches long, with a smooth skin. When ripe it somewhat suggests a banana, because of its shape and yellow color, and is palatable despite the large black seeds with which it is filled. No use has ever been made of it by the English-speaking people and little by those of Spanish descent, but it was an important food among the Indians, who do not altogether ignore it now. The Navahos made more extensive use of it than any other tribe, possibly because the plant grows so luxuri- antly in their territory, where it sometimes covers the foothills with almost unbroken ranks. Regular expeditions were made to gather the fruit when it was ripe. Some of it was eaten fresh, either raw or cooked, but often it was preserved for winter use. The ripe fruits were dried by the fire on flat stones, then ground and kneaded into small cakes, which were laid in the sun and allowed to dry still further. These cakes were stored until wanted, when they were broken up and mixed with water and in this form eaten with bread, meat, or other dishes. The Zuiiis, and probably some of the other Indian peoples, ate the seed capsules of the dry-fruited species after they had been boiled and made into a sort of pickle. These must be very inferior to the fruit of the datil, for they have an unpleasant taste before being cooked, besides being hard and not at all fleshy. The roots of all yuccas contain a high percentage of saponin and are employed as detergents. After being dug and grated or otherwise USEFUL NATIVE PLANTS OF NEW MEXICO—STANDLEY. 453 reduced to small particles they are used almost exactly as soap, form- ing a copious and persistent lather. Both the Indians and the Mexican population use the soap weed in this form, especially for washing the hair. The ground root, amole, is said to be superior to soap for many purposes. In small amounts it has been placed upon the market, where, if its merits were better known, doubtless a profit- able sale could be found forit. The soap weeds thrive so well through- out the Southwest that an almost inexhaustible supply of the roots could be depended upon. There are possibilities in the use of saponin from this source for other purposes. Yucca leaves furnished the Indians with the most satisfactory material for their basketry. The Mescalero Apaches, whose baskets compare favorably with those made by any of the North American Indians, use the leaves of two species (Yucca radiosa and Y. macro- carpa), obtaining from either of them two colors of fiber with which they usually associate a third derived from another source. From the interior of the yucca leaf is taken the nearly white fiber which forms the groundwork of the basket. The geometrical designs with which these are customarily decorated are worked in with strips from the outer coarser part of the leaf, of a soft greenish-yellow color. With these the weavers combine a few strands of a dark reddish- brown fiber prepared from the bark of the lemita, a kind of sumac (Schmaltzia trilobata and related species). Not all Indian baskets made in New Mexico are woven from these materials, but most of them are substantially the same. Some tribes use the bark of the willow or that of other trees and shrubs, while a few prefer the stems of cat-tails, rushes, or sedges. The Apaches also fashion wicker water bottles from the slender willow twigs, waterproofing them with interior and exterior coats of resin from the yellow pine. Anywhere upon the Mescalero Reservation one may come upon dead pines, killed by the removal of the bark from their trunks for several feet above ground so as to produce an exudation of resin fer this purpose. Almost all the Indian tribes of the Southwest manufacture similar receptacles for water, although some use earthenware jars. Because of the prominence and strength of their fibro-vascular bundles Yucca leaves have been considered as a possible source of fiber for cordage, but they are not well suited to such a purpose since their product is coarse and hard. On a small scale the leaves have been made into heavy stable brooms and there is a possibility of a more extensive utilization in this direction. There are several New Mexican plants that may become fiber pro- ducers. The bear grass (Nolina microcarpa and other species, pl. 9) furnishes a good quality of fiber, and tests have been made of the sotol (Dasylirion wheeleri). Related plants furnish commercial fibers in Mexico and other countries. The lechuguilla (Agave lechu- 454 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. guilla), a congener of the mescal but a smaller plant, yields a fiber which is twisted into rope and twine in Mexico. It covers many miles of the desert of western Texas, although in that region little effort has been made to utilize it. It barely reaches southern New Mexico and can never be of economic importance here. Recent advances in the price of rubber, caused by its increased use in manufactures, have stimulated a search all over the world for rubber-yielding plants. A large and profitable industry has been developed in northeastern Mexico in the extraction of rubber from one of the Composite known as guayule (Parthenwum argentatum). It has been reported repeatedly that guayule occurs in New Mexico, but such statements are not supported by investigations. Although the sections of the State where it might be expected to grow have been carefully explored by botanists searching for it, not a single plant has been found. Another species of the genus, mariola (Par- thenium incanum), from which rubber can be extracted, does occur in New Mexico on the dry limestone hills near the southern border. It is said to yield a fair quality of rubber, but a lower percentage of inferior value to that obtained from guayule. Nowhere in the State is it found in sufficient quantity to be of commercial importance. Another member of the same family, the Colorado rubber plant (Hymenoxys floribunda) is abundant in northern New Mexico, where it covers hundreds of acres on the low foothills or higher up among the pine trees, sometimes to the exclusion of almost all other herbaceous vegetation. By chewing some of the stems for a few minutes a small mass of crude rubber is obtained. A few years ago a company was formed in Colorado to extract rubber from the plant, but the under- taking was not a success. While there is no doubt that rubber can be gotten from this source, it is questionable whether a large enough supply could be relied upon to make extensive operations practicable. A prominent feature of the desert flora of the Southwest, along the rocky hills or advancing upon the plains, are the stately Agaves, gen- erally known as mescal or century plants, several species of which are at home in New Mexico (pl. 10). Their leaves are broad and short, never more than 18 inches long, succulent, forming a compact rosette. Each is tipped with a sharp dark spine and is armed along the edges with stout hooked prickles. The tall flower stalks of our native species are 10 to 15 feet high or more, surmounted by thick divergent branches bearing hundreds of yellowish flowers. It is a popular belief that the century plant blooms but once, when it has rounded out a hundred years, hence the common name. A possible basis for this reputation is that in cultivation the plants seldom flower, although in their native haunts flowering plants are of common occurrence. They are known to bloom long before they attain the century mark and probably require only a comparatively few years USEFUL NATIVE PLANTS OF NEW MEXICO—STANDLEY. 455 to reach maturity. Each plant flowers but once, the leaves wither- ing as soon as seed is matured. About each dead plant is usually left a colony of young ones formed from suckers, by which the plant is propagated. The true mescal plant, a native of Mexico, the source of pulque, mescal, tequila, and other drinks, is not rare in cultivation in southern New Mexico, but is not indigenous. The native Agaves furnished one of the most important items in the diet of the Apaches and other Indian tribes, who used them for making what Is known as mescal. It is from the manufacture of this article that the Mescalero Apaches, whose reservation lies in the White and Sacramento Mountains, receive their name. There are two substances to which the term mescal is applied. It is more generally used to define an intoxicating beverage distilled from the fermented juice ofthe Agave. This drink is consumed in every part of Mexico, but is probably not manufactured to-day in the United States. After the coming of the Spaniards the natives of the Southwest learned to distill the alcoholic drink and it is not impossible that they had even developed the process independently. This, how- ever, is not the mescal to which the Mescalero Apaches owe their designation. The Apaches, like others of the southwestern Indians, were wont at certain times of the year to visit the localities where the century plants were most numerous. The favorite season was in early sum- mer when the flower stalks were just starting, but the plants could be used at any time. Pits 10 or 15 feet across and about 8 feet deep were dug and lined with stones, then filled with wood which was fired _and kept burning until they were thoroughly heated. The fire was then raked out and the pits filled with the succulent Agave leaves. After being covered with grass or weeds the pits were left for some time, usually about three days, when they were opened and the thor- oughly cooked leaves (mescal) were taken out and eaten. The leaves thus cooked contain much sugar and have an agreeable sweet taste. They consist so largely of fiber that they are unfit to be eaten as a whole, but must be chewed until the digestible part is removed, the fiber being then ejected. Large amounts of mescal were prepared after this method and either eaten at once or partly dried and stored for later consumption. Mescal pits are of common occurrence in New Mexico wherever the Agave grows (pl. 6, B). The Mescaleros still prepare this food, but not such stores as in earlier days. In the markets of Mexico the same article is everywhere offered for sale. The leaves of the species used there are larger and furnish a greater amount of nutritious matter than the northern kinds. Another desert plant, more closely related to the Yuccas than to the Agaves, is the sotol (Dasylirion wheeleri, pl. 11), which was utilized by the Indians in much the same way as the century plant. Of this 456 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. they used only the heart of the plant taken just when the flower stalk was pushing up. The trunks were trimmed and placed in the pits, where they were treated exactly like the mescal. This product must be far less suitable for food, for the stems are hard and woody and only the youngest parts can be easily rendered edible. Sotol has been used in the manufacture of alcohol in a commercial way, the sugars contained in the stems being readily fermentable. With this as a basis reports have been issued of the distillation of, alcohol from cactus, but the sugars contained in the different cactuses have so far not proved susceptible of fermentation. All plants that have spines are popularly known as cactus in the Southwest and here may be found the probable source of this erroneous report. Sotol has proved its utility as feed for stock, especially when con- tinued drought has caused a scarcity of grass. Cattle if starved can eat the plants as they stand in the field but are likely to be injured by the sharp edges of the leaves. When the plants are cut in two, so as to expose their interior, they are greedily consumed. One cattle- man in the southern part of the State, while fattening cattle for market, had several carloads of sotol shipped in for feed and used it with profitable results. The plants are very abundant in some localities, closely covering broad slopes along the foothills. New Mexico is not bountifully provided with wild fruits, but there is a considerable number of native ones, some of which are not par- ticularly palatable but can be eaten. The number that are really useful is small compared with those found in the Central and Eastern States. The most valuable of all, certamly the most delicious and most . frequently gathered, is the red raspberry (Rubus strigosus) which is exactly like the plant that bears the same name farther east. Seldom does it grow so luxuriantly as in some localities in New Mexico, where it forms thick patches, often several acres in extent, in the broad open valleys in the higher mountains. Its well flavored fruit is borne in profusion and is often gathered in quantity when accessible. It is a favorite food of bears and many of them frequent the berry patches when the fruit is ripe. A near relative is the thimbleberry (Rubacer parviflorus) which also produces a red fruit like the raspberry, but unfortunately the plants are low, never more than 1 or 2 feet high, and each bears but few fruits, so that gathering the berries is a tedious task. Strawberries of excellent quality are found in most of the mountain ranges, sometimes in sufficient abundance to be gathered for the table. In the ranges between Santa Fe and Las Vegas and northward a blueberry (Vaccinium oreophilum) is common. It grows in sandy soil high up among the spruces, a low shrub rarely more ~ than a foot high, loaded with small wine-colored berries which are often picked and eaten. On the Plains along the eastern border of USEFUL NATIVE PLANTS OF NEW MEXICO—STANDLEY. 457 the State are scattered thickets of the sand plum (Prunus watsont) whose fruit is used for jams and jellies. The wild red plum (Prunus americana) is known in a few localities in the mountains. It is abundant about the pueblo of Taos whose inhabitants utilize all the fruit produced. In some parts of the State this plum seems to have escaped from cultivation but in places it is almost certainly indigenous. The buffalo berry (Lepargyrea argentea) grows in the San Juan Valley, a large shrub usually about 10 feet high, with silvery white leaves and clusters of very small currant-like berries. The fruit has a flavor not unlike that of the cultivated red currant and is gathered and preserved. Currants and gooseberries are seen everywhere in all the mountain ranges. Unfortunately the fruit of the wild currants is tasteless and insipid and is seldom used for food by the English- speaking people although employed by the Indians formerly and to some extent to-day. The native people used the fruit either fresh, or dried and preserved for winter. From the berries certain of the western tribes prepared an intoxicating beverage, one of the species, Ribes inebrians, receiving its specific name from this fact. One of the gooseberries (Grossularia pinetorum) is distinguished by having its fruit, while agreeable to the taste, so densely covered by sharp spines that it can not be eaten. Elderberries (Sambucus microbotrys and other species) grow in most of the mountains and in the lower Rio Grande Valley. All have edible fruit that is sometimes gathered. The Mexican elderberry (Sambucus mexicana), which is frequent in cultivation in the Rio Grande Valley and may be native in some parts of the State, differs from the eastern species in becoming a good-sized tree. It is valuable as an ornamental plant because it is green nearly throughout the year and may put forth its blossoms even in January or February if there are a few days of mild weather. The algerita (Berberis haematocarpa), a native of the hills and dry canyons, is a barberry which bears quantities of juicy blood-red berries that are made into jellies. There are several other barberries, including the ‘Oregon grape” (Berberis repens), which grow in New Mexico, but never in sufficient abundance to furnish any considerable amount of fruit. One of the ground cherries (Physalis neomexicana), a trouble- some weed in cultivated land at higher elevations, makes excellent preserves, besides being prepared in other ways. The fruits that have been mentioned are nearly all that are used by the English-speaking people of the State, but in former times the Indians were compelled by the general scarcity of food to make use of many others, and some of the more primitive tribes, like the Navahos, still employ some of them. Among those whose fruit has been utilized are the lote bush’ (Zizyphus lycioides) and Condalia spathulata, low straggling desert shrubs of the southern mesas, the 458 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. wild grape (Vitis arizonica), choke cherries (Padus melanocarpa and P. capuli), the wild rose (the fruit or hips of Rosa fendlert and other species), service berries (Amelanchier sp.), mulberries (Morus micro- phylla), hackberries (Celtis reticulata), lemita (Schmaltzia trilobata), and tomatilla (Lyciuwm torreyi, L. pallidum, and other species). Of the first two shrubs a Mexican once told the writer that the fruit con- sists of ‘‘mucho hueso y poco carne”’ (a large seed and little flesh), and this is true of most of those just enumerated. Wild grapes grow in many of the mountains, but their fruit is small and sour. Mul- berries are found only in the southern part of the State. The trees, which stand in the drier canyons and on open stony slopes, are small and stunted, and the fruit is undersized and not very juicy. Service berries form thickets in most of the mountains, but the berries are small and insipid. The fruit of some of the species found in the northwestern part of the State is nearly if not quite dry, and so is not edible. The tomatilla, a characteristic shrub of the mesas and river valleys, bears an abundance of bright red juicy fruit which is eaten by the native population, although it does not seem very appetizing. Besides these fruits—in the popular sense of the word—the seeds of many plants formed part of the food of the Indians. Those of the sunflower, a weed which thrives almost everywhere in the West, were gathered and ground into meal. This is so rich in oil that it was sel- dom used alone but was mixed with other substances. The seeds of some of the amaranths (Amaranthus spp.) and goosefoots or lamb’s quarters (Chenopodiumspp.) were collected by the Zufiis and Navahos, as well as those of purslane (Portulaca oleracea and P. retusa) and of certain grasses. The Apaches depended upon a sort of bread made from the ground legumes and seeds of the mesquite and the tornillo or screw bean (Strombocarpa pubescens). 'The pods of these shrubs are rich in sugar and sweet to the taste. Children are often seen . chewing them and they are relished by stock of all kinds. The Zuiiis gathered cedar berries and after grinding them formed the meal into cakes. Young fruits of the wild gourd (Cucurbita foetidissima) were cooked in various ways. Besides the seeds of the lamb’s quarters the plants themselves, the leaves and young shoots, were cooked as ‘‘greens,”’ just as they fre- quently are in other parts of North America. Additional succulent plants such as the purslane, the Rocky Mountain bee weed (Peritoma serrulatum), a small composite (Pectis angustifolia), and many others were treated in the same way. All plants used thus are known by the Spanish name of quelite. It seems almost incredible to anyone familiar with the bee weed that it could ever be eaten. It is one of the most common plants of the northern part of the State, covering large extents of mesa land. Its stems and leaves when crushed give off a most offensive odor, but this is said to disappear upon cooking. Only the young shoots are used as food. USEFUL NATIVE PLANTS OF NEW MEXICO—STANDLEY. 459 While New Mexico furnishes a number of fruits capable of being utilized in different ways, in the matter of nuts the State is not so fortunate, there being only one that is of economic importance. Two species of walnuts (Juglans rupestris and J. major) grow in the moun- tains and low foothills. The first bears very small nuts, scarcely large enough to be eaten, and the second has them but little larger and of poor flavor. Indians formerly collected the acorns of the many oaks for food, but it is improbable that they use any at present. The one kind of nut which New Mexico does produce in quantity is the pinyon (Pinus edulis, pl. 12, A). This is the seed of a small pine tree, seldom more than 20 feet high and often much lower, which grows almost everywhere in the State at elevations of from 5,000 to 7,000 or 8,000 feet. Where the nut pine is found it is the most con- spicuous component of the vegetation and often the only tree or shrub present, although commonly associated with one or two kinds of cedar. The nuts are inclosed in small cones, only a few in each. They are gathered in one of two ways. More frequently, after frost has come and the cones are opening, the nuts are shaken down upon blankets spread beneath the trees. Obviously only a fractional part of them can be secured in this manner, at least at a single shaking. Another method is to pick the cones before they are open and heat them until the nuts fall out or can be removed by the fingers. In either case they are roasted before eating, to the improvement of their flavor. The delicious taste of the roasted nuts is not excelled by that of any of our well-known kinds, and indeed is equaled by few of them. ‘The nuts are small, scarcely more than half an inch long, and oblong in outline (pl. 12, 6). Their thin shells are easily broken by the teeth and separated from the meat by the aid of the tongue. In the Southwest, at least among the native population, pinyons are much more popular than peanuts, to which they are most com- parable, and wherever a crowd assembles on some festive occasion or on market days, the ground and sidewalks are soon covered by the shells. They can not be eaten rapidly, consequently one can eat them almost all day long. Enormous quantities of pinyon nuts are gathered in good seasons, which are said to occur once in every five years. In some localities they are brought into market by the wagonload and have been gathered in large enough amounts to be used in feeding horses. Most of the crop is consumed in the South- west where the pinyon is known and appreciated, but a part is shipped Hast and retailed in the fruit stores of the larger cities. Candy manufacturers have used the nuts in sweetmeats and they would become a staple article if the supply were more constant. The nuts of another New Mexican pine (Pinus flezilis) are edible, but they have such thick shells that they can not be easily cracked with the teeth and are seldom gathered. The gum of the pinyon 460 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. is sometimes chewed, being similar in flavor and consistency to spruce gum. Several plants native to New Mexico have roots that serve useful purposes. Two kinds of wild potatoes grow in the State, one of which (Solanum jamesii) is a common weed in cultivated lands in the pinyon belt, while the other (Solanum fendlerv) is not rare in the higher mountains on shaded banks along with pine and spruce trees. The latter is not distantly related to the cultivated potato (Solanum tuberosum) and has been referred to that plant as a subspecies. It has small tubers about half an inch in diameter which are sometimes eaten. Wild onions, as well as the roots of certain umbellifers and of wild liquorice (Glycyrrhiza lepidota) were used for food by the earlier inhabitants of the region. A member of the Senna family, Hofimanseggia densiflora, found on the lower alkaline land in the western part of the State, is known as camote de raton or rat’s sweet potato. It develops along its roots many spherical tubers an inch or less in diameter, which the Indians dig and cook like the common potato. A near relative of the yellow dock, known as cafiaigre (Rumex hymenosepalus) is another plant whose root is economically impor- tant. This is often the first plant to bloom in the spring on the sandy mesas of southern New Mexico. The flowers appear as early as Feb- ruary in the lower Rio Grande Valley, and by the time most other plants are blooming this has completed its growing season and its fruit stalk and leaves have disappeared. For the rest of the year the plant consists of a large mass of fascicled roots similar in appear- ance to those of the dahlia and about as large. They are rich in tannin and are employed throughout the Southwest in tanning hides. Most of the cattle, sheep, and goat skins cured within the region are treated with cafiaigre roots. Utilization of the plant for commercial purposes has been attempted. Experiments toward this end were successful in demonstrating the efficacy of the roots in tanning. The problem of fuel in New Mexico has solved itself in much the same way as elsewhere. With the advent of the railroads coal mines were opened and coal is largely used in localities where it is accessible, but wood is still the principal fuel. In the mountains, with the forests of pine, fir, spruce, and other trees to draw upon, firewood is obtained at no great expenditure of labor. Where available oak is preferred to the wood of coniferous trees because of the less amount of soot formed by its combustion. In the foothills of the northwest- ern and western parts of the State pinyon and cedar are the woods depended upon. The pungent odor of cedar smoke which greets one whenever he approaches a human habitation must always be asso- ciated in memory with Indian camps to one who has traveled in the less frequented parts of the Southwest. USEFUL NATIVE PLANTS OF NEW MEXICO—STANDLEY. 461 In the river valleys, often far removed from forested mountains, or separated by almost impassable country, the fuel question is less easily solved. There is a widely quoted saying that in the South- west men ‘‘dig for wood and climb for water.” The first part of this statement is literally true. The people of southern and southwestern New Mexico, like those of the adjacent regions, depend for fuel largely, if not chiefly, upon a low, straggling, spiny shrub, which would certainly be ignored by one not acquainted with its peculiar possibilities. The mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa, pl. 13) is a widely distributed and characteristic plant of all the Southwest, being in New Mexico always a low shrub, never more than 3 to 5 feet high, its slender branches seeming even more tenuous by reason of the sparse dissected foliage with which they are invested. The branches are so small that even were they all compressed into a solid block of wood they would still supply but scant fuel. The shrub’s value lies not in its branches and trunk, however, but in its roots. When the sand heaped about the stems is pushed away and the roots uncov- ered it becomes evident that the mesquite can be a source of a large amount of firewood. The roots have been developed more than is common in woody plants, presumably that they may serve as stor- age organs for water, and thus enable the shrubs to exist in the arid regions where they grow. Many of the native Mexicans earn no inconsiderable part of their livelihood by digging mesquite roots upon the mesas or in the waste land of the valleys. ‘Each bush yields a large amount of wood, but there are no data available from which to determine the amount per acre. While in the form of very thick and gnarled hard roots, extremely difficult to cut or split, when falls prepared for the stove or grate the wood is of unexcelled quality. It can be burned green, but is improved by drying. The tops or branches are usually thrown away. Unimproved land in the valleys is generally covered with mesquite and removal of the bushes and roots must precede cultivation. A near relative of this shrub is the tornillo (Strombocarpa pubes- cens, pl. 4, A) or screw bean, which receives its English name—the exact equivalent of its Spanish one—from the shape of its pods, which are coiled into a long cylinder so as to resemble a screw. In the case of the tornillo the stems, not the roots, furnish fuel. These are little larger than an ordinary broomstick and would appear to be an unsatisfactory source of heat, but thousands of loads of them are cut in the valleys every year. The bushes grow only in the allu- vial lands. When cut off near the ground, they sprout up and are soon ready for cutting again. The land immediately bordering the principai streams is nearly always covered with bosques or groves of the valley cottonwood (Populus wislizeni) accompanied by a thick undergrowth of small shrubs. The cottonwood, which often reaches a large size, is used 462 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. principally in the construction of houses, corrals, and shelters. The wood is so soft that it burns almost as rapidly as paper and produces an intense heat but of short duration. The large trees seem immune to destruction as long as left to the native people, who are apparently baffled by their size. In some localities one sees men going miles to dig mesquite roots, an operation requiring the hardest kind of labor, while along the roads lie huge trunks of fallen cottonwoods, untouched because the people do not know how to cut them up. Best known among all the handiwork of the North American Indians are the splendid rugs made by the Navahos, whose reserva- tion occupies the northwest corner of New Mexico. These blankets, whose workmanship would be a credit to any civilized people, notwith- standing the crude methods of their manufacture, are noted for the permanence and harmony of their colors. To-day the raw wool is colored with imported synthetized dyes, but formerly all the colors of the blankets, like those of other similar articles, were obtained from native plants or mineral substances. ed was produced by a decoc- tion of the mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus parvifolius), the powdered bark of the alder (Alnus tenucfolia), and the ashes of the cedar (Juniperus monosperma and J. utahensis). Yellow was obtained by rubbing the wool with a paste made from the roots of cafiaigre or by using an extract of the flower heads of rabbit brush (Chrysothamnus spp.). Black was produced by a decoction of the leaves and berries of the lemita (Schmaltzia trilobata) combined with calcined gum of the pinyon. Other tribes elsewhere in the State used different plants to secure the same results. There is not space here to enumerate any of the plants used medicinally by the Indians; indeed but little is known or probably ever will be known of this subject. To almost every plant some real or fancied medicinal virtue was assigned. While many of these uses were purely empirical, others doubtless were based on some substratum of fact. There is a common herb which is reputed throughout all the West and Southwest to be a remedy for the bite of the rattlesnake. Others were used to treat the stings of venomous insects and of spiders and scorpions. Nor is there space for the mention of any of the forage plants, in whose variety and abundance consists New Mexico’s greatest natural resource, furnishing sustenance to thousands of head of stock each year. A second great asset lies in the extensive forests which cover all the mountains. Those plants which are here briefly noted are but the most conspicuously interesting ones, but there remain many more which are equally or more deserving of mention and may be shown by investigation and exploration to be more useful to man. The photographs for plates 44,6, and 12.A, were courteously supplied by the Biological Survey, U.S. Department of Agriculture. They were made by Mr. Vernon Bailey. Smithsonian Report, 1911.—Standley. PLATE 1. Pe AUS S LWits ' VAS THE PALMILLA (YUCCA RADIOSA) ON THE MESA NEAR THE ORGAN MOUNTAINS, New Mexico. ‘OOIXSIA MAN ‘SNIVLNQOIWW NVODYO !LINYS NI (INNVWISONZ VILNAdO) YVad ATMO V “6 ALVid ‘Kajpuejgs—' 1161 ‘Hoday uejuosy}iws *(VdHVOOHOVW VOONA) LANOAVG HSINVdS 40 A1S3eIHD GASOdWOD SI GNNOYDMOVG SHL NI GINVYAd SHL “3937109 IWHYNLINOIYDY OOIXAI, MAN SHL LV GSLVAILIND (SIDING VILNNdO) YVad ATHIYEd V "€ ALVid ‘Kajpuejgs—' 1161 uodey uejuosy}iws Smithsonian Report, 1911.—Standley. PLATE 4. A. TORNILLO (STROMBOCARPA PUBESCENS) IN THE RIO GRANDE VALLEY NEAR EL PASo, TEXAS. B. FRUIT OF A PRICKLY PEAR (OPUNTIA DULCIS). [One-fifth natural size.] Smithsonian Report, 1911.—Standley. PLATE 5. DULCE DE VIZNAGA, CACTUS CANDY, MADE FROM THE PULP OF THE BARREL CACTUS (ECHINOCACTUS WISLIZENI). Smithsonian Report, 1911.—Standley. PLATE 6. A. VIZNAGA OR BARREL CACTUS (ECHINOCACTUS WISLIZENI). B. OLD MESCAL PIT IN THE GUADALUPE MOUNTAINS NEW MEXIco. Smithsonian Report, 1911.—Standley. PLATE 7 FLOWERING PANICLE OF THE PALMILLA (YUCCA RADIOSA) PLATE 8. Standley. Smithsonian Report, 1911. FRUITING PLANT OF THE DATIL (YUCCA BACCATA) IN SOUTHERN NEW Mexico. Smithsonian Report, 1911.—Standley. PLATE 9. BEAR-GRASS (NOLINA MICROCARPA) AT SAN Luis Pass, NEW MEXico. Smithsonian Report, 1911,—Standley. PLATE 10. MESCAL OR CENTURY PLANT (AGAVE PARRYI), NEAR THE HATCHET MOUNTAINS, New Mexico. Smithsonian Report, 1911.—Standley. RATE tile SOTOL (DASYLIRION WHEELER!) IN THE ORGAN MOUNTAINS, NEW MExico. “OZIS [RANIRN “SLONN NOANId ‘GG “(SI1NGA SNNId) ASU] NOANIG ‘W ‘SL a1Lvld ‘Aa|puejgs—' 1161 ‘Hodey ueiuosyyiws PLATE 13. Standley. ) Report, 1911. Smithsonia teers MESQUITE BUSH (PROSOPIS GLANDULOSA) NEAR DEMING, NEW MExIco. b pete oO gle; a j PLATE 1. Smithsonian Report, 1911,—Maxon. GROUP OF TREE FERNS (CYATHEA PRINCEPS). THE TREE FERNS OF NORTH AMERICA. [With 15 plates.] By Wuu1am R. Maxon. Although the name tree fern is occasionally given to any large fern of treelike form, it-has come by common usage to have a definite application to the members of a single family, the Cyatheacex, and in so far as any one descriptive term can apply to a large group of world-wide distribution, whose distinetive technical characters are minute and not always very obvious, the expression is a singularly appropriate one. The Cyatheacez are known as tree ferns because the great majority of the species are essentially treelike in size and proportion and have strong woody trunks, often attaining a height of 40 feet or more. One may easily imagine the feeling of surprise with which the early voyagers to the New World, looking upon the wonderful pro- fusion and luxuriance of these enormous plants, contrasted them with the relatively small ferns of Europe. One wonders also at the restraint and rather passive scientific attitude of Sloane, one of the earlier English writers upon the West Indian flora, who, having accompanied the Duke of Albemarle upon his voyage to Jamaica in 1689, thus quaintly describes a common species (Alsophila aspera), as he observed it in that island: This has a trunc twenty Foot high, as big as ones Leg, (after the manner of Palm- trees) undivided, and covered with the remaining ends of the Foot-Stalks, of the Leaves fallen off, which are dark brown, as big as ones Finger, two or three inches long, thick set with short and sharp prickles. At the top of the trunc stand round about five or six Leaves, about six Foot long, having a purple Foot-Stalk, very thick beset with short, sharp prickles on its backside. At about a Foot distance from the Trunc, each Leaf is divided into Branches set opposite to one another, placed near the bottom, at about six Inches distance from each other. The ultimate divisions (segments) of the leaf are mentioned as about one third of an Inch long, and half as broad, blunt, easily indented about the edges, of a dark green colour above, pale green below, very thin, and so close set to one another that there is no defect or empty space between them. 463 464 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. From this description, brief as it is, several of the most character- istic features of the group as a whole may be noted: The single and simple unbranched trunk or stem, ‘‘after the manner of palm trees,”’ the spreading circular crown of ample fronds surmounting the stem, the lighter color of the under surface of the leaf, which may be observed in nearly all Cyatheacee, not a few of the species being grayish or even whitish below, and above all the ‘‘close-set”’ divisions, without ‘‘defect or empty space between them,” a feature which in connection with the enormous size of the fronds of many species lends to tree ferns their greatest charm, that of surpassing leafiness and vigor. For the benefit of the ignorant or of the superficially minded Sloane adds: From these Trees growing on the Mountains of Hispaniola the Spaniards argued the fertility of that Soil, making Ferns grow to such a vast bigness, which in Europe were so inconsiderable, not considering that the Ferns in Europe and here, were quite different kinds one from the other. Not alone in dimensions, but also in technical characters of struc- ture are the huge ferns of this alliance distinct from those of conti- nental Europe. Sloane calls them ‘‘trees,’”’ and to this day the term ‘fern tree’? is employed in Australia as commonly as our more familiar ‘‘tree fern’? for members of the Cyatheaces. ‘‘Fern-tree gullies” is there a common expression, applied to deep shady ravines of the moister coastal regions having a dense growth of Cyatheaceex. ARBORESCENT HABIT. A typical group of tree ferns of different ages is shown in plate 1, a scene in Guatemala. The species is Cyathea princeps (often known as C. Bourgaei, and described more recently as C. Munchir), a rather uncommon plant which ranges from the moister parts of Mexico to Alta Verapaz, eastern Guatemala. Not all species of Cyathea have their fronds so rigidly ascending. Indeed, Cyathea arborea, which is the commonest and perhaps the most graceful North American member of the genus, will be seen (pl. 2) to have them laxly arching or even drooping. The direction of the fronds, however, in many species depends much upon the age of the plant. Thus, the smaller individual at the right in plate 1 owes the upright position of its fronds in part to its quick, vigorous growth and partly, no doubt, to the need the plant has of stretching its leaves up toward the level of the rather dense surrounding undergrowth, where of course the sunlight is much stronger than below. Tree ferns may in fact be regarded as “standing on tiptoe” in their effort to secure light and air. They are commonest in those moist, densely forested, tropical regions where their struggle for TREE FERNS OF NORTH AMERICA—MAXON. 465 very existence is sharpest, and where, except for the acquisition of this trait or of some other to give them special advantage, their life would indeed be short. To meet the same conditions ferns of other families and of many tribes and genera have shown wonderful adapt- ability of different sorts, both in structure and change of habitat, two of the most common instances being the development of the climbing form and epiphytic habit of growth. In the intensely wet and heavily forested mountain region of Chiriqui, for example, prob- ably three-fourths of the ferns are epiphytic. To make best use of the arborescent habit, the growth of the tree-fern stem must be steady and of a permanent character; and we find that moist tropical con- ditions usually permit this, however slow may be the rate of develop- ment from season to season. Before proceeding, however, to a discussion, of the widely different forms assumed by the many species, or of the more minute technical characters which serve to distinguish the genera and species, it may be well to note briefly the general factors which appear to control the distribution of tree ferns in North America. DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT. As already indicated, tree ferns are characteristically inhabitants of wet, forested, tropical and subtropical regions and reach their best development in mountainous districts which are not subject to drought or pronounced seasonal change.- In the Greater Antilles they are found mainly upon the northern slopes and summits of the higher mountains, as, for example, the Sierra Luquillo of Porto Rico and the Blue Mountains of Jamaica, where the cool, moisture-laden trade-winds from the northeast bring a constant and ample supply of moisture. The fern vegetation to the south of these mountains is more or less strongly xerophytic, both islands mentioned even having a semiarid region of cactus and scrub growth. Similar conditions were noted in the Sierra Maestra of Cuba. Here on the compara- tively dry southern slopes of the peak Torquino at 3,500 feet I found plants of Cyathea arborea, a species which in Jamaica and else- where in the West Indies rarely ascends to more than 2,000 feet. Associated with it were several polypodiaceous ferns which ordinarily are characteristic of the lowland forests and whose occurrence here so far above their usual limit is in all probability directly correlated with moisture supply. The southern coast in the lee of the Torquino is intensely hot and semiarid, with a dense ‘‘chaparal”’ formation (including cacti), wholly unsuitable not only to tree ferns but to a majority of ferns of other families, as well. Similar conditions upon a grander scale are observed upon the continent, the tree ferns being practically confined to the humid 38754°—sm 1911——30 466 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. Atlantic slopes and to the high mountains. Thus, in the mountain- ous parts of eastern Guatemala (Alta Verapaz), where according to the native saying ‘‘it rains 13 months out of every 12,” tree ferns are exceedingly abundant, a few species occurring at and near sea level, but the most of them at from 4,000 to 6,000 feet altitude. West of this region, in the dry interior basin, they are wanting; and only two species, Cibotiwum Wendlandi and Hemitelia costaricensis, are reported from the higher region near the Pacific, even the moist forest belts of the volcanoes Fuego and Agua having none, so far as known. . In Costa Rica a relatively small number of tree ferns are found in the moist Atlantic lowlands, but they are elsewhere of very general occurrence, excepting only the half desertlike slopes facing the Pacific and the dry and open portions of the interior table land, which has a temperate and delightfully equable climate. The latter area (meseta central) is relatively small, and one has only to go out a few miles to the lower mountain slopes to find tree ferns in profusion. The greater part of Costa Rica, however, and by far the most inter- esting, is the exceedingly broken, mountainous region to the north- ward, from which rise the four great volcanic peaks Turrialba (11,128 feet), Irazi (11,312 feet), Barba (9,412 feet), and Poas (8,786 feet), from east to west. These intercept most of the moisture from the Gulf, and it is here that the Cyatheacez reach their highest develop- ment, both as to species and size and number of individuals, in any part of North America. Christ, indeed, regards it as ‘‘the richest tree fern region of the world.’ Certainly it is an endemic center of a high order, and when adequately explored is likely to yield many more than the 50 species it is now known to contain. It embraces altitudes above 5,000 feet; and although snows are wanting from all Costa Rican volcanoes, heavy frosts occur more or less regularly from 6,000 feet upward. The extremes of temperature endured by the tree ferns of this region must be very great. Chiriqui, the westernmost Province of Panama, apparently does not differ greatly from Costa Rica as a tree fern region. Although there are a few coastal species, here also the great majority are found in the high mountains, which form a definite cordillera paralleling the coast line, east and west. Recent exploration has shown that they are mainly those known hitherto only from Costa Rica. The Cordillera gradually decreases eastward, until in the Canal Zone only three or four lowland tree ferns are found. One of these, Hemitelia petiolata, first described from Panama, is common in ravines and wet. thickets. In Mexico, also, as might be expected, tree ferns are wanting from the interior, arid, high plateau region, whose flora has been so thor- oughly investigated during the past 35 years, Upward of 20 species TREE FERNS OF NORTH AMERICA—MAXON. 467 of Cyatheacee are known from Mexico, but almost the only recent material of these is that secured upon occasional excursions from the table-land into the moist lower regions bordering the tierra caliente of Vera Cruz. In the several regions mentioned a few tree ferns are found to be partial to the lowlands. Among the West Indian species of this class may be noted Cyathea arborea which, however, as already explained, exceptionally occurs high up on the southern slopes of the Sierra Maestra, finding there congenial surroundings which are wanting at a lower altitude in this region. Upon the continent Alsophila micro- donta is found near sea level from Mexico along the Atlantic to South America. Alsophila myosuroides shows a similar preference for low altitudes, its known range extending on the mainland from Vera Cruz to Honduras, and including also Cuba and the Isle of Pines. Another and very remarkable species of Alsophila (A. blechnoides, described hereafter) ranges along the Atlantic coast from Guatemala to Trinidad. The occurrence of Hemitelia petiolata.in the moist coastal woods and thickets of the Canal Zone has already been mentioned. Further examples might be cited. There are still other species which, though occurring commonly at a low elevation, yet show a considerable altitudinal range; for example, Alsophila aspera, which in Jamaica extends from about 1,000 to 4,000 feet altitude. A better instance is that of Hemitelia multiflora (Hemitelia nigricans), which exists mainly as a sea-level species from Guatemala to Panama, along the Atlantic, but never- theless ascends to nearly 4,000 feet in Costa Rica. There are, doubtless, many tree ferns which are more resistant than others to untoward conditions of environment, or less particular in their requirements of soil, shade, and moisture, which occupy similarly broad belts. In fact, local and hardly appreciable conditions of exposure and air drainage, as well as more obvious differences of humidity and topography, may be supposed to exercise great influ- ence in determining the distribution of tree ferns as of other plants. Certain tree ferns occur typically as undergrowth in the dense shade of lofty forest trees; for example, Cyathea gracilis, a Jamaican species which grows usually in peaty soil in wet, sheltered depressions. The trunks of this, though commonly short, sometimes reach 8 to 12 feet, whereupon, according to Jenman, they ‘frequently fall and lie procumbent, though this does not much affect the growth.” In the mountain ravines of Java and Malaya there occurs also, accord- ing to Christ, a definite thicket formation of tree ferns, “over which the crowns of the forest trees form a second forest.’’ A similar “‘under-forest”’ formation in which screw pines (Pandanus) are associated with tree ferns is mentioned from Celebes. These dwarf tree-fern associations at high altitudes are believed to fill the impor- 468 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. tant rdle of conserving moisture by preventing radiation and the consequent drying out of the forest floor. Perhaps a majority of tree ferns, however, occur as an integral part of the predominant forest growth, their crowns often reaching nearly or quite to the level of the tree tops, or in not afewspecies even exceeding it; as, for instance, Cyathea pubescens, one of the tallest Jamaican species, which attains a height of 40 feet or more upon the heavily forested higher ridges of the Blue Mountains and easily thrusts its crown above the surrounding deciduous forest. There are also certain species, like Alsophila parvula, Cyathea furfuracea, and C. insignis, which in Jamaica grow indifferently in open and shaded situations, though their occurrence in the open may have followed naturally from the partial and piecemeal clearing of the land, the small cleared patches remaining under cultivation only a year or two before rapidly growing up to bush. It is noticeable that those individuals growing in the open often acquire a condensed or stunted form, as described later. At least one species, Cyathea arborea, flourishes in open situations, commonly in very large colonies. Jenman has described it in Jamaica as ‘gregarious, often covering acres on fully exposed slopes, everywhere shunning shade.’ Perhaps on the latter account, and also because of its ubiquity, it is found more commonly than any other about dwellings and plantations, its huge, lacelike fronds lending an unusual decorative charm to scenes already novel and interesting to northern eyes. The formation of groves by this species in relatively dryish, open situations is almost unique for the family, although a few (e. g., Alsophila armata) are more or less gre- garious in partial shade, and many others of our American species are found in colonies in the deep, wet forest. In New Zealand the social tendency has even resulted in the formation of large groves under intensely humid conditions. One of these, which Colenso came upon in the forest called ‘“‘Seventy-mile Bush,” m North Island, is described by him as follows: On a flat in the heart of the forest, in a deep hollow lying between steep hills, the bottom of which for want of drainage was very wet and uneven and contained much vegetable mud and water even in the dryest summer season, I found a large and con- tinuous grove or thicket of very tall tree ferns, chiefly Dicksonia squarrosa and D. fibrosa, with a few of Cyathea dealbata intermixed, with but few forest trees and shrubs growing scattered among them. I suppose they occupied about 3 roods of ground, and I estimated their number to be 800 to 1,000. They were all lofty, from 25 to 35 feet high, and in many places growing so close together that it was impossible to force one’s way through them. Concerning tree-fern formations of this sort in both New Zealand and Australia, Christ has pointed out that they rarely consist of a single species, but are as a rule mixed associations of two or more TREE FERNS OF NORTH AMERICA——-MAXON. 469 species; for example, Hemitelia Smithii with Cyathea medullaris and C. dealbata. DIMENSIONS AND SHAPE OF TRUNK. The stem or trunk in the Cyatheaceex varies greatly in dimensions, shape, and direction, and in most characters of outward appearance and covering, though for a given species these features are, with a few exceptions, fairly constant in mature individuals. The tallest tree fern known is Alsophila excelsa, a nearly extinct species occurring upon Norfolk Island, to the east of Australia, whose trunk John Smith has stated to measure from 60 to 80 feet in length. Scarcely inferior to this is A. MacArthuri, found upon Lord Howe’s Island, which, according to Maiden, attains a height of from 60 to 70 feet. Among American species the nearest approach to these dimensions of length is found, perhaps, in Alsophila armata, which Jenman records as sometimes reaching 50 feet in Jamaica, “the head gradually diminishing in size as the stem lengthens.” The smallest member of the family in the world is Alsophila Kuhnii, recently described from the Cordillera of Colombia, in which the short rootstock is erect and the leaves (including the leaf stalks) but 8 inches long, the blade less than 1} inches broad. The smallest of the North American species is the Jamaican Cyathea Nockw (pl. 8), looking most like some coarse bipinnate wood fern (Dryopteris or Poly- stichum), its relatively stoutish stem 4 to 8 inches long, prostrate upon the ground and rooting underneath, its fronds 1 to 34 feet long, . borne in a crown. Certain species show, likewise, a slenderness of stem which is aston- ishing in relation to the enormous spread of crown, while others have remarkably thick trunks which are of very different internal struc- ture. The slenderest North American tree fern known to me is Cyathea minor of eastern Cuba, whose trunk measures only 1 to 14 inches in diameter, though rising to a height of 6 to 12 feet. j bere, Mii NS <8 ven) +* % 4 ain HAAN ty Wy E Sees 7 Line Se Ota | @ i a a ie / oo yaaa > = , be — : a ? : } c \ fi SN fe) i 4 ‘ sen (RES tse | BaS ‘3 ; as lie aN eee AGP, ; 4 a GS ASN woes oh y : fc bee APO L j 3 & ' sa a SRS ie. > é p i s ef BOC OD OO ® : ek fey Yk *jazzo01—" | |6 | ‘Modey ueiuosyyiwc VALUE OF ANCIENT MEXICAN MANUSCRIPTS—-TOZZER. 497 than the pictures shown in this manuscript. Every detail recorded in the picture is described in the Spanish texts covering these points. It is not possible in the present paper to enter into a discussion of the different uses of picture writing among the Mexicans. From our point of view much that appears as mere decoration, as ornament, on the sculptured facades of the buildings and on the bas-reliefs are far more than decorative designs. There is in every case a meaning, however hidden it may be by the complication of the design. Picture writing may develop along two lines, the first to a form of conventionalized pictures and the second to one characterized by symbolic forms, which in turn may become conventionalized. Con- ventionalization shows itself often in stereotyped forms used over and over again to express the same idea. The mountain almost always appears as shown in figures 3-5. All the top part is painted green, the bottom yellow with a line of red above. The color of the original drawings is a great aid in identifying the pictures. The usual form of house is shown in figure 3, water as in figure 4 at the top of the mountain. The water is usually colored blue. Symbolism may appear in the use of the part for the whole, the SE TER SEE PO ETO PE SEB ES OY ee me TO eo es A 5 a x << NF = ‘2 ° e @ e = ° LE OE, IT OE EEE LEE EEE IY IEE IIS PB SE SII BIO SE Fig. 1. picture of the whole body of a jaguar may give way to a representa- tion of the head, or, still further, the idea of the animal may be expressed by the spotting of the skin. The road traveled is shown by footprints, as in figure 1. Night is pictured by the stars in a circular field, as seen in the Mendoza manuscript (pl. 4, n). Death is often shown by a skull. Symbolism and conventionalism may appear in the same figure. Speech and song are usually expressed by a commalike form in front of the mouth, as shown before the parents instructing their children (pls. 2-5). These speech forms sometimes go so far as to indicate the actual character of the speech. An example taken from a stone bas-relief in Yucatan? illustrates this point (fig. 2). The whole design, of which that shown in figure 2 is only a small part, centers around an altar, behind which is shown the feathered serpent. Speech scrolls are indicated before the mouths of all the personages. ’ The warrior above is bringing his offering of weapons. He has before his mouth, separated only by his breast ornament, the con- 1 This bas-relief forms the back of the lower chamber of the Temple of the Tigers at Chichen Itza. For a drawing of the whole design, see Maudslay, 1895-1902, vol. 3, pl. 49. An explanation of the design is given in Seler, 1898. 38734°—sm 1911——32 498 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. ventionalized head of a serpent with open jaws, the nose plug, the eye, and teeth. This evidently is the representation of a prayer or speech in behalf of the serpent god. Below, to the left of the altar, the figure is possibly an idol; to the night of the altar a civilian is shown bringing his gifts, possibly bags of feathers. Before the . mouth of this figure a most elaborate speech is indicated with buds, blossoms, and leaves.t In each case the conventionalization and symbolism are marked. This development of writing from realistic pictures to those of a symbolic or conventionalized nature has its parallel in a develop- % S LS? Bes a be . Wie ee y u & = ue, 3% EERE} = at Th 3 FEES rg % PA P ET alk AS 4) \= pe: MUNG BY HH XS 3 SY KASS $5 Os. ment of ornamental art.2 That the reverse process from certain more or less geometric forms to those of a realistic character may ‘sometimes be present in primitive art should also be noted. The ‘“‘ideographic”’ stage in writing is reached when suggestions take the place of representation. The idea rather than the picture is the important factor. The Spanish priests realized very early the 1 For other designs expressing speech and song, see Orozco y Berra, 1880, vol. 1, p. 479 and pl. 7, figs. 321-346. 2 Prof. Putnam (1887) was the first to point this out in connection with American art. See also his paper on ‘Symbolism in ancient American art’’ (1896). ie eS Ss Smithsonian Report, 1911.—Tozzer. PLATE 2 MENDOZA CODEX. Smithsonian Report, 1911.—Tozzer, PLATE 3 MENDOZA CODEX. Smithsonian Report, 1911.—Tozzer. ; PLATE 4. ay © ©0000 ©OO0E0 MENDOZA CODEX. Smithsonian Report, 1911.—Tozzer. PLATE 5. aDu wast © MENDOZA CODEX. VALUE OF ANCIENT MEXICAN MANUSCRIPTS—TOZZER. 499 great ability possessed by the natives of Mexico to read by means of pictures. They took advantage of this in several ways in order to disseminate the teachings of the Roman religion. The entire cate- chism was shown by means of pictures. No question of sound entered into this sort of picture writing. These pictures were painted upon great cloths and hung up before the people. A page of Velades,' a Latin account of the activities of the priesthood, dated 1579, shows some of the ways taken by the priests to introduce the new religion into Mexico. * * * Torqumada (1723)? and other early writers describe these charts or ‘“‘lienzos.’”’ I know of none of these charts still in existence, but there are several manuscripts which contain the same class of pictures. Leon (1900) illustrates and describes this kind of document. The Peabody Museum has a manuscript which is slightly more elaborate in its figures than that pictured by Leon, but in all essential particulars they are identical. Both may be considered copies of earlier charts. * * * Tn all these illustrations we have seen pure ‘“‘thought writing,’’? ideas expressed by pictures, conventionalized pictures, symbols, or conventionalized symbols. Up to this time there has been no sug- gestion of the name, or, more exactly, the sound of the name. Ideas have been expressed, but ideas regardless of the sounds which the names would signify. The next step to be illustrated by Mexican examples is where sound comes in for the first time as a factor. It is not the object now that is the desired thing, but the name of the object. This marks an intermediate stage between picture writing on the one hand and phonetic writing on the other. It employs the well-known principle of the rebus. It is this step which is illustrated with special clearness in the Nahua manuscripts, perhaps better than in the writing of any other people. * Much has been written in various places on this phase of the writing of the Mexicans. The phonetic character of the greater part of the various pictures has been known for some time.‘ Brinton (1886 and 1886, a) has discussed this method of writing and gives it the term ‘‘ikonomatic,”’ the ‘‘name of the figure or image,” referring to the sound of the name rather than to any objective significance as a 74, gives a reproduction of it. 2 Book xv, chap. xxv, ‘‘Tuvieron estos Benitos Padres, un modo de Predicar, no menos trabajoso, que artificioso, y mui provechoso, para estos Indios, por ser conforme al uso, que ellos tenian, de tratar todas las cosas por Pinturas, y era desta manera. Hacian Pintar en un Liengo, los Articulos de la Fé, y en otro, los diez Mandamientos de Dios, y en otro, los siete Sacramentos, y lo demas que querian, de la Doctrina Christiana; y quando el Predicador, queria Predicar de los Mandamientos colgavan junto, de donde se ponia & Predicar el Liencgo de los Mandamientos en distancia que podia, con una Vara sefialar la parte del Liengo, quequeria. * * * ” For further references to this custom, see Leon, 1900. 3 Seler, 1888, uses the term ‘‘ Gedankenrebus”’ for this kind of writing. 4 Peniafiel, 1885, gives an atlas of the place-names found in the tribute lists in the Codex Mendocino, 500 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. picture. Phonetic picture writing is perhaps a term more easily understood. The simplest names are those compounded of two nouns expressed directly by two pictures: | Cal-tepec, the house.on the mountain (fig. 3): Cal from calli, house; Tepec from tepet/, mountain. Fig. 3. A-tepec, the water on the mountain (fig. 4): A from atl, water; Tepec from tepetl, mountain. Coa-tepec, the mountain of the serpent (fig. 5): Coa from coatl, serpent; Tepec from tepetl, mountain. The verbal idea is expressed as one of the factors in some of the proper names, giving a compound of a verb and a noun, both ideas being expressed by pictures: Toli-man, the place where the rushes are cut (fig. 6): Toli from tollin, rushes; Ma, the root of the verb meaning ‘‘to take something with the hand.” Fic. 6. Fie. 7. There are various ways of expressing the same combination of sounds. The syllable pan may be shown in three different ways, as follows: (1) By the picture of a flag, pantli (fig. 7). Chimal-pan, the shield of the flag: Chimal, from chimalli, a shield; Pan from pantli, a flag. VALUE OF ANCIENT MEXICAN MANUSCRIPTS—TOZZER. 501 (2) By means of the representation of a river or canal, apantli (fig. 8). Coapan, the river of the serpent: Coa, from coatl, serpent; Pan, from apantli, a river or canal. at at aq as at oe Mats, ee 2 i OPEL Veal ip ae | Ge ec ff te UU Un Ue te ae te Fig. 8. Fia. 9. ‘ (3) By means of position, the syllable pani meaning ‘‘over” or ‘‘in”’ (fig. 9). Itz-mi-quil-pan, the obsidian knife over the verdure of the cultivated field: Itz, from itztli, obsidian knife; Mi from milli, a cultivated field; Quil from quilitl, verdure; Pan from pani, over. The color of the picture also has a phonetic significance in some cases, as (fig. 10)— A-co-coz-pan, the canal of the very yellow water: A from atl, water; Co-coz, the intensified form from coztic, yellow; ! Pan from apan, river or canal. In all these examples the meaning of the picture is conveyed at the same time as the sound.? The name is not made up of signs used simply for their phonetic value alone, but the meaning is expressed Fig. 10. Fig. 11. by the signs as well. The town of the “very yellow water” undoubt- edly derived its name from the fact that it was situated on the bank of a muddy stream. We note the river and the yellow water in the original drawing, as weil as the sides of the stream. The true phonetic stage is not reached until signs are used without regard to their meaning as pictures but simply for their phonetic 1 Tn the original manuscripts the water is colored yellow. 2 Another interesting development of the use of a sign where the essential feature is its name rather its significance as a picture is seea in the character for the day Ollin (fig. 11). The word means “rolling motion” and is used not only to designate this day in the series of 20 days, but is found again and again in the historical records to indicate the occurrence of an earthquake. 502 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. value. In all the examples of place names given the different syllables of the term have been expressed directly by pictures of objects or acts, by position, or by color. Some other method has to be employed when one desires to bring out a meaning where it is not possible to translate the idea directly by a picture or by any of the other means we have noted. The town Tollan, ‘“‘the place of the rushes,” is easily represented by a picture of a cluster of reeds, tollin. Supposing, however, a town called Toltitlan, meaning ‘‘near Tollan,” was the one to be written. This would be more difficult to express in picture form. The use of the homophone comes in here, words of a similar sound but with different mean- ings. The word tetlan means “near something” and the second syllable, tlan, is also found in ¢lantli, meaning ‘teeth.’ Thusif the picture of some teeth (fig. 12) is shown, the sound tlan would be expressed, suggesting in this case the mean- ing, not of teeth, but of nearness. There is another word for ‘‘near” or “‘near by,” nauac. A place named Quauhnauac has the meaning, ‘‘in or near the forest.”” Quauh is the root of the word quauiil, tree. The termination nauac is supplied by the sign of ‘“‘clear speech” (fig. 13), which is a second meaning of nauac. A variant of this place name is shown in the Aubin manuscript (fig. 14). Here there is an animal head with the leaves of the tree shown on ‘top. Speech is represented as in the preceding form. An interesting class of diminutives is formed in the same way by the use of the homophone zinco as in Tollanzinco, meaning “‘Little Tollan.”’ The use of determinatives is not found to express the special meaning of the word which is to be C used as is the case in the Egyptian writing of the same class. We find in the place names we have been con- sidering the beginning of asyllabary, certain char- acters always used for certain combinations of sounds. These signs not only express single syllables but in a few cases, as in ¢epec and nauae, double syllables, and, a from atl, single sounds. The adoption of certain definite signs to express certain combina- tions of sounds is a step far in advance of the stage of pure picture writing and it is well on its way toward the adoption of an alphabet where the signs no longer express combinations of sounds but single sounds. It might be possible to go a step farther in the case of the Fig. 12. ) Fia. 13. VALUE OF ANCIENT MEXICAN MANUSCRIPTS—TOZZER. 503 Mexican writing and say that the Nahuas had reached, to a slight degree, this final stage in their writing. We have seen how an a sound in the place names is always expressed in their writing by the sien for water, atl. So other signs which formerly stood for entire syllables seem in some cases to have been used to express the initial sound of the syllable. The sign of a flag, pantli, came in time to be used for the initial sound p, the sign for etl, bean, was worn down to express the initial e sound, and the sign oéli, for road, to be used for anosound. J am inclined to think, however, that the Nahuas in pre- Columbian times did not realize the importance of the step which they were about to take, the use of signs for single sounds, an alphabet. In the few cases where this seems to be found we have the idea of a syllabary rather than an alphabet as the tl of atl, etl, and otli, is a nominal ending and the word in composition can stand without this suffix. The signs for a, e, and o are really signs for syllables composed of single sounds rather than for single letters as distinguished from syllables. The Nahuas in the pre-Columbian period did not develop the syllabary to the point shown in later times. There are no early texts in the true sense of the word written in the Nahua characters. The Spaniards were the ones to realize the importance of the syllabary and it is undoubtedly owing to their influence that certain signs are found used in later manuscripts to express certain syllables absolutely for their phonetic value and entirely divorced from the signification of the signs as pictures. Moreover, the Spaniards seem to have used to some extent at least the signs of the Nahuas to express single sounds. We have already noted the work of the Spanish priests in their endeavor to teach the natives the creed of the Roman Church. In this case the ideas are expressed quite apart from the sounds of the words. The pictures could be understood quite as well by one people as by another. The missionaries were not content with this. They desired the Nahuas to learn the actual sounds of the words of the catechism. They took advantage of the ability of the natives to read in signs denoting syllables. The priests selected native words which had the same initial sounds as the Latin or Spanish words which they wished the Nahuas to commit to memory. ‘The signs for these native words were then written in the native manner. The Lord’s Prayer is usually given as an example of this kind of writing.1 1 Torquemada, 1723. Book xv, chap. xxxvi, writes: ‘“‘El Vocablo, que ellos tienen, y que mas tira 4 la pronunciacion de Pater, es Pantli, que significa una como Bunderita, con que cuentan el numero de veinte; pues para acordarse del Vocablo Pater, ponen aquella Banderita, que significa Pantli, y en ella dicen Pater. Para la segunda, que dice Noster, el Vocablo, que ellos tienen mas parecido & esta pronun; ciacion, es Nuchtli, que es el Nombre de la que los nuestros Ilaman Tuna, y en Espafia Higo de las Indias- pues para acordarse del Vocablo Noster, pintan consecutivamente tras de la Banderita, una Tuna, que ellos Maman Nochtli; y de esta manera van proosiguiendo, hasta acabar su Oracion; y por semejante manera hallavan otros semejantes Carectéres, y modos, por donde ellos se entendian, para hacer Memoria de lo 504 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. A flag (fig. 15) pantli suggests pa. ops cies seee < ee 493 ARORA NC LCRA Se aie 8 oe ee ec gt cl sities) J uOa Sah See sie See oes 98, 102 RCP LISS BS CROP ONE oo be Se oa eo opine wide eens eae Oe xi, 102 Anschiitz, Dr., gyrostatic compass of.......... PRION NE A ee - LAS ferences ploriions, of Hooker. 6-2. ..-.o\i. sss sas sea se5c5020n 502 Joe eee 659 mnieropolorical study.of Kabylesse:! tondseveeia) ced vadtegsoth fags elise 523 Sea PEPE CALI CEW OLIGO econ fats ae ade eos Seige ee cee ee eee ee ee 303 MPEIEOROIR CONS se ies ee fe ar eens es dec ceeces ore oe we sty ie oF 4,95 RerenreO Oey, -AMORICAN a od oS ge ede sae se 2. 2 27 BREESE Pee Lem 27 Amehateoture, Chinese.....---..-.----reaa-s88e0 Stik BAe ie ae Nh 539, 543 38734°—sm 1911——43 673 674 INDEX. ei Page. Archivists and Librarians, International Congress of............---------- 16, 70, 87 Arctic regions: fossil florag:of the): 22 so. ne es wales etre epee 335 Arcentina, antnropolopical studies imc 222 orto ised oe ae Sk eo ate ae re eoenee 27 Armstrong, (Ebetby Pace ak ks soe ie eel a alla ok A eee a ee 76 Art, National Gallerycofc. 5255. ee eo ree Sh ae raed ciata xii, 18, 27,29;:98 Ashmead, “Wim Eb sa 02 5: OU SRR a lee Sacs oy sean ra pg Re eee 83 Assistant Secretaries of the Institution..........--- Xi, xii, 3, 13, 30, 52, 74, 83, 96, 104 Astronomy, relation, of, to other Selences.. te oa\- ase oe nee eer ee 255 some recent interesting developments in (Plaskett) ..........--.-- 255 Astrophysical Observatory’ 2-26 saat etek eee xii. 1, 4, 14, 22, 62, 68, 73, 84, 95 Atmletic TeCOrds. ie Save AS! ois ona es aS asia a oa toe ee 629 ALOMl © SHEOlY= sachs seven ee She ers Sere RES Meee > eee eee oe ee eee 204, 206 PtOMM G Welghitee seas ee a ela eee ee teen eee Semenov are 185, 203, 212, 213 Attorney General (member of Institution): ---- 2222... Sie ee ee xi Auditor Smithsonian accounts: =< == ssces4 28] see ee Cea eee = nee eee 94 Audubon, John James (the passenger pigeon)..........-..------+-22.2.2.2- 407, 417 Peveby aay. ioe (Dequest)= = =e see Soe ere sae ee eee Bee eee 3, 92 Ryocadro. law Oh sch 2. ees Se ie ite ewe Se en 203 Be Bacon, Senator Augustus O. (Regent)_........2.0..0025 be Eee xi, 95, 96, 100, 102, 108 Bactericidal action: of Ozone 23.13: ecee ese. 4 - re a ee See Se eee eer 622 Bactertolooy.s bk hi soto See oe See ere cree, alas ene SR See Rr 651 Berroa i Wate) nei ca see ketene Asan ate Sed Jouebs Sekwieic last ace wee 81 Ballcend (Avs Bice 2 hte Ae wie ON Petar cee alee i eb ene EE ce afte eae A ee xii Baker; :Dri Pranks 5 202. os as a aE ee xii, 13, 61 Balkkertor ai hb orne is ucacten. Ge oo CaS Semin Se tS eee eee 81 Balfour, Henry... 25225 L232 SSR ue es AT A Ceres eae 82 Ballou, “Prot. Hi. Ms is:5.--cccecins ace we ee bees 3 os ee eee SUEZ AL Banks seNathan 222.05 Gece ae eed Gee ae eee See See ae eae 83 arretts (C. Wiss Kocieie sects stesasteen a Pos cae s cis cle Mirth Se te Ee er 81 Bartsclsae alls as es ees aw Soe aces See Ee CSE TI ee 28 | 35) (25 Die 2 net ee a ee ey peers rer rer PRI ete AL Coe oo x1i, 28, 30 Beauregard ;(Donaldec..c2 2.5 2d Se Soke seo hoes wees oe ee 33 Beeker; Dr. (Georges... 2 Sasso e eas en Se ee 15, 82, 271, 274, 287 Beequerel ; Menris. 2 osc raster due dt Stam sete es eens eee ee 187 Becquerel, Jean... <.2.0010.20.. fo 20 5 SL PORE JOBE OO Ue 81 Beebe, CG: William: ~ icc... bce 2 A Ce ee ee 82 Beetham, Bentley (on the positions assumed by birds in flight)............-.-- 433 Belck, W. (the discoverers of the art of iron manufacture)...................-. 507 Bell, Dr. Alexander:Graham (Regent)... .2..-2.-.c--.5 5) Oe Ae xi, 95 Bell, -Kieanor Yorke...) 253.550 ss 2c ook ie ON pa eS ee eens 8i Bendire;"Majis Charless Sore et datas 149, 152 Baplex- Diplex telephony. : 20:7 24225222 Sok 2 ges Bee Pe met ah wee 138 eres bares ats pti i a8 ob Sk on SA cl opin St Pigg SEE Eh aes Er 83 E. PI BAUARECTING At LOMO re. s5ga see Seine ae See tne Sakeae bo eS iat eee eae 271 "LSE Na BET LYST GLICO) i) ER SA NA Pe SON g pe NEUES AD BE opi rely 271 5 ROTEL TOO NTEAY 6 IU 7 p eee oRE L aneU IEAM LR TSS CRS 611, 616 Editors of the Institution and branches-.................------- xi, xii, 13, 83, 84, 86 Bancioney, factory ...:--------2 83 ‘ester, Walter Ji. (Secretary of Interior):::-2 222.2. 222 2 So ae eee Xj Pisueries: United States Bureau off 502 ten. oc ee eee 27, 28 Flack, Martin, Leonard Hill and (the physiological influence of ozone)... -~ -- 617 Beware AC eee ete Se SSA US Se ie Ae SE ae eee Se ae eee 80 Misrctrer: Miss AVice © so 5 ee SO a ae ee eee 31, 38, 41 leaner Or SIMON. co. Oe on eae one See em ee ee cee eae a eee er 81 Bites. house Ue ce hah Meee eee a aes os Se eee 604 Pilih? ot birds: mode of: oe eet tN ae NS ae pee 433 Mites. Wee. eee UES oe BSE SSR Ee ee ee eee ae eee xii Mhworescent substances: 2. (hole ek oe eae eras ee eee 308 iol Sarine as Wisgens 22 oat ena e Sota ik a te eee ee ee ee See are eee 83 Porest) CONSeEVAOD oo. \- sleek att dos fame eee ee Se eae eg oe tee 194 Fossil floras of the Arctic regions as evidence of geological climates, value of PINGTHOREG) hae cect es De Ae ee Eos OPN Ai ee see = Cece ee are 335 Rowe: Gerard ss orien i ae See OEE Ga Ve eee er ane 84 HERO} gM Chea 9 aa Ra NR ce UPR AM ae A A i St xii, 62, 68, 78, 79 Pox! (Guistivus Vasals: 7380) reise se eerie te ane ween ee 29 Krachtenbtirg Drs Geo Fone AS ae ae ee ee ee 40 Pranchet; ous: 20 See See Se eR EA 81 francis: Miss Nathaniel. lols 2 2 eee ee eee ee ee SOO eee 96 Hreemian’: “Alem Wiio sk eee We Soo a 2 A ae ee ee ee ne ee 82 Hreer, ‘Charles 3i:, pitts irom <2 2275202 Soe se een Mr ae seein ee 18, 29, 98 BOSC S PIOE Soars aoe ore ee os eee te ect ae eae eee 264 INDEX. 679 G. Page. Gannett, Henry....... Bae ae GEL Se RereG oc RAEN Sane Site vig Melee oes 83 US EVE DAG ST 6G SC | a I ea haa my AOR ORR ea Rede RL eS eat LAL 603 Gardenyor Serpents; butantan® Brazil, thes (Pozzi)io2. 22222 tee freee 44] SED SoS STROSS gO) le tn ta Sa A aS hl a ARIES OE A AS re lng BS 203 Gaulbert; caus: 222 <5 PEE eee Re Pe eed ee EM Pees eel ele rer ht A ee Jee 80 CAT SCFE pl AS ny 6 10) ig LR a aang aera ae ne pair eR me re Re Pha xii Dee E SOLVE ATC NIALDANG sc Soe Sic ee ence ae meee Me ee Se aT ne Ee ee 76 BepRIRESS eee T MNCL Spore ec recess tra ie Re So ec SRR ts Oe Ee Ne Se a eee 217 SPU Se ON AOMA NAL LOUS nas eae koe ae ee Samah coe Ce ome. eee eee 295 Geologic work of ants in tropical America (Branner)....................----- 303 Beeolacical climates, OvIGOUCe OL--- 2.2 s.5.+- cts set lee ete os ese ee ee 335 Bente! Conoress Umcerna Onan. -5- area ons et eee It Gh ae Se eee ae 15 Bemiacical SUEVey; Umibed States-ocsn8- ste ec lee as coe Coee ED Re eee 28 ceolory and Paleontology; Cambrian. 752022272 eee ee eee 5, 78 SPL SPTRG VUE IE 7 lB eae es Pt Rae oP RIERA Cicer yee Apr Sit) ot CTE Ps TOE lal UF tea a Se Se oes MS og Tes ee 18, 27, 29, 57, 98 “CMU geet CG aa SIL ae ie es eS te a nat a Se Rad aloe yltoreelaretdte a A 83 “TLL Ss] Dey UCASE a3 a eR el ee eR A a eine ial NL Aegis xii, 42 PII TENS SSG LW RIN Se a RP ict SER PCN CAN ae 80 Paamakaine inthe: oman Bmipren sie: go. soos owe Sits ve Aye he se he ee 218 TES EGE IRG IS) EAN TRS Mia arc ors MR 2 ei. ee nNOS ee Mec napa) Ba aR ba 84 CES LEN SIS Se Sones Os ae Ey Ol aa eA RE ne ng eee ee 80 Mme MNN TAM URR ACF sts IS Se iat eae ge Gee NS he | POLLS In oan oe (soe net 84, 103 HPT SGTSTE CITES SOIR 1 SSD ay a PR ery I era fae a aN a ote Uo xii “Gove IS TeTUTHCL oY NPE awe ets wc Ss ds a paaedp e peeeeent we o 33 CUES eG S50 RR a EP A te fc a ai AT cre TDN fe tei Np LN Dati 81 SUS TRLSTERS aah WOE TERT 5 eS) el IR ON gd ee ep ry Taam en ene Apt a 175 “GRRE OSE “NU BTS] ES VA ae Ae Oe sen Na oe pe

manutactinetots: -sco seeks cee eee 1 See ee Cee ee eee 171 Mallock, A. (note on the iridescent colors of birds and insects). ......-.------- 425 Memily, (Charles Min. 0023225 Ses teats See ee ee A Ae 11, 78 Mann, Representative James R. (Regent) .........------.-.----- xi, 96, 101, 102, 108 Manutaeturetot arom: discoverers ols 94-- 2" - 5052 e2n eke ee eee eee 507 Manuscripts Ancient. Mexican: 22.222 222.055. 325s. o.. cee eee 493 Mai for aviators ico s Seis enn lensing We he eee ene eee, ree 295, 297 Marchand E. (the gyrostatie compass). 222 . See eee sis Mar Chis TGs os haps Ba ne Loans Re ee ane eS heh oe Lan ee ee 80 Marconi, Commendatore: G.-(radiotelegraphy )-.).--s2 22-2. 225025252222 these ee 117 IMarotel Ge is Sst Rip tee SOT ees os Sa OES 3 Kens 81 Marais Gs Ms Poel eee ei Se ek he Se i eee ee ee Oke ee 62 VAS RWW Ten aR aa it FR NP Ed eaten np er 28, 104 Maxon, William R. (the tree ferns of North America).....- Nd Ao aa 463 Mayer: Alfred*Goldsborough 3? 372.2. Gs.) hs2 on eee eee Sse ee 82 Mea TES Tae MARE eae ee cl Oe oe he eee eet ene crime aii oe Ape eee 79 Mechanical: devices for speeds 2-.2 22: -42 5220) W222 Set ees nsec eee 633 Medal: Atodekams golds? Sore 8 2 508 5s ee Ne ee eee ee era 100, 101, 103 Eaneley-mentorial 22.5. 02 82 Sse aE ERAS Pet One ee 101 Meek Prot So ico sso re fe ee ey ae ees ee ee ee 103 Meralithie monuments. * s5cc. 5 22225 Seta he ates penis Soe eee ee ee 523, 524 Merriam. Dr. Sarto ss oo5 coasters ais Se eel ote st - eie e 2, 27, 88, 100 eer PG. Gye fo Et es Ua ale oa Ne es eect ee ee xii, 13 Merabion, “Wi Borc ccs sce cs ae into a4 cies ees ee oe one ae ee 407 Metallic sedtum,, manufacture of. -S: /22- secs - 2 oe 170 Wrest uinery stares crine Otis oe ee sects mice at ee eet Se eT MN SS 167 MMe Pala ie tie. Ol s2- oe cae ke acca ei oo cree ee ogee eta te aes ee 647, 648 Metals retinol 2.csco- so cso ee oe cee ee es eee 172 Meteorolorical COMMIMONS..2-. (02-62 6. ecto oe tara ee en ee 275 WES CICA HAT LSCEEP US! See ee ate eee ae ne ee ore eh ee 493 Meyer. George von L., Secretary of the Navy----:2-.2-2-225-.5--- cho eee xi Macheison sDrt Praia. a ssh eee aes oe Cae oe eae ae ae eee xii, 31, 37, 84 Milkand water supply, publicsc: 222/222. 0 2. we oe ee ae ee 607 Miller Dr: Gerrit. 1s eee gee eel i oo ee ee xii Walter Reta se tes. ome Dos bees tbe acts Eames hae oe aie are ee 81 Mimisiewicz, Ronualdo-2 2 22s... o3- ees Fel ARN SOURS Oa 81 Miscellaneous Collections, Smithsonian......-......------- "isan aches 11,78 Mooney; damesic 22202. se Uo nee otis Ree ae ae cee ae tate xii, 31,33 Moore. Clarence DB ie2te. ne: 2 SE Sai nase sti a roa Sele 27 Moro tila. \Dir! Senge iss 145 e 2 Sie re mee kb ot wna ical ri lm bel Rhye aaah 9 Monte. S yi weirntas Ge oS ooo st 2h ech ep rcvnts avai ook lone car ara ia ae hee 33 Mortensen’ Theod oreleh. aso he ieee eerie SME oi 82 iol ia 83 Morton, Wb G see. Sisk bah ek oe OE Leek eek peck co oie 29 Micreait (EG DBON eres OAS IR IN ieee Shin ole eka oS cnct ov Ne eh chen ae a ee ee 6 Mount Winttiney Observatory... 2. 2s:cc20s2-senecenioc=nee 22, 62, 68, 257, 260, 261, 262 Mount Wilsdnt S285 35 ys See ae 8 RE oe sigs oe Sneak at 68 Manin Johny 5227 2252 A BA a ite Se ree e 82 Multiplex telephony and telegraphy by means of electric waves guided by Wares (Sauter)!

eee ou ells LE ad BOR I Uae Ce) Bra rh dar a 83 © “UES TD STAN TH Be 2s am yee ie pe ean PSE he.) cn eae Ae raga ar As Marie CAH C NO PUUSUROINAOM > a0 sae Soon SoS oe coat Oo ae oe oe ee Mel Sad Orgaric evolution: Darwinian and De Vriesian (Macnamara)..............--- 363 Be rian Mp earOIM VERS. 2s. coe see vest oe pace Ot ae hoes Ce ee 345 Owls, a history of certain great-horned (Keyes).-..-.....-........-........-.. 395 Serre, HEN AMIIBCEMEC Ole sa vee eee. e tien Se Se See US eee 173 Ozone, the physiological influence of (Hill and Flack).............2......... 617 Pi LETS LTTE, hae LS ce cael iia rea eke ae at ae Re ea RoE Sheds ARE ae ys Beate eat a 84 Petaerie sO nabless es. 5220 e elie ao lst ci tlesiee sisi sat ceeee se es 83 Panama Canal Zone, Piplomicat BEIVeO Ole teh; Lene eee eae 2, 5, 11, 28, 99, 103 Panama Railroad and Steamship Company TEST ee Se kt CA epee 104 Passenger pigeon, the (Kalm and Audubon). .........--.:/)2:0¢2. 22027 2022 407 Bama tascam, d Histoire Naturelles 12522) 222.222.282.556 2ied eek ee 28 LPSUG Je (BS) A A 9g Spe ee ee a eer 2175220, 221939 nonin Od ls als set Me Sey UI OUS Re isnbta: reat TE Bie SON: 2g 108 Pearson paeatlabae se. wocet code ERP Letra eich et ttt. tutes oS 186 feat vcat WAGaniralilys Pye os 2th ees bk eet eee ten aE oh eR 29 Eeree ey nt: Me sti eWth es Suis Rue oI Rds Sas ere UCN ee sc a 83 RemomenOCOlc tre. este ee eee eel eh ae ee eases ae wy FAN ee GL Bee sinatamanntnctare Of” eRe L ee aebise vein: Se eve ee ey le Oe ee 170 Pree Pe NeCOs Cee foe ce sc ch neh ete eel esa Sod mt be SOT IS ets ao 83 Peru;.anthropolopiceal researches Wes ssc 22 2ece.. 6. fesce ok seecd sc ME RS 7 684 INDEX. Page i aisve bowels Copiune sein Pee aeel ccd Ln any Aen mre Oa ee es On Sb 27 Philippot, Dr. M. (the legal time in various countries). ........-.-.----+-+--- 247 Phosphorus, manufacture of:.. 22.2 ..2<.+-2.2e5) sana se 2s eee ee 177 Photocenteyprocess tit. 2th. 13 eR Os Bick 16 SURE Wes Ged ee eee 349, 356 Photoeraphy,!employmentjof.:--: .--.---: J32 => =: - - ee Pa ae ee 155, 157 Photecraphy,. ultra-violet Might... 0. 5 (22.5 foi on earns see 157 Physrologie leh, 3p. cosoaces ads cee annie Saar nie el al ee 346 Physiological influence of ozone, the (Hill and Flack)......-.--.------------ 617 Physiology, of sleep, the Glesendre)._. 2. 2. 2 eae ee a Oe 587 Pisaron, electric production 0f-2'ss-kecc2 =< Seceh en = = es = 178 PIPEON , PASSEN GET 25 oa ce eins wins 121m SLAY ike Otel ee ae se = SUIS Ea ans 417 RUM SpA Si el a ares cea eee dh Senauduins ysis Soe Be 407 Binchot,-Mrs.rd ames) Wi, ihn aes hee oye ee ee ee 18, 29 Pitter, SProt. Henry 22

  • gen tee eee 6, 105 Ramsay, Prof. Sir William (ancient and modern views regarding the chemical elemento bee i ele ee Oe yr a eA ee a ee a 183 Rathbun, Mary) Sn j00 a2 siege ben eco get Se ees ae 83 Rativbimc $ich ard) Se 2 ac a a ee xi, xii, 30, 96 Ravenel Wede- Qiks on ete ale geek ce en See reel ee xii Reese, A. M......-- t OS Bale ees ck Meco SS ee ee 79 Revents,of the Institution. <2... 2 <-2222 ic pae- soa 52e 3 a xi, 1, 96, 102 Renard; Paul. so. dds ses oe. Seka Joan. eee See ee 80 INDEX. 685 Page PaCS CalCUnaseCCiaLesNpSs 2 Lo cone oes eon soso dee ce kee cee eRe 100 free EareHos RNG OX PIOLAtONS.s:. 6... Pse ris l a nee ers Yee: £5 ele 2,090) I Or Researches under Hodgkins fund......... ecard Ca bi ia i ie te Bled che 8 Resolutions of Board of Regents: ............2.2.00.0-6 25, 97, 102, 103, 104, 107, 108 Richards, Joseph W. (what electrochemistry is accomplishing)...........-.. 167 Richards, Theodore William (the fundamental properties of the elements)...-. 199 Poppe Sera CH CsET EET ATELE G3 Io offset per catn tr ee aytiy wos piel on ins Khem aie REO OER OR 83 “oT TUE Mie A207 02 oR a ee te Br ole ede pe ech a oe alan SS Slide bes xii LP TS Ti yD Sas em 8 eins Su a ae eI ai edgar pm Pete tt EUS ei pearl 81 Eichoye Eror. re Weescee sss seo oe ip lt ns eet f Bret: A eed. See CNT SRR OM GS tiles NWI) oT ae aia ott Ae OE at pee ae aan RR Rar Se ta Me A Lt Be 79 mara aETI MV NV) yt t ey Noes tan 4 erate <5) ttt © WALA ee ee Se nee th aac cs 33 Robertson, Alice... ..-. SA Ne a et Beto pied alg Ma ead ee etl Aiea Mody rcs LN 83 os UES lO eR a AE PI ia cleats eS aca ans aE Me cen! ON 28 RemeMeenty MNeOlOres sos) 29 Ck ae ee Na nen ee ee ee eee ee 7, 98, 196 LP DESL IDEA ISIN sich eee ae ad pe AO SC On he et el xii, 28, 84 coer TUN ORANG in 1 De Ss BRR AT Mi cae adage hela ana ai ei i ae tere Mefe) b 82 rep eed is ae Sm ae Seti. ete IL Og Oe Ge nit eesti atin at ot oe eae 125 Ss. maecatdo, P. A........ She ver Hehe) atas iat wust pSyaranceatahvoyansh. bal pep usasavinat ace apstenar tae Stage eae 83 PeMnGT RCS RUAPaR MMPI TELTIN, CL WET) spay o£ 5: Secon og anon 4 Se cheat no sta ES Aah Bees SL 82 PMR ACLOMW oo occ)-0 o2.2< 2k eee ks Shae ose eee ees he eee ad Sek OS 611 REZ CIE LLOMICIEN Ste Due. AGE ee SoReal! Ve eer Sade BG ice : 40 PERG MD OCAU LOM suc) Silos oben kot Peas ce ee site see eae ee Ae eee 83 PRarUERD Zep TOT WL Ate ask ths = bay We ener ote ac iain tees ae ee Re 83, 103 | peroutine Congress, International: American. .......02/2)2-34.... i... -ssaciesseh sie oes Seen eee ee eee oe 201 Mike etsrr Unie e IN Cs Sec Sae YS a ee eet ae a 80 Wo PENA BOT UI SET ells OE TA a ee Oc esti Sabena Tn aaa ot 2 28 VAS Taerol ere. IBY eS AN ok {@) a his EY A Maas gees coe ret i fe te Pes AE pent LO 6 Mibste. Dr Andrew 1D. (Regent). .....02..2.0000-2<080. rae eee) ieee = Ae xi, 96 NVMitesDavd deere tees a oe ee ae Bi NaN pW had, Seer hela wna ba fae aes ee Xil White, Edward Douglass (Chief Justice of the United States)............-- Kalo D OD, Wackersham?> Georse.W., Attorney General c:.2 =... .262.255-2--2 2 = A = ety 0 = = cs By = rE = re Zz w Zz wo , 2 LNLILSNI SJINVUGIT LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITU ra wo = eet 22) = Re < = e < = < \S it fi 5 > “ft sp 5 » = ra df > a BLY D Ne ob P yy it 2 Uiy * 2 z= ll = he = > = ; w ee n : Ze w RARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOILNLILSNI NVINOSHLINS S3IYYV: 2) > ot > om Kt Lu aS. c = e aN < » c < = WC aa: ea er a S Q a on Si ee 5 i 25 z= vir Pa eee S3JiYVYUGIT LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN _INSTITL f zZ i Ze wo — w — hy w a = a 5 Gily, na > rs > rad Vie > wn ax no ae o a a = w INSTITUTION NOILNLILSNI NVINOSHLINS S3IY¥Vi ” ate on Zz Di ee = s >” = > = ” te tis Zz “7 = NVINOSHLINS SS!1YVYSIT LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITU ue ” 5 oe a : “ - Uy, ? = . . =o x Wf. ea S We : SO hs = a 2 5 a. S| (twos Zz ag z ae ae F| RARI ES_ SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOLLNLULSNt NVINOSH A ! uv . 2 S 5 See 2 GY ? E 2 NR 5 - GYY nr - au - sl lie PS Noi coe 1uVvuyd ryt BRARI ES SMITHSONIAN _INSTITL D x ee = =: < NG ie, hei tes [ENED = 1 epee WK = wan =) Lee — ~_—- “ eae | a, VPOGLEES — t= | GG NY 2 E Wy zZ: 7 fe © SM ie es 5 é ILNLILSNI NVINOSHLINS S3!YVYs!I1 LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTIT NOILNLILSNI NOILNLILSNI se BRARIES_ SMITHSONIAN NOILNLILSNI INSTITUTION NOILNLILSNI NVINOSHLINS S31 U1 SIIUVUEIT LIBRARIES INSTITUTION INSTITUTION INSTITUTION JLALILSNI NVINOSHLINS S31IYVYEIT LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN BRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOILNLILSNI NVINOSHLINWS $314' NVINOSHLINS S31uvualt LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN SMITHSONIAN tyr os SMITHSONIAN NVINOSHLIWS us ~ tu 2 ts “ w = S Ss _— a = = = Xs z < ca < 4 RN a = o = AQ o oO = a =_ . ina) 5 2 if g - 5 ; — ILNLILSNI_ NVINOSHLINS S3IYVYUGIT LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN_INSTIT ES. = fs op boa ao NX - = ow = lp OD 2 Ne 5 2 i GY, = 2 WWE 20 2 LOL ee) S Ro = =o) = U7 fl oS A = wWwyy w) — no a ee — Mm “XA m Mm BRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOILNLILSNI NVINOSHLINS S3lu\ Es z See ig a = = 5 G%.z 5 G ye SU Oo E te” Mf, * ji Wer" 2 E 2 fi & WA Bs = = >" = > (2) Fa 22) Fs ILALILSNI_NVINOSHLINS LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTIT be % . o 2 a ul a = oc oA ce Pe = a =H e% fe) es O = fe a} —j a at z= BRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOILMLILSNI NVINOSHLINS S314! = as ra a z =! mee) = w = = 2 = wD i E = E a = F = B = a = a ~ ane Zin LAR goa Veal T_LIBRARI ES SMITHSONIAN _ INSTI aes STHSOW = nee wi er = \ <=] ‘\ i ee SS aR EL Lee, Ot