ae On Pk Y a. 4 ee ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION SHOWING THE OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND CONDITION OF THE INSTITUTION FOR THE. YEAR..ENDING,. JUNE...30 1917 Be asp Hs ONO s., iTV og ING rons ers if ACTIOUAL \ ye RAL WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1919 ~ Tea eon Sek & none ae Por _ P «et gest: Te, Prk iy, LETTER FROM THE SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, SUBMITTING THE ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 380, 1917. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, Washington, June 30, 1918. To the Congress of the United States: In accordance with section 5593 of the Revised Statutes of the United States, I have the honor, in behalf of the Board of Regents, to submit to Congress the annual report of the operations, expendi- tures, and condition of the Smithsonian Institution for the year end- ing June 30,1917. I have the honor to be, Very respectfully, your obedient servant, Cuartes D. Waucottr, Secretary. Iit CONTENTS. Page. Letter from the Secretary submitting the Annual Report of the Regents to : SEOTIET CASE ee pas Stee ee Ne ce sete poe eee chen Be eee ee I MOTOR IA OMUOOMCDORG ir 42 nt a NS ei 9. as eR ere lo cl Vv TSR CED) BYES 2 eS eae Se eee ay me ere Ren in we ean tray ere VII iGeneraLsubyeeivortine annual Feport..2 24 224.2) See hehe es a ek ee IX Officials of the:Institution and its;branches... —.. 24-22. dik. « ose ee oe XI REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. ie sMicnsonian WNStUUIWOR: 60-45 ees hae eee pees sae au e aces eas fan 1 “LTE 2),] BIS) 22S CI RTSLT CET |Report aay Naat tee ante eh eras ahi 1 “| Pare Sioa hoy Be EST FRR fe a aa aes i aro LR ger lates SRO 1 L STEDNEUIVOSS)8 gu bees are as tt sre ep crt ean denne i Ream, ea er a Sanna 2 SECU P a ee OMSIOETD LIONS i oe ae Aaa en cre ay ee a ae ws cichon 4 Researches and explorations— Geological explorations in the Canadian Rockies.............-- rane 6 SECO MCaIsield SiN Glee. set. s oe) aoc se Ram eon e weit s «hone cca 8 Hunting graptolites in the Appalachian Valley.......-.............. 8 Explorations in the Ohio Valley for fossil algae and coral reefs... .... 9 Examination of ancient human remains in Florida. ........-..--.--- 10 Biotosicalawork in Cuba and Halil o.< oo. oscc cee nce ecc oe see ape oe 12 Botanical work in the Mawalan Islands. 0.302 os et oe aye 12 RCaTen mrs DOLATIG SU StALIQU ane eis eee oe ke erie cy ete. ee as 13 USAGE Sat G27 bg a oc EW) 0 en Nl I aN a Mg Ai Le if) ExpiOradOus 1 Santo OMmMmeOn.4. ok ones nee Sean So eae 14 Eapedt gn LOR ClEDes see e sateen rk SNe oe ere eee 14 Collins:Garner Conpo expedition®....2. 24.5. .235.5.--- 2222-222 e se 15 EpeeaNC un COLpOrailOlep yt tg iro eek 2 ae eta ee Se ee ee eee 15 Remoumeimcncatch Coumcie soon one otlne ast. tice ose eh ateaes eee 16 Rati Wea iQune st ne ee ee ean ce Sine heh oe een ee eee teas 19 PGIDTATY ee 2s oo5c 38 ae a i he aed Sh it a et RE I 21 fecepaon wo Mrench scientists.\2c a. S2 20-2 oe se a Se + wee ee 21 ureter] Monsen cs ER See TG ne ee ee ee ee eee aed 22 EECA OL MMROR CAT WEN NOLO se a2 04 ove = ait e ae ee atais a's 22 wee = als Deets 23 PARLOR BURCH AME CRS fee sit Ae eres San A SSeS nee oe eee 24 Pi pnleraly AOOlOPIGM RANK. sc =~ 2a sa aa ta apse ae a oe one eS ee heres 25 REM StCAl nN OUSENVALGNYin se a: wernt ot Sree yas ae SS AeA se ee eee ae 27 International Catalogue of Scientific Literature.....................--++-+--+-- 28 Appendix 1. Report on the United States National Museum. .........-.----- 31 2. Report on the Bureau of American Ethnology................-- 45 3; Report onthe International Exchanges. .....-...--=2225:6---+--- _ 62 4. 'Reporton the National Zeological Park... 2. --+--- 2-3... 2s-< ips 5. Report on the Astrophysical Observatory. ......-....---------- 88 Sreeporijen the \iNetaryy. 220 foo.) 5. cnet oe cee a ctia NW ones 96 7. Report on the International Catalogue of Scientific Literature... 104 SepceROvWOM, PUNMESTIONS 5: 22. % 25. ooo iy ts oe Satie ese Sse 107 Report of the executive committee of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian DESUPATERT OI? 2 cca PSS aa Se a eae aes oe na gee ee gE ee idee Proceedings of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution... .----- EVs, VI CONTENTS. GENERAL APPENDIX. Projectiles containing explosives, by Commandant A. R..........--.--------- 131 Gold and silver deposits in North and South America, by Waldemar Lindgren. 147 The composition and structure of meteorites compared with that of terrestrial OCs}, ony Cones Lee Misusllles | Go8 BAe as sos sandt soso doneoueedoqogSees 5556 175 Corals and the formation of coral reefs, by Thomas Wayland Vaughan ...-..-.. 189 The correlation of the Quaternary deposits of the British Isles with those of the continent of Hurope, by Charles*E: P: Brooks: <= 0.5622 Sc ooc cece cenine Ta Natural history of Paradise Key and the near-by everglades of Florida, by \WoWl2 SEUitT 0 hie Aare amen en ena mae cme T Nt iA e ear eee O66 377 Notes on the early history of the pecan in America, by Rodney H. True...... 435 Floral aspects of the Hawaiian Islands, by A. S. Hitchcock.................- 449 The social, educational, and scientific value of botanic gardens, by John Merle COullivae. J hon senedasuss ce nus Soa nedddaooocaesonscgecoodSseusoossebeaEte 463 Birdirookeriesio! the Tortugas, by Paul! Bartsche. 2222225 eee era pia erel 469 Catalepsy.am phasmidae: by ie SChMIGtis.. 5 5 oes esa 9 eee eee 501 An economic consideration of orthoptera directly affecting man, by A. N. Coinllll 553056 oa Se eee in See hee ae On ooaoc nua obaee 507 An outline of the relations of animals to their inland environments, by Charles (6) OG Eis Paes See re Rae ES ens Cire mene he ae Oe eee noc 515 The national zoological park—A popular account of its collections, by N. LEI 7e) ee eens one ae ars ee eae Ee ge Ne. or SoD me ADOAen Se So 543 The sea as a conservator of wastes and a reservoir of food, by H. F. Moore..... 595 Ojibway habitations and other structures, by David I. Bushnell, Jr. .-....-.. 609 National work at the British Museum—Museums and advancement of learn- THaVG2, dokie 1 ee SA SEH NG) eine aene ais oo SOr Saab soS aA SA consent da ano eoes ve Ses 619 Leonhard Fuchs, physician and botanist, by Felix Neumann ......-.-------- 635 In memoriam—Edgar Alexander Mearns, by Charles W. Richmond .........-- 649 Walla imllockeOlarles = oer ose spy cle eter am apeererera leis tayo rercveys toe ve reve tele eevee _ 663 LIST OF PLATES. Page Meteorites (Merrill) : Jea bs eS) 3 as es ee ee eee 176 IBIAL eS ose ee 182 VEN EAVCESSS LoS a al eo a oe ne a 184 Corals (Vaughan) : Plates als 5 tie ie 240-276 Paradise Key (Safford) : Hronbisplece=s==—— = == 2 317 Rtates al — G4 ose eee Eh eee 434 Floral Aspects of Hawaii (Hitch- cock) : UDtCSele ney steered. ele 462 Birds of Tortugas (Bartsch) : RlatespHoSt a sea et ew ha 500 Zoological Park (Hollister) : late: 1, -Cvlaypy) Ss es oan 543 12d Est: 2 ee ee ee are 544 Plates 4-5 _____ een = = AOL PiatesiGat see eae ede. __ 548 PiatestS=bl poe 22) Pip lta 550 Platesmiaay be 552 1 2A SSG (6 ie nr 554 Platestl SOs Se 556 Plates 206210 ee 558 Page. Zoological Park (Hollister)—Con. Plates 22-23). 222 2 eee 560 Plates 24 2) = ae oe aes 564 RIBtes 2622 (eee ss 2 eee 566 Blates 28-29 2 sia Eee 568 Platest; S023I 2S. 20) Se T 570 PAGS S233 eae eee ee, 512 Plates'34-3b\ es ee oe Plates36-30'=2 = sess eee 576 Platest S830" = aes ee 578 Plates\4 OA et jo ee 580 Plates42=43"—" oe = eee 582 Plates 44-452) Ooo oes 586 Plaster AG s 22 Sie ee 590 Sea a Food Reservoir (Moore) : ets: 28 2 es aes 608 Ojibway Habitations (Bushnell) : Plates =—G See eee See 618 Leonhard Fuchs (Neumann) : Plater dis £ oot eed ska pee 635 Blntest2= (Se 648 EK. A. Mearns (Richmond) : PL AUey ee re ee 649 5 SMO) matyisré, ai Samer > Ooh ee onsia oh eSeajats z pee age iss AS weet ri ee Dakss SAS 4 FEAR R SR ee at eng vo ze coi Peashe Sia anel ita. aa a tenet is R258) Daan Ee set ; Bt cr, ¥ fee Brees i f . tohbe rok SI Pow ; ae ae Pen f f ae OE ants RE ae ae gel eles i tes ; 4 eae (Dannie | wine. f.8 | Loree ~ hares eae J fut faci ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1917, SUBJECTS. 1. Annual report of the secretary, giving an account of the opera- tions and condition of the Institution for the year ending June 30, 1917, with statistics of exchanges, ete. 2. Report of the executive committee of the Board of Regents, exhibiting the financial affairs of the Institution, including a state- ment of the Smithsonian fund, and receipts and expenditures for the year ending June 30, 1917. 3. Proceedings of the Board of Regents for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1917. 4, General appendix, comprising a selection of miscellaneous mem- oirs of interest to collaborators and correspondents of the Institution, teachers, and others engaged in the promotion of knowledge. These memoirs relate chiefly to the calendar year 1917. Ix THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. June 30, 1917. Presiding officer ex officio —Wooprow WILsoNn, President of the United States. Chancellor —Epwarp DouGLAss WHITE, Chief Justice of the United States. Members of the Institution: Wooprow WIxson, President of the United States. THoMAS R. MARSHALL, Vice President of the United States. Epwarp DouGLAss WHITE, Chief Justice of the United States. RoBERT LANSING, Secretary of State. WILLIAM Gisps McApoo, Secretary of the Treasury. NEWTON DirHt Baker, Secretary of War. THOMAS WatTr Grecory, Attorney General. ALBERT SIDNEY BURLESON, Postmaster General. JOSEPHUS DANIELS, Secretary of the Navy. FRANKLIN KnicHtT LANE, Secretary of the Interior. Davip FRANKLIN Houston, Secretary of Agriculture. WILLIAM Cox REDFIELD, Secretary of Commerce. WILLIAM BaucHop WItson, Secretary of Labor. Regents of the Institution: Epwarp Douciass WHITE, Chief Justice of the United States, Chancellor. THoMAS R. MARSHALL, Vice President of the United States. Henry Carnot Lopcr, Member of the Senate. WiLiiAM J. Stone, Member of the Senate. Henry FrRENcH Ho.iis, Member of the Senate. Scorr Ferris, Member of the House of Representatives. Ernest W. Rogerts, former Member of the House of Representatives. JAMES T. Liuoyp, former Member of the House of Representatives. ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, citizen of Washington, D. C. GEORGE GRAY, citizen of Delaware. CHARLES F’. CHOATE, Jr., citizen of Massachusetts. JOHN B. HENDERSON, -Jr., citizen of Washington, D. C. CHARLES W. FAIRBANKS, citizen of Indiana. HENRY WHITE, citizen of Maryland. : Executive committee.—Gtoree GRAY, ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, HRNEST W. ROBERTS. Secretary of the Institution CHARLES D. WALCOTT. Assistant Secretary.—RIcHARD RATHBUN. Chief Clerk.—Harry W. Dorsery. Accountant and disbursing agent.—W. I. ADAMS. fditor.—A. Howarp CLARK. Assistant librarian.—PAUL BROcKETT. Property clerk.—J. H. Hix. XII ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. THE NATIONAL MUSEUM. Keeper ex officio —CHARLES D. WaAtcotTT, Secretary of the Smithsonian Insti- tution. Assistant secretary in charge.—RicHARD RATHBUN. Administrative assistant.—W. DE C. RAVENEL. Head curators.—Witt1AM H. Ho~tmes, LEONHARD STEJNEGER, G. P. MERRILL. Curators.—PAvUL BartscH, R. S. Basster, A. Howarp CrarK, F. W. CLARKE, F. V. Coviriz, W. H. Dat, CHESTER G. GILBERT, WALTER HoucH, L. O. Howarp, ALES HrpiiéKa, FREDERICK L. LEwTon, GEoRGE C. MAYNARD, GERRIT S. MILLER, Jr., ROBERT RIDGWAY. Associate curators.—J. C. Crawrorp, W. R. Maxon, DAvip WHITE, Curator, National Gallery of Art—W. H. HoLtMEs. Chief of correspondence and documents. Disbursing agent.—W. I. ADAMS. Chief of exhibits (Biology). —JAMES BH. BENEDICT. Superintendent of buildings and labor.—J. S. GOLDSMITH. Editor.—Marcus BENJAMIN. Assistant librarian.—N,. P. ScuppEr. Photographer.—L. W. BEESON. Registrar.—sS. C. Brown. Property clerk.—W. A. KNOWLES. Engineer.—C, R. DENMARK. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY. Ethnologist-in-charge.—F. W. Hopce. Ethnologists.—J. WALTER FEWKES, JOHN P. Harrineton, J. N. B. Hewitt, Francis LA FLESCHE, TRUMAN MICHELSON, JAMES Moonry, JOHN R. SwWANTON. Special ethnologist—Lro J. FRACHTENBERG. Honorary philologist —FRANZ BOAs. Editor.—JosErH G. GURLEY. Librarian.—HLua LEARY. Illustrator. —DrE LANCEY GILL. INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES. Chief clerk—C. W. SHOEMAKER. NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK. Superintendent.—Nrp HOo.Luister. Assistant Superintendent.—A. B. BAKER. ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY. Director.—C. G. ABBOT. Aid.—F. B®. Fow te, Jr. Bolometric assistant.—L. B. ALDRICH. REGIONAL BUREAU FOR THE UNITED STATES, INTERNATIONAL CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE. Assistant in charge.—Lronarp C. GUNNELL. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Cuar_tes D. Watcotr FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1917. To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution: GENTLEMEN: I have the honor to submit herewith the customary annual report on the operations of the Smithsonion Institution and its branches during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1917, including work placed by Congress under the direction of the Board of Regents in the United States National Museum, the Bureau of American Ethnology, the International Exchanges, the National Zoological Park, the Astrophysical Observatory, and the United States Bureau of the International Catalogue of Scientific Literature. The general report reviews the affairs of the Institution proper and briefly summarizes the operations of its several branches, while the appendices contain detailed reports by the assistant secretary and others directly in charge of various activities. The reports on opera- tions of the National Museum and the Bureau of American Ethnology will also be published as independent volumes. THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. THE ESTABLISHMENT. The Smithsonian Institution was created an establishment by act of Congress approved August 10, 1846. Its statutory members are the President of the United States, the Vice President, the Chief Justice, and the heads of the executive departments. THE BOARD OF REGENTS. The Board of Regents, which is charged with the administration of the Institution, consists of the Vice President and the Chief Justice of the United States as ex officio members, three Members of the Senate, three Members of the House of Representatives, and six citi- zens, “two of whom shall be residents in the city of Washington and 1 2 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. the other four shall be inhabitants of some State, but no two of them from the same State.” In the personnel of the board the only change was the appoint- ment on January 15, 1917, of Hon. Henry White, of Maryland, to succeed Dr. Andrew D. White, of New York, who because of the in- firmities of age felt compelled to resign after serving as Regent for nearly 29 years. The roll of Regents on June 30, 1917, was as fol- lows: Edward D. White, Chief Justice of the United States, Chan- cellor; Thomas R. Marshall, Vice President of the United States; Henry Cabot Lodge, Member of the Senate; William J. Stone, Member of the Senate; Henry French Hollis, Member of the Sen- ate; Scott Ferris, Member of the House of Representatives; Ernest W. Roberts, former Member of the House of Representatives; James T. Lloyd, former Member of the House of Representatives; Alex- ander Graham Bell, citizen of Washington, D. C.; George Gray, citizen of Delaware; Charles F. Choate, jr., citizen of Massachusetts ; John B. Henderson, jr., citizen of Washington, D. C.; Charles W. Fairbanks, citizen of Indiana, and Henry White, citizen of Mary- land. The board held its annual meeting on December 14, 1916. The proceedings of that meeting, as also the annual financial report of the executive committee, have been printed, as usual, for the use of the Regents, while such important matters acted upon as are of public interest are reviewed under appropriate heads in the present report of the secretary. A detailed statement of disbursements from Gov- ernment appropriations, under the direction of the Institution for the maintenance of the National Museum, the National Zoological Park, and other branches, will be submitted to Congress by the secre- tary in the usual manner, in compliance with the law. FINANCES. By the deposit of $4,000 derived from revenues during the year, the permanent fund of the Institution deposited in the Treasury of the United States now amounts to $1,000,000, the limit authorized by Congress, and is divided as follows: Smithson) fund 2s. tere 8 se ee Be ae ee ee $727, 640. 00 Eales ese me ee ee ee 500. 00 EVamiltony tun) 22 = ee ee ee ie ronan AE ork 2, 500. 00 Teioroked tonnes} apne ae Se eee 216, 000. 00 nheesslund ates. See eee Sl aA OAES RG RNR Oe 590. 00 INSTA VUNG Eee ee ee ese tat eee 14, 000. 00 Mddisonets, Reid efund 2.22 = Se ew. ee ee ae 11, 000. 00 Toya ae, eiaVGl GreoreEyey \WYG JEXovonREY ravbaOl = Es = 26, 670. 00 Gana TX Salinas) wWohnGle a ee eee ee ee Be eee 1, 100. 00 Total fund in the Treasury of the United States____-_______ 1, 000, 000. 00 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 3 Other resources. Registered and guaranteed 4 per cent bonds of the West Shore Railroad Co., part of legacy of Thomas G. Hodgkins (par VEL) gee eee eee ee eee $42, 000. 00 Coupon 5 per cent bonds of the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Co., due mA Nivagp lees oS (COSTA) eee eas eee eee LR OR ote ae ee Oe 5, 040. 63 Coupon 6 per cent bonds of the Argentine Nation, due Dec. 15, HARI Ciama (COS) ees es ea eS es, 5, 093. 75 Rotailpinvested ining Seen de ee es pe 1, 052, 184. 38 With the exception of $4,000 deposited in the Treasury, above noted, no other permanent investments were made during the year. These deposits consisted of interest accumulations and rentals only. The principal revenues of the Institution being collectable July 1 and January 1 each year, a surplus of cash accumulated at these times. Instead of allowing this surplus to be idle in the Treasury, the plan has been adopted to invest such sums as may be spared in time certificates of deposit issued by strong financial institutions of this city. The rate of interest obtained on these certificates is 3 per cent per annum and it is believed that approximately $1,000 can be gained each year by this method. The income of the Institution during the year, amounting to $88,649.52, was derived as follows: Interest on the permanent foun- dation, $61,490.59; contributions from various sources for specific purposes, $16,630; and from other miscellaneous sources, $10,528.93. Adding the cash balance of $44,711.02 on July 1, 1916, the total resources for the fiscal year amounted to $133,360.54. The disbursements, which are given in detail in the annual report of the executive commitee, amounted to $124,127.98, leaving a balance of $9,232.56 in cash and on deposit in the Treasury of the United States June 30, 1917. In addition to the above specific amounts to be disbursed by the Institution there was included under the general appropriation for printing and binding an allotment of $76,200 to cover the cost of printing and binding the Smithsonian annual report, and reports and miscellaneous printing for the Government branches of the Insti- tution. The Institution was charged by Congress with the disbursement of the following appropriations for the year ending June 30, 1917. interna tionalyexchangeges -404 vinedeis lg hor sida be oir Al eT $32, 000 International exchanges, deficiency act of Apr. 17, 1917______________ 3, 500 SIME LICAMIME THN O1O Ryness ae beh eniee i A Pe ee 42, 000 PAS ER OP ELV Ctl bv ODSCIV AL OLY sateen ee es wy aD 13, 000 National Museum: Hurnliqgne cand: frxtures.!. Ore iie ere Fis aC ERE ea Eis 25, 000 Heating apd Wishting sp toes e4 ssh te ae ne aet Leen ole 46, 000 4. ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. National Museum—Continued. Ipreservations of, .collections= =) Sse 2 ah ee pares eee $300, 000 OOS ye See eS Sk Be ae ee ee ea ah pe eee 2, 000 ROStAS Cris eee. See he ee 500 Builging | repairs: <=> Sa ee eS 10, 000 NationaleZoological’ Parks =< 222s S222 ae ee ee 100, 000 International Catalogue of Scientific Literature_____________________ 7, 500 TO tals ss=- es sass SS See a eee eee eee aes ae 581, 500 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. Throughout its history the Smithsonian Institution has constantly cooperated with the executive departments and other establishments of the Government in all matters pertaining to scientific activities. Particularly during the period of the present world war has the Institution been of service in connection with many important meas- ures. Every member of its scientific staff, every one of its 500 or more employees, has aided the Nation to the utmost in every possible manner. The laboratories and workshops of the Institution and its branches have been utilized to their fullest extent and routine affairs have taken second place whenever important national matters have needed attention. Your Secretary, as president of the National Academy of Sciences, as chairman of the military committee of the National Research Council, and as chairman of the executive com- mittee of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, has had opportunity to keep in close touch with the needs of the Nation and to give such advice as has been in his power, especially in connection with the development of aeronautics. The Institution was particularly fortunate in having as former Secretary, Prof. S. P. Langley, who in 1896 gave to the world a prac- tical demonstration of the feasibility of mechanical flight by a ma- chine heavier than air propelled by its own power. To him the Nation to-day owes more than can be told, and as an indication of that debt his memory is fittingly preserved in the name “Langley Field,” a tract of some 1,800 acres near Hampton, Virginia, where extensive ex- periments of the highest importance to the art of aviation are now being carried on. The Government has now been aroused to the su- preme worth of airplanes, machines which Professor Langley 20 years ago foresaw would be of great service in times of war as well as peace. His prophecy has been fulfilled far beyond his hopes or dreams. The large machine with which his personal experiments ceased in 1903 proved its worth and its capability of actual flight during the past year. Change after change in the design of air- planes to adapt them for scouting, for fighting, and other military purposes has followed in rapid succession until now aerial battles are of daily occurrence and nations are looking ahead to their ex- tended use under peace conditions. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 5 As stated in my last report, the organization of the National Ad- visory Committee for Aeronautics has made unnecessary for the present the permanent establishment by the Smithsonian Institution of the Langley Aerodyanmical Laboratory. Every facility continues, however, to be afforded to Federal bureaus to study aviation models and records possessed by the Institution and, in particular, to con- sult the large Smithsonian Library on Aeronautics, together with a general card index of aeronautical literature. There has recently been erected adjacent to the Smithsonian build- ing a temporary structure for the use of the United States Signal Serivee especially for housing aeroplanes of various designs and aviation appliances. The executive committee of the National Advisory Committee has held monthly meetings during the year, and many problems of deep importance have been discussed. Upon the recommendation of the committee there was organized by the Council of National Defense the “Aircraft Production Board,” “to consider the situation in relation to the quantity production of aircraft in the United States and to cooperate with the officers of the Army and Navy and of other departments interested in the production and delivery to these departments of the needed aircraft in accordance with the requirements of each department.” The committee also recommended to the Government the adoption of a continuing program for the training of aviators and the preduc- tion of airplanes and the establishment of schools and an adequate organization and personnel of regular officers, both in the Army and Navy for the efficient use of aircraft and direction of the aviators pro- vided for. As a result of the committee’s activities the advance in aerial preparedness has been accelerated. The committee has established a research laboratory at Langley Field, Virginia, for the carrying on of scientific investigations. Among the several subcommittees engaged in the study of aeronautic problems are those on aerial mail service, aero torpedoes, aircraft communication, airplane mapping, relation of the atmosphere to aeronautics, standardization of specifications for aeronautic materials and aeronautic nomenclature, specifications for aeronautic instru- ments, radiator design, motive power, and safe design, construction, and navigation of aircraft. The second annual report of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics was published during the year in a volume of 630 octavo pages, including technical reports on “ General specifications covering requirements of aeronautic instruments,” “ Nomenclature for aero- nautics,” “ Mufflers for aeronautics,” “Gasoline carbureter design,” and “ Experimental researches on the resistance of air.” 65133°—sm 1917—— 2 6 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917, RESEARCHES AND EXPLORATIONS. The usual activities were continued during the past year in advanc- ing one of the fundamental objects of the Smithsonian Institution, the increase of knowledge. In this work various explorations and researches were inaugurated or participated in by the Institution and its branches, covering practically all divisions of astronomical, an- thropological, biological, and geological science. The extent of these explorations and researches during the history of the Institution covers a wide range, although a great deal more of most important work could have been accomplished had adequate funds been avail- able. Friends of the Institution have generously aided this work, particularly during the last few years, through the contribution of funds for specific purposes, but much yet remains undone, and op- portunities for undertaking important lines of investigation are constantly being lost through lack of means to carry them into execution. Several proposed expeditions to various parts of the world have been temporarily delayed by the war in Europe. I will here mention only briefly some of the recent activities of the Institution in these directions, and for details of other researches and explorations may refer to the appendices containing the reports of those directly in charge of the several branches of the Institution and also to the accounts given in the customary pamphlet review of this work published each year in the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections. GEOLOGICAL EXPLORATIONS IN THE CANADIAN ROCKIES. In continuation of geological work carried on by me for several years past in the Canadian Rocky Mountains, I was engaged during the summer and early fall of 1916 in field investigations on the Con- tinental Divide forming the boundary between Alberta and British Columbia, south of the Canadian Pacific Railway. The very heavy snowfall of the previous winter, together with frequent snow and rain squalls during the summer, had made the conditions unusually favorable for taking photographs, the air being exceptionally pure and clear during the field season, conditions, however, very unfavor- able for geological investigations. A large number of photographs were secured, including a number of panoramic views made on con- tinuous films 8 feet in length. The sections examined and measured extend from the Mount Assiniboine region southwest of Banff, Alberta, northwest to the Kicking Horse Pass, where the Canadian Pacific Railway has bored a double loop through the mountains on the north and south sides of the pass, REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. | The season’s work was undertaken with two principal objects in view: First, to determine, if possible, the base line of demarcation between the Lower and Middle Cambrian; and second, to locate the exact horizon of a Cambrian subfauna (Albertella) that had in its entirety been found only in drift bowlders in the Kicking Horse Val- ley east of Wapta Lake. One of the important incidental results obtained was the discovery at Wonder Pass of a great overthrust fault by which the basal Cambrian rocks forming the mountains on the west side of the pass have been thrust eastward over upon:the limestones of the Devonian, shown in the slope on the east side of the pass. The thrust along this fault has carried the rocks forming the main range of the Rockies in this area several miles to the eastward. The fault crosses through Wonder Pass and then curves to the northwest, southeast of Magog Lake, to the great cliff forming the northern extension of the Assiniboine massif. During the million or more years that the agencies of erosion had been wearing away the great mass of rocks above the fault, mountain peaks, canyons, and ridges have been carved and polished by frost, snow, and the grinding force of huge glaciers. The glaciers have now retreated to a point near their origin, high up on the mountains, but they have left behind them basins that are filled with beautiful lakes, such as Magog, Sunburst, and Ross. The line of demarcation between the Lower and Middle Cambrian was found to be high up in the section on the face of the cliffs at Wonder Pass, and throughout the Assiniboine massif. While camped on Magog Lake, below Mount Assiniboine, some marvelous reflections of the peak in the waters of the lake were seen in the quiet of the early morning. The changes in the “cloud ban- ners,” at the peak occur very rapidly. These views led us to regard the grand pyramid of Mount Assiniboine as the Matterhorn of America. Northwest of Banff the broad valley of the Bow has been eroded diagonally back through the massive scarf of the overthrust massif and thus exposed to erosion the heart of the great arch that had its crest over the region now occupied by Mount Victoria and other peaks of the Bow Range. Some photographic views were secured looking south across the Bow Valley into the heart of the Rockies. A view of Pinnacle Peak tells the story of the tremendous power of erosive agencies, where the colossal quartzites and limestones are shattered and eroded into the most fantastic forms. West of Pinnacle Peak, at the head of Paradise Valley, Mount Hungabee rises in a terraced wall 4,000 feet above the glacier at its foot, while another glimpse of these great cliffs is seen under Mount 8 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. Lefroy, where the melting snows cascade down as a beautiful brook over the quartzite ledges. At last, in the cliffs above Ross Lake the Albertella fauna was located in situ, and from the slopes above the lake a panoramic view was taken of Mount Bosworth, above Kicking Horse Pass on the Continental Divide. Although only 9,083 feet in height, Mount Bos- worth exposed in its slopes over 12,000 feet in thickness of bedded rocks that constitute one of the best sections of the Cambrian rocks found in the Canadian Rockies. Considerable collections of Cambrian fossils were obtained by myself and Mrs. Walcott, who accompanied and worked with me throughout the entire trip, before the storms of late September drove us back to Banff and ended the research for the season. Many of the photographs taken in this wonderful region are repro- duced in one of the publications of the Institution. GEOLOGICAL FIELD STUDIES. Dr. George P. Merrill, head curator of geology in the National Museum, devoted several days of the summer vacation period in 1916 to visiting the gem and feldspar quarries of Auburn, Topsham, and neighboring areas in Maine. While nothing new was secured, he was able to add interesting material to the Museum exhibit illustrat-_ ing the character and association of the pegmatite dikes, which is now being installed in the Museum. HUNTING GRAPTOLITES IN THE APPALACHIAN VALLEY. The great value of the extinct organisms known as graptolites in determining the age of geological formations which contain few and often no other kinds of fossils, has been proved time and again. During the summer of 1916 Dr. R. S. Bassler and Mr. C. E. Resser, both of the division of paleontology, United States National Mu- seum, had occasion to test this particular group of fossils in the course of a study of the Cambrian and Ordovician shale formations of western Maryland. They report that— Recent excavations along the Western Maryland Railroad, in the great shale belt just west of Williamsport and extending north and south for hundreds of miles, exposed these rocks to such advantage that it was thought possible enough fossils could be found in them to determine their exact geologic age and structure. However, no fossils of any kind were found after much search. It was then decided that the rocks were either barren of organic life or the cleav- age produced in the strata by the great forces resulting in their present folded condition destroyed all traces of fossils. Finally a fold of black shale was observed and at the point where the cleavage and the bedding planes coincided, abundant graptolite remains were 1 Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. 66, No. 17, 1917. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 9 discovered. The species which were collected proved to be of such typical Trenton forms that there could be no doubt of the Middle Ordovician age of this particular shale. Limestones known to be much older outcrop so short a distance to the east of this that a great fault or displacement between the two kinds of rocks is clearly indicated. - With these facts in hand, the fault was traced for a distance of 30 miles north and south, thus again showing that the graptolites proved the key to the geologic structure of the region. EXPLORATIONS IN THE OHIO VALLEY FOR FOSSIL ALGAE AND CORAL REEFS. Through the extensive studies of the Secretary for several years past, the collections of the National Museum are rich in limestone- forming pre-Cambrian algae—a low order of water plants that secrete lime or silica. An instructive series of these fossils has been -placed on exhibition, but in order to show the geologic occurrence and evolution of this group of plants it was necessary to supplement the pre-Cambrian forms with specimens of more recent age. Ac- cordingly Dr. R. S. Bassler, curator of paleontology, spent some weeks in the Ohio Valley, particularly in the blue grass region of Kentucky, in a search for large exhibition specimens, and in a study of their mode of occurrence. He was successful in procuring a num- ber of showy exhibition specimens as well as numerous study collec- tions. More difficult, however, was the discovery and quarrying of a fossil coral reef suitable for exhibition in the Museum. Coral reefs are known at several horizons in the Paleozoic rocks of the Ohio Valley but they are seldom so exposed that an instructive section can be quarried out without injury to the specimens. appointed to consider and report upon desirable means of cooperation between the Council and State research committees. OFFICERS OF THE COUNCIL. George EH. Hale, chairman; Charles D. Walcott, first vice chairman; Gano Dunn, second vice chairman; R. A. Millikan, third vice chairman and executive officer ; Cary T. Hutchinson, secretary. EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE, J. J. Carty, chairman. Marston T. Bogert. Russell H. Chittenden. Edwin G. Conklin. Gano Dunn. George HE. Hale. Van H. Manning. R. A. Millikan. Arthur A. Noyes. Raymond Pearl. Michael I. Pupin. S. W. Stratton. Victor C. Vaughan. Charles D. Walcott. William H. Welch. The following members and new committees have been added to the council since my last report: LIST OF NEW Carl L. Alsberg. Joseph S. Ames. Admiral Willam S. Benson. Walter B. Cannon. John M. Clarke. Howard E. Coffin. William M. Davis. Arthur L. Day. Henry H. Donaldson. William F. Durant. Rear Admiral Ralph Earle. MEMBERS. John R. Freeman. Hollis Godfrey. Rear Admiral Robert S. Griffin. Herbert C. Hoover. Franklin H. Martin. John C. Merriman. Eliakim H. Moore. Frederick H. Newell. George O. Smith. Lewis B. Stillwell. Robert W. Wood. LIST OF COMMITTEES. Military committee. Agriculture committee. Committee on Anthropology. Botany committee. Chemistry committee. Food committee. Committee on gases used in warfare. Committee on Industrial Research. Committee on Medicine and Hygiene. Committee on Optical Glass. Physiology committee. Committee on Relations with Research Councils. Aeronautics committee. Anatomy committee. State Astronomy committee. Committee on census of research. Engineering committee. Foreign service committee. Geography committee. Geology and paleontology committee. Mathematics committee. Committee on navigation and nautical instruments. Physics committee. | Psychology committee. Committee on research in educational institutions. Zoology committee. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 19 Since the close of the year the Signal Corps, desiring to avail itself of the assistance of the National Research Council, appointed Dr. R. A. Millikan, third vice chairman and executive officer, and Dr. Charles E. Mendenhall majors in the United States Army. PUBLICATIONS. The Institution proper issues three series of publications: Smith- sonian Contributions to Knowledge, Smithsonian Miscellaneous Col- lections, and Smithsonian Annual Reports. The publications of the various branches of the Institution issued under its direction include the Annual Reports, Proceedings, and Bulletins of the United States National Museum, including the Contributions from the National Herbarium; Annual Reports and Bulletins of the Bureau of Ameri- can Ethnology; and the Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory. All of the publications of these branches and the Annual Report of the Institution are printed by means of congressional allotments. Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge—Of this series, which contains in quarto form the results of studies constituting important contributions to knowledge, one memoir was published, entitled “ A Contribution to the Comparative Histology of the Femur,” by Dr. J. S. Foote, of Creighton Medical College, embodying the results of the author’s work for a number of years on this subject. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections—Of this series, 19 papers forming parts of five volumes were issued, including three papers by your Secretary containing the results of his field work in Cambrian geology. The annual Smithsonian exploration pamphlet appears im this series, which describes briefly the work in the field of the Smithsonian scientists and scientific expeditions, illustrated by pho- tographs taken by the explorers in every quarter of the globe. The necessity for a second reprinting of the sixth revised edition of the Smithsonian Physical Tables indicates the continued usefulness of this work. In this series also appeared the important paper by H. Helm Clayton on the effect of variations in solar radiation on the earth’s atmosphere, the possibilities of which for use in forecasting temperature are discussed elsewhere in this report. Smithsonian report—As stated in the report on the publications, Appendix 8, although the final proof of the 1916 report was returned to the printer in April, the books were not received before the close of the year because of the great rush of war printing at the Govern- ment Printing Office. Special publications—Among the special publications may be men- tioned an illustrated folder describing the Smithsonian and _ its branches, for the use of visitors and correspondents. 20 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. National Museum publications —The Museum issued during the year 1 volume of the proceedings, 73 papers forming parts of this and other volumes, and 6 bulletins. . Bureau of Ethnology publications—The Bureau of American Ethnology published 1 annual report, 2 bulletins, and a list of pub- lications of the bureau. Reports of historical and patriotic societies—In accordance with a provision in the charters of the American Historical Association and the National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolu- tion, the annual reports of those organizations were submitted to your Secretary, and communicated by him to Congress. Allotments for printing.—The allotments for the printing of the Smithsonian report and the various publications of the branches of the Institution were practically used up, a small balance remaining in one or two cases owing to the impossibility of getting certain pub- lications off the press before the close of the year. The allotments for the year ending June 30, 1918, are as follows: For the Smithsonian Institution: For printing and binding the annual reports of the Board of Regents, with general appendices, the editions of which shall not exceed 10,000 copies____________ a he See = SOO) For the annual reports of the National Museum, with general appen- dices, and for printing labels and blanks, and for the bulletins and proceedings of the National Museum, the editions of which shall not exceed 4,000 copies; and binding, in half morocco or material not more expensive, scientific books, and pamphlets presented to or. ac- quired by the National Museum 1 Rai ys ae ee ee ES 37, 500 For the annual reports and bulletins of the Bureau of American Eth- nology and for miscellaneous printing and binding for the bureau___ 21, 000 For miscellaneous printing and binding: International Exchanges perge yee ones st ae ie B 200 International Catalogue of Scientific Literature___ Ese! = 100 National sZo0locicalmbark.-- = 2 2. 2s ee ee ae 200 ASTEEOD MYST Caled © OSC Tavielt OTs ye — eee ee ee eres 200 For the annual report of the American Historical Association______-__ 7, 000 HIS Tiga ee as ae a Eee eer a eS ne ae peg ry rE = aes Eee! 76, 200 Committee on printing and publication.—The Smithsonian advis- ory committee on printing and publication considers all manuscripts offered for publication by the Institution or its branches. During the past year 16 meetings were held, at which 101 manuscripts were considered and acted upon. The membership of the committee was as follows: Dr. Leonhard Stejneger, head curator of biology, National Museum, chairman; Dr. C. G. Abbot, director of the Astrophysical Observatory; Mr. Ned Hollister, superintendent of the National Zoological Park; Mr. A. Howard Clark, editor of the Institution, sec- retary of the committee; Mr. F. W. Hodge, ethnologist in charge of REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. redh the Bureau of American Ethnology; and Dr. George P. Merrill, head curator of geology, National Museum. LIBRARY, The main purpose of the library of the Smithsonian Institution has been to assemble a collection of periodicals and publications of a scientific nature as well as the journals and other publications of the scientific institutions and learned societies of the world, the whole to be a library of reference for research in the broadest sense. In carrying out this policy an accumulation of over half a million titles has been made, the main part of which is housed in the Library of Congress with the designation of the Smithsonian deposit of the Library of Congress. In addition to this main part of the Smithsonian library there are maintained a number of smaller libraries at the various branches of the Institution, the National Museum library, the Bureau of American Ethnology library, the Astrophysical Observatory library, and the National Zoological Park library. In the various offices of the Institution and the Museum sectional libraries of technical works in all branches of science are maintained for the use of the scientific staff. There are 35 of these sectional technica] libraries. The accessions to the libraries of the Institution and its branches during the year aggregated more than 9,000. volumes, parts of volumes, and pamphlets. Among important gifts during the year was a first consignment of 561 volumes and 293 pamphlets, part of the botanical library of Dr. John Donnell Smith, of Baltimore; the whole of which, amounting to 1,500 volumes, he has offered to the Institution. In the Museum library, 1,572 volumes and 3,556 pamphlets were accessioned during the year, among them the scientific library of Dr. Edgar A. Mearns, associate in zoology, who died last fall. This collection is rich in works on mammals, birds, and plants. Through the continued generosity of Dr. William H. Dall, honorary curator of mollusks, the sectional library of the division of mollusks has been enriched by the addition of 307 titles during the year. RECEPTION IN HONOR OF FRENCH SCIENTISTS. On the evening of June 14, under the auspices of the National Academy of Sciences, a reception was held in the Smithsonian build- ing for the members of the French Scientific Mission to the United States. Prof. Charles Fabry told of what France is doing in the war; Commander Bridge spoke of Great Britain’s work in submarine warfare; and Sir Ernest Rutherford sketched the situation as Eng- land seesit. President Walcott, of the National Academy of Sciences, 65133°—sm 1917——3 ° 22 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. and Mrs. Walcott were assisted by Lieut. Maurice Paternot, Prof. Charles Fabry, and Prof. Henri Abraham in receiving the guests. NATIONAL MUSEUM. One of the most important features to be recorded in the opera- tions of the National Museum during the year was the actual begin- ning of the building for the Charles L. Freer Art Collections. Excavation was started on October 2, 1916, and by June 30, 1917, the foundations and concrete walls inclosing the subbasement had been complete. The structure, covering 228 by 185 feet, will be of Milford granite and in exterior and interior design best adapted to its purpose. Assistant Secretary Rathbun in the appendix to the present report gives some interesting details regarding this addition to the Smithsonian group of buildings. The construction of this art building is made possible through the most generous gift of $1,000,000 by Mr. Freer for the housing and study of the magnificent collection he has presented to the Nation. His gift of the building and collection is the most valued donation which any individual has ever made to the Government. The accessions to the National Museum collections during the year ageregated about 200,000 specimens pertaining to anthropology, zoology, botany, geology and mineralogy, paleontology, textiles and woods, mineral technology, and objects of art. In his report Assis- tant Secretary Rathbun enumerates the sources and importance of these accessions, so that it is not necessary here to do more than to mention some of the principal items. Interesting collections of anthropological objects were received from the island of Celebes, gathered at the expense of Dr. W. L. Abbott, who for many years has most generously contributed toward the growth of the Museum in ethnological and biological material from various parts of the world. Doctor Abbott personally visited the West Indies during the year and met with gratifying success in adding to our knowledge of the early history of man and of the fauna of that region. A large col- lection of stone implements belonging to the ancient town builders of Mexico was received through Captains Wright and Cooper of General Pershing’s expedition, and extensive archeological collec- tions from the Southwestern States were gathered by Doctor Fewkes and others connected with the Bureau of American Ethnology. Hundreds of objects of great value in the study of physical anthro- pology came to the museum as the result of explorations by Doctor Hrdlicka.and others in Peru. To the division of American history memorials were added per- taining to eminent military and naval men and other prominent Americans and objects commemorative of historic events, besides REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Ze costumes, furniture, and other articles illustrative of colonial and later periods. Although the Museum is without funds for carrying on extended biological explorations, yet through the generosity of friends it has been greatly enriched by the results of field work in various parts of the world, particularly the work of Dr. W. L. Abbott so often men- tioned heretofore. A large and fine collection of reptiles and batrachians came as a bequest by the late Julius Hurter, sr., of St. Louis. To the botanical collections were added about 25,000 specimens and the remnant of the botanical library saved from the flood which so nearly destroyed the Vanderbilt Herbarium at Biltmore, N. C., in July, 1916. These objects were presented by Mrs. Vanderbilt. Prof. O. F. Cook gave to the Museum about 15,000 specimens of crypto- gams gathered in the United States and Liberia. In geological material, likewise, and in the department of textiles, mineral technology, and other divisions of the Museum, there were important additions described by the assistant secretary. The attendance of visitors to the Natural History building ag- gregated about 400,000 and the Arts and Industries building about 250,000. In calling attention to the present needs of the Museum, I may mention the fact that on account of the great growth of the collec- tions during the last few years there is already presented a lack of exhibition and storage facilities in some of the departments, par- ticularly in connection with the applied arts, the fine arts, and Ameri- can history. It is exceedingly gratifying that the accessions should increase in such great proportions from year to year, but it is like- wise important that there be a corresponding increase in the number of the scientific staff and other employees necessary for the proper care and study of this mass of material made up in great measure through gifts by the people of the Nation. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY. The Bureau of American Ethnology, which conducts ethnological researches among the American Indians and the natives of Hawaii, is under the direction of Mr. F. W. Hodge, whose report is given in Appendix 2. Among the important researches of the year was the excavation and study of Hawikuh, a large reservation on the Zufi Reserva- tion in western New Mexico. This work was carried on by Mr. . Hodge in cooperation with the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, of New York City. The purpose of the excava- tion of Hawikuh was to study a Zufii pueblo, known to have been 24 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. inhabited from prehistoric times well into the historic period, to de- termine as far as possible the character and arts of the Zuni people in early times, as well as the effect of Spanish contact during the six- teenth and seventeenth centuries. The results of this important study, which were highly successful, will be published in the near future. In the Mesa Verde National Park Dr. J. Walter Fewkes exca- vated and repaired a large rectangular ruin, 100 by 113 feet, to which he gave the name of Far View House, by reason of its commanding situation on the mesa. The most important result of the study of this structure is the revelation of a new type of Mesa Verde building, the form and character of which throw lght on the close relation of pueblos and cliff dwellings. Dr. Fewkes believes that this structure is the only example of a pure type of pueblo ever completely exca- vated, the term “ pure type” meaning a terraced community building constructed of shaped stones and having circular kivas, or ceremonial rooms, united with surrounding rectangular rooms. This type of pueblo may be considered a stage in architectural development be- tween the older type of structure and the mixed or modern form which shows a retrogression in the art of masonry. Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt, while conducting studies in Canada relative to the Iroquois League, was selected as an official delegate from the council of the Six Nations to attend a condolence and installation ceremony at Muncietown, in which he took a leading part, requiring the intoning of an address of comforting in the Onondaga language and also in acting the part of the Seneca chiefs in such a council. Among: the special researches carried on during the year may be mentioned the completion of the manuscript on the ethnology of the Kwakiutl Indians by Dr. Franz Boas, honorary philologist. Work is nearly completed on the results of the field work on the Salishan language, carried on through the generosity of Mr. Homer E. Sar- gent, of Chicago, by Mr. James Teit. The study of Indian music has been continued by Miss Frances Densmore, sufficient data now being on hand to complete a work on the music of the Ute Indians, among whom Miss Densmore has now spent two field seasons. The bureau has published during the year 1 annual report, 2 bulle- tins, and a list of publications of the bureau. In press or in prepara- tion at the close of the year were 4 reports and 8 bulletins. The library of the bureau accessioned 435 new books and 3888 pamphlets. INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES. The International Exchange Service, for the exchange of govern- mental and scientific publications with other countries, though very much hampered in its operations by war conditions, has nevertheless REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 25 handled during the year a total of 268,625 packages, weighing 290,193 pounds. On account of the very high ocean freight rates Congress allowed a small additional appropriation to meet the expense of foreign shipments. Suspension of shipments is still found to be necessary in the case of. about 10 countries. It is gratifying to note that since the begin- ning of the war only three shipments sent out by the Institution have been lost through hostile action, two of these being on vessels sunk by hostile warships. Wherever possible duplicate copies of the publica- tions in lost consignments are procured and another shipment made. It has been the custom of the Government of India to refer requests from establishments in this country for Indian official documents to the Exchange Service for indorsement, and this year a request for similar services by the director of the Government press at Cairo, Egypt, has been granted. NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK. The National Zoological Park is each year becoming more and more recognized as a means of natural history education and as a place of recreation and amusement for the public, and the collection ‘of animals is now one of the most varied and interesting of its kind in the country. In October, 1916, Dr. Frank Baker, superintendent of the park for 26 years, resigned to take effect November 1, and was succeeded by Mr. Ned Hollister, assistant curator of the division of mammals in the National Museum, The total number of animals in the park at the close of the fiscal year was 1,223, including 484 mammals, 683 birds, and 56 reptiles. Among important additions may be mentioned five adult Rocky Mountain sheep received from the Canadian Government; four Bed- ford deer or Manchurian stags, from the Duke of Bedford; and some desirable Australian marsupials presented by Mr. Victor J. Evans, of Washington, District of Columbia. Visitors to the park during the year numbered 1,106,800, a daily average of 3,032. One hundred and fifty-three schools and classes examined the collection for educational purposes. Among recent improvements the superintendent notes that the hospital and laboratory, on which work has been in progress for the past two years, now lacks only the laboratory equipment for the use of pathologists and the outside yards for the animals to be con- fined in the hospital limits. The lake for North American water fowl has been enlarged and reconstructed to show as many as pos- sible of these birds in their natural surroundings. At present no 26 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. less than 136 American water birds of 24 species are to be seen in the lake. Every effort is being made to make the park a sanctuary for native wild birds. Over 100 nesting boxes have been put in place and dur- ing the cold weather food is provided, resulting in a notable increase in the bird population of the park. As noted in last year’s report, the appropriation made by Congress in 1913 for the acquisition of a frontage for the park on Connecticut Avenue, lapsed owing to delays caused by legal complications, and it is regretted that Congress has not made a new appropriation for this purpose. As the principal entrance to the park will probably be on Connecticut Avenue for all time, it is exceedingly important that the land in question be acquired before it is too late. Among the imperative needs of the park, the superintendent men- tions some provision for the parking of the increasing number of automobiles that visit the Zoo, outdoor dens for carnivorous animals, additional ponds for waterfowl, a bird house, and a reptile house. The most urgent need, however, is a substantial increase in the gen- eral appropriation. Owing to the steady advance in the cost of sup- plies and the increasing expense occasioned by the larger number of visitors, the point has now been reached where the entire appro- priation, which has remained the same for the past seven years, does not cover actual maintenance expenses. For some years past the National Zoological Park, in common with other similar institutions in the United States, has felt the effect of conditions that operated to hinder more and more the importation of wild animals from abroad and to reduce the supply. At the suggestion of Dr. W. T. Hornaday, director of the New York Zoological Park, a conference was held at the Philadelphia Zoological Garden to consider the question of sending a joint expe- dition, on behalf of the New York, Philadelphia, and National Zo- ological Parks, to South Africa for animals. It was decided to send a man out to look the ground over, see what could be done in the way of arranging for a supply of animals for the future, and bring back anything desirable that could be secured at the time. Mr. J. Alden Loring, who had been successful in bringing animals from Europe for the New York Zoological Park, and had also had experience in Africa as a member of the Smithsonian expedition to East Africa, was selected to make the trip. Mr. Loring sailed from New York July 22, 1916, taking with him hay and grain enough to feed as many antelopes and other herbivora as he was likely to obtain, for one of the conditions necessary to se- cure their entry into the United States was that no forage from Africa should be brought with the animals. He arrived at Port REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. ra Elizabeth, South Africa, August 81, and, returning, sailed from Durban November 22. The opportunities for securing animals to bring back were found to be in some respects less favorable than had been anticipated, but fortunately the zoological garden at Pretoria was fairly well stocked, and the director was kind enough to deplete the collection somewhat for the benefit of his distant colleagues. Most of the animals which Mr. Loring brought back were obtained there,an interesting collec- tion of mammals and birds being secured. The mammals obtained include a gemsbuck, a blessbuck, a white-tailed gnu, a nilgai, four springbucks, a pair of duikers, a pair of meerkats, and a few mon- keys and rodents. Among the birds are two secretary vultures, a bateleur eagle, a hornbill, francolins of several species, a few touracous and hawks,anda number of smaller birds. The collection has been divided between the three institutions concerned, accord- ing to their choice, and in proportion to the share of the expenses that was borne by each. Altogether there were secured 28 mammals, representing 13 species; 60 birds, of 25 species; and 55 snakes and tortoises, of 8 species. While in South Africa Mr. Loring visited and made notes on the zoological gardens at Cape Town, Durban, Bloemfontein, Johannes- burg, and Pretoria. ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY. Measurements of solar radiation were continued as usual on Mount Wilson. As stated in connection with the Hodgkins fund, an allot- ment has been made to undertake similar work in South America. Much attention was devoted by Director Abbot to the preparation of the equipment of this expedition. Valuable new instruments were devised and constructed under his direction. Owing to war condi- tions the expedition was located temporarily at Hump Mountain, North Carolina, in May, 1917, and shelters ‘prepared and apparatus set up and adjusted under the care of Messrs. Abbot and Aldrich. The research on the absorption of terrestrial radiation by vapors of the atmosphere, upon which Mr. Fowle has been engaged for several years, has been completed, and the results, which are of great importance to meteorology, have been made ready for pub- lication by the Institution. A paper of uncommon interest by H. Helm Clayton, based upon observations by the Astrophysical Ob- servatory, has been published in the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Col- lections. The author shows that the short-interval solar variations, discovered in Mount Wilson work, affect terrestrial temperatures and pressures the world over in a well-marked and _ predictable manner. It is greatly to be hoped that daily solar-radiation obser- 28 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. vations at all times of the year may be obtained for use in such meteorological researches. It was for this purpose that the South American expedition was planned, and it will be unfortunate, indeed, if war conditions should long delay the carrying out of this work. POSSIBILITY OF FORECASTING FROM SOLAR OBSERVATIONS. As Doctor Clayton has shown that variations of the sun are fol- lowed a day or two later by correlated variations of temperature, it is of interest to inquire if the fluctuations of temperature thus caused are large enough to be worth predicting. From Clayton’s curves it seems to be shown that in 1913 and 1914 changes of solar radiation of 1 per cent produced changes of maximum temperatures as follows: Pilar, Argentina, +5.2° ©. Manila, Philippine Islands, +1.5° C Winnipeg, Canada, —6.8° C. Tt may be supposed that the mean temperatures changed half as much, or -++-2.6°, +0.75°, and —3.15° corresponding to 1 per cent rise of solar radiation. Changes of 3 per cent or even 5 per cent in solar radiation within 10 days are not very uncommon. For instance note the following values of “solar constant” observed on Mount Wilson in 1911: Date, Sept. 3 4 5 6 it 8 9 10 aul Vale Meee Se 1.888 1.906 1.917 1.960 1,988 1.9938 1.948 1.908 1.892 The observed range was 5.5 per cent in 8 days. Obviously, the subject presents possibilities that when sufficient observing stations are equipped in various cloudless regions to yield accurate “solar constant” values every day, 1t may be possible to forecast for one or two days in advance a very considerable part of the now outstanding, temperature fluctuations. At present the two stations of the Smithsonian Institution in California and North Carolina are the only ones making the required solar observations, and not in half of the days in the year, especially in midwinter and midsummer, can observations be made on account of cloudiness. A bequest of $500,000 would enable the Institution to equip and maintain indefinitely the required observing stations. INTERNATIONAL CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC LITERA- TURE. As the greater part of the countries supporting regional bureaus of the International Catalogue of Scientific Literature are now actu- ally engaged in hostilities, a great deal of difficulty has been encoun- REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 29 tered in preparing and financing the Catalogue. The number of scientific papers being published has greatly decreased and it has been found practically impossible to obtain the necessary scientific and clerical assistance for the preparation of the Catalogue. How- ever, the Central Bureau at London has succeeded in issuing four volumes, the twelfth annual issue of geology, and the thirteenth annual issue of chemistry, anatomy, and botany. This brings the total number of volumes published since the inception of the Cata- logue in 1901, up to 216 volumes containing about 3,000,000 refer- ences to current scientific periodicals. The organization as a whole is holding together very well under extremely adverse conditions, and when peace is declared it will be necessary only to resume, rather than reorganize the work. It is becoming more and more difficult to draw the line between pure science and applied science, and the present limitation of the Cata- logue to pure science should be broadened to include at least some of the applied sciences which are advancing with such great strides. Although this would increase the size and cost of the Catalogue, yet its enhanced value would by increasing the demand for it and con- — sequently its sale, offset any additional cost. Respectfully submitted. Cuartes D. Watcort, Secretary. ai b uae ae Soe ; aS. as sabe poe © =. a. ‘3 a 4a ; mae acrid Sahay Was, a an ak ie iad nee mac ZA he the. ab peot. prenre Pata ne. hae es “ane prepa, eas te Pee 1s ok ey. eee ee 28 ie °F ike bie in Pee * eee mans ae ratte. ery er art ont gph. AT. ‘Sbeaeis ee Pade site alihosiia AAO ee es ‘ate aires Site ones ee ee, pate 2 otont Rites Bad For Sa Mull OT the: Tics tic the: Soar ame by Sede ae ee eopret! cine ive tits te nes ie meme % Ss a ok Shay would ee tp We APPENDIX I. REPORT ON THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. Srr: I have the honor to submit the following report on the op- erations of the United States National Museum for the fiscal year ending June 380, 1917: INTRODUCTORY. In the last report it was stated that Mr. Charles L. Freer had made arrangements for the immediate erection of the building to house the valuable collections of American and oriental art which he has presented to the Nation through the Smithsonian Institution, and also that the preliminary plans had been approved, the site se- lected and the necessary funds, amounting to $1,000,000, transmitted by him to the Institution. Tt is exceedingly gratifying to announce that the detailed plans having been sufficiently advanced by that time the work of excavating was begun on October 2, 1916, and by the close of the fiscal year the foundations, including the concrete walls inclosing the subbasement, had been completed. This addition to the Smithsonian group of buildings, with a front- age of 228 feet, a depth of 185 feet, and a height of 46 feet, and containing an open central court about 65 feet square, will present an exterior of pink granite from quarries at Milford, Massachusetts, a stone which has been employed with good effect for several promi- nent structures in Washington. Above the ground level it will consist only of a basement and main story, the former lighted by windows, the latter almost wholly by skylights, leaving the upper part of the walls essentially unpierced except for the entrances, of which that on the north front comprises three large arched openings. The loca- tion, at the corner of Twelfth and B streets SW., between the build- ings of the Smithsonian Institution and the Department of Agricul- ture, seems to assure favorable surroundings for the future, as there is sight probability of intrusion by any high or otherwise objection- able constructions in that vicinity. Not only beautiful and effective in general design, but showing in interior plan a thorough adaptation to the requirements of the collections both as to space and to lighting, with such facilities as will make it practically an independent unit of the Smithsonian 31 32 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. group, the character of the construction work so far as it has been carried leaves nothing to be desired in respect either to enduring quality or to interpretation of the architect’s conception. The subbasement will contain the appliances connected with the heating, lighting, and ventilation of the building, but steam and electric current will be supplied from the central plant of the Mu- seum. In the basement, which will be a well-lighted story, will be located large studios and rooms for the storage of such parts of the collections as are not on exhibition, a capacious lecture hall, an office for the curator, and work and comfort rooms, furnishing, in fact, all necessary conveniences for administration, for serious study, and for popular instruction. The main story will be entirely devoted to exhibition purposes and be divided into 19 rooms, each designed for a particular subject or class of objects, reached by wide corridors. The Whistler collection will occupy 5 of these rooms, in one of which the decorations of the famous peacock room will be installed. The central court, to con- tain a fountain, will be a special feature of this story, large, arched openings lighting the adjoining corridors and loggias. The entire available floor space of the main and basement stories will aggre- gate some 55,000 square feet, about equally divided between the two floors. It will be recalled that this building is designed to accommodate only the Freer collections and to provide for the study and appre- ciation of their varied contents which supply a vast amount of ma- terial for research work by specialists. As an integral part of this specific gift of art, the most important and valued donation which any individual has ever made, freely and unconditionally, to the Nation, it can not be otherwise employed. Its completion, an event anticipated for the fiscal year 1918-19, while insuring an incalculable gain for the Museum and the public, will not, therefore, satisfy any of the needs, set forth in the last report, in respect to additional space for the national collections of both the applied and the fine arts, as also of American history. The valuable materials in these depart- ments, which have long since been seriously overcrowded, can at present be neither properly utilized nor appropriately brought to the attention of the public. In one branch especially, that of the in- dustrial arts, it is unfortunate that such a condition should now exist, particularly as it is coupled with lack of means for securing an adequate staff of practical experts, as the collections are closely as- sociated with many of the vital problems now confronting the coun- try. With its limited facilities, however, an effort is being made to demonstrate the value of Museum work in time of crisis, and con- tributions made since the close of the year but in time to mention REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 38 the fact of their publication here, have been recognized as of great national importance by those high in authority. COLLECTIONS, The additions to the collections, received in 1,450 accessions, aggre- gated approximately 195,845 specimens and articles, classified by subjects as follows: Anthropology, 10,775; zoology, 71,761; botany, 79,155; geology and mineralogy, 9,800; paleontology, 23,190; textiles and woods, 933; mineral technology, 213; and National Gallery of Art, 18. Many loans were also accepted for exhibition, chiefly in the Gallery of Art and the division of American history; and 906 lots of material, consisting mainly of rocks, ores, minerals, and zoo- logical specimens were received from various parts of the country for examination and report. Anthropology.—A varied collection from the island of Celebes, made by Mr. H. C. Raven and presented by Dr. W. L. Abbott, and a large number of objects exhibiting every phase of the textile art as practiced among the Indians of British Guiana, assembled by Dr. Walter Roth, constituted the most important accessions in ethnology. Pertaining to aborigines of the North American Continent were rare Papago Indian baskets, baskets of interesting weaves and designs, carved and painted house posts, etc., from the Quileute Indians of Washington; articles of ivory, horn, wood, bark, and stone from Eskimo and British Columbian tribes; and many objects pertaining to the Pueblo Indians of Arizona and New Mexico. Other acquisi- tions were from Mexico, Central America, Abyssinia, Japan, China, and the Philippines. Especially noteworthy was a large collection of antiquities made by Capts. John W. Wright and Alexander T. Cooper, United States Army, while with General Pershing’s expedition in the State of Chi- huahua, Mexico, comprising nearly every variety of artifact of stone belonging to the ancient mound builders of that region. Explorations under the Smithsonian Institution resulted in exten- sive archeological collections from the Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado, and from old Zufi ruins near Gallup, New Mexico, made by Dr. J. Walter Fewkes; from ancient pit villages in New Mexico and ruins at Awatobi, Arizona, made by Dr. Walter Hough; from sites of prehistoric adobe dwellings in western Utah, made by Mr. Neil M. Judd; and from a cave in the southern wall of Cibollita Valley, New Mexico, made by Mr. F. W. Hodge. Dr. W. L. Abbott presented much valuable archeological material obtained during his investigations in Santo Domingo, and among the smaller accessions were many rare specimens from North and Central America. 34 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917, Hadji Ephraim and Mr. Mordecai Benguiat made important ad- ditions to the rich collection of antique Jewish objects lent by them during previous years. Included in a valuable gift from the estate of the late John Chandler Bancroft Davis were necklaces, scarabs, figurines, and Ptolemaic coins from Egypt, a sculptured brick from the Colosseum at Rome, and marble and terra-cotta vases. From Miss Isobel H. Lenman were received as a loan a collection of ancient glassware, comprising bottles, flasks, bowls, cups, tear bottles, brace- lets, beads, and other articles, displaying the marvelous irridescence characteristic of the ancient glassware of Syria and Phoenicia. The principal accession in physical anthropology consisted of ma- terial obtained in Peru by Dr. AleS Hrdli¢ka in 1915 in connection with the assembling of exhibits for the Panama-California Exposi- tion. It includes hundreds of objects of great value, among which are many specimens representing rare and in some instances unique anatomical features. Besides an excellent series of brains of gorillas and chimpanzees from the Cameroons and casts of the Sivapithecus remains from India, aboriginal skulls and other bones were received from the vicinity of Vero and Fort Myers, Florida, representing the supposedly very ancient man of that region, from ancient mounds in Utah and the Mesa Verde ruins in Colorado, from Tennessee and Illinois, and from Colombia and Hawaii. Among the many acquisitions in the division of mechanical tech- nology were rare watch movements; early pieces of apparatus re- lating to the invention and history of the telegraph, the telephone, the telautograph, the phonograph, and the graphophone; a Howe sewing machine, which sewed the first seam done by machinery; and numerous interesting firearms, some of early make. To his previous munificent donation, illustrating the history and development of the pianoforte and including dulcimers, spinets, clavichords, harpsichords, and organs, Mr. Hugo Worch added 28 pieces, increasing the extent of this remarkable collection to 117 instruments. An instructive addition to the exhibition series in graphic arts was a life-size figure of a Japanese wood-cut printer at work, the outfit, complete in every detail, having been a gift from the Im- perial Government of Japan. A much earlier stage in the develop- ment of graphic methods is illustrated by an original Mexican paint- ing, executed on a sheet of palmetto fiber smoothly surfaced with white clay. Among other interesting acquisitions were one of the earliest forms of the machine for casting linotype slugs; materials of the various kinds employed in miniature painting, with examples of miniature work on ivory, parchment, and porcelain; and a series of specimens illustrating processes in making line-cut and halftone engraving, REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 35 American history.—The most notable memorial accession consisted of a large number of relics of Admiral David G. Farragut, United States Navy, including a jeweled sword presented by the Union League Club of New York and a portrait of Farragut by William Swain, which were received as a donation from the estate of the late Loyall Farragut, only son of the Admiral. Other officers of the Navy represented by contributions were Commodore Stephen De- catur, Commodore John Rodgers, and Rear Admiral C. M. Chester. Among the furniture secured for the collection were pieces which had belonged to Presidents Washington and Jefferson, President and Mrs. Madison, and Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, American minister to France in 1796-1798. To the large series of medals awarded Com- mander Matthew Fontaine Maury in recognition of his services to science, and placed in the Museum by several of his descendants, was added the ribbon of the Grand Cross of the Order of Our Lady of Guadaloupe, presented by Emperor Maximilian of Mexico in 1866, a gift from Mrs. Mary Maury Werth. For the gift of the wedding dress of Harriet Lane Johnston, niece of President Buchanan, for several years shown in the section of historical costumes, the Museum was indebted to Miss May S. Ken- nedy. Other hostesses of the White House represented by costumes more or less complete, lent during the year for incorporation in the central feature of the hall, were Mrs. Martha Jefferson Randolph, daughter of President Jefferson; Mrs. Martha Johnson Patterson, daughter of President Johnson; and Mrs. Theodore Roosevelt. Among interesting relics were a silk dressing gown of Lafayette, an eiderdown quilt used by Jefferson, a beaded bag of Mrs. James Mon- roe, and a handkerchief that had belonged to Queen Anne. A large number of decorations, medals, and badges of the United States and foreign countries, which had been assembled by the late Lieut. Thomas Kelly Boggs and were presented by Mrs. Boggs, formed a very gratifying addition to the numismatic collection. The greater part of these tokens are foreign war decorations of very timely interest, and 23 countries are represented. The philatelic col- lection was augmented to the extent of 3,398 specimens, mainly re- ceived through the Post Office Department, and including 1,893 ex- amples of new issues of stamps from countries in the Universal Postal Union. Biology.—tThrough the generosity of friends the department of biology was greatly enriched by the results of field work in different parts of the world, adding new genera and species and many forms not previously represented in the Museum. Mr. H. C. Raven, under a further grant of funds by Dr. W. L. Abbott, continued his collect- ing on the island of Celebes, sending to Washington about 900 mam- mal skins, besides over 1,000 specimens each of birds and mollusks. 36 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. Doctor Abbott personally spent some time in Haiti, where he obtained many birds, including species whose occurrence on that island was unexpected, reptiles, and mollusks, and also a large quantity of bones of mammels from prehistoric kitchenmiddens. The study of simi- lar deposits on this and other islands of the Antilles was an inter- esting feature of the year’s activities, a large collection of bones gathered by Mr. Theodoor de Booy in Cuba, Santo Domingo, and the Virgin Islands, and presented by Mr. George G. Heye, having yielded new genera of rodents, birds, and reptiles, which have ap- parently become extinct within comparatively recent times. As the proceeds of an expedition to Cuba and Haiti by Mr. John B. Henderson, accompanied by Dr. Paul Bartsch, the Museum re- ceived from Mr. Henderson numerous birds, reptiles, and fishes, and over 15,000 land and marine invertebrates, mostly mollusks. Mr. F. J. Dyer, American consul at Ceiba, Honduras, contributed a large number of insects and mollusks from that country; and Mr. Arthur de C. Sowerby transmitted mammals, birds, crustaceans, and mol- lusks from northern China and Manchuria. The Bureau of Fisheries deposited, as usual, valuable collections of fishes and marine invertebrates, besides many interesting speci- mens of mammals, birds, and reptiles. Among the fishes were 72 types, cotypes, and paratypes, 40 of which were of species obtained on the Philippine cruise of the steamer Albatross in 1907-1911. The marine invertebrates, numbering several thousand specimens, in- cluded recently described type collections of annelids and parasitic copepods. Transfers, chiefly of mollusks and crustaceans, aggregat- ing over 400 specimens, were made by the Biological Survey and Bureaus of Entomology and Plant Industry of the Department of Agriculture. Exceptionally noteworthy was a bequest to the Museum by the late Julius Hurter, sr., of St. Louis. An enthusiastic collector, he had gathered one of the largest and finest private collections of reptiles and batrachians in existence. Its principal scientific value lies in its splendid series of Missouri forms which served as the basis for Mr. Hurter’s “ Herpetology of Missouri,” published in 1911. Not solely confined to that region, however, it contains valuable material from various parts of the world, and most of the important sub- divisions of the group are represented. From the Santa Marta Mountains in Colombia were received 149 specimens of birds, which added 6 species new to the Museum, and from Panama, 213 specimens of reptiles and batrachians, the latter collected by the Smithsonian biological survey of the Canal Zone. Mr. James Zetek transmitted 769 specimens of mollusks’ and other marine invertebrates from Panama, and Prof. G. S. Dodds, of the University of Missouri, presented a large number of Entomostraca, REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 37 representing 55 species, collected in 124 lakes and ponds in Colorado and forming the basis of a paper which he had published. The Bureau of Entomology was the principal contributor of insects, transferring about 3,000 specimens of various orders. The material from American Consul Dyer in Honduras has already been mentioned. The other more important accessions comprised Lepi- doptera from Peru, Mexico, and Alaska; Hymenoptera from western Argentina, and a collection of miscellaneous insects from Mount Kinabalu, British North Borneo. The additions to the botanical collections exceeded 79,000 speci- mens, including about 25,000 specimens from the Vanderbilt Her- barium at Biltmore, North Carolina, comprising all that were saved from the disastrous flood of July 15-16, 1916. This valuable her- barium, which was established and maintained for many years by the late George W. Vanderbilt, contained at the time of the flood upward of 100,000 specimens, and was especially noteworthy for its repre- sentation of the plants of the southeastern United States. This ac- cession, which was accompanied by the remnant of the botanical library attached to the herbarium, was a gift from Mrs. Vanderbilt. Another notable accession consisted of about 15,000 specimens of cryptogams, mainly mosses, hepatics, fungi, and myxomycetes, from the northeastern United States and Liberia, presented by Prof. O. F. Cook. The Department of Agriculture deposited over 5,800 speci- mens, resulting principally from field work of the Bureau of Plant Industry and including many tropical American palms and Alaskan and Hawaiian plants. Through exchanges, important collections were obtained from the New York Botanical Garden, the Gray Herbarium of Harvard University, the Missouri Botanical Garden, the British Museum, and the Bureau of Science at Manila. A gift of about 1,000 Venezuelan plants was received from the Carnegie Insti- tution of Washington, and about 5,000 specimens were collected in New Mexico for the Museum by Mr. Paul C. Standley, assistant curator. Geology—rThe Charles U. Shepard collection of meteorites, the bequest of which was announced in the last report, was formally transferred to the Museum during the year, and constitutes one of the most important accessions ever acquired by the department of geology. It comprises 238 falls and finds. Additional specimens of meteorites to the number of 26 were obtained by gift and exchange, and there were many acquisitions of valuable ores and rocks from various localities. The more prominent accessions of minerals, as also of petrological material, were from the Geological Survey. Among the former, were a fine large series illustrating the occurrence of turquoise, a 65133°—sm 1917—— 4 388 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. number of amethyst crystals, many semiprecious stones, and a large number of minerals and rocks collected in connection with studies of the gem deposits of southern California. Among the latter were extensive collections of rocks and ores representing geological re- searches in several districts in the western United States. From other sources were obtained many rare as well as some in- structive series of minerals and a number of showy specimens espe- cially desired for exhibition. Among these were type specimens of stevensite and creedite, material illustrating the genesis of the zeo- lites and their association with glauberite cavities, a remarkable specimen of glendonite from Australia, an exceptionally large crys- tal of iron pyrite and a fine specimen of crystallized anglesite. The principal acquisitions in invertebrate paleontology were a collection of Silurian fossils, transferred by the Geological Survey, which had formed the basis of papers illustrating the geology and paleontology of Maine, the types of nine species of Paleozoic crin- oids, a series of rare and recently described insects from the Tertiary rocks of Colorado, several hundred species of European invertebrates, and about 2,000 specimens of Lower Ordovician fossils from the zine mines of Arkansas. A collection of Permian vertebrates from Baylor County, Texas, contains the greater part of a skeleton of the large finbacked reptile Dimetrodon, complete enough to mount for exhibition, besides re- mains in less perfect condition of the same form and of Cardiocepha- lus, Lyosorophus, Diplocaulus, Seymouria, and Labidosaurus, and many bones of small reptiles and batrachians. The skull and lower jaw of a fossil horse, the type of a recently described species, from the Pleistocene gravels of the Yukon Territory, and part of the skull of a fossil muskox from the Pleistocene of Miami County, Indiana, were also obtained. About 400 specimens of small mammalian remains of rare forms from cave deposits in the mountains of western Cuba were collected for the Museum by Mr. William Palmer, and a large part of the skeleton of an extinct and probably undescribed species of bird was received from the Geological Survey. Goucher College, of Balti- more, deposited a collection of reptiles and cetacean remains from the Arundel formation of Maryland, bringing together in the National Museum practically all of the known vertebrate material from that formation in Maryland. Secretary Walcott and party spent the summer and early fall on the Continental Divide between Alberta and British Columbia, south of the Canadian Pacific Railway, and besides extensive geo- logical observations collected about 1,000 pounds of Cambrian mate- rial containing fossils, which were shipped to Washington. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 39 Tecxtiles—The accessions in the division of textiles comprised many excellent examples of the present-day productions of American textile industries. The largest group of specimens received consisted of the most important types of cotton threads, arranged to show the various ways in which they are wound and put up for family and faetory use. They were accompanied by several beautiful examples of tatting, crochet, embroidery, and cut work, in white and colors, suggesting artistic and practical uses for many of the threads in the series, and supplemented an extensive series of models and ma- chine parts illustrating the manufacture of cotton thread previously received from the same contributor. The hearty cooperation of many American manufacturers has con- tinued to keep the collections supplied with new types and designs of dress goods as soon as these novelties appear on the market. The exhibits illustrating the principal methods used in decorating fabrics were enriched by numerous examples of tied and dyed work and many samples of skein-dyed plaid silks for comparison with piece- dyed and printed fabrics. Fresh samples of the standard types of ribbons commonly used and many beautiful specimens of novelty and fancy ribbons, show- ing Aztec, Indian, Chinese, and Byzantine designs, augmented the ribbon section. The adaptability of mohair, by reason of its luster and resiliency, to the manufacture of plushes, velvets, and fur fabrics was shown in an instructive series of specimens comprising up- holstery goods, cloakings, trimmings, and automobile rugs. Ex- amples of household industry in the textile arts of a former period were received in the form of hand-woven coverlets and quilts, while valuable specimens of foreign hand-worked textiles from China, Spain, and Germany were added to the collection through friends of the Museum. Additions were obtained for the collection of implements illustrat- ing the preparation and use of flax and other fibers in former times, including an old wooden rope machine which had seen many years’ service in twisting bed cords and wash lines. The utilization of pine needles in the manufacture of coiled baskets and of split-palm stems for large pack baskets was shown in other accessions. Wood technology—aAlthough circumstances greatly retarded the progress of work in wood technology, some interesting exhibits were secured. A model measuring 12 by 15 feet and contributed by the Forest Service is designed to show the various important uses of the national forests and their administration. A comprehensive cork exhibit covers every phase of the industry from the raw bark to the many articles made from this substance, and certain modern methods of preserving wood are represented by a model and samples of the materials employed. Examples of 15 species of Argentine woods 40 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. and 49 specimens of wood from Surinam were added to the com- mercial series of timbers, and the series illustrating wood finishing and tanning materials were also increased. Mineral technology—Most important among the additions in min- eral technology was an impressive model of the Bingham Canyon copper property in Utah, measuring 16 by 19 feet, accurately sculp- tured and colored, representing what is probably the most significant mining achievement of the present generation. It was a gift from the Utah Copper Co. The manufacture of white lead is shown in another excellent model presented by the National Lead Co., of New York, while among the models made in the Museum are five visual- izing the mode of occurrence, the recovery, and the preparation, re- spectively, of tin, sulphur, asphalt, lime, and oil. A specimen exhibit illustrative of design and execution in cut glassware, specially pre- pared for the Museum, was contributed by T. G. Hawkes & Co., of Corning, New York, and another series of specimens exemplifying the properties and uses of asphalt came from the Barber Asphalt Paving Co. Exhibits more or less representative or at least covering some phase of 18 mineral resource types are now available to the public in the halls of the division. Of these, abrasives, asbestos, asphalt, coal and coal products, copper, graphite, lime, mica, petroleum, plaster, Portland cement, and sulphur have been treated with sufficient full- ness to warrant the publication of descriptive accounts of them and of their significance. NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART. The progress of work in the erection of the building for the Freer collections has already been mentioned. Next in importance to record in this connection are the terms of the will of Henry W. Ranger, N. A., one of the best-known of contemporary American painters, who died on November 7, 1916, leaving his residuary estate, estimated at over $200,000, to the National Academy of Design to be held as a permanent fund of which the income is to be used for pur- chasing paintings by American artists, the paintings so obtained to be given to art or other institutions in America which maintain a gal- lery open to the public, upon the express condition that the National Gallery of Art shall have the option and right to take, reclaim, and own any picture for its collection provided such option and right is exercised at any time during the five-year period beginning 10 years after the artist’s death and ending 15 years after his death. This generous provision by Mr. Ranger, which has been most eratifying to all lovers of art in this country and may be expected to have a stimulating influence upon the work of American artists, REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 4) will result in a much wider circulation than hitherto of good Ameri- can paintings and insure the gradual assembling for perpetual ex- hibition at Washington of some of the best that our painters can produce. The system of selection will, in its working, be not unlike that which has been followed by the French Government in Paris, and it is to be hoped that the fund for so worthy a purpose may in time be greatly increased through corresponding action by other public benefactors. The National Gallery contains five of Mr. Ranger’s paintings, all of which were presented by Mr. William T. Evans. ; Among the permanent acquisitions by the Gallery during the year were the following oil paintings: “ June,” by John W. Alexander ; “On the Lagoon, Venice,” by R. Swain Gifford; “ Portrait of Ben- jamin West,” by himself; “ Portrait of J. J. Shannon, R. A.,” by Orlando Rouland; “The Song of the Sea,” by William F. Halsall; “Portrait of Ellwood Hendrick,” by Augustus Vincent Tack; “Evening,” by William J. Kaula; “ Landscape,” by Chauncey F. Ryder; “A Breton Sunday,” by Eugene Vail; “ The Happy Mother,” by Max Bohm; “ Portrait of Maj. Gen. Julius Stahel, U. S. Volun- teers,” by J. Mortimer Lichtenauer; and “Portrait of Joseph Henry,” first Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, by Henry Ulke. Among the sculptures were a bronze “Statue of Robert Emmet,” by Jerome Connor; a bronze figure, “The Fire Dance,” by Louis Potter; and a marble statue “The Dying Tecumseh,” by Chevalier Ferdinand Pettrich. An oil portrait of Dr. Charles D. Walcott, recently painted by Ossip Perelma, was deposited by the Smithsonian Institution, as were also large oil portraits of Washington, Jackson, Henry Clay, and W. W. Corcoran, by the Supreme Court of the District of Columbia. Through the kindness of Mr. Ralph Cross Johnson, many fine examples from his splendid private collection of paintings were con- tinued on exhibition throughout the year, while the collection of Mr. W. A. Slater remained in the Gallery until in December. Seven- teen paintings from 11 friends of the Gallery were also added to the general loan collection. The Gallery held four special loan exhibitions during the year. The most notable of these, given under the auspices of the National Park Service of the Department of the Interior during January and February, and designed to bring to the attention of American tourists some of the marvelous natural attractions of their own country, consisted of 45 oi] paintings illustrating scenes mainly in the National Parks and Monuments of the United States, among the 27 artists represented being Albert Bierstadt and Thomas Moran. Assembled in connection with the meeting of the National Parks 42, ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. Conference held in the Museum auditorium from January 2 to 6, this interesting exhibition was opened with a special view on. the evening of the second and the majority of the paintings remained on display until March. It was supplemented by series of photo- graphs, studies in oil, and other pictorial matter shown in several rooms. The other special exhibitions were as follows: Twenty oil paint- ings and 1 bronze group, by Edwin Willard Deming, illustrating the old-time Indian, his war, hunting, and religious life and mythol- ogy; a collection of 27 oil portraits and other paintings by Orlando Rouland, which was opened on the evening of April 2, and was es- pecially noteworthy for the number of prominent men represented ; and a collection of 48 paintings, mostly portraits, by the Russian painter, Ossip Perelma, which began on April 28. Mention should also be made of the ceremonies attending the pres- entation to the Gallery by the Emmet Statue Committee of the bronze full-length figure of Robert Emmet by Jerome Connor, which took place in the rotunda of the new building on the afternoon of June 28. A distinguished audience, including the President of the United States and other high officials of the Government, was in attendance and several addresses were made. MEETINGS AND CONGRESSES. The accommodations afforded by the auditorium and committee rooms in the natural history building were utilized on many occa- sions. Three courses of lectures, extending from November to April, were given under the auspices of the Washington Society of the Fine Arts, while three other local societies, the Anthropological Society of Washington, the District of Columbia Dental Society, and the So- ciety of Federal Photographers, also made this building their regular meeting place. The National Academy of Sciences had its annual meeting in April, and lectures were delivered under the auspices of the Wash- ington Academy of Sciences, the War College, the Audubon Society of the District of Columbia, the Bureau of Commercial Economics, the Washington Center of the Drama League of America, the Shakespeare Society of Washington, and George Washington Uni- versity. Several bureaus of the Department of Agriculture made use of the auditorium or committee rooms for conferences and hearings, and meetings were held by four societies representing special fields of agricultural subjects. The exhibition halls in the natural history building were opened one evening for the benefit of the Ohio Corn Boys and Domestic Science Girls, then visiting Washington. Other meetings of a governmental character were as follows: By the Na- REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 43 tional Association of Postmasters, holding its nineteenth annual con- vention; by the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce of the Department of Commerce; by the National Parks Conference, under the auspices of the National Park Service of the Department of the Interior, accompanied by an exhibition of paintings; by the Na- tional Research Council; and by the Bureau of Commercial Eco- nomics, which gave an exhibition of lantern slides and motion pic- tures relative to the prevention of contagious diseases, for the bene- fit of the Council of National Defense. Mr. Eugene E. Thompson addressed the employees of the Institution and its branches on the subject of the first Liberty loan, and two rehearsals of the inter- Departmental chorus in preparation for Flag Day exercises were held in the auditorium. Receptions were given, on the invitation of the Regents and Secre- tary of the Institution, on the occasion of a special view of paintings by. Mr. Orlando Rouland, and to the Daughters of the American Revolution at the time of their annual congress and the delegates to the eighth annual convention of the American Federation of Arts. The exhibition halls in the natural history building were opened on the evening of June 6 in honor of the visiting Confederate Veterans, Sons of Confederate Veterans, and Daughters of the Confederacy, the receiving party consisting of Secretary and Mrs. Walcott, Miss Mary Lee, and members of the local reception committee. MISCELLANEOUS. Over 6,000 duplicate specimens, included in 16 regular sets of mol- lusks, 19 regular sets of fossils, and a number of special sets, were distributed to schools and colleges. Exchanges for securing addi- tions to the collections involved the use of about 19,500 duplicates, while above 14,000 specimens, chiefly biological and geological, were lent to specialists for study. The attendance of visitors at the natural history building aggre- gated 343,183 persons for week days and 63,842 persons for Sundays, being a daily average of 1,096 for the former and 1,227 for the latter. At the arts and industries building and the Smithsonian building, which are open only on week days, the totals were, respectively, 161,700 and 86,336, and the daily averages, 516 and 275. By the terms of three wills admitted to probate during the year the Museum will be materially benefited, and in another case the testator’s desires have already been carried out. Attention has been called to two of these bequests in other connections. That of Henry Ward Ranger is destined to have an important bearing on the future welfare of the National Gallery of Art, while the collection of rep- tiles left by Julius Hurter, sr., is especially noteworthy and valuable. To the late Miss Sarah J. Farmer, of Eliot, Maine, the Museum is 44 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. indebted for the bequest of the models and apparatus left by her father, Moses G. Farmer, a prominent pioneer in the development of the electrical industries, many of whose inventions have for some time been represented in the Museum. Through the wishes of the late Rev. Bruce Hughes, of Lebanon, Pennsylvania, the Smithsonian Institution becomes the recipient of a small sum, the residue of his estate, to found the Hughes Alcove, which will be established in some form in the Museum and be added to perpetually from the interest on principal. The publications of the year consist of one volume of Proceed- ings, two volumes of Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, and four Bulletins, besides 76 separate papers, all of which were from the Proceedings, except two from the Contributions and two catalogues of special loan exhibitions in the National Gallery of Art. The total number of copies of publications distributed was about 64,000. The library obtained, by purchase, gift, and exchange, 1,572 vol- umes, 65 parts of volumes and 3,556 pamphlets. The more impor- tant donations were from Capt. John Donnell Smith, the estate of the late Dr. E. A. Mearns, United States Army, and Dr. William H. Dall. Respectfully submitted. Ricuarp Rarueun, Assistant Secretary in Charge, United States National Museum. Dr. Cuartes D. Watcort, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. NoveMeBer 10, 1917. APPENDIX 2. REPORT OF THE BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY. Sir: Pursuant to your request dated July 3, I have the honor to submit the following report of the operations of the Bureau of American Ethnology during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1917, conducted in accordance with the act of Congress approved July 1, 1916, making provisions for the sundry civil expenses of the Govern- ment, and with a plan of operations submitted by the ethnologist-in- charge and approved by the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institu- tion. The act referred to contains the following item: American ethnology : For continuing ethnological researches among the Ameri- can Indians and the natives of Hawaii, including the excavation and preserva- tion of archzeologic remains, under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, including necessary employees and the purchase of necessary books and periodi- cals, $42,000. In addition to conducting the administrative affairs of the bureau, Mr. F. W. Hodge, ethnologist-in-charge, assisted by Miss Florence M. Poast, continued the preparation of the annotated bibliography of the Pueblo Indians as opportunity offered, adding about 1,000 cards to the 3,800 previously prepared. SYSTEMATIC RESEARCHES. In April.Mr. Hodge proceeded to New Mexico for the purpose of making final arrangements with the Zuni Indians for the excava- tion of the ruins of the large pueblo of Hawikuh, situated on their reservation in the western-central part of the State. This having been accomplished, Mr. Hodge returned to Washington and in the latter part of May again proceeded to Zuni and established camp at Hawikuh, where excavations were immediately commenced under the joint auspices of the Bureau of American Ethnology and the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, of New York City, the latter institution bearing most of the expense of the expedition, and assigning Mr. Alanson Skinner and Mr. E. F. Coffin to aid in the work. Authority for conducting the excavations was courteously granted by the Secretary of the Interior. The excavation of Hawikuh has as its chief object the study of a Zuni pueblo known to have been’ inhabited from prehistoric times well into the historic period, for the purpose of determining, so far 45 46 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. as possible, the character and arts of the Zuni people in early times, as well as the effect of Spanish contact during the sixteenth and sev- enteenth centuries. Hawikuh was one of the famed “Seven Cities of Cibola” of early Spanish narrative, and its history from the time of its discovery in 1539 until its abandonment in 1670 is quite well known. Consequently the information that the ruins may be ex- pected to yield will in all probability shed considerable light on a phase of the culture of a branch of the Pueblo Indians at an impor- tant period in their life. It is not necessary in this brief report to present the results of the Hawikuh excavations, which were successful beyond anticipation in both a subjective and a objective way. It is expected that a sum- mary report on the work, which was still in progress at the close of the fiscal year, will be presented for publication in the near future. The beginning of the fiscal year found Dr. J. Walter Fewkes, eth- nologist, engaged in an archeological reconnoissance in the vicinity of Gallup, New Mexico. Early in July he proceeded to Mancos, Colo- rado, examining ancient ruins en route and commencing intensive archeological work in the Mesa Verde National Park, where he re- mained until the close of September. These excavations, conducted with the cooperation of the Department of the Interior, were in con- tinuation of the work initiated several years ago, of uncovering and repairing the remains of the more important prehistoric ruins in that great area, thus making them available for study and adding to the park’s many attractions. The scene of Doctor Fewkes’s activities during this season was one of a cluster of 16 ruins known as the Mummy Lake group, situated above Soda Canyon. None of the walls of this large ruin projected above the surface of the mound of fallen building stones and other dé- bris covered with sagebrush, but on excavation the remains were shown to be those of a rectangular pueblo, 100 by 113 feet, with three stories at the north and an annexed court inclosed by a low wall on the south. By reason of its commanding situation, Doctor Fewkes has named this former pueblo Far View House. After clearing the ruin of the great quantity of débris accumulated during centuries, the tops of the walls of the four kivas uncovered were protected with a capping of con- crete, and so far as means would permit the walls of other chambers were similarly treated. Asa report on Doctor Fewkes’s work at Far View House will appear shortly,! it is not necessary to present the details here; but it may be mentioned that the most important result of the study of this site is the fact that a new type of Mesa Verde structure has been revealed, the form and character of which shed light on the close relation of pueblos and cliff dwellings. Indeed, 1“ A Mesa Verde Pueblo and its People,’ Smithsonian Report for 1916, pp. 461-488, pl. 1-15, figs. 1-7, Washington, 1917. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 47 Doctor Fewkes reports that Far View House is the only known ex- ample of a pure type of pueblo ever completely excavated, the term “pure type” signifying a terraced community building constructed of shaped stones and having circular kivas united with surrounding rectangular rooms. Other significant features are the vaulted roofs of the kivas, the supporting beams of which rest on pilasters, and the presence of a ventilator and a deflector in each kiva, as in the case of certain cliff dwellings. As this pure type of pueblo is entirely prehistoric, it may be regarded as representing a stage in architec- tural development between the older stage of pueblo structures and the mixed type or more modern form in which the arrangement of the rooms and the art of the mason exhibits a retrogression. On finishing his work at Far View House, Doctor Fewkes visited Utah primarily for the purpose of determining the geographic dis- tribution of ruins in the northern limits of Pueblo culture. This reconnoissance extended to the Uintah Reservation, where hitherto unknown ruins of Hill Canyon, near Ouray, were examined and where a number of stone towers similar to those along San Juan River were found. These ruins, to which Doctor Fewkes’s attention was called by Mr. Kneale, agent for the Uncompahgre Ute, are espe- cially striking owing to their unusual situation on eroded rocks of mushroom shape. These towers mark the northernmost limit of Pueblo culture in eastern Utah, and some of them are especially in- structive by reason of their relation to prehistoric towers much further south. An illustrated report on these remains, by Doctor Fewkes, has already appeared.? Mr. James Mooney, ethnologist, was engaged in field work among the Eastern Cherokee of western North Carolina at the opening of the fiscal year, and on his return to Washington, August 10, resumed the translation and annotation of the Sacred Formulas of the Chero- kee, as well as the identification of the plants, etc., used by the tribe in its medicine and other rites. Mr. Mooney reports this work to be well advanced, but its complicated nature, coupled with the author’s iil health during the year, has made progress somewhat slow. Mr. Mooney also spent considerable time in supplying in- formation on technical subjects for official correspondence. Dr. John R. Swanton, ethnologist, was occupied chiefly with two lines of investigation—the one historical, the other philological. In July and August he made a thorough examination of the Woodbury Lowery and Brooks collections of manuscripts in the Library of Con- gress bearing on the early Spanish history of Florida, finding many important items for incorporation in his “History of the Southeast- 1“ Archeological Investigations in New Mexico, Colorado, and Utah,” Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 68, no..1, pp. 1-38, May, 1917. 48 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. ern Tribes.” In September Doctor Swanton visited the Newberry Library in Chicago, where other valuable early documents were found in the Edward E. Ayer collection, which subsequently were copied for the bureau’s use by the courtesy of the librarian. These latter manuscripts include a report on the Indians of Louisiana by Bien- ville, a Louisiana memoir with an extended description of the Choc- taw, and a memoir by the French captain Berenger, containing, besides historical and ethnological information, vocabularies of the extinct Karankawa and Akokiska tribes. A Spanish census of the Indians of Florida after the period of the English invasions should also be mentioned. For some months after his return Doctor Swanton was engaged in adding to his monograph the historical notes thus obtained, and in copying and translating the more important parts of the manuscripts mentioned, including all of the Berenger memoir. Although Doctor Swanton’s History of the Southeastern Tribes nad been completed a year ago, so far as the information was then available, the manuscript discoveries described have enabled him to augment and to improve it substantially, and more recently he has obtained some supplementary notes from the Louisiana Historical Society. The preparation of the maps to accompany the monograph, chiefly from early sources, did not progress as satisfactorily as was hoped, owing largely to pressure of other illustration work, but they are now practically finished. Doctor Swanton’s second paper, also referred to in last year’s report remains as then practically complete so far as the available material is concerned, but it awaits further data respecting the social organi- zation of the Chikisaw and the Choctaw. A third paper, on the religious beliefs and medical practices of the Creeks and their con- geners, has been brought to the same stage as the last, namely, with all the available material incorporated and arranged, and the foot- notes added. With a view of furnishing the basis of a general study of the social organization of the tribes north of Mexico, Doctor ‘Swanton spent a few weeks collecting material bearing on Indian economic life, but this has been laid aside temporarily on account of the greater ur- gency of a closer comparative study of the Indian languages of the southeastern part of the United States, particularly as indications of relationship between some of them have already been noted. Asa basis for this work Doctor Swanton has recorded a comparative vocabulary of Creek, Choctaw, Alabama, Hitchiti, Natchez, Tunica, Chitimacha, Atakapa, Tonkawa, Comecrudo, Cotoname, Coahuilteco, and Ka- rankawa. Of these languages about 500 words were chosen, but as the lexical material from several of the tribles is scanty, the comparison can never be complete. It was the intention to follow the compila- tion of this table with a closer comparison of Chitimacha and Ata- REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 49 kapa, which show many resemblances, but in the course of the work so many more similarities between Chitimacha and Tunica presented themselves that these were selected instead. In partial furtherance of this research Doctor Swanton proceeded to Louisiana in May, where he remained almost until the close of the fiscal year, visiting, studying, and photographing the mixed Indian population along the Gulf coast in La Fourche and Terra Bonne Parishes, the Chitimacha at Charenton, and the Koasati northeast of Kinder. From the Koa- sati about 150 pages of native text with interljnear translation were’ recorded, and 134 pages previously procured from an Alabama In- dian in Texas were corrected. Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt, ethnologist, at the beginning of March went to Canada for the purpose of continuing his Iroquois studies. Estab- lishing headquarters at Brantford, Ontario, he at once undertook the work of revising the extended texts relating to the Iroquois League, recorded during former field trips. Shortly thereafter this work was interrupted when Mr. Hewitt was selected as an official delegate from the council of the Six Nations to attend a condolence and installation ceremony at Muncietown, in which he took a leading part, requiring the intoning of an address of comforting in the Onondaga language and also in acting the part of the Seneca chiefs in such a council. This official recognition gave Mr. Hewitt the rare opportunity of observing how such a ceremony is conducted from an esoteric point of view. On returning to Brantford, March 16, Mr. Hewitt resumed work on the texts pertaining to the league, which necessitated the reading of the words and the immediate context several times to determine their final form. Moreover, it was desirable to read the texts over with every informant separately in order to obtain a full expression of the informant’s knowledge or criticism of the work of another. In this manner it was possible to study about 70 per cent of the texts, and this led, naturally, to the collection of other corrective or amplifying texts and notes. These aggregate 502 pages, comprising 42 topics, recorded from rituals received by Shaman Joshua Buck and Chief Abram Charles. In addition, Mr. Hewitt recorded in English translation three traditions, comprising 45 pages, purporting to relate events and to express ideas alleged to have led to the found- ing of the League of the Iroquois, showing naively the birth of the idea of human brotherhood and fellowhood in contradistinction to mere local tribalism. Mr. Hewitt also made important discoveries regarding Iroquois social organization, namely, that certain so-called clans do not exist outside of the names used to designate them. For instance, the “Ball” clan is in reality the Hawk clan; the “Hand” clan of the 50 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. Cayuga is the Gray Wolf clan, and the “Potato” clan of that tribe is in fact a Duck clan or possibly a Wolf clan. This confusion has been due to popular acceptance of a sobriquet for the real name, hence the doubt in the last instance between the Duck and the Wolf, which it is probable will ultimately be removed. Mr. Hewitt was fortunate also in obtaining a set of wooden masks of the various wind gods, and also two masks of food gods—eight in all. He also procured the gourd rattle used by the late Chief John Buck, a medicine flute, and - what was probably the last cradle board with a beaded belt on the reservation. On returning from the field early in July, Mr. Hewitt undertook at once the editing and copying of the texts of some of his material relating to the Iroquois League. Among these are the following, chiefly in the Onondaga language: (1) The eulogy of the grandsires and founders, one of the essential chants in the condolence ritual, in the version used by the “ father side” of the league; (2) the laws gov- erning federal chiefs in intertribal relations; (8) the laws relating to murder committed by a federal chief; (4) the charge made to a newly installed federal chief; (5) the important tradition of the Bear-foot episode; (6) the address made at the lodge of a deceased federal chief three days after his burial; and (7) the laws relating to the nomina- tion and election of a candidate for a federal chiefship. Mr. Hewitt also commenced the translation of the extended “ father-side” tra- dition of the founding of the League by the Deganawida and his associates, read the available proofs of “Seneca fiction, legends, and myths” for the thirty-second annual report, and supplied nu- merous technical data for use in responses to inquiries by corre- spondents. Mr. Francis La Flesche, ethnologist, when not engaged in field- work, was occupied in assembling his notes on the Osage Indians, the greater portion of which consists of phonographic records taken from men versed in the tribal rituals, which evidently were composed. for the preservation and transmission of the religious concepts of the tribe. Three forms are used in their construction, namely, reci- tation, song, and dramatic action. The spoken parts, called “ wigie,” are intoned by the masters of ceremony and by male members of the various gentes of the tribe who have memorized them. These wigie tell of the genesis of the tribe; they recount the stories of the adop- tion of life symbols and explain their significance, and narrate the finding and selection of the materials used in making the ceremonial paraphernalia. The songs used by the master of ceremonies, with the aid of a few chosen assistants, make the emotional appeal to the various symbols employed in the ritual. Ceremonial acts, proces- sions, and dances accompany some of the songs and wigie. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 51 The theme of these composite rites is the desire of the people for a long, peaceful life and a never-ending line of descendants, and the wigie, songs, and dramatic acts constitute a supplication to the unseen power for aid toward the realization of this desire. The never-ending life so devoutly sought for the tribe seemed to the people to be ex- emplified in the unfailing recurrence of night and day, in the con- stancy of the movements of the heavenly bodies, in the manifestation of a like desire among the living forms upon the earth, and thus to point to an ever-present unseen animating power to which the people must appeal for the granting of their prayers. In this appeal for never-ending life the Osage naturally personified, and to a degree deified, those objects to which, as he thought, the unseen power had granted this form of life. Among these he included the vast. space within which the heavenly bodies mysteriously moved and into which all living forms are born and exercise their functions. Thus all as- pects of nature are made to play a part in the great drama of life as presented in these rituals. Early in the year Mr. La Flesche finished transcribing the wigie, as well as his notes on two complete versions and a portion of a third version of the child-naming rituals, comprising 107 typewritten pages. On completing this task he undertook the translation of the “Osage personal names in current use and of arranging them by gentes. The Osage generally cling tenaciously to the ancient custom of ceremonially naming their children in the belief that the cere- monies aid the young in attaining old age. In this work Mr. La Flesche was able to determine that many members of the Osage Tribe enrolled as full bloods are in reality of mixed blood. The tabulation of these names by sex and gentes, with their translations, together with a transcription of some characteristic tales, occupies 201 type- written pages. During the last four months of the fiscal year Mr. La Flesche was engaged in assembling his notes on the fasting ritual of the Tsizhu ‘Washtage gens. Most of the songs are quite different from those be- longing to the fasting rituals of the Honga, while some of the wigie are the same, these being used in common with slight modifications among the different gentes. These fasting rituals cover 139 com- pleted pages, including the music. A. wigie was obtained by Mr. La Flesche from an old woman during his visit to the Osage in January, 1917. This wigie, which consists of eight pages, fills a hiatus in the rush-mat ceremony previously recorded. At the opening of the fiscal year Dr. Truman Michelson, ethnol- ogist, was engaged in continuing his studies among the Sauk and Fox Indians of Iowa, the main work accomplished being the phonetic 59 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. restoration of a long text, written in the current syllabary, on the origin of the white buffalo dance, intended for publication as a bul- letin of the bureau. Considerable information pertaining to a number of sacred bundles of the Fox Indians was obtained, as well as various data of a sociological nature. Nearly 300 personal names were re- corded, together with the names of the gentes to which their owners belonged; in this manner about nine-tenths of the population of the Fox Indians has been catalogued. About the middle of August Doctor Michelson proceeded to Okla- homa where, with the cooperation of the [lincis Centennial Commis- sion, he conducted researches among the Peoria. The ethnology of this tribe, properly speaking, has practically vanished, but their lan- guage and folklore still persist, though knowledge thereof is confined to only a few individuals. Contrary to ordinary belief, the Peoria language, phonetically, is extremely complicated. From notes left by the late Dr. A. S. Gatschet, it had been inferred that the Peoria belongs fundamentally with the Chippewa or Ojibwa group of cen- tral Algonquian languages, and this was fully confirmed. It is quite clear, however, that there has been another and more recent associa- tion with the Sauk, Fox, and Kickapoo group, and Peoria folklore and mythology also point to this double association. The system of consanguinity is clearly that of the Sauk, Fox, and Kickapoo group, rather than that of the Ojibwa. Doctor Michelson recorded, mostly in English, an almost exhaustive collection of Peoria folk- tales and myths. After devoting about a month’s time to the Peoria Doctor Michelson returned to Iowa and renewed his work among the Sauk and Fox by making a phonetic restoration of a number of texts on minor sacred packs pertaining to the white buffalo dance, as well as by recording about 200 pages of the extremely long myth of the Fox culture hero. Most of the ceremonies in connection with the presentation of a new drum of the so-called religious dance of the Potawatomi of Wisconsin were witnessed, as also were parts of a number of clan feasts. On returning to Washington in November Doctor Michelson com- menced the revision of the English translation of the texts relating to the white buffalo dance, and devoted attention also to paragraph- ing and punctuating the Indian originals for the purpose of making them correspond with the English equivalents. By the close of the year the English translations were typewritten and put in almost final shape, while little work remained to complete the editing of the native texts. : Mr. J. P. Harrington, ethnologist, spent the entire year in continua- tion of his intensive study of the Chumashan Tribes of California, ° obtaining a large body of important information which at present is in various stages of elaboration and which will comprise about 1,200 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 53 typewritten pages. From the beginning of the fiscal year until Sep- tember 15 Mr. Harrington devoted his attention to the Purismefio dialect, the existing vocabularies being corrected by the informant, and many new words and grammatical forms added. The next three weeks were spent on the Obispenio with satisfactory results, inasmuch as the material obtained in former years was more than doubled. The sole informant’s feeble health made the recording of this ma- terial unusually difficult, but it will prove to be of great local as well as of general interest. The remainder of the fiscal year was devoted to Venturefio and Inesefio. While not so nearly lost as Obispefio, it is too late to obtain complete information on these dialects, but in the process of their study many important points have been deter- mined. It is largely from their study that the picture of former Chumashan life must be reconstructed. The study of the material culture of the Chumashan Tribes has not been neglected, and in this work archeological material has been of assistance. Among the important points determined are details concerning the making of the ancient deerskin dress of the women, which consisted of a large back flap and a smaller apron. From the beginning of the fiscal year to the middle of January, 1917, Dr. Leo J. Frachtenberg, special ethnologist, was engaged in field work in the State of Washington, where he devoted special attention to the Quileute Indians and to collecting additional lin- guistic and mythological material. The ethnologic investigations covered the subjects of history and distribution, manufacture, houses and households, clothing and ornaments, subsistence, travel and transportation, warfare, games and pastimes, social organization and festivals, social customs, religion, medicines, charms and current beliefs, and art, and the recorded results consist of 577 manuscript pages. In addition, Doctor Frachtenberg recorded 156 native songs, including words and translations; he also obtained several hundred native drawings illustrating the material culture of the Quileute, and photographed a like number of ethnologic specimens. Further- more, he materially added to his linguistic and ethnologic studies of this people, commenced during the preceding year, by collecting several thousand additional grammatical forms and phrases, and by recording 22 new native traditions with interlinear translations, and 8 stories in English. These texts, in the form of field notes, comprise 176 pages. While engaged in this field work Doctor Frachtenberg was instrumental in inducing Mrs. Martha Washburn, of Neah Bay, Mr. and Mrs. Theo R. Rixon, of Clallam Bay, and Mrs. Fannie Tay- lor, of Moran, to give to the National Museum a part of their collec- tions of Makah and Quileute specimens, including two old totem poles, approximately 100 baskets, and more than 30 other ethnologic speci- mens. In addition to the Quileute studies mentioned, Doctor Frach- €5133°—sm 1917——5 54 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. tenberg collected 88 pages of Makah (Nootka) linguistic data, 57 pages of Quinault (Salish), and 18 pages of Clallam (Lkungen). While in Portland, Oregon, he obtained through the courtesy of the municipal authorities a fine collection of photographs representing several hundred archeological objects owned by the city. Doctor Frachtenberg returned to Washington early in February. Subsequently, after conference with Dr. Franz Boas, honorary philologist of the bureau, it was arranged that Doctor Frachtenberg prepare for the Handbook of American Indian Languages compara- tive sketches of the Kalapuya, Molala, Klamath, and Quileute, and possibly one of the Salish languages. He also engaged in the final preparation of his paper, Alsea Texts and Myths, which is now in process of printing as Bulletin 67. He next proceeded to prepare for publication the results of his earlier investigations of the lan- guage, ethnology, and mythology of the Kalapuya Indians, which will consist of two papers: A Grammatical Sketch of the Kala- puya Languages and Kalapuya Myths and Texts. The Kalapuya grammatical material consists of extended field notes gathered in 1913 and 1914, and of grammatical notes on the Atfalati collected by Doctor Gatschet in 1877. Doctor Gatschet’s material, comprising 491 pages of field notes, is ef inestimable value; indeed it is to the efforts of this untiring scholar that we owe the preservation of this most important dialect of the Kalapuya language, since he obtained his material, which includes also some valuable ethnologic data, from the last full-blood Atfalati. Doctor Frachtenberg’s own material comprises several thousand grammatical forms, phrases, and voca- bles, and 32 native texts with interlinear translation—630 pages in all. The preparation of these linguistic data, as well as the work on the Kalapuya myths and texts, is well under way. Six of the texts, comprising 386 pages, have been prepared for publication; five of these are provided with interlinear translation and with voluminous notes in which attention is directed to the occurrence of similar myths among other tribes. During his studies of the Kalapuya languages Doctor Frachtenberg discovered that there is sufficient reason to be- lieve that the Kalapuya, Takelman, and Chinookan languages are genetically related, the determination being based not only on lexical but alse on structural and morphological material. This discovery tends to establish a connecting link between some of the languages of California and most ef the languages spoken in Oregon. During the last two weeks of the fiscal year Doctor Frachtenberg was temporarily detailed for special work in the Bureau of Investi- gation of the Department of Justice. SPECIAL RESEARCHES. Dr. Franz Boas, honorary philologist, completed the preparation of his manuscript on the ethnology of the Kwakiutl Indians, about REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 55 2,700 pages of which was submitted to the bureau and assigned as the accompanying paper of the thirty-fifth annual report, the com- position of which was commenced before the close of the fiscal year. At the same time progress was made on the preparatory work for the second part of the memoir. Under Doctor Boas’s direction Miss Mildred Downs listed the incidents of the Kwakiutl mythology preparatory to a discussion of the subject, and necessary additional information for this purpose was obtained from Mr. George Hunt, of Fort Rupert, Vancouver Island. Mr. Hunt submitted in all 460 pages of manuscript in response to questions, and sent botanical specimens that have been identified through the kindness of Dr. N. L. Britton, director of the New York Botanical Garden. The manuscript for Bulletin 59, Kutenai Tales, has been completed. All the texts having been set up during the preceding year, the ab- stracts and comparative notes, referring to the pages of the bulletin, were written out (32 pages of printed matter), and a vocabulary (140 pages of manuscript) based on the text was prepared. For the second part of the Handbook of American Indian Lan- guages Doctor Frachtenberg submitted his sketch of the Alsea gram- mar, which will be prepared for publication as soon as a sufficient number of texts are available. Considerable progress has been made in the preparation of the Kutenai grammar. Owing to the impossi- bility of communicating with Mr. Bogoras in Russia, no progress has been made in proof reading the Chukchee grammar, which has been in type for more than three years, but which can not be completed without submitting the proof to the author. During the year, how- ever, Doctor Boas revised the Eskimo texts by Mr. Bogoras, for which a brief ethnological introduction has been written by Dr. Ernest Hawkes. The results of the extended field work of Mr. James Teit, made possible through the generosity of Mr. Homer E. Sargent of Chicago, are nearing completion. At the present time two manuscripts are well advanced. One of these, consisting of about 1,000 pages, pre- pared jointly by Doctor Boas and Dr. H. K. Haeberlin, was sub- mitted in May, accompanied with a number of maps showing the distribution of Salishan dialects at various periods. It consists of a discussion of the characteristics of the various dialetic groups, com- parative vocabularies on which the deductions are based, and a few simple texts. The material on which these studies are founded was collected from field expeditions by Doctor Boas between 1886 and 1900, and by additional material gathered by Mr. Teit between the latter date and the present year. Doctor Haeberlin has also undertaken to discuss the Salishan basketry, for which purpose he has made detailed studies of various collections in the United States and Canada. In connection with 56 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. this and other necessary researches on the Salishan tribes, Doctor Haeberlin visited British Columbia and Washington in 1915, and again in June, 1917, for the purpose of obtaining additional material. These expeditions were also made possible by the generosity of Mr. Sargent. In his investigations Doctor Boas has had the valued help of Miss H. A. Andrews and Miss Mildred Downs. In behalf of the bureau, Mr. W. H. Holmes, of the National Museum, visited New York, Boston, and Cambridge, for the purpose of studying archeological material in the museums of those cities in connection with the completion of Bulletin 60, Handbook of Ameri- can Antiquities, part 1 of which is in type. The proof reading of this publication was well in hand at the close of the fiscal year, and progress was made by Mr. Holmes in the preparation of part 2. The study of Indian music, undertaken by Miss Frances Densmore several years ago under the auspices of the bureau, was successfully continued through the year. The proof reading of Bulletin 61, Teton Sioux Music, was brought to completion. A second season of field work was devoted to the Ute Indians, sufficient data being ob- tained to complete a work on the music of that tribe. Of this mate- rial 73 new songs were transcribed and analyzed, 23 songs previously recorded were likewise analyzed, and 5 songs also previously sub- mitted with analyses were further studied. Five group analyses, to- gether with about 30 pages of manuscript description, were prepared. All except about 15 Ute records are now ready for publication; these cover a considerable variety of songs, analyses of which show impor- tant differences from songs of other tribes, one peculiarity being an added importance of rhythm. For purposes of comparison, Miss Densmore undertook on her own account a study of primitive Slovak music, 10 songs of which were analyzed by the method employed in connection with Indian songs, and these were found to contain interesting points of differ- ence. Through the courtesy of Dr. Davton C. Miller, of the Case School of Applied Science in Cleveland, Miss Densmore procured graphic evidence of peculiarities of drum and voice combination noted by ear in Indian music. Doctor Miller made two photographs, about 30 feet in length, each representing about 15 seconds’ duration of sound. It is the intention to utilize part of these as illustrations in the forth- coming bulletin on Ute music, the songs geese being Ute dance songs with strong rhythmic peculiarities. Early in June Miss Densmore proceeded to the White Earth Res- ervation, Minnesota, for the purpose of conducting a study of the material culture of the Chippewa Indians, and at the close of the year good progress was reported. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Lv Mr. D. I. Bushnell, jr., continued the preparation of the manu- script for the Handbook of Aboriginal Remains East of the Mis- sissippi, about 50,000 words being added to the material previously furnished, not including a portion that was rewritten as a result of a discovery of new and valuable information pertaining to certain localities. Introductions to the archeology of various States remain to be written, but it is believed that both the manuscript and the illustrations for the entire bulletin will be completed before the close of the fiscal year 1918. Under the joint auspices of the bureau and the National Museum Dr. A. Hrdicka visited in October, 1916, a site at Vero, Florida, at which were found certain human remains reputed to be of great antiquity. As asummary account of Doctor Hrdli¢ka’s observations has already appeared in Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections (vol. 66, no. 17, pp. 24-29, 1917) and an extended report will be published in Bulletin 66 of the bureau, now in press, it need only be mentioned that a thorough inquiry has resulted decisively against the assump- tion of great antiquity of the remains. The pottery and the bone and stone objects found in association with the human burials are identical with similar artifacts of the Florida and other southeastern Indians, while the bones themselves without exception exhibit mod- ern features, with numerous characteristics that permit their identi-- fication as purely Indian. Owing to the fact that Dr. A. L. Kroeber, of the Univesity of California, found it expedient to elaborate certain portions of his handbook of the Indians of California, it was not practicable to submit the entire manuscript before the close of the fiscal year, but at this writing there is every prospect that the work will be ready for publication within a short time. MANUSCRIPTS. The following manuscripts, exclusive of those submitted for publi- cation, were received by the bureau: Photostat copy of a San Blas vocabulary, recorded by Ensign J. M. Creigh- ton, United States Navy, transmitted to the Smithsonian Institution by the Secretary of the Navy. Phillipine songs presented by Mr. E. H. Hammond, of Albuquerque, New Mexico. Photograph of a picture writing on elk skin by Washakie, the Shoshoni chief, with a key thereto. Reports on prehistoric ruins in Arizona, with numerous photographs, pre- pared by the late S. J. Holsinger, of the General Land Office, and deposited in the bureau by the United States Forest Service. Abnaki hymns from John Tahamont, of Pierreville, Quebec, presented by George G. Heye, Esq. or ie) ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. PUBLICATIONS. The editing of the: publications of the bureau was continued through the year by Mr. J. G. Gurley, assisted as occasion required by Mrs. Frances S. Nichols. The status of the publications is pre- sented in the following summary: PUBLICATIONS ISSUED. Thirty-first Annual Report. Accompanying paper: Tsimshian Mythology (Boas). Coos, An Illustrative Sketch, separate (Frachtenberg), Bulletin 40, part 2 (Boas). Bulletin 55, Ethnobotany of the Tewa Indians (Robbins, Harrington, Freire- Marreco). List of Publications of the Bureau. PUBLICATIONS IN PRESS OR IN PREPARATION. Thirty-second Annual Report. Accompanying paper: Seneca Fiction, Legends, and Myths (Hewitt and Curtin). Thirty-third Annual Report. Accompanying papers: (1) Uses of Plants by the Indians of the Nebraska Region (Gilmore) ; (2) Preliminary Account of the Antiquities of the Region between the Mancos and La Plata Rivers in Southwestern Colorado (Morris); (8) Designs on Prehistoric Hopi Pottery (Fewkes) ; (4) The Hawaiian Romance of Laie-i-ka-wai (Beckwith). Thirty-fourth Annual Report. Accompanying paper: An Introductory Study of the Arts, Crafts, and Customs of the Guiana Indians (Roth). Thirty-fifth Annual Report. Accompanying paper: Ethnology of the Kwakiutl Indians (Hunt, edited by Boas). Bulletin 59, Kutnai Tales (Boas). Bulletin 60, Handbook of Aboriginal American Antiquities. Part 1. Intro- ductory: The Lithic Industries (Holmes). Bulletin 61, Teton Sioux Music (Densmore). Bulletin 63, Analytical and Critical Bibliography of the Tribes of Tierra del Fuego and Adjacent Territory (Cooper). Bulletin 64, The Maya Indians of Southern Yucatan and Northern British Honduras (Gann). Bulletin 65, Archeological Explorations in Northeastern Arizona (Kidder and Guernsey ). Bulletin 66, Recent Discoveries of Remains Attributed to Early Man in America (Hrdli¢ka). Bulletin 67, Alsea Texts and Myths (Frachtenberg). The distribution of publications has been continued under the immediate charge of Miss Helen Munroe and at times by Mr. E. L. Springer, of the Smithsonian Institution, assisted during the first part of the year by Miss Lana V. Schelski, and latterly by Miss Ora A. Sowersby, stenographer and typewriter. Notwithstanding con- ditions incident to the war and the consequent necessity of withhold- ing the transmission of various foreign shipments, publications were distributed as follows: REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 59 Copies. AMNTalereports, and) Separatesea see. ee ee ee 5, 954 Bulletins and? Semana tes ee nse st eee ae eres espe he Pity ee i hs ee 5, 804 Contributions to North American Ethnology and separates_____-_---_~ 28 Introduections22—2— "= Ty tg Ne ata eS eg yep eo a f MESCellAaneOuS mp UDCA IOS see Ss es ee ee Se Se 191 oN Ro 61) PE As 1 EE TAS 8 8 Be 2 es Me 49 eg Me ess eee 11, 984 ILLUSTRATIONS. Mr. DeLancey Gill, with the assistance of Mr. Albert E. Sweeney, continued the preparation of the illustrations required for the pub- lications of the bureau and devoted the usual attention to photo- graphing visiting Indians. The results of this work may be sum- marized as follows: Photographic prints for distribution and office use___________-_-----___~- 578 Negatives of ethnologic and archeologic subjects___________ ee ae 173 Negative films developed from field exposures__________________________ 214 Photostat prints from books and manuscripts_—-----_______ sig ON SNe 950 J DPR ra ay easy TATU (Sheet be ES i il Riek balidey Meant LA LEER abl th ALA ee Le Li 54 TOUTES USC Chee eee ee pee er Nea ee ee ea ee eee eee 62 Portrait negatives of visiting Indians (Creek 9, Arapaho 4, Cheyenne 16) _ 29 IN EPERINGSE TREAT TAG VEY bet a SS 9 a hl tat A a 75D Illustration proofs examined at Government Printing Office_____________ 9, 000 Illustrations submitted for reproduction and engraver’s proofs edited____ 781 LIBRARY. The reference library of the bureau continued in the immediate care of Miss Ella Leary, librarian, assisted by Mr. Charles B. New- man. During the year 435 books were accessioned, of which 97 were purchased, 286 acquired by gift or exchange, and 52 by the entry of newly bound volumes of periodicals previously received. In addi- tion the bureau acquired 388 pamphlets. The aggregate number of books in the library at the close of the year was 21,750; of pam- phlets, about 13,848. In addition there are many volumes of un- bound periodicals. Several new periodicals were added to the ex- change list and about 50 defective series were either wholly or partly completed. As might be expected, the publication of various Euro- pean periodicals devoted to anthropology has either been suspended or has ceased entirely. Largely with the assistance of Mrs. Frances S. Nichols many of the older books and pamphlets were newly cata- logued by both subject and author, and thus made more readily available. Of 133 volumes sent to the bindery about half were re- turned before the close of the year. Books borrowed from the Library of Congress numbered about 400. = 60 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. COLLECTIONS. The following collections were acquired by the bureau, by mem- bers of its staff, or by those detailed in connection with its reseaches, and have been transferred to the National Museum: Six ethnologic objects from British Guiana, presented by Dr. Walter E. Roth, of Marlborough, Pomeroon River, British Guiana. (60049.) A small collection of archeological objects of earthenware, jadeite, etc., from the Kiché district of Totonicopan, Guatemala. (61097.) A collection of archeological objects, including human bones, gathered by Mr. Neil M. Judd in Utah. (60194.) Seven specimens found by Mr. Joseph Dame in Millard County, Utah, and purchased from him through Mr. Neil M. Judd. (60105.) A collection of archeological objects and skeletal material gathered by Dr. Walter Hough at the Luna pit village in western New Mexico. (66196.) Ten baskets of the Guiana Indians of South America, presented to the bureau by Dr. Walter E. Roth, of Marlborough, Pomeroon River, British Guiana. (60452. ) Seventeen prehistoric pottery vessels, one piece of matting, and a few small objects collected by F. W. Hodge in a cist in a cave in a southern wall of Cibol- lita Valley, Valencia County, New Mexico. (60453.) Twenty-five archeological specimens gathered by Dr. J. Walter Fewkes from ancient ruins near Gallup, New Mexico. (60502.) _ A small black-ware vase from Santa Clara pueblo, New Mexico, presented by Robert H. Chapman, of Washington, District of Columbia. (60826.) Twelve stone artifacts from Reeves Mill, near Pitman, Gloucester County, New Jersey, presented by Mrs. M. B. C. Shuman. (60836.) Archeological material collected by Dr. J. Walter Fewkes from exeavations conducted at Mummy Lake Ruins, Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado. (60880.) Archeological material collected by Dr. J. Walter Fewkes from excavations conducted at Oak Tree House, Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado. (60901.) An Assiniboine headdress from Alberta, Canada, presented by Mr. Robert H. Chapman, Washington, District of Columbia. (61007.) Skulls, skeletons, and parts of skeletons, an Indian ornament embedded in stone, and pottery fragments, collected in the vicinity of Vero and Fort Myers, Florida, by Dr. A. Hrdli¢ka. (61291.) Seven baskets made by the Koasati Indians of Louisiana, collected by Dr. John R. Swanton. (61815.) PROPERTY. Furniture was purchased to the amount of $196.25; the cost of typewriting machines was $206, and of a camera $10.50, making a total of $412.75 expended for furniture and apparatus. On the whole the furniture of the bureau is in good condition, but there are a few unserviceable pieces that should be replaced, while need of a few filing cases for current notes and manuscripts is felt. MISCELLANEOUS. Quarters.—One of the rooms on the third fioor of the north tower of the Smithsonian building, occupied by the bureau, was painted, and the electric lighting of three rooms improved. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 61 Personnel.—The only change in the personnel of the bureau was the appointment of Miss Ora A. Sowersby, stenographer and type- writer, on February 14, 1917, to succeed Miss Lena V. Schelski, trans- ferred. A temporary laborer was employed from time to time when required. . Clerical—The correspondence and other clerical work of the office, including the copying of manuscripts, has been conducted with the aid of Miss Florence M. Poast, clerk to the ethnologist-in-charge; Miss May S. Clark, and Mrs. Frances S. Nichols. Miss Sowersby was assigned to the division of publications of the Smithsonian Insti- tution for duty in connection with correspondence arising from the distribution of the bureau’s publications. Respectfully submitted, F. W. Hoper, Ethnologist-in-Charge. Dr. Cuartes D. Waucort, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. APPENDIX 3. REPORT ON THE INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES. Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the opera- tions of the International Exchange Service during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1917. The regular congressional appropriation for the support of the service during the year, including the allotment for printing and binding, was $32,200, but in order to enable the Institution to meet the very high ocean freight rates on foreign shipments Congress granted an additional appropriation of $3,500. The repayments from departmental and other establishments aggregated $3,687.58, making the total available resources for carrying on the system of exchanges $39,387.58. During the year 1917 the total number of packages handled was 268,625, which weighed 290,193 pounds. The number and weight of the packages of different classes are in- dicated in the following table: Packages. Weight (pounds). | Zeal Sent. /|Received.| Sent. |Received. United States parliamentary documents sent abroad.........-- IRV GSS} eso goccabe DD OU Onl eee eee Publications received in return for parliamentary documents...|........-. Spal Gul seeecocese 7,646 United States departmental documents sent abroad............ 60}948ii| jc cicce cee LLG S190 | Sects Publications received in return for departmental documents....|....-....- 631833) || eeeteeises 6, 304 Miscellaneous scientific and literary publications sent abroad..| 37,111 }...--...-.. 685334 |Secmecniens Miscellaneous scientific and literary publications received from abroad for distribution in the United States..................|-...-.--.. D2 EO54 NW ciase eter 36, 012 MO tales arise nintaia ature aio ls'a)aiersin siaraicinteletaye co's nisin diviniatenie e(ciecetmiereteie 235, 922 32,703 | 240, 229 | 49, 962 GrandetObaleyereristestereeesesericisecisiceceeeinesicsteiiae eters 268, 625 290, 191 As referred to in previous reports, many returns for publications sent abroad reach their destinations in this country direct by mail and not through the exchange service. Shipments are still suspended to Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Ger- many, Hungary, Montenegro, Roumania, Russia, Serbia, and Turkey. Shipments both to and from Germany, which were arranged by the 62 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 63 Institution through the State Department, as referred to in the last report, were discontinued at the outbreak of hostilities between the United States and Germany. The further efforts of the Russian Commission of International Exchanges to resume shipments were not successful, and the commission stated that it would be necessary to withhold consignments until the end of the war. In accordance with the proclamation of the British Government prohibiting the importation into the United Kingdom of books in bulk, it was necessary to suspend shipments to that country for a time. However, the London agents of the Institution, Messrs. Wil- lam Wesley & Son, succeeded in procuring from the Royal Commis- sion on Paper a special license to import consignments of interna- tional exchanges into England. Owing to the lack of requisite ocean transportation facilities, it was also necessary to suspend shipments for a time to Norway, Sweeden, Denmark, and Holland. The director of the Government Press at Cairo advises the Institu- tion that four boxes of Egyptian exchange en route to this country were lost at sea, and suggests that shipments be withheld until the end of the war. This suggestion will be followed. On account of the abnormal conditions in the Mediterranean, shipments to Greece will also be suspended. Since the beginning of the war the Institution has suffered the loss of only three shipments from hostile action. One small ship- ment—consisting of 24 governmental documents—was lost in transit to India during the first year of the war. Through the sinking of a vessel by a warship during the past year 18 packages in transit to India were also lost. Twenty-one boxes for the French Bureau of Exchanges were lost when the steamship Juno was torpedoed in February last. Nineteen of these contained miscellaneous govern- mental and scientific publications for distribution to various ad- dresses throughout France and the other two the regular series of United States official documents for deposit in the National Library at Paris and the office of the prefect of the Seine. In the early part of the present fiscal year the Italian Exchange office in Rome reported that one of the boxes of the consignment sent to that office in July, 1915, had not been delivered. Steps taken to have the box traced were unsuccessful. Wherever possible the Institution has, as formerly in the case of lost consignments, procured duplicate copies of the publications con- tained in the above-mentioned boxes. The Government publications office at Bulaq—which acts as the Egyptian Exchange agency—has kindly taken charge until the close of the war of a box addressed to the Jewish Agricultural Experi- ment Station, Haifa, Palestine, which was detained at Alexandria. 64 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. I am pleased to state that the four boxes held at Bahia, Brazil, to which reference was made in the 1915 report, have been released and forwarded to the Government printing works at Pretoria. Reference has previously been made to the custom of the Govern- ment of India to refer requests from establishments in this country for Indian official documents to the exchange service for indorse- ment. The director of the Government Press at Cairo has requested that the Institution take similar action on applications for Egyptian official publications. This request has been granted. Of the 1,217 boxes used in forwarding exchanges to foreign agen- cies for distribution during 1917, 170 contained full sets of United States official documents for authorized depositories, and 1,047 were filled with departmental and other publications for depositories of partial sets and for miscellaneous correspondents. The number of boxes sent to each foreign country and the dates of transmission are shown in the following table: Consignments of exchanges for foreign countries. | Country. srumaber Date of transmission. Arventinas-teereosessee ssasale 43 | July 23, Sept. 13, Nov. 15, 1916; Jan. 13, Mar. 20, June 8, 1917. IBarbadostccsesnc score nes = ae 1 | May 28, 1917. BOlivias.cceeceenes eee seer eG se 2| Aug. 29, 1916; Mar. 31, 1917. Brazil seep ec ase eee eee eee 25 | July 25, Sept. 14, Nov. 15, 1916; Jan. 15, Mar. 28, June 9, 1917. British Colonies. ....-....----. 8 | July 19, Aug. 3, 23, Sept. 11, Oct. 9, Nov. 1, 24, Dec. 20, 1916; Feb. 7, Apr. 14, 1917. BritishiGuianas.---5-222--- 2| Sept. 21, 1916; Feb. 16, 1917. Canadaze2).28. Abi eases 16 | Sept. 25, Dec. 18, 1916; Feb. 17, May 17, 1917. Chiless 226s) cine tees See 19 | July 26, Sept. 16, Nov. 16, 1916; Jan. 16, Mar. 29, June 11, 1917. China aac eee es: ocean 26 | Sept. 5, Oct. 25, Nov. 28, 1916; Feb. 8, Mar. 8, May 23, 1917. Colom bistesme-crcnsraececcece 33 | July 16, Oct. 7, Nov. 12, Dec. 13, 1916; May 19, 1917. CostatRica tan sce tar ee ose: 12! Aug. 12, Oct. 25, 1916; Jan. 17, Mar. 30, Apr. 6, June i3, 1917. Cubak 22135 soe sean ee 4 | Sept. 25, Dec. 18, 1916; Feb. 17, May 17, 1917. Denmark. 25. eqel a tee sci 20 | Aug. 9, Sept. 29, 1916; Jan. 6, Mar. 12, May 21, 1917. BS CUR GON arse seiner ielie ae cree siche 4 | Aug. 3, 1916; Apr. 10, 1917. HW gypteesacaeec ae eseec aeane ee | 8 | Aug. 11, 1916; May 16, 1917. BTANCO: saesas eeeee eee ss esas 123 | July 10, Aug. 18, Oct. 12, Nov. 14, 1916; Jan. 10, Mar. 21, May 9, 1917. Germanyeeessneee eee ee sae ar 48 | Dec. 16, 1916. Great Britain and ITreland..... 250 | July 20, Aug. 3, 23, Sept. 11, Oct. 9, Nov. 1, 24, Dec. 20, 1916; Feb. 7, Apr. 11, 18, June 6, 1917. Greeces= s-cpeewaccetcemc ke eee 7 | Aug. 14, Nov. 9, 1916. Guatemalatseeeces. seeeesecece 2} Aug. 30, 1916; Apr. 6, 1917. alti. 32s Pe ess 4 | Sept. 25, Dec. 18, 1916; Feb. 17, May 17, 1917. Hon durasa: to. cece ce see se 2 | Aug. 30, 1916; Apr. 4, 1917. ENC ide ews cocios seen see e mic: 30 | July 19, Aug. 3, 23, Sept. 11, Oct. 9, Nov. 1, 24, Dec. 20, 1916; Feb. 7, Apr. 14, 1917. Ttaliy ssseoe bade ee eee ees 90 | July 6, Aug. 4, Sept. 22, Nov. 10, Dec. 23, 1916; Jan. 20, Apr. 20, June 4, 1917. JAINA CA eaters cs sss aces eiecces 5 | Aug. 29, 1916; Feb. 9, May 24, 1917. Wa paneer cecraccctcieeaclecicce | 50 | July 7, Aug. 16, Nov. 28, 1916; Jan. 19, Mar. 2, May 13, 1917. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 65 Consignments of exchanges for foreign countries—Continued. Country. lod Date of transmission. | = Koreas: oe 52 ccc arene siseae 1 | Aug. 30, 1916. WADOUIS const cscs ccneeeee ee see 2| Aug. 29, 1916; May 28, 1917. Lourenco Marquez.....-..---- 1 | May 29, 1917. MGXiCONs pac. cckiccisee does ck 4 | Sept. 25, Dec. 18, 1916; Feb. 17, May 17, 1917. INetherlands:5.-ee-eo ace ee 30 | July 7, Aug. 5, Sept. 25, Nov. 8, 1916; Jan. 5, 1917. New South Wales............- 43 | July 20, Aug. 26, Sept. 25, Oct. 16, Dec. 5, 1916; Jan. 13, Feb. 15, Apr. 16, June 19, 1917. New Zealand. ..:.. Viscacha (Lagostomus mazimus) -----~- Crested porcupine (Hystrix cristata) ~~ Mountain beaver (Aplodontia rufa) —-- Woodchuck (Marmota monag) —------ Dusky marmot (Mamota flaviventris obscura) Prairie dog (Oynomys ludovicianus) ~~ Striped spermophile (Citellus tridecem- lineatus) Albino squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) — American beaver (Castor canadensis) — LAGOMORPHA. Domestic rabbit (Oryctolagus cunicu- lus) EDENTATA, Hairy armadillo (Huphractus villosus) — PRIMATES, Mongoose lemur (Lemur mongoz)_-_- Black lemur (Lemur macaco) —------~ Titi monkey (Saimiri sciureus) ~--__~ Gray spider monkey (Ateles geoffroyi) —- White-throated capuchin (Cebus ca- DUCTIVUS PR Se 10 ee ae Brown capuchin (Cebus fatuellus) ___~ Guinea baboon (Papio papio)_-----_- Chacma (Papio porcarius) ~---------- he tor be RPOWrRN Re HPNERPNDRPRNHEANOG WNW no = ee 15 PRIMATES—continued. Yellow baboon (Papio cynocephalus) ~~ Hamadryas baboon (Papio hamadryas) — Mandrill (Papio.sphing) —~___.___-_— Drill (Papio leucopheus) —_-_---—_— Moor macaque (Cynopithecus maurus) — Brown macaque (Macaca speciosa) —~—-_ Japanese monkey (Macaca fuscata) —_ Pig-tailed monkey (Macaca nemes- trina) Rhesus monkey (Macaca rhesus) —---~ Bonnet monkey (Macaca sinica) __---~ Javan macaque (Macaca mordaz)_—--- Sooty mangabey (Cercocebus fuligi- NOSU8) \25. Jf es Jee eee Green guenon (Lasiopyga callitrichus) — Vervet guenon (Lasiopyga pygery- thr@)iLss. 2S See eet essa Sss Mona (Lasiopyga mona) __----_-----~ Roloway guenon (Lasiopyga roloway) — Patas monkey (Hrythrocebus patas) _- Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) ------- ARTIODACTYLA, Collared peccary (Pecaria angulatus) — Wild boar) (Sus7s¢ro] a) —— Wart hog (Phacocherus ethiopicus) —- Hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphib- Vus)rasae NW SUSE i Se ee Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus) — Arabian camel (Camelus dromeda- ris) G2 800 2B ews) sie ge Guanaco (Lama huanachus) ~~-~-~---~ Llams: (Lama glama) 222 2= = 2 See eet Alpaca (Lama pacos) ~------~---- ee ee Vicuna (Lama vicugna) 222222222. -=. Fallow deer (Dama dama)___------- Axis deer*(Alpisvaris)2h4 esas eee Hog deer (Hyelaphus porcinus) —~-~-- Sambar. (Rusa wnicotor) 22222) 22k e = Luzon deer (Rusa philippinus)_____~ Barasingha (Rucervus duvaucelii) —-_~- Japanese deer (Sika nippon) —~~--_--_- Red deer (Cervus elaphus) —~_-_--_- IS _ fs Kashmir deer (Oervus hanglu) _--~--- Bedford deer (Cervus ranthopygus) ~~ American elk (Cervus canadensis) __~ Virginia deer (Odocoileus virginianus ) ~ Mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) ~~--- Black-tailed deer (Odocoileus columbt anus) Blesbok (Damaliscus albifrons)—----~-~ White-tailed gnu (Connochetes gnu) —_ Defassa water-buck (Kobus defassa) — Indian antelope (Antilope cervicapra) — Springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis centralis) Sable antelope (Ozanna niger) ~------ Nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus) ---~ Congo harnessed antelope (Tragela- phus gratus) ue Heeb bo ~ bo RW oh eh me Oe oo bo bo ee Co Os i RPI OTA AOWR NAD Ne bh © ow r= oH ee oo Nee 78 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. MAMMALS—continued. ARTIODACTYLA—continued. East African eland (Taurotragus onyx UNI StON) ee Tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus) ——~~~ a Aoudad (Ammotragus lervia)________ Cireassian goat (Capra hircus) —~_-~~ Rocky Mountain sheep (Ovis canaden- sis) Barbados sheep (Ovis aries) ~-_----- Zepigiceos WnOiCws) = eee Anoa (Anoa depressicornis) _—~—_______- Yak (Poéphayus grunniens)_—~—______- American bison (Bison bison) —~---__~ RATITAD, South African ostrich (Struthio aus- UTR) Ol ee ee eS Somaliland ostrich (Struthio molybdo- phanes) Rhea (Rhea americana) ------------- Cassowary (Casuarius galeatus)_—-_~ Emu (Dromiceius novehollandie) ——-- CICONIIFORMES. American white pelican (Pelecanus Crythnornyn Ch0s) Aaa eaa— = ee ae European white pelican (Pelecanus ONOPCROTOVUS )2~ = ohare A. Fee oe ek Roseate pelican (Pelecanus roseus) ——~ Australian pelican (Pelecanus conspic- hiatus); 232 en eee eee PA nee Brown pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis ) — Florida cormorant (Phalacrocoraz au- TiULMLS LOTIOONUS) —2 ae ee White-necked heron (Ardea cocoi)___~ Great blue heron (Ardea herodias) ___ Snowy egret (Hgretta candidissima) __ Green heron (Butorides virescens) ___~ Black-crowned night heron (Nycticoraxz NY CTICONAG NGViUNs eens eee Boatbill (Cochlearius cochlearius) —-_-~ White stork (Ciconia ciconia) _~-_-___- Black stork (Ciconia nigra) __~________ Marabou stork (Leptoptilos dubius) —__ Sacred ibis (Threskiornis cethiopicus) — White ibis (Guara alba)_____-______ Scarlet ibis (Guara rubra) ~___~____ Roseate spoonbill (Ajaia ajaja)______ European flamingo (Phenicopterus TOSCUS) = 2eeRe iin penotinwiads yo apy ANSERIFORMES. Black-necked screamer (Chauna_ tor- LORE ID) ee aad Es Rome ele a oh SA cee iid Horned screamer (Anhima cornuta) __ Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) ~~ ~__~__~ Hast Indian black duck (Anas platy- WY IECILOS MU OTs) en eae ns epee ee ee Black duck (An@s rubripes) ---...-__- PERISSODACTYLA, Brazilian tapir (Tapirus terrestris) __ 3 | Mongolian horse (Hquus przewalskii) — 4 | Grant’s zebra (Hquus burchelli granti) — 9 | Grevy’s zebra (Hquus grevyi)_-----_~ 2 | Zebra horse, hybrid (Hquus grevyi- caballus) 2-5 == a 6 | Zebra ass, hybrid (Hquus grevyi- 8 ASUNUS:) {Set SOND ara ek see i PROBOSCIDBA, 4 | Abyssinian elephant (Loxzodonta afri- 18 COND OCYOS) ee eee eee BIRDS. ANSBRIFORMES— continued. European widgeon (Mareca penelope) — 4 | Baldpate (Mareca americana) ________~ Green-winged teal (Nettion caro- i UNCIVSC) Be a 2 eee ee 2 | Blue-winged teal (Querquedula dis- alt C078) '32 282-523 ae ees Se = aan = AN 2 | Ruddy sheldrake (Casarca ferruginea) Pintail =(Daftia-acute) === Wood duck (Aix sponsa) 2-—---_ = == Mandarin duck (Dendronessa galericu- lata) reese Sie EU ERM 2 22 SS Se 9 | Canvas-back (Marila valisineria) —~-~~ Lesser scaup duck (Marila affinis) ___ 2 Rosy-billed pochard (Metopiana pepo- 2 SACO)) == NSE SEN a eh : Snow goose (Chen hyperboreus) __--__~ 2 | Blue goose (Chen cerulescens) —_~-—_~~ 3 | Ross’s goose (Chen rossti) __________- White-fronted goose (Anser albifrons) — 16 | American white-fronted goose (Anser 1 albifrons gambeli) —2_ 2 ~~ 1 | Toulouse goose (Anser cinereus do- 3 MeSsStiCus) === == =e see n= 1 | Bar-headed goose (Anser indicus) ~~~ Canada goose (Branta canadensis) ~___~ 14 | Futchins’s goose (Branta canadensis . hutchineit), ae ee ee 3 Cackling goose (Branta canadensis 1 MUNG) es a oe ee ee i Barnacle goose (Branta leucopsis) —--~- 3 Upland goose (Chloéphagaleucoptera) — 1 Spur-winged goose (Plectropterus gam- 2 bensis) 2022 SE EEE SEES * Cape Barren goose (Cereopsis novehol- 1 lOndi@) a ee Wandering tree duck (Dendrocygna ar- CUCL) ee een es White-faced tree duck (Dendrocygna AME CLUE) ye ne 8 | Black-bellied tree duck (Dendrocygna TW UOT GHIID) Sa a Se ES SSE SS = 10 | Mute swan (Cygnus gibbus) —-_------- Whistling swan (Olor columbianus) —— 14 | Trumpeter swan (Olor buecinator) —-- 1 | Black swan (Ohenopsis atrata)—~---~ ars om iil co 0 oO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, BIRDS—continued. FALCONIFORMES. South American condor (Vultur gry- MNUS) Sse oO ee se ee California condor (Gymnogyps califor- nianus) Turkey vulture (Cathartes aura) _——---~ Black vulture (Coragyps urubu) —---~-- King vulture (Sarcoramphus papa) _—- Secretary bird (Sagittarius serpenta- rius) Griffon vulture (Gyps fulwus) ------~- Cinerous vulture (Aegypius mona- Chis jas eee een ee Pw eS Lammergeyer (Gypaétus barbatus) __- Caracara (Polyborus cheriway) —--~-~ Yellow-throated caracara (Ibycter CLG) * 2s oi ee ee eee Crowned hawk eagle (Spizaétus coro- natus) Wedge-tailed eagle (Uroaétus audag) __ Golden eagle (Aquila chrysaétos) —~____ Bald eagle (Haliwetus leucocephalus) — Alaskan bald eagle (Haliwetus leuco- cephalus. alascanus) ——-— = ——-—-——_ Sparrow hawk (Falco sparverius) ---- GALLIFORMES, Mexican curassow (Crag globicera) —---~ Daubenton’s curassow (Crazr danben- Wild turkey (Meleagris gallopave)__- Peafowl (Pawo cristatus) ___--~----__ Peacock pheasant (Polyplectron bical- COLILUIN) = ee ee Silver pheasant (Huplocamus nycthe- merus) Natal francolin (Francolinus natalen- ona) Curacao crested quail (Hupsychortyr cristatus) Bobwhite (Oolinus virginianus) —___-~ Scaled quail (Callipepla squamata) ___ Gambel’s quail (Lophortyx gambelii) __ Valley quail (Lophortyr californica VAUiCOld) LS LE) Se Seek GRUIFORMES. American coot (Fulica americana) —_~ Whooping crane (Grus americana) __-— Sandhill crane (Grus mew«icana) _____~ White-necked crane (Grus lewcauchen) — Indian white crane (Grus leucogera- TALS) ee eae BO Lilford’s crane (Grus lifordi) _-______ Australian crane (Grus rubicunda) —__ Demoiselle crane (Anthropoides virgo) — bo OT OW co mh OF to rar 22 mt OO ae wre GRUIFORMES—continued, Crowned crane (Balearica pavonina) — Cariama (Cariama eristata)----___~ CHARADRIFORMES. Great black-backed gull (Larus mari- Herring gull (Larus argentatus) —~____ Laughing gull (Larus atricilla) ______ Australian crested pigeon (Ocyphaps lODROLES) a a ee es Wonga-wonga pigeon DU CHULO) eee a ee ee Speckled pigeon (Columba pheonota) — Snow pigeon (Columba leuconota) —___ White-crowned pigeon (Patagienas LCUCOCEDN ALG )h en ee Se eae Band - tailed pigeon (Chlorenas fas- Ci Gt) pa ee 2 are se ee Red-billed pigeon (Chlorenas flaviros- iG Sy ee ee SS ee ee eee ee White-winged dove (Melopelia asia- tica) Mourning dove (Cenaidura macroura) — Peaceful dove (Geopelia tranquilla) — Zebra dove (Geopelia striata) .----~- Cape masked dove (Gna capensis) —-- Inca dove (Scardafella inca) _--------~ Blue-headed quail-dove (Starnenas cyanocephala) Collared turtle-dove risoria) =.322=— 3.5 =e x CUCULIFORMES, White-crested touraco (Turacus cory- thaiz ) : Grass parrakeet (Melopsittacus wun- dutatus), 22222202220. = ene Black - tailed parrakeet (Polytelis melanure)—==—— === 2. 2S ee Banded parakeet (Palwornis_ fas- TALE ee eee ee Lesser vasa parrot (Coracopsis nigra) — Gray parrot (Psittacus erithacus) --__- Cuban parrot (Amazona leucocephala) — Porto Rican parrot (Amazona vittata) — Yellow-winged parrot (Amazona bar- 1D CL CIES 8.) ee ee ee Festive parrot (Amazona festiva) _—___ Yellow-fronted parrot (Amazona och- rocephala) Yellow-naped parrot (Amazona auro- palliata) Yellow-headed parrot (Amazgona ora- bVAD) ao oe Ae = ee Quaker parrot (Myiopsitta monachus) - Red-and-blue macaw (Ara_ chlorop- LOO) = eee Se ee ee Red-and-yellow-and-blue macaw (Ara MACAO Nets Bae a Se ee Yellow-and-blue macaw (Ara arara- UNG) Rene ete ee Soe oe 79 me ho ar es wwonc bo 80 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. BIRDS—continued. CUCULIFORMES—continued. PASSERIFORMES—continued. Sulphur-crested cockatoo (Cacatoes American magpie (Pica pica hudson- GALETTED) Nee ann ee ees 3 ACG) V2e TE Se Ss Nat ae ee ee eee EE Great red-crested cockatoo (Cacatoes Blue jay (Cyanoecitta cristata) ___-____~_ ANOLE CENSUS) ee re ae a ee as 1 | American crow (Corvus brachyrhyn- White cockatoo (Cacatoes alba) ——-__-~ 3 Chos) 223 =— he eee 2 ae ee Leadbeater’s cockatoo (Cacatoes lead- Australian crow (Corvus coronoides) — COLE Catt se ee 1 | European raven (Corvus coraxr)—~____ Bare-eyed cockatoo (Cacatoes gym- Glossy starling (Lamprotornis cauda- AUO D148) ate en ee ee 3 tus) eS St Ss ee ee ot ee Roseate cockatoo (Cacatoes rosecica- Malabar starling (Spodiopsar mata- Dill) eae eee, «SO 12 baricus)! 222 ee Aa ee ee Sealy-breasted lorikeet (Psitteuteles Napolean weave® (Pyromelana afra)_—— chlorolepidotus) _-____-____--_____ 1 | Crimson-crowned weaver (Pyromelana AOIMMACED &)\e re eee eee ae Sree CORACIIFORMES. Madagascar weaver (Foudia madagas- COTLENSTS) See 2 ete ees eee Giant kingfisher (Dacelo gigas) _--__ 2 | Paradise weaver (Steganura para- Coneave-casqued hornbill (Dichoceros disca) 2222s eee Se Se OLCOTNTS) ee ee ee ee? ee il Cut-throat finch (Amadina fasciata) —_ Barred owl (Strig varia) ——__-__---- 5 | Black-faced Gouldian finch (Poéphila Screech owl (Otws asio)__~____-—__ 1 OULU CLC.) ee ee oe ee ee Great horned owl (Bubo virginianus)—- 14 | Black-headed finch (Munia atricapilla) — Three-colored finch (Munia malacca) —_ PASSHRIFORMES. Nutmeg finch (Munia punctularia) ——___~ Java sparrow (Munia oryzivora) __-_- Yellow tyrant (Pitangus sulphur- White Java sparrow (Munia oryzi- Cts) a =a ee ee 1 HORE) SaaS ee Se eS Japanese robin (Liothria luteus) —~~-~- 4 | Cowbird (Molothrus ater) ~___-_-_---__- Laughing thrush (Garrulaxr leucolo- Tox sparrow (Passerella iliaca) ~_-~-~ PRUs) Soe eT ae De ee ee oes 2 | Nonpareil (Passerina ciris)-__------- Mockingbird (Mimus polyglottos) —--___ 1 | Saffron finch (Sicalis flaveola) —~~~~-~ Brown thrasher (Toxostoma rufum)_—-_— 1 | Canary (Serinus canarius) —__-__----- Australian gray jumper (Struthidea Green singing finch (Serinus icterus) — cinerea) Avene 2) se yot — hel eerie 1 | Red-crested cardinal (Paroaria cucul- Red-billed magpie (Urocissa occipi- (ata) )/-=ss2s26s55-s525e58s—551 Oem EQUS)) a eens ee ee Oe Eso Beep pee. 2 1 | Cardinal (Cardinalis cardinalis) —-~-_~ REPTILES. Gopher tortoise (Gopherus polyphe- Horned toad (Phrynosoma cornutum) — MNS) po he ak ey 1 | Rock python (Python molurus)__----~ Duncan Island tortoise (Testudo ephip- Anaconda (Hunectes murinus)_—_—--- ITAL TD) ee a ee a ee ee 1 | Boa constrictor (Constrictor constric- Albemarle Island tortoise (Testudo CON) ee le AYUCUIU) iy em a a Sp 1 | Water snake (Natriaz sipedon) _______- Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis)_ 30 | Black snake (Coluber constrictor) ~~ Mona Island iguana (Cyclura stejne- Coach-whip snake (Coluber flagellum) — OT) ee ee 1 | Chicken snake (Hlaphe obsoleta quad- Gila monster (Heloderma suspectum) — Ki NDE AtG) oe eee eee bo Oe Bo RPh w& bo REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 81 STATEMENT OF THE COLLECTION. ACCESSIONS DURING THE YEAR. Presented : Transferred from other Govy- WY ehaabares Klee ee TS 28 ernment departments: Birds! Sp hel. AVeenes 44 Mammals 22th si sa4s ar 5 (Reptiles 2218) 29) pets 27 ee EE Bea — 99 Born and hatched in the Na- tional Zoological Park: Captured in National Zoologi- Mamminise oo ce aD cal lik: ing see ee en eee AN Binds. Peete re ue er 1 93 Reptilesm. ea. 2.24 Bites. aye 1 Received in exchange: . SO Mam mal oross eeire sree ase 12 : 9 NGS pa eee aS Be 74 Deposited : Mammals& «84 22)i 5. es 52 Purchased : Birds 1 Mammal Sees ee ee POUL QUICHE Tiss TOM ERT Tet Birdee pent the Sarvs 23 are 88 Reptiles) Se sae Cees oh 22 Toa 71 TNotalgaecessions)=———_ = 397 SUMMARY. Animals onGhande July's aAOlG AD isy OPE Vi peso OF) 2 Be 1, 383 Aecessions during phegyeares 2 aay eh Stet. latipes Uae te 397 1, 780 Deduct loss (by exchange, death, return of animals, and animals lib- Grated) ppeessp hil pris! tay saiteritep od itio po byrwersirgits ory Al mare 55ST Onwrandshunegs0 maOleee = ween wie! Rese ee eee tee ioe Class. Species. teete Mamita] Sor meer te eer ee a A. ee CR Cet 2. ees. Bye Vee Spee tin 4 eerie ey ety 43 159 484 Birds (att ee LL pe EERE A ees eh ae A Se 88 ee 8 be ed Se et OE oe Sree ee 182 683 Reptilesa pases. = serysech Coe eG seria: Pedsebo ab. = cee iol wceek tees ts ese 14 56 Totalsg tse ISS. - Pra ttn aee see ee oe STIS ABE EMCE Te ERED 355 1, 223 VISITORS. The number of visitors to the park during the year, as determined by count and estimate, was 1,106,800, a daily average of 3,032. The greatest number in any one month was 171,400, in April, 1917, an average per day of 5,713. The attendance by months was as follows: 1916: July, 78,800; August, 80,500; September, 122,550; October, 92,200; November, 48,250; December, 44,625. 1917: January, 37,750; February, 55,675; March, 108,400; April, 171,400; May, 110,550; June, 161,100. 82 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. Excepting 1916, this was the largest attendance in the history of the park. The number of visitors was only 50,310 less than in 1916, and doubtless would have exceeded that record year but for the unseasonable weather on Easter Monday. One hundred and fifty-three schools and classes visited the park, with a total of 8,492 individuals. In addition to the local schools and those from near-by States, these included schools from Alabama, Arkansas, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, and Vermont. A number of officials from other zoo- logical gardens visited the park. The exceptionally favorable weather made the skating pond an attractive feature during the past winter and for a much longer period than usual. The ice was kept clean of snow throughout the season and the appreciation of the public would seem to warrant the construction of additional lakes to be used for exhibits of water- fowl during the summer and skating in winter. IMPROVEMENTS. The hospital and laboratory, which has been mentioned in the reports for the last two years, is still unfinished, but a considerable amount of work was done on the interior cages so that the building now lacks only the necessary outside yards and the laboratory equip- ment. The hospital cages are designed for the care and special comfort of indisposed or quarantined animals, and accommoda- tions are provided for two mammals of lion size, three of leopard size, three large ruminants, and a number of smaller animals. In addition, there is a large, well lighted, central room for laboratory use. The completion of this building will greatly facilitate the work of the pathologists from the Department of Agriculture who visit the park. The largest waterfowl lake, in the southeastern part of the park, was enlarged and reconstructed to provide safe and retired breeding and resting places for the birds. It had formerly been inclosed by a fence of ordinary poultry wire without special protection from pre- dacious animals, and there had been frequent loss from the depreda- tions of rats and the smaller native carnivores. In order to increase sufficiently the land area it was necessary to construct a stone wall along Rock Creek at the rear of the inclosure. By lowering the erade of the hill bordering the lake, sufficient earth was produced to fill up to the level of the wall on the inner side.- A rat-proof fence was woven in the machine shop and further provided with guards against cats and raccoons. The level of the water was raised about 12 inches, greatly increasing the size of the lake, and the new fence was constructed on a concrete coping considerably outside the former REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 83 boundary. Numerous shrubs, small trees, canes, and grasses were planted to supplement the fine growth of larger trees already on the area. Visitors walk along one side of the lake only and as the thick vegetation virtually hides the fence on the opposite side at all points the effect is that of a wilderness breeding lake for ducks and geese. As completed, the inclosure provides almost natural conditions for the waterfowl of numerous species and forms a very attractive ex- hibit. It has been given over entirely to North American species, and it is hoped that a large representation of the ducks, geese, and other aquatic birds commonly associated with them native to our continent may be kept here. On June 30, no less than 136 North American waterfowl, of 24 species, were to be seen on the lake. The natural surroundings and the fact that only American species are shown here makes this waterfowl lake of special interest to school classes, sportsmen, and bird lovers, and it has become one of the popular features of the park. A cement walk was extended from the bridge near the Harvard Street entrance along the south side of the road to the crossroads, to connect with the cinder path bordering the lake. The work of grading and filling around the old buffalo house and the remodeling of the building for other uses, which was commenced last year, has been completed. As reconstructed the building makes an ideal shelter of pleasing design and furnishes house space for the animals occupying the six large paddocks that surround it. The Canadian Rocky Mountain sheep, the elands, and the Kashmir deer are provided for in this group of yards. An outdoor cage and shelter, summer quarters for the chimpanzee, were built near the north entrance to the lion house. This provides not only for the better health of this interesting trained ape, but makes it possible for larger crowds to gather about at the time his meals are served. New paddocks were provided for ungulate mammals on the piece of ground recently leveled by grading northwest of the llama yards. Much-needed repairs were made on the wolf dens and to the lion house roof. A considerable portion of the pasture land near the office was plowed as an addition to the garden, in an effort to decrease the cost of feed for the animals. For the same reason horseflesh has been substituted for beef as food for the carnivorous animals, with the prospect of saving at least $6,000 on this item alone during the next fiscal year. A portion of the nursery was fenced and breeding pens for quail and other game birds were installed within the inclosure. Tt is hoped that most of the quail of various species needed for park purposes may be reared in this place and that important experiments in the breeding of game birds may at the same time be conducted without additional expense. 84 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. THE PARK AS A BIRD SANCTUARY. The entire 169 acres of the National Zoological Park constitutes a carefully preserved sanctuary for native wild birds. Every effort is being made to increase the bird population within this area and to give better protection to the resident species. During the past year over 100 nesting boxes were provided for those species which com- monly nest in holes in trees. These were made in the carpenter shop at odd tames during the winter months from trunks and limbs of fallen trees with the bark in place. Attached to trees of the same kind or with bark of the same color these nesting boxes are much less conspicuous and unsightly in the park trees than square boxes made from planed boards. Many of the boxes were occupied during the summer by bluebirds, chickadees, nuthatches, wrens, and flickers, and additional nests will be provided from year to year. During the colder months food is provided for the winter residents in various parts of the park. Of all the native wild birds within the park perhaps none attract so much attention as the turkey vultures, or “buzzards,” which con- gregate here in great number during the fall and winter months. Food, at practically no expense, is provided for the vultures, and they become very tame and confiding. Many visitors from the Northern States, to whom the birds are a novel sight, greatly admire the grace- ful flight of these interesting creatures. During the summer months the vultures scatter out over the surrounding country to nest, and only a few appear within the boundaries of the park, but the security afforded for winter roosts brings them back in great numbers with the approach of autumn. Bobwhite quail appear to be increasing in numbers within the park and are now fairly abundant. A considerable number of these birds much help stock the surrounding country from year to year. Numerous bird classes from the schools and parties of Audubon Society members find the wilder parts of the park ideal grounds for observation of the birds. ALTERATION OF WESTERN BOUNDARY. It again appears desirable to recapitulate for future reference the various stages through which the matter of the adjustment of the western boundary, near the Connecticut Avenue entrance, has passed. The following appropriation was made by the act approved June 93, LOTS: Readjustment of boundaries: For acquiring, by condemnation, all the lots, pieces, or parcels of land, other than the one hereinafter excepted, that lie between the present western boundary of the National Zoological Park and Connecticut Avenue from Cathedral Avenue to Klingle Road, $107,200, or such portion thereof as may be necessary, said land when acquired, together with REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 85 the included highways, to be added to and become a part of the National Zoological Park. The proceedings for the condemnation of said land shall be instituted by the Secretary of the Treasury under and in accordance with the terms and provisions of subchapter one of chapter fifteen of the Code of Law for the District of Columbia. As the act required that the proceedings be instituted by the Secre- tary of the Treasury, the attention of that official was called to the matter in a letter from the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, dated June 28, 1913. A special survey and plat of the land required was necessary, but this plat was not forwarded to the Department of Justice until November 5, 1913. Other delays ensued; the title of the various owners of the land had to be investigated, and it was not until March 11, 1914, that the district court ordered a jury to be summoned. a . | pte i ji epet ret, Wei, 7 (ame DO gen Seng veaenblnibges FORM ee Be le il Pilla sesibiminy Cates Ae aS retin eae AOL hae St We: a ie everett al So Ras 2 - . ee ny tibiae ae eh : ae ae Cha Maher tate 63) ; < : ¥ iar iat . soln r 7 ae ee AAR MT cers Hae ow Pe! " } io ‘ an Te ny) - Say -¢ne eo + Wide oe, OR § NG ais ‘ uti ee ahi Seth. diy a Py De Ue Sp rY bara mn it's Aid the iy a ; ar ae arial Aste as de , ip sa n +. j Sde\ Hp Gaiaaens one?’ oa ereone Mahi ha emu, ny ees ddy Va, yatta bw, Pas pen ep (ual ees sb aSe ay ili «ll ime ere ei malas ne “a Pi : va ey at oh eR Hon ela PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITH- ~ SONTAN INSTITUTION FOR THE FISCAL YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1917. ANNUAL MEETING, DECEMBER 14, 1916. The Board of Regents met at the Institution at 10 o’clock a. m. Present: The Hon. Edward D. White, Chief Justice of the United States, Chancellor, in the chair; the Hon. Thomas R. Marshall, Vice President of the United States; Senator Henry Cabot Lodge; Sen- ator Henry F. Hollis; Representative Ernest W. Roberts; Represen- tative James T. Lloyd; Dr. Alexander Graham Bell; Mr. Charles F. Choate, jr.; Mr. John B. Henderson; and the Secretary, Mr. Charles D. Walcott. APPOINTMENT OF REGENTS. The Secretary announced that on December 14, 1915, the Speaker of the House of Representatives had reappointed Mr. Ferris and Mr. Roberts, Members of the House, as Regents, and appointed Mr. James T. Lloyd, of Missouri, a Regent to succeed Mr. Maurice Con- nolly, whose term as Representative had expired. The Secretary also announced that Dr. A. Graham Bell had been reappointed a Regent by joint resolution of Congress approved by the President on February 21, 1916. EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE APPOINTMENT. On motion, Doctor Bell was reelected a member of the executive committee. RESIGNATION OF REGENT. The Secretary read the following letter from Dr. Andrew D. White tendering his resignation as a Regent of the Institution: [Andrew D. White, Cornell University. ] IrHaca, N. Y., December 7, 1916. Prof. CHARLES D. WALCOTT, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. My Dear Mr. Secretary: Permit me to present, most respectfully, through you to the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, my resignation 65133°—sm 1917——9 117 118 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. from membership in their honorable body. My reason for so doing is the fact that the infirmities of age have made it of late very difficult, if not impossible, for me to render the services which are justly expected from everyone honored by such membership. May I ask you also, in so doing, to accept for yourself and to tender to the board, with assurances of my sincere respect, my most hearty thanks for their unvarying kindness and courtesy in all the relations between us. I remain, dear and honored sir, most respectfully yours, ANDREW D. WHITE. Senator Lodge offered the following resolutions, which were unanimously adopted: Whereas the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution having learned that Dr. Andrew. Dickson White has tendered his resignation as a Regent: Therefore be it Resolved, That the board records its deep regret at the severance of official relations with their distinguished colleague, and their appreciation of his valued services to the Institution extending over a period of nearly 29 years. Resolved, That the Regents desire to convey to Doctor White an expression of their sincere hope that the future may bring to him the full measure of happiness that comes froma long life devoted to his country and to the welfare of mankind. RESOLUTION RELATIVE TO INCOME AND EXPENDITURE, Tn the absence of Judge Gray, chairman of the executive committee, Doctor Bell offered the following resolution, which was adopted: Resolved, That the income of the Institution for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1918, be appropriated for the service of the Institution, to be expended by the Secretary with the advice of the Executive Committee, with full discretion on the part of the Secretary as to items. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE, The Secretary submitted the annual report of the executive com- mittee, showing the financial condition of the Institution for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1916, stating that it had been supplied to the Regents in printed form. On motion, the report was adopted. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE PERMANENT COMMITTEE. The permanent committee submitted the following statement: Hodgkins fund—No further allotments from this fund have been made on account of the Langley Aerodynamical Laboratory. An allotment of $5,000 per annum for three years has been made to Dr. Charles G. Abbot, director of the Astrophysical Observatory of the Smithsonian Institution, for the maintenance of an astrophysi- cal station in the Argentine Republic for the purpose of determining the transmission of the sun’s rays through the atmosphere. The details of this proposed work have been given by the Secretary in his annual report. PROCEEDINGS OF REGENTS. 119 As previously reported, the sum of $2,000 was allotted from the Hodgkins fund to Dr. F. G. Cottrell for the conduct of experiments in the electrical precipitation of fog. These experiments have been concluded and Doctor Cottrell has submitted a report. Chamberlain bequests— Your committee reported at the last meet- ing that Dr. Leander T. Chamberlain had made two bequests to the Institution, one of $25,000 and one of $10,000, each of which was to be known as “The Frances Lea Chamberlain fund.” The bequest of $10,000, the income of which is to be used for promoting the sci- entific value and usefulness of the collection of mollusks now in the National Museum and known as “The Isaac Lea collection,” has been received and invested in two short-term bonds of $5,000 par value each. Fiscal advisers—Your committee met at the Smithsonian Insti- tution on December 28, 1915, and Secretary Walcott explained the necessity for action by the committee in the matter of the investment of the funds of the institution over and above the $1,000,000 in the United States Treasury authorized by law, and on his recommenda- tions resolutions were adopted appointing the American Security & Trust Co., of Washington, District of Columbia, and the firm of Spencer Trask & Co., of New York City, as the fiscal advisers of the committee. Both of these concerns have accepted and will serve without charge. Consolidated fund—The Secretary spoke in relation to the ad- vantages in forming a consolidated fund for the purpose of pooling all of the funds that might belong to the Institution, with the ex- ception of the $1,000,000 in the United States Treasury, and after discussion the committee adopted resolutions approving the policy of such a consolidated fund. Freer Art Gallery—rThe Secretary reported the receipt of the $1,000,000 provided by Mr. Charles L. Freer for the construction and equipment of the building to contain his art collections pre- sented to the Institution. This sum had been deposited in various banks and trust companies, as follows: $900,000 at 3 per cent and $100,000 at 4 per cent. On motion the report of the permanent committee was accepted and approved. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. In presenting his annual report of the operations of the Institu- tion for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1916, which had been printed and sent to the Regents, the Secretary said: The publications of the Institution and its branches issued since the last meeting of the Regents number 113, aggregating about 7,600 pages and 775 plates of illustrations. The Institution proper issued 62 volumes and pamph- 120 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. lets (2,336 pages and 274 plates), the National Museum 48 volumes and pamph- lets (4,322 pages and 450 plates), and the Bureau of American Ethnology 3 pub- lications (890 pages and 59 plates). The total number of copies of all these series of publications distributed during the year was about 201,500—an in- crease of more than 50,000 over the preceding year. The annual report of the American Historical Association and of the National Society of the Daugh- ters of the American Revolution were also transmitted through the Institution to Congress, as required by law. i As usual these publications cover nearly every branch of natural and ap- plied science. Among those of the Institution proper I may mention two papers on aeronautics, one on wind tunnel experiments at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the other on the dynamical stability of aeroplanes, both by Assistant Naval Constructor J. C. Hunsaker and associates; four papers from the Astrophysical Observatory of the Institution dealing with the instruments used and observations made by the observatory staff in the study of solar radiation; three papers by your Secretary describing his researches in Cambrian geology and paleontology ; two reprints of the Smithsonian Physi- cal Tables, made necessary by the demand for this useful work; a paper by Chester G. Gilbert, of the National Museum, on sources of nitrogen com pounds in the United States, which attracted considerable attention; and the usual semipopular account of the exploration and field work of the Institution during the year, which was more extensive and more profusely illustrated than ever before. Of special interest among the numerous Museum publications may be men- tioned a complete descriptive catalogue, by Dr. G. P. Merrill, of the valuable and extensive meteorite collection in the National Museum. The Smithsonian report again appeared earlier than ever before, the com- plete volume for 1915 being received from the printer in June, 1916. The change in the size of the edition from 7,000 to 10,000 copies has proved very advantageous. National Museum (including National Gallery of Art)—In many departments of the Museum extensive and valuable collections have been acquired, though none of the additions calls for special men- tion in this connection. It is, however, considered very important that attention be drawn to the inadequacy of the present appropriations for carrying on the technical and exhibition work of the Museum, and while this de- ficiency applies in varying degree to all branches of the Museum, it is now more especially felt in connection with the art-industrial col- lections. The richest as a whole and the most varied of their kind in the country, planned by the Board of Regents in 1846, though not organized until 1881, and now filling the older Museum building as well as the main and western halls of the Smithsonian building, these collections are at present administered by so small a technical staff that it is impossible to make creditable progress with their classification and public installation, though it is through the devel- opment of these branches that the Museum offers the greatest prac- tical benefits to the public at large. The immediate increase in funds required to attain this purpose is relatively inconsiderable, PROCEEDINGS OF REGENTS. ThA but until even this small sum is secured the usefulness of the Mu- seum must be greatly impaired. National Gallery of Art—Prominent among the artists represented in the extensive gift by Mr. William T. Evans of contemporary American paintings is Henry W. Ranger, of whose work the gallery possesses four examples. Mr. Ranger died on November 7, and by the terms of his will the National Gallery of Art is made a perpetual optional participant in the income of his estate, the value of which has been estimated at $250,000. The paragraph relating to the gal- lery, with reference to which it may be said that Mr. Ranger survived his wife, is as follows: * * * * * * * (2) Upon the death of my said wife, Helen Eudora Ranger, if she be living at the time of my death, or, if my said wife be not living at the time of my death, then as soon after my decease as may be practicable, I direct that my entire residuary estate be paid over to the National Academy of Design, the principal to be kept invested and the income thereof to be spent by the council of said academy in purchasing paintings produced by American artists, at least two-thirds (2/3) of such income to be spent in the purchase of works by artists who are forty-five years of age and over, it remaining optional with the council to spend the remaining one-third (1/3), or any part thereof, in the pur- chase of works by younger artists. All pictures so purchased are to be given by the council to art institutions in America, or to any library or other institu- tions in America maintaining a gallery open to the public, all such gifts to be upon the express condition that the National Gallery at Washington, adminis- tered by the Smithsonian Institute shall have the eption and right, without cost, to take, reclaim, and own any picture for their collection, provided they exercise such option and right at any time during the five-year period beginning ten years after the artist’s death and ending fifteen years after his death, and, if such option and right is not exercised during such period, the picture shall remain and be the property of the institution to which it was first given. The words “ America” and “ American ” as used above shall be construed as equiva- lent to “ North America” and “ North American” respectively. F 3 Es * * * * * Briefly analyzed, the purport of this bequest is that the National Gallery is given the opportunity of selecting, after a lapse of a period following his death sufficiently long to establish an artist’s standing, such of his paintings purchased from the Ranger fund as may be regarded as desirable, without being placed in the position of refusing any. In the long run the gallery should derive very great benefits from this generous remembrance. Freer Gallery of Art—The board will recall that at the annual meeting of December 9, 1915, it approved the recommendation of the special committee on a site for the Freer Gallery of Art that the building be erected on the corner of the Smithsonian grounds at Twelfth and B Streets SW. This site was subsequently approved by the Federal Commission of Fine Arts, and also by Mr. Freer, who 122 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. transferred to the Institution the $1,000,000 he had set aside for the construction of the building. On September 23, 1916, work was formally inaugurated by Mr. Rathbun, as Acting Secretary, who after a brief address reciting the history of this great gift, turned over the first spadeful of earth on the site selected. At this time the work of excavation for the founda- tions is proceeding as rapidly as possible, and it is expected to com- plete the building in two years, as estimated. At the time of the original offer, the collection consisted of about 2,300 paintings and other objects of art, but it has since been in- creased to 5,346 items, including American paintings and sculptures, the Whistler collection and oriental paintings, pottery, bronzes, and jades from China, Japan, and other Asiatic countries. It is also gratifying to call attention to recent announcements from Mr. Freer, that important additions are still being procured for his collections in the Far East; that several distinguished experts are preparing descriptive catalogues of parts of the collections; and that two Japanese artists are at work mounting and making ready for exhibition in the building the remarkable series of Chinese paintings, constituting one of the most valuable features of this im- portant donation. National Portrait Gallery—tThe secretary called attention to the desirability of adding to the National Portrait Gallery, and stated that one of the best paintings extant of Joseph Henry, the first Secre- tary of the Smithsonian Institution, was now in the rooms of the Sergeant at Arms of the Senate; and that a painting of Benjamin West, made by that great artist himself, was in the Senate lbrary committee room. He thought these should be turned over to the In- stitution and suggested that a committee be appointed to take care of the matter. | After discussion, on motion, Senators Lodge and Stone were ap- pointed a committee to consider the means by which these portraits might be transferred to the care of the Institution. Bureau of American Ethnology.—The researches of the Bureau of American Ethnology have been successfully prosecuted since the beginning of the present fiscal year and a large body of manuscripts is in hand or in process of printing. Excavation of a large pueblo ruin in the Mesa Verde National Park of Colorado has been con- ducted with the cooperation of the Department of the Interior; field investigations have been continued among the remnant tribes of southern California, the Fox Indians of Iowa, the Quileute of Washington, the Iroquois of Ontario, and the Cherokee of North Carolina; and the preparation of memoirs on other specific tribes, as well as handbooks on general subjects of ethnology and anthro- pology, are in varying stages of completeness, PROCEEDINGS OF REGENTS. p83 National Zoological Park.—The latest action in the proceedings for acquiring land between the park and Connecticut Avenue was the decision of the court on January 28, 1916, setting aside all re- maining benefits assessed against neighboring property. The valua- tion of the land to be taken and the cost of the proceedings together made a total of $196,641.48, the sum required for the purchase of the land. The appropriation of $107,200 originally made having lapsed, and efforts to have the necessary appropriation made at the last session of Congress having failed, an item for the sum required has been submitted in the estimates for 1918, with a clause to make it a continuing appropriation. Cooperating with the New York Zoological Park and the Phila- delphia Zoological Garden, the park agreed early in the summer to share in the expense of sending an experienced man to South Africa for animals, the supply through the usual animal dealers having been almost entirely cut off. Advices just received from him indicate that he is having much success in securing animals, especially from the zoological gardens there, which also are anxious to arrange for exchange with similar institutions in this country. The relations established by this means with the zoological gardens and naturalists of South Africa are likely to be very valuable in the future. On November 1, 1916, Mr. Ned Hollister, for several years assist- ant curator of mammals in the United States National Museum, was appointed superintendent of the National Zoological Park to succeed Dr. Frank Baker, resigned. Astrophysical Observatory work on Mount Wilson, 1916.—Messrs. Abbot and Aldrich occupied the Smithsonian observing station on Mount Wilson, California, from June to October, 1916, inclusive, con- tinuing the series of observations of the solar radiation in order to follow the variations of the sun. Despite much unfavorable weather, very satisfactory results were obtained along several lines. From numerous experiments it is indi- cated that the solar radiation, as in 1915, was decidedly higher dur- ing 1916 than during the sun-spot minimum period which culminated in 1913. The new vacuum bolometer and stellite mirrors were introduced in the spectroscope, and a long series of careful determinations was made to determine the transmission of the spectroscope in this forin. This new vacuum bolometer is about 20 times as sensitive as its predecessor. Many experiments were made with the new instrument, the pyra- nometer, on the light of the sky. A new method of determining the solar variation by aid of the pyranometer is being tried, which, if successful, may enable many observers, not able to undertake the ex- 124 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. pensive and complicated investigation with the spectrobolometer, to take a part in observing the variability of the sun. The Langley Aerodynamical Laboratory.—At the annual meeting of the Board of Regents held December 9, 1915, the Secretary re- ported that authority for the appointment by the President of an Advisory Committee for Aeronautics had been granted March 3, 1915, and that the advisory committee has been appointed, and further that— In view of the scope and organization of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, it is not deemed probably that the Smithsonian Institution will find it necessary to establish an areodynamical laboratory for experimental purposes. In the act approved August 29, 1916, making appropriations for the naval service for the fiscal year 1917, there is appropriated for the Advisory Committee for Aeronautics $85,000 in addition to the sum of $5,000 previously provided. This appropriation is for the necessary expenses of the committee and for experimental work, in- vestigations, and publications. In the same act there is also appropriated $3,500,000 for aviation; and in the Army appropriation act, also approved August 29, 1916, there is made available for the same purpose the sum of $13,281,666. Your Secretary, as chairman of the executive committee of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, has given consid- erable time and thought to the development of aviation in connection with the needs of the Government. Many meetings of the commit- tee have been held and visits made to the principal plants where there was a prospect of the development and manufacture of aircraft and motors. The present prospect is exceedingly favorable for the manufacture in quantity of an efficient aircraft motor at plants in New Jersey, Boston, Detroit, and Buffalo. It may be of interest to state that the biplane is the standard air- plane at present, and there is an immediate prospect that high- powered biplanes and possibly triplanes will be largely used where great speed and climbing power are essential. An allotment of $2,500 for the study of problems of the atmos- phere in relation to aeronautics has been made in connection with the United States Weather Bureau to provide for the beginning of an investigation which will ultimately result in the mapping of the atmosphere over the United States and adjoining areas up to a height of 20,000 feet. It is anticipated that the Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, in cooperation with the War and Navy Departments, will at an early date have facilities for directing experimentation and investigations at suitably equipped aviation grounds, or laboratories, as a plat of land PROCEEDINGS OF REGENTS. 125 1,600 acres in extent near Hampton, Virginia, has been purchased for use in this connection. This first great aviation field will be known as Langley Field. Research Corporation—That the Research Corporation has con- tinued its growth during the year is shown by the fact that whereas in my last report, I stated that its salary roll for the ensuing year would be in the neighborhood of $38,000, at the present itme it is at the rate of $120,000 a year. The development of the Cottrell precipitation process has gone on to such an extent that it is now being employed for the precipitation of the dust in the air supplied to factories and to many other places where it is essential in protecting the health and lives of employees to rid the air of dust. Fog precipitation.—As stated at the last meeting, an allotment of $2,000 from the Hodgkins fund was made to Dr. F. G. Cottrell to further his studies and experiments in the electric precipitation of fog. He has rendered an account of expenditures under this allot- ment and submitted a full report of his work, which indicates that the dispersion of fog by electricity is well within the bounds of pos- sibility. The question of printing this report is now being considered. Harriman trust fund.—W ork under this fund by Dr. C. Hart Mer- riam has been continued along the lines mentioned in previous re- ports. Field work in northern California in advancing studies pre- viously under way in ethnology and in the geographic distribution of animals and plants was carried on during the latter part of the summer, mainly in the Clear Lake region and the mountains to the northward; but work on the big bears has occupied the greater part of the year. A revision of the species of grizzly. and big brown bears has been prepared for the press, but owing to the absence of adult specimens from certain localities, several problems still remain unsolved. The effort to secure the needed material has been pressed with renewed vigor. Asa result it is gratifying to report that about 150 skulls, including adult males of species the males of which were previously unknown, have been added to the collection, chiefly from localities in Alaska, Yukon Territory, and British Columbia. Alberta and British Columbia expedition. The Secretary contin- ued his geological work along the Continental Divide of western Al- berta and eastern British Columbia, with the object of determining the geological horizon of the subfauna of the Cambrian series of rocks and the determination of the age of a geological. formation the position of which has been called in question by Canadian geologists. The two problems were worked out successfully and some collections of fossils were secured. Much larger results would have been ob- tained if it had not been for the unusual cold and the heavy snow- 126 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. falls in May and June, and for the very wet and cold weather during the summer months. Borneo and Celebes expedition.—Mention has been made on sey- eral occasions of the generosity of Dr. W. L. Abbott, a collaborator of the National Museum, whose gifts of ethnoiogical and zoological specimens to the museum have been both extensive and valuable. In 1912 Doctor Abbott contributed a sum of money to defray the ex- penses of an expedition to Borneo, and annually since then he has added materially to his contributions. Since the last meeting he has given $4,000 for the continuation of these explorations, which are being conducted by Mr. H. C. Raven. The last expedition, which started October 19, 1915, includes the Dutch East Indies, and particu- larly Celebes, from which one shipment has already been received, while a second is on the way. Doctor Abbott’s contributions to these expeditions now totals around $17,000. Formal acknowledgment of these generous gifts has been made. Doctor Abbott's Santo Domingo expedition—Doctor Abbott has but recently returned from a collecting trip through the island of Santo Domingo, West Indies, and has given further evidence of his interest in the National Museum by presenting to it the results of his labors there, viz, 230 anthropological specimens, 70 birds, 60 mam- mals, 20 reptiles, 100 insects, and a collection of mollusks. Doctor Abbott is now preparing for a trip to Haiti. North China expedition—Mr. A. de C. Sowerby is still conducting biological exploration work in Manchuria and northeastern China. This expedition has been financed by a generous friend of the In- stitution who will not permit his name to be known. No detailed report of the work is possible, though it is progressing in a satis- factory manner. The Collins-Garner Congo expedition—An expedition to the French Congo and neighboring parts of Africa has been arranged for the purpose of collecting natural history specimens for the Na- tional Museum. The members of the expedition will be Mr. Alfred M. Collins, of Philadelphia; Mr. Robert L. Garner, Mr. C. W. Fur- long, and Mr. Charles R. W. Aschemeier. Mr. Collins agrees to meet the expenses of the first three gentlemen named, while the Insti- tution will take care of Mr. Aschemeier, who goes as its special rep- resentative. The expedition will leave New York in a few days and is expected to return in about one year. Kitchen midden material—Mr. George Heye, of New York, has presented the Institution with a collection of material from kitchen middens in the West Indies, which contains matter of great interest, including bones of new species of mammals, and additional material is expected. PROCEEDINGS OF REGENTS. 1A Carnegie Corporation gift of $6,000 to International Catalogue of Scientific Literature.—The International Catalogue of Scientific Lit- erature has been confronted with serious financial embarrassment in the issuing of its annual catalogue by the difficulty in collecting sub- scriptions owing to the war in Europe. The Royal Society of Lon- don has been kindly making up deficits until this year, when an appeal for aid was made to the United States. The interest of the Carnegie Corporation of New York was enlisted in the matter and that establishment very generously contributed the sum of $6,000, making possible the publication of the fourteenth annual issue of the catalogue. Cinchona Botanical Station—The British Association for the Ad- vancement of Science, which has maintained the Botanical Labora- tory at Cinchona, Jamaica, for many years, announced some time since that owing to financial difficulties the station would probably have to be closed. This decision was considered by a committee representing 14 American institutions engaged in botanical research, and after dis- cussing the statement of the Jamaica Government that the station would be leased at an annual rental of $250, secured the necessary amount. The committee then concluded that the matter of the lease of the station should be placed in the hands of a widely recognized American scientific establishment, and invited the Smithsonian In- stitution to act as agent in this connection. After consideration, it was decided in the interest of botanical science, to accept the invita- tion, and accordingly the Institution has received the subscriptions of the 14 botanical institutions referred to, totaling $280, and has taken steps to secure the lease. It is understood that all questions re- lating to the admission of investigators will be determined, during the continuance of the European war, by the Colonial Government. ADJOURN MENT. There being no further business to transact, the board adjourned, after which the Regents viewed a small exhibit of anthropological and technological material, illustrating some of the lines along which the Institution works, ae x ety Sere ose aot pier Digits bee ee R nate aks SUARIIEAY SOG manent Pings Nis Thevanisense 0 ‘anol sth) taaoien teint of T—ienk ony sind ts ey kis hae boniniep iors 1Gi i Letaditons aed adidl-ayn tia —_ iiosilos ai i tirateh’ edhe deb yolalas laumiwet! 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Bah > ge Ss Sa = ‘ “5 id a ) 2 Cee 5 GENERAL APPENDIX TO THE SMITHSONIAN REPORT FOR 1917. ADVERTISEMENT. The object of the Genrrat ApreNpIx to the Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution is to furnish brief accounts of scientific dis- covery in particular directions; reports of investigations made by collaborators of the Institution; and memoirs of a general character or on special topics that are of interest or value to the numerous correspondents of the Institution. It has been a prominent object of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, from a very early date, to enrich the annual report required of them by law with memoirs illustrating the more remarkable and important developments in physical and biological discovery, as well as showing the general character of the operations of the Institution; and this purpose has, during the greater part of its history, been carried out largely by the publication of such papers as would possess an interest to all attracted by scientific progress. In 1880 the Secretary, induced in part by the discontinuance of an annual summary of progress which for 30 years previous had been issued by well-known private publishing firms, had prepared by com- petent collaborators a series of abstracts, showing concisely the prominent features of recent scientific progress in astronomy, geol- ogy, meteorology, physics, chemistry, mineralogy, botany, zoology, and anthropology. This latter plan was continued, though not alto- gether satisfactorily, down to and including the year 1888, In the report for 1889 a return was made to the earlier method of presenting a miscellaneous selection of papers (some of them origi- nal) embracing a considerable range of scientific investigation and discussion. This method has been continued in the present report for 1917. 130 PROJECTILES CONTAINING EXPLOSIVES.* By CoMMANDANT A. R. Translated from Revue générale des Sciences pures et appliquées, volume 27, pages 213-221, April 15, 1916, by Charles E. Munroe, The idea of employing powerful explosives as interior charges for projectiles dates from the discovery of guncotton by Schénbein. On the appearance of this substance its explosive power and its insolu- bility in water immediately attracted the attention of the military services of the different countries to it. Up to then black powder only furnished the interior charges for shells and bombs. In France the pyroxylin commission, presided over by the Duke de Montpensier, carried out numerous tests for the purpose of determin- ing the practicability of this material, but repeated explosions, in the bore, of projectiles charged with guncotton caused the abandonment of the researches. It was not until 1886, following the work of Turpin on the priming of picric acid, that the question of charging projectiles with high ex- plosives was taken up again in France, and this led to definite results. I. STATE OF THE QUESTION. The number of explosive substances which have been prepared up to the present time is very considerable. However, in spite of the fact that many of them are employed in the industries, only a very small number of them can be utilized in charging projectiles. Such use is subject to imperative conditions which markedly limit the domain from which one may select an explosive for artillery. A projectile exerts destructive effects on an obstacle either because of the kinetic energy which it possesses at the moment it strikes upon it or because of the energy liberated by the detonation of the interior charge of explosive which it carries. Finally, and if the obstacle is very resistant (such for example as plates of armor protecting the sides of ships), experience shows that the effect produced by the detonation of a charge exploded in contact is, in general, insufficient to cause the 1 Reprinted by permission from the United States Naval Institute Proceedings, Vol. 43, No. 4, Whole No. 170, April, 1917. 131 132 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. rupture of the obstacle. This can not be accomplished except by the passage of the projectile itself through the armor plate. If it is sought to sweep.away obstructions, the potential energy of the ex- plosive charge carried by the projectile should be exercised at this point. ; Inasmuch as a charge of explosive can not be projected to a great distance without its being inclosed in a highly resistant metallic en- velope, it follows that in practice they will always produce simultane- ously the destructive effects of the characters considered above. Finally, one may consider the destruction of the personnel as a prin- cipal purpose in the employment of shells charged with an explosive. In this case one will seek to effect the rupture of the body of the shell into a large number of fragments animated with the highest possible initial velocity. In addition are the notable destructive effects pro- duced by the shock of the explosion wave on the persons who are in close proximity to the center of explosion. It is evident that endeavors will be made to produce the one or the other of these effects. 1. CHARACTERISTICS OF EXPLOSIVES. In order to secure the results of the study we propose it is expedient to study these in detail. We recall at the outset certain elementary views concerning the characteristics essential to explosives. In this regard an explosive is theoretically defined by certain data the chief of which are its force, /’, its potential, Q@, and its rate of detonation. The force is represented by the following expression. — Po Vow: i Dee in which p, represents the atmospheric pressure (which is 1.033 kilos per sq. cm.), V the volume, in liters at 0° C. and 760 millimeters of pressure, of the gaseous products resulting from the explosion of 1 kilogram of the explosive, and 7’ the absolute temperature of the explosion. The potential, @, represents the work corresponding to the in- definite expansion of the above mass of gas. If / designates the mechanical equivalent of heat and g, the heat liberated by the ex- plosion then Q=EqQ. The rate of detonation is that of the propagation of the phenome- non of explosion in traveling through a lead or tin tube filled with the explosive under consideration. +It will be otherwise if it be attempted to project the explosive charge by means of rockets analogous to the old-fashioned war rocket. PROJECTILES CONTAINING EXPLOSIVES—A. R. 133 Finally, the definition of an explosive from the point of view under consideration is completed by a knowledge of its aptitude for deto- nation which is evidenced by its sensitiveness to the blow of a ham- mer of given mass (20 to 30 kilos) falling from a determined height, or by its sensitiveness to detonation by a detonator containing a given weight of mercury fulminate. The following table gives the values for the force and potential pertaining to commonly occurring explosives: F. Q. Ton meters. (i) NGunpow der. samerersee= she S2sse cones ot Boao: | esesgeo ba? | 3, 250 270 @)eMercury iulminate: sx. 22 see ee ee ee el ae 5, 020 173 (SN PRAtaairay OT UTEP aL Oss ne soe ere erctseies oaia rae Cietna ae ole Sens ST Sine salon ie wis see 5,100 267 G@rAmmoniumypicratet ee Seo Ue ee AE IG ES ee IR ee | 7, 940 323 Gy PBicnigacid sane ot acs: ta ee eee eth tee ac eel Bn ate ches bel ee | 9,010 250 (G)yCelluloseendecanitrate (eumecotton) 2s... see ooo ne = ok ee ace oe ot oe | 10, 230 457 @ECelialoseroctonitrate (collodion cotton)... s2---- =a --eaaaceesiasenaceen 8, 360 313 (SE Nitroglycerinssie-- 2222 fh 223: Bissooe ene Pee REE ee er See eee eRe Ben tsa | 10, 560 669 It may be said concerning the velocity of detonation that it attains its Maximum value with crystalline bodies such as picric acid and nitromannite where it is of the order of 7,000 meters per second and falls to about 2,500 meters in liquid and plastic substances such as nitroglycerin and dynamite. If we designate by A the value of the ratio 6/C where 6 represents the weight of explosive contained in volume C and « the covolume? of the mass of gas produced in the explosion (that is to say, the volume limit occupied by this gas under an infinite pressure), Noble and Abel have shown that the pressure, P (in kilos per sq. em.), developed under these conditions on the walls of a receptacle G was defined by the formula fA y Lori San Thos When the density of loading A becomes equal or superior to 1/z, the denominator of P becomes zero, and the pressure is infinite. Re- sistant as the envelope containing the explosive may be, it is then ruptured and the débris projected. The interior of a projectile being supposedly filled with the ex- plosive constituting the charge if its density is greater than 1/ the preceding conditions are evidently fulfilled. 1 Sarrau has shown that the value of a@ is for all gases very nearly V/1000. 65133°—sm 1917. 10 134 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. Noble and Abel’s formula supposes implicity that the composition of the gaseous products, and as a consequence the covolume of the entire mass, remain invariable whatever the pressure is. As a fact it is not so in most cases because of the operation of the principle of the displacement of the equilibrium. In virtue of this principle the increase of the pressure of the mass of gas causes, when the change is possible, the formation of more and more condensed compounds and, in consequence, the diminution of the covolume. Tt follows that the limit value of 1/A can be such that it will always remain less than « Hence the pressure can not become infinite. This is the case for guncotton. The increase in the proportion of the condensed products is, on the other hand, generally explained by the correlative augmentation of the quantity of heat disengaged, ¢,, and of the temperature, 7, of the explosion. The force will then increase with the density of the charge. This is that which takes place in the case of picric acid. From the standpoint of variations in the phenomena of detonation it may be said generally that the ability of an explosive to effect the rupture of its envelope is above all determined by an elevated value for its force and for its rate of detonation. Its destructive effect is chiefly a function of the magnitude of its heat, g, or contra, of its potential. 2. EFFECTS OF THE DETONATION OF EXPLOSIVES. This summary of the theoretical views being disposed of we take up the description of the effects of detonation. We will suppose at the outset that the explosive is subjected to detonation in free air or when contained in a feebly resistant envelope. On explosion the gaseous mass which is produced expands in the direction of least resistance; that is to say, from below upward. This projection of the gas is accompanied with a violent aspiration of the layers of air in the vicinity of the ground, which aspiration is indicated by a brusque depression of the barometer whose intensity diminishes rapidly as the distance from the explosion center increases. Under the influence of this depression the air confined in near-by inclosures tends to es- cape outward and projects in that direction weakly resistant sides such as doors, windows, roofs and the like. The effect appears much as if a charge had been exploded within the inclosure. Under the action of this movement of masses of air animated with a high horizontal velocity the layers near the periphery of the gase- ous mass produced by the explosion, and which are animated with a vertical movement, acquire at times a most complete vortex motion. At the same time that this gaseous flow, which is often in a vertical direction, is set up, the detonation engenders a shock wave whose ve- PROJECTILES CONTAINING EXPLOSIVES—A. R. 135 locity of propagation is at first much greater than that of sound, but which rapidly diminishes until it becomes the same as sound. There is thus produced an interruption of continuity and we know that in this case the difference in pressure existing at the front of the wave and the medium in which the latter is propagated may attain to a very notable value. Numerous researches have been made on this subject in France and elsewhere. The more recent have been carried out by the commission on explosivest which has recognized that the limiting radius, 7, of dangerous effects by the wave could be represented by the formula 7=KV/C in which 7 represents a length expressed in meters, (’ the weight of the charge in kilograms, and A’ a constant dependent on the nature of the explosive and the degree of security sought. It follows from this that for different charges the distances at which corresponding mechanical effects are produced are proportional to the square roots of the weights of the charges. The detonation of 100 kilograms of melinite, for example, gave rise to a shock wave at whose surface there existed a pressure greater than 10 kilograms per square centimeter for a distance of 7 meters about the center of explosion. At 10 meters the pressure was between 2 and 3 kilograms, and at 15 meters it had fallen to less than one-half kilogram. Regarding the velocity of propagation of this wave we find it to have been 800 meters per second in the vicinity of the center of explosion, 635 meters at 5 meters farther away, 360 meters at a distance of 50 meters, and then down to 250 meters per second, which is the velocity of sound. It follows from the preceding that a person located at some meters from the explosive charge will first be struck by the pressure from the shock wave, which will be followed by a sharp and sudden depression and movement of the air at high velocity toward the center of the explosion. A fortuitous circumstance, recorded by M. Arnoux, has enabled us quite recently to elucidate the order of magnitude of this depression and to explain by the same the probable mechanism in numerous cases" of dead bearing no apparent wounds which have been observed on the battlefield. Last January M. Arnoux received from a superior officer at the front a pocket aneroid barometer which had been put out of service by the explosion of a German shell at a distance of about three meters from the instrument. On examination its parts were found intact but it could not register because the two transmission levers con- 1Memorial des Poudres et Salpétres, 1905-6. Etude des effets 4 distance des explo- sions. M. Lheure, rapporteur. 136 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. nected with the indicating needle no longer rested on the other lever but had passed below. It was immediately apparent that this con- dition could have been caused only by an abnormal dilation of the aneroid system due to a considerable barometric depression. Under these circumstances the instrument had registered a pressure much below the minimum pressure inscribed on its graduated are. After having put the two levers in place the instrument was placed under the bell of an air pump and exposed to the vacuum. It was found that the two levers changed positions when the pressure on the interior had fallen to 410 millimeters of mercury. It was concluded that the explosion of the shell produced in its vicinity a static de- pression of 760—410=350 millimeters of mercury. From the aerodynamic formulas it appears that the immediate production of this depression will give birth to a wind having a ve- locity of 276 meters per second and which will produce a dynamic pressure of 10,360 kilograms per square meter on a plane surface normal to the direction of its propagation. Such a rush of air would overturn and crush to earth persons ex- posed to it. Those escaping would nevertheless suffer from the brusque depression, reckoned above, which would follow. Owing to this the air and carbon dioxide dissolved in the blood will be imme- diately set free in small bubbles, and, if their diameters are larger than those of the small arteries, they will form gaseous plugs which will instantly arrest the circulation of the blood in these arteries and death will occur before the re-solution in the blood on the res- toration of the pressure to normal. The passage of the sound wave at the outset of its formation can also rupture the eardrum, but its duration is extremely brief as compared with that of the following depression. Tn all of the foregoing there has been only the single question of the mechanical effects due to the passage of the explosive from the solid to the gaseous state. The occurrences of the war have thrown light on the pathological rdle which the gases produced or liberated in detonation have come to play. Without wishing to enter on the study of projectiles designed for asphyxiation of the enemy we may remark that most of the nitro explosives employed in charging shell disengage notable proportions of carbon monoxid. Although the toxic power of this gas is relatively great, it may be observed here that it is not freed except when the explosion occurs out of contact with the air. This will, for example, be the case where a projectile is buried and exploded in the earth or a shell is exploded in a habi- tation of small size. In all other cases the carbon monoxid is imme- diately burned by the oxygen of the air in such manner that in reality only carbon dioxid is observed. It is known that man can a PROJECTILES CONTAINING EXPLOSIVES—A. R. bisi/ continue to live in an atmosphere containing a very large proportion of this latter gas. Let us now examine the nature of the phenomena produced by the rupture of the metallic envelop constituting the body of the shell. Different cases are distinguished according as to whether the,body consists of cast iron or of steel. In the first case the metal is, as it were, pulverized by the explosive. The metallic powder produced by the explosion is projected with a great velocity; but, as the mass of the pieces is extremely small, they rapidly lose their velocity; in fact they have no efficiency after a course of a few meters. By reducing the ratio of the weight of the charge to that of the projectile one can, it is true, somewhat improve the fragmentation. They can not, however, obtain a satisfactory result except by reduc- ing the weight of the charge to such an extent that the effects of the blast and the momentum of the fragments become in themselves insufficient. In addition to secure the necessary conditions of safety the walls of the cast-iron shell must be thicker than those of the steel shell, from which it results that the former is inferior to the latter from all points of view. The rupture of the steel envelop is effected from the beginning in a totally different manner from cast iron. If the body of the shell is thin, it is torn into strips of relatively light weight. The destructive effect from the action of the gas on loose soil manifests itself in the production of a cavity having the form of an elongated ellipsoid whose longer axis will be perpendicular to the horizontal projection of the trajectory. The difference in length of the two axes diminishes, other things being equal, the greater the depth to which the projectile has penetrated the ground before its explosion. When the walls of the projectile are thicker the fragmentation changes in character and they note the production in place of the preceding chamfer strips, of fragments of irregular form, the aver- age weight of which increases with the ratio of the weight of the projectile to that of its charge. For a given projectile the size of the pieces furnished by any part of it varies with the thickness of the walls at that point. The velocity of these pieces naturally varies inversely as their weight. This may be measured with the wire screens and the chronographs. The results obtained will be but average indications and often will be very inexact on account of the fact that the wires of the screen targets are sometimes broken by the shock wave before they. can be cut by the fragments. Accepting this necessary condition it has been observed that the velocity of the fragments reaches and may surpass 1,200 meters per second when using a shell with thin walls. 138 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. The fragments of the ogival and base will be thrown with less velocity but nevertheless they will have a velocity greater than the residual velocity of the projectile. el ARRANGEMENTS OF THE EXPLOSIVE PROJECTILE. The arrangement and proportioning of the parts of the explosive- containing projectile determine the functions it is to play. It may be required for the demolition and dispersion of weak defenses situated close at hand, and then thin-walled projectiles carrying large charges of explosives would be made use of, and as their re- sistance to the effects in firing is not great they would be discharged under low pressures. In order to augment their range and penetration hey would be fired at high angles near to or greater than 45°. It is advantageous to use for this short caliber pieces such as obuses or mortars. If it is desired to produce destructive effects at great distances, the weight of the projectile and consequently the caliber will be increased. In case of unusually great distances, such as 20 kilometers or more, quite long cannon and high initial velocities must be em- ployed. These guns are fired under high pressures and it is necessary to reinforce the walls of the projectiles to an equal caliber and reduce the interior explosive charge. The considerations of a general nature relative to shell having been treated of, it remains to discuss those relative to the choosing of the explosive and the fixing of the charge. 1. CONDITIONS OF LOADING. Industrial explosives are generally used in cartridges or sticks which are placed in bore holes in the interior of the material that is to be blown up. They are not, therefore, exposed to any violence. The explosive charge of a shell must, on the contrary, endure the forces of inertia, translation, and rotation due to accelerations origi- nating in the chamber of the piece. For the purpose of showing the magnitude of these forces we will take as an example the shell of a cannon of 75. This projectile is subjected during firing to a minimum acceleration of the order of 200,000 meters per second, -Its ratio to g (acceleration due to its weight) being about 20,000, it results that the particular material contained in the shell develops at the moment of firing under inertia an effect directed toward the base of the shell equal to about 20,000 times its weight. The height of the shell cavity occupied by the charge being on the average about 20 centimeters, it follows, if we designate the specific FROJECTILES CONTAINING EXPLOSIVES—A. R. 139 gravity of the explosive by 8, that the pressure in kilograms per square centimeter exerted by the charge on the base of the projectile 203 20,000 - is equal to ——————— which is 4008. Taking 6 as equal to 1.5, it 1,000 results that the effort tending to crush the column of explosive as the projectile starts from rest proceeds in increasing progression from the point toward the base-where in contact with the latter it amounts to 600 kilograms per square centimeter. On the other hand, under the influence of the rifling the projectile acquires a motion of rotation whose maximum velocity at the instant of leaving the bore is about 300 revolutions per second, and this angu- lar velocity corresponds to a circumferential velocity of the inside walls of about 50 meters per second. These figures show the magnitude of the forces to which the ex- plosive material of the charge is subjected depending on the duration of the blow from the cannon. It by this becomes obvious that a powerful explosive which has been used on a large scale in the mining industry and in rock work is nevertheless unfit for use in charging projectiles. However, we now know the precise conditions that an artillery explosive must satisfy. Regarding these characteristics, the most important is that the force and rate of detonation shall be as large as possible. It has been observed that this last requirement implies the use of crystalline substances, but it should be stated that the realization of this de- sideratum is, notwithstanding, secondary, since experience has shown that a satisfactory detonation can be obtained with plastic substances if a detonator capable of imparting a sufficiently high velocity is used. In order to insure safety in firing, the explosive should be capable of resisting the effects of inertia which are developed in the chamber of the piece. If it be a solid—and this is generally the case—it should be absolutely compact in structure and should adhere strongly to the walls of the shell. The meeting of this last condition is necessary in order to prevent the friction of the charge resulting from a difference in speed of rotation between the shell and its explosive due to the inertia of the latter. The compactness of loading tends to prevent compression and shock on the interior of the explosive mass following the travel of the projectile through the bore. The adhesion of the explosive to the walls of the shell can be determined at the outset by following the method used in loading cartridges in which the explosive, instead of being placed directly in the cavity in the shell, is first enveloped in thin sheet -metal or cardboard and, thus surrounded, is introduced into the chamber of the shell after the walls have been coated with 140 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. a layer of vaseline or paraffin. If the interior of the cartridge is firmly partitioned off by resistant diaphragms, these will also tend to protect the charge from the friction due to its inertia to rotation. The use of a simple cartridge in metal or cardboard appears to be advisable in all cases, but particularly for base-loading shells of large capacity. It is possible to build up the charge by the aid of several separate cartridges and by this means avoid the difficulties encountered in seeking to obtain, through fusion, a long column of perfectly homo- geneous explosive. In all cases this rids ene of the serious incon- venience which results from the fused explosive running into the space between the projectile and its base plug. It also prevents dust from the explosive getting into the threads of the plug or into the fuse device. If the explosive be formed by mixing a solid and a liquid, these will be found evidently the best conditions from the point of view of safety, since under these circumstances abnormal heating of an isolated point will be much less likely to occur and all friction of solid on solid will be avoided. But, on the other hand, another in- convenience presents itself, viz, J, the acceleration of translation to which the charge is subjected at the instant the projectile starts on its travel of the bore. It follows as a result of this acceleration that the difference between the apparent specific gravities of the solid and liquid components of the explosive is multiplied by J. There is then shown a tendency of the explosive to separate into its two compo- nents, following the axis of the projectile, at the moment of departure from the gun. In order for such an explosive to be acceptable it is necessary that the difference in the specific gravities of its compo- nents shall be as small as possible. One may theoretically consider the uses of liquid explosives such as Sprengel’s (dinitrobenzene and nitric acid, F=9949) or one of the panclastites of Turpin (nitrobenzene and hyponitrous acid; F=10,860; naphthalene and hyponitrous acid; *=11,700). In this case the question of safety on departure appears completely assured ; but the intimate mixing of the components of the mixture will not be effected unless they are miscible. 2. PRINCIPAL EXPLOSIVES UTILIZED. As a rule, up to the present, only those solid explosives composed of nitrated derivatives of the aromatic series have been used as charges for artillery projectiles.t It is expedient now to study the properties 17The Austrian artillery appears to have tentatively used the mixture of ammonium nitrate and aluminum known as ammonal, but the sensitiveness to percussion and fric- tion of explosives having an Al base appears to have led to its discontinuance. PROJECTILES CONTAINING EXPLOSIVES—A. R. 141 of those bodies that are utilized to-day, which are picric acid, tri- nitrocresol, trinitrotoluene, trinitronaphthalene, and the mixture of ammonium nitrate and dinitronaphthalene known as Favier’s explo- ive. There will be added also some bodies of the same series which appear susceptible of use, but of which we have no example. 1.. Picrie acid—Picrie acid or trinitrophenol (melinite, lyddite, schimose) occurs in small yellow crystals which possess a strong coloring power. It is but shghtly soluble in water at ordinary tem- perature, but this solubility increases as the temperature is raised. It is readily soluble in acetone. Melinite is fused at about 122° C. Tts reactions are acid and it forms with metals (save tin) crystalline salts of marked color. Speaking generally the picrates are markedly explosive and they are the more unstable the heavier the metal which enters into their constitution. Lead picrate is especially dangerous. Tron picrate is much less so and its explosion in use can not occur if the explosive is moist. In order to prevent its formation the walls of the projectiles are so varnished or coated with plating as to pre- vent their direct contact with the explosive. It follows that because of the dangerous character of the lead picrate the tin used with which to coat the walls of the shell should be extremely pure. The care to be taken in avoiding, in the course of charging, the production of picrates is of the first importance and it is not to be overlooked as a factor in deciding against picric acid in comparison with those which follow it. Picric acid may be detonated in several ways. That detonation of it which is called “ complete” is characterized by the production of dense black fumes holding free carbon in suspension in them. In the detonation styled “incomplete” the explesion gases have a greenish-yellow color and at the same time they deposit a layer of undecomposed explosive on the surrounding objects. The energy set free in the complete is greater than in the incomplete detonation. The reactions attending these two methods of detonation are approximately as follows: Complete detonation 2C,H,(NO,);0H—-8CO+3C0O,+3H,+3N,+C. Incomplete detonation 2C,H,(NO,);0H—11C0+CO,+H,0+2H,+3N,. Tt is evident that in the case of a reaction effected by detonation in an extremely resistant envelope the consideration of the products will, in virtue of the displacement of the equilibrium, give prin- cipally those shown in the first equation. Admitting there is obtained under an infinite pressure the maxi- mum condensation represented by the equation 4C,H,(NO,),0H->14C0,+3CH,+7C 142 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. the corresponding potential equals 573™ which is much in excess of that characterizing the first reaction given above. These reactions correspond in effect to the following: Complete detonation. Incomplete detonation. 7, =328 liters. 877 liters. t=2,832° C. 2,634° C. F=9,780. 9,682. d—0.837. 0.877. Potential=371 ton meters. 323 ton meters. The velocity of detonation of cores of melinite inclosed in lead or tin envelopes is about 7,000 meters per second. Dautriche, with very powerful primers, has obtained a velocity of 7,645 meters per second. Although the properties of fused picric acid were known before the time of Turpin, yet it is to this inventor we owe its utilization as a military explosive. Turpin has devised that form and dis- position of detonator which has insured its complete detonation. His process consists essentially in causing the mercury fulminate de- tonator to act on pulverulent picric acid. The detonation of this last brings about the detonation of the fused explosive. We have seen that the strong adhesion of the charge of explosive to the walls of the projectile is an essential condition to security in firmg. From this standpoint melinite is above all most satisfactory. Tt is estimated that more than 20 kilograms per square centimeter of effort is necessary to effect the separation of a mass of melinite from the metallic walls to which it has been fused. This adhesion appears to increase markedly for some days after fusion. It is always greater than the cohesion of the explosive. The fusing of the explosive in order to run it into the projectile is generally effected in a water bath which is a thermosiphon. Since melinite increases in volume at the moment of solidification, experience shows that, as a consequence, cavities may be formed in the interior of the charge of the projectiles. Practice has supplied suggestions by which this serious defect may be overcome. An essential precaution consists in preventing the presence of the melin- ite in the thread of the nose fuse. Its presence on the outside of the fuse or in its threads may cause a premature explosion. * Picric acid is obtained by nitrating phenol. To obtain a uniform product, the crystalline phenol should fuse at 39° C. This sub- stance is obtained in the distillation, between 150° and 200° C., of gas tar. It can be obtained synthetically through the oxidation of benzene, the series of operations being as follows: The benzene is treated at first with concentrated sulphuric acid. Milk of lime is added in excess to neutralize the acid. The solution is then treated with sodium carbonate to form the sodium-benzene-sulpho- nate (NaSO,C,H,). This is evaporated to a sirup with addition of PROJECTILES CONTAINING EXPLOSIVES—A. R. 143 soda and fused, when sodium phenolate is formed which is decom- posed with sulphuric acid to set the phenol (carbolic acid) free, which is separated by ether and purified by distillation. This purified phenol is treated with 66° B. sulphuric acid and then with 37° B. nitric acid. The picric acid formed is purified by repeatedly washing it with water and draining. 2. Trinitrotoluene (tolite, trotyl).—This body appears. in the form of small yellow crystals which fuse about 81°. Though insoluble in water, it is very soluble in benzene and toluene. While melinite reacts markedly, acid trinitrotoluene is completely neutral. It does not therefore act upon the-metals in which it is put. It is more agreeable than melinite to handle since its dust is not irritating. It is less sensitive to shock but is also a little less powerful than picric acid (7=8,680). When fused it adheres strongly to the walls of thé vessel in which it is contained. But tolite presents the disadvantage of “piping” markedly at the moment of solidification. Its rate of detonation is about 10 per cent less than that of picric acid. Tolite is usually prepared by trinitrating toluene directly with a concentrated sulphuric-nitric acid mixture. The reaction begins at 40° and ends at 105°; it being heated from five to six hours. Tolite is primed in the same manner as melinite, but it detonates violently in the open air under the influence of a mercury fulminate detonator only. It is employed in the manufacture of cordeaux detonants by inclosing in lead tubes. It is the explosive most com- monly employed by the Germans in charging their projectiles. 3. Nitrocresols (eresylites or cresylol commercial).—Cresol is a product of tar distillation which is obtained between 185° and 210°. It is a mixture of three isomers, the proportions of which are very variable. Cresol is nitrated just as phenol is but the trinitrocresol only is used, and this is really the trinitrometacresol which possesses properties analogous to those of picric acid. It is a yellow substance which in all regards is more disagreeable to handle than picric acid, for its dust is more irritating and its vapors more suffocating. Its process of manufacture is similar to that of picric acid. As an explosive it is a little less powerful than melinite. This is easily understood when we recall that it contains a large excess of carbon and hydrogen and that its combustion is consequently less complete. Mixed with pure melinite in the proportions of 60 per cent trinitrocresol to 40 per cent picric acid, there is obtained the explosive known in France as cresylite 60/40. This mixture, which is obtained by fusion under water, melts at about 85°, but at 65° it is sufficiently plastic to permit of its being compressed into charges which, on cooling, are compact, amorphous, and very homo- Ad. ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. bet geneous. Charges are thus obtained which are free from piping. It is this valuable property which justifies the use of the nitrocresols in charging projectiles. In spite of the fact that cresylite 60/40 has less force (8,380) than picric acid, its rate of detonation (7,485 meters per second) is practically the same as the latter. Like the trinitrophenol the trinitrocresol has an acid function. It forms salts analogous to the picrates and these are explosive. The ammonium cresylate only is sufficiently insensitive to shock to permit of its military use. In Austria it has been used in charging shell under the name of ecrasite and its power, though inferior to that of melinite or cresylite, is superior to that of dynamite No. 1. 4, Trinitronaphthalene or naphtite (C,,H,(NO,),).—Trinitro- naphthalene is a clear yellow substance which is only slightly soluble in water, but is soluble in acetic acid and chloroform. Its sensitive- ness to shock is very much less than that of melinite but it re- quires a very powerful detonator with which to effect its detonation. When ignited it burns, without explosions, with a smoky flame, and it resists the shock of impact of small-arm projectiles. It is prepared by nitrating the mononitro or dinitronaphthalenes as a mixture of three isomeric trinitronaphthalenes which fuse about 110°. At present naphtite is but little used as shell charges because of the difficulty of detonating it as mentioned above. It, however, is a powerful explosive, which, exploded in a bomb under the density of loading of A=0.8, gives a pressure of 3,275 kilograms per square centimeter. 5. Favier explosives and schneiderite—The Favier explosives have an ammonium nitrate base to which a slightly nitrated hydrocarbon (which is therefore but slightly explosive) is added. The ammonium nitrate itself being an explosive which is quite insensitive, the mix- ture obtained is remarkably insensitive, but its ignition temperature is relatively quite low. This union of properties explains its employ- nent in coal mines as a safety explosive. The mixture of ammonium nitrate 90 per cent with mononitronaphthalene 10 per cent, con- stitutes schneiderite employed at Creusot for filling shell. It is a powerful explosive which is characterized by a force of 8,400 units and a potential of 415 ton meters. Its normal rate of detonation, as determined by M. Dautriche, was 3,585 meters per second for the pulverulent explosive. It has been said above that Favier explosives are but very slightly sensitive to shock and thus schneiderite has been found to resist the impact of a projectile or the blow from a very heavy weight and, when placed on the rail, a cartridge of this substance was not ex- PROJECTILES CONTAINING EXPLOSIVES—A. R. 145 ploded by the passage of a train. These properties imply the neces- sity of using a very powerful detonator with which to provoke its detonation. 6. Benzite (C,H,(NO,),)—Benzite or trinitrobenzene is a white crystalline body which, when pure, fuses at 121°-122°. Although as powerful as melinite1 it is very much less sensitive to shock than the latter. Moreover, it does not attack metais and, when compressed, it acquires a density of 1.67. Finally its rate of detonation, of the order of 7,000 meters per second, is equal to that of picric acid. Trinitrobenzene is an extremely interesting body because of its various properties. Unfortunately its price is so high as to Hmit its use. Thus far it has not been employed except to lower the melt- ing point and increase the plasticity of tolite. It is prepared by oxidizing trinitroteluene with potassium di- chromate in sulphuric acid solution by which trinitrobenzoic acid is formed, and this on treatment with boiling water splits off the CO, group yielding the trinitrobenzene. The chrome alum formed, and which remains in the sulphuric acid liquor, is recovered by con- centration and crystallization and is again converted into the di- chromate. 7. Nitro derivatives of aniline—Aniline (C,H,NH,) is capable of furnishing a series of explosives that may be employed in charg- ing projectiles. We will examine some of the more interesting of them. The tetranitraniline appears as a crystalline body very similar to picric acid. It is prepared by heating the metanitraniline at 80° with concentrated mixed acids. It is an extremely powerful explo- sive, very stable and contains 25.6 per cent of nitrogen. Its abso- lute density, 1.867, is relatively very high. It is partially decom- posed on heating at a temperature which depends on the manner in which the increase in temperature in a given time has been effected. Thus, if the rate of increase is 5° per minute the decomposition be- gins at 216°-217°. This does not give rise to explosion. While in- soluble in water at ordinary temperatures, it is very soluble in ace- tone. It does not attack metals. By reason of this assemblage of properties tetranitraniline appears to be most advantageous for use. Another nitro derivative of aniline which is equally interesting from our standpoint is tetryl. This body which is tetranitromethyl- aniline (C,H,(NO,),NNO,CH,) contains 24.2 per cent of nitrogen. More powerful than guncotton or melinite it is less so than tetra- nitraniline. According to Lieutenant Colonel Koehler its heat of ~ 1 According to M. Dautriche, the power of benzite is 5 per cent greater than that of picric acid, 146 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. formation is—40.8 cals. Hence tetryl is an endothermic compound and this explains in part the power of this explosive. It is easily prepared by acting on methylaniline sulphate with mixed acids. It appears at present to be used only in the manufacture of cordeaux detonants. Many of the properties it exhibits tend to show it to be well fitted for use in shell charges. We may note, however, that its price, as well as that of the preceding explosive, is greater than that of picric acid. GOLD AND SILVER DEPOSITS IN NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA.1 By WALDEMAR LINDGREN, Boston, Massachusetts. I. INTRODUCTION. Ar the time of the discovery of America the Old World had a scant supply of the precious metals. Both the northern and the southern parts of the new continent proved wonderfully rich in gold Arctlo Circle Equator Tropic of Capricorn DISTRIBUTION OF GOLD AND SILVER DEPOSITS N 1 NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA SX, Antarctic Clrole aes 8s Oe Re ee Longitude 120° West from 60° Greenwich 5 Fig 1. and silver, and its treasures were eagerly looted; though the looting has lasted four centuries, the mines of its mountain chains are far from being exhausted. Even the later discoveries in Australasia and =) 1 Read at the Second Pan-American Scientific Congress, Washington, District of Colum- bia, Jan. 8, 1916, and at the Arizona meeting, September, 1916, of the American Insti- tute of Mining Engineers. Reprinted by permission from transactions of the Institute, Vol. 55, pp. 883-909 (1917). 147 148 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. eastern Siberia could not rob the Western Hemisphere of its posi- tion as the greatest gold and silver producing region of the world, though finally the developments in a narrow and circumscribed area in South Africa wrested from the Americas their supremacy in the production of gold. Nevertheless, the history of the two parts of the great western continent has been strikingly different. At first the Spaniards ex- tracted vast treasures of silver from Mexico, Peru, and Bolivia, while Colombia and some placer deposits in Peru yielded a smaller quan- tity of gold. A couple of centuries later a stream of gold began to flow from Brazil, the silver production from the countries mentioned above continuing strong in the meanwhile. Later on, the yield of South America diminished, but to offset this there began a wonder- ful series of discoveries in North America. The gold fields of Cali- fornia astonished the world; and when the cream of these had been skimmed off there began a no less amazing development of the cen- tral cordilleran gold and silver districts, which soon made the United States the greatest producer of the precious metals. Aided by ever improving technique, extensive exploration, and a system of rail- roads, the yield was maintained and increased. Still later followed the discoveries of the gold fields of the arctic region and silenced those who had maintained that the zenith in gold production had passed. Recently the Province of Ontario in eastern Canada rose unexpectedly with offerings of the richest silver ores the world has known, and with new and at first doubtfully accepted gold fields. Chile and Bolivia in the middle of the last century added some rich silver mines to their long list of mining districts, and later placer gold began to be extracted in large quantities from the Guianas, but on the whole no such sensational finds were made in the southern continent as had marked the recent history of the northern part, and in many regions the mining of the precious metals fell into a rut, the production being barely maintained or diminished slowly. The latest events indicate an awakening, and a stimulus under the influ- ence of which the production of South America is gradually increas- ing. Large amounts of silver are extracted from copper ores by operations on a large scale, and dredges dig up the gold of Colombia and Tierra del Fuego. Tt can not be doubted that the total yield of the northern continent of gold and silver is larger than that of the southern part. a oe : ay Wrens d Ty ovale inp» Bitte ar fem ao oat he ss Bl wo re Meet - 4, Pee iit nea» rae iad) - - ; i Aches sees pels a beats. meat ees hee” — we al (et) ive. ; MT) ' } She. Shs . Hl eee . err - . ) Golishy, yeearvis ne Ne Pann beers vo : vy ced Sa (onetee Sah AVE) S OES Pear ‘ir oe oe eet vr Pi'yeeeall ie eee d ast j t ii, Myatt: oon di frees porineres rahe) t 1 ee oy A A os fe rar : ih inn ™~ ‘ oh = - ey - on ee) a series aN Asha op we te X alin, icieh on . at) } pian ‘ uy } Bey ya i yaronrenys THE COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF METEORITES COMPARED WITH THAT OF TERRESTRIAL ROCKS:.! By GerorcE P. MERRILL, Head Curator of Geology, U. S. National Museum. (With 9 plates.) The name “meteorite” is applied to masses of stone and iron which occasionally find their way to the earth from space. They are the tangible evidences of the identity of matter in the meteor or shooting star with that of our sphere. Their fall, if such it can properly be called, is accompanied by a rush and roar like that attendant upon the swift flight of any solid body through the atmos- phere. Almost invariably, also, there is an explosion or series of explosions giving rise to sounds comparable to the firing of musketry or heavy cannonading. Falls occurring after sundown are usually accompanied by a trail of light ) which is due to combustion caused by the pressure of the atmosphere. Few accurate illustrations of falls are available, since the brief time occupied by the phenomenon gives little opportunity for photograph or sketch and too much is left to the imagination to make them of Fic. 1.—Sronr METEORITE, BATH FuR- value. Those here given (pl. 1) uae ae are of falls which took place near Quenggouk in India in 1857 and in Knyahinya in 1866. The meteorite as found, if a stone, pre- sents almost invariably a thin, glassy, dark colored crust, which is due to the fusion of the meteorite on its outer surface and the rapid cool- ing which ensues on its reaching the ground. In many instances, it is beautifully fluted by this stripping off of the fused material in its flight through the atmosphere, as shown in the stone which fell near Bath Furnace, Kentucky, 1903 (fig. 1). » Although it is estimated that thousands and even millions of these bodies come into our. atmosphere every day, but few of them reach 1 Adapted from a lecture delivered before the Geological Society of Washington. 175 176 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. the earth in recognizable form, being entirely consumed, while of those that do survive but a comparatively small number are ever found. Ward, in his summary of 1904, gave the number of distinct falls and finds recorded, and of which specimens have actually been held in human hands, as 815. The total weight of meteoric matter annually added to our earth, a considerable part of it probably as mere meteoric dust, has been estimated at 100,000 tons. Meteorites, as they come to us, are unquestionably fragments. In many instances, perhaps in most instances, their final breaking up took place after entering our atmosphere, and to this is due the explosion which is an almost invariable accompaniment of a meteoric fall. The smallest recorded meteorite constituting an entire fall is that of Miihlau in Austria, which weighed 5 grams; the largest is the monster iron brought by Commander Peary from Cape York, Greenland, in 1897 and which weighed some 37} tons. Second only to this is the so-called Bacubirito iron, a large, scalelike mass lying in Sinaloa, western Mexico, which may perhaps weigh 15 to 20 tons. Both of these, it will be noted, are irons. The largest known indi- vidual meteoric stone is that of Knyahinya, Hungary, which weighed 293.5 kilos or 645 pounds. All meteorites thus far found are unquestionably of igneous origin. Tt is customary to divide them upon lithological grounds into three classes which merge into one another, however, by all gradations. These are: (1) Those of an almost purely metallic nature, composed mainly of nickel-iron with nickel and iron phosphides and sulphides which are known as siderites. The Casas Grandes iron, weighing some 3,407 pounds (pl. 2) is a good example of this type. (2) Those consisting of a spongy mass of iron inclosing silicate minerals and’ known as stony irons, siderolites, or pallasites, like that of Mount Vernon, Kentucky (pl. 3). (8) Those which are essentially stony throughout and known as meteoric stones or aerolites of which that of Modoc, Kansas (fig. 1, pl. 4), is a good illustration. These classes T will consider in the order given, but will first refer briefly to the kinds of elementary matter the meteorites contain and their form of chemical combination. Out of the more than 40 elements that have been reported as found in meteorites, the presence of the following, named in alphabetical order, may be considered as fairly well established: Aluminum, argon, calcium, carbon, chlorine, chromium, cobalt, copper, helium, hydrogen, iridium, iron, magnesium, manganese, nickel, nitrogen, oxygen, palladium, phosphorus, platinum, potassium, radium, ruth- enium, silicon, sodium, sulphur, titanium, and vanadium. These are all constitutents of our own sphere also, though their mode of combination is in some eases radically different. In the list given below, the minerals of meteorites are divided into essential and acces- Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Merrill. PLATE lI. |. SKETCH OF FALLING METEORITE AT QUENGGOUK, INDIA, IN I[857. Sitzungsbericht der Kk. Akad. der Wiss. 1862. 2. SKETCH OF FALLING METEORITE AT KNYAHINYA, HUNGARY, IN I866. Sitzungsbericht der kK. Akad. der Wiss. 1866. "SATINGON 3LITIONL GNV S3ayuNDI4 N3LLVISNVWGIAA OSNIMOHS AWVS 4O 39IN1G GAHOLA—'G “SI4 ‘OOIXAIN “SHGNVYS5 SvSVO ‘NOY| DIYOSLAIA] JO SSVINI—'| "DIF G ALWId "H4®W—'ZL6L ‘Hodey uvjuosyzWS "NOY] OIMIVLSIW JO HHOMLAN VY NI (4YVQ) SANIAIIO DNIMOHS AWS JO 3911S GaHSsII0d—"Z "SI "AM ‘NONYSA LNNOW ‘aLIsvIqWd—| “DI ‘€ SLW1d "44AWW— ZL6L ‘Hodey uBjuosYyzIWS Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Merrill. PLATE 4. Fic. 1.—STONY METEORITE, Mopoc, KANS. Fic. 2.—POLISHED SLICE OF BASALT SHOWING METALLIC GRANULES IN SILICATE BASE. STRUCTURE OF METEORITES—MERRILL. iva! sory, including under the first term those constituting any essential part and the presence or absence of which affects them fundamentally ; while the accessory minerals include those occurring in smaller and usually inconsequential quantities. The essential minerals then are: Nickel-iron, olivine, orthorhombic and monoclinic pyroxenes, plagio- clase feldspar, maskelynite, and iron sulphides.. The accessories are: Carbon, either amorphous or as graphite and the diamond; chrom- ite, cohenite, daubreelite; the gases carbon monoxide and dioxide, hydrogen and nitrogen; lawrencite, magnetite, oldhamite, osbornite, schreibersite; a calcium phosphate to which the name of merrillite has been given, and tridymite. In addition there is occasionally a small amount of undifferentiated glass. Concerning these minerals a few explanatory remarks seem necessary, since several of the com- pounds are little or quite unknown among terrestrial rocks. The metallic iron of meteorites invariably carries nickel and cobalt in amounts varying from 4 to 20 per cent of the former and 0.5 to 2 per cent of the latter. The nearest approach to this composition in terrestrial irons is found in the awaruite of New Zealand, which con- tains 67.63 per cent of nickel and 31.02 per cent of iron, and joseph- inite of Oregon which carries theoretically 72.42 per cent of nickel and 27.58 per cent of iron. The Ovifak, Greenland, iron, a constituent of basalt, carries at the maximum only between 6 and 7 per cent nickel. Perhaps the most interesting feature on the part of most meteoric irons is an apparent tendency to separate on crystallizing into alloys of more or less definite composition which owing to their varying solubility give rise to well-defined and characteristic mark- ings known as Widmanstiitten figures when a polished surface is treated with dilute acid. These alloys were studied by Reichenbach in 1861, who gave to them the name balkenseisen or kamacite, band- eisen or taenite and filleisen or plessite, the last named being prob- ably a mixture of the other two. The following analyses of kamacite and taenite from the iron of Welland, Canada, were made by Prof. Davison, of Rochester: Constituents. | Ramee, Taenite. Ww | Per cent. Per cent. HART = Lite iSeries SA ge ene i ea MCE? Lane yay. 93. 09 74.78 ING Kel een ree enna Rete Set CR RS oo URN mani bnasieisiniete sic Qa mm — 42 miles ————> (ROSALIND BANK FUNAFUTI ATOLL Fic, 14.—Typns oF Wrst INDIAN SUBLITTORAL PROFILES AND PROFILE OF FUNAFUTI ATOLL. group, Murea, Huaheine, Raiatea, Bora-Bora, etc., is inadequate for a definite statement, and there is controversy as to whether the reefs are growing on previously formed flats or whether the flats are due to infilling behind the reefs. West Indian Islands sublittoral profiles are interesting in this con- nection, and are represented by text figure 14. There are no offshore reefs where no platforms have been developed, as off the young vol- 934 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917, canic island Saba, and the steep shore along the north side of St. Croix. The presence of a flat seems necessary to initiate vigorous coral growth. Only a few paragraphs will be devoted to atolls, of which there are two kinds. Those of the first kind are ring-shaped segments of long reefs that rise above shallow platforms, such as the atolls of the Great Barrier Reef of Australia and the Tortugas atoll of Florida. These are shaped by currents that are mostly wind-in- duced. The convex sides of such atolls are toward the wind and the open sides are to the leeward. The accompanying diagram, copied from Hedley and Griffith Taylor, illustrates the principles of their formation. That there never was any central land area in such atolls is obvious. The other kind of —_ SE atolls is those = whose rims more or less completely margin the flat summit areas of Sess 1 eee submarine moun- tains or plateaus that almost reach the surface of the sea. This kind of atolls was the subject of special _study by Admi- access - ‘ Fic. 15.—DIAGRAM TO SHOW HOW A LINEAR REEF LYING ACROSS ral Wharton, of THE WIND IS FORMED INTO A HORSESHOE, AFTER HEDLEY AND the-British Navy GRIFFITH TAYLOR. ‘ = who pointed out the uniformity of the depth of the lagoon floors, and stated, as Chamisso years previously had done, that the margining reefs are only more or less continuous. He also laid special stress on the fact that the flat floors of the lagoons did not accord with Darwin’s _ hypothesis, according to which they should be concave, more or less bowl-shaped, and expressed the opinion that the summits had been leveled by marine erosion previous to the formation of the atoll rims. It appears to me that the most plausible explanation of atolls is that they have formed on flat summit areas during moderate submergence. In reply to a criticism of my interpretation of the relations of offshore reefs to the platforms above which they stand because I have not attempted to explain the origin of the platforms,’ I may say that ety ficetae ay ass i 2 ari 2 ee a ey el 1 Wharton, W. J. L., Foundations of coral atolls: Nature, vol. 65, pp. 390-393, 1897. 2 Davis, W. M., The origin of coral reefs: Nat. Acad. Sci. Proc., vol. 1, pp. 146-152. March, 1915. CORALS AND CORAL REEFS—VAUGHAN. 235 the recognition of the fact that books, papers, inkstands, etc., are on the top of a desk does not require knowledge of the process of manu- facture of the desk or even of the material out of which it is made; and that one geologic formation overlies another may be ascertained without having complete knowledge of the geologic history of either the overlying or the underlying formation. That the origin of the submarine flats on which offshore reefs stand should be understood is important in the advancement of our knowledge of geologie history, and I have acquired as much in- formation on the subject as I could. I am convinced that there is no one explanation that can be applied to all of them. The fol-— lowing kinds of flats have already been recognized: (1) Slightly tilted bedded tuffs, as in the fossil reefs of Antigua; (2) slightly tilted bedded limestones, as off the south coasts of St. Croix and Cuba; (3) submerged coastal flats, as in the Fiji Islands; (4) sub- merged peneplained surfaces, as in the fossil reefs of Porto Rico; (5) submarine plains due to uplift of considerable areas of the ocean bottom and to the deposition of organic deposits on such a surface, as the Floridian Plateau prior to the formation of the middle and upper Oligocene reefs of Florida and southern Georgia; (6) flats of complex and not definitely known origin, such as those of the Antigua-Barbuda Bank, the Virgin Bank, and the continental shelves of tropical America and Australia.t_ Plains suitable for the growth of corals have been formed by subaerial and submarine depo- sition, and by both subaerial base-leveling and submarine planation. Nearly every, if not every, plain-producing process operative in tropical and subtropical regions has taken part in the formation of plains on which coral have grown or are growing where the plains have been brought below sea level and where the other ecologic con- ditions for offshore reef formation obtain. Although, as regards coral reefs, I wish to emphasize the independence of those platforms concerning which information is available, I wish also to make it clear that I recognize that in-filling does take place behind reefs, but that such in-filing is not sufficient in amount to account for the flats above the surfaces of which the reefs stand. The Glacial Control theory will now be considered in more detail. If this theory is true the following conditions should now prevail: 1 Professor Davis, in an article entitled ‘The Great Barrier Reef of Australia,’ pub- lished in the Amer. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., vol. 44, pp. 389-350, November, 1917, proposes the hypothesis that the platform on which the living Great Barrier Reef is growing resulted trom in-filling behind a barrier until a ‘‘ mature reef-plain,” according to his terminology, was formed. Although this is an interesting hypothesis, it is at present not possible to procure decisive information on the processes whereby the Australian continental shelf was produced. 236 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. (a) There should be evidence of geologically Recent submergence of most of the shore lines of the earth; (b) the average amount of the submergence should be equal to the amount of lowering of the ocean level during Pleistocene glaciation: (c) the position of the shore line during Pleistocene glaciation should be indicated by scarps separating flats, and the amount of submergence indicated by their present position below sea level should agree with the amount of the raising of ocean level due to deglaciation; (d) the rate of growth corals should be such that since the disappearance of the continental ice sheets coral reefs could grow to a thickness equal to the amount sea level was raised as a result of deglaciation; (e) living barrier coral reefs and atoll reefs should be superposed on antecedent basement flats or platforms. It should here be stated that the fact that there has been local differential crustal movements does not at all in- validate the importance of the Glacial Control theory in its applica- tion to the explanation of modern coral reef development. In the foregoing discussion it has been shown that within coral- reef regions there has been geologically Recent submergence. The shore lines of the earth can not be reviewed in this place, but it may be said that the available evidence indicates that the sea has recently, geologically speaking, overflowed the seaward margins of the land. According to estimates by W. J. Humphreys? and by Daly the maxi- mum amount of the lowering of sea level because of the abstraction of water from the ocean to form the continental ice sheets was of the order of magnitude of 67 meters (about 36 fathoms). Daly has made elaborate compilations of the depths of lagoons, lagoon channels. and drowned valleys, in the coral reef areas of the Pacific and Indian Oceans; and the lowering of sea level, between 55 and slightly more than 37 meters, indicated by the compilations agrees with the computations about as closely as should be expected. I obtained similar results in the West Indies. The accompanying text figure 16 indicated a raising of sea level in excess of 37 meters (20 fathoms), on the basis of interpreting the steeper slope at a depth below 20 fathoms as a marginal sea-cut scarp that has been submerged. A similar steeply sloping facet is shown in the profile of the Australian platform, text figure 12. The statement on the growth-rate of corals shows that any known living coral reef could have grown to its estimated thickness since the disappearance of the continental ice sheets, calculated to have been between 10,000 and 30,000 years ago; and finally, so far as definite information has been procured, living offshore coral reefs are superposed on basement platforms that have been recently submerged. I am entirely convinced that glacial control is one of the most important factors in bringing about the 1 Changes of sea level due to changes of ocean volume; Washington Acad. Sci. Jour; vol. 5, pp. 445-446, 1915. CORALS AND CORAL REEFS—VAUGHAN. 237. great development of coral reefs at the present time. However, I am not in agreement with Daly in attributing so much work to marine abrasion while the level of the sea was lowered during Pleis- tocene time. It seems to me that most of the platforms are of pre- Pleistocene age, and were wave-cut and remodeled around their edges during Pleistocene time; but this is a subject that needs much more investigation. It should be stated that the raising of ocean level because of de- glaciation will not explain the formation of all coral reefs, for in places, as in some of the Fiji Islands, according to W. G. Foye,’ the submer- Ld gence of the reef SOUTHEAST COAST OF ANTIGUA basements is due to the tilting of pre- ° viously flat-lying areas, on the sub- : oe Lidia merged part of EAST COAST OF ANGUILLA which reefs have formed after the tilting. In other areas there is clear Sea /eve/ Sea /eve/ Sea /eve/ Sea leve/ — 64 mi FEM = tine NORTH COAST OF HAVANA HARBOR MOSQUITO: BANK evidence of tilting ST. THOMAS showing depth of filled and warping as in channel in harbor the Bahamas and F!¢. 16.—SUBMARINE “PROFILUS Orr West INDIAN ISLANDS Florida oonternd AND ACROSS Mosquito BANK. submergence because of deglaciation is concomitant with local crustal deformation. How the submergence produced is, as regards corals, unimportant, provided there be gradual submergence of moderate amount. CONCLUSIONS. The following are my conclusions on the formation of coral reefs: (1) Fringing reefs seem uniformly to have uncomformable basal contacts; they may form after submergence that is not followed by uplift or they may form during intermittent uplift that follows submergence—that is, they may form during either emergence or submergence. (2) Offshore coral reefs, barriers and atolls, form on antecedent flattish basements during and after submergence in areas where the general ecologic conditions suitable for reef-coral growth prevail, as stated on page 215. This generalization applies to fossil as well as to living reefs. +The geology of the Fiji Islands: Acad. Nat. Sci. Proc., vol. 3, pp. 305-310, April, 1917. 238 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. (3) Recent rise of sea level because of deglaciation has made con- ditions favorable for coral reef formation over enormous areas, and it is one of the important factors in causing the great development of coral reefs at the present time. But in some areas, as in the Fijis, the flats on which the reefs are growing are coastal flats that have been brought below sea level by tilting, as described by Andrews and Foye. (4) The theoretic possibility of the progressive change of a fringing reef into a barrier and later into an atoll, according to the Darwin-Dana hypothesis, may not be denied, but no instance of such a transformation has as yet been discovered. (5) The results of the investigation of coral reefs are valuable to geology not so much because of discoveries immediately concerning corals as because of the additions to knowledge obtained through a study of great complexes of geologic phenomena among which corals and coral reefs are only incidents. Further investigations of the phenomena associated with coral reefs are among the pressing desiderata of geologic research. ue EXPLANATIONS OF PLATES. Prantl. lllustrations from photographs, natural size, of two Blaschka models of sea- anemones. ; Fic. 1. Cerianthus lloydi Gosse. 2. Heliactis bellis (Ellis and Solander). 240 PLATE I. Vaughan. Smithsonian Report, 1917. BLASCHKA GLASS MODELS OF SEA ANEMONES. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Vaughan. PLATE 2. ~ es oe ~s pete: “a My tT dat A OS Roce seme bbe Seti Ph + ae é A OTK. “es _ 5 i iXY f . |. LEPTASTREA PURPUREA (DANA). 2. GONIASTREA PECTINATA (EHRENBERG). 3, 3A. MILLEPORA TRUNCATA (DANA). PLATE 2. Fic. 1. Leptastrea purpurea (Dana). Calices, X 4, to show the formation of new calices by budding between the older ones. 2. Goniastrea pectinata (Ehrenberg). Calices, * 4, to show the formation of new calices by the division of the older ones. 3, 3a. Millepora truncata Dana. Fig. 8, the skeleton, natural size; fig. 3a, part of the surface, X 8, to show the larger gastropores and smaller dactylopores. 241 PLATE 3. Fungia scutaria Lamarck. Fic. 1. Upper surface; fig. la, lower surface, both natural size. 242 Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Vaughan. PLATE 3. FUNGIA SCUTARIA LAMARCK, PLATE 4. Vaughan. Smithsonian Report, 1917. * é BA eas} - ea *. . + Pp Oe, Ph [fees 3s @ oer ee”, ited he ore aoe peu Fe eet? la HELIOPORA cH < oc fo) O Ww 5 ol (da) < N Oo ice = ae om ara Pree g ou (ot, | Oe > Wl F< 3) ol < ira fo) O W a. oO 1 z < Oo oc oO < PLATE 4. Fies. 1, 1a. Organ-pipe coral, Tubipora sp. Fig. 1, upper surface; fig. la, side view, both natural size. 2,2a. Blue coral, Heliopora coerulea (Pallas). Fig. 2, corallum, natural size; fig. 2a, surface, X 6. : 243 PratTe 5, Fic. 1. Specimen of Pocillopora bulbosa Ehrenberg, as attached to a log in Cocos-Keeling Islands. From a photograph kindly supplied by Dr. F’. Wood Jones. 2. Pocillopora elegans Dana, natural size. A specimen from the outer barrier, Cocos-Keeling Islands. The rough water facies of the species. 244 Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Vaughan, PLATE 5. |. POCILLOPORA BULBOSA (EHRENBERG). 2. POCILLOPORA ELEGANS (DANA.) “(WNVQ) SNVY9313 VHOd011190d "ueysneA—'ZIGL ‘HOdey uBluOsy}IWS PLATE 6. Pocillopora elegans Dana. A part, natural size, of Dana’s type from the Fiji Islands. This is the same as the quieter-water facies of the species found in Cocos-Keeling Islands. 245 65133°—sm 1917——17 BEATEN Stylophora pistillata (Esper), from Murray Island, Australia, Fic. 1. From quiet, rather deep water, depth 18 fathoms. 2. From the exposed seaweed edge of the reef. Both figures natural size, 246 Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Vaughan, STYLOPHORA PISTILLATA (ESPER). Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Vaughan. PLATE 8. PORITES PORITES (PALLAS). PLATE 8, Porites porites (Pallas), from Tortugas, Fig. 1. Quiet water, lagoon facies. 2. Exposed reef facies. Figure about one-half natural size. Morida. PLATE 9. Hawaiian corals obtained between 25 and 40 fathoms (46 and 74 meters) in depth. Fies. 1, 1a. Fungia patella (Ellis and Solander), two views, natural size, of the same specimen. Fig. 1, upper surface; fig. la, lower surface. 2,2a. Fungia (Diaseris) fragilis (Alcock), two views, about twice nat- ural size, of the same specimen. Fig. 2, upper surface; fig. 2a, lower surface. 3. Leptoseris digitata Vaughan, X 2. 248 Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Vaughan. PLATE 9. X2 3 HAWAIIAN CORALS OBTAINED BETWEEN 25 AND 40 FATHOMS (46 AND 74 METERS) IN DEPTH. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Vaughan. PLATE 10. HAWAIIAN CORALS OBTAINED BETWEEN 25 AND 40 FATHOMS (46 AND 74 METERS) IN DEPTH. PLATE 10. Hawaiian corals obtained between 25 and 40 fathoms (46 and 74 meters) in depth. Leptoseris hawaiiensis Vaughan. Fic. 1. Upper surface; fig. 1a, side view, each natural size. 249 PLATE 11. Hawaiian corals obtained between 25 and 40 fathoms (46 and 74 meters) in depth. Fic. 1. Leptoseris scabra Vaughan. Upper surface, natural size. 2. Leptoseris tubulifera Vaughan. General view, X 2. 250 Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Vaughan. PLATE II. 5 ner - HAWAIIAN CORALS OBTAINED BETWEEN 25 AND 40 FATHOMS (46 AND 74 METERS) IN DEPTH. 12. PLATE Vaughan. 1917. Smithsonian Report, HAWAIIAN DEEP-SEA CORALS. PLATE 12. Hawaiian deep-sea corals. ¥Wies. 1, 1a. Gardineria hawatiensis Vaughan. Fig. 1, side view; fig. 1a, calice, of the same specimen, each X 2. 2,2a. Flabellum paripavoninum Alcock. Fig. 2, side view; fig. 2a, calice of the same specimen, both natural size. 3, 3a. Flabellum deludens von Marenzeller. Fig. 38, side view; fig. 3a, calice of the same specimen, both natural size. = 251 PLATE 13. Hawaiian deep-sea corals, Fics. 1, 1a. Desmophyllum cristagalli Milne Edwards and Haime. Fig. 1, side view, natural size; fig. la, calice, X 2, of the same specimen. 2,2a. Cyathoceras diomedeae Vaughan. Fig. 2, side view, natural size; fig. 2a, calice, X about 2, of the Same specimen. 3, 3a. Caryophyllia alcocki Vaughan. Fig. 8, side view, natural size; fig. —. 3a, calice, X 21/2, of the same specimen. 252 ; Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Vaughan. a Bie} | > RE BA AVE 4 on SY) 4) Mish X2 HAWAIIAN DEEP-SEA CORALS. Prate 14. Hawaiian deep-sea corals. Wies.1, 1a. Paracyathus gardineri Vaughan. Tig. 1, calice; fig. la, side view, of the same specimen, both X about 2. 2,2a. Anthemiphyllia pacifica Vaughan. Fig. 2, calice; fig. 2a, base, of the same specimen, both X 2. 8, 3a. Bathyactis hawaiiensis Vaughan. Fig. 3, calice; fig. 3a, base, of the same specimen, both X 2. 4,4a. Stephanophyllia formosissima Mosely. Fig. 4, calice; fig. 4a, base, of the same specimen, both X 2. 253 Prats 15. Hawaiian deep-sea corals. Wias. 1, 1a. Madrepora kauaiensis Vaughan. Fig. 1, corrallum, natural size; fig. la, part of a branch, X 4%, of the same specimen. 2. Madracis kauaiensis Vaughan, corallum, natural size. 3. Anisopsammia amphelioides (Alcock), part of a corallum, natura} size. 254 Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Vaughan. PLATE I5. HAWAIIAN DEEP-SEA CORALS. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Vaughan. PLATE I6 VIEWS AT FORT JEFFERSON, TORTUGAS, FLA. PLATE 16. Fort Jefferson, Tortugas, Florida. Fie. A. Wharf. Many corals are growing on the perivheral piers. B. The moat and sallyport. Corals of lagoon facies live in the moat. C. Outside of the moat wall and the flood-gate, the northwest side of the fort. Many corals were planted near the wall, north of the flood- gate. 255 PLATE 17. Maeandra areolata (Linnaeus). The tentacles are fully distended, following stimulation by a small amount of food. The figure is about 1.4 natural size. 256 Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Vaughan. . PLATE IT. MAEANDRA AREOLATA (LINNAEUS), WITH ITS TENTACLES FULLY DISTENDED. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Vaughan. PLATE 18. iff . ‘ MAEANDRA AREOLATA (LINNAEUS), WITH THE POLYPS PARTIALLY CONTRACTED. PuaTeE 18, Maeandra areolata (Linnaeus). The same colony represented by plate 17, as it appeared during the digestion of food. The figure is about 1.4 natural size. 257 PLATE 19. Fie. A. Aquarium at the laboratory, Tortugas, Florida. The jars on the lowest shelf contained coral planulae that were being reared; the jars on the next higher shelf contained clean seawater that was siphoned to the jars below; the jars on the top shelf contained coral colonies from which the planulae for the rearing experiments were obtained. B. Apparatus for planting corals. A, terra-cotta dise (8 inches in diam- eter), to which corals were attached; B, iron bar, the lower end a cap that fits over the heads of the iron stakes; C, iron stake with a ‘terra-cotta disc in place on its head; D, sledge hammer. 258 Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Vaughan. PLATE 19 oe Are -—t 1 ; AE Fars FA Bed B. APPARATUS FOR PLANTING CORALS. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Vaughan. PLATE 20. LIVE CAR IN WHICH CORALS WERE PLANTED. PLATE 20. Fic. A. Live car with terra-cotta discs fastened to its bottom. B. The same live car in the water after corals had been planted on its bottom. 259 12a Pale Corals reared from planulae. Top row, Favia fragum (Esper), 2 years old and 4 years old. Middle row, Favia fragum (Esper), 1 year old and 4 years old. Bottom, Porites astreoides Lamarck, 1 year old and 4 years old. Diameter of the discs, 8 inches. 260 Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Vaughan. PLATE 21. FAVIA FRAGUM 1912, 2 yrs. old 1914, 4 yrs, old FAVIA FRAGUM 1911, 1 yr. old PORITES ASTREOIDES 1914, 4 yrs. old CORALS REARED FROM PLANULAE. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Vaughan. PLATE 22 1914. MAEANDRA AREOLATA (LINNAEUS), SHOWING GROWTH BETWEEN 1910 AND Prat 22: Growth rate of Maecandra areolata (Linnaeus) between 1910 and 1914. Diam- eter of the disc, 8 inches. 65133°—sm 1917——18 261 PLATE 23. Growth rate of Porites porites (Pallas) between 19190 and 1914. Diameter of the disc, 8 inches. 262 Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Vaughan. 1910 PORITES PORITES (PALLAS), SHOWING GROWTH RATE BETWEEN I9I0 AND 1914, Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Vaughan. PLATE 24. PORITES FURCATA LAMARCK AND PORITES ASTREOIDES LAMARCK, SHOWING GROWTH RATE. PLATE 24: Growth rate of Porites furcata Lamarck, the tier on the left and the lower speci- mens on the dise of the tier on the right; and Porites asircoides Lamarck, the upper specimen of the right-hand tier. Diameter of the disc, 8 inches. 263 = PLATE 25. Growth rate of Acropora muricata (Linnaeus) between 1911 and 1914. Diam- eter of the disc, 8 inches. 264 Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Vaughan. PLATE 25. ACROPORA MURICATA (LINNAEUS), SHOWING GROWTH RATE BETWEEN 1911 AND 1914, Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Vaughan. PLATE 26. VIEWS OF THE FLORIDA CORAL REEFS. PLATE 26. Views of the Florida Reefs. Figs. A,B. Two views of the reef on the west side of Loggerhead Key, Tor- tugas, as exposed at an unusually low tide on June 6, 1910. The massive, head-like corals are Orbicella annularis (Ellis and Solander) ; the whip-like objects are the gorgonian Plerawra sp. 3 the reticulated, fan-shaped corals are Gorgonia flabellum Linnaeus. C. A view undersea of the reef at Carysfort Lighthouse, from a picture eard. It shows Orbicella annularis heads and many waving gorgonians. 265 PLATE 27. Skull Reef, outer barrier, Great Barrier Reef of Australia. After Savitle- Kent. 266 “wWIIVHIsNYy 3O 335uY YSIYHYVgG LVEY5 ‘455Y4 T1NHS "16 3LV1d *uBYUsNeA—'ZIL6L ‘Hoday uBiuOSsYzIWS ‘VITWVYLSNY JO 3535Y YSRINYVG LVaY5 ‘455yY LNAOSSYO pe SREP a sles vrs NE as "8G ALV1d "uBeusneA— ZI6L ‘J4oday uRIUOSY}IWS PLATE 28. Crescent Reef, outer barrier, Great Barrier Reef of Australia. After Saville- Kent. 267 PLATE. 29. Fic. A. Wind-bedded siliceous sand, Cape Henry, Virginia. B. Wind-bedded, indurated oolite, near Morgan Bluff, Andros Island, Bahamas. 268 Smithsonian Report, 1917..—Vaughan. PLATE 29, B. WIND-BEDDED, INDURATED OOLITE, MORGAN BLUFF, BAHAMAS. PLATE 30. Vaughan. Smithsonian Report, 1917. BLOWN OOLITE, NASSAU, BAHAMAS. WIND PLATE 30. Wind-blown oolite, Nassau, Bahamas, Pic. A. General view of an exposure along East Street. B. A part of the same exposure on a larger scale. 269 PLATE 31. Bahamian marine oolite. Fig. A. Surface of a specimen from Sharp Rock Point, South Bight, Andros Island, natural size. B. A part of the same surface enlarged 10 times. 270 Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Vaughan. PLATE 31. BAHAMIAN MARINE OOLITE. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Vaughan. PLATE 32 OOLITE GRAINS AND ARAGONITE NEEDLES. PLATE 32. Fic. 1. Thin section of an oolite grain from the Bahamas, X 100. 2. Oolite grains in mud from the west side of Andros Island, Bahamas, X 30. 8. Aragonite needles in mud from the west side of Andros Island, Bahamas, xX 840. 4. Thin section of oolite grains from Great Salt Lake, X 100. 271 Purate 33. Artificially produced zonal spherulites of calcium carbonate. Fic. 1. Spherulite produced through the periodic precipitation of calcium car- bonate by adding ammonium carbonate to sea water, X 350. 2. Other spherulites produced similarly to spherulite represented by fig. 1, X 700. 3. Spherulites formed through bacterial action on calcium acetate in Great Salt Lake water, X 50. Preparation by K. F. Kellerman. 4. Spherulites bacterially formed in Great Salt Lake water, X 100. Prepa- ration by K. F. Kellerman. . 272 cs Byes se Pm / * ¥>. ‘ aN aA Re ‘ a ct UM S OF CALCI = = ARTIFICIALLY PRODUCED ZONAL SPHERULIT Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Vaughan. PLATE 34 Seen BORING FILAMENTOUS ALGAE. PLATE 34. Boring filamentous algae. Ita. 1. Algal filaments left after decalcifying a corallite of Orbicella cavernosa (Linnaeus), X 100. 2. Thin section of a part septum of Orbicella annularis (Ellis and Solander) showing algal filaments in place, X 100. 273 PLATE 35. West Indian shore lines of submergence. Fic. A. Looking seaward through the mouth of Santiago Harbor, Cuba. B. Looking northward from the west side of the entrance to Santiago Harbor, Cuba. C. Looking toward the head of Charlotte Amalia Harbor, St. Thomas. D. Looking seaward from Mayer Village along Spencer Bay, Antigua. 274 Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Vaughan. PLATE 35. A. LOOKING SEAWARD THROUGH MOUTH OF SANTIAGO HARBOR, CUBA. B. LOOKING NORTHWARD FROM WEST SIDE OF ENTRANCE OF SANTIAGO HARBOR, CUBA. D. LOOKING SEAWARD FROM MAYER VILLAGE ALONG SPENCER BAY. WEST INDIAN SHORE LINES OF SUBMERGENCE. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Vaughan., PLATE 36. A. BASIN ABOVE THE GORGE OF THE RIVER. B. UPPER END OF THE GORGE LOOKING TOWARD THE BASIN. C. ViEW UPSTREAM FROM THE LOWER END OF YUMURI GORGE. VIEWS OF THE BASIN AND GORGE OF YUMURI RIVER, MATANZAS, CUBA. PLATE 36. ire. A. Hill-rimmed basin above the gorge of Yumuri River, Matanzas, Cuba. B. Upper end of Yumuri gorge looking toward the basin. C. View upstream from the lower end of Yumuri gorge. If this basin were depressed between 50 and 100 feet a pouch-shaped harbor with a narrow entrance would result. 275 PLATE 37. Model of the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. (Made for the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey by HE. E, Howell.) 276 ee ona i en, ear lites te eA) ee th ‘ ee ar m7 ao ao SO TT ance al a ~~ a x i , f ane tae Neu Set a i i he ene rua a es Meaty < fy a PLATE 37. MODEL OF THE GULF OF MEXICO AND THE CARIBBEAN SEA. THE CORRELATION OF THE QUATERNARY DEPOSITS OF THE BRITISH ISLES WITH THOSE OF THE CON- TINENT OF EUROPE. By Cuartes E. P. Brooxs, M. Se, F. G. S., F. R. Met. Soc. INTRODUCTION. In any attempt to reconstruct the geographical and meteorological conditions of various stages of a former period, it is necessary first to classify the various deposits which are referable to the period into definite stages. This preliminary is often difficult; in the case of the Quaternary deposits of the British Isles it is especially difficult be- cause of their great complexity. It is hard to find fixed characters to act as a means of correlating the various local facies one with an- other, and to distinguish slight oscillations of the ice-edge from longer periods of interglacial rank. It is necessary to find some dis- trict outside these islands where the succession is simple and the amount of field work done sufficiently great to make the conclusions arrived at fairly certain. Such a district exists in the north Ger- man plain which was visited only by ice from Scandinavia, un- mixed with local ice, which lay in the region of deposition of that ice, and which possesses a literature of truly stupendous proportions. In fact, it was only when I began to collect a bibliography of the subject that I realized the magnitude of the task I had undertaken. This study of north Germany gave me a series of very definite glacial and interglacial horizons, which could be traced by ordi- nary stratigraphical and paleontological methods through Holland, and correlated with fair certainty with the glacial deposits of east- ern England. But in Holland the Rhine gravels entered into the series, and could be traced through the Vosges and Plateau Central into the river valleys of western France. The Rhine gravels had been traced upstream and connected with the Alpine glacial se- quence made out by Penck and Briickner, which Penck had extended to the Pyrenees, where it was connected with the gravels of the Garonne. The sequence in the Seine and Somme is exactly similar to that in the Thames, and the two could be correlated directly. In short, a network of cross correlations could be made between the various districts, reducing the chances of error to a minimum. 277 65133°—sm 1917——19 278 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. For these reasons the present paper includes the whole of northern Europe. Of course it was not possible to make a complete study of the Quaternary literature of Europe, which can not fall far short of a hundred thousand papers, etc., in more than a dozen languages. The work ing bibhography actually collected numbered several thousand entries, but the references cited in this paper include most publications of importance bearing on the subject. There are a few points of detail arising in connection with the correlation which may be briefly referred to. The first is the color of deposits. W. O. Crosby (1)1 found that in the northern United States and Canada the soils are almost universally brownish or yel- lowish, but not red, except where they result from the disintegration of a red rock. On the other hand, in the southern United States, the red color greatly predominates over browns and yellows, and in the West Indies and South America the redness of the soil is even more intense and universal; the red lateritic aspect of soils in the Tropics is well known. The difference is more or less distinctly observable in all longitudes and in both Northern and Southern Hemispheres. The brown, yellow, and buff colors of northern soils are due to the presence of yellow ferric hydrates like limonite; the red color of southern soils, though usually attributed to hematite, is probably mostly due to the red ferric hydrate turgite. This differ- ence depends not on underlying rocks but on chmate. Crosby con- tinues: Ferric hydrate, the coloring agent of northern soils, is dehydrated at the temperature of boiling water, and it seems probable that a partial, if not com- plete, dehydration may result at much lower temperatures, if unlimited or geologically Jong time is allowed. In the Southern States the red color is only superficial, extending to a depth of 2 to 10 feet, and passing through orange and gray to the natural color of the rock. Thus the redness of a soil depends both on its age and the temperature at which it was deposited, and in this we find a cause of the red color of many very old bowlder clays, noted and used as a means of correlation by F. Leverett (2), J. van Baren (3), C. Gagel (4), and others in opposition to the prevailing blue-gray color of later bowlder clays, weathered brown at the sur- face. In extremely calcareous old clays like the chalky bowlder clay of East Anglia this rule does not all! but the disintegration of the granitic rocks forms an equally reliable index of age. Erraties of granite in the chalky bowlder clay of Hertfordshire and Finchley frequently fall to a granitic sand at a touch, though they must have been sound when they were incorporated in the ground moraine. The same state of decay has been noted in the granitic pebbles of the 1 Numbers in parentheses refer to bibliography at end of paper. QUATERNARY DEPOSITS OF BRITISH ISLES—BROOKS. 279 oldest. bowlder clay of Europe. On limestone slabs the fossils fre- quently stand up in marked relief owing to the same cause. The colors of fluviatile and littoral sands and loams which are frequently exposed to the air during their formation, show a similar variation from red in the tropical to yellow or brown in temperate regions, which is attributed by Barrell (5) to the degree of oxidation undergone. This variation of color extends into the polar regions, where the prevailing tint is gray, owing to the scarcity of organic iron coloring matter as well as the slight degree of oxidation. The detrital deposits such as “head” and the granitic loam of Ballybe- tagh in Ireland show also a prevailing gray tint. Accordingly, a sray deposit without fossils is of itself strong evidence for a severe climate during its formation; when fossils do occur in such a gray deposit, as in the gray sands of Ulster and the gray silts of the Isle of Man, they are generally of arctic types. The relations of the coarseness of fluviatile deposits and the grade of rivers have also been worked out by J. Barrell (5). An arid climate tends to increase the ratio of coarse to fine material and the freshness of the fine even where the land relief leads to vigorous erosion. A decrease in the temperature acts very strongly in the same direction as aridity, by weakening the power of vegetation to produce decay but prevent erosion, and by increasing the amount of frost action. Increased snowfall, however, works in the opposite direction by protecting the surface from denudation and producing transportation. For these reasons waxing glacial conditions are normally associated with terrace formation in the neighboring river valleys; waning glacial conditions with erosion. On the seaward ends of great rivers the question is further com- plicated by oscillations of the relative level of land and sea. The terraces here are sometimes attributed to one cause, sometimes to the other; probably in most cases both acted together, for the terrace- building effect of waxing glaciation seems usually to have been pro- longed into the waning period of glaciation by an isostatic depres- sion due to the weight of the ice, as in the Cyprina clays and Holder- ness marine beds terminating the first glacial period, the 100-foot beach terminating the second, and the Yoldia clays terminating the third. The possibility of terrace-forming in a warm climate, how- ever, makes further criteria necessary, such as large blocks, northern organisms, or passage into a moraine. Marine terraces on rocky coasts seem only to be formed when the relative level of the land and sea remains unchanged for a consider- able time. When the levels are varying rapidly, noticeable raised beaches are not necessarily developed. This suggests a reason for a rather puzzling fact which will be noticed in the descriptions of 280 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. England and Ireland, namely, that a raised beach of a definite age, after extending fairly continuously at a nearly uniform height for perhaps a hundred miles, disappears abruptly even on a coast suit- able for its preservation. The weaker parts of the crust where most of the bending occurs are likely to prove most unstable, so that on them the sea rarely stays long in one position, and raised beaches are not developed. I do not propose to enter into a discussion of the value of plants and animals as climatic gauges or for correlation. Suffice it that as their present distribution is undoubtedly governed principally by climate, either present or not long past, so must their former dis- tribution. The use I have made of them for correlation is seen in the individual cases; only the facies is employed save where a species is definitely characteristic of a certain horizon, such as Corbicula fluminalis and Paludina diluwiana im the older interglacial. The “Cheliean fauna,” characterized by the coexistence of Hlephas anti- guus and FE’. primigenius, with Hippopotamus major and other large Quaternary mammals, is a very useful facies for correlation. A means of correlation which proved somewhat disappointing was the sequence of archeological stages. The Acheulian horizon especially seems to be vague, for it overlaps or grades into the Chellean on the one hand and the Mousterian on the other, and it appears to occur both before and after the second glaciation of Eng- land and north Germany. In general, the relations of the stages appear to be as follows: Cold pericd: Pre-Chellean. Cheliean Chelleo-Acheulian. Cold period: Acheulian-Mousterian. Warm period: Mousterian. Aurignacian. Cold period: /Solutrean. Magdalenian. Warm period: This is based on the sequence of faunas associated with the imple- ments as described by many authors. 1, THE NORTH GERMAN PLAIN IN THE GLACIAL PERIOD. The whole of the evidence as to the succession of stages in the north German plain was summarized in 1913 by C. Gagel (6), who finds undoubted proof of a plurality of glaciations. His chief lines of evidence are: 1. The occurrence in many places of beds of ground moraine, sep- arated by extensive fluvio-glacial deposits and connected with others which are grouped into terraces of very different heights above the present streams. Between the formation of these different terraces very deep and energetic erosion is demonstrable. QUATERNARY DEPOSITS OF BRITISH ISLES—BROOKS. 281 2. The various moraines and fluvio-glacial terraces differ extraor- dinarily both in their morphological form and in the depth to which they are weathered, varying from quite fresh moraines with unaltered surface forms and a very slight degree of weathering, asso- ciated with equally slightly weathered fluvio-glacial gravels, to old “senile” moraines, with forms so strongly denuded as often to be unrecognizable, associated with very deep-going and generally in- tense weathering, both in the moraines and in the gravels. 3. Between the various groups of moraines and fluvio-glacial sedi- ments are often found extra-glacial deposits containing remains of warmth-loving faunas and floras which according to our present ex- perience can not have lived at the edge of a continental ice sheet. As an example he compares the very worn moraines of Schleswig- Holstein, the Elbe Valley, and Silesia, weathered to a depth of 10, 12, and even 20 meters, with the rough, fresh looking moraines of the Baltic Hohenriicken, weathered to a depth of only 1.25 to 1.75 meters. The former are deeply weathered, even where they pass under the latter, and are often separated from them by deposits in- dicating a temperate climate. Gagel remarks that it is difficult to escape from the conclusion that the weathering of the one, 10 to 20 times as deep as the other, must have required 10 to 20 times as long. After a critical examination of all the interglacial deposits known to him, being 22 marine and 114 lacustrine interglacial de- posits and 45 zones of weathering, he finds them ail referable to two important characteristic horizons, which are shown at seven places by direct superposition in the same section and at five places by un- doubted stratigraphical correlation in closely neighboring sections. In the younger horizon the marine deposits always underlie the lacustrine, in the older horizon they overlie them, indicating a con- siderable sinking of the land in the middle glacial period. Gagel has therefore no hesitation in adopting the hypothesis of a threefold glaciation of Germany by ice from the north. Of these the oldest was the most extensive and the youngest the least so, and he corre- lates them with the Mindel, Riss, and Wurm glaciations of the Alps. He finds no equivalent of the Gunzian glaciation, and in the terraces corresponding to the first interglacial of the Alps there is no northern material. The type sections of this series are those near Berlin, at Rixdorf, and Phoeben. The section at Rixdorf is as follows: bE Upper bowlder clay. . Thick diluvial sands. - . Bed of coarse gravel with remains of large mammals. . Middle bowlder clay. Paludina bed with P. diluwviana, Rb GP oO 282 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. The mammal remains are so numerous and so well preserved that they can not have been transported far. They consist of Hlephas primigenius (abundant), #. trogontherti, E. antiquus (one tooth), Rhinoceros tichorhinus (abundant), 2h. Merckii (one tooth), Bos primigenius, Bison priscus, Equus caballus, Cervus alees, C. elaphus, C. euryceros, Rangifier groenlandicus, Ovibos moschatus, Canis lupus, Urus, ete—a temperate fauna with a few high-northern elements. A number of borings in the neighborhood show, on the same strati- eraphical level and nearly on the same absolute level as the Rixdorf horizon, between two bowlder clays, peat beds with grasses and pine remains. Further, the corresponding interglacial of Phoeben and the considerable interglacial weathered zone of Glindow belong strati- graphically to the same horizon and contain a different Paludina (P. Duboisiana) to the true P. diluviana, which was found at Rix- dorf about 50 meters deeper. The lower interglacial with P. diluviana is very rich in Mollusca, including Bithynia tentaculata and Dreissensia. Often it is an almost pure shell bed, from 2 to 20 meters thick, lying with great regularity at 6 to 10 meters. It is an old sea floor with abundance of life indicating favorable conditions. Very numerous borings round Berlin leave not the slightest doubt as to the succession—the P. diluviana bed lies always under a thick bowlder clay which is overlain by a second interglacial, the Rixdorf horizon, and very often it lies above a still deeper bowlder clay. The next section described is that of Phoeben, west of Potsdam, where the younger interglacial is found between bowlder clays as a sandy peat with a mammalian and molluscan fauna, the latter includ- ing P. Duboisiana, Planorbis albus, and Belgrandia. Below the bowlder clay underlying this bed have been found in borings the lower Paludina bed with P. diluviana and temperate plants, and be- low this again still older bowlder clay. A similar succession is seen at several points in Schleswig- Holstein, especially Siiderstapel, Hamburg, and Lauenburg. The succession at Siiderstapel is important because under bowlder ciay, weathered to a depth of 10 meters and thus older, is a shell bed with “ great round mussels,” probably the Kem bed (7apes aureus eemiensis). This is underlain by the black Lauenburg clay, a persistent horizon overly- ing the oldest bowlder clay of Schleswig and Holland. The upper part of the section is formed by peat with temperate plants overlain by fresh bow!der clay. In Hannover is the famous section of Luneburg, with a voluminous literature of its own, which is now generally considered to show three glacial horizons separated by interglacial deposits. This important paper of C. Gagel’s has since been confirmed and extended by a survey by H. Menzel (7) of all the important occur- QUATERNARY DEPOSITS OF BRITISH ISLES—BROOKS. 283 rences of land and fresh-water Mollusca in glacial and interglacial horizons in Germany. He finds that the various molluscan faunas of older Quaternary age can be divided into cold-loving and warmth- loving groups, whose distribution shows that even in the unglaciated region of southern Germany an arctic climate prevailed during the glacial periods. In north Germany the glacial faunas are found chiefly in gravels, in south Germany in loess and sand loess. True interglacial Mollusca occur on two horizons of different age, sepa- rated by glacial deposits. The older one is characterized by P. dilu- viana, Bithynia tentaculata, and Dreissensia polymorpha, the younger by P. Duboisiana, Belgrandia, and Planorbis albus. In West Prussia the lower interglacial age of the marine Cardiwm and Cyprina clays and Kem beds is confirmed by the occurrence in them of Dreissensia polymorpha and P. diluwiana. Yn Posen P. diiu- viana has been found in interglacial deposits associated with Corbi- cula fluminalis, and these two have also been found associated near Odessa and as derived fossils in the middle bowlder clay of Kast Prussia. A. Penck (8) was the first geologist to bring forward evidence in support of a threefold glaciation of the district. Since 1880 a num- ber of other more or less successful attempts at classification have been made, the net result of which is very much in favor of Gagel’s classification into three glacial and two interglacial horizons (9). GLACIAL SUCCESSION IN THE RIVER VALLEYS. Detailed consideration of the glacial succession in the valleys of the north flowing rivers south of Berlin is not necessary, as the conditions are essentially similar to those of the Alps. The deposits of the Weser Valley, studied by O. Grupe (10) and L. Siegert (11), may, however, be considered here, as they differ con- siderably, and the differences illustrate the scheme of classification. According to Grupe, the valley of the Weser originated in middle Phocene, and was cut to a depth of at least 25 meters below the present level of the river. The process of erosion left “Old Pliocene ” gravels at a height of 120 to 160 meters above valley level. In late Pliocene times the valley was partially filled by clays and sands con- taining Mastodon arvernensis and MM. Borsoni. Belonging to the Quaternary there are three gravel terraces—upper, middle, and lower. The upper terrace interdigitates to the north with deposits of the first glacial period on the Porta River, and is accordingly con- temporaneous with this period. This was the maximum glaciation in the district and, correspondingly, the upper terrace reaches the great thickness of 60 to 70 meters at Hameln. The lower part of the middle terrace includes at Nachtigall, peat with Corylus avellana, 284 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. and also contains a fauna of large diluvial mammais (0s primi- genius, Cervus elaphus, Equus caballus, Elephas primigenius, Rhino- ceros tichorhinus, Ovibos moschatus) which is very similar to the fauna of the Rixdorf horizon in the Berlin region, and appears to be of the same age. The lower part of this terrace is thus evidently interglacial, but the upper part contains a molluscan fauna which, according to Menzel, is of Arctic type, and thus represents the suc- ceeding glacial period, and Grupe finds that this terrace interdigi- tates to the north with moraine formations of the second ice sheet at Hameln. The third ice sheet did not extend into the region of the upper Weser Valley dealt with by Grupe, but as Stoller found that in the lower Weser Valley the lower terrace (up to 5 meters) was deposited during, the glaciation by this ice sheet, and derived part of its materials from its moraines, Grupe considers that the lower terrace on the Weser at Hameln also corresponds to the third glacial period, though a peat layer at its base shows that the forma- tion of this terrace also commenced during the preceding interglacial period. Siegert’s conclusions are quite different. He was unable to con- firm the existence of a high terrace 70 meters thick, but found instead a much thinner terrace with northern material, overlain from Hameln downstream by a thick series of banded clays, marl sands, ground moraine and end moraines of the second glaciation. Older than the high terrace are remains of the glacial formations of the first glacia- tion of the district, and still older, higher Weser terraces of local materials only. The Weser “high terrace” thus dates from the first interglacial period, and Grupe was in error in stating that it inter- digitates with the moraines of the first glacial period. The lower part of the middle terrace, with its temperate fauna and fiora, thus corresponds, not with the first interglacial, but with the second, and the upper part, with the arctic mollusca, with the third glacial period. The low terrace, Siegert therefore places in the post- glacial period. In deciding between these conflicting age determinations, it seems safe to place the mammal deposit in the lower part of the middle terrace on the same horizon as the Rixdorf mammal bed of Berlin, i. e., in the second interglacial, which confirms Siegert’s view of the age of the high and middle terraces. On the other hand, there is no reason to reject Stoller’s conclusion that the low terrace of the Weser west of Luneburg also belongs to the third glacial though to the con- cluding stages of it. This refers both middle and low terraces to the third glacial, separated by a period of erosion and improved climate corresponding to the Baltic interstadial, to be described later. This seems legitimate, for a climate allowing the growth of small QUATERNARY DEPOSITS OF BRITISH ISLES—BROOKS. 285 trees in the south Baltic regions would certainly allow the forma- tion of peat southeast of Brunswick. The latter view is supported by the mode of occurrence of the loess referred to later. It is sufficient to remark here that in the south 3altic region loess eccurs on the outer moraines of the last glacia- tion, preceding the Baltic interstadial, but not on the inner moraines, succeeding that interstadial. Correspondingly, in the upper Weser Valley, loess, weathered to a depth of 2 to 4 meters, occurs on the higher and middle terraces, but not on the lower terrace. For this reason Grupe places it in the last interglacial, and Siegert in the late glacial period, while its true position, as in the Baltic, would seem to be interstadial. We may therefore summarize the conditions in the Weser Valley as follows: Postglacial: Alluvium. Third glacial period: Post-interstadial, lower terrace. Interstadial, loess; peat at base of terrace at Hameln. Pre-interstadial, middle terrace, upper part. Second interglacial: Lower part of middle terrace. Peat, etc., of Nach- tigall with Corylus avellana. Mammal fauna of base of gravels. Second glacial: Banded clays, marl sands, ground moraine and end mo- raines from Hameln downstream. Upper part of Weser high terrace. First interglacial: Lower part of Weser high terrace with northern material. First glacial: Remains of glacial formations older than high terrace. Preglacial and Pliocene: Weser higher terraces, formed of local ma- terials. THE BALTIC INTERSTADIAL. The end moraines known as the Baltic Hohenriicken have been, as by the late J. Geikie, referred to a fourth glaciation, but hitherto all attempts to find deposits referable to the corresponding inter- glacial have failed. Fossiliferous deposits intercalated in the upper bowlder clay are known, and are fairly common in East Prussia, but the fauna and flora are in every case of an arctic or subarctic type, such as could well have lived in close proximity to the ice margin. These fossiliferous deposits were investigated by E. Harbort in 1910 (12), the Mollusca and plants being described by H. Menzel and J. Stoller. The fauna indicates “arctic” but not “ polar” conditions, all the species extending south into the tree zone; the plants indicate a July temperature of at least 10° C. and a vegetation period of three to four months with a temperature of 3 to 6° C. Harbort con- siders the oscillations to have been slow and irregular, ice free periods lasting sometimes for decades and possibly centuries before the peat deposits and small trees were buried by a readvance. Similarly no interglacial can be proved older than that with Paludina diluwiana and Tapes aureus eeméiensis, nor do the older river terraces which should correspond with this interglacial bear 286 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. northern material. Zache (18) remarked that among the Tertiary sands in Brandenburg are bowlders and sands of northern material in a few places, possibly representing a still older glaciation, but so far as I am aware this is unconfirmed. ARCHEOLOGICAL PERIODS. The correlation of these three glacial periods with the archeo- logical stages is still somewhat uncertain. In 1910 R. R. Schmidt (14) placed the Aurignacian stage in the postglacial period, and in 1913 the same author (15), with the assistance of E. Koken and A. Schliz, made an elaborate attempt to correlate the diluvial stages with the archeological sequence mainly on the basis of cave explora- tions in Swabia (southwest Germany). THe finds that the Mous- terian, Aurignacian, Solutrean, Magdelenian, and Azihan-Tardeno- isian stages follow immediately one upon another, with no break or hiatus; the accompanying diluvial fauna shows that below the Mousterian and at the beginning of the Magdalenian are two beds with high-aretic rodents, indicating two deteriorations of climate. He considers that there is no room ae an interglacial between these two arctic beds, so that the Mousterian belongs to the maximum of the Wiirm glacial ass and the Magdalenian to the Biihlstadium. Gagel, however (review in Geologisches Centralblatt, vol. 20, pp. 449— 451), points out that ‘hie correlation is invalidated by the erroneous age determinations of some beds in the north German diluvium, e. g., an interglacial bed at Markleeberg, near Leipzig, ascribed to the last interglacial period, undoubtedly belongs to the first. This error was also pointed out by F. Wiegers in 1913 (16), who found Mousterian implements in a calcareous tufa at Ehringsdorf, associated with Elephas antiquus and a warm fauna, and oerare interglacial. Gagel describes (17) from a bowlder sand in West Holstein flint implements apparently of early neolithic type (ax, scraper, thin, long knife, etc.). The implements are in situ 40 to 60 centimeters deep in bowlder sand lying on upper bowlder clay at Michaelisdonn; although they lie among well-rolled pebbles they are quite sharp angled. If the age determination is correct, it carries the neolithic period back into the last glacial period. In 1918 (18) Gagel also summarized the facts which throw light on the position of the paleolithic stages in the glacial sequence. Prac- tically the only definite horizon is that given by the very character- istic knives of the Levallois stage in the younger Acheulan, which have been found in association with interglacial deposits at Hundis- burg near Neuhaldensleben, northwest of Magdeburg, in Saxony (by Wiegers) and near Leipzig. At Hundisburg the implement bed con- tains also an interglacial fauna of snails, mussels, and great diluvial mammals. Above this lies a bowlder clay covered by an important QUATERNARY DEPOSITS OF BRITISH ISLES—BROOKS. 287 stone bed indicating energetic erosion and denudation; above this lies a loess bed which we must consider as the xolian equivalent of the last glaciation, so that the bowlder clay lying discordantly be- neath it must belong to the middle glaciation and the implement- iferous bed underlying the bowlder clay to the first interglacial. Near Leipzig, in a region to which the last glaciation did not reach, there have recently been found numerous paieolithic implements, in- cluding the characteristic Levallois knife, in sand and gravel beds associated with mammalian remains. These beds are overlain by typical bowlder clay, which, as this district is certainly outside the limits of the last glaciation,-can only be the moraine of the middle glaciation, so that the implements must come from the first inter- glacial of north Germany. In 1912 the same conclusions were reached by J. Bartling (18) from finds.of implements in Westphalia. In addition to those re- ferred to by Gagel and already quoted, he mentions that Wiegers found a well-shaped artifact classed as Mousterian in the lower beds of the last interglacial in the Rhein-Herne Canal; the conditions of its deposition point to its being in situ. If now we correct Schmidt’s scheme of correlation in accordance with these age determinations, we find that the lowermost of his arctic rodent beds, underlying the Mousterian, represents the middle glaciation of north Germany; the upper rodent bed and consequently the beginning of the Magdalenian period, then fall in the maximum of the last glaciation and not in the Biihlstadium. This has the merit of agreeing with the correlation which Penck and Bruckner worked out for the Alpine region. SUMMARY. Lower bowlder clay—Very deeply weathered. Ice reached its maximum extent at least in the west and southwest and possibly over the whole area. Higher (“chief”) terrace of the rivers. First interglacial—Cyprina clays. Fem beds. Beds with Palu- dina diluviana, Corbicula fluminalis, Bithynia tentaculata. Acheu- lian culture. Middle bowlder clay—Weathered to a depth of 10 to 12 meters. This glaciation may have overstepped the limits of the preceding one at a few points. Middle terrace of the rivers. Mousterian culture. Second interglacial—Corbicula Duboisiana. Rixdorf horizon. Mousterian culture. Upper bowlder clay.—Weathered to a depth of only 1 to 2 meters. This glaciation nowhere overstepped the limits of the preceding one, but was of considerably less extent. Magdalenian culture. 288 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. Baltie interstadial—Arctic marine and fresh-water deposits of East and West Prussia. Baltic readvance-—Moraines of the Baltic Hohenriicken. 2. THE LOWER RHINE VALLEY AND HOLLAND. The best basis for correlating the glacial beds of Holland with those of north Germany is given by the Kem zone, which in north- west Germany has been shown to fall in the interglacial between the lower and middle bowlder clays. The same bed kas been described from borings at a few points in Holland, and its relations with the other members of the Quaternary series made out. The Eem zone was found by Dubois in borings in 1903 underlain by bowlder clay representing the maximum glaciation of Holland; this was confirmed by Lorié (19) in 1905 and 1906. In the region north of the Rhine, and south and east of the Zuyder Zee, investigations have been carried out by J. van Baren (20). Two bowlder clays were found, an upper gray bowlder clay and a lower red, sandy bowlder clay of a lateritic aspect. The red color of the latter was shown by G. Leopold (21) to be due to intense weathering; the gray clay is much fresher. The red clay occurs over the whole of the region of Veluwe west of the Yssel River and is folded into the underlying Tertiary beds, but the gray clay occupies only the prov- inces of Groningen, Drenthe, and Friesland, and nowhere extends west of the Yssel; it is not folded. As early as 1884 its limits were traced by Penck (22) through Gaasterland, Steenwijk, and Embli- cheim to the Vecht. During the interglacial period between the accu- mulation of these two glacial clays, were formed, first peat beds and later, the Kem beds. A similar succession was found by Van Calker (23) in Groningen, where a fossiliferous marine sand 15 meters thick, with peat and glacial scratched bowlders, occurred between two bowlder sand beds. Both Van Baren and Van Calker found the lower bowlder clay to contain Scandinavian erratics and the upper bowlder clay Baltic and even Finnish erratics. In the province of Gelder, Lorié found the following succession in borings : J . “Miniaturgrand,” sand with occasional small bowlders. . Peat, indicating an elevation of about 20 meters above the present. . Marine clay. . Coarse shelly sand, termed by Harting ‘‘ Kem system.” . Bowlder clay, situated generally 20 to 36 meters below Amsterdam datum, 2. Rhine sands and gravels, 100 meters thick. 1. Pliocene. From these sections and descriptions it is evident that the weath- ered bowlder clay below the Eem zone, representing the maximum co Om QUATERNARY DEPOSITS OF BRITISH ISLES—BROOKS. 289 extent of the ice in Holland, is the equivalent of the lower glacial or first glaciation, of the north German plain; the gray clay overlying the Eem bed is thus the representative of the middle glacial, or second glaciation, while the ice of the upper glacial or third glacia- tion does not appear to have reached Holland. KF’, Schucht (24) considers that the Lauenburg clay forms a good horizon for the correlation of the German and Dutch Quaternary. At various points in the Elbe valley and north toward Holstein the oldest glacial deposits are covered by sand, passing up into a thick, black clay, which he regards as a product of ice melting. Above this comes the Kem zone and the middle glacial. The Lauenburg clay can be traced into Friesland, where it occupies the same position be- tween two bowlder clays. It helps to confirm the inferences drawn from the position of the Kem beds. RELATIONS TO RHINE TERRACES. The relations of these two bowlder clays to the Rhine terraces must now be worked out; they will be of considerable importance later in correlating the Fennoscandian and Alpine glaciations. The study of this question is not facilitated by the awkward nomenclature given to the Rhine terraces by the German geologists. The best classification appears to be the fourfold one adopted by Fliegel (25). 1. Oldest Quaternary gravels, forming the highest terraces (sometimes two or three) more than 100 meters above the present Rhine bed. 2. Chief terrace, sometimes termed “high terrace,” especially by Dutch geologists, but higher than, and to be carefully distinguished from the “high terrace” as defined by Steinmann. 8. Middle terrace, including the terrace or terraces between the chief terrace and the low terrace. Steinmann’s “high terrace” is in- cluded among these, as Fliegel considers it to have a purely local value. This inclusive term “middle terrace” seems most satis- factory, aS being least likely to lead to confusion. 4, Low terrace, 8 to 30 meters above the Rhine bed. In the Rhine gorge near Coblentz the oldest gravels lie at a higher level than the chief terrace, but farther north they descend to the same level and are overlain by them. in the same way the continu- ation of the high terrace is overlain by sands which upstream pass into the low terrace; the middle terrace, however, seems to die out. The Rhine terraces between Bonn and the sea were studied in great detail by J. Lorié (26). We are only concerned here with those on the right bank, which he describes as follows: The chief terrace is not the oldest, but above it, at Bonn, Pohlig discovered in 1883 an older gravel, lying at 210 to 215 meters above sea level; it is very much broken up, and can not be traced south of the Brohl Valley or north of the Ahr Valley. Near Brohl it lies at 260 to 270 meters, 290 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. The chief terrace on the right bank of the Rhine lies at irregular heights, but the normal highest points rise upstream as follows: Ding- den, 54 meters; Wesel, 70 meters (or 54 meters above the Rhine) ; Bottrop, 81.5 meters (60 meters above); Duisburg, 95 meters (73 meters); Diisseldorf, 120 meters (90 meters); Keulen, 144 meters (106 meters) ; Bonn, 183 meters (136 meters above the Rhine). The breadth of the high terrace varies from 3.5 to 15 kilometers; its western edge is always easy to follow as a clear slope, but rarely as a definite cliff, except near Diisseldorf. The middle terrace lies with its upper surface at Sieg at 59 meters and at Obercassel, above Bonn, at 62 meters. The low terrace lies at Dingden at 30 meters, at Sterkrade at 31 meters, at Duisberg at 83 meters, at Diisseldorf at 40 meters, and at Bonn at 52 meters. As a result of his studies of borings Lorié found evidence of nu- merous changes of the channel of the stream, and of a considerable sinking of the floor. The moraine of the maximum glaciation (lower diluvium of north Germany) crosses the Rhine Valley only between Crefeld and Nijmengen; here it underlies the gravels of the chief terrace (25, 20), but overlies and disturbs gravels of an old delta of the Rhine and Meuse (Van Baren, 1908). Farther north the gravels of the chief terrace are mixed with marine shells as well as with northern bowl- ders, indicating that at this point they are of fluvio-marine origin. From this it follows that the chief terrace falls in the Eem inter- glacial, between the lower and middle glacial of Germany, as well as at the conclusion of the preceding or lower glacial. The equivalent of the middle glacial, the gray clay of the region east of the Yssel, rests on and disturbs the terrace on the east bank of this river corresponding to the chief terrace of the Rhine (20) ; similarly the middle glacial rests on and disturbs the chief terrace of the Rhine north of Crefeld, forming terminal moraines which indicate the limit of the ice (25). When the chief terrace and the higher upper terraces are traced northward through Holland, they converge and descend below sea level, so that they le in the same vertical sequence, and the chief terrace, being the younger, overlies the equivalent of the upper terraces, Between the two occur clayey beds and peat with a tem- perate fauna and flora, well known under the term “Tegelen stage,” first described by E. Dubois (27) at Tegelen on the Meuse as an interglacial formation overlain by fluvio-glacial gravels correspond- ing to the chief terrace of the Rhine and underlain by still older fluvio-glacial gravels. In the following years various Dutch and German geologists found equivalents of the Tegelen stage at various QUATERNARY DEPOSITS OF BRITISH ISLES—BROOKS. 291 points in the Rhine Valley, and made their relations to the Rhine diluvium very clear; this identification of the clay bed in the Meuse and Rhine Valleys is quite legitimate because the underlying gravel is a joint delta deposit to the two rivers. Fhegel and Stoller (25) found a plant-bearing clay with a similar flora to that of Tegelen at a series of points in the Rhine valley between Wylerberg near Cleve and Tonigsberg. At Wylerberg, under the gravel and sand of the chief terrace occur 11 meters of clay and fine sand, including a bed of brown coal 30 centimeters thick, below that again coarse diluvial gravel, not quite so coarse, however, as that of the chief terrace. This plant-bearing bed and its stratigraphical equivalents extend south and southeast into Ger- man territory far beyond Briiggen. A section at Hiickelshoven near Erkelenz, on the edge of the Ruhr Valley, also showed a thick clay bed between the gravel of the chief terrace and an older gravel bed below. Stoller gives the names of 35 plants from Wylerberg, all of which indicate a temperate and some a warm-temperate climate slightly warmer than the present in the same region. Their good state of preservation excludes the idea of transport from a distance. The flora has many elements in common with the flora of Tegelen, with which it appears to be contemporaneous. IFliegel and Stoller also studied the junction between the Tegelen stage and the chief terrace. The surface of the former has been modeled by flowing water except in the most northerly part, between Venloo and Tegelen, where the clay is covered by 3 meters of alternating sand and clayey sand; the sand is horizontally bedded and its upper 30 centimeters is very humous, indicating that for a considerable period its surface formed dry land. Krause (28) also traced the oldest gravels northward, and found them to be overlain by the plant-bearing beds of Tegelen age. These oldest gravels here contain large erratic blocks, but Krause considers that these do not necessarily indicate ice transport. Farther up- stream, at Coblentz, these oldest. gravels have risen above those of the chief terrace, lying at 250 meters above sea level, while the latter never exceeds 240 meters, and are distinguished also by their much ilghter color. Lorié gives (29) the generalized result of some 40 borings on the west coast, as follows: . Dune sand. . Marine alluvium. . Exceptionally a bed of sand. Kem zone. . Upper Rhine diluvium. . Fine sand. . Lower Rhine diluvium. PNW AR AN 992, ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. The tripartite arrangement of the Rhine diluvium, Nos. 1, 2, and 3, can be followed southward as they rise inland, the middle bed consisting of fine sand, loam, and peat beds. It is thus evidently the equivalent of the Tegelen stage, and the upper Rhine diluvium cor- responds to the chief terrace, which is confirmed by its position immediately beneath the marine beds of the Kem zone. Its fluvio- glacial origin is shown even here by bowlders of granite and other rocks of northern origin, and also, according to P. Tesch (30) by the large quantities of feldspar crystals, orthoclase, and microcline which can only have resulted from the disintegration of granite rocks. The fluvio-glacial origin of the lower Rhine diluviun, first main- tained by Dubois, is more doubtful, for erratics of northern origin are extremely rare in it, though Lorié found pebbles of northern granite in a boring at Utrecht at 104 and 151 meters, and in a bor- ing at Gorkum at 117 meters below sea level. Tesch concludes that the gravels are really fluvio-glacial, containing a considerable amount of northern material, but the ice edge lay some distance off, and the granite mostly became disintegrated into quartz and feldspar before coming to rest in the Rhine-Meuse delta. SUMMARY, The succession of events in Holland may now be outlined with considerable confidence as follows: Preglacial.—tIn preglacial times the Rhine, like the rivers of north Germany, cut its bed below present sea level, indicating elevation above the present. At the beginning of the first glacial period the land began to sink. First glacial period —tLower gravel diluvium of Rhine, and grav- els of Rhine-Meuse delta, with occasional bowlders rarely erratics of northern material, but a considerable amount of feldspar, prob- ably northern. The ice must have lain some distance off to the north- east, but owing probably to a relative elevation of Scandinavia, the thaw-water channel ran across the mouth of the Rhine-Meuse delta. First interglacial period.—A slight elevation, combined with a de- crease in the amount of water brought dewn by the two rivers, al- lowed the formation of the plant-bearing clays of Tegelen, and their equivalents at Wvylerberg and in the clays and peats of the middle division of the Rhine diluvium. Farther upstream the formation of the older gravel terraces ceased and the rivers eroded their valleys somewhat. Second glacial—The land ice reached the Rhine Valley, and formed the terminal moraines and ground moraine of the maximum glaciation of Holland. The land sank again slightly, and the gravels of the chief terrace and of the upper coarse Rhine diluvium were de- QUATERNARY DEPOSITS OF BRITISH ISLES—BROOKS. 293 posited. It was, however, still considerably above its present level, especially in the north, where the ground moraine is succeeded by peat deposits and not by clays with arctic Mollusca. After the cli- mate had again become temperate, however, still further subsidence occurred, and the Kem clays were deposited, characterized by Tapes aureus var. eemiensis. The upper part of the chief terrace appears to have been deposited during this submergence, as marine shells are mixed with the gravels. In the Gelder this subsidence was followed by elevation, for the Eem beds are overlain by peat, and this again by a bowlder sand of glacial origin. (Lorié, 1906.) After the formation of the chief terrace there followed a consid- erable period of elevation and denudation in the middle Rhine, dur- ing which the river deepened its bed at Bonn by more than 100 meters. In the lower Rhine the elevation, though less marked, was probably still noticeable, for there is a total absence of aqueous de- posits between the Eem beds and a bed of sand equivalent to the lower terrace, Third glacial—The ice during this period failed to cross the Yssel River, and in the western part of the country the glaciation is represented only by occasional beds of sand. In the Yssel Valley the terminal moraines of this glaciation rest on and disturb the ter- race corresponding to the chief terrace of the Rhine, and according to Van Baren, also rest on the equivalent of the middle terrace; we may therefore consider the middle terrace as contemporaneous with the first part of this glacial period, indicating subsidence at the be- ginning, but elevation at the end of the period. No deposits are known in Holland belonging to the third inter- glacial. The land ice of the fourth glaciation did not reach Holland or the Rhine Valley, but by analogy with the chief and middle ter- races, the lower terrace is attributed to this glaciation. This succession does not by any means agree with the classification adopted by various Dutch and German geologists, so I will briefly discuss the latter. Lorié, assuming that in north Germany the middle glaciation was the greatest, correlates with it the maximum glaciation of Holland and consequently also the Rhine chief terrace, thus making the middle and lower terraces both correspond to the last glaciation, and the lower Rhine diluvium to the lower glacial of Germany. The position of the Eem beds is sufficient to disprove this scheme. P. G. Krause discovered at various points in the chief terrace clay and sand beds containing a small mammalian and molluscan fauna, which he regarded as interglacial and of the same age as the Tegelen flora, so that the chief terrace represents both the first and second glaciations of the Alps. Tesch, however, pointed out (31) that the 65133°—sm 1917. 20 994 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. stratigraphical evidence is clearly against this conclusion, while the fauna is consistent with a considerably colder climate than the pres- ent. The fauna is probably late lower glacial. In 1910 (82), however, Tesch had denied that the lower coarse Rhine diluvium corresponds to a glacial period, on the ground that no corresponding arctic fauna or flora is known. He considered that the chief terrace represents a single glacial period corresponding to the first of Germany and the first two of the Alps, there being a progressive increase in fluviatile activity and a continually increasing northern life element up to this point. In the paper in 1915 already referred to, however, he adopts a fluvio-glacial origin for this lower, coarse Rhine diluvium. 3. DENMARK. Northeast of Holland lies Hanover and Schleswig-Holstein, the glacial deposits of which have already been described; to complete our survey of northwest Kurope a brief reference to Denmark is necessary. Here, as in Holland, the Kem zone forms a safe base line for correlation. ‘This was described by Madsen, Nordmann, and Hartz in their classic memoir of 1908 (33). In Denmark these ma- rine temperate beds were found in borings to be overlain by two moraines; these were nowhere seen to be separated by later inter- glacial deposits, but their bowlder content is quite different, the lower bowlder clay containing erratics from the east Baltic and the upper erratics from southern Norway. The older moraine contains very much less crystalline and Cretaceous material and much more Paleozoic material than the younger. There is thus no doubt that the bowlder clay underlying the Eem beds, as in Holland, belongs to the first of the three glaciations of Germany. Our knowledge of the second interglacial of Denmark is mainly derived from a very detailed study by Jessen, Milthers, Nordmann, Hartzog, and Hesselbo in 1910 (84) of a boring at Skaerumhede. This passed through 200 meters of Quaternary deposits before the chalk was reached. Two glacial series were found separated by a well-marked interglacial. The older of these two glacial series was met with at a depth of 180 meters, or 157 meters below sea level, and was 20 meters thick, consisting of sands and gravels, and bowlder clay with many flints from the upper Danian, eruptive rocks from the eastern Baltic (Aland), and other southeast Swedish erratics (from Oesel and Oeland), showing that this bowlder clay was formed by an east Bal- tic ice sheet, evidently the same as that which formed the lowermost of the two moraines overlying the Kem beds in south Denmark. Both eravels and bowlder clay contain fragments of high arctic Mollusca »robably derived from early glacial beds not yet known in situ. QUATERNARY DEPOSITS OF BRITISH ISLES—BROOKS. 295 Above these glacial beds comes the marine interglacial “ Skaerum- hede series,” divided into three zones as follows: 3. Yoldia (Portlandia) arctica zone with purely arctic fauna and beds of gravel and sand with fragments of boreal Mollusca; 40 meters. 2. Abra nitida zone with a boreo-arctie fauna; 9 meters. 1. Turritella terebra zone with a purely boreal fauna; 74 meters. The Turritella tercbra zone consists of a mild, dark-gray clay marl, with black beds at the base and a rich marine fauna of pronounced boreal type. The most “temperate” species are found only in the middle of the zone; above and below are somewhat colder forms. The fauna indicates that the lower part of the zone was accumulated at a depth of 40 to 60 meters, the upper part at a depth of 60 to 80 meters. ; Upward this zone passes gradually into the Abra nitida zone; black, very mild, stone-free clays with a pronounced boreo-arctic fauna accumulated at a depth of 20 to 40 meters. It is overlain with a sharp boundary, by the Yoldia arctica zone, a hard, gray, marine clay with isolated scratched bowlders and nests and layers of sand and gravels, with rolled shell fragments. The primary Mollusca of this zone, mostly broken, are high artic; the rolled fragments in the sand and gravel beds are secondary, and exclusively boreal, and must have been brought, like the nests of sand and gravel in which they lie, by ice from the deposits of the Zwurritella terebra zone. The lower part was formed in 20 meters, the upper part in 10 meters depth. In the upper 30 meters of the Yoldia clay are masses of moss and occasional seeds and leaves of higher plants, almost all in- dicating an arctic climate. (Salix polaris, S. herbacea, Betula nana, ete.) The scratched erratics in the Yoldia clay come partly from the Christiania region (Rhomb porphyry) and partly from the Skager- rack; none are from the east Baltic, so that the ice must have had a purely northern origin. A comparison of the fauna of the Yoldia arctica zone with that of the older Yoldia clay of Vendsyssel shows that the two are identical and consequently of the same age The last glacial period in Denmark is represented by the bed of fluvio-glacial sand, gravel, and clay, 57 meters thick, at Skaerum- hede, and the overlying sandy and stony moraine. Remains of this glaciation are found over a large part of Denmark, either at the surface or beneath later Quaternary deposits. So far, however, no interstadial deposits have been found in it comparable to those in the Baltic Hohenriicken of Kast and West Prussia, so that the Baltic oscillation as a readvance of the ice edge over Denmark apparently did not occur. The postglacial deposits, however, show a well-marked climatic oscillation—the Allerod oscillation—which possibly corresponds to 296 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. this readvance. This was first described by Hartz and Milthers near Allerod in 1901 (85). The following section was seen in a brick kiln: Peat, 3 to 4 feet. Gray clay, free from stones, up to 6 feet. Bowlder sand. In the gray clay, 6 feet above the bowlaer sand, les a bed of Gyttja, 1 foot thick, covered and underlain by clay. The flora of the clay, both above and below the Gyttja, is purely arctic—Dryas octopetala, Betula nana, Salix polaris, S. retioulata. The flora of the Gyttja, on the other hand, includes Betula intermedia, B. ver- rucosa, Juniper communis, etc., species not found in the clay and in- dicating less arctic conditions and consequently a retreat of the neighboring ice edge. A similar succession has been found at various other localities, and Johansen (36) found the Allerod oscillation exhibited also in the fresh-water Mollusca, though his latest researches tend to minimize the subsequent fall of temperature (37). The older Yoldia clay belongs to the conclusion of the last inter- glacial. Above this in North Jylland, and separated from it by a bed of bowlder clay, is another marine clay with Yoldia arctica, as- sociated with a slightly different fauna, the upper Yoldia clay, 5 to 20 meters thick. Its base is formed by unfossiliferous sand and eravel, evidently a shore deposit, and it is similarly overlain by other sand and gravel beds. This clay therefore indicates a sub- mergence. Its fauna includes two high arctic species, 7'ellina Torelli and 7, Loveni, both of which occur living in north and east Greenland, Spitzbergen, and the Kara Sea. The individuals of Yoldia arctica, however, are smaller, and the fauna differs slightly from that of the older Yoldza clay, indicat- ing slightly more favorable conditions; Nordmann estimates the July air temperature as below 8° C. The bed evidently belongs to the melting period of the ice, so that both stratigraphically and climati- cally it falls on the same horizon as the older Dryas clay. It marks a period of subsidence, during which the submergence reached its maximum at Frederikshavn, where it amounted to about 50 meters, decreasing gradually to the south and southwest; its upper limit, however, is another shore deposit. The upper shore sand and gravel is unfossiliferous, but as it repre- sents an elevation it must correspond to the Allerod Gyttja, the air temperature during the formation of which is considered by Nord- mann to lie between 12° and 15° C. More recent than this sand and gravel is the Zirphaea sand of Jylland, and Vendsyssel, character- ized by Zirphaea crispata and other boreal and boreo-arctic species, QUATERNARY DEPOSITS OF BRITISH ISLES-——BROOKS, 297 with a complete absence of high arctic species. It appears to cor- respond to the less arctic part of the upper Dryas period, with a mean temperature of 8° to 12° C.; it passes upward into the alluvial beds. The sequence of events in Denmark may now be summarized as follows: First glaciation—Bowlder clay underlying Eem beds, with Baltic and Norwegian erratics. Land much higher than now at first, but subsided toward the close of the period. First interglacial—Represented by the Eem zone, during the for- mation of which the land lay somewhat below its present level. Second glacial—Bowlder clay with erratics from east Baltie and southeast Sweden. This again was marked by elevation, for the ground moraine of this glacial lies much below present sea level. Second interglactal—Skaerumhede marine series. At first the land lay about 100 meters above its present level; at the maximum of tem- perate conditions it had sunk to 40 or 50 meters, and at the conclu- sion of the interglacial to only about 10 meters above its present level. This period closes with the Portlandia arctica or older Yoldia period. Third glacial—Fluvio-glacial deposits and moraine with erratics from south Norway. Glacial conditions afterward gave place to an arctic vegetation, the older Dryas period. By the conclusion of this glaciation the land had risen to slightly above its present level, for it is immediately followed by a shore sand and gravel, but this elevation at once gave place to subsidence, during which the younger Yoldia clay, with high arctic Mollusca, was formed. Allerod oscillation.—A. decided amelioration of temperature, with a July temperature of 12° to 15° C. As no marine deposits of this period are known, the land probably lay above its present level. Younger Dryas period.—Recrudescence of arctic climate and arctic vegetation. To its close belong the Zirphaca sands, with a fauna somewhat less arctic than that of the younger Yoldia clay. The exact chronological position of the younger Yoldia clay and the Allerod oscillation will be discussed in greater detail when the late glacial history of the Baltic is considered. 4. RUSSIA. The standard region for a study of the glaciation of European Russia is the neighborhood of Moscow. In 1890 M. Krischtafowitsch (38) described in Schernigow Province two very dissimilar types of glacial deposits—bowlder clay below and fluvio-glacial sand and - gravel above—between which he found at Troitskoe near Moscow lacustrine formations with Quercus pedunculata, Alnus glutinosa, 298 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. etc., with Llephas primigenius, etc. The plant remains indicate a milder and more temperate climate than the present in that region. The greatest authority on the glacial period in central Russia is N. Bogoljubow, who makes out the following succession in the Goy- ernment of Moscow (39). The remains of two glaciations are known, the older one represented by traces of moraines, and by bowlder sands and conglomerates, and the younger one by bowlder sand and more perfect moraines. The intergiacial period between these two glaciations is divided by its deposits into three phases; first a “ lake- wood phase,” of lacustrine marl and loam, next a “steppe phase,” of loess and loesslike sand loam, and finally a “ wood phase.” The flora of the interglacial was investigated by W. Sukatchev (40), who finds indications that the climate was somewhat warmer than the present. ‘There is thus evidence for at least two glaciations in central Russia, of which the first was the maximum. End moraines attributed to this glaciation have been found by P. Tut- kowski (41) in Wolhynia, associated with Asar; this agrees with the limits of the first glaciation of eastern Germany, with which it is correlated by most Russian geologists. Near Ovrutsch (42) he found a mammal fauna in loess overlying bowlder sand, including Hlephas primigenius, Rh. tichorhinus, Ovibus fossilis; this does not agree well with the Rixdorf horizon of Germany, but appears to be older. The succeeding glaciation, corresponding to the second in Germany, did not reach so far south as Wolhyuia. The center of distribution of these two ice sheets was in Finland, and Sir R. Murchison (43) found erratics of igneous rocks, chiefly granite, of Finnish types, 700 to 800 miles south of the parent rocks; this was confirmed by T. Belt (44) who also noted that in pre- glacial times the Russian rivers cut their beds much deeper than now. In the east of European Russia the limit of glaciation turned north, along the Volga Valley and the Valley of the Petchora. In Fin- land two glaciations were recognized by R. Sieger as early as 1892 (45); the lower one of these is represented by ground moraine, the upper by a series of terminal moraines. Accompanying these are two distinct systems of striv, the younger crossing and abrading the older as far as the terminal moraines, outside of which only the older system remains. The older strive extend from the center of distribu- tion in a uniformly radial direction, while the younger are affected by local irregularities of contour which the ice sheet producing the former was thick enough to override. In the southeast the limit of the younger moraines is Hango Head in the Gulf of Finland. The deposits in the lower course of the northern Dwina were investigated by Wollossowitsch (46). From two borings in Archangel he de- scribes the following general section: QUATERNARY DEPOSITS OF BRITISH ISLES—BROOKS. 299 . Present deposits and old alluvium, . Upper moraine. a. Land and fresh-water sand deposits. b. Sands with plant remains, a. Sand deposits with Vellina balthica, etc. b. Gray clay with Tellina calcarea. ec. Clayey sandy sediment with Cardiwm ciliatum. 5. Loam with Yoldia hyperborea. 6. a. Gray fuller’s earth with Yoldia arctica. b. Dark gray loam with Pecien islandicus, Astarte, Leda, Balawmis. '% Dark sandy clay with Cardiwm edule, Mytilus edulis, Mya, ete. §. Lower red moraine. i» oo Do From this the author makes the following generalizations: 1. In the region investigated two moraines are usually found, indicating two different glaciations. 2. The interglacial marine deposit is formed by two transgressions of salt basins—the oceanic transgression, which indicates an important subsidence of the continent, and that of the White Sea which was marked by the more important second subsidence. The subsidences alternated with corresponding elevations. 38. The postglacial oscillations of the sea level were considerably more im- portant than the interglacial. W. Ramsay (47) maintained that the fauna with Yoldia arctica was late glacial and not interglacial, but as we have seen in discussing the Skaerumhede series of Denmark, this species also occurs at the conclusion of the penultimate interglacial. The whole series, in fact, bears a considerable resemblance to the Skaerumhede series. If this interpretation is correct no equivalent to the first glaciation of Ger- many has yet been found in the Dwina region, either because investi- gations have not yet been carried to a suflicient depth or because the region during this glaciation was one of erosion and not of deposi- tion. It is borne out by an observation of J. Geilkie’s, that between the limits of the old and middle glaciations lakes are few in number, within the limits of the latter they are more frequent, but are most abundant among the terminal moraines of the last glaciation. There is one other deposit to which reference must be made—the bowlder-bearing formation of the south part of the Volga Basin, described by A. D. Archangelski (48) and A. P. Pavlov (49), in 1910. In the banks of the Volga is found a bed very closely resembling a moraine; elsewhere it is represented by bowlder sands. The bowlder sands lie on the highest part of the watershed; in their lower part the sands are coarse and contain layers and pockets of bowlders and erratics, among which chert with carboniferous fossils is noteworthy; the upper beds of the sand are finer and contain layers of sandy clay. Among the erratics crystalline stones are almost entirely absent. The cherts attain a diameter of one-half meter. Both authors consider the lower horizon as fluvio-glacial; the sands are older than the Caspian beds and apparently Pliocene; during their deposition the relief of the ground differed considerably from 3800 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. the present and even the great river valleys did not yet exist. They were compared by Pavlov with the old bowlder beds of Germany and Switzerland, and, especially with the bowlder beds with a Pliocene fauna in southwest France, with the lower weathered moraine of the serra chain of Piedmont, and with the immigra- tion of the polar fauna in the Mediterranean during the fourth upper Pliocene transgression, which corresponds to the first great European glaciation. Professor Pavlov explains the lack of northern crystalline erratics partly by their slight durability in comparison with chert and partly by the mechanics of glacier work and nourishment; on the enormous stretch of the Russian plain there was heaped up, before movement began in a definite direction, a mass of snow, fern, and ice; in this erratics were frozen; nourishment and movement continued for a certain period, during which the bowlders from central Russia were carried into the Zaritzyn district, but the Finnish erratics only reached central Russia. Although the existence of these bowlder beds with erratics is fairly established, there are difficulties in the way of giving them such a liberal interpretation. The existence of an isolated occurrence of ground moraine so far south, and entirely unconnected with any center of glaciation by similar deposits, does not seem probable. In Germany, as we have seen, the evidence for a Pliocene glaciation is of the scantiest, in spite of the immense detail of the researches in that country, and it seems certain that such a glaciation did not overstep the limits of the first of the well-known glaciations. A more probable agent for the formation of beds in question seems to be river ice, which would easily deposit erratic bowiders of central Russian type in fluviatile sands. If we accept the late Pliocene age of the beds which is suggested by their position with regard to the drainage system, they may then represent, as suggested by M. Pavlov, a cold period corresponding to the first Alpine glaciation, though we have no proof that it was accompanied by the formation of an inland ice sheet in central Russia. SUMMARY. Late Pliocene-—Considerable elevation in all parts of European Russia. Close of Pliocene.—Cold period. River ice on the Volga. First glaciation—F innish ice attained its maximum extent, reach- ing far into the central Russian plain. First interglacial—(i) Lake-wood phase. (ii) Steppe phase. (111) Wood phase. Second glaciation—\ce did not reach far into the central Russian plain, stopping short of Wolhynia. QUATERNARY DEPOSITS OF BRITISH ISLES—BROOKS. 3801 Second interglacial—Formation of Archangel series in lower course of northern Dwina. Finland free of ice. This interglacial was marked by a subsidence in Finland. Third glaciation—Reelevation of Finland. This glaciation was limited to a relatively small area in Finland and northwest Russia. The limits of the second and third glaciations have not yet been traced in detail, and no formations similar to those of the Baltic interstadial have yet been discovered. 5. SCANDINAVIA AND THE BALTIC. The centers of ice accumulation in Scandinavia were necessarily areas of erosion, where the thick ice swept the rock surface clear of all superficial detritus, and transported it often to very consider- able distances. Consequently, every glaciation in these regions would tend to destroy the evidences of the preceding one, so that it becomes hard to tell whether there have been more than one glaciation, i. e., whether the ice retreats and interglacial periods of the peripheral regions extended into the center of ice distribution, leaving the whole country clear of ice, or only to its margin. Nevertheless, there are a few traces of such deglaciation which, considering their necessary rarity, entitles us to assume the practically complete disappearance of the ice. These were discussed by A. G. Tégbom in 1913 (50). He refuses to accept the thick sand beds, un- fossiliferous or with only arctic remains, in Schonen as interglacial, since they show no evidence of any rank higher than interstadial. On the other hand, the fossiliferous deposits with a boreal fauna and flora overlain by glacial deposits described by H. Munthe (51) at Hernésand and Erikson (52) at Bollniis, both in north Sweden, he considers to be very probably truly interglacial, as well as the fos- siliferous beds intercalated in thick moraine deposits in Jaederen. As further evidence for at least one interglacial period he mentions the finding of teeth of mammoth in Schénen, Finland, and central Nor- way and remains of musk ox at Gothenburg. The deposit at Hernésand appears to be the most important. of these ; it was described by H. Munthe in 1899, 1904, and 1909, and by A. G. Hégbom in 1910. The section is as follows: 3. Typical feebly calcareous moraine clay; 3 to 5 meters. 2. Brown gyttja and sandy gyttja, rich in fossil Quaternary fresh-water and land organisms; 0.7 to 3 meters. 1. Glacial sand, gravel, and blocks (partly ice scratched) ; 2.8 meters. Tke Gyttja is partly a somewhat impure diatom and Cladocera formation, partly more or less mixed with fine sand; it usually shows a breccia structure. The plants include Betula odorata, B. nana, Pinus silvestris, and Picea ewcelsa. It appears to have been de- 302 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. posited in a shallow fresh-water basin in a steep-sided valley at right angles to the direction of ice motion; the climatic conditions were arcto-alpine part of the time, but must have been somewhat better when Betula odorata, Pinus silvestris, and Picea excelsa grew. Its interglacial age is based not only on the stratigraphical evidence, which is very strong, but also on the similarity of its flora to that of undoubted interglacial deposits in Denmark and north Germany. Picea excelsa is a very characteristic interglacial fossil in Denmark. This Hernésand deposit lies exactly at present sea level. J. Geikie (53) quotes a letter from M. Tornebohm describing a section in Wermland showing two bowlder clays superposed, the lower darker in color and containing fewer big stones than the upper. There is usually a sharp line of demarcation between them, and in some places the lower till has been partly broken up and denuded before the upper till was deposited, indicating an interval when the ground was free from ice. A. G. Nathorst and H. Lundbohm have shown that earlier than the ice sheet which moved from north-northeast. to south-southwest and formed the “ lower diluvium” (middle glaciation) of north Ger- many, there must have existed another ice sheet which glaciated southern Sweden from east to west and accumulated a ground mo- raine with blocks from the east and southeast. In southwest Norway, at Jaederen, south of Stavanger, K. Bjor- lykke (54) found a Cyprina clay passing under and disturbed by bowlder clay and seen in borings to be underlain by other glacial deposits; he considers it to represent the cold part of an interglacial. Farther east, between Stavanger and the Christiania Fjord, A. M. Hansen (55) finds evidence of two main glacial periods, in addition to the later readvances; these he attributes to Geikie’s Saxonian and Mecklenburgian. Thus we see that there is considerable, though scattered, evi- dence that at least once during the course of the glacial period Scan- dinavia became practically ice free. At present it is not possible as a rule to allocate the interglacial deposits to definite horizons, but the Cyprina clay of Jaederen is considered by Bjorlykke to be- long to the older interglacial, on both stratigraphical and paleonto- logical grounds, and this would bring it into good agreement with the Cyprina clays of Denmark and north Germany. On the other hand, the flora of the Hernésand Gyttja is more in accordance with the upper interglacial of north Germany, and this is supported by the relative freshness of the deposits. We may accordingly suppose that there were at least three entirely distinct glaciations of Scan- dinavia, separated by intervals when the ice melted well back into the mountains, if it did not disappear altogether. During the earlier of the intervals the coast of Norway lay lower than at present; during the later both Norway and Sweden lay higher. From the QUATERNARY DEPOSITS OF BRITISH ISLES—BROOKS. 303 finding of littoral species of Mollusca at great sea depths off the west coast of Norway, Brégger concludes that at one period during the early Quaternary this region lay 2,600 meters higher than now. Further, on the coastal banks of west Norway littoral arctic Mol- luseca extend to depths of about 200 meters, indicating, in Brégger’s opinion, that the land lay at nearly 200 meters above the sea even during the last glaciation. The question of the occurrence of deposits of the Baltic inter- stadial in Scandinavia is quite different, and can be only approached by a careful comparative study of the history of the Baltic. The sequence in Denmark has been partly described already: Third glacial period—F luvioglacial deposits and moraines with erratics from south Norway. Land slightly above present level. Older Dryas period and younger Yoldia period—Slight sub- sidence. Allerod oscillation—A decided amelioration of climate. Land above present level. Younger Dryas period —Return of cold climate. Zirphaea sands—Cold conditions; shght submergence. After the deposition of the Zirphaca sands there is a gap, during which no deposits are known to have been formed, probably because of the considerable elevation of the land. This may correspond to the Ancylus period. It is followed by the older 7’apes beds, repre- senting the maximum subsidence in Denmark and also probably the temperature maximum. Above the older 7apes beds are the younger Zapes or Dosinia beds, intermediate between the older 7'apes time and the present both in level and climate. Lastly come the still forming beds with Mya arenaria. The latter part of this sequence agrees very well with that in south Sweden, as described by numerous authors (56), but the earlier part is at variance. We may make the following comparison: DENMARK, SWEDEN. Mya arenaria layers. Mya arenaria layers. Younger Tapes beds, Older Tapes beds. Litorina beds. (Climatic optimum. ) (Climatic optimum. ) (Gap. ) Ancylus lacustrine beds. Zirphaed beds. Deposits of Yoldia Sea. Upper shore sand and younger Dryas period. Allerod gyttja. Younger Yoldia clay. Lower shore sand. Older Dryas period. Last glacial period. Great Scanian end moraine. Baltie ice lake. Ice over Schonen. Arctic plant beds of Schonen, Last glacial period. 304 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. The correlation of the bracketed stages is uncertain, but the se- quence of events was probably something like this: Denmark was ice free before Scania, so that the elder Dryas period of Denmark may be unrepresented in Sweden, or it may be only slightly earlier than the arctic plant beds of Schonen (57), whose position is doubt- ful. The Baltic ice lake evidently corresponds to elevation in Den- mark, which shut out the sea. As it was a period of rapid ice melt- ing, and therefore relatively warm, it may correspond to the Allerod oscillation, in which case the fall of temperature and readvance or still stand of the ice marked by the Scanian end moraines must be correlated with the younger Dryas period, and the subsidence marked by the Yoldia Sea in the Baltic is marked in Denmark not by the younger YVoldia clay, but by the Zirphaea sands. This correlation is rendered more probable when we remember that the late glacial subsidence reached its maximum in Denmark, the more peripheral area, earlier than in Scania, the more central area. To represent the _-- Primary Curve Secondary Curve Mie. 1. changes diagrammatically, we have to superpose two curves of changes of level—a primary, which in Denmark was always a phase earlier than Scania, and a secondary, which was the same in both districts (fig. 1). Younger = : aa Older 3 Allerod Younger Zirphaea Denmark. Dryas. Yoldia oscillation. Dryas. beds. Gap. period. Tce. Seanian end Ancylus Scania. Te fered. | I treat. Yoldia clay. ave eeeaerl a be ge moraine. Bo esatictl beds. In Scandinavian late glacial, the depression of the Yoldia Sea and its equivalents and the succeeding elevation appear to have progressed inward to a central zone over the east of Sweden; here, where the ice was thickest and most permanent, the consequent de- pression was the greatest, reaching more than 250 meters, and the land took the longest time to recover from the effects of the load, QUATERNARY DEPOSITS OF BRITISH ISLES—BROOKS. 305 We have next to compare the sequence in Denmark and Sweden with that worked out by C. Brégger in the Christiania region, 200 miles farther north (58). This sequence and the variations of level of the land are as follows: The older Yoldia clay is a reconstructed bowlder clay with 25 species of high arctic Mollusca formed immediately behind the re- tiring glacier, indicating a land level about 30 meters lower than the present. The land then sank another 45 meters, while the cli- mate ameliorated, so that one finds the larger form of the high arc- tic Portlandia arctica Gray of the older Yoldia clay represented by smaller forms of the same mussel in the younger Yoldia clay. At this time the climate was similar to that of the west coast of Spitz- bergen. Immediately above the younger Yoldia clay is a clay de- posit with a more arctic deep-water fauna, chiefly Arca glacialis Gray represented by a large form. This older Arca clay repre- sents a submergence of about 100 meters and is only found outside the great Ra moraine or in immediate connection with it, whereas the following middle Arca clay, with a smaller form of Arca gla- cialis, representing a slight amelioration of climate and a still greater submergence, occurs also inside the Ra moraine. The latter, therefore, which represents a prolonged still stand of the ice with possibly a slight readvance, evidently corresponds to the older Arca clay. The continuation of the late glacial sequence in the Christiania region is described by Brégger as follows: The middle Arca clay, indicating a submergence up to 150 meters, is followed in continuous series by the younger Arca clay with a still smaller form of Arca glacialis and many boreo-arctic Mollusca. The occurrence of this fauna in connection with a corresponding shore fauna, which occurs in the Portlandia clay with Portlandia lenticulata and in connection with the series of moraines in the Christiania Valley, indicates in this region a submergence of the land to about 200 meters. The progressive sinking still continued, as shown by the marine shores of the neighborhood of Christiania, where terraces of accumulation with a boreo-arctic fauna and corre- sponding erosion phenomena indicate the shore at a height of 216 meters above sea level. Corresponding to this sinking of the land there occurs at many places on the present shore line a fossil Lophelia fauna, and this period coincided with the epiglacial period, during which the great moraines were covered by the south- ern end of great inland lakes. After this the land began to rise and the climate ameliorated steadily. The upper, middle, and lower Mya banks, at 200 to 100 meters, corresponding to the older Cardium clay, are followed by the younger Cardiwm clay, 100 to 80 meters, the 806 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. upper Ostrca banks, 80 to 66 meters, the upper Z'apes banks, early neolithic in age, at 60 to 30 meters, the lower Z’apes banks, Scrobicu- laria clay, and Mya banks, the latter only just above the level of the sea. There is no trace of either the Ancylus elevation or the Litorina subsidence, but the horizon of the latter is marked faunally and cli- matically by the Zapes banks. The only part of Norway where any trace of the Litorina sub- sidence has been found is in Christiansand, the southernmost prov- ince, where D. Danielsen (59) found that after a maximum late glacial subsidence of 50 meters the land rose to about its present level, and then sank again somewhat. J. Holmboe (60) also records that during a wreck off the south coast of Norway in 1909 peat fragments. were torn from the sea floor, consisting of parts of two beds, one arctic, with Letula nana, and the other representing a cli- mate somewhat warmer than the present, and evidently belonging to the Ancylus period. During the formation of both these beds the land must have lain at least 8 meters higher than at present. Owing to the dissimilar changes of level, correlation with Scania can best be effected climatically. Scania. | Christiania. Denmark. Postglacial optimum. Litorina beds. Tapes banks. Older Tapes beds. Postglacial elevation. Ancylus beds. Submerged peat of | (Gap.) Christiansand. Beginning ofamelioration.| Yoldia beds and reces- | Arca clays, Moraines. Zirphaea beds. sion. Great end moraine. Great Scanian moraine. | Ra-moraine. Younger Dryas pericd. Interstadial. Rapidice recession. Younger Voldia clay. Allerod escillation. Glacial period. Tee covered. Older Yoldia clay, ice | Younger Yoldia beds. covered. Older Dryas period, | | This correlation is to some extent supported by the fact that it makes the maximum subsidence in Norway nearly coincide with that in Seania. If it is correct, it indicates that Baltic interstadial de- posits are unknown in either Norway, Sweden, or Denmark, save possibly the arctic fresh-water beds of Schonen, but are replaced instead by deposits of later interstadia. Archeologically also the correlation is supported, for the stone age occurred during the An- cylus and Litorina periods in Sweden, and during the climatic opti- mum in Denmark and Norway, while the succeeding period of eleva- tion in the Baltic coincides with the bronze age. Direct comparison with the north German coast is impossible, be- cause this more peripheral region was elevated above present sea level at the close of the last glacial period, and was not subsequently ice-covered. QUATERNARY DEPOSITS OF BRITISH ISLES—-BROOKS. 307 submerged, except possibly for a small area in the northwest, where Litorina deposits occur below sea level (61). No cold period subse- quent to the ice melting has yet been proved in the peat bogs, so that the Scanian end moraine at least is unrepresented. Nordmann (62) applies the term “older Yoldia clay” to the two beds with Yoldia (Portlandia) arctica, and the term “ younger Y oldia clay” to the bed with Portlandia lenticulata, and considers that the latter, with the associated epiglacial moraines, represents the Zir- phaea sands of Denmark, while the Azca clays represent the Allerod oscillation. This, however, is not borne out by the climatic values of the various species of Mollusca, and it further leaves the great Ra- moraine quite unaccounted for. The epiglacial moraine appears to represent a later cold period of considerably less intensity. In the Bergen region the conditions were described by C. F. Kolde- rup (63) as follows. The highest well-marked shore line lies in the west at 50 to 60 meters and in the east (inner fjords) at 60 to 70 meters. These terraces contain Yoldia arctica, and are termed by Kolderup the “ Yoldia” or “epiglacial terraces.” They do not mark absolutely the highest level of the sea, for here and there a small terrace is found a few meters above, but indicating only a very short stay at this level. As the inland ice melted, the ice divided into local glaciers, whose ends reached the sea. A still stand or slight readvance at this stage is marked by a few important end moraines, which cor- respond to the Ra-moraines of the Christiania region. Arctic mol- Jusea, indicating a climate colder than that of the extreme north of Norway, occur in beds mixed up with these moraines, but the Yoldia terraces, with a fauna like the present one of the White Sea, belong to the end of the Ra-moraine period. Conditions were thus essen- tially similar to those of the Christiania region. At Christiansand and Trondhjem, J. Rekstad found that glacial conditions continued until the maximum subsidence (76 to 134 meters) was reached, after which it ameliorated, and present condi- tions (Tapes period) obtained when two-thirds of the ensuing eleva- tion had taken place. Still farther north conditions have been studied by O. T. Gronlie (64) in the neighborhood of Tromsé, about latitude 69 north. He found that during the late glacial subsidence the clhmate continued arctic, but when elevation commenced conditions became milder, ulti- mately milder than the present. Renewed subsidence in the “ Zapes period” was associated with a deterioration of climate, but at the new minimum land level the climate again became milder. This subsidence was probably the equivalent of the Lztorina subsidence, which, as will appear later, was very widespread over the northern- most part of the North Atlantic and the Arctic Oceans. 308 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. 6. GREAT BRITAIN. in applying to the glacial deposits of Britain, the classification worked out for north Europe, we find that even in eastern England, where deposits of two glaciations occur associated, a direct proof of a difference in age is more difficult. But the bowlder clays which on stratigraphical and paleontological grounds are classified as belong- ing to the first glaciation of England are vastly more weathered and eroded than those of less extent which are classified as belonging to the second glaciation. Moreover, almost without exception every locality in England where older paleolithic implements have been found lies outside the limits of this younger bowlder clay. These implements are associated with the well-known warm-temperate fauna of Chelles, which is incompatible with a climate appreciably colder than the present; they are indisputably younger than the older bowlder clay and older than the younger bowlder clay, and on these erounds alone we should be justified in inferring two glacial periods in England separated by a temperate interglacial period. The starting point must be S. V. Wood’s division of the East Anglian drifts into contorted drift, middle sands and gravels, and chalky bowlder clay. The lower tills of Cromer and the arctic fresh-water bed can not be separated from the contorted drift. At Cromer the middle sands contain Vassa reticosa, Anomia, Dentalium, and Scalaria Groenlandica (65). The same bed at Yarmouth con- tains a much larger fauna of mollusks and ostracods, but still boreal and arctic (66). They form no evidence for an interglacial period. Northwest of Cromer isolated hills rising above the Fens show marine sands and gravels; these contain a northern but not arctic molluscan fauna with in places Corbicula fluminalis, as at March. They are associated with old valley gravels, containing Pleistocene mammalia (Hippopotamus, Elephas antiquus, EF. primigenius, Rhinoceros tichorhinus, and Felis spelaea) ; this resembles the fauna of the older interglacial of north Germany. The beds also contain flint implements, Chellean or Acheulian type; they rest on chalky bowlder clay. The next clear sequence is that of the coast of Holderness (68), where again there are four bowlder clays, the upper two separated by stratified gravels. The uppermost division is the Hessle bowlder clay, quite indistinguishable lithologically from the lower clays, but with smaller bowlders and no shell fragments. S. V. Wood’s sec- tion was at Hessle, where it overlies the mammaliferous gravel, but overlaps it on to the chalk. The relations of the Hessle clay can be seen more satisfactorily at Kelsey Hill, in Lincolnshire, where bowlder clay 13 feet thick, but very much weathered, overlies the narine gravel, which here, opposite the Humber gap, contains great QUATERNARY DEPOSITS OF BRITISH ISLES—BROOKS. 309 numbers of shells of Corbicula fluminalis. Beneath the gravel, bor- ings show another bowlder clay. At Grimsby, also, two bowlder clays are separated in places by gravelly sand. This marine bed is in fact found at a great number of localities; it was considered by Wood and Rome (69) as a distinct deposit, termed by them Hessle sand, between the purple clay and the Hessle clay, and C. Reid states that there is no doubt whatever about its position between two bowlder clays. It can be traced around the greater part of the old bay of Holderness, and, where the ancient chalk cliff is low, extends for some distance inland. The land sank gradually te a depth of about 100 feet, and rose again gradually, so that except in parts of Lincolnshire there is an almost complete absence of a cliff bounding the gravels at this level. There is a distinct line of erosion at the bottom of the gravels and another at the top. The only still-water deposits of this horizon are those at Croxton and Kirmington. The marine fauna is by no means poor. Sixty-one species are known, slightly northern, but not arctic. Except Corbicula flumin- alis, there are no exclusively southern forms; 12 do not now range so far south. The great majority are living British forms, many of which do not extend far north. The fauna agrees almost per- fectly with that of March in the fen land. The mammalia include Elephas primigenius, Cervus tarandus, Bison priscus, and Rhinoc- eros leptorhinus. We may safely assign the marine gravels to a period of milder climate than the bowlder clays preceding and fol- lowing it. The flora from the estuarine peat at Kirmington (70) supports these conclusions, After the melting of the ice of the last glaciation the land lay about 40 feet lower than at present; the beaches of this submergence have all been destroyed by the encroachment of the sea, except a raised estuarine beach extending for some miles near Barton, but river gravels in the chalk valleys and the positions of some of the peat de- posits, e. g., on Kelsey Hill, indicate a saturation level about 40 feet higher than now. Most of these deposits contain a temperate flora of oak and hazel, with Cervus megaceros, Bos primigenius, and Elephas primigenius, but at Holmpton temperate lacustrine de- posits belonging to this stage are overlain by a laminated peaty bed with Betula nana, which is so characteristic a northern form that it seems sufficient evidence of a return of a colder climate; this arctic _ bed agrees with similar postglacial arctic beds in the Pennine dis- trict to be described. Just north of Holderness the glacial succession has been studied by G. W. Lamplugh in the Flamborough Head district (71). The equivalents of the four bowlder clays found by C. Reid in Holder- ness are recognized, but at a higher level. The purple bowlder clay is separated from the equivalent of the Hessle clay by unfossiliferous 65133°—sm 1917——21 310 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. gravels, but Lamplugh does not consider them as interglacial. He regards the Holderness gravels as possibly marine, but contempo- raneous with the continuous formation of bowlder clay in other parts of the area, during an oscillation of the ice edge; this sugges- tion was considered by C. Reid to be negatived by the fauna. In Durham C. T. Trechmann (72) found a somewhat similar se- quence—lower shelly bowlder clay with Scandinavian bowlders, overlain in places (especially in cavities in magnesian limestone) by current bedded shelly sands, probably marine, and this in turn by Cheviot bowlder clay with Scottish and Cumberland erratics, prob- ably equivalent to the Hessle clay. In Northumberland Doctor Woolacott (73) found only one bowlder clay, but underlying it north of the Wansbeck he found a coarse gravel which may represent the gravel beds of the Durham coast. Near Hartlepool the Cheviot clay is overlain by a gravelly bed extending fairly continuously at an altitude of 60 feet; Doctor Woolacott regards this as the continuation of a raised beach which he discovered resting on the bowlder clay from Seaham to Castle- Kden-Dene. The beach decreases in height both north and south from 150 feet at Cleadon and Fulwell to 50 feet at Seaham and 60 feet at Castle-Eden-Dene, while a raised beach at Saltburn lies at 30 feet. Returning to East Anglia we find that the contorted drift breaks up into isolated mounds and ridges as it passes southward, but the marine sands of Cromer and Yarmouth merge into S. V. Wood’s widespread “middle glacial” and the chalky bowlder clay forms a widespread sheet. No traces of temperate deposits have been found in the “middle glacial.” It seems that the great subsidence in Hol- Jand during the early Quaternary was sufficient to deflect the Scan- dinavian ice from East Anglia farther eastward. In this way would be explained the total absence of a bowlder clay underlying the chalky bowlder clay in central England, a fact otherwise incompre- hensible. And, further, the deep river valleys of Norfolk and Suf- folk, which extend below sea level, and are post North Sea drift, but pre chalky bowlder clay, are possibly subglacial fjords (74). The archeological horizon of the chalky bowlder clay is fixed as pre-Acheulian by the well-known section at Hoxne (75) which gives the section— 4. Loam and gravel with Acheulian implements and widespread fauna and flora. 8. Black loam with numerous arctie plants; 13 feet. 2. Lignite and lacustrine clay with temperate plants and mollusea; no arctic plants. 1. Chalky bowlder clay and glacial sand. From this section it appears that not only is the chalky bowlder clay older than the Acheulian culture, but is separated from it by a QUATERNARY DEPOSITS OF BRITISH ISLES—BROOKS. 312 long period of temperate climate and another long period of arctic climate. Returning now to Cromer, we find underlying the arctic and glacial sequence there the Cromer forest bed, which contains a tem- perate fauna including an admixture of Pliocene forms—including Machaerodus, Rhinoceros etruscus, and Elephas meridionalis—with Pleistocene forms, including Llephas antiquus and a rare form de- scribed as £. primigenius, but which according to H. Pohlig (76) really belongs to his species /’. trogontherii. This agrees closely with the St. Prestian of France. The associated flora has been shown by C. Reid and Dubois (77) to be almost identical with that of the Tegelen clays already de- scribed (see p. 290) as underlying the chief terrace of the Rhine, the terrace which we have already seen to be contemporaneous with the first glaciation of north Germany. The glacial deposits of eastern England may accordingly be correlated as follows: EASTERN ENGLAND. NORTH EUROPE. Clays of Tegelen. First glaciation of north Germany and Holland. Chief terrace. Cromer forest bed. Arctie fresh-water bed. North Sea drift and Scandinavian drift of Durham. Arctic marine sands of Cromer and Yarmouth. Chalky bowlder clay and Scottish clay of Durham. Marine sands and gravels of March and Holderness. Temperate lacustrine beds of Hoxne. Cheviot bowlder clay of Durham. Hessle bowlder clay. Arctie beds of Hoxne. Brick earths of Hoxne (Acheulian). Temperate peat of Holderness. Arctic peat of Holmpton. Older interglacial of north Germany with Corbicula fluminalis. Cyrina marine beds of Denmark and Holland. Middle terrace of Rhine. Second glaciation of north Germany. Second interglacial of North Germany. Baltic glaciation of north Germany. THAMES VALLEY. According to Messrs. Hinton and Kennard (78), the history of the lower Thames can be divided into the following stages: . Plateau gravels formed. whe fluminalis. 4, Elevation of 30 feet and formation of 100-foot terrace. man, Hlephas, Leo, Hippopotamus. Microtus intermedius, Reindeer, Elephas antiquus; Acheulian. . Hill gravels formed; Chellean implements in places. . Highest terrace of Thames (136 feet at Dartford Heath) Corbicula Galley Hill Fauna at Swanscombe includes Mr. Leach, as a result of investigations of a Dartford Heath, suggested 312 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. that the 130-foot and 100-foot terraces are not really separate, but Mr. Monckton found four well-marked terraces in the valley of the Wey at Farnham, evidently corresponding to those of the Thames. 5. Hlevation of about 90 feet. A very long period of time elapsed after the Thames reached its new base line, for the lateral erosion was enormous. The extensive gravels of the middle terrace were de- posited, with brick earths to the east. These brick earths must have been laid down in still or slow-moving water, and the authors suggest that the Thames was at this period ponded back owing to differential elevation to the north, reaching a maximum over the great flat plain of the North Sea. The contemporaneous fauna in- cludes Elephas primigenius, H. antiquus, Rhinoceros megarhinus, R. leptorhinus, R. antiquitatis, Ovibos moschatus and Spermophilus erythrogenoides. Mousterian. 6. Elevation of about 20 feet. A fourth terrace of gravel (‘third ter- race”) deposited. Resting on this terrace at Uxbridge are Magda- lenian implements. 7. Great elevation (at least 90 feet) and formation of buried channel. 8. Gradual sinking to present level. For many reasons the 130-foot and lower terraces must be more recent than the maximum glaciation (chalky bowlder clay). Prob- ably, as suggested by Mr. Salter and by Messrs. Sherlock and Noble (79), prior to this the Thames occupied a more northerly course, but was forced into its present position by the ice. That the climate was still cold when the 100-foot terrace began to be formed is shown by the animal remains, which include reindeer and Microtus, but it was ameliorating rapidly, and finally permitted the presence of Zippopotamus. The occurrence of Corbicula flumi- nalis in the gravels of the highest terraces allies them with the marine gravels of March and Holderness, already described. Ac- cording to H. Menzel this mollusk is characteristic of the first inter- glacial of the whole of northern Europe (i. e., after the first glacia- tion of north Germany). The presence of Paludina diluviana is also characteristic of the first interglacial of northern Europe. The fauna of the middle terrace, deposited after considerable eleva- tion is very peculiar, containing a mixture of warm and cold forms— the presence of Ovibos moschatus and Spermophilus indicate a much colder climate than Hippopotamus could exist in, and there are also a number of deposits on this horizon which indicate very severe climatic conditions. At Grays and Crayford the brick earths cover paleolithic floors with Mousterian implements. A similar floor at Stoke Newington is overlain by the “ warp and trail” of W. G. Smith, generally considered as evidence of a severe climate. On the same level as the third terrace, but in the. Lea Valley, and also both overlain and underlain by brick earth, are the arctic glacial beds of Ponders End, described by S. W. Warren and others in 1912 (80). QUATERNARY DEPOSITS OF BRITISH ISLES—BROOKS. 313 The phanerogam flora indicates conditions only found to-day with- in the Arctic Circle, but less rigorous than those at Spitzbergen. The sequence of stages in theyThames Valley may accordingly be made out as follows: 1. Maximum glaciation of eastern England—Chalky bowlder clay of Finchley. .2. Highest and 100-foot terraces of Thames with Corbicula fluminalis and Paludina diluviana. Chellean and Acheulian correspond to the marine gravels of March and Holderness. 3. Period of erosion. 4. Middle terrace, temperate at first, but becoming cold later. Acheulian Mousterian. 5. Cold period. Arctic beds of Lea Valley; ‘‘ warp and trail.” 6. Erosion, late Mousterian period; no evidence as to climate. 7. Low terrace formed. Probably cold. Solutrean to Magdalenian. The correlation of the Quaternary stages of eastern England and the Thames Valley with those of Holland and north Germany is very clear, if ordinary stratigraphical and paleontological methods are employed. The Cromer forest bed and the Tegelen plant beds must be equivalents on the grounds of both stratigraphy and flora. Each was immediately followed by the maximum glaciation of the district. The close of the glaciation was marked in each case by a submergence, characterized in the north by marine formations (Holderness gravels, Eem beds) and in the south by river terraces (130-foot terrace, chief terrace). The characteristic Mollusca of these beds on both sides of the North Sea are, first, Corbicula fluminalis; second, Paludina diluviana. Finally, we have in both east England and Holland a minor glaciation, associated with the Mousterian industry, and with the middle terrace group of the rivers. SOUTH COAST. South of the Thames Valley no bowlder clay is known, but there are other evidences of a severe climate in the coombe rock or “head” and in the presence of large erratic bowlders. The section at Brighton was described by Mantell in 1833 (81): a. Elephant bed (coombe rock). b. Ancient shingle (with erratics). ec. Ancient sand. d. Base of cliffs, of chalk rock. According to Mantell, the junction of the coombe rock with the shingle was marked by a layer of shells, including Cardium edule, Mytilus edulis, Litorina litorea, and Purpura lapillus, but in 1914 this was not visible; instead the junction was marked by a layer of chalk pebbies. A few hours’ search in the ghingle beds yielded a large number of erratics, many of them gray and pink granites of north- 314 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. eastern types. In the coombe rock implements of Acheulian-Mous- terian type have been found near Brighton. West of Brighton there is a section at Portslade showing*typical “head” underlain by sand and clay with J/ytilus, Litorina, and pebbles, some igneous. At the bottom of the sand was found a piece of hard purple quart- zite, 4 inches long, quite angular, and broken into two pieces in situ. The marine beds here are about 10 feet lower than east of Brighton, either because they were formed farther seaward or because the submergence at this period diminished westward. At the base, resting on and squeezed into Bracklesham clays, are the Selsey erratics, overlain by marine and estuarine beds with tem- perate (southern) Mollusca and redeposited erratics. The Mollusca include Corbicula fluminalis and Bithynia tentaculata. These beds are overlain by the raised beach, resembling that of Brighton, but at a lower level, and this again by “head,” here a loam. Farther west the raised beach and head are well seen at Selsey Bill and near Chichester, but the phenomena here are more complicated. They have been described by C. Reid in several papers (82). Reid correlates these temperate deposits with Corbicula fluminalis with the Thames gravels with the same shell, the Clacton raised beach, with C. fuminalis and Paludina diluiviana, and the gravels of March and Holderness. He remarks: Though the land and fresh-water species show little change of climate be- tween south and east, there exists a marked difference in the marine Mollusca. In Sussex the marine fossils seem to indicate a sea warmer than the air, while in the eastern counties the air was apparently warmer than the sea. The Selsey Peninsula is backed by a line of old cliffs which cut obliquely across the chalk and Eocene, and associated with this in places are remains of the corresponding marine sands and gravels, at a level of about 100 to 105 feet at Tortington Common, 120 feet near Arundel, 90 feet near Boxgrove, 130 feet at Waterbeach, where it contains large blocks of Pholas-bored and worm-eaten chalk, and occasional small shells. Here it is overlain by coombe rock, chalky paste with angular flints, which passes southward into loam. North of the Chalk Downs no trace of these marine deposits has been found, so that the submergence must be older than the erosion of the valleys. Further, as the marine sands and shingle can not be related to the much lower beach shingle at Selsey and Brighton, they must correspond to an earlier submergence of 100 feet, which may be related to the submergence of 100 feet (130-foot terrace) in the Thames Valley, immediately succeeding the first glaciation. The large bowlders of the Selsey foreshore must have been ice- carried, and evidently indicate a considerable submergence, for the ice which floated a 2-ton bowlder must have been thick, so that it is probably not far different in age from the raised beach of Chichester.® QUATERNARY DEPOSITS OF BRITISH ISLES—BROOKS. ab5 Farther west occurs the raised beach of Portsdown Hill, near Portsmouth, at nearly 100 feet above sea level, described by Prest- wich (883). From here he traced the beaches along the south coast into Devon, Cornwall, and South Wales, finding them at the fol- lowing levels: Between Blackgang and Freshwater, 80 feet. Portland Bill, 24 feet to 50 feet, rising northward. Torbay, 30 feet. Plymouth, 35 feet. Land’s End, about 20 feet. Newquay, 10 to 25 feet. Weston Super Mare, 25 feet. South Wales, 12 ta 20 feet. The beach at Portland Bill consists on the western side of unfossiliferous shingle, on the east, where it was more sheltered, of shelly sand giving the following section: 4, Angular rock débris (‘‘ head ”’), 5 feet. 8. Loam with land shells and layers of angular débris, 6 feet. 2. Sand, 14 feet. 1. Raised beach, 34 feet. The shells in the sand are often very abundant, of the usual north British type of this raised beach. In south Devon and Cornwall the beach is overlain by sands with marine fossils—limpet, mussel, crab—this in turn being overlain by “head.” In north Devon, according to H. Dewey (84) the succes- sion is: Bed of rounded stones (?). “Head,” Cemented sand with warm temperate fauna (Helix virgata, H. cantiana, Bulimus ventricosus). Raised beach with bowlders, probably from west Scotland. In Glamorgan (East Gower) the relations of the raised beach with undoubted bowlder clay were made clear by Mr. Tiddeman (85), the general succession being— . Recent head. . Gravelly bowlder clay. . Ancient head. . Blown sand, often cemented into sand rock. 1. Raised beach, with erratics. nw ee or This bowlder clay contains materials of northern and northeastern origin, and is shown by the stria associated with it to have come from those directions. But there occur, scattered over the hills, large erratics which can only have come from the west, or from the shores of the Irish Sea. These include many from St. David’s 316 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. Head, voleanic ash probably from Skomer Island, and also chalk flints. These presumably come from another bowlder clay of west- ern and northwestern origin, which has been destroyed in most places. The only section in Glamorganshire where it has undoubt- edly been found in situ is at Pencoed. Here a gravelly drift packed with rounded bowlders of Pennant grit, many striated, with lenticu- lar bands of gray sand or fine gravel containing coal dust, is sepa- rated by a sharp undulating junction from an underlying red clay containing contorted bands of fine sand, and including, besides local rock, western erratics and chalk flints. A similar red clay occurs in the Ewenny Valley, overlain by gravel, which may be either a river gravel or the southern extension of the gravelly drift. Its western erratics and red color, taken in conjunction with its discontinuous na- ture, show that it is older than the gravelly clay overlying the raised beach. The relations of these older glacial remains to the raised beach have not yet been conclusively determined. Pebbles closely resembling chalk flints have occasionally been found in the raised beach of Gower; it is possible that they may really be Carboniferous or Liassic cherts, but if they are fiints they are strong evidence that the glacial remains are older than or contemporary with the beach. In the Gower Peninsula we also have the raised beach associated with cave deposits containing a temperate fauna of Chelles type. The general section as described by the late H. Falconer (86) is: 5. Dark colored cave earth with ancient British pottery. 4. Stalagmite with limestone breccia (Ursus, Bos). 3. Ocherous cave loam and dark sand (Hlephas antiquus, Rhinoceros leptorhinus, Rh. antiquitatis, Hyaena, Wolf, Ursus, Bos, Cervus, Meles tarus and Putorius). 2. Stalagmite. 1. Yellow sand abounding with shells of Litorina rudis and L. litoralis, and at the top Clausilia nigricans. In Minchin Hole the mammalian remains were found actually in the marine sand, and if we accept Falconer’s conclusion that the marine sands and the breccia of the caves correspond with the raised beach and the lower “head,” the mammalian remains must be earlier than the gravelly bowlder clay. At Milford Haven the raised beach overlain by “head” is only 6 feet above high-water mark and farther north it gradually descends to sea level. The interglacial age of the fauna of the Gower Caves is further borne out by the sequence of deposits in the caves of Pont Newydd, near St. Asaph in North Wales (87) where a fauna almost identi- cal with that of Gower was associated with a human tooth and with rude, hatchet-shaped implements of quartzite, made from peb- al QUATERNARY DEPOSITS OF BRITISH ISLES—BROOKS. 317 bles which must have been obtained from the neighboring glacial drift. The section is: 4, Clay with angular and subangular fragments and pebbles of lime- stone and pebbles of Denbighshire sandstone and grit, felstone, ete., and bones of the usual cave mammalia. 8. Stalagmitie crust up to 2 feet in thickness. 2. Loam containing pebbles and the bones and implements described above, all more or less cemented. 1. Coarse shelly sand. Near the mouth, No. 4 appears to pass horizontally into a continu- ation of the upper bowlder clay of Lancashire, Cheshire, and Flint- shire. W. Boyd Dawkins considers it to be derived from the wash of this clay. From these details certain generalizations can be made about the raised beaches. The first is that at Selsey and Chichester there are evidently two raised beaches, series of different ages, the older one represented by the marine sands of Chichester, the large erratics, and the clay with a Pleistocene marine fauna, though the latter, being now about sea level, represents only a slight elevation. The younger, the raised beach of Selsey, passes up into the “head,” and must be of very nearly the same age; this characteristic directly connects it with the raised beach of Brighton. Farther west and northwest the raised beaches descend gradually in height to sea level, and there is never any sign of a duplication. They never pass up into “head,” and are occasionally overlain as at. Selsey, Portland, and in North Devon by marine or zolian sands with a temperate fauna. In the Gower Caves the raised beach passes up into deposits with a temperate mammalian fauna. Marine shells have been found in the beach itself at various lo- calities; the aspect of the fauna as a whole is rather northern than southern, but without any peculiarly arctic types. All the species inhabit the British coasts between Shetland and Yorkshire, and Jeffreys regarded the fauna as similar to that of existing Shetland beaches. On the other hand, the beaches often contain ice-borne bowlders, so that they are evidently in part contemporaneous with a glacial period. A number of factors, especially the Chellean fauna of Gower, the presence of Corbicula fluminalis at Selsey, and the oc- currence of Acheulian-Mousterian implements in the “head,” com- bine to indicate this glacial period as that of the North Sea drift and chalky bowlder clay. On the east coast there are raised marine deposits from just before, during, and just after this glaciation, so that it is probable that in south and west England the raised beach represents the whole duration of the cold period. In such case, the materials would be constantly sorted by the waves, and though large 318 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. erratics might occasionally survive from the period of greatest cold, the molluscan fauna of the beach would be that existing when it was finally elevated. On these grounds the raised beaches and associated deposits of south and west England can be tabulated and correlated as follows: SOUTH AND WEST ENGLAND. EAST ENGLAND. North Sea drift. Chalky bowlder clay. 1. Bowlder clay of Pencoed and scat- tered erratics. 2. Raised beach of Chichester and the a REWESt- 3. Estuarine series of Selsey. Marine and seolian sands of Devon with Marine gravels of March and Holder- ness. 130-foot terrace of Thames. 100-foot terrace of Thames. Temper- ate beds of Hoxne. temperate fauna. Chelles fauna of Caves. 4, Raised beach of Selsey and Brigh- ton. ‘“ Head.” Gravelly bowlder clay of Gower. Middle terrace of Thames. ‘‘ Warp and trail.” Arctic beds of Ponder’s End and Hoxne. Hessle bowlder clay. The Upper Head of Gower may belong to period No. 4 or may be contemporary with the lower terrace of the Thames. There is no evidence that the south of England and south Wales have ever been below their present level in postglacial (or post “head ”) times, if we except the faint suggestions put forward for South Devon by Hunt and Rogers (88), but there is abundant evi- dence that the land stood at least 80 feet higher in the “ submerged forest ” period. These forests are all neolithic, but seem to approxi- mately fill that period, since both early and late neolithic implement types are represented. The flora is poor, and composed of widespread species, and so gives no definite evidence as to climate. C. Reid con- siders the submergence to have been fairly rapid, and to have termi- nated about 3,500 years ago; it has left a tradition that St. Michael’s Mount once rose from the midst of a forest. NORTHWEST ENGLAND. In northwest England we again find a tripartite division of the glacial deposits. At the base is a hard, stony till with marine shells, overlain in many places by deposits with erratics and occasionally sea shells, but only such as could have been derived from the neighbor- ing bowlder clay; they include the well-known deposits of Moel Tre- faen and, Macclesfield. At lower levels these sands and gravels are overlain by second bowlder clay. No evidence has yet been brought forward of contemporary fossils in the sands and gravels, and there is no evidence that they represent more than an oscillation of the ice edge. The lower bowlder clay is in general gray, and gives no evi- dence of a much greater age than the upper clay. QUATERNARY DEPOSITS OF BRITISH ISLES—BROOKS. 319 Very occasionally indications are found of a much older bowlder clay separated from the later clays by a true interglacial period. J. D. Kendall (89) gave particulars of a number of borings at Lindal and Crossgates in Furness, in which a bed of vegetable matter 600 yards long by 300 yards wide was found between upper blue and gray bowlder clay and lower red and gray bowlder clay. The red color of the latter probably represents an old weathered surface. There are a number of similar vegetable deposits in North Lan- cashire and West Cumberland, which are referred by the author to this horizon, though they are not both overlain and underlain by bowlder clay. The flora of the peaty deposit, according to J. Bolton and Miss E. Hodgson (90), consists of diatoms, mostly of local recent species, with fern spores, Sphagnum and leaves and fruit of beech. It is difficult to avoid the inference of its interglacial age. Tn eastern Ireland the succession is identical, and we have there further evidence in the relations of the bowlder clay to the raised beaches, that all three members of the tripartite series correspond to the second glacial of England, or the Hessle clay, and similar relations are suggested by the discovery at Egremont (91) of an old sea cliff, indicating a level similar to the present, beneath the “ lower bowlder clay ” of the tripartite series. Tt is difficult to make out the course of events in the period im- mediately following the last general glaciation of northwest Eng- land. Of later date are local moraines in the mountain valleys of north Wales and Cumberland. They have not yet received any de- tailed study, but B. Smith (92) remarked that there were splendid terminal moraines between 500 and 800 feet. on Black Combe, in Cumberland; these probably represent a snow line at about 1,100 feet. This would correlate them with the “large valley glaciers and district ice sheets” of Scotland, which, I shall show, probably belong to the concluding stages of the upper bowlder clay glaciation. No later moraines have been described with a higher snow line, though they probably exist in the highest mountains of Wales and Cum- berland. The sequence of events on the coasts of Lancashire and Cheshire after the formation of the upper bowlder clay is rather obscure. During the melting of the ice the land apparently lay at first below its present level, for the bowlder clay is covered in places by a bed of reassorted gravel, T. M. Reade (93). This was rapidly followed by elevation, and the formation of river valleys below sea level, but Mellard Reade mentions no deposits which he attributes to this stage. The next stage appears to have been a submergence to about 50 feet below the present level, corresponding to the 50-foot beach of Scotland, to which Mellard Reade and C. E. de Rance attribute a 320 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. plane of marine denudation rising inland from 50 feet to about 90 feet and covered by blown sand of the later period. The seaward margin of this plane is formed by a cliff against which the deposits of the 25-foot submergence rest. To this submergence also Reade attributes the “washed drift sand” underlying the lower peat and forest bed and containing remains of hazel. ‘This 50-foot submer- gence may also be represented by the higher terraces in some of the Lancashire valleys. The evidence for its existence is not entirely satisfactory, and the question would probably repay detailed study. After this the succession is well marked, being— 1. Lower peat and forest bed. 2. Formby and Leasowe marine beds and Shirdley Hill sand. 3. Lower Cyclas clay. .4. Upper peat and forest bed. 5. Upper Scrobicularia and Cyclas clays. These do not call for much remark. The lower peat and forest bed begins with a layer of tree stools, resting generally on bowlder clay, in the valleys which intersect the 50-foot plane of denudation. They are overlain by peat up to a thickness of 4 feet. The character- istic tree is hazel; Ursus spelaeus has been found in the peat. The Formby and Leasowe marine beds and associated marine deposits form the lower plain of Cheshire and Lancashire. Their upper limit follows the 25-foot contour with great exactness. The fauna gives no evidence of a climate differing from the present. The Shirdley Hill sand consists of two facies, a marine facies at lower levels, with Cardiwm edule equivalent to the Formby and Leasowe beds, and an eolian facies forming old sand dunes and ex- tending over the upper plane of denudation. The marine beds gradu- ually pass up into the fresh-water Cyclas clays. The upper forest bed rests on these marine and fresh-water beds, and extends to a depth of 40 feet below sea level, indicating an emergence to at least 50 feet above the present level. The trees in- clude oak, pine, hazel, and birch; some of the oak stools have a diam- eter of as much as 7 feet, so that the climate was far more favorable than now for their growth. The overlying peat reaches a thickness of 12 feet. Its formation appears to have been completed before Roman times. Passing inland, we find the slopes of the Pennines everywhere peat covered and at present almost devoid of trees. In the peat, however, is a well-marked forest layer, consisting of oak stools to about 1,200 feet, hazel to 1,700 feet, and birch as high as 2,500 feet (94). Asa rule at higher levels, the lowest vegetation, resting on the bowlder clay, is of arctic type; this is covered by Phragmites com- munis peat, on which the birch forest grew, and was afterwards re- placed by moorland peat. At lower levels the forest bed usually QUATERNARY DEPOSITS OF BRITISH ISLES—BROOKS. 321 rests either directly on the bowlder clay or on silts and clays with arctic plants. The forest bed in this succession evidently corresponds to the superior forest bed of the plains, and to similar beds in Scotland and Ireland; it points to a period when the climate was much more favorable for tree growth. As it falls in a period of elevation, it was probably a period of continental climate. The horizon of the arctic bed is more doubtful. In this district it has not yet been found to be separated from the bowlder clay by any temperate deposits, but, as well-marked -arctic beds occur over tem- perate peat in the southern uplands of Scotland and in Holderness, it is probably on the same horizon as the latter, and indicates a return of cold conditions. At this point it will be well to review the general evidence in Eng- land for a long interglacial between the formation of the chalky bowlder clay and that of the Hessle clay and other beds of Hessle clay age. Firstly, the surface of the Hessle clay is much more rugged than that of the chalky bowlder clay. The latter forms a level or slightly undulating plateau surface, deeply dissected by the rivers, while the Hessle clay forms a more rugged country with an uneven surface, in the basins of which “meres” are found. The change is very marked in passing from West Norfolk to Holderness. Secondly, there is the evidence of weathering. The chalky bowlder clay is so calcareous that it always preserves a grayish tint, but at Finchley the soft chalk which it must once have contained has com- pletely disappeared, and only the hard Lincolnshire chalk remains; erratics of this are always rounded, and rarely retain even faint striations, though striations often remain on the hard carboniferous limestone. Thirdly, there is the evidence of the distribution of the fossil re- mains of the Quaternary mammals, The distribution of the species of Hlephas was described, with maps, by Leith Adams (95). He- phas antiquus and EF’. meridionalis occur in association only in the Cromer forest bed. “lephas antiquus and EL’. primigenius occur asso- ciated at a number of points, all outside the limits of the bowldér clay classed as newer, except the cave earths of Cefn and Gower in Wales. LHlephas antiquus never occurs on the surface of the newer glacial deposits. Llephas primigenius, on the other hand, occurs alone over most of England and Wales and the south of Scotland, and is younger than the newer glaciation. The association of Hlephas antiquus with abundant L. primigenius is characteristic of the “ Chelles” fauna, including Rhinoceros me- garhinus, R. leptorhinus, Hippopotamus amphibius, and other spe- cies. The southern limit of the newer bowlder clays also forms the pape ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. northern limit of the occurrence of Chellean and Acheulian imple- ments in locally postglacial deposits. The “ Chelles” fauna is thus evidently younger than the older bowlder clay and older than the younger bowlder clay, and as it is highly developed and of a very temperate facies, it must represent an interglacial period between the older and newer bowlder clays. Fourthly, interglacial conditions, according to C. Reid (96) are shown by the plants in the fossiliferous deposits at Hoxne, Hitchin, Grays, Selsey, Stone, and West Wittering, where beds containing spe- cies which now live only in~warmer districts are overlain by deposits of a cold or even arctic climate. GLACIATION OF SCOTLAND. In Scotland, where the country is more mountainous, the tempera- ture lower and the precipitation heavier than in England, glaciation was proportionately more severe, and we may accordingly expect to find very few traces of any beds earlier than the last general glacia- tion. Those known can be described in small space. A number were mentioned by the late J. Geikie (“ Great Ice Age”). At Clava, near Inverness, is a fine clay containing marine shells of northern species between two bowlder clays. This bed was in- vestigated by Mr. Fraser in 1882 and Mr. Crosskey in 1886, and each of them considered it to be in situ, and indicating a submergence of over 500 feet, as did the majority of a British association commit- tee which investigated it in 1894 (97). The deposit is 16 feet thick and extends for a distance of at least 190 yards in a well-nigh hori- zontal position. The shells are remarkably well preserved and the deposit is not disturbed or crushed in any way. The fauna is not intensely Arctic but implies colder conditions than the present, ex- cept that many of the Foraminifera are now found only in tropical and temperate and not in Arctic Seas. H. Munthe, a Swedish geolo- gist who visited the section in 1896 (98), considered that, while the organisms from the top and bottom of the section are subarctic, those from the middle are temperate, so that the bed shows a complete climatic wave, but no other geologist has remarked this. It is over- lain and underlain by tough bowlder clay, neither bed being of the loose moraine type which characterizes the-latest glaciations of Scot- land. The similar deposit at Cleongart, Kintyre, was also investi- gated by the British Association committee and by H. Munthe; here the evidence in favor of the deposit being in situ is still stronger. A fine shelly clay rests directly on coarse gravel with a sharp horizontal junction, and overlain by a dull reddish bowlder clay. The shelly clay has been found in section in the sides of Cleongart Burn and Drumore Burn, about a mile apart, and Tangy Burn, 3 miles farther QUATERNARY DEPOSITS OF BRITISH ISLES—BROOKS. 323 south. At Cleongart bores were put down showing the continuous horizontal extension of the clay for at least 100 yards, and the com- mittee consider that the bed probably extends more or less continu- ously from one glen to another. The top of the clay is from 130 to 190 feet above the sea. The Mollusca are northern and much broken; some of them also extend southward, and most are still British. The Foraminifera are in many cases southern. Here also Munthe con- cluded that the organisms from the center of the deposit are of warmer types than those from the top and bottom. After the last general glaciation of Scotland there appear to have been local developments of glaciers of decreasing importance. A summary of his investigations in this connection was given by J. Geikie in 1906 and again in 1914 (99). After the melting of the ice of the last mer de glace, the land sank about 100 feet, and there was a recurrence of glacial conditions, forming piedmont ice sheets in the north and large valley glaciers in the south. The sea lochs of the north were largely occupied by glaciers, which calved and dropped blocks in the 100-foot raised beach. The fauna of this beach is arctic. Outside the region occupied by the glaciers in the south, the lowest layer of the peat bogs is an artic plant bed with Betula nana, Salix polaris, and Dryas octopetala. The level of the beach reaches 130 feet in Forfarshire; from this height it diminishes to less than 100 feet. These deposits are considered by Geikie to represent a complete glacial period, his Mecklenburgian, separated from the last mer de glace by an interglacial, but I can not discover any reference to interglacial deposits which can be referred to this period, though conditions should have been favorable for their preservation. It seems more probable that the moraines and the arctic plant beds represent the concluding stages of the last mer de glace. This submergence and glaciation were followed by an elevation to above present level, during which considerable peat deposits were formed. At the base is a forest layer with Betula alba; above this is Sphagnum peat. In many cases, according to Jamieson, these peat beds rest on marl beds containing skeletons of Cervus magaceros and Los primigenius. During this period the thick and extensive accumulations of the 100-foot beach were largely removed by the rivers. Alluvial flats were formed at lower levels, on which thick layers of woody peat were formed at and below present sea level. Renewed subsidence brought about the formation of the 45 to 50 foot beach, which in places directly overlies the alluvial peat just mentioned ; moreover, the bottom of this beach is often crowded with leaves, twigs, branches, and occasional trunks of oak, alder, hazel and birch. In the river estuaries the Carse clays were formed. At the head of Loch Torridon well-formed terminal moraines rest di- 324 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. rectly upon this beach; elsewhere in the northwest Highlands the raised beach, which is developed at the seaward ends of the lochs, may be absent at the upper ends, possibly because the ice then reached the sea. The snow line at this period stood at 2,400 to 2,500 feet. The submergence was in fact associated with a cold period which, in the peat bogs outside the limits of the glaciers, finds its expres- sion, in artic beds with Salix herbacea, S. reticulata, Betula nana, . and E'impetrum nigrum. The Mollusca of the 45 to 50 foot beach are mostly of local species, with some northern forms. This sub- mergence was followed by a renewed elevation above the present level, accompanied by a drier and warmer climate, which permitted great pines to grow more than 500 feet above the present limits of tree growth in the Highlands. This forest period extended even to the Orkneys, where conifers are not now indigenous, for in the Bay of Skaill occurs a submarine forest with roots of small firs, 15 feet below high water. This upper forest layer is again overlain by Sphagnum peat, indicating a return of moist conditions. In the mountains there appears to have been a very slight re- erudence of glacial conditions after the valley glaciation of the 50- foot beach period; Geikie was unable to find any direct evidence as to the horizon of these glaciers, but correlated them with this upper peat layer. On the coasts there was a renewed submergence of 25 to 30 feet decreasing northward, the beaches of which occasionally overlie a forest layer, which may be either the upper or lower forest layer. These beaches were correlated by Geikie with the upper Sphagnum peat and the corrie glaciers, but this seems unlikely, as the beach nowhere contains any suggestion of a fauna of northern origin, and in 1865 its Mollusca were described by Jamieson (100) as seeming “to have more relations to the south than to the north, indicating a climate if anything milder than the present;” the corresponding beach in, northeast Ireland has a decidedly warm fauna, but that of Lancashire gives no definite indication of a climate differing from the present. According to J. Geikie, neolithic pine dugout canoes have been found in the Carse clays of the 50-foot beach, but this re- quires elucidation, for they are stated by Jamieson (100) to have occurred in the deposits of the 25-foot beach. The succession of events outlined by Geikie is confirmed with this exception of the 25-foot beach by Lewis and G. Samuelsson (101). The occurrence of the arctic bed overlying the lower forest bed in regions which were not occupied by the glaciers during the valley glaciation (50-foot beach) is considered by Lewis as proof that that glaciation was due to a return of cold conditions after the climate had once become temperate. Lewis has also found the arctic bed be- QUATERNARY DEPOSITS OF BRITISH ISLES—-BROOKS. 325 tween two forest layers in Ross and in the Shetland Islands, but in the Hebrides the upper forest layer is absent. Lewis’s conclusions about the peat sections were confirmed by G. Samuelsson, a Swedish geologist, who visited Great Britain in 1909 (102). He found the two forest layers separated by the arctic bed and peat at several localities in Scotland. But in his endeavor to correlate the Scottish peat mosses with the Swedish, Samuelsson adopts J. Geikie’s classification of the Scottish deposits, and regards the 100-foot beach as contemporaneous with the Yoldia sea. He is consequently obliged to correlate the cold 50-foot beach with the warm Litorina sea, and to omit the 25-foot beach altogether. But both 25-foot beach and Litorina sea appear to fall within the “ post- glacial climatic optimum,” and to form part of a series of raised beaches with warm fauna occurring on both sides of the North At- lantic, in Greenland, Iceland, and even in the Arctic Ocean, which will be referred to more fully later. The warm, dry upper forestian ends in the bronze age, as does Blytt’s warm, dry subboreal period, but as the arctic bed corresponds to the last glaciation of north Ku- rope, the lower forest bed must fall, not in Blytt’s boreal period, where Samuelsson puts it, but in the last interglacial of north Eu- rope. Blytt’s boreal period seems to be unrepresented in Britain, but this is not surprising, for, as described later, it is also unrepre- sented in the peat bogs of north Germany. My own views of the correlation of the Quaternary deposits of Great Britain are shown in the following table: 65133°—sm 1917——22 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. 326 “UvIIeJsSnoW 1asun0 X ‘UBIIE}SNOW JEP[O “pUuDIsLognp DULD —NDq UIM [eloVvy[s1equy “Sallas epeyuINIeB ys 908110} OTP PIT “901 UVIABUIPUGIG Aq wuoneerys puodeg “qeed pue JeAv] JSelOy IaMO'T *S1o10e]3 ATCA OSIC'T “YOvod 4003-00 “Avo Iappmoq reddy. “uBI[NEyO VY “sypurmny Djnd “*BABTO PU JIGS +1909 pue DuDianjip -uoes{g ~Arqtssod pure D Dq JO jeloeyssequy | ‘040 ‘une Tir “meeTTeUD UlpmDd J WM [6104 UT } UES = Tira speq Weg | -peyJospeq [erloe{s10quL "9081104 JOIUD *90I UBIARUIP “ABO Jep[AO JOPTO -uBvdg Aq UO! BINBIS SILT | ‘a8BqS Ue]ese J, : d 7 A OEnIeon ay edomy qWON pue[joog “Avo Japp Mog isedd Q. “SpuRs [elOV[SpIPT “ARO JapL Mog JeMo'T ‘049 ‘TTep -Ul'T JO speq oyevseduie J, “Avo Jap[Moq pel yuoroue | JO saoueIINd00 peye[ost 049 ‘IaMOH JO ARTO Jop[MOog « P®9H), ‘UOJ sIg pues Aogsjag JO youeq pesiery "IBMOF JO BUNT UvITeUIUMICU e4yeisdue J, *Q.10MOSTO pue Aesjeg ye euney 078100104 74IM se spueg *poried yoveq pesiel depjo jo pug *pe0d -uaq Jo Avo IeppMog “oRed pestel Jep[O “UOISOIG, *AgTTeA vey JO speq o101y « Ttery pue die AA ,, 908110} O[PPIN, “UOTSOIY *se081104 400J-00T PUB 400J-0ET “ABlO JepymMoq ANTBYO *sseu9 -P1OH Jo 40d eqviodme sy, “eux0F] JO peq onory “ABO JOP[MOY e[sseyT ’ ‘9UXO JO speq eulIjsnoe,] eyeiedmay, “m09081D pus ‘yorepy ‘ssouse -PIOH JO sjeasis ourieyy *ssou -Ivp[oH Jo Aejo eydand pure Aepo JeppMoq AyTeqO 040 ‘spues ouTIvUI GyNoulIe T “YUP 89S [ION ‘peg IoJVMYsel | OfJOIV *peq 4Sel0J JewI0I9 *purlsug JSemyqqIoON “STR yjnos pue 4svoo yyNog “AQTIVA SOUIBIL, *puv[sug Uleyseq 327 QUATERNARY DEPOSITS OF BRITISH ISLES—BROOKS. “U0IL *ezuo0Iq pus ofqyyoouu § e4eT “OF IT[O8 N “OFYITOoU AT Ie “URIULOTBP sey “uvelyNjog ‘pored oruepyy-qng “sieroR[s ef110) “yeod reddy *poried eoroqqng *poq yseroy 1odd *porsod ory ue] “4R9q “JV pues poried putiogT “YORod 400j-Cz *poriod [eer “789d -0q pus poried snjioupy “90B1I0} MO'T “901 O14 [eq Aq WOrerov[S PAY, *sioToe]s AoTTVA [BUS "TpoReq 400J-0¢ *poq yeod orory ‘ywod sJodd i *peq ysoroy odd “pues TI AeppsTYS pure spaq emosveT pue AqUIIO “JasIO( Jo 4Sei0J OUT T *4se10} pesieuqng “ped jseroy pues yeod JoMmo'T *soulu “prey taddn ATqrtsso -ueg Jo peg yved onory Beer 1dIs80d *jeuuvYo poling *4se10} pesiemqng “uoydmjoHy *908110} MOT jo peq yvod onory 328 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. 7. IRELAND.1 A tripartite division of the Irish glacial series has often been claimed, and as often denied. That this division exists in the north- east, east, and southeast of the country I am convinced, from an exhaustive study of the literature, borne out by a few sections I saw in 1914, but there is much question as to its meaning. The lower bowlder clay, as described by Hardman (1875), is very tough and marly, generally blue, gray, or reddish, with angular and rounded blocks, a very considerable percentage of which is often made up of erratics which have almost invariably, when their source of origin can be recognized, been transported from the north or east. In places they contain marine shells and Foraminifera. This bowlder clay is of relatively rare occurrence. The so-called mid-glacial sands and gravels consist of a more or less horizontal, stratified sheet of gravel with intercalated beds of sand and clay. It is especially well developed in the central plain, under the name of the “ limestone gravels.” The constituents of the gravels are essentially those of the bowlders in the lower clay, even including marine shells, but the relative numbers often differ. The pebbles occasionally retain glacial striz, and large bowlders are not infrequent. The mid-glacial gravels are in places capped by the upper bowlder clay, which is commonly looser and sandier than the lower, and often brown in color; the bowlders are similar to those of the lower clay, with the addition of some from sources in a very different direction, and also with a far higher percentage of local material. Marine shells are almost entirely absent. The upper bowlder clay is fre- quently capped by gravel terraces and eskers. It is exceedingly rarely that any indication can be found either of temperate interglacial deposits or of a great difference in age be- tween two bowlder clays. The critical area is that of the “ pre- glacial” raised beach of the southeast. This, as described by W. B Wright and H. B. Muff (103), extends from Cork to Wexford at a uniform level of about 10 feet above the present beach, possibly de- scending slightly toward Wexford. In level and in the general se- quence of deposits it is so exactly similar to that of south Wales that - it is impossible to doubt their correlation, but there 1 is one difference; in southeast Ireland the beach is overlain by two SOLD clays, sep- arated by sands and gravels. The general sequence is: 8. Upper “ head.” 7. Upper, loose sandy, bowlder clay. 6. Sands and gravels. (102) this section dates without numbers refer to Mr. Lloyd Praeger’s Bibliography - QUATERNARY DEPOSITS OF BRITISH ISLES—BROOKS. 329 . Lower, stiff marly bowlder clay with shells. . Lower “ head.” Blown sands. . Raised beach gravels, with erratics from the east. . Beach platform. Ero 0 Rh OT Unfortunately no fossils have been found in the beach or the blown sands, but, by analogy with Gower and Selsey, there is little doubt that a warm period intervened between the floating-ice period of the raised beach and the glacial period of the lower bowlder clay. The latter must accordingly correspond to the bowlder clay of south Wales, and to the second glaciation of England. This interpreta- tion is supported by the general gray color and nondecalcified state of the shelly lower bowlder clay, which is in direct opposition to the usual characters of the clays of the first glaciation in Europe. The question then arises, Are there any deposits in Ireland, apart from the raised beach with its ice-borne erratics, which can be cor- related with the first glaciation of England? Owing to the intensity of the last general glaciation and the small amount of work done on the Irish Quaternary we can not expect much, and we get very little evidence of such deposits. In Newtown colliery (sheet 1837) a bed of highly bituminous peat was found between two beds of bowlder clay, but no further particulars are given. The fact that the peat is described as “highly bituminous” supports its interglacial age. In the neighborhood of Armagh stumps and branches of black oak like that from bogs are stated to have been found in bowlder clay at several places (sheet 47). Remains of a bowlder clay belonging to an earlier glaciation have possibly been found near Dublin (104). Here we have the usual gravelly upper bowlder clay with rounded stones, mainly limestone, resting on the truncated edges of a series of sand and gravel beds interdigitating with red clay which evidently represents the lower bowlder clay. (The red color of this clay is stated by G. A. J. Cole and T. Hallissy (105) to be due to marine action.) The authors of the Dublin memoir state: A remarkable feature of the red bowlder clay 300 yards south of the point at which the Loughlinstown stream enters the sea is that it contains large irregular masses of purple clay with sharply defined outlines, which appear to be true bowlders, in some cases sharply fractured, the gaping cracks being © filled with sand, gravel, and clay from the surrounding matrix. These bowlders are nearly identical with 35 feet of laminated purple bowlder clay seen at Kill o’ the Grange, which is thus evidently older than the red clay in Killiney, but it does not appear how much older, unless we can read the earlier work of A. Bell into the section here. Mr. A. Bell (1885-1891) investigated on behalf of a British Asso- ciation committee the Manure gravels of Wexford and other post- 330 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. Tertiary marine fossiliferous deposits of Wexford, Ballybrack (IXil- liney) and elsewhere. He gives lists of fauna, which show the fol- lowing relationships: Hatinct, south European, and boreal Mollusca from Ireland. South Extinct. | Euro- Boreal. Total. pean. Wexford 722 Loess-loam. Marine sands and loess. “Warp and trail.” The agreement of the levels is perfect, and also stage No. 2, and the interval between 2 and 3 is characterized throughout by the occurrence of the warm Chelles fauna and implements of older paleo- lithic (Chellean-Acheulian) types. Thames Valley and South Coast "———---—. Lower Rhine Valley and,North Germany Somme and teen e Sb. Ce Vosges) and Seine Valleys Maselle R. Plateau Central Alps and Pyrenees: Fig. 2. The loess-loam and underlying marine sands of Menchecourt are found again on the coast in the raised beach and overlying deposits. The classic section is that of Sangatte near Calais described by Prest- wich. The raised beach les about 10 feet above the level of the pres- ent beach, and is directly overlain by typical “head ” in which are intercalated occasional bands of loess containing the land shells char- acteristic of that formation. Similar sections occur at several points on the northeast coast of France, and there is no doubt that they agree with the exactly parallel sections at Brighton, on the coast opposite, thus confirming our inferences about that deposit and the age of the “ head.” France thus forms a triangle in which the Quaternary deposits at each corner can be directly correlated with those of the neighbor- ing parts of Europe. QUATERNARY DEPOSITS OF BRITISH ISLES—-BROOKS. 361 Thames Valley g r A . omme and Vosges and Lower Rhine Plateau Central and eee Seine Valleys. Moselle. Valley. ete. A AIDE: Pumiceous con- istrict i lomerate of ? Distr gtslep ? Toit aelts of glo een eo sheet of Vos- i Perrier. Rhine and Gunzian. ges and upper 130-meter ter- Meuse. terrace. race of Ga- ronne. Subb lti asaee? | Gunz-Min- Tegelen clays. alluvium of . del. Perrier. Plat la- Chalky bowlder a! Sige Ser clay. Ground morain 4 F - Plateau gravels | Shallow valley . 2 200-meter ter - Raised beach of : of first glacia- : 5 and 40-meter glacier and A race (Dor- | Mindel. Chichester and tion. Chief terrace. chief terrace. dogne). 100- west. terrace. Fane 130-foot terrace. T : (Garonne). Interglacial beds of Selsey. 100-foot terrace and part of 30-foot. “Warp and trail.” Raised beach of Brighton. “Head.” ? Low terrace. 30-meter terrace and part of 10- meter terrace. Marine sands and loess loam. Somme. Upper loess- loam. Great Moselle glacier and middle ter- races of Mo- selle. Small Moselle glacier and low terrace. (Eem horizon.) Moraine of sec- ond glaciation (not reaching Rhine). Middle terrace. Low terrace. Beds with Hip- popotamus in Dordogne. Mindel-Riss. High terrace (40-meter) of Dordogne. 55-meter terrace and moraines. Low terrace of Dordogne and Garonne, with moraines. Riss. Riss-Wurm. Wurm. T have already worked out the correlation between the east coast of England and Thames Valley on the one hand and Holland and north Germany on the other, and also between the latter and the Alps. All these correlations, which are based on a variety of geo- logical evidence, mainly paleontological and stratigraphical in its nature, agree, giving very strong support to the classification adopted. CONCLUSION. The series of cross correlations described in the preceding pages show definitely that glacial and interglacial periods were not the local phenomena that they are sometimes considered to be, but were 362 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. well-marked events which occurred simultaneously over at least the whole of northern Europe. The proof that the simultaneity ex- tended also to the glacial periods of other continents is naturally more difficult, since direct correlation is mostly out of the question. A great deal of evidence on the subject, based chiefly on the amount of weathering undergone, has been brought forward by F. Leverett (181). After personally examining a great number of exposures in America and the most typical ones in Europe, he was convinced that the four great periods into which the American glacial deposits fall show such remarkable resemblances with the pericds in Europe, both in the amount of weathering undergone and in the intervals between the glaciations, that the two series must be directly com- parable. These stages are: American.! European. | Keewatin. Labrador. North European. Alps. Wisconsin. Wisconsin. Upper diluvium. Wurm. it erties jrinoian. Middle diluvium. Riss. Ilinoian. Kansan. ? Kansan. Lower diluyium. Mindel. ? Pre-Kansan. ? Jerseyan. ? Gunz. 1A review of the evidences of the Iowan stage of glaciation was made in 1914 and 1915 by W. C. Alden and Morris M. Leighton for the United States and Iowa Geological Surveys. As stated in their report, which is published in volume 26 of the Iowa Geo- logical Survey, these gentlemen reached the conclusion ‘“‘ that there is what seems to the writers to be good evidence of the presence of a post-Kansan drift sheet in northeast Iowa and that this drift appears to be older than the Wisconsin and younger than the Illinoian drift * * * There is therefore, warrant for the continued use of Iowan drift and Iowan stage of glaciation as major subdivisions of the Pleistocene classifica- tion.” Tollowing is the classification in use at present by the United States Geological Survey : PLEISTOCENE EPOCH. 9. Wisconsin stage of glaciation (of Chamberlin). 8. Peorian stage of deglaciation (of Leverett). q. Iowan stage of glaciation (of Iowa geologists). 6. Sangamon stage of deglaciation (of Leverett). 5. Illinoian stage of glaciation (of Leverett). 4. Yarmouth stage of deglaciation (of Leverett). 8. Kansan stage of glaciation (of Iowa geologists). 2. Aftonian stage of deglaciation (of Chamberlin). 1. Nebraskan stage of glaciation (of Iowa geologists) (pre-Kansan of Chamberlin) (Jerseyan of eastern United States). The evidence is entirely in favor of the exactness of the time agree- ment except in the case of the Ilinoian, which seems somewhat older than the Riss; here he considers that the differences in the amount of weathering are accounted for by the differences in the amount of rainfall at present. Independent evidence for this simultaneity was given recently by A. P. Coleman (132), who from the amount of erosion estimated the QUATERNARY DEPOSITS OF BRITISH ISLES—BROOKS. 363 duration of interglacial periods in America. His estimates, compared with those of Penck and Briickner for the Alps, give: America. | Years. Alps. Years Postglacial s-: 252: sceeaa: oes see5- See 25,000: *Postglacial is: Ere... SSeS Ae oes 20, 000 TAT COTA Nasa oe ees eee eee ee eae G2. 000 PRISS=WiUTI eae oe ees saa 80, 000 T. C. Chamberlin also, on the basis of' age determination in Kurope and America, concludes that the glacial epochs in the two continents were simultaneous (133). In one case at least, moreover, we seem to have direct. evidence for the continuous extension of a climatic period over a large part of the Northern Hemisphere; I refer to the postglacial climatic opti- mum, evidence of which has been found in Iceland, Spitzbergen, Franz-Josef Land, the White Sea, Greenland, and North America. In Iceland, G. Bardarson (134) and H. Pjetursson (135) have found raised beaches and marine deposits in the north and northeast, indicating a submergence of about 17 meters and containing Mol- lusca which now live only on the south and southwest coasts, and consequently indicating a climate warmer than the present. In Spitzbergen, Andersson (136) found a raised delta deposit with flowering plants not now living on the islands, and A. S. Jenson and P, Harder found raised beaches indicating a submergence of 10 to 25 meters and containing Mollusca (Mytilus edulis, Cyprina islandica and Litorina litorea) now extinct on the shores of Spitz- bergen. In Franz-Josef Land, Nansen (137) found M/ytilus edulis in an old shore line at 10 to 20 meters, evidently of the same age. In the White Sea and Murman Sea, N. Knipowitsch (138) found raised beaches with species of Cardiwm now extinct there. In Greenland, A. S. Jensen (139) found in Orpigsuit Fjord a well- marked warm period with the land about 10 meters below its present position relative to the sea, and raised beaches containing Mytilus edulis even north of 664° N., and as far as Sophia Sound in northeast Greenland, though its present northern limit in America is the Newfoundland Bank. On the coast of Canada (Maritime Provinces) G. F’. Matthew (140) found evidence of a period of elevation, immediately preceding the present epoch, when the climate resembled that of Middle New Eng- land. in gravel terraces along the Niagara River, between the Whirl- pool and Goat Island, A. P. Coleman (141) has found species of Unio not now living in the Canadian lakes, but in the tributaries of the Mississippi. The beds were formed during the last third of the 364 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. period of erosion of the Niagara gorge, and are therefore approxi- mately contemporaneous with the Litorina beds of the Baltic. In the United States the peat bogs contain plants and animals occurring fossil 50 to 100 miles north of their present limits (142). But here part at least of the warm period fell in a period of submer- gence, for at Boston, W. Shimer (143) found a fine silt with Mollusca, indicating a warmer climate, 15 feet above mean low tide. In South Carolina also G. T. Pugh (144) concluded from a discussion of the Pleistocene marine Mollusca that there had been a period of sea temperature slightly above the present. Isolated pieces of evidence of a warm period immediately pre- ceding the present have been found in many other parts of the globe, e. g., east Africa, east Australia, Terra del Fuego, and antarctica, but as these have not yet been connected up with the European area I will not describe them further. We have at least evidence of the existence of a series of climatic waves of long period extending over a considerable part of the Northern Hemisphere. Before closing this study of the correlation of the Quaternary deposits of northern Europe, there are two points to which I should like to refer; one is the correlation of Penck and Briickner’s Gschnitz and Daun stadia in the light of G. de Geer’s “geochronological” work, and the other is the bearing of the loess on the correlation. The estimate of postglacial time in the Alps made by Penck and Briickner chiefly on the basis of the amount of delta formation has already been referred to. This is: Post Wurm period, 20,000 years. Post Buhl period, 16,000 years. The “ geochronological” work of G. de Geer in Scandinavia is well known; by counting the number of annual layers in lake sedi- ments and identifying certain annual layers from one deposit to another he has been able to calculate the date at which various locali- ties became free from ice, and finds that the receding ice edge reached the south of Scania 12,000 years ago. The recession from the north coast of Germany to the south of Scania can not be calculated in this way, but from a comparison of the amount of melting he estimates about 5,000 years for this period, making a total of 17,000 years since the conclusion of the Baltic oscillation. From these studies there is little doubt that the Baltic oscillation corresponds to the Buhl stadium. Further, de Geer gives the age of the great Fennoscandian mo- raines near Stockholm as about 10,000 years. Penck and Briickner could not obtain a date for the Gschnitz stadium, but for the last of their stadia, the Daun, they calculate a date of about 7,000 years. The Gschnitz stadium, being intermediate, must be something be- tween 9,000 years and 12,000 years in age, so that it is very probable that the Fennoscandian end moraines and the Gschnitz stadium are QUATERNARY DEPOSITS OF BRITISH ISLES—BROOKS. 365 equivalents. The Daun stadium may find its equivalent in a later set of end moraines. The third method of testing the correlation of the deposits is by their relation to the loess. This deposit, believed to be aeolian, is not all of the same age; in the same section two loess beds of different ages may be separated by a weathered surface, but the “younger loess” occupies a well-marked horizon. In north Germany it rests upon. the moraines of the third glaciation, but not upon those of the Baltic readvance, so that it evidently falls in the period of that re- advance or in the Baltic interstadial. It was discussed and placed here by F. Wahnschaffe (145), who considered the Baltic interstadial to correspond to the Wurm-Buhl interstadial of the Alps, and also K. Olbricht (146). Outside the limits of the third glaciation of north Germany the position of the younger loess is less certain, but it contains Solutrean implements, which points to a similar and slightly earlier age. In the valley of the Weser, there appear to be two terraces corre- sponding to the third glaciation of Germany, separated by a peat bed corresponding to the Baltic interstadial. This conclusion, based on stratigraphical evidence, is supported by the fact that loess occurs on the older but not on the younger terrace. In the Alps the loess is considered by Penck and Briickner (loc. cit.) to be typically an interglacial formation, belonging to the close of interglacial conditions. Only in the Turin region are there ex- tensive deposits of postglacial loess, in which, however, the char- acteristic fauna is missing. In the north they nowhere found it to rest on the Wurm moraines, but “the paleolithic implements which it contains are so closely related to those of the end of Wurm, that it can not possibly be much older than the latter.” J. Hug (147) further claims to have found loess on Wurm moraines near Zurich, and near Basle, A. Gutzwiller (148) correlated the younger loess with the first retreat stadium, so that it seems probable that the younger loess falls in the interstadium Wurm-Buhl and in the Buhl stadium. In the Rhine Valley there are younger and older loess deposits resting immediately on the gravels of the low and middle terraces, and immediately following those terraces in time. This confirms the correlation of the low terrace with the maximum of the third glaciation of Germany. In France also the loess (“limon” or “ergeron”) of the Paris Basin is of different ages, and the younger rests on the low terrace system (latest gravels) and in part replaces it, confirming the correlation of these gravels with the low terrace of the Rhine, with the Wurm glaciation of the Alps and with the third glaciation of north Germany. I have now summarized the stratigraphical evidence on which a correlation of the European deposits with each other and with 366 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. those of the British Isles must be based, and the further evidence of a more general character which throws hght upon the correla- tions. It remains now only to consider the nomenclature to be adopted. For the glacial periods the names of Penck and Briickner (loc. cit.) seem best adapted, for although preceded in point of time by J. Geikie’s nomenclature, they are more definite and more widely em- ployed. It is often difficult to say to which horizon Geikie’s name would apply, as he included under the same term beds belonging to different stages. For the interglacials the question is more difficult, as Penck and Briickner have given no definite names, and it seems convenient such should be found; I am therefore adopting Geikie’s interglacial names applied to the equivalents of the British stages which he included under them, except to the well-marked Chellean interglacial. For the postglacial stages, A. Blytt’s succession (149), seems too detailed and in part problematical, and the widely recognized and definite Baltic stages seem the best to adopt. The scheme for Europe ac- cordingly becomes: Stage. Equivalents. Gunzian (P. & B.).....--| Scanian (J. Geikie). Calabrian (150) (Gignoux). Norfolkian (J. G.)..--..- Tegelen clays. St. Prestian (Haug). Villefranchian (Deperet). Mindelian (P. & B.).--.-- Saxonian (J. G.). Oldest bowlder clay of Germany. Sicilian (Gignoux). Contorted drift and chalky bowlder clay. Chief terrace (Rhine). Chellean (Haug)...-.---- Helvetian (J. G.). Paludina diluviana beds. Strombus stage (Gignoux). Eem zone and Cyprina clays. Rissian (P. & B.).....---] Polandian and Mecklenburgian (J. G.). Hessle stage (Wood & Harmer), Lower diluvium (Germany). Middle terrace (Rhine). Neudeckian (J. G.)..-.-- Paludina Duboisiana beds. Wurmian (P. & B.)..--- Lower Turbarian (J.G.). Upper diluvium (Germany). Low terrace (Rhine). “Corrie’’ glaciers of British Isles. Baltic interstadial - .. ---- First interstadial (Alps). Biihl stadium (P. & B.).| Baltic end moraine. Gschnitz SURE UT ce ~ | sweais bh n oraine: e€ d m nes, Ancylus stage (De Geer).| Late glacial of many districts. Boreal (Blytt). Literina stage (De Geer).| 25-foot beach of British Isles. Raised beaches of Atlantic and Arctic Oceans. Atlantic (Blytt). Tapes period (Brogger). Upper Forestian (J. G.).| Late Litorinaandlate Tapes stages. Grenztorf (Germany). Subboreal (Blytt). Upper Turbarian (J. G.).| Sub-Atlantic (Blytt). Recent. QUATERNARY DEPOSITS OF BRITISH ISLES——-BROOKS. 367 REFERENCES. The contractions adopted for titles are mostly those employed in the Royal Society Catalogue of Scientific Literature, but a few frequently recurring titles are contracted still more. BAG Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. G.F.F. Stockholm, Geologiske Féreningens Forhandlingar. G. M. Geological Magazine. J.P.L. A. Jahrbuch des K. Preuss. Landes Anstalt. N.J.M. Neues Jahrbruch fiir Mineralogie, ete. Q. J.G.S. Quarterly Journal of Geological Society. (1) Crosby, W. O. On the contrast in color of the soils of high and low latitudes. Amer. Geol. 8, 1891, 72-81. (2) Leverett, F. Comparison of North American and European glacial de- posits. Zs. Gletscherk, Berlin, 4, 1910, . (3) Van Baren, J. Roter Geschiebelehm als interglaziales Verwitterungs- produkt. Rep. 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Der morphologische Bau des niederlindischen Diluviums nordlich yom Rhein. C. R. du 9 Congr. internat. de Geogr. 1907, T2, Geneva, 1910, 143-9. Die morfologische bouw van het Diluvium ten Oosten van den Yssel. Tijd. K. Ned. Aardr. Gen. 227, 1910, 893-945 and 1110-1149. Roter Geschiebelehm als interglaziales Verwitterungsprodukt. Rep. Congr. Intern. Geol., Stockholm, 1910, 1063-1068. Leopold, G. Beobachtungen tiber die chemische Zusammensetzung des Geschiebelehms in niederlandischen Diluvium, mit besonderer Riick- sicht auf das Verwitterungssilikat. Gedenkboek fiir Prof. van Bem- melen, Helder, 1910. Penck, A. Das Deutsche Reich. Leipzig und Prag, 1887. Van Calker, F. J. P. Beitrige Zur Geologie der Provinz Groningen. Mitt. a. d. Min. Inst. der Uniy. Groningen, 1, 1908, 1385. Schucht, F. Der Lauenberger Ton als leitender Horizont fiir die Glied- erung und Altersbestimmung des nord-west-deutschen Diluviums. J. P. L. A. 29, 1908, 130-150. Fliegel, G. Rheindiluvium und Inlandeis. Verh. Nat. Ver. Rheinld. u. Westf. 69, 1909, 327-342. Fliegel, G., and Stoller, J. Jungtertiiire und altdiluviale pflanzenfiih- rende Ablagerungen im Niederrheingebiet. J. P. L. A. 31, 1910, 227-251. Lorié, J. 'Terrassen langs den rechter Rynoever, beneden het Levenge- bergste. Tidjs. k. Ned. Aard. Gen. 1908, 1-39 and 253-281. Dubois, E. L’age de l’argile de Tegelen et les espéces de Cervidés qu’elle contient. Haarlem, Arch. Mus. Teyler, 9, 1905, 605-615. Krause, P. G. Einige Beobachtungen im Tertiar und Diluvium des West Niederrheingebiets, J. P. L. A. 82, 1911, 126-159. Lorié, J. Die ondergrond onzer duinen. T. K. N. A. G. 1913, 6. - Tesch, P. Het veldspaatbestanddeel in het zoogenamde ‘“ Fluviatiele Diluvium.” Tyd. k. Ned. Aardr. Gen. (2) 32, 1915, 441-8. Idem. Over pleistoceen en plioceen in den Nederlandschen boden. Tyd. k. Ned. Aardr. Gen. (2), 1910, 10938-1110; 28, 1911, 628. Madsen, V. Nordmann, V., and Hartz, N. Eemzonerne; Studier over Cyprinaleret og andre Hemaflejringer i Danmark, nord Tyskland og Holland. Danm. Geol. Unders. 2, no. 17, 1908. Jessen, A., et al. En Boring genem de Kvartaere lag ved Skaerumhede. Kobenhavn, Danm. Geol. Unders. (2) 25, 1910. Hartz, N., and Milthers, V. The late-glacial clay in the Brickkiln Allerod. Medd, Dansk, geol. Foren, No. 8. Kjobenhayn, 1901, 31-60. 370 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. (36) Johansen, A. ©. Om den fossile kvartaere Molluskfauna i Danmark. Kjobenhayn, 1904. (387) Om temperaturen i Danmark i senglacialen Tid. Dansk. Geol. Foren. no. 12, 1906. (38) Krischtafowitsch, N. Sur les roches interglaciales de Troitskole, Nement de Moscou. Bull. de Soc. Imp. des Naturalistes de Moskau, no. 4, 1890, p. 535. (39) Bogoljubow, N. Uber die Phasen der interglazialen Epoche im Gouv. Moskau. Russ. et Germ. Ann. Géol. et Min. de la Russie, 9, 1907, 2444. \ (40) Sukatchev, W. Attempt at a history of the development of the plant world of central Russia in the post-Tertiary. J. 12 Congr. Russ. Sci. in Moscow. 1910, 273. (Russian, Rev. in G. Cb. 14, 544.) (41) Tutkowski, P. Die Endméranen, Geschiebestreifen und Asar im stid- lichen Polessie. Verh. Kiev. Nat. Ges. 17, 1901, 353-460. (Russian, Rev. in G. Cb. 1, 755-7.) The shore region of the Norin River in the Ovrutch district. Pubs. of Soe. of Scientists. Wolhynia, 6, 1911, 61-220. (43) Murchison, Sir R. The geology of Russia in Europe. (44) Belt, T. The Steppes of southern Russia. Q. J. G. S. 38, 1877, 843-862. (45) Sieger, R. Die Hiszeiten in Finnland. Ausl. 65, 1892, 218. (46) Wollossowitsch, IX. Description of post-Pliocene on the lower course of the northern Dwina. (Russian, Rey. in G. Cb. 3, 1903, 22. ) (47) Ramsay, W. Beitriige zur Geologie der rezenten und pleistocinen Bil- dungen der Halbinsel Kanin. Fennia, Helsingfors, 21, 1908, 41-66. (48) Archangelski, A. D. On the bowlder-bearing formations of the south part of the Volga Basin. Journ. 12th Meeting Russ. Sci. Moscow, 1910, 500. (Russian, Rey. in G. Cb. 15, 163-4.) (49) Pavlov, A. P. On Neogene and post-Tertiary formations in the lower- most course of the Volga. J. 12th Congr. Russ. Sci. in Moscow, 1910, 487-9. (Russian, Summ. in G. Cb. 15, 207.) (50) Hégbom, A. G. Fennoskandia. Hdb. Reg. Geol. Bd. 4, 3 Abt. (H. 18), 1913. (51) Munthe, H. Preliminary list of plant remains found in the Herné Gyttja. G. F. F. 1910 (& Kongr. Guide no. 6). (52) Erikson, B. En submoriin fossilf6rande aflagring vid Bollnas i Halsing- land: WGA 1912: (58) Geikie, J. The great ice age. 4 ed. London, 1894. (54) Bjorlykke, K. O. Jaederens geologi. Norges Geol. Underség, no. 48, 1908. (55) Hansen, A. M. The glacial succession in Norway. J. Geol. 2, 1894, 123-144. (56) De Geer, G. On Quaternary sea bottoms in western Sweden. G. F. F. Stockholm, 32, 1910, 1139-1195. Munthe, H. Studien iiber dltere Quartiirbildungen im Stidbaltischen Gebiete. J. Geol. Inst. Upsala, 3, 1896, 27-114. Studies in the late Quaternary history of southern Sweden. Stock- holm, G. F. F. 32, 1910, 1197-1298. Sederholm, J. J. Sur la géologie & citenu nite, et la géolmorphologie de la Fennoseandia. Bull. Comm. géol. de Finlande, no. 30, Helsingfors, 1911. (57) Nathorst, A. G. Spiitglaciale Siisswasserablagerungen mit arktischen Pflanzenresten in Schonen, Stockholm, G, F, F, 382, 1910, 215-223, (42) (58) (64) (65) (80) QUATERNARY DEPOSITS OF BRITISH ISLES—BROOKS. 371 Brégger, W. ©. Om de senglacial og postglacial Nivaforandringar j Kristianafeldet. Norges. Geol. Underség, Kristiania, no. 81, 1901. Rev. Amer. Geol. 29, 252. Danielsen, D. Bidrag til Sérlandets kvartargeologi. Norges Geol. Unders. no. 55, 1910, 118 pp. Res. in English. Holmboe, J. En undersjoisk torvinyr ved Nordhassel paa Lister. Na- turen, Bergen, 1909, 235. Spethmann, H. Die nacheiszeitliche Entwicklung des stidwestlichen Ost- seebeckens. Nat. Wochenschr. 22, 1907, 107-109. Nordmann, V. Postglacial climatic changes in Denmark. Ber. 11 In- ternat. Geologenkongr. Stockholm, 1910, 811-327. Kolderup, C. F. Bergensfeltet og tilstodende trakter i senglacial og postglacial tid. Bergens Mus. Aarbog., 1907, no. 14, 268 pp. (Res. in German. ) Gronlie, O. T. Kvartirgeologiske undersékelser i Tromsd amt. I. Troms6é Mus. Aarsh., 1912-13, 938-136. (English summ.) Wood, 8S. V., jun. The newer Pliocene period in England. Q. J .G. S. 38, 1882, 667-744. Geological Survey of Great Britain and Ireland. Sheet Memoirs. Cro- mer. By C. Reid, 1882. Idem, Yarmouth and Lowestoft. By J. H. Blake, 1890. Geologists’ Association London. Geology in the field. Jubilee Vol. 1910, Geological survey of Great Britain and Ireland. District Memoirs. Holderness and the adjoining parts of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire. By C. Reid, 1885. Wood, S. V., and Rome, J. L. On the glacial and postglacial structure of Lincolnshire and southeast Yorkshire. Q. J. G. S. 24, 1868, 146-184. Lamplugh, G. W., and others. Estuarine deposits at Kirmington, Lin- eolnshire. B. A. 1908, 218-9; 1904, 272-274. Lamplugh, G. W. Drifts at Flamborough Head. Q. J. G. S. 47, 1891, 394, Trechmann, ©. T. The Scandinavian drift of the Durham coast. Q. J. G. S. 71, 1915, 53-82. Woolacott, D. The superficial deposits and preglacial valleys of the Northumberland and Durham coal field. Q. J. G. S. 61, 1905, 64-96. Wood, 8S. V., and Harmer, F. W. Observations on the later Tertiary geology of Hast Anglia. Q. J. G. 8. 88, 1877, 74-120. Boswell, P. G. H. On the age of the Suffolk valleys, with notes on the buried channels of drift. Q. J. G. S. 69, 1918, 581-620. Reid, C. The relations of Paleolithic man to the bowlder clay. (Account of borings at Hoxne.) B. A., 1896, 400-415. Pohlig, H. Uber Hlephas trogontherit in England. Zs. d. D. Geol. Ges., 1909. Mon. Ber. 242-249, Dubois, E. L’age des différentes assises englobées dans la serie du Forest Bed ou Cromerien. Arch. Mus. Teyler, 1905. Hinton, M. A. C., and Kennard, A. S. The relative ages of the stone im- plements of the lower Thames Valley. Proc. G. A. 19, 1905-6, 76-100. Salter, A. E. On the superficial deposits of central and southern Eng- land. Proce. G. A. 19, 1905, 1-56. Sherlock, R. L., and Noble, A. H. On the glacial origin of the clay- with-flints of Buckinghamshire and on a former course of the Thames Valley. Q. J._G. 8. 68, 1912, 199. Warren, S. H., et al. A late glacial stage in the Lea Valley. Q. J. G.S. 68, 1912, 218. 372 (81) (82) (83) (84) (85) (86) (100) (101) (102) ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. Mantell, G. The geology of the southeast of England. London, 1833. See especially: Reid C. The Pleistocene deposits of the Sussex coast, and their equivalents in other districts. Q. J. G. 8S. 48, 1892, 344-864. Prestwich, Sir J. On the presence of a raised beach on Portsdown Hill, near Portsmouth, and on the occurrence of a flint implement at a high level at Downton. Q. J. G. S. 28, 1872, 38-44. Dewey, H. The raised beach of North Devon; its relation to others and to paleolithic man. G. M. 5, 1913, 154-163. Geological survey of Great Britain and Ireland, district memoirs. South Wales coal field. Parts I-II (1899-1914). In Part 8 is given an exhaustive bibliography of the geology of south Wales. Tiddeman, R. H. On the age of the raised beach of southern Britain as seen in Gower. B. A. 1900, 760 and G. M. (4) 7, 1900, 441. Falconer, H. On the ossiferous caves of the peninsula of Gower in Glamorganshire, south Wales. With an appendix on a raised beach in Mewslade Bay, and the occurrence of the bowlder clay on Cefn-y-Bryn, by J. Prestwich. Q. J. G. S. 16, 1860, 487. Mackintosh, D. On the correlation of the deposits in Cefu and Pont- newydd caves. Q. J. G. S. 32, 1875, 91-94. Regers, W. The raised beaches of the Cornish coast. Trans. R. Geol. Soe. Cornwall, 18, 1910, 351-374. Kendall, J. D. On the interglacial deposits of West Cumberland and North Lancashire. Q. J. G. S. 37, 1881, 29. Hodgson, H. On a deposit containing diatomaces leaves, etc., in the iron- ore mines near Ulverston. Q. J. G. S. 17, 1868, 19-31. De Rance, C. E. Glacial and postglacial phenomena of West Lan- eashire and Cheshire. Q. J. G. S. 26, 1870, 641-668. Smith, B. The glaciation of Black Combe district, Cumberland. Q. J. G. 8S. 68, 1912, 402. Reade, T. M. The geology and physics of the postglacial period, as shown in the deposits and organic remains in Lancashire and Cheshire. Liverpool Geol. Soe. Proc., 1872, 36. Lewis, F. J. Interglacial and postglacial beds of the Cross Fell district. B. A. 1904, 798-799. The changes in the vegetation of British peat mosses since the Pleis- tocene period. Liverpool, Proc. G. Ass., n. s. 3, 1908, 24-30. Adams, A. L. Monograph of the British fossil elephants. Paleont. Soc., 1877-1881, 265 pp. Reid, C. The origin of the British flora, 1899. Bell, D., et al. The character of the high-level shell-bearing deposit at Clava, Chapelhall, and other localities. B. A. 1894, 483-514. ; Munthe, H. On the interglacial submergence of Great Britain. Bull. Geol. Inst. Univ. Upsala, 3, 1898, 369-411. Geikie, J. From the ice age to the present. Scot. Geogr. Mag. 22, 1906, 397-407. The antiquity of man in Europe. Edinburgh, 1914. Jamieson, T. F. On the history of the last geological changes in Scot- land. Q. J. G. S. 21, 1865, 161-203. Samuelsson, G. Scottish peat mosses. A contribution to the knowledge of the late Quaternary vegetation and climate of northwestern Europe. Bull. Geol. Inst. Upsala, 10, 1910. Praeger, R. L. CIA. dey J neg BAN LEAN whe, Re Asi: Vereen a. Chebeoreda of herds Viwertetn wut arpa ei : raphe, Ly: ifPletigaaeeh My Mra ie Sia: EREh epionent A: Pe I< etna i poeta a6 atta me He P Nala edn’ Guhiy ae 72Mity, PO Monga Inabexin) Cuts CU nely mY fi oe ‘ i i F hasodatlins: Ti $30 4S LaLa Snel eee lene Degbisky ae hin: inte \ Pe: Bh). Taitiwoen the xinoiphiepotis, "Deana. Gt ieeanata Mow Sh 2.9 oe “aie Peoceivereions, (05 otek bgt ene em oat aa vat ae ci iets ‘Veoh BS ee La > Ps \ Kad ae : ue ni fae Pinerte. raisl 7 in ie ae paren ‘i, piphytes. FRONTISPIECE. other e , and , orchids tillandsias S sat tion fer ing resurrec x< oc < ou uJ E < E Y = = < oO < > fe) o iniana) bear , d climber is Hippocratea volubilis. Photograph by Roy D. Goodrich. $ virgin Lercu, ee ae SRL NS mpaeest we The jointe Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. ks (Qu Live Oa NATUR AL HISTORY OF PARADISE KEY AND THE NEAR- BY EVERGLADES OF FLORIDA. By W. E. SAFForp, Economic Botanist, U. S. Department of Agriculture. [With 64 plates.] Paradise Key, an island in the heart of the Everglades of Florida, is almost unique from a biological point of view, presenting as it does a remarkable example of a subtropical jungle within the limits of the United States in which primeval conditions of animal and plant life have remained unchanged by man, and thus offering a striking contrast to the keys along the coast of Florida as well as to other Everglade keys in which normal biological conditions have been greatly disturbed by destructive fires, clearing of forests, or the con- struction of drainage canals, which not only affect the original physical conditions, but at the same time permit aquatic animals and plants previously unknown to penetrate into the Everglades. The region is also remarkable for the fact that it is a meeting place for many temperate and tropical types of plants and animals. On this account and from the fact that it offers a virgin field for collectors in most branches of natural history, it seems of the highest interest and importance that a careful study of its biological features should be made. The writer was directed by the Secretary of Agriculture to make a survey of the region, which was begun in September, 1917, and resulted in collections in nearly all branches of natural history, the material of which has been studied and classified by specialists and deposited in the collections of the Smithsonian Institution, the United States National Museum, the Bureau of Entomology, ee the Biological Survey.’ It is impossible within the limits of the present paper to give a detailed account of the various species of plants and animals col- lected, or to treat fully of the climatic, physical, and ecological con- 1For hospitality and aid during the survey the writer acknowledges indebtedness to those in charge of Paradise Key, particularly to the Park Warden, Mr. Charles A. Mosier, a born woodsman and accomplished naturalist. 377 378 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. ditions of Paradise Key, but the writer hopes to portray some of the most interesting animals and plants of the key itself as well as of the surrounding Everglades, and to call attention to their inter- relationship and interdependence, in the parts which they play as hosts or guests, parasites or victims, food or feeders. Among the groups considered will be plants of the marshes and sloughs, the forest trees and their epiphytal covering of orchids, resurrection ferns, and bromeliads; climbing lianas, which here reach giant proportions; the native palms of southern Florida, and the plants peculiar to the pine- land region, especially the saw palmetto and the interesting cycad, Lamia floridana. Among the animals to be described are some of the most interest- ing mollusks, spiders, insects, fishes, bactrachians, reptiles, birds, and mammals; and finally an account will be given of the little-known aboriginal Indians who inhabited southern Florida at the time of its discovery by Ponce de Leon, as well as of their successors, the Seminoles, who still live in the Everglades. ROYAL PALM STATE PARK. The region under consideration lies in Dade County, Florida, about 90 miles south of Lake Okeechobee and 37 miles directly southwest of Miami, in latitude 25° 24’ north and longitude 80° 38’ west of Green- wich. In 1915 the State of Florida set aside Paradise Key, together with an area of adjacent swamp land, as a public park. This, to- gether with an additional tract afterwards donated for the purpose, has received the name Royal Palm State Park. The park, which has an area of 3 square miles, includes, besides the key itself and adjacent marshland, a corner of pineland, called Palma-vista, the vegetation of which is similar to that of other pinelands of southern Florida.' Paradise Key owes its preservation from fires and other destructive agencies chiefly to its isolation and to a deep slough near its eastward border which never becomes dry, even during periods of the greatest drought. Its conversion into a state park insures its conservation as a plant reserve and bird sanctuary and as a permanent field for bio- logical research. Similar measures have been taken in other parts of the United States, and it is hoped that the example will be widely followed. Dr. H. C. Oberholser, of the United States Biological Survey, in commending the creation of this park points out that the refuge which it offers to birds is one which is very greatly needed in southern Florida, and that its location is admirable for the purpose of preserv- ing the wild life of the region. 1For an account of the creation of Royal Palm State Park the reader is referred to the account of Mrs. W. S. Jennings in the Tropic Magazine of April, 1916, and to an historical sketch of Paradise Key by Dr. J. K. Small in the Journal of the New York Botanical Garden, vol. 17, p. 41, 1916. PARADISE KEY—SAFFORD. 879 “The decrease of many species of birds,” he says, “has been so marked in recent years that it is of great importance to have for them places where they can breed in undisturbed seclusion. If there do not already exist colonies of herons on this reservation, it would be very desirable to induce these birds, if possible, to take up their residence in the swamps, which I understand are a part of the park, so they could be protected, as they must be, if the various species of heron are to be preserved from extinction. For many birds, also, the Royal Palm State Park should prove to be a desirable haven and refuge, and it will undoubtedly help to preserve from extinction many of the interesting species that inhabit southern Florida.” CLIMATE .AND, RAINFALL, Southern Florida, though usually blessed with an almost tropical climate, is sometimes subject in the winter months to severe storms from the north, in which the thermometer falls below the freezing point. But this is also true of some parts of the island of Cuba, which has repeatedly suffered frosts that have done great damage to the more tender vegetation. Along the coast, where the influence of the warm Gulf Stream is felt, much less damage has been done than farther inland. That these occasional cold spells have not seriously injured the vegetation of Paradise Key is shown by the presence in its flora of noble royal palms more than 100 feet high, tropical orchids, and other tender plants, and insects belonging to types es- sentially tropical. On the other hand many temperate species, both of plants and animals, extend their range southward to this region; although, as far at least as the animals are concerned, the temperate species are here represented by varieties or subspecies which take the place of the northern types. Generally speaking, there is a rainy season during the summer and autumn and a dry season during the winter months, but the limits of these seasons are not constant or well defined. During the rainy season the Everglades are flooded with water, while in the dry win- ter months they are dry enough to be crossed on foot. The accom- panying illustrations (pl. 1) show Paradise Key in the distance with the Everglades, both dry and flooded, in the foreground. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE EVERGLADES. The Everglades owe their characteristic features of marsh, sloughs, and shallow ponds, to their recent origin and their slight elevation above the sea level. Their general surface is not high enough to per- mit the formation of deep valleys by eroding streams; and the water appears to ooze slowly seaward, on the west side toward the south- west and on the east side toward the southeast. 1See Sanford, Samucl, The topography and geology of southern Florida, in Second Annual Report of the Florida State Geol. Survey, p. 189. 1909. 880 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. The rock which underlies the Everglades and appears on the sur- face on the keys and pinelands of southern Florida is known to geologists as Miami oolite. Its outcrop at Long Key, the great rock barrier adjacent to the northern boundary of Royal Palm State Park, as well as at other points, was noticed by Army officers at the time of the Seminole War. Specimens from the vicinity of Paradise Key in the collection of the United States National Museum contain fossil bivalve shells; others (pl. 2) contain vermicellilike casts of annelids, and others hollow tubes, apparently formed by crustaceans in soft mud, now lined with crystalline calcite. This oolitic lime- stone, as Dr. T. Wayland Vaughan has pointed out, is not of animal origin, but a chemical precipitation of calcium carbonate in the form of minute granules; it plays a much greater part in the construction of Florida reefs than corals.t_ It was originally deposited in a shal- low sea, just as similar sediment is now being precipitated in the Bahama Islands. Dr. Karl F. Kellerman, of the Bureau of Plant In- dustry, made a careful bacteriological study of samples of water and calcareous mud from the ocean bottom near the Bahamas and the Florida keys. He found the water laden with calcium bicarbonate and filled with certain bacteria which liberated‘ammonia. The action of the ammonia on the calcium bicarbonate caused a precipitation of calcium carbonate, which assumed the form of oolite. The bac- terial origin of calcium carbonate had previously been suggested by the late George H. Drew of the Carnegie Institution, who succeeded in isolating an organism which he named Bacterium calcis. Doctor Kellerman repeated his experiments and confirmed his observations, referring the above-mentioned organism to the genus Pseudomonas, under the name Pseudomonas calcis.* WATER PLANTS. The deep slough to the eastward of Paradise Key (pl. 3), which has already been mentioned as its chief protection from destructive agencies, is filled with a dense growth of water plants: yellow water lilies, or spatter-docks (pl. 4) ; Sagittarias, with broad, three- petaled white flowers (fig. 1); pickerel weed, with spikes of blue flowers (fig. 2); water arums (fig. 3) related to our jack-in-the-pulpit and with roots equally filled with needle-like raphides which burn the mouth like fire; white-flowered floating hearts (fig. 4) resembling miniature pond lilies, but not botanically related to them; and tall water weeds (Owypolis filiformis) belonging to the same family as the celery, but with hollow, quill-like tubes for leaves. 1See Vaughan, T. Wayland, Sketch of the geologic history of the Florida coral reef tract and comparison with other coral reef areas. In Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 4: 26. 1914. See also “ Corals and formation of coral reefs’’ by the same author, in the present volume, 2See Kellerman, Karl F., and Smith, N. R., Bacterial precipitation of calcium car- bonate. Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 4:400. 1914. PARADISE KEY—SAFFORD. 881 At first glance these water plants appear to be of no economic significance; but it is they which make animal life possible in the Fic. 1.—Sagittaria lancifolia. a, Fig. 2.—BLUE-FLOWERED GROWING IN DAMP SOIL; JB, PICKEREL WEED, Ponte- GROWING IN WATER. MUCH RE- deria cordata. MucH DUCED. REDUCED. Everglades. Aquatic insect larvee and water snails and bivalves which feed on their roots and submerged stems, yield food to small fishes; fishes, crustaceans, frogs and surface in- sects are the food of larger fishes, snakes, alli- gators, and birds. One of the most common occurrences is to see a magnificent osprey swoop down upon what appears a grassy prairie and Fie. 5.— GERMINAT- ING SEED OF THE WHITE SPIDER-LILY, Crinum americanum, Fig. 4.— FLOATING HDART, Nym- SHOWING THE PECU- phoides aquaticum, A DAINTY LIAR DEVELOPMENT WATER-PLANT OF THE EVER- OF THE BULB. HALr GLADES. NAT. SIZE. Bi og I Be ones’ TEBE with a good-sized fish in its talons. Peltandra virginica. Its Tn addition to the plants just mentioned are ACRID STARCHY ROOT, - d l 5 ] 6 N CALLED TUCKAHOR, numerous se ges (p ° ) and grasses (p . Me O WHEN THOROUGHLY traveler in the Everglades will forget the terri- COOKED WAS EATEN BY & 9 . . Tun Inpiaxs or Vir- ble “ saw-grass” (pl. 7), which is really not a Nia. M : NTRS ESOS NEP UCEP- “grass but a sedge, the leaves of which as seen under the lens (pl. 8) are armed with very sharp, fine cutting teeth. Among the marsh ferns are Acrostichum excelsum, with coarse, 382 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. leatherlike fronds, and Blechnum serrulatum, with much thinner fronds which soon wilt when gathered. There is a beautiful Crinum, with white spiderlike flowers, and thick, fleshy seeds which have a peculiar method of germinating (fig. 5); stately cat-tails, bladder- wort with fine, dissected aquatic leaves, and many other characteristic water plants, specimens of which have been deposited in the United States National Herbarium. It is interesting to note the absence of the water hyacinth and water lettuce which impede navigation in the streams and lakes of northern Florida. MARSH SHRUBS. Paradise Key is bordered by a growth of marsh-loving shrubs; among them, the amphibian willow; alligator apple (pl. 9); the wax myrtle, which yields wax from which candles may be made; the fragrant swamp bay, with an aromatic fra- grance like that of bay rum; a mag- nelia with white flowers and silver- lined leaves; cocoa plums with edible fruit and a Baccharis (pl. 10), which bears the pistillate flowers on one bush and the staminate flowers on another. Not far from the park are small islets covered with thickets of mangroves with branching, stiltlike roots; and button mangroves (pl. 11) Fie. 6.—GuMbotimgo, Elaphrium with nectar glands at the base of sumarubed PavSH AND Phimp wEvIT. / the leaf blades; and in several places are small groves of cypress (pl. 12), similar to those of the Dismal Swamp, but not nearly so extensive. FOREST TREES AND SHRUBS. It will not be possible within the limits of this paper to enumerate the forest trees, most of which are essentially tropical. The largest, however, is the magnificent live oak (Quercus virginiana) of our Southern States (pl. 13), which sometimes spreads its moss-covered branches over an area 200 feet in diameter. ‘The gumbolimbo (Llaphrium simaruba) gets its odd name from the Jamaica negroes, a corruption of goma elemi, the Spanish name of an aromatic balsam which exudes from its bark when wounded. In the Antilles it is sometimes called West Indian birch, on account of its papery red bark which peels off like that of certain birches; and in some parts of Spanish America its common name is palo mulato, from the color of its trunk. It bears transplanting remarkably well; sometimes large trees are taken up from hammocks and planted in private grounds, where they at once establish themselves. The fruit (fig. 6) is much relished by crows and other birds, PARADISE KEY—SAFFORD. 883 Other striking trees are the satinleaf (pl. 14) which takes its name from the golden brown, satinlike lining of its leaves; the laurel- cherry of the West Indies, the leaves of which when crushed have the characteristic bitter-almond odor of prussic acid; a beautiful mimosa- like Lysiloma, usually called wild tamarind, with fernlike foliage and smooth white trunk; the mas- tic tree, or wild olive (fig. 7); the bois-fidéle (in- correctly translated “ fiddle wood”) with racemes of fruit shown in figure 8, and the pigeon plum (Coccolobis laurifolia). Of special interest is the strangling fig, Ficus aurea, Which begins life somewhat like a mistletoe, sprouting from a tiny seed dropped on the limb of a tree. It soon sends down threads which take root when they reach the ground, and which grow together wherever they touch one another, forming a meshwork about the trunk of the host which is slowly strangled to death (pl. 15). This may well be designated the snake tree, or con- strictor, of the vegetable world. Similar trees of the genus Ficus are found in many tropical coun- tries. Botanically they are related to the many-trunked banyan of the East Indies, ‘wie 7—Masere as well as to the familiar TREE, Sideroylon foetidissimum rUboet. Plants Of OU .CON- — Jaco. _ Tetons: servatories.? CENCE, FRUIT, AND : SEEDS. HALF NAT. Another forest monster is sin, the poison tree, J/fetopium toxiferum, a giant sumach with a smooth spotted trunk, the sap of which acts very much like the poison ivy of our woods, causing erup- tions on the skin. This tree is tropical in its distribution. On the south shore of the island Wig. 8.—Bors vir, °F Cuba a surveying party of officers and men Citharezylum frutico. Of the U. S. 8. Paducah employed, in May, tute wan, gun. 1912, in clearing a base line near Caballona Channel, were badly poisoned by this tree, the effects of which they described as worse than those of Rhus towico- dendron. Notwithstanding this the berries are eaten with relish by many species of birds at a time when other fruits are scarce. 1Students of phytogeography are referred to the work of Dr. John W. Harshberger, of the University of Pennsylvania, on ‘‘ The vegetation of South Florida,’ published in the Transactions of the Wagner Free Institute of Science of Philadelphia, vol. 7, part 3, October, 1914. In this work the plants of southern Florida will be found grouped ac- cording to plant formations or associations. 384 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. It is interesting to note that a closely allied tree, Rhus vernicifera, yields the celebrated Japanese lacquer, a kind of varnish prepared from the very poisonous milk juice, or latex, which exudes from incisions made for the purpose’ Violent poisoning from this latex is common among the workmen engaged in manufacturing the lac- quer, which is one of the most indestructible varnishes known in the arts. Stories are told of jewelers or cabinetmakers who, engaged in repairing very old pieces of lacquer ware, have been severely poisoned by the dust. Among the smaller trees and forest shrubs of Paradise Key are several belonging to the Myrtle family, including the white stopper, naked stopper, spicewood, and the myrtle-of-the-river, the latter (Calyptranthes zuzygium) with opposite glossy leaves and clusters of fruit resembling blueberries. In addition to these are the paradise tree, or bitterwood; soapberry tree; Arugiodendron ferreum, or West Indian ironwood; marlberry; and a holly (/lex cassine) with red berries but with leaves devoid of prickles, sometimes confused with the more northern species from which the Indians of Florida made their “black drink,” but quite distinct from it. Specimens of all these together with other interesting shrubs and small trees from this locality have been deposited in the United States National Her- barium.? CLIMBING PLANTS. Many of the climbing plants are interesting from their manner of clinging to the trees which support them. Hippocratea volubilis, which, on account of its conspicuous swollen nodes, may be called the “jointed liana,” takes root wherever it touches the ground, form- ing loops which trip up the unwary traveler, or perhaps catch him under the chin as he passes through the jungle. Its opposite, arm- like branchlets, which terminate in tendrils, clasp the tree trunks as the plant makes its way upward to the light. When it has estab- lished itself and spread over the branches, the arms, no longer of use, break off at the shoulders and leave the vine hanging like a great rope usually at some distance from the trunk, causing the observer to wonder by what means it had reached its point of sup- port (see frontispiece). This plant covers the crown of a tree so thickly that its host is sometimes crushed under its weight. Accord- ing to the park warden, more trees are overwhelmed and brought to earth by this incubus than by storms or destructive parasites. Among the other climbers are several wild grapes and plants closely related to them, one of the most interesting of which, Cissus 1For botanical descriptions of these plants the reader is referred to Dr. J. K. Small’s Flora of Miami, in which most of them will be found. PARADISE KEY—SAFFORD. 385 sicyoides, is sometimes called the water liana or hunters’ vine, in the West Indies. If a section is cut from the stem of this plant, a cool, refreshing drink may be obtained from its sap by applying the mouth at one end and slightly tipping up the other. Its succulent stems are often found gnawed through by some animal; but, instead of dying, the plant continues to live and soon sends down cordlike roots which penetrate the earth like those of certain epiphytes. Among those which hold on by recurved prickles are Hrythrina arborea, Guilandina crista, and Pisonia aculeata, all of them plants which usually occur elsewhere as scrambling shrubs, but which here become climbers. The first of these (pl. 16), which belongs to the Bean family, has bright red, slender flowers and pods constricted between the bright scarlet seeds; the second, belonging to the Cassia family, is the plant which bears the well-known polished gray, stony seeds called nicker nuts; the third, belonging to the Four- o'clock family, has peculiar, slender fruits (fig. 9) bearing five longitudinal rows of prickly glands by means of which they adhere to the plum- age of birds and the fur of mammals. This plant often forms dense thickets, in trying to penetrate which any creature will be lacerated by the stout, ] a 5 Fic. 9.—Cockspur, Pisonia aculeata; FLOW- sharp, recurved thorns which ERS, GLANDULAR FRUIT, AND RECURVED arm its branches and which SPINES WHICH AID IT IN CLIMBING. RE- Cmte ° . DUCED. give it its common names “ cockspur,” “ pull-and-hold-back,” and “ wait-a-bit vine.” On Para- dise Key Pisonia aculeata sometimes reaches gigantic dimensions, climbing to the tops of the highest trees. Plate 17 is reproduced from a photograph, made for the author in September, 1917, of a specimen discovered by Mr. Mosier, with a stem 40.5 inches in circumference at a distance of 7 feet from the base. The tropical zarzaparillas (“climbing brambles”) are represented by several subtropical species, the most remarkable of which is Smilax laurifolia, the “swamp bamboo brier,” a lofty climber which grows in marshy places. A photograph of its thick, bamboolike root stocks is shown on plate 18. A closely allied species, Smilax auriculata, growing outside the park in drier situations, was the principal source of a delicious jelly, called “red coontie,” formerly prepared by the Indians of the southeastern United States from the fecula contained in its root stalks and tubers. 386 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. ORCHIDS. Most of the orchids of Paradise Key are modest and inconspicuous when compared with their gorgeous relatives in our conservatories; but some of them are prized for their odd forms or their fra- grance, and all of them are attractive both to botanists and to lay- men. Some of the most interesting are shown on plate 19. Spathiger rigidus (fig. 1)), a creeping epiphyte widely spread in the West Indies, with pale, yellowish-green flowers, blooms continuously throughout the greater part of the year. The spider orchid, Aw/liza nocturna (fig. 2), also West Indian in its distribution, takes its spe- cific name from the exquisite fragrance which its large, white, nar- row-petaled flowers exhale toward nightfall. The shell orchid, Anacheiliwm cochleatum (fig. 3), was first designated by old Hans Sloane in 1707, as a “mistletoe with a bulbous root and a showy, larkspurlike flower.” The chintz-flowered orchid, Oncidium undu- latum (fig. 4), has odd-looking, mottled flowers, also described by Sloane, who likened them to patches of Dutch chintz. Macra- dena lutescens (fig. 5) is a modest, little plant with drooping flowers dotted with purplish brown. The marsh orchid, Oncidium sphace- latum (fig. 6), usually found growing on the edges of swamps, has conspicuous, yellow flowers spotted with wine color. OTHER EPIPHYTES. In addition to the epiphytal orchids ether plants are found grow- ing on the limbs and trunks of forest trees, among them the resur- rection fern, which curls up during periods of drought and uncurls its fronds when moisture returns; a fleshy leaved Peperomia which creeps along the tree trunks; the well-known Dendropogon, or Spanish moss, which hangs in festoons from the branches (pl. 20) ; and its relatives of the pineapple family, the stiff-leaved bromeliads (pl. 21). Jt is interesting to note in connection with the latter that the bases of the leaves of many bromeliads collect water in which insects lay their eggs and undergo their transformations. In some parts of tropical America, in regions remote from water, certain dragon flies and even frogs habitually lay their eggs in such reser- voirs, which have been collectively called an epiphytal swamp re- gion, which has the important advantage over a true swamp that it never dries up. In addition to the marsh ferns and the epiphytal resurrection fern already mentioned there are several other interesting species, includ- ing a delicate, little, filmy fern (fig. 10) growing among moss on the trunks and limbs of trees; the epiphytal grass fern, Vittaria lineata, and golden Phlebodium, with large fronds lobed like an oak leaf and dotted beneath with conspicuous sori (pl. 22), often PARADISE KEY—SAFFORD. 387 found growing from the old leaf axils on the trunks of cabbage pal- mettos; the strap fern, Campyloneuron phyllitidis, with undivided, strap-shaped fronds; the well-known “Boston fern” of our conservatories (Nephrolepis exaltata), and the closely allied sword fern (J. biserrata). Other species included in the flora are the brake, Pteridium caudatum, the beautiful royal fern (pl. 23); Anemia adiantifolia (pl. 24); and the wood ferns, Dryopteris patens and D. angescens.' FLORIDA PALMS. Among the native palms of peninsular Florida are the royal palm (pl. 25) which has given its name to Royal Palm State Park; the saw palmetto so characteristic EPIPHYTAL FILMY FERN, Trichomanes punctata. ENLARGED. Hires. LO: of the pinelands; the saw cabbage palm, Paurotis wrighti, of coast a: ae wah een hammocks (pls. 26 and 27) which has sometimes been confused with = Sas = etic P4i= ae St at Fic. 11.—CaBpBacGe PALM, Sabal pat- metto, BLADES. SHOWING DECURVED LEAF- the preceding; the cabbage palmetto, or cabbage palm (pl. 28) ; the small- seeded, dwarf, blue-stem palmetto, Sabal glabra, of northern Florida; the large-seeded, dwarf palmetto, Sabal etonia, of southern Florida; the silver palm of the pine woods near Miami and Homestead, Coccothri- nax argenteas the Florida thatch palm, Zhrinax floridana; and the brittle thatch, 7hrinax microcarpa, which occurs at the lower extremity of the peninsula. The majority of these species are found also on the Bahamas and other islands of the West Indies; the large-fruited Sabal etonia, however, is endemic. The coconut palm is not a native of Florida, but may be regarded as a naturalized citizen of the State. In the accompanying illustration (pl. 28) are shown the seeds of most of these palms which differ so strik- ingly that they will serve to identify the various species. In addition to the seeds themselves the plate in- cludes the dropping of a bird in REG 268 pt I68: 2 easinsition io sihbousiov) fhyatesth Sroflatt ook fd 1Tor further information regarding Florida ferns the reader is referred to the beauti- fnl little pocket manual of Dr. J. K. Small, entitled ‘‘ Ferns of tropical Florida, 1918. 388 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. which a number of Thrinax seeds occur. Seeds of the royal palm may have found their way to the park in the same way, dropped by migrating birds from Cuba. In southern Florida trees of this species as well as those of the cabbage palm and the introduced coconut are sometimes used with great effect to form avenues. It is interesting to note that the leaves of the cabbage palm, though usually called fan-shaped, really have a short, decurved midrib (fig. 11). This feature, together with certain peculiarities of the inflorescence, leads Mr. O. F. Cook of the Bureau of Plant Industry to separate several species usually included under Sabal into a distinct genus which he has named Inodes. PINELAND FLORA. The only pine growing in the vicinity of Paradise Key is Pinus caribaea (pl. 29). This is one of the species which gives its name to the Isle of Pines on the south coast of Cuba. It covers vast areas of southern Florida (pl. 30), accompanied by an undergrowth pecul- iarly its own. Next to the saw palmetto the most remarkable plant of the pinelands is a cycad, Zama floridana, from which the Semi- noles make a starch, commonly called coontie, or Florida arrowroot. The ancestors of this plant and its congeners can be traced back to the giant cycads of the Carboniferous age. Among its relatives are the “ sago palms,” Cycas circinalis and Cycas revoluta, so well known to horticulturists.t Closely allied species of the same genus occur in the West Indies, and of related genera in Mexico, Central America, and Africa. All of them are remarkable for their peculiar method of cross-fertilization; and nearly all of them are valuable as sources of food. Zamia and its allies occupy a place intermediate between flower- ing plants and ferns. Like the former, they bear fruit with a true endocarp or seed; but, like the latter, their sexual propagation is ac- complished by means of spermatozoids provided with movable cilia, resembling those of animals. The male and female plants are easily distinguished. The inflorescence of the male plant (pl. 31) is in the form of an erect cone, shaped somewhat like an ear of maize and composed of scales which bear on their under surface numerous pollen sacs. That of the female plant (pl. 32), much thicker and relatively shorter, is composed of broad scales, each bearing a pair of ovules quite devoid of any protective covering. The pollen, borne by the wind, settles on the ovules, and sends down a tube into the tissue of the nucellus. Archegonia are formed; egg cells de- velop, and in the pollen tube are produced spermatozoids which fecundate the egg. The fertilization of Zaméa floridana was studied 1$ee Bailey’s Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture, 2: 931 to 933. 1914. PARADISE KEY—SAFFORD. 389 by Dr. H. J. Webber. It was he who first described and figured these remarkable spermatozoids, which exceed in size those of all other living organisms.* The ovules of Zamia floridana develop into beautiful orange-red fleshy fruits arranged about a central axis, like large grains of corn around a cob. These are at first covered by the peltate, triangula1 scales which bore them, but they fall off when fully ripe and form conspicuous bright-colored heaps in the pine lands where they grow. A second species of Zamia occurs in the shady woods of Paradise Key, but only male plants have thus far been found there. It has been referred by Small to Zamia integrifolia, a species in moist woods of middle Florida, particularly near the east coast. This species may be distinguished from Z. floridana by its leaflets, which are somewhat broader, and have 20-28 parallel veins, about twice as many as those of the latter. Both its leaves and its cones bear a close resemblance to those of the West Indian Zamia media with which it may possibly prove to be identical; while Zamia floridana more closely resembles Zamia angustifolia of the Bahamas. Among other characteristic plants of the pinelands are the silver palm, the large-seeded Sabal etonia, sometimes called the goose- neck palmetto, and the tall cabbage palm, already mentioned ; among the orchids, the tall, purple-flowered Bletia purpurea and the grass pink, Limodorum pinetorum, the pineland blueberry, Vaccinium myrsinites; the dwarf, white-flowered papaw, Asimina reticulata, the thorn twig, Bumelia reclinata (pl. 383) and the prickly, holly-leaved Rhacoma ticifolia. Among the climbing plants, or twiners, are the beautiful, red-flowered morning-glory, Exogonium microdactylum, with flower buds resembling fuchsias; the conspicuous E’chites echites, belonging to the Apocynaces, with salver-shaped flowers resembling enormous white jasmines, and a pair of long, slender seed pods in- closing silky seeds; two species of smilax, S. bona-nox, and S. havanensis; and occasional moonflowers, Calonyction aculeatum, climbing to the tops of trees. Among the ferns are the bracken, Pteridium caudatum,; Pteris longifolia; Anemia andiantifolia, shown on plate 24; and in the old leaf axils of the cabbage palm Phlebodium aureum, on plate 23. In addition to these may be mentioned two plants which are confined to the southern Florida pinelands and do not occur elsewhere—Chamaesyce pinetorwm, a low, spreading, hairy, small-leaved plant belonging to the Euphorbiacee; and the dwarf Florida privet, Porestiera pinetorum, belonging to the olive family, shown on plate 34. 1 Webber, Herbert J. Spermatogenesis and fecundation of Zamia. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Plant Industry, Bull. No. 2, 1901. 65133°—sm 1917—— 26 390 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. ANIMAL LIFE. It is impossible within the scope of this paper to give a detailed account of the animals of Royal Palm State Park. The insect fauna alone must certainly include thousands of species, only a few of which can here be mentioned. The tree snails (see pl. 35) which form such an attractive feature of the forest, though varying greatly in color, are referred by zoolo- gists to a single species, Liguus fasciatus. These beautiful creatures, which spend their lives on the trunks of trees browsing upon micro- scopic cryptogamous plants, are air-breathing mollusks like their relatives the common snails, having their eyes on the ends of long tentacles (fig. 12) which they can fold in like the tip of a glove finger. Specimens sent by Mr. Mosier from Paradise Key are now domesticated in one of the greenhouses of the United States Department of Agriculture, having borne the trip from their native forest without apparent inconvenience. As in allied =e genera these animals have both sexes united in a IN \ single individual; so that each may become both ff (i re in " a father and a mother. In mating they do not y hi) Di appear to discriminate as to color, for a pure white-shelled form may be seen paired with one which is yellow-banded or mottled like tortoise shell. They sometimes fall victims to another , air-breathing mollusk, the cannibal snail, Glan- ee aN tas at dina truncata (pl. 26, fig. 2), the young of which Park, Liguus fas- sometimes devour one another. sense REDE ee Other snails of this family are the minute OTH SEXES ARE unrrep ix nach 1x- Polygyra septemvolva (pl. 36, fig. 3) and P. Divipual. Nat.sZE. aoylifera (pl. 36, fig. 4) with flattened shells composed of many whorls coiled like a watch spring. Another lit- tle shell, Zelicina orbiculata (pl. 36, fig. 5), 1s distinguished by hav- ing a little door, or “ operculum,” with which it closes the orifice of its shell. Among the pond snails are Planorbis duryi (pl. 3, fig. 6) and Physa gyrina (pl. 36, fig. 7), the latter with a thin polished, left-handed shell. The great marsh snail, Ampudlaria depressa, is of interest as the principal food staple of the Everglade kite, already mentioned. The colored illustration in the center of plate 35 was made from a living specimen sent to Washington from Royal Palm State Park. Its eggs, resembling flesh-colored pearls, are attached to the stems of water plants (fig. 13). Last of all must be mentioned the little bivalve, Musculum partumeium (pl. 36, fig. 9), which has a thin, orbicular shell through which its pulsating heart can be seen. It is PARADISE KEY—SAFFORD. 391 an interesting little creature, actively climbing among the submerged stems and leaves of plants, breathing in and expelling water by means of a double-barreled siphon. Of greater economic importance than the large marsh snails above mentioned are the crawfishes of the Everglades, which are eaten in- great quantities by many marsh birds, espe- cially by white ibises and blue herons. Speci- mens collected in the immediate vicinity of Paradise Key (pl. 37) were identified by Mr. W. L. Schmitt of the United State National Museum as Cambarus fallax Hagen. The centipedes and scorpions of Royal Palm State Park are represented in the writer’s col- lection by a single species each. The first, identified by Mr. O. F. Cook as Theatops postica, 1s interesting on account of its pe- culiarly hooked and thickened last pair of legs. Its bite, though poisonous, is not dangerous. The scorpion identified by Dr. Nathan Banks as Centrurus gracilis, like all of its allies, has pincerlike palpi resembling the claws of a crawfish, and a long tail terminating in a poison sting (pl. 38). Perhaps the most interesting feature of its anatomy is a pair of minute, di- verging, comblike organs borne on its ventral side just behind the last pair of legs (fig. 14). The function of these little combs is not yet understood. An ally of the scorpions, which may be regarded as intermediate between them and the spiders, is the giant whip scorpion, Mastigoprocius giganteus, shown on plate 38. Fic. 13.—EGGs OF MARSH SNAIL, Ampullaria de- pressa, ON STEM OF WATER PLANT. Nat. SIZE. Its enormous palpi suggest the branching mandibles of a large stag beetle. In the scorpion the front legs are the shortest pair, while in I'rg. 14.—COMB-LIKE OR- GANS OF SCORPION, Cen- trurus gracilis. THEIR FUNCTION IS UNKNOWN. the whip scorpion they are greatly elongated; but the greatest difference is in the tail, that of the whip scorpion being entirely devoid of a sting. Even the fangs of this ugly creature, so much dreaded by the natives wherever it is found, are said by Doctor Banks to be de- void of poison. When attacked it emits an acid, vinegarlike odor, from which the name vinaigrier has been given it by French creoles in the Antilles. 392 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. SPIDERS. 5 Among the spiders collected on Paradise Key are several of un- usual interest. One of them, Vephila clavipes, constructs a beauti- ful web composed of fine, silken threads which glisten in the sun like burnished gold. Its silk has been woven into fabrics. A second species, Miranda aurea, forms a peculiar egg cocoon resembling a miniature paper balloon. A third species, Phidippus audax, spins no web at all, but catches its prey by jumping upon it and drags it backward to its den. It has iridescent jaws and bright red eyes, from which it may well take its name of “ ruby-eyed monster.” The life histories of many spiders as well as of certain groups of insects are so tragic that the writer ventures here to repeat what has already been expressed by Maeterlinck; since it is so strikingly applicable to conditions on Paradise Key. With other classes of animals and even with plants man feels a certain kinship, but spi- ders and insects are not of his world; their strange habits, ethics, and psychology seem to belong to some other planet, where the con- ditions are more monstrous, more active, more Insane, more atrocious, more infernal than in our own. It is hard for us to believe that these monsters are conceptions of that Nature whose privileged children we love to imagine ourselves to be. We are horrified at the atroci- ties they commit; their clandestine thefts, their ignoble parasitism ; the bold robberies, the murders, cannabalism, mariticide, for which many of them seem especially adapted. Frightfulness and ruth- lessness appear to be a very part of their nature; and we stand appalled when it dawns upon us that these creatures are far better armed and equipped for their life’s work than we for ours. We almost dread them as our rivals and ultimate successors, as the dom- inant inhabitants of this globe. THE SPIDER THAT SPINS TEXTILE SILK. Outside the gauze screen of the park lodge veranda the writer noticed a geometrical spiderweb, in which insect victims of all descriptions had been ensnared, ranging in size from mosquitoes to huge grasshoppers and dragon flies. In the center of the web was the lady spider who had constructed it, and near its margin the diminutive male, who seemed to be hanging ’round in a shiftless sort of way, subsisting on such scraps of food as she might leave. Specimens of these spiders (fig. 15) were identified by Mr. C. R. Shoemaker of the United States National Museum as Wephila clavipes, a species celebrated from the fact that its silk has actually been woven into fabrics, specimens of which, in the form of bed curtains, were exhibited at the Paris Exposition. In order to obtain the silk a large number of females were kept in captivity, each by PARADISE KEY—SAFFORD. 393 herself in an iron ring isolated by water, fed with flies, and deprived of her silk each day. Each of the cocoons of this spider contains from 500 to 1,000 eggs. The newly hatched young show cannibalistic propensities from the very beginning; for they not only feed upon small insects which come in their way, but they devour one another. After two or three weeks in a web shared in common they scatter and each female proceeds to spin a web for herself. From this time they must be kept separate, or they would eat one another. In removing the silk the spider is gently seized and secured in a pair of stocks, and the thread steadily and carefully pulled from her spinnerets until it is exhausted. In this way a spider is made to yield about 2n ounce of silk dur- ing ihe summer. The thread is smoother, finer, and more brightiy colored than that of the silkworm. As shown in the illustration, the male is much smaller than the female; from which it is also dis- tinguished by its peculiar palpi, which correspond to cla we : of Fie. 16.—Miranda aurantia, scorpions and ADULT FEMALE AND MALE. the enormous THE FEMALE OFTEN DEVOURS : HER PYGMY BRIDEGROOM AT pincers of the THE END OF THE HONBY- whi p scor- MOON. NAT. SIZE. pion shown on plate 36, but which are in the spiders specialized into sexual organs. Doctor Wilder, who was the Nephila clavipes, avutr first to breed this species for their silk, FEMALE AND MALE, ITS GOLDEN * vuitow Sik Has ween spon contrasts the handsome;femalewath,the AND WOVEN INTO BED cuRTAINS. jnsignificant male, who neither toils NAt. SIZE. : nor spins, and who keeps at a respect- ful distance except when mating, and even then it is not unusual for the ogress bride to eat him up.? The Golden Miranda (also known as Lpeira, or Argiope riparia) is a beautiful, black and yeHow spider of the marshes (fig. 16). The female is nearly an inch in length, while the male is only about one- fourth as long, similarly colored, but with the markings less distinct and with very large palpi. The females make webs about 2 feet in Wie. 15. +See Emerton, J. H., The Structure and Habits of Spiders, pp. 70-72. 1878. 2 See Wilder, B. G., How my new acquaintances spin. Atlantic Monthly, 18:130. 1866. 394 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. diameter in the marsh grass or bushes, with an up-and-down zigzag white band across the middle and a round thick spot where she takes her station. In the autumn she lays her eggs in a large, balloon- shaped cocoon like that already described (fig. 17). Both the eggs and the newly hatched young are sub- ject to the attacks of parasitic insects. TERMITES, OR WHITE ANTS. Unlike their African relatives, which build great mounds, the termites of Paradise Key infest dead Fic. 17.— Bat- wood (pl. 89) and are therefore apt to escape notice LOON-LIKE EGG- . : . SACK or Miran. @Xcept during the period of swarming. At least four da aurantia. species have been collected in the park by Mr. Thomas HALF NAT. SIZD. : : E. Snyder, office of Forest Insect Investigations, United States Department of Agriculture. The social organization of these little insects is of special interest. In addition to perfect winged males and females, and wingless workers and soldiers, there are nymphal and larval forms of males and females which never become winged. (See fig. 18.) The most interesting fea- ture in connection with these little insects is their social life and the subdivision of labor in their communities. ,Though commonly called “ white ants,” and often referred to by travel- ers as “ants,” they are not re- lated to the true ants, but be- long to the order Platyptera, more nearly allied to the May flies, dragon flies, and ant lions. One of the most remarkable phenomena of insect biology is an i 2 Fig. i8.—WHITE ANTS, Leucotermes flavipes. the similarity of the functions ¢, Prrenant QUEEN; b, WINGED MALE; 0, of corresponding 6s eastes ” in SABER-JAWED SOLDIER; d, BLIND WORKER : AND NURSE. FENLARGED. such widely separated groups as the termites on the one hand and the ants and social bees on the other. Both groups of insects live in communities and have their queen mothers, royal consorts, and specialized workers, which are sexually imperfect. In the bees, however, the workers are imperfect females, while among the termites here considered, the castes of both soldiers and workers are composed of imperfect males as well as fe- males. Another important point of difference is that newly hatched PARADISE KEY—SAFFORD. 395 bees and wasps are helpless, footless grubs, while the young termite when it emerges from the egg is an active, crawling, six-legged crea- ture, which soon begins to feed itself. DRAGON FLIES AND DEMOISELLES. On plate 40 are shown five species of Odonata from Paradise Key, identified for the writer by Miss Bertha P. Currie of the United States National Museum, and her brother, Mr. Rolla P. Currie. While sitting on the screened veranda of the park lodge it was pleasant to watch these graceful insects, like squadrons of miniature airplanes, Waging incessant war upon the besieging mosquitoes. It is not possible within the limits of this paper to speak of the early aquatic stages of these insects and their transformations. Atten- tion has been called in connection with the Bromeliaces to the fact that in tropical America there are certain species which lay their eges and undergo their transformations from the larval stage to the perfect insect in the water collected by the leaves of epiphytal plants of that family. In this connection the reader is referred to the recent work of the Calverts on the natural history of Costa Rica.2 Some of the species shown in the illustration are quite widely distributed, but Gynacantha nervosa, the largest of the collection (pl. 40, fig. 2) is a very rare tropical species hitherto represented among the North American Odonata of the United States National Museum by a single specimen; and the dainty little demoiselle, Argiallagma minutum (pl. 40, fig. 4), which is even rarer, is quite new to the collection. MARGARODES, OR GROUND PEARLS. In the black soil of the forest, often in the clefts of limestone pene- trated by the roots of plants, quantities of little opalescent globules are sometimes found. These beautiful little objects are the shells of Coccidae or scale insects, known as Margarodes or ground pearls. They occur also in the West Indies, on some of the islands of which they are strung into necklaces and made into purses. Very little is known concerning their life history. It was formerly thought that they occur on the roots of plants, but Mr. W. T. Swingle, who was the first to find them within the limits of the United States, in Jan- uary, 1895, called attention to the fact that in no case did he find them attached to roots. In the accompanying illustrations, plate 41 shows a colony found by C. A. Mosier on Paradise Key, in 1 For a detailed account of these interesting insects the reader is referred to the paper of Mr. Thomas H. Snyder, entitled ‘“‘ Biology of the termites of the eastern United States,” published by the U. S. Department of Agriculture as Bureau of Entomology Bulletin No. 94, pt. 2, 1915. 2 Calvert, Amelia Smith, and Philip Powell, A Year in Costa Rican Natural History, pp. 230-243. 1917. 396 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. J fissures of colitic limestone. On plate 42 are shown cysts, enlarged 6 diameters; and on plate 43 are shown necklaces and loose ground pearls in the collection of the Bureau of Entomology, collected by the late Prof. C. V. Riley and Mr. H. G. Hubbard in the West Indies." This plate is reproduced from a photograph kindly furnished the writer by Dr. L. O. Howard, Chief of the Bureau of Entomology. The family Coccidae, to which these interesting ground pearls belong, includes some very pernicious as well as some very valuable species. The former, known as scale insects, do great injury to fruit trees and other plants. Among the latter are several which are the sources of valuable dyes and lacs: the Mexican cochineal, which has become domesticated and is reared on certain species of Cacti; the classic kermes of the Old World, from which “ crimson” (carmesin) takes its name and which was used for dyeing the curtains of the Jewish tabernacle; the “scarlet grains” of Poland, gathered from the roots of Scleranthus perennis; another species, infesting the roots of Sanguisorba sanguisorba, used by the Moors as a source of a beautiful rose color with which they dye fabrics of wool and silk; the Asiatic lac insects, which produce commercial lac, from which shell-lac, sealing wax, and lac dyes and certain lake pigments are derived. It is interesting to note that among the principal trees infested by these lac insects are certain species of Ficus; and that the Ficus aurea, the strangling fig of Paradise Key, is also infested by a Coceus, which Mr. Harold Morrison of the Federal Horticul- tural Board has identified as Coccus elongatus. An attempt might be made to introduce lac insects from India into southern Florida, to see if they would thrive on the native species of Ficus. BUGS. Among the Hemiptera of Paradise Key determined for the writer by Mr. E. H. Gibson of the Bureau of Entomology are Acrosternum hilaris (pl.. 44, fig. 83), a smooth, green insect allied to our squash bugs; Leptoglossus phyllopus (pl. 44, fig. 7), sometimes called the “leaf foot”; and Metapodius femoratus (pl. 44, fig. 8), the “ thick thigh,” which punctures fruits and sucks their juices. Less conspicu- ous are the brown bug, Huschistus ictericus, and dessa bifida, the latter marked on the back by a whitish U-shaped figure. To this same class of insects belong the various tree hoppers, some of which are of odd shapes, simulating thorns and other natural objects. ROACHES AND GRASSHOPPERS. Among the Orthoptera of Paradise Key, determined for the writer by Mr. A. N. Caudell, United States National Museum, are H'urycotis 1See Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington, 3:148. 1894, PARADISE KEY—SAFFORD. 897 floridana (pl. 45, fig. 6), a large roach; Gonatista grisea (pl. 44, fig. 6), a mantis resembling the “ praying mantis” of southern Europe in form, but differing from it in color, and distinct from it generically ; a walking stick, Thesprotia graminis; and several grasshoppers, or locusts, including Romalea microptera (pl. 44, fig. 10, and pl. 45, fig. 4), remarkable for its great size and gaudy colors. In addition te these may be mentioned a katydid, Scudderia texensis (pl. 44, fig. 9) and a cricket, Gryllus assimilis (pl. 44, figs. 1 and 2). A large specimen of the above-named roach was observed on the lodge veranda in the process of molting. Motionless, head down- ward, holding on to the side of the house by its six feet, its shell proceeded to split and an exact replica of the insect gradually emerged from it, but it was pure white except its two Fis. 19.—NewLy Mourep i 2 Hurycotis floridana, little black eyes, which were almost concealed jyoy> 70 pnyour ITs by the anterior edge of its shieldlike thorax, C4st-orr rxosKuLEron, At first it was soft and helpless, but it soon Cee showed signs of life, and turning about (see fig. 19) it preceeded to devour its cast-off shell, even to the tips of the antenne and the rigid, spiny, chitinized legs; so that there was not a vestige left of its old exoskeleton. This species, the only representative of the genus Eurycotis in the United States, is confined to Florida and Georgia. It has rudimentary wings and is incapable of flight. Its food con- sists of all kinds of organic substances, includ- ing textile fabrics and paper. Its only defense is a volatile, ill-smelling substance which i exudes from beneath the abdomen: Gonatista grisea, the common mantis of the park, presents an admirable example of camou- flage; for its lichenlike mottled grayish colora- tion renders it almost invisible as it stations bah ahhh lla itself motionless on a branch or stem in wait MANTIS, Gonatista gri- for its insect prey. A specimen of its peculiar Sap ey AS cA e8S Case; Or ootheca, sent to the writer by the Mosme. Har nar, Park warden, is shown in figure 20. It is al- BIZn. most identical in form and structure to that of its European cousin, the life history of which is even more terrible than that of the spiders; for instead of one husband, this lady Bluebeard is capable of devouring seven husbands in succes- sion. In this connection the reader is referred to the great work of Fabre, who apropos of the mantids exclaims: “Ah! les féroces 398 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. bétes! On dit que les loups ne se mangent pas entre eux. La Mante n’a pas ce scrupule.” The details of her conduct as related by him are too horrible for translation.* The Phasmidae, to which the walking sticks belong, are all wing- less insects which mimic different kinds of twigs. They are slow and deliberate in their movements; they also are camoufleurs, zely- ing for protection upon their deceptive resemblance and in some cases they emit an offensive repugnatorial spray. Unlike the man- tids, they are exclusively herbivorous.? Romalea microptera, the giant grasshopper already mentioned, is dimorphic in coloration. In the normal form the fore wings are bright orange dotted with black and the hind wings crimson or rose colored with a black border. The general color of the other form is black or blackish. The female of this species is shown on plate 45, figure 4, and the smaller-sized male on plate 44, figure 10. Mr. Cau- dell has described the means by which these insects produce their peculiar simmering noise, which he traces to certain spiracles on the side of the thorax.® BEETLES AND THEIR ALLIES. Among the most interesting Coleoptera of Paradise Key identified by the venerable entomologist, Mr. E. A. Schwarz, of the United States National Museum, are Rhynchophorus cruentatus (pl. 45, fig. 5), a large, black, weevil with two broad, dark red stripes on its thorax, and decurved snout (which gives to the genus its name), and antenne jointed like elbows and terminating in broad knobs. It is allied to the genus Calandra and breeds in freshly cut or broken palmettos. The adult insect uses its snout not only for feeding but also for boring holes, into which it deposits its eggs. The larve— fleshy, footless grubs, with tubercules instead of legs, and thick, horny, curved jaws—burrow through the freshly cut stumps and when about to transform to the pupa stage they envelop themselves in a cocoon of twisted fibers. This species, which has hitherto been recorded but from few localities in the United States, was collected in the Royal Palm State Park on May 14, 1916, by Mr. T. E. Snyder, of the Office of Forest Insects. Sharply contrasting with the above is the remarkably slender little weevil, Brenthus anchorago (pl. 45, fig. 7). It has a smoothly pol- ished, jet black head and thorax, and its wing cases, as seen under the lens, are marked with deep parallel furrows composed of minute punctures and ornamented with two longitudinal lines of straw color. 1See Fabre, J. H., Moeurs des Insectes; morceaux choisis extraits des Sowvenirs en- tomologiques, pp. 65-70. 2 See Caudell, A. N., Proc. U. S. National Museum, 26: 863. 1903. 8 See Caudell, A. N., Proc. U. 8S. National Museum, 26: 796. 1903. PARADISE KEY—SAFFORD. “ 399 This species has an almost straight, slender snout, and its antennz are not elbowed like those of the Rynchophorus, but moniliform, like a necklace composed of many beads. Its life history has not been studied, but in a closely allied genus the females puncture the bark of an oak and deposit their eggs. The larva, a cylindrical grub, with three pairs of legs and an anal prop leg, bores into the solid wood. Other Coleoptera collected in the park are a predatory tiger beetle, Cicindela tortuosa, dark colored above and metallic beneath; a water scavenger, Philhydrus nebulosus; a large click beetle, Alaus oculatus, which has the habit of springing up suddenly when laid down on its back; Buprestis lineata, whose grubs are known as hammer-heads or flat-headed borers; Calopteron reticulatum, with broad yellow and black bands; several lamellicorns (Scarabaeidae), including Phileu- rus truncatus, Phileurus valgus, the yellowish brown vine chafer, Pelidnota punctata; Anomala marginata Fabr., which, like the pre- ceding, feeds on the leaves of wild grapes; the handsome, green Luphoria limbalis; and Trichius delta, easily distinguished by a delta-shaped spot on its back; several longicorns (Cerambycidae), including the twig girdler, Oncideres cingulata, the gumbolimbo borer, Mallodon dasystomus (determined by F. C. Craighead), and the very rare Euryscelis suturalis. — In addition to the above-mentioned species the collection includes several small leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae), several weevils infesting palmetto seeds, Calandrids injurious to maize and other grasses; and a number of minute bark beetles (Yyleborus spp.) belonging to the Scolytide, which have been described by Dr. Andrew D. Hopkins of the Office of Forest Insects. To speak of them in detail is beyond the scope of the present paper. MOTHS AND BUTTERFLIES. The most attractive insects of the Royal Palm State Park are un- doubtedly the Lepidoptera. For the identification of those in his collection the writer is indebted to Dr. H. G. Dyar and Mr. Carl Heinrich, of the Bureau of Entomology. The order to which they belong takes its name, Lepidoptera, from the minute scales which cover the wings and give them their varied and beautiful color patterns. On plate 26 is shown one of these scales from the wing of a Papilio, or swallowtail butterfly, magnified 750 diameters; and on figure 21 the arrangement of these scales on a butterfly’s wing, overlapping one another like shingles or tiles. MOTHS. The rarest and most interesting moth collected on Paradise Key is the West Indian Perigonia lusca interrupta Walker (pl. 47, fig. 1), 400 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. a variety of what may be called in English the “ purblind hawk- moth.” It is of a reddish brown color, with the hind wings banded with a deep orange. Like many other Sphingidee it feeds upon the nectar of flowers, about which it hovers hike a humming bird, and thrusting its long proboscis far down into their corolla tubes. Among the day-flying wasp-moths are the Syntomeida ipomoeae Harris, which frequents morning-glories, a handsome species with orange-and-black banded abdo- men and black wings spotted with white (pl. 44, fig. 5); and the closely allied polka-dot wasp-moth, Syniomeida epilais Walker (pl. 44, fig. 4), with the abdomen tipped with bright orange-red and with black wings and thorax spotted with white. Another wasp- moth of the park is the little Didasys belae Fig. 21.—ScaLes ON THE . wine or A poarenix, 1 Grote. |(ply 4%, efiges4); with, orange=tutted Papilio sp., 90 TIMES abdomen and transparent windows in its NAT. SIZE. : , a sa 5 . dainty wings. This exquisite insect is essen- tially Floridian, and is the only species referred to the genus Didasys. Of much wider distribution is the beautiful little tiger moth, most appropriately named by Linneus Uthetheisa bella (pl. 47, fig. 5). It has rose-colored hind wings bordered with black and orange red fore wings crossed by white bands dotted with black. Another in- teresting moth, belonging to the Noctuids, which fly by night, is Xanthopastis timais Cramer (pl. 45, figs. 1 and 2), the fore wings of which are a delicate rose color mottled with black and yellow, the hind wings of a silky mouse color, the thorax densely covered with erect black fur, the hairs of which as seen under the lens terminate in minute white club-shaped tips, and the abdomen clothed with black hairs. Its gaily banded larve, according to Doctor Dyar, feed upon “a species of lily.” Specimens were collected by Mr. Thomas E. Snyder on Fic. 22.—Case or Loa Paradise Key where the adult insects have the ee ip ry ie on peculiar habit of resting during the daytime wictrss FEMALE on the trunks of royal palms, usually high above — fips AO Eee, the tops of the other trees of the hammock. They are most abundant below the bushy fruitmg spadices of the palms, and from a distance look like dark specks against the smooth, whitish, columnar trunks. Last of all must be mentioned little “log-cabin worm,” Ozketicus abboti Grote, which constructs a case of sticks like a miniature crib (fig. 22). It is an obscurely colored little moth, related to our com- PARADISE KEY—SAFFORD. 401 mon bagworm (TVheridopteryx ephemeraeformis). The larve are sheathed in these little baskets, and the female, who is wingless throughout her life, never emerges, but deposits her eggs in the larval skin which lines the basket in which she has developed. BUTTERFLIES. Three of the butterflies of Royal Palm State Park may be desig- nated the regal group: the “ monarch,” Anosia plexippus L. (pl. 48, fig. 2) ; the “queen,” Anosia berenice Cramer (pl. 48, fig. 1) ; and the viceroy of Florida, Basilarchia floridensis Streck. (PI. 48, fig. 3.) Of these the first two are closely related, but the last belongs to a distinct genus, though resembling in general appearance the monarch. Both the monarch and the queen are said to be avoided by birds, pre- dacious insects, and other insectivorous animals on account of the ill- tasting, acrid, juices secreted by them, and it is believed by many naturalists that the viceroy iniitates its royal companions, or rather has gradually become modified so as to resemble them, owing to the protection which this resemblance assures it. The male of the mon- arch is distinguished from the female by a black scent pouch on each of the hind wings. It feeds upon milkweeds (Asclepiadaceae) and is widely distributed over the globe. The Florida viceroy resembles the more northerly Basilarchia archippus, but is darker colored and somewhat larger than that species. Its caterpillar, which has promi- nent tubercules on the back, is found upon willows (Salix amphibia). ZEBRA BUTTERFLY. The most interesting and foreign-looking of all the butterflies in the park is the yellow and black banded Heliconius charitonius L. (pl. 47, fig. 2), belonging to a tropical family, of which it is the only representative in the United States. Special attention has been called to this group by the naturalists, Alfred Russel Wallace and Thomas Belt, in connection with the phenomenon of mimicry. The Heliconii are said to be avoided by insect-eating birds and other ani- mals, They are protected, according to Wallace, by their unpleasant, strong, pungent taste. Belt noticed that certain other butterflies of a distinct family, and even certain species of moths resembling them very closely, shared their immunity from attack. In “The Natural- ist in Nicaragua” he calls attention to this fact. He tells how he watched certain insectivorous birds feed their young with various kinds of insects including butterflies, but never in a single instance did he see them bring a Heliconius to their nest, though Heliconii were abundant in the locality where the observations were made. He tried to feed Heliconii to a captive monkey, who greedily ate beetles 402 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. and other butterflies, but the monkey could not be induced to eat them. When a Heliconius was given him the monkey would take it politely and sometimes smell it, but he would invariably drop it after holding it in his hand for a few minutes! The butterflies and moths resembling them were also avoided; and the same was true of certain harmless insects resembling species provided with stings. The caterpillar of the Zebra butterfly feeds on the little passion flower (Passiflora suberosa), which is quite common in the park. It is interesting to note that both the butterfly and this host plant oc- cur in Cuba and the Lesser Antilles. In Florida the species ranges from the region of Indian River and the headwaters of the St. Johns to Cape Sable. It also occurs in Mexico and ranges southward through the lowlands of Central America. THE METAL-MARKS, Calephelis caenius L.., the “little metal-mark,” is a very small butterfly belonging to the family Lemoniidae, and the subfamily Erycininae. It is of a reddish brown color en the upper side, brighter red on the under side. On both the upper and the under sides the wings are profusely spotted with small steely blue metallic markings, arranged in more or less transverse series, especially on the outer margin. Expanse, 0.75 inch. Its life history is unknown. This species is common in Florida, and ranges thence northward to Virginia and westward to Texas.? ZAMIA BUTTERFLY. The remarkable little “coontie” butterfly of the pinelands, Zw- maeus atala Poey (pl. 45, fig. 8), belongs to the family which in- cludes the little “ blues” (Lycaenidae), but it is larger than most of its members. On Paradise Key it is only an occasional visitor, but it occurs on Palma-vista, in the northeast corner of the park, where its food plant, Zamia floridana, grows.* According to Holland its early stages await description, but Mr. E. A. Schwarz, of the United States National Museum, has given an account of its life history with excellent illustrations. The butterfly, which also occurs in Cuba, is conspicuous, not only on account of its coloration, but also for its abundance. The larva is of a brilliant red color, with tufted protuberances on every segment. The butterfly lays its cream-col- ored eggs, resembling microscopic, depressed, spineless sea-urchin shells, on the under side of the leaflets and along the midrib, or rachis of the leaves while they are still young and tender. In about 1See Belt, Thomas, The Naturalist in Nicaragua, p. 316. 1874. 2See Holland, The Butterfly Book, p. 232, pl. 28, fig. 16. 1898. 3 See illustrations of this plant, pls. 31 and 32. ; PARADISE KEY—SAFFORD. 403 10 days the eggs hatch. Two weeks later the larve are full grown and assume the pupa state, which lasts 9 or 10 days before the per- fect insect emerges.’ On plate 45, figure 9, is shown the closely allied Humaeus minyas, which ranges from Texas to Brazil, and which in all probability passes its early stages on Cycadaceous plants related to Zamia. THE NYMPHS. Among the other butterflies of the park belonging to the subfamily Nymphalinae (which includes the Basilarchia described above) are the passion flower fritillary, Dione (Agraulis vanillae) L. (pl. 49, fig. 1), tawny and black above, with a few white dots, and beautifully spotted beneath with silver; the handsome peacock butterfly, or “buckeye,” Junonia coenia Hiibner (pl. 47, fig. 7), which is said to be very pugnacious toward other species; the white peacock, A nartia jatrophae L. (pl. 47, fig. 6), a faded-looking tropical species whose early stages have not yet been described; the dingy peacock, E'unica tatila (pl. 47, fig. 3), a dark-colored butterfly, with white spots and metallic, blue reflections on the upper surface of the wings and rows of many little eyes dimly visible on the under surface; and the portia, Anaea (Pyrrhanaea) portia Fabr. (pl. 49, fig. 3), a handsome species essentially tropical in its distribution, of a rich garnet color above and laved with yellow on the under surface of its fore wings. THE SULPHURS, Those found in the park include the cloudless sulphur, Catopsilia eubule L. (pl. 49, fig. 2 and fig. 5), the large orange sulphur, Catop- silia agarithe maxima Neum. (pl. 49, fig. 4), which pass their early stages on cassia plants, and the little cassia sulphur, Zwrema (Ter- zas) euterpe Menetries (pl. 50, fig. 3). In addition to these may be mentioned the “ Florida white,” Zachyris tlaire Godart, the male of which has the hind wings on the under side of a very pale saffron color. SWALLOW TAILS. Among the swallowtails of the park is the magnificent Papilio cresphonates Cramer (pl. 50, fig. 2), the larva of which is usually called “orange-puppy” from its habit of feeding on citrus trees. Here it is found on the native wild lime, Zanthorylum Fagara, a shrub or small tree botanically allied to Citrus, which has its foliage dotted with minute aromatic oil glands. The butterfly has brown wings banded with bright yellow, and closely resembles Papilio 1See Schwarz, H. A., Notes on Humaeus atala, insect Life, vol. 1, pp. 37-40. 1888. 404 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. thoas of southern Texas. In southern Florida great damage is some- times done to the orange groves by the caterpillar. Another beauti- ful swallowtail is Papilio palamedes Drury (pl. 50, fig. 4), which in its early stages feeds on the leaves of various bay trees; not only on those of the swamp bay (Zamala pubescens) , belonging to the Laurel family, but also on the foliage of the sweet bay (Magnolia glauca), which belongs to a very distinct family, but is aromatically fragrant like the laurels, or true bays. Among the more sober-colored butterflies of the park are two so- called skippers, Pamphila ocola (Prenes ocola, Edwards), the life history of which has not been studied, and the swallow-tailed H'uda- mus proteus L. (pl. 50, fig. 1), the caterpillar of which feeds upon leguminose and makes a rude nest for itself by drawing the edges of leaves together with strands of sill after having cut slits in them. By the farmers it is appropriately called the bean leaf roller, and is regarded as a pest. ANTS, WASPS, AND BEES. The hymenoptera of Paradise Key were kindly identified for the writer by Mr. J. C. Crawford and Mr. 8. A. Rohwer, of the United States National Museum, and Mr. H. L. Viereck, of the United States Biological Survey. Several of the most remarkable species are shown on plate 51. ANTS. The carpenter ant, Camponotus (Myrmothrix) abdominalis, rep- resented in Paradise Key by the subspecies floridanus (pl. 51, fig. 2), must have come into Florida from the West Indies.1_ Like its nearest relatives, this ant makes tunnels or galleries in dead wood, and, lke other true Formicide, its colonies consist of several distinct forms or castes; in addition to males, females, and workers, a large-headed caste usually called soldiers. As in the termites, females and males are winged, while the workers and soldiers are wingless. Comstock, who has studied the habits of the closely allied carpenter ant (Campo- notus pennsylvanicus) of the eastern United States, describes the nuptial flight of the males and females. Very soon after the honey- moon the male dies; and the pregnant female, tearing off her own wings, for which she has no further use, proceeds to form a new colony very much after the manner of the bumblebees and social wasps. On many occasions Comstock found a female carpenter ant in a small cleared space beneath the bark of a dead tree or log, either alone or accompanied by eggs, larvee, or small workers. Usually the females are styled “queens,” but this name is hardly applicable to 1 Wheeler, W. M., Ants, Their Structure, Development, and Behavior, p. 151. PARADISE KEY—SAFFORD. 405 those of ants. They are simply the mothers of their colonies. Sev- eral of them may live together in perfect harmony, unlike the jealous queen bee, who suffers no rival to her throne. But, if not really a queen, the mother ant is treated with queenly consideration by her chil- dren, who feed her, care for her eggs as soon as she lays them, and administer to all her wants.1 In addition to the species just described is a form of the widely spread Camponotus macu- latus, which occurs on every continent and many islands and is divided into a number of well-marked varieties, or subspecies; a small stinging ant (Pseudomyrma gracilis?) closely allied to tropical American species inhabiting the hollow thorns of bull-horn Acacias; and the *"® Ea Sh eect ag tiny, yellowish “ Pharaoh’s ant ” (fonomorium — ovren 1Nvavep BY Par. pharaonis) which is so often a pest on board 4S!TIC¢ JEWEL WASPS, . c Chrysis spp. HALF NAT. ship as well as in houses. an POTTER WASPS AND JEWEL WASPS. On the framework of the lodge veranda, outside the copper gauze, there were a number of little wasp nests resembling miniature ollas, or earthenware decanters. These were the work of a slender-waisted, black and yellow insect belonging to the genus Eumenes. Some of the nests were grouped in Ss vertical rows (fig. 23), while cthers were soli- tary, closely resembling similar nests found on the stems of marsh plants in the adjoining Everglades (pl. 51, fig. 11). On opening some of the little ollas the remains of insect larvee with which they had been stored were found, but ac- Fig. 24.—POTTER WASP, : . Eumenes sp., wuich Companying these, instead of a baby Kumenes,a BUILDS ITs NESTS ON beautiful, little, jewellike wasp (Chrysis sp.) THE VERANDA OF THH . “+W41° Park Lopes. From Was found; in some cases of a brilliant sap- SPECIMEN COLLECTED BY hire luster, in others an emerald green (pl. C. A. Mosier. NAT. =) . : 3 He 51, fig. 12). Specimens of these little insects Zh. >) caught near the nests, immediately rolled them- selves up like miniature armadillos. Under the lens their brillant surface was found to be minutely and regularly pitted, each concave pit reflecting a brightly colored light, causing the insect to shine with exquisite luster. On plate 52 three specimens from Paradise Key are shown, enlarged 6 diameters. One of them is rolled up for defense as described. The abdomen is somewhat concave on the under side, 1See Comstock, J. H., Manual for the Study of Insects, 7th ed., pp. 634-636. 1997. 65133°—smM 1917. 27 406 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. and is bent under the thorax when the insect rolls itself up. In its parasitic habits it resembles the ichneumons. On discovering the nest of a potter wasp it waits until the potter (fig. 24) is absent; then the little rascal, not caring to make a nest of its own, deposits its egg in the potter’s nest. Sometimes it is surprised in the act, and the indignant potter attacks it, but it rolls itself up into a ball, rely- ing upon its metallic armor for protection, and the only damage it can suffer is the loss of its projecting wings. St. Fargeau observed a bee, who had surprised one of these little robbers flagrante delicto, bite off its four wings; but she did not thereby save her young, for as soon as she was gone the wingless Chrysis crawled into the nest and deposited its eggs. It is on account of this habit that the chrys- ids are called cuckoo flies. The Germans call them goldwespen gold wasps), for some of the European species have a golden luster. To the writer the name “jewel wasps” seems most appropriate. At least two species were collected in Royal Palm State Park, one belonging to the section Tet- rachrysis, and the other, identified by Mr. 8. A. Fic. 25-—Sonrrary wasr, Rohwer as Chrysis parvula (pl. 51, fig. 13), Odynerus quadrisectus, belonging to the section Trichrysis. On being > CELLS in canng Suown one of the clay nests above described, AnD wHottow ruses. Mr. John Peabody Harrington of the Bureau oe of American Ethnology at once recognized its resemblance in form to certain vessels of earthenware used by the Diegueno Indians of southern California as receptacles for the ashes of their cremated dead. OTHER PARASITIC WASPS. Closely allied to the potter wasps, but somewhat less elegant in form, are the solitary wasps of the genus Odynerus, which construct cells of mud in tubular cavities and store them with small cater- pillars for their own larve to feed upon. On the island of Guam a certain species of this genus was very abundant, filling with its cells empty cartridge cases, rolled-up magazines or newspapers left lying about, the hollow internodes of bamboos, and even gun barrels. In each cell examined the writer found a small, green caterpillar, which had been stupefied but not killed by the insect’s sting. The larvee of the Odynerus in eating their animal food are much more active than those of pollen-feeding insects, continuing to turn their heads from side to side and living for some time after having been taken from their cells.t_ One of the species collected on Paradise Key was identified by Rohwer as Odyncrus quadrisectus (fig. 25), a 1See Safford, W. E., The Useful Plants of the Island of Guam. Contr, from the National Herbarium, 9:92. 1905. PARADISE KEY—SAFFORD. 407 pretty insect, somewhat like a yellowjacket, marked with four trans- verse yellow bands. Campsomeris quadrimaculatus, the largest wasp of the park (pl. 51, fig. 7), takes its name from four bright yellow spots on its abdo- men. This insect makes no nest, but burrows in the earth in search of grubs of beetles and other larve, in which it deposits its eggs. Contrasting with it in size is a square-headed little solitary wasp, Hypocrabo decemmaculatus (pl. 51, fig. 8), which stores its cells with small insects. Smaller than this are Pristaulacus floridanus (pl. 51, fig. 5), belonging to the ensign flies (Evaniidae), and a cer- tain unidentified Braconid belonging to the genus Heterospilus, many individuals of which were found in the burrow of a borer. HORNETS AND MUD DAUBERS. A collection of Hymenoptera received from Mr. C. A. Mosier in March, 1918, included several hornets, mud daubers, and solitary wasps, kindly determined for the writer by Mr. H. L. Viereck. Among the hornets, or social wasps, were Polistes rubiginosus, of a reddish-brown color, which constructs unprotected nests resembling honeycomb in sheltered places, and Polistes annularis, somewhat smaller and darker colored, which ranges as far north as New Jersey. Among the mud daubers were Scelephron cementarius, a widely dis- tributed species with very slender-pediceled abdomen, and legs va- riegated with yellow; the dark, steel-blue Chalybion coeruleum; the “thread waist” mud wasp, Sphex vulgaris, with the upper part of the abdomen adjoining the threadlike pedicel orange-colored; and the little slender 7rypoxylon collinum, devoid of yellow bands on the abdomen, many of whose close allies store their cells with small spiders or insects. In addition to these there was a rare little soli- tary wasp, Zethus (Didymogastra) poeyi, with its abdomen sepa- rated from the thorax by a fusiform or pear-shaped peduncle, and with narrow wings directed backward but not overlapping. BEES AND THEIR ALLIES. Among the bees collected on Paradise Key the following have been identified by Mr. Crawford: Bombus pennsylvanicus, a widely spread bumblebee (pl. 51, figs. 8, 9, 10); Xylocopa micans Fabr., a car- penter bee, which excavates galleries in dry wood (pl. 51, fig. 1) ; several leaf cutters, including the rare Megachile pollicaris Say (pl. 51, fig. 4) ; a parasitic cuckoo bee (Coelioxys) ; and a metallic, green jewel bee (Augochlora) which digs burrows in the ground. Perhaps the most interesting of all these are the leaf cutters be- longing to the genus Megachile (pl. 51, fig. 4). These are the in- sects which cut circular disks from leaves with which to line their 408 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. nests. Some of them are carpenters as well as leaf cutters, and exca- rate tunnels in wood before cutting the disks. The lined tube, usually rounded at the bottom, is partially filled with a paste of pol- len and nectar, upon which the egg is deposited and the hole is then stopped up with circular leaf disks a little greater in diameter than the tube itself.1 Like the provident potter wasps the leaf cutter bees also have their enemies; the nests so carefully prepared for their tender offspring are infested by cuckoo bees, belonging to the genus Coelioxys. This genus is represented in the author’s collection by three specimens of Coeliovys dolichos Fox (pl. 51, fig. 6), collected on Paradise Key by Mr. Mosier. FLIES. The Diptera of Paradise Key include many groups zoologically related but with very diverse habits: mosquitoes; horseflies and deer flies, which not only attack animals but which even pursue automo- biles for miles; robber flies, which catch their insect prey on the wing; flower flies, which feed on nectar and pollen; parasitic tachina flies, which lay their eggs on living insects; and carrion-eating flesh flies, MOSQUITOES, Acdes niger, the most common mosquito in the vicinity of the park is congeneric with the yellow-fever mosquito (Aedes calopus), but it has never been known to communicate a malignant disease. Its bite, though painful, is not nearly so severe as that of certain other species, and is not followed by unpleasant consequences. Volatile aromatic oils rubbed on the face, neck, and other exposed parts yield temporary protection from their attacks, and campers resort to the use of smudges for smoking them out of their tents.2, The writer has already referred to the part played by dragon flies in the destruction of mosquitoes. Their aquatic larve furnish food for young fishes. Some of the species undoubtedly deposit their eggs in the water reservoirs of the epipthytic Bromeliads already described. A popular account of the mosquitoes of Florida was published by Dr. Hiram Byrd, of the Florida State Board of Health, in the Medi- cal News, June 10, 1905. Among the mosquitoes from Royal Palm State Park determined by Doctor Dyar are Wyeomyia antoinetta, W. mitchelli, Culex simi- lis, C. peccator, Psorophora posticatus, P. floridensis, Aedes niger, already mentioned, A. infirmatus, A. sollicitans, Anopheles quadrt- maculatus, and A. crucians. 1See Comstock, Manual for the Study of Insects, 7th ed., pp. 667-668. 1907. 2See Howard, L. O., U. 8S. Department of Agr. Farmers’ Bull. 444. 1915. PARADISE KEY—SAFFORD. 409 For a systematic treatment of the group the reader is referred to the monumental work of Howard, Dyar, and Knab, “ Monograph of the Mosquitoes of North and Central America and the West Indies,” published by the Carnegie Institution of Washington. 1912 to 1917. HORSEFLIES AND DEER FLIES. While sitting on the lodge veranda our attention was frequently attracted by passing teams, the horses of which were attended by boys whose business it was to protect them from the attacks of insects; from mosquitoes, I at first thought, but from horseflies, I was told by Mr. Mosier. These flies are very annoying in southern Florida, not only to horses and other animals but to human beings as well. The largest of them all, a magnificent emerald-eyed insect, called by the Seminole Indians chélloc-o-dono, is Tabanus americanus (pl. 45, fig. 3), the interesting nupital flight of which has been re- cently described by Mr. Thomas E. Snyder, of the Office of Forest Entomology, United States Department of Agriculture.t Among the other horseflies collected on Paradise Key by Mr. Snyder were Zabanus trijunctus Walker (pl. 53, fig. 2), 7’. melano- cerus Wied., and 7’. lineola Fabr. Mr. Snyder found 7. trijunctus very common from Hobe Sound to Paradise Key, often flying after automobiles and railway trains; so annoying is it to painters and other workmen that they have to protect themselves from it by means of portable smudges. Of 7. lineola he says that it is such a pest in some localities that horses and mules have to be protected from it by gunny sacking with holes cut for the eyes. Thus gro- tesquely clothed they suggest the mounts of the Ku-Klux Klan. Among the deer flies, belonging to the genus Chrysops, much smaller and more brightly colored than the horseflies, but equally blood-. thirsty, were two species, Chrysops flavidus (pl. 538, fig. 6) and Chry- sops plangens, both of which are pretty widely distributed in the eastern United States. Their predacious larvee, like those of Ta- banus, live in water, in mud, or under stones, and feed upon water snails and soft-bodied insects. OTHER DIPTERA FROM PARADISE KEY. The soldier fly, Hermatica illucens, shown on plate 53, figure 9, lays its eggs in decaying organic matter. Among the Syrphidae, or flower flies, are the little Ocyptamus fuscipennis (pl. 53, fig. 1), Evristalus vinetorum (pl. 58, fig. 4), Bristalus albifrons, and Meromacrus acutus. These insects, called “ hover flies” by the English, from their habit of hovering over flowers, feed on nectar and pollen. The larve 1See Snyder, Thomas E., Notes on horseflies as a pest in southern Florida. Proc. En- tomological Soc. of Wash., 18:208. 1916. 410 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. of some of the species have a long, caudal appendage and are hence called “rat-tailed maggots.” One peculiar larva collected by Mr. Mosier, the park warden, was referred to the genus Microdon by Mr. C. T. Greene, who says that it differs from all allied larve in the collections of the Museum in the peculiar form of its spiracles. The wasplike Midas fly, Ifydas clavatus (pl. 53, fig. 5), which has a golden band across its abdomen, takes its generic name from the Phrygian king Midas, concerning whom the legend relates that everything he touched was transformed to gold. Like the robber flies (Asilidae) it catches and devours other flying insects. Its larva is also carnivorous, subsisting mainly on the grubs of beetles. Archytas hystrix (pl. 58, fig. 8) is a stout tachina fly, somewhat resembling a bluebottle, but with a glossy brown body set with short stiff hairs. It lays its eggs on living insects, principally on caterpil- lars. Last of all may be mentioned the terrible little screw-worm fly, Chrysomyia macellaria (pl. 58, fig. 7), with a reddish brown face, a steel blue thorax, and a short, broad, black abdomen, which lays its eggs in wounds, or in the nostrils of living animals. It has even been known to deposit its eggs in the nostrils of human beings sleep- ing out of doors, but this is a rare occurrence. The eggs soon hatch, and the larvee, called “screw worms,” eat away the flesh of the inner nose and pharynx, causing intense pain and sometimes death. This little fly causes little trouble in the Southeastern States, but in the Southwest it is a serious pest, infesting cattle, hogs, and other domestic animals. Some times it lays its eggs in the navels of new-born calves. FISHES. The Everglade fishes in the vicinity of Royal Palm State Park have never been systematically collected. The highway from the park to Cape Sable now under construction has a canal bordering it, formed by the removal of material for the roadbed. The digging is accomplished by a dredge, the parts of which were brought from Miami on trucks and assembled in the canal. This canal is already well stocked with fishes which can be easily observed from the road. The fish fauna should be studied before the canal reaches the ocean; for many marine fishes will undoubtedly make their way up the canal and will destroy existing conditions, which may possibly lead to the destruction of some of the existing species. Among them are the alligator gar and mudfish, allied to the ancient ganoids; a bull- head catfish; three or four minnows, or shiners (Cyprinidae) ; rare Everglade killifishes, some of which bring forth their young alive; sunfishes, or so-called breams; and the widely distributed, big-mouth bass, or “trout.” 1See Farmers’ Bull., p. 857, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1917. PARADISE KEY—SAFFORD. 411. THE ALLIGATOR GAR, LEPISOSTEUS TRISTOECHUS. This is a voracious fish remarkable for its armor plating of enam- eled rhomboid scales. The accompanying illustration (fig. 26) was made from a field sketch by Master Stewart Loveland, of Home- stead, of a specimen 25 inches long, weighing 3 pounds, speared by him near Paradise Key. This species sometimes reaches enormous dimensions. A specimen in the State Museum at Springfield, Illi- nois, is 7 feet 2 inches long. It is widely distributed in streams flow- ing into the Gulf of Mexico, and also occurs in the fresh waters of Cuba. Many stories have been told of its ferocious nature and un- canny habits; it takes the place of the predacious sharks in the fresh waters of our country. Although it does not rank high as a food fish, it is sold in the markets of Tampico, Mexico, and other Gulf ports. The family to which the alligator gar belongs (Lepisosteidae) is essentially American, like the mudfish (Amia) to be described be- ee AT LO LT Le ay wae OO ay 7 a a ay Oy a a gS FTF LE A LLF LF Ea LLL LLL 2 a a Fig. 26.—ALLIGATOR GAR, Lepisosteus tristoechus, FROM A FIELD SKETCH BY STEWART LOVELAND OF SPECIMEN SPEARED BY HIM NEAR PARADISE Kuby. ONE-SIXTH NAT. SIZE. low. Fossil species of the genus, however, are found in the Eocene of Europe as well as in that of America. THE MUDFISH, OR DOGFISH, AMIA CALVA. This species is found in swamps, lakes, and rivers bordering the Gulf of Mexico, extending up the Mississippi and its tributaries as far north as the Great Lake region. It is especially abundant in swamps and sluggish waters abounding in aquatic vegetation, prefer- ring rather shallow water, and feeding principally at night. Gamy and voracious, it is “one of the hardest fighters that ever took the hook.” It frequently comes to the surface to breathe, especially in stagnant water; and can be kept in a rain barrel for a long time without change of water. It is said to survive periods of drought by burying itself in the mud. The male builds the nest and guards it after the eggs are laid; he is a good father, even accompanying and protecting the schools of young after they leave the nest. It is not highly esteemed for food, but is often eaten in the South. The mudfish is chiefly interesting on account of its close resemblance to ancient types of ganoid fishes. It is the only surviving relative 412 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. of a once large family represented by numerous fossils from the Jurassic of France and Bavaria and the Eocene of Europe and North America. OTHER FISHES OF THE EVERGLADES. The catfish caught in the slough near Paradise Key is in all prob- ability Ameiurus nebulosus, a species which has been collected in Little River, a short distance north of Miami. Among the Cyprin- idae are the golden shiner, Abramis roseus, a tiny species, only 24 inches long when fully grown, which takes its name from the rosy color of the fins, iris, and snout of the male. Among the killifishes (Poeciliidae) of southern Florida, which are to be expected from the vicinity of Royal Palm State Park, are several species of Fundulus, some of which do not exceed 2 inches in length when fully grown; the viviparous “top minnow,” Gambusia affints, which lives mostly on surface insects; the “least fish,” Heterandria formosa, abundant in swamps and ditches near Miami and Little River, the adult female of which is only an inch long, and the male three-quarters of an inch; Jordanella floridae, also common in the swamps of Florida; and perhaps Mollienisia ongipinna, the male of which is remarkable for his handsome dorsal fin. Among the sunfishes (Centrarchidae) which certainly occur in the Royal Palm State Park, are the so- called blue bream, or bluegill, Lepomis incisor (Lepomis pallidus Jordan), and Lepomis holbrooki (Hupomotis holbrooki Jord. and Everm.). eS . aa fo =a Fae en? aa Li os Eee. . vad ap avis ‘ ise fe) rae stot 4 i aaa it’ ~ wy, Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE I. Il. VIEW OF PARADISE KEY FROM THE NORTHEAST, DRY SEASON, SHOWING ROYAL PALMS. 2. SAME VIEW AS ABOVE; EVERGLADES FLOODED. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 2 OOLITIC LIMESTONE FROM ROYAL PALM STATE PARK, SHOWING CRUSTACEAN TUBE AND ANNELID CASTS ORIGINALLY FORMED IN CALCAREOUS MuD DEPOSITED IN A SHALLOW SEA. Naturalsize. Photographed from specimens in United States National Museum. ‘oouedog uost\, Aq Ydeis0j0Ng "SLNV1d ‘ ‘ 13Y ATgeSO19 V HO ‘VNSAGV VAVHdWAN) $3117] ONY ‘SQVAHMOYYY ‘SGSSM WYANI!d ‘(SaloadS GSLV sain Dene 4O HLMOYUD 3SN3q V HLIM GaTII4 ‘HYVd ALVLS Wivd IVAOY OL JONVYLNY NYSLSVy SHL Ly HONOTS ‘€ alVid *p4soyyeS—'Z 16 ‘Hodey uvjuosy}yWs Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 4. YELLOW WATER LILIES, OR BONNETS (NYMPHAEA ADVENA). Natural size. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 5. SEDGES FROM ROYAL PALM STATE PARK. (1) Rhynchospora corniculata; (2) Rhynchospora tracyi; (3) Cyperus speciosus; (4) Cyperus haspan, (5) Fuirena breviseta; (6) Dichromena colorata. Naturalsize. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 6. a) GRASSES FROM ROYAL PALM STATE PARK. (1) Manisuris rugosa; (2) Paspalum monostachyum; (3) Panicum virgatum; (4) Panicum condensum; (5) Andropogon cabanisii; (6) Phlewm pratense; (7) Chloris glauca; (8) Panicum nitidum. Natural size. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 7. MARISCUS JAMAICENSIS (CLADIUM EFFUSUM TORR.), THE DREADED “‘SAW GRASS’’ OF THE EVERGLADES. Natural size. PLATE 8. Safford. Smithsonian Report, 1917. 1 Sn een 2 Se = cio ene entyon cocoa nese Sen ee a a em AL ITE rr a ET ei a ee ees p SE Sage eee Seca ae a << : SSS ~ aaa edie LEAVES OF SAW GRASS (MARISCUS JAMAICENSIS) ENLARGED SO AS TO SHOW CUTTING TEETH OF MARGINS AND KEEL. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 9. ALLIGATOR APPLE (ANNONA GLABRA). Very abundant on Everglade Keys. Its remarkably light wood is used for corks and for floats of fishing nets. Natural size. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 10. BACCHARIS GLOMERULIFERA, A SHRUBBY COMPOSITE VERY COMMON IN MARSHES AND THE MARGINS OF EVERGLADE KEYS. The male and the female flowers are borne on separate plants. Natural size. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE II. BUTTON MANGROVE (CONOCARPUS ERECTA), SHOWING CLUSTERS OF FRUIT AND NECTARIES ON EACH SIDE OF THE PETIOLES. Photograph of specimens collected by C. E. Mosier from the neighborhood of Royal Palm State Park. Natural size. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 12. Swamp CYPRESS (TAXODIUM DISTICHUM), SHOWING BUDDING BRANCH AND MATURE FRUIT. Natural size. Smithsonian Report, 1917. Safford. PLATE 1[3. a ROYAL PALM STATE PARK. TENT OF WARDEN NEAR EASTERN ENTRANCE. Photograph by Wilson Popenoe. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 14. SATIN-LEAF (CHRYSOPHYLLUM OLIVAEFORME), SHOWING FLOWERS, FRUIT, AND SATIN LINED LEAVES. Natural size. PLATE 15. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. Roots OF STRANGLING FIG (FICUS AUREA) EMBRACING CABBAGE PALM. Wilson Popenoe. y Photograph b Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 16. ERYTHRINA ARBOREA, USUALLY A SCRAMBLING SHRUB OF MODERATE SIZE BUT HERE GROWING IN THE FORM OF A LIANA. Specimen growing near the eastern entrance to the park. Photograph by Roy D. Goodrich. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE I7. oie aK 5 So as 3 if PISONIA ACULEATA, CALLED COCKSPUR ON ACCOUNT OF ITS SHARP RECURVED SPINES; A PLANT OF WIDE TROPICAL DISTRIBUTION; USUALLY A SCRAMBLING SHRUB. HERE A GIANT LIANA OF THE FOREST. Showing C. E. Mosier, the park warden, at the base of the plant. Photograph by Roy D. Goodrich. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 18. SWAMP BAMBOO-BRIER (SMILAX LAURIFOLIA), SHOWING JOINTED TUBEROUS ROOTSTOCK. The globose elastic seeds were sometimes strung into necklaces by the aboriginal Indians. Natural size. PLATE 19 Smithsonian Report, 1917 — Safford. BREUKER & KESSLER CO. PHILA. ORCHIDS OF PARADISE KEY 20. PLATE AN EPIPHYTE BELONGING TO THE PINE= SPANISH Moss (DENDROPOGON USNEOIDES) KIRTS AND S FOR MAKING S INDIAN USED BY THE ABORIGINAL APPLE FAMILY APRONS. iss. . Jennings Mrs. W.S om Photograph received from Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 2]. TILLANDSIA UTRICULATA, AN AIR-PLANT, OR EPIPHYTE, BELONGING TO THE PINEAPPLE FAMILY. Photographed by Wilson Popenoe. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 22. PHLEBODIUM AUREUM, A FERN GROWING IN THE AXILS OF OLD LEAVES ON THE TRUNKS OF CABBAGE PALMS. PORTION OF A FROND. Natural size. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 23. THE ROYAL FERN (OSMUNDA REGALIS); STERILE AND FRUITING FRONDS. Natural size. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 24. ANEMIA ADIANTIFOLIA (ORNITHOPTERIS ADIANTIFOLIA SW.), STERILE AND FRUITING FRONDS. Natural size. PLATE 25. Safford. Smithsonian Report, 1917. ROYAL PALMS (ROYSTONIA REGIA) OF PARADISE KEY, FROM WHICH ROYAL PALM STATE PARK DERIVES ITS NAME. Photograph by Wilson Popenoe, Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 26. PAUROTIS WRIGHTII (SERENOA ARBORESCENS SARG.), THE TREE SAW PALMETTO. This species forms clumps on the south coast of Florida, but does not occur within the limits of the park. Natural size. PLATE 27. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. moscoen l ie * j i j 1 & Hs HE gee rt cf tH ARMED PETIOLE OF THE TREE SAW PALMETTO (PAUROTIS WRIGHT!1). Compare its fruit with the large date-like fruit ot the dwarf Saw Palmetto, from which it is generically istinct. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 28 FRUIT AND SEEDS OF FLORIDA PALMS. 1, Bird dropping from Paradise Key containing seeds of Thatch Palm (Thrinax), indicating means by which palms may be distributed; 2, Fruit and seeds of Thrinax microcarpa; 3, Same of Royal Palm (Roystonea regia); 4, Date-like fruit of dwarf Saw Palmetto (Serenoa serrulata) eaten by the Indians; 5, Goose neck Palmetto (Sabal etonia); 6, Common Cabbage Palm (Sabal palmetto); 7, Blue-stem Palmetto (Sabal glabra); 8, Silver Palm (Coccothrinaxz argentea). Natural size. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 29. PINUS CARIBAEA, THE ONLY PINE GROWING IN THE VICINITY OF ROYAL PALM STATE PARK. FASCICLED LEAVES; OPEN AND CLOSED CONES. Natural size, Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 30. if; ‘f Ss ites PINE LAND NEAR ROYAL PALM STATE PARK. Beneath the pines (Pinus caribaea) grow the dwarf Saw Palmetto, the Silver Palm, the Cycad, Zamia floridana, a crimson-flowered morning-glory ( Lxrogonium microdactylum) and the Twining Apocynaceous, Echites echites. Photograph by Wilson Popenoe. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 3l. ZAMIA FLORIDANA, AN ENDEMIC CYCAD FROM THE STARCHY ROOT OF WHICH FLORIDA ARROWROOT IS MADE; MALE INFLORESCENCE. Natural size. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 32. ZAMIA FLORIDANA; FEMALE CONE, SHAPED LIKE AN EAR OF MAIZE, BEARING ROWS OF SEEDS I NCLOSED IN SCARLET ARIL AND COVERED BY A VELVETY PERICARP. Natural size. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 33. THORN TWIG, BUMELIA RECLINATA, A PINE-LAND SHRUB BELONGING TO THE SAPOTE FAMILY. Natural size. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 34. DWARF FLORIDA PRIVET, FORESTIERA PINETORUM, AN ENDEMIC PINE-LAND SHRUB OF SOUTHERN FLORIDA. Natural size, Smithsonian Report, 1917 — Safford. Plate 35 TREE SNAILS AND MARSH SNAILS OF PARADISE KEY BREUKER & KESSLER CO. PHILA. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 36 MOLLUSKS OF ROYAL PALM STATE PARK. 1, Tree snails, Liguus fasciatus; 2, Cannibal snail, Glandina truncata; 3, Polygyra septemvolva volvoris; 4, Polygyra ovulifera; 5, Helicina orbiculata clappi; 6, Planorbis duryi; 7, Physa gyraena; 8, Ampullaria depressa; 9, Musculium partumeium. Natural size, Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 387. ee EVERGLADE CRAWFISH (CAMBARUS FALLAX), AN IMPORTANT FOOD-STAPLE OF THE WHITE IBIS AND OTHER MARSH BIRDS. Natural size. Determined by W. L. Schmitt. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 38. SCORPIONS (CENTRURUS GRACILIS) AND WHIP SCORPION (MASTIGOPROCTUS GIGANTEUS) FROM PARADISE KEY. Determined by Dr. Nathan Banks. Slightly enlarged. PLATE 39. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. Door CASING OF SOUND OAK TIMBER RIDDLED BY WHITE ANTS (LEUCOTERMES), SHOWING RUNWAYS COATED WITH EARTH AND EXCRETED WOOD. . Snyder, graph by Thomas E Photo size atural N Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 40. DRAGON FLIES OF ROYAL PALM STATE PARK. 1, Céelithemis eponina; 2, Gynacantha nervosa; 3, Ischnura ramburii; 4, Argiallagma minutum; 5, Libellula auripennis. Natural size. Determined by Bertha P. Currie, Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 4l. SCALE INSECTS, OR COCCIDAE, MARGARODES FORMICARUM, CALLED GROUND-PEARLS FROM THEIR RESEMBLANCE TO OPALESCENT BEADS OF GOLD. Collected alive in black soil in fissure of oolitic limestone near Park Lodge by C. E. Mosier. Natural size. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 42. GROUND-PEARLS, MARGARODES FORMICARUM, FROM PARADISE KEY. Enlarged 6 diameters. Collected by C. E. Mosier. PLATE 43. Safford. Smithsonian Report, 1917. DISCOLORED BY AGE, SURROUNDING FRESHER SPECIMENS OF A GOLDEN COLOR. GROUND-PEARLS, MARGARODES FORMICARUM, STRINGS OF Photograph received Natural size. Howard. UO’ Hubbard in the West Indies. from Dr, 1 Ke iley and H, G R 6 Wc Collected by C Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 44. INSECTS OF PARADISE KEY. 1, House Cricket. (@ryllus assimilis), female; 2, Male of same species; 3, Acrosternum hilaris; 4, Polka-dot Wasp Moth (Syntomeida epilais); 5, Orange-banded Wasp Moth (Syntomeida ipomoeae); 6, Southern Mantis (Gonatista grisea); 7, Leaf-foot Plant Bug (Leptoglossus phyllopus); 8, Big-thigh Plant Bug ( Meta- podius femoratus); 9, Katydid (Scudderia texensis); 10, Grasshopper (Romalea microptera), male. Natural size. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 45. 1, Water-Lil * - “ae “e ee” anata ft Oct we we Cte SOS ae Fitien INSECTS OF PARADISE KEY. moth (Xanthopastis timais); 2, Same with wings folded; 3, Great horsefly (Tabanus americanus); 4, giant grasshopper (Romalea microptera); 5, Palmetto weevil (Rhynchophorus cruen- tatus); 6, Roach (Eurycotis ingens); 7, Gumbo-limbo weevil (Brenthus anchorago); Zamia butterfly (Eumaeus atala); 9, Cycas butterfly (Lumaeus minyas). Natural size. PLATE 46. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. SCALE OF A BUTTERFLY’S WING (PAPILIO SP.) MAGNIFIED 750 DIAMETERS. Photograph by Raymond Thrasher. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 47. MoTHS AND BUTTERFLIES FROM PARADISE KEY. 1, Perigonia lusca interrupta; 2, Heliconius charitonius; 3, Eunica tatila; 4, Didasys belae; 5, Utetheisa bella; 6, Anartia jatrophae; 7, Junonia coenia, Natural size. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 48. REGAL BUTTERFLIES FROM PARADISE KEY. 1, The Queen, A nosia berenice; 2, The Monarch, Anosia plexippus; 3, The Florida Viceroy, Basilarchia jloridensis. Natural size. PLATE 49. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. ¢ ee at ip Megs BUTTERFLIES OF PARADISE KEY. 1, Dione (Agraulis) vanillae; 2, Catopsilia eubule, male; 3, Anae (Pyrrhanea) portia; 4, Catopsilia agarithe maxima; 5, Catopsilia eubule, female. Natural size. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 50. BUTTERFLIES OF PARADISE KEY. 1, Eudamus proteus; 2, Papilio cresphontes; 3, Eurema ( Terias) euterpe; 4, Papilio palamedes. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 5] HYMENOPTERA OF PARADISE KEY. 1, Xylocopa micans; 2, Camponotus abdominalis floridanus; 3, Hypocrabro decemmaculatus; 4, Megachile pollicaris, a leaf-cutter; 5, Pristaulacus floridanus; 6, Cocliorys dolichos, a cuckoo bee; 7, Campsomeris Sea 8, 9, 10, Bombus pennsylvanicus, worker, male, and queen; 11, Nest of potter wasp Eumenes); 12, Jewel wasps (Chrysides) found in potter’s nests; 13, Jewel wasp, Trichrysis parvula. Natural size. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 52. JEWEL WASPS (TRICHRYSIS PARVULA) FOUND IN NESTS OF POTTER WASP (EUMENES), WHICH THEY ENTER TO DEPOSIT THEIR EGGS. The upper one is rolled up like an armadillo for self-protection. Enlarged 6 diameters. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 53. DIPTERA OF PARADISE KEY. 1, Flower fly, Ocyptamus fuscipennis; 2, Horsefly, Tabanus trijunctus; 3, Flower fly, Eristalis transversus; 4, Flower fly, Fristalis vinetorum; 5, Midas fly, Mydas clavatus; 6, Deer fly, Chrysops flavidus; 7, Screw-worm fly, Chrysomia macellaria; 8, Tachina fly, Archytas hystrix; 9, Soldier fly, Hermetia illucens. Natural size. Smithsonian Report, 1917 — Safford. PLATE 54 BREUKER & KESSLER CO. PHILA. ROSEATE SPOONBILL— FAST DISAPPEARING FROM THE EVERGLADES urysn m04 Ture yuel Aq ydeis0j0yg soll eynqt1y $qt I ue Aoye 1ddts STSSTPY eq} jo Spunour [e1mq ur punoyjy O18 S jeqs IeTTuatsg qivo 4 N H | a | *pioyyes—Z16L ‘odey uBluosypWS "GG ALVId ‘OZ1S[VINJCU SPITY}-OM} JNOGy “WMosnjY [PUOTIBN $o4eIg pou UT UouNOeds Jo Ydess00yg ‘VdINO14 NYSHLNOS AO SNVIGN] IVNIDINOSY Ad GasM ‘WNSsYeaAYad (NOOASNG) YNDINA 4o TISHS WOus SGVIAJ AldV7 “9G SLW1d *P4IOJJES—7Z 16 ‘Wodey uvluosyyWS Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 57. “SEASIDE GRAPES’’ (COCCOLOBIS UVIFERA), A FOOD-STAPLE OF THE ABORIGINAL INDIANS OF SOUTHERN FLORIDA. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 58. FRUIT OF THE DWARF SAW PALMETTO (SERENOA SERRULATA), MUCH RELISHED BY THE ABORIGINAL INDIANS OF SOUTHERN FLORIDA IN SPITE OF ITS ACRID RANCID TASTE. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 59. LEAVES OF ILEX VOMITORIA, USED BY THE ABORIGINAL INDIANS OF FLORIDA FOR MAKING THEIR CEREMONIAL “BLACK DRINK.” Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 60 LIVE OAK (QUERCUS VIRGINIANA) FROM ROYAL PALM STATE PARK. The acorns were used in early times as a food staple. The Spaniards sometimes used them for making Z a chocolate-like drink. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 61. SEMINOLE INDIAN Boys POLING A CANOE IN AN EVERGLADE SLOUGH. Photograph by Julian A. Dimock. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 62. SEMINOLE INDIAN OF THE EVERGLADES OF FLORIDA AND His SON. Photograph by Julian A. Dimock. The Seminoles are related to the Creeks and Choctaws. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 63. ROOTS OF A CYCAD, ZAMIA FLORIDANA, FROM WHICH THE INDIANS PREPARED THEIR EDIBLE “‘COONTIE”’ (FLORIDA ARROWROOT). Photograph of specimens obtained from the arrowroot factory of Mr. Hurst, near Miami. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 64 TuBEROUS Roots OF SMILAX AURICULATA, THE SOURCE OF THE “RED COONTIE”’ OF THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. Photograph of specimens collected near Miami by William Marmick. Natural size. NOTES ON THE EARLY HISTORY OF THE PECAN IN AMERICA. By Ropney H. Tru, Physiologist, U. S. Department of Agriculture. While engaged in studying certain features of the early days of American botanical activity I have found many references to the history of what is perhaps America’s most important contribution to the world’s stock of edible nuts, the pecan; and since the sources in some cases are unpublished manuscripts and in others old or rare works not easy of access, I have here brought together the accumula- tion of somewhat scattered notes. They are bound together by the fact that they shed light on the early history of this important native tree, and in some cases on the interesting part played by one of our great statesmen in gaining and disseminating information concerning it. No claim to completeness is made for this somewhat desultory study. DISCOVERY BY THE SPANIARDS.* There seems to be no reason to doubt that the natives living along the lower courses of the Ohio and the Mississippi Rivers and their tributaries, as well as those occupying eastern and central Texas, draining into the Gulf of Mexico, knew and esteemed the pecan as an acceptable article of food long before the white man visited the continent. The discovery by the whites, therefore, merely made the existence and characteristics of the plant matters of record for our race and therefore of so-called history. Among the accounts writ- ten by explorers traversing the regions to which the pecan is indige- nous, the earliest seen which mentions this tree was the narrative of Cabeca de Vaca. That unlucky Spaniard, between 1528 and 1548, with the Indians who had enslaved him, traversed the coastal strip of Texas from Galveston Island to the Guadalupe River and beyond. In the story of his wanderings which extended far to the west and south occur the following sentences: Two days after Lope de Oviedo left, the Indians * * * came to the place of which we had been told, to eat walnuts. These are ground with a kind of small grain, and this is the subsistence of the people two months in 1Wor valuable suggestions concerning early Spanish explorers I am indebted to Prof. Herbert E. Bolton, of the University of California, Berkeley, Cal., and to Dr. James A. Robertson, of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, District of Columbia. 435 436 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. the year without any other thing; but even the nuts they do not have every season, as the tree produces in alternate years. The fruit is the size of that in Galicia [Spain], the trees are very large and numerous.” Oviedo’s account of the same place says: There were on the banks (en las costas) of the river many nuts, which the Indians ate in their season, coming from twenty or thirty leagues round about. These nuts were much smaller than those of Spain.? The location of this river of nuts has been the matter of consider- able investigation by Baskett, who decides that it was the Guadalupe, somewhere in its lower course. The time is given by Hodge as the year 1533. In view of the wide distribution along the wooded bottom lands, bordering the lower course of most of the rivers of middle and east- ern Texas, of several species of trees related to the walnuts, one can hardly state with certainty what kind is here concerned. However, the habitat, the great size of the tree, the edible quality, and the size of the nuts (in case Oviedo was right) would strongly suggest that the accounts here refer to one of the many pecan groves which occur in localities like that here described. The problem faced by the translator of Spanish annals is an im- portant one for us, since Texas was visited for centuries by Span- iards who left accounts of their travels, and scholars wishing to render these stories into accurate English usage have to decide what to call the nuts there mentioned. Some have adhered to the philo- logical aspect of the matter and in translating the words nweces and nogales have used the terms nuts and walnuts, while others have adopted the word pecan as the probable modern name of the trees discussed. The latter course involves a botanical as well as a philo- logical judgment and might lead to error if incorrectly employed. It seems to me, however, highly probable that the tree seen by Cabeca and Oviedo on the banks of the Guadalupe in 1533 was the pecan as certain translators have regarded it. At a somewhat later date, Hernando de Soto entered the pecan area from the north and east. Between 1539 and 1542 he traversed the southeastern part of the present United States. An English translation of his account is included in that treasury of adventure, Hakluytus Posthumus or Purchas his Pilgrimes contayning a His- tory of the World in Sea Voyages and Lande Travells by Englishmen and others.’ 1 Hodge, Frederick W., Spanish Explorers in the Southern United States, 1528-1543. The Narrative of Alvar Nunez Cabeca de Vaca. Scribner’s Sons. 1907 : 59. 2 Baskett, James Newton, A Study of the Route of Cabeza de Vaca. Texas Hist. Assoc. Quart., 10: 253. 1906-7. 3JIn the excellent edition published by James MacLehose and Sons, Glasgow, 1906, in 20 volumes, the account of De Soto’s wanderings in America is found in volumes 17 : 521-548 and 18: 1-51, HISTORY OF THE PECAN—TRUE. 437 In the early stages of his exploration (v. 18:3) De Soto reports finding at an Indian town called ChAiaha, supposed to be near the present site of Columbus, Georgia, on the Chattahooche River,’ a great store of oil of walnuts clear as butter and of a good taste. This place is outside of the recognized range of the pecan in its wild state, and the term walnut used by the translator must here refer to some other plant. Mr. James Mooney, of the Bureau of Ethnology, informs me that this was the hickory-nut oil, still used by the Bier. okees of the same region as formerly by the Creeks. As De Soto progresses northward and farther to the west, in the country of the chief called Casqui, he finds walnuts in great ice of a new type bearing soft-shelled nuts in form like Bailes which the Indians had laid up in great store in their houses. The trees differed from those of Spain and from those seen before in America only by the smaller leaf. The location of the country of Casqui is perhaps somewhat doubtful. Thomas Nuttall, in the appendix to his Journal of Travels,? identified this region with that known to the French as Kaskaskia, a point on the Mississippi River near the mouth of the Kaskaskia River in Illinois, and he sought to identify the stores of nuts referred to with the pecans abundant in the lowlands along the watercourses, especially to the southward. A more recent interpretation of De Soto’s localities (Shepherd, Historical Atlas, 1911:191) would place the most northerly point reached by him in about the latitude of Memphis, and would thus seem to locate this abundant occurrence of pecans considerably farther to the south. Nuttall indicates his opinion that De Soto’s description of the nuts and of the tree must refer to the pecan, a conclusion that will hardly be questioned. De Soto again mentions walnuts in great store, probably pecans, at Autiamque, where he spent a winter (18:34), this locality probably lying in southern Arkansas on the Washita River. They were also reported at a place named Nilco, probably in northern Louisiana, roughly west of the mouth of the Yazoo River. These points are all well within the range of the pecan.® Fortunately the accounts left by several later Spanish travelers with whom we are concerned in this connection have been edited in English by Prof. Herbert E. Bolton, professor of American history at the University of California.t Among those who entered the region of the pecan in Texas were Mendoza and De Léon. In 1683- 1 Mooney, James, Myths of the Cherokee. Nineteenth Annual Report, Bureau American Ethnology. Pt. 1:199. 1900. ? Nuttall, Thomas, A Journal of Travels in the Arkansas Territory During the Year 1819, with Occasional Observations on the Manners of the Aborigines. Philadelphia. 1821 : 252. ?Reed, C. A., Pecan culture; with special reference to propagation and varieties. Farmers’ Bulletin 700, U. S. Dept. Agr. 1916: 3. *Bolton, Herbert E., Original Narratives of Early American History. Spanish Px- ploration in the Southwest. 1542-1706. Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York. 1916. 438 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. 84, Mendoza traversed the region of the middle Concho River to its junction with the Nueces and farther eastward to the Colorado River near its junction with the main Concho River. He mentions seeing walnut trees (nogales) which Professor Bolton thinks were in all probability pecans, and which he calls such in his translation. These trees are described as eccurring along watercourses (p. 334) “the bottoms have many groves of them.” In another place “were several great groves of very tall pecan and live oak trees” (p. 385). Many other references to these luxuriant growths occur in this account. De Léon, who visited Texas in 1689 on his march into Texas from Mexico, refers repeatedly to some form of walnut (nogales) called in the translation pecans... The Nueces River, Atascosa Creek, and Medina River are identified by Miss West? among the streams said by De Léon te be bordered by pecans, frequently accompanied by oaks, and sometimes by grapevines (p. 209). Miss West also renders nogal as pecan, which was probably the predominant species seen by the explorer. To follow the pecan through early Spanish literature would lead us beyond the limits of these notes. One other Spanish explorer, who came at a much later date and who penetrated into the river valleys tributary to the Mississippi, must, however, be referred to in connection with the discussion of another phase of pecan history. DISCOVERY BY THE FRENCH. It would be expected that the later exploration and exploitation of the pecan country, a large part of which was covered by the early territorial claims of the French, would have produced important additions to the information given by De Soto. A thorough canvass of the accounts of the early French voyageurs has not been attempted but a number of early references to the pecan have come to my attention.® It is highly probable that La Salle and other explorers of the lower Mississippi and of its tributaries encountered the pecan. So abundant and so acceptable a food product could hardly have been neglected by travelers finding it when ripe. The earliest reference seen, however, is by Pénicaut, who, in 1704, proceeding from the south where the main expedition under De Bienville had entered the mouth of the Mississippi, ascended to the village of Natchez. He devoted a chapter in his account of this journey to a description of the place, its inhabitants, and its products. As reprinted in his old- time French he gives, perhaps, the earliest French description of the 1 Bolton, H. E., ibid., pp. 391, 393. 2West, Elizabeth Howard, De Léon’s Expedition of 1689. An annotated translation. Quart. Texas State Hist. Assoc. 8:199-224. 1905. 3T am indebted to Dr. C. S. Sargent of the Arnold Arboretum for helpful suggestions in connection with certain of the early French explorations. HISTORY OF THE PECAN—TRUE. 439 pecan.t In addition to the few words of description he mentions the common name used by the natives: Us sont de trois sortes de noyers: il y en a dont les noix sont grosses comme le poing, et qui servent 4 faire du pain pour leur soupe, mais les meilleures ne sont guéres plus grosses que le poulce;? ils les appellent pecanes.® While it must be admitted that there is little said to distinguish the nut, the high quality mentioned in connection with the charac- teristic name seems to point to that now known as the pecan. Another somewhat later reference based on trees seen in the northern part of the range is made by the Jesuit missionary, Father Gabriel Marest, who in writing to Father Germon, of the same order, from “Cascaskias, an Illinois village,’ on November 9, 1712, observes that “there are different kinds of nut trees. The pecans (Les pacanes) (it is thus that the fruits of one of the nut trees is called) have a better flavor than our nuts in France.” 4 Unless we assume that the name pacane was applied with accuracy to this very distinct type of nut, there is but little basis for an asser- tion that Marest had in mind the pecan as we understand it. On the other hand, the location and the flavor of the nut would seem to favor the presumption of accuracy. The situation is somewhat clearer with Charlevoix. In an entry made in his Journal on October 20, 1721, likewise at “IKaskasquias,” he observes: . Parmi les Fruitiers, qui sont particuliers 4 ce Pays, le plus remarquables sont les Pacaniers * * * Le Pacane est une Noix de la longueur & de figure d’un gros Gland. Jl y en a, dont la coque est fort mince * * # Toutes sont d’un gofit fin & délicat, Arbre qui les porte, vient fort haut: son bois, son écorce, Vodeur & la figure da ses feuilles m’ont paru assez semblebles aux Noyers d’Europe.® 1 Pénicaut’s Relation in Découvertes et Ltablissements des Francais dans l’Ouest et dans de Sud de l’Amé¢rique septentrionale. (1614-1754.) Memoirs et Documents origi- naux recueillés et publiés par Pierre Margry, ete. Premiére Formation d’une Chaine de Postes entre le Fleuve Saint-Laurent et le Golfe du Mexique (1683-1724). Tome V: 445. Paris, 1883. 5 2“ Poulce,” an old form of “ pouce,” meaning the thumb, as indicated in Hatzfeld and Darmesteter (Dictionaire générale de la Langue francaise, II; 1784), probably gives the measure of the size. As an old measure of length it equals the twelfth part of the old French foot, or, roughly, a modern inch. * There are three sorts of walnuts. There are some with nuts as large as the fist, and which serve in making bread for their soup, but the best are not larger than the thumb ; they call them pecans. *Thwaites, R. G., The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents. 66: 229, ° Charlevoix, P. F., Journal d’un Voyage fait par ordre du roi dans J’Amerique sep- tentrionale ; addressé 4 Madame la Duchesse de Lesdigueres, constituting vols. 5 and 6 of Histoire et description generale de la Nouvelle France, &c. Paris, 1744. T. 6: 140, Lettre XXVIII. Among the fruits that are peculiar to this country the most remarkable are the pecans. * * * The pecan is a nut having the length and form of a large acorn. There are those with a very thin shell. * * * All have a fine and delicate taste; the tree which bears them grows very high; its wood, its bark, the odor, and the shape of the leayes appear to me similar enough to the walnuts of Europe. 440 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. Tt would seem clear that Charlevoix is here referring to a consider- able number of forms and without much doubt includes in the term Pacane one or more types of hickory nut with the pecan as we now use the term. While describing in his General History the adventures of La Salle near the mouth of the Mississippi River in 1685, Charlevoix seems to indicate that he might have found this nut. A form of walnut described as “larger than the ordinary ones” and “very good” is re- garded by his translator, Shea, as the pecan.t’ The evidence here is so incomplete, however, as to leave room for doubt on this point, although the guess may perhaps be correct. At a somewhat later date Le Page du Pratz? described the Louis- jana country, and in discussing the various nuts growing in that province writes: Tl y a encore les Pacaniers dont le fruit est une espéce de noix fort petite, & qu’on prendroit au coup d’oeil pour des noisettes, parcequ’ elles en ont la forme, la conteur, & le coque aussi tendre; mais en dedans elles sont figurées comme les noix; elles sont plus délicates que les notres, moins huilleuses & dun gofit si fin, que les Francois en ont des pralines aussi bonnes que celles d’amandes.? The translator responsible for the wording of the English edition of 1762* translates Pacaniers as Hicori, no mention of the pecan coming to my attention in any other place. That this historian or any other observer traveling through the lowlands bordering the lower Mississippi or those of its tributaries would be likely to miss the pecan seems to me very unlikely. INTRODUCTION INTO THE EAST. Concerning the introduction of the pecan to European civiliza- tion, the writer has seen nothing to indicate that either the early Spanish or the early French explorers accomplished this. However, it is probable that the pecan was cultivated in Spain perhaps before it was grown either in France or in England. The pecan seems to have first become known in the English colonies in 1761, through the botanist John Bartram, of Philadelphia.® 1 Charlevoix, The Rey. P. F., History and general description of New France. Trans- lated with notes by John Gilmary Shea, in 6 volumes. New York. Vol. 4, 1870, p. 72. 2Du Pratz, Le Page, Histoire de la Louisiane. Paris, 1758. T. II: 26. 3 There are again the pecans the fruit of which is a kind of very small walnut that would be taken at first glance for a filbert, since they have the form, the outline, and the likewise thin shell, but internally they are shaped like the walnut; they are more delicate than our own, less oily, and with a flavor so fine that the French make ‘‘pralines’”’ (a kind of baked cake composed of almonds) of them as good as those made of almonds. 4Du Pratz, Le Page, The history of Louisiana. 2 vols. Becket & De Hondt. Lon- don, 1763. Vol. 2:21. 5 Darlington, Wm., Memorials of John Bartram and Humphry Marshall, Philadelphia, 1840 ; 238, HISTORY OF THE PECAN—TRUE. 441 On August 14, 1761, Bartram writes to his botanical friend and correspondent in London, Peter Collinson (p. 232) : I have not yet been at the Ohio, but have many specimens from there. But in about two weeks I hope to set out to search myself, if the barbarous Indians don’t hinder me (and if I die a martyr to botany, God’s will be done; His will be done in all things) * * *. It will be recalled that at this time the French and Indian War was in progress, the English under the lead of General Forbes and Colonel Bouquet having captured Fort Duquesne about two years before and named it Fort Pitt or Pittsburgh. Thither Bartram seems to have gone, probably near the date assigned, and from thence safely returned, since on December 12, 1761, he seems to have sent a box of plants and seeds to Collinson which provoked from the latter the following sportive comment, dated at London, April 1, 1762: I really believe my honest John is a great wag, and has sent me seven. hard, stony seeds, something shaped like an acorn, to puzzle us; for there is no name to them. I have a vast collection of seeds, but none like thein. I do laugh at Gordon, for he guesses them to be a species of Hickory * * *, I think they may be what I wish, seeds of the Bondue Tree Gymnocladus canadensis Lam, which thou picked up in thy rambles on the Ohio, A footnote, probably by the author of the memoirs, states: Gordon made decidedly the best gwess, for those “stony seeds” were no doubt the nuts of the Pecan or Illinois Hickory (Carya olivaeformis, Nutt.). In reply to Peter’s remarks, John Bartram says: The hard nuts I sent were given me at Pittsburgh by Colonel Bouquet. He called them Hickory nuts. He had them from the country of the Illinois. Their kernel was very sweet. I am afraid they won’t sprout, as being a year old. (P. 2338.) Thus the nuts obtained by Bartram in September, perhaps, 1761, were seen in England very early in 1762. A letter from John St. Clair to John Bartram locates even more accurately the date of his visit to Pittsburgh and the date of his receipt of the pecans. This letter is written at Belville, November 4, 1761, and says in part: I congratulate you on your safe arrival from Pittsburgh * * *, I give you many thanks for the valuable (Pecan) Hickory ruts. I should have thanked you sooner for them, but I waited to see if I was to go on the expedi- tion (to Africa) that is fitting out. It is probable that Belville was at the end of no long journey from the home of Bartram, since St. Clair closes his note by saying: If you will send anybody to this place to bring a cow for Mrs. Bartram, she will oblige me in accepting of her. It may, therefore, be assumed that little time was lost in transit either by the nuts in going to St. Clair or by his acknowledgment of 449 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. them when once started for Philadelphia. Making these assump- tions, it seems probable that Bartram returned with the nuts some time in October, 1761. This chronology imphes a different and earlier introduction from that referred to by Brendel,t who says that the tree “ was unknown to the English colonies until the peace of 1762 (sic), where by chance some fur traders brought a small number of nuts to New York.” If the fur traders here referred to waited until peace was signed, they could hardly have come to New York until the following year, the treaty of Paris being dated February, 1763. The account given by Brendel is followed by Sargent,? who in turn is quoted by Heiges.* Tt will be noted that thus far the nut was known to the Colonies only from the northern portion of its range, along the Ohio River, Tilinois River, and in general from what was vaguely known as the Tllinois country. The southern range seems not to have become known until some years later. The Spanish traveler and writer, Don Antonio de Ulloa, in traversing the region drained by the lower tributaries of the Mississippi, describes the trees of the region and gives a descrip- tion fuller than any earlier one that has come to my attention. Mr. W. E. Safford, of the Department of Agriculture, has kindly trans- lated Ulloa’s statement.* Two other kinds of trees are found there which appear to be peculiar to that country. One of these they call Pecanos, which is a kind of walnut of greater body than those (walnuts), but in wood and leaf very similar. The fruit is in taste similar to that of the walnut, more delicate and finer, with less proportion of oil. In form it is different, and resembles dates, being in size almost the same or a little less. The shell is thin and smooth and without the roughness which the walnut has. This account not only points out another part of the wide area occupied by this tree but repeats the native name used in 1712 by Marest for the nut found in Tlinois, the name that in a modified form has established itself in general usage. Perhaps the first actual introduction of the pecan into the East from the South took place late in 1799, when Daniel Clark, jr., of New Orleans, at that time still Spanish territory, sent a box of nuts to Thomas Jefferson, then Vice President of the United States, at Philadelphia. Clark wrote: 1 Brendel, Frederick, Historical sketch of the science of botany in North America, from 1635 to 1840. American Naturalist, 13: 757, 1879. 2 Sargent, Charles Sprague, The Silva of North America. VII: 140. 3Heiges, S. B., Nut culture in the United States, embracing native and introduced species. Division of Pomology, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 1896: 50. 4Ulloa, Antonio de, Noticias Americanas; Entratenimientos physicos-historicos sobre la América meridional. 7 la Septentrianal oriental, &c. Madrid. 1772: 116-117. Entretenimiento VI. HISTORY OF THE PECAN—TRURE. 443 New Or.eans, 12 November, 1799." Sir, As the country produces excellent oranges, I have presumed to send to the care of Mr. Daniel W. Coxe of Philadelphia a barrel hand picked & well put [up] to be delivered to you and a box of Paccan nuts. these last are not I understand common in the Atlantic Parts of the U. S. tho’ they grow every- where on the Banks of the Mississippi from the Illinois River to the Sea, gen- erally in the low grounds and even in places occasionally overflowed by the annual rise of the waters, the Tree grows to the usual size of the Forest Trees and affords a delightful shade in Summer. it might be worth while to culti- vate it in Virginia for use & ornament. I propose to send you shortly by way of Baltimore if no opportunity offers direct for Virginia a Bag of a superior kind which I am promised by a Friend and will occasionally take the liberty of sending you anything which I may suppose either rare or curious with you that I can procure here. Jefferson’s reply was not seen, but another letter from Clark to the Vice President, written May 29, 1800, seems to tell at least part of the story. T am happy to learn that the few Pacans I sent are likely to turn to such good account, and sincerely wish your Grove of them may flourish.” * * * Jefferson’s reply to this letter was also not seen, but again Clark gives us a clue to a part of its contents, in a letter written July 20, 1801, when he recurs to the subject: In the last letter I had the honor of receiving from you you mention that your Pacan Trees at Monticello tho planted in 1780 had not hitherto born (sic) fruit. This must be owing to their being planted in too elevated or too dry a soil as they bear in this Country in ten or twelve years, and the trees in their natural State are I believe always found in the River Bottoms and in places oceasionally overflowed at the annual rise of the Rivers. I have taken the liberty of mentioning this Circumstance that you may try the Experiment on some young Trees I send herewith put up in a Case as well as a few Orange Trees which I hope will get safe to hand. BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION. The only information about the pecan available for many years was substantially of the type that could be gained from travelers’ notes, and while these often designated the plant with sufficient clear- ness to enable the informed reader to know what the writers had in mind, it could not be said that a botanical description of the plant had been made. This seems to have been done first by Thomas Jefferson in his Notes on Virginia, written in 1781 and printed in Paris under date of 1782: 4 Paccan or Illinois nut. Not described by Linnaeus, Miller or Clayton. Were [ to venture to describe this, speaking of the fruit from memory, and of 1 Jefferson Papers, Manuscripts Division, Library of Congress, S. 2, vol. 16, No. G6. 2 Jefferson Papers, Ser. 2, vol. 19, No. 22. Manuscripts Division, Library of Con- gress. 8 Jefferson Papers, Ser. 2, vol. 19, No. 23. Manuscripts Division, Library of Con- gress. * Jefferson, Thomas, Notes on the State of Virginia written in the year 1781, some- what corrected and enlarged in the winter of 1782, for the use of a Foreigner of distinc- tion, in answer to certain queries proposed by him. Paris, 1782: 64. A44 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. the leaf from plants of two years’ growth, I should specify it as the Juglans alUa, foliolis lanceolatis, acuminatis, serratis, tomentosis, fructu minore, ovato, compresso, vix insculpto, dulci, putamine tenerrimo. It grows on the Illinois, Wabash, Ohio and Mississippi. It is spoken of by Don Ulloa under the name of pacanos, in his Noticias Americanas, Entrat. 6. Not long after Jefferson’s description had appeared, Dr. Humphry Marshall, of Philadelphia, brought out his little book entitled Arbus- trum Americanum,! in which he refers very vaguely and inaccurately to the pecan under the binomial Juglans pecan, “the Pecan, or Illinois Hickery.” The range noted is limited to the Illinois country, probably indicating that he drew his information from travelers who knew of the tree in its northern range only. The description does not suffice to clothe the name proposed by him, and, in my judg- ment, the earlier and more accurate Latin diagnosis of Jefferson should occupy the first place in the nomenclatorial history of this plant. THE NAME PECAN. It may perhaps not be out of place to refer briefly to the variety of common names by which this nut has been known. It seems to have been referred to by early Spanish explorers in Texas under the general term neuces, meaning nuts, or by the more specific term nogales, meaning walnuts. There seems to be no evidence that the Indians in that part of the country designated these nuts by any characteristic term, nothing to suggest the word pecan or any of its modifications. The French explorers, Father Marest (1712), at the northern edge of the pecan range, and Pénicaut (1704), at Natchez, independently fell to using the term pacane, the native name found in use by both of them. Later French writers, in describing the Mississippi Valley or its tributaries, mention the pecane. Ulloa, publishing his explorations in the Mississippi Valley in 1772, unlike his earlier compatriots, mentions this same name under the Spanish guise pacanos. This evidence seems to indicate that the term pecane or some modification of it was the name used probably from time immemorial by the Indian tribes along the Mississippi and its tributaries. This term was probably not used by the tribes living to the westward in the country drained by the rivers which directly flow into the Gulf. The terms “Illinois nut” or “Tlinois hickory” were probably given by the colonists of the East, in ignorance of the Indian name that had found acceptance and use in the Mississippi Valley by French and Spanish from Kaskaskia to the Gulf. Probably the term “ Mississippi Nut,” by which George Washington designated it in an 1Marshall, Humphry, Arbustrum Americanum; The American Grove or an alphabet- ical catalogue of the forest trees and shrubs, native in the American United States, ar- ranged according to the Linnaean system, etc. Philadelphia. 1785: 69. 2 HISTORY OF THE PECAN—TRUE. 445 entry in his diary for March 11, 1775, was given in much the same way. In 1786 he uses the name “Illinois nut” and in 1794 ap- proaches the Indian name in the term “ Poccon””* or Illinois nut. An interesting persistence of the old Indian name was in use as late as 1833 by Kenrick, who refers to the tree as the “ pacane nut.” INTRODUCTION INTO EUROPE. As far as the writer has learned, the first sending of the pecan to Kurope consisted of the nuts sent to England, probably in January, 1761, by John Bartram, which so much puzzled Peter Collinson, Thomas Jefferson seems to have performed the same: service in France about 25 years later. In 1786, while living in Paris as Ameri- can representative, he procured a small package of these nuts through Francis Hopkinson, of Philadelphia. Their correspondence on this matter is here sketched. Writing from Paris on January 3, 1786, Jefferson makes several requests of Hopkinson. The third commission is more distant. It is to procure me two or three hundred pacean-nuts from the western country. I expect they can always be got at Pittsburgh, and am in hopes, that by yourself or your friends, some attentive person there may be engaged to send them to you. They should come as fresh as possible, and come best, I believe, in a box of sand. Of this Bar- tram could best advise you * * *? Hopkinson seems to have been in doubt concerning the identity of the nut going under the name given by Jefferson. In answer to his inquiry, Jefferson replied from Paris on December 23, 1786: The paccan-nut is, as you conjecture, the Illinois nut. The former is the vul- gar name south of the Potomac, as also with the Indians and Spaniards, and enters also into the Botanical name, which is Juglans Paccan.* This information seems to have satisfied Hopkinson who probably procured the desired nuts. At all events, among the uncatalogued Jefferson manuscripts in the Library of Congress is a letter addressed to Willt Delmestre & Cie, from Paris, July 18, 1787, in which the writer directs that “a box of paccan nuts” be nailed up and sent by diligence and without delay at local customs houses en route. These instructions to this firm were designed to bring the nuts with all speed from the port of landing to Paris. I am unable to say who received these nuts and what the recipients may have done with them. It is quite probable from the mode of packing specified that they were wanted for planting and some may well have found their way to 1 Haworth, Paul L., George Washington Farmer. Indianapolis. P. 150. 2 Kenrick, William, The New American Orchardist, or an account of the most valuable varieties of fruit, adapted to cultivation in the climate of the United States from the latitude of 25° to 45°, etc. Boston. 1833: 359. 3 Jefferson, Thomas, The writings of. By Thomas Jefferson Memorial Association, Washington, D. C., in 20 volumes. 1904. Vol. 5: 242. 4Tbid. Vol. 6:21. 446 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. Jefferson’s good friend, Thouin, the director of the Jardin des Plantes in Paris. EARLY CULTIVATION IN AMERICA. It is perhaps impossible to state the date of the first planting of this nut in America, and perhaps equally difficult to ascertain who made it. It seems quite possible, however, that the oldest cultivated trees are to be found in Mexico. Onderdonk? in 1911 reports seeing pecans growing on irrigated lands at Bustamente, 100 miles beyond Laredo, Texas, which he estimated to have: reached an age of 200 years. This far antedates all known plantings in the Colonies of the Atlantic coast. Among the eastern Colonies precedence seems to belong to New York. According to Brendel, William Prince in 1772 planted 30 nuts in his nursery at Flushing, Long Island, raising 10 plants; 8 going to England at 10 guineas apiece, 2 being kept for reproduction. The planting made by Prince did not long anticipate one made by William Hamilton, proprietor of the famous gardens near Phila- delphia, known as the Woodlands. Hamilton, writing to Humphry Marshall, who described this tree so badly, says in a letter dated “The Woodlands, May 3d, 1799,” * referring to the disastrous effects of a recent heavy frost: A tree, too, the only one I had of Juglans Pacane, or Ulinois Hickory, which TI raised twenty-five years ago from seed, is entirely killed. The date of planting of this tree would have been in 1774. It is well known that George Washington was an enthusiastic grower of interesting and novel plants, maintaining a special plot of ground for experimental purposes which he often refers to in his diary as “the Botanical Garden.” In an entry for March 11, 1775, without doubt describing his planting operations for the day, he writes: Row next these (white peaches from Phila.) 25 Mississippi Nuts—something like the Pig nut—but longer, thiner shelld and fuller of meat.* This was probably his first planting, since he takes the trouble to describe the nut. This was followed in 1786 by a second record. On— Wednesday, 2d (May, 1786), planted 140 seed sent me by Colo. Wm. Wash- ington and said by him to be the seed of the large magnolio or Laurel of 1 Qnderdonk, Gilbert, Pomological Possibilities of Texas. Bull. 18, Texas Department of Agriculture, Austin, Tex. 1911:45. Revised edition. 2Brendel, Frederick, American Naturalist, 138: 757, 1879. Quoted by Sargent, C. &., in Silva of North America, VII: 140; also by Heiges, S. B., Nut Culture in the United States, Div. Pomology, U. S. Dept. Agriculture, 1896: 50. 8Parlington, William, Memorials of John Bartram and Humphry Marshall, 1849 : 580. 4Diary of George Washington. J. M. Toner transcript. Vol. 138:928. In Manuscripts Division, Library of Congress, Washington, D. C. HISTORY OF THE PECAN—TRUE. 447 Carolina * * * Also 21 of the Illinois Nuts; compleating at the No. end; the piece of a Row in my Botanical Garden in which on the — day of — I put Gloucester hiccory Nuts.* We note that Jefferson’s description of the plant written in 1781 was in part drawn from plants of two years’ growth. ‘HOINH A1SHO1O *] "§€ 3LV1d *yOOOYDIIH—'Z 161 ‘Yoday uRluOsYyyIWS Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Hitchcock. PLATE 4. |. THE SUMMIT OF MAUNA KEA, A CINDER CONE ENTIRELY DEVOID OF VEGETATION; ALTITUDE 13,825 FEET. # 2. NEAR THE SUMMIT OF MAUNA KEA. At the left is an ancient quarry to which the early Hawaiians came for material for stone axes. The lava is very hard and will take a sharp edge. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Hitchcock. PLATE 5. I. VIEW ON MAUNA LOA AT ABouT 10,000 FEET ALTITUDE. SEVERAL SMALL CRATERS IN THE DISTANCE. 2. CRATER AT THE SUMMIT OF MAUNA LOA. VIEW FROM THE EAST RIM. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Hitchcock. PLATE 6. |. PuuU WAAWAA, A HILL OR OLD CRATER NEAR THE HUALALAI MOUNTAINS. In the foreground is the aa (rough) lava of an old flow. In the middle distance is a meadow of Rhodes grass ( Chloris gayana). 9. SCRUBBY FOREST ON AA LAVA, PUU WAAWAA RANCH. Note the exceedingly rough surface of the lava. “SpULIST URTIBMETT OY} JO BIOPT OT} JO JOYING oY} ‘puesq -O[[TH “Iq 0} pesuojeq Aysour0j ‘104S0,f “sap, A pouMO MOU UopIes STUY, *MINIONOH *AYVd VNIVNVOIA] NI LNNODOD V NO DNISWITIO (VWSOIOITSG VYALSNOI) GIOYWY NV ‘*S “NAGYV5) GNVYEsATIIH AHL NI MAIA “1 *L ALlW1d 490949}! H—"Z 16} ‘Hodey uBluosYyWS Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Hitchcock. PLATE 8. |. A GROUP OF PAPYRUS REEDS IN MOANALUA PARK. 2. DIAMOND HEAD, FROM KAPIOLANI PARK, HONOLULU. This crater is a prominent landmark from the ocean. ‘ouod QI SOARO] OTT} JO JSouL MOTTA IvOdde pure JoTAVOS JYSZIIq O1v SIOMOT Cy, "IIVMVYH NYALSAaM “YaMO14 ‘OOdOOdVN) YVAN S3YOHS AHL DONOTY SS5YL LNNODOD °G Ting NI ‘(VISSHY XINO1SQ) 33Y¥Ll AWV1I4 SHL ‘| ‘6 3LV1d *420949}1H—'Z161 ‘Hoday uviuosyyws Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Hitchcock. PLATE 10. 1. A HEDGE OF NIGHT-BLOOMING CEREUS ON A WALL AT PUNAHOU COLLEGE, HONOLULU. Taken before sunrise. 2. A FEW FLOWERS OF THE NIGHT-BLOOMING CEREUS. “SpuUvIST Ol} UL WOUTULOD ymuay [eotdoa} Snotarop ®B SLOsuBUL OY, "NINIONOH NI Saul, La5YuYLS NOWWOD YSHLVY V “ASY] OONVIAL VG *“(AWYSNI WNYOHdO113Sd) VNVIONIOd MOTISA SHL ‘I "T] aLw1d *4900Y9|H—"Z LOL ‘Hodey uziuosyy!WS Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Hitchcock. PLATE 12. I. VIEW IN MOANALUA PARK. Monkey pod at left, royal palms at right, three coconut palms in the distance, manienie (Bermuda grass) in the foreground. 2. A TYPICAL WASTE LAND SCENE. A road near Honaunau with a tangle of guava and lantana which has taken possession of the soil. In the center a dilapidated bread-fruit tree. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Hitchcock. PLATE 13. |. SCHOFIELD BARRACKS, IN THE CENTRAL PLATEAU OF OAHU, LOOKING WEST TOWARD THE WESTERN OR WAIANAE RANGE OF MOUNTAINS. Mount Kaala at the right is the highest point on the island. 2. HALEAKALA CRATER FROM THE WEST RIM. Several smaller cones and craters may be seen within the main crater. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Hitchcock. PLATE 14. |. MAUNA KEA FROM HUMUULA AT AN ALTITUDE OF 6,700 FEET, LOOKING NORTH, SHOWING THE GRADUAL SLOPE TO THE SUMMIT (13,825 FEET). 2. SOUTHERN MOLOKAI NEAR THE SEA. LOOKING EASTWARD, SHOWING THE EVEN SLOPE OF THE MOUNTAINS. A belt of algaroba trees in the middle distance. “SAqIG AATIVA AHL AO SSANdaaLGS SHL DSNIMOHS "YSLVYO VIVXVETIVH SAO TIVM LSAM °G ‘INVIN, ‘VNIVHV] 30 MOVG S3DYHOH NIVLNNOW VY ‘I "Gl 31V1d *y909YO}IH—'ZI6L ‘Hodey ueluosYyyWws *SpuvIST “8171901100 s1jsoLlbnig O18 SSVIB OI[} []V JO SUOTSOI JOLIP OY} VI WOUTUIOD A\OU ‘OOTXOW WO poonposjUy josyjnjoyy, ‘ssed smf ysnoayy Su0s3s A1OA SAVMTE ST PUTA OPLI} OY, “(VHLNVOVDAW VILNNdO) SNLOVOD YVAd-ATHIINYd °G ‘MMWWd ANVNAN SAOsY AdO1S ASSVHH) VY‘ "9| 3Llv1d *yOOOYD}IH—'ZI6|1 ‘OdeYy uvluosYy}yWS Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Hitchcock. PLATE IT. I. SCHOFIELD BARRACKS, LOOKING EAST TOWARD THE KOOLAU RANGE OF MOUNTAINS. Papayas in the middle distance; pilipiliula (Chrysopogon aciculatus) and other grasses in the foreground. 2. GRASSES AT TIMBER LINE ON MAUNA KEA. The bunch grass in the foreground is Agrostis sandwicensis. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Hitchcock. PLATE 18. |. GRASSES AT TIMBER LINE ON MAUNA KEA. The grass with narrow inflorescence is Koeleria glomerata; that with feathery inflorescence, Descham psia australis. The trees are mostly mamani (Sophora chrysophylla). 2. KUKUI TREES (ALEURITES MOLUCCANA). The shrubs in the foreground are young kukui plants. *pezBis Ud0q Sey {Joy oY Jo Javed ory, -£YLIMYRUT YIVOI 0} POMOT[e Woo SLY ddUOJ OY} JO JYSII OY} 09 Jaed oY, "HONVY IVHOTOIA] SHL NO (VaSOU VNAVTIOHO "dOL DNIGVSYdS HLIM NAWIOSdS GSLlV10S| -I4.) dOLGSY IWLVN YO SSVYH IVLVN SO G1SIl4 VW SG NY ‘VAM VNOVIA) SO SdO1S HLYON NO 3SayY]L VOY ‘I "6| 31V1d *YOOOYDIIH—'ZI6L ‘Hoday uB!uOSY}IWS ‘UMOUY Juv JSsvl ol} WOIy pP uiOl} UAOIS Ud0G OALT[ S901] [[VUIS MOF yY “QuLId p]IM &B sev youryxo OuMODeq SLI SoTV0ds oY, ‘IWAVYM "ONVNYNIOHYY "IYHOTOI] ‘SXO00D *O ‘WW “YIN, AO YVAN 2YS0VIISda7] SHMWIWd AO SaloadS LNSOSSHCSYY ‘SG SGNNOYUD SHL NO SSGIOINVNANG VINO JO LNVId DNNOA VW ‘I 0S alWid "Y909Y9}! H—"Z 16} ‘HOdey uBluOsy}IWS Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Hitchcock. PRATES2Ir 1. A FOREST OF KOAIA (ACACIA KOAIA) ON THE SOUTHWESTERN SLOPES OF THE KOHALA MOUNTAINS. 2. A HEAVY GROWTH OF FERN (DRYOPTERIS FUSCOATRA) IN THE HUMID FOREST ON THE SLOPES OF THE HUALALAI MOUNTAINS. ‘qqgIND NVIIVMVH-LYUVd YNO ‘VAM VWNNAVIA) SAO SadO1G$ *PIOA\S IOATIS JO syuryd aie odojs 04} Jo doy oy) vou syutod o4yMpEM OT, Yaddf) AHL WOYS NMOQ LHONOY LNV1d Smuwsals . : V ‘(ASNSOIMGNVS WNIHdIXOHADYY) GYHOMS YAATIS °G "YSLVHD VIVAVSIVH NI 3dO1S YSGNID VY ‘1 ‘SG ALV1d *yOO0Y}IH—"Z161 ‘4odey uBlUOsYy}WS *90URISIP OY} UI UO4ST]S PU OTM OIB SYUNI} 991} OU, “IIVWMVH ‘GOOMNANSD ‘NOILVLS LNAWIYSdx4 SALVLS “ONVWYNIOHV) G3SLINQ, SHL LV (IISSIZNSW WNILOGIO) SNYA4 ASL "SG YVAN LSSYO4 NIVLNNOI OILSINSLOVYVHD ‘| "8G 3lW1d : *y9ODDUD}IH—'ZL6L ‘J4odey uBlUOSYyIWIS Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Hitchcock. PLATE 24. I. A SMALL OPEN BoG NEAR KAHOLUAMANO, KAUAI. FOREST IN BACKGROUND. 2. A SMALL LAKE NEAR THE SUMMIT OF MAUNA KEA, ALTITUDE ABOUT 13,000 FEET. Because of the porous lava soil lakes or ponds are rare. "VIVIIVAIVH 20 HdO1§ HLYON SHL NO ‘INVI) LSVJ ‘SANIT Adid VONITIO BSHL DNOTY LSSYO4 GINNH AHL WOY¥S GTIMaIG] OL NMOQ LHONONG VAGIOIVLSd VYSNNN5H 4O 4va V 'S "GG 3LV1d “DUDIDIB DISIYILAL qustl sty ut ‘vpnoyopnyb vyaqaT puey 4Jol Sy UT Surproy st Your y TCUBT OY} JO JosvUBUE “OUD “4 “IY “4SO10} UTRI OT} JO OSpa JOMOT oy} vou durvo ye poydeisojoyd pus UMop 4Yysno1q o1OM sjuR[d ou, “INVIN, LSAM ‘INANYM NNd AO LINWNS AHL Lv S0q NadO SAHL WOYS SSEI0SdG DILSINSLOVYVHD OML *] ‘ "49094931 H—"/ 16] ‘J4oday uBluOsUyIWS > al va a a y a "i Ait efile i ~ : a > THE SOCIAL, EDUCATIONAL, AND SCIENTIFIC VALUE OF BOTANIC GARDENS. By Prof. JoHN Mrrrie Courter. It is a noteworthy fact that the United States is beginning to ap- preciate botanic gardens. This appreciation may be relatively super- ficial as yet, but the superficial is usually the preliminary step that leads to the fundamental. The desirability of botanic gardens was not obvious when large areas in a state of nature were available to almost every one; but when we developed congested populations in cities and made artificial most of our open areas, the thought of bo- tanic gardens began to take form. Those of you who have traveled in Europe must have been im- pressed by the multiplicity of such gardens. They began there in the form of monastic gardens, in which the so-called “ simples,” used in primitive medicine, were cultivated. Then they came out into the open as city gardens, chiefly for the enjoyment of the people and to beautify the city. Finally, they became also scientific, and gradu- ally led to such great establishments as the botanic gardens at Rome, Geneva, and Paris, the great modern gardens on the outskirts of Berlin and Munich, and that greatest of all garden establishments, the Kew Gardens of London. These are but conspicuous illustra- tions of what almost every European city had developed before we began to think of garden establishments. I wish to speak of three conspicuous contributions that such an establishment can make, not all of which are appreciated as they should be. There is no better audience for this purpose than the friends and supporters of the Brooklyn Botanic Garden, which has achieved more in certain directions than any other garden in the country. J wish you to realize, not only that your support is justi- fied, but also that perhaps you have builded better than you knew. T shall speak of these three contributions in what I conceive to be the inverse order of their importance, in the sense that the superficial, however desirable, is less important than the fundamental. 1 Address delivered at the dedication of the laboratory building and plant houses of the Brooklyn Botanic Garden, Apr. 19, 1917. Reprinted by permission from Science, June 29, 1917, N. S., vol. 45, No. 1174. 463 464 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. 1. The first is the social contribution. “ Social” is a very inclusive word. Anything that contributes to the welfare of a community in any way is a social contribution. In this sense, the results of edu- cation and of religion are also social. JI am using the word in no such general sense, however, but simply to include the betterment of city conditions for living. A botanic garden is a social contribution because it is one answer to the problem of congestion. It is not sufficient to have open spaces, even when those spaces are beautified as parks. There can not be too many of these, but something more is needed. J wonder if you all appreciate what the touch of nature means. It is something, more than open space for breathing. It is a kind of elixir that helps men to be men. The garden is a museum of nature, not merely an area left to nature. In it there are assembled the representatives of many regions, so that it gives a world contact. It is a great service to give any community the opportunity of such a contact. The contact with nature presently develops the contact of interest; and interests outside the routine of living, when these interests are worth while, are both curative and stimulating. Then when interest is awakened, and plants are examined as individuals, and not merely as a general population, the wonders of plant life begin to appear. I wonder how many know why leaves are green and flowers colored; why some plants are trees and others herbs; why some trail and climb, and others stand erect. All of this vegetation is the natural covering of the earth, which cities have eliminated. It is the cover- ing that makes your lives and all life possible. I should say, there- fore, that the mere presence of a botanic garden in a city is like hav- ing the spirit of nature as a guest, and all who become acquainted with this spirit are the better for it. There is nothing more artificial than city life, and therefore noth- ing more abnormal. Some are able now and then to renew their con- tact with the natural and normal, but most are not. 1,600 Booby ete aee erie) ty sta Be = oper ph gl es em ecee es hb einai, be ED cae 3 Levee aR OVOUEOL LOVOYG ON fee Se ee ee ee eee eee al Browne pelicanyes 2s es sen ree 2 eau Ratt OL ASSL aa eS ee = 4 AV Are TE Ons Wy Tg DL Cle eee cee ee eee ee eee seks Se ee ees 400 Wards neran. sats UIE STE IIS IL OES IE Eo HOBO Oe 1 Green nerons 2a eee ae EE ley Sees SEE ee es ppeeaey ee T S6t TL 1 Wensi ssa Gpipers steve ael th po eh erie Sais hehe Th ORE OE See SE eh 20 SSG CR hn og eae ek a ee ae = ous cb ows al Black-bellied plover____=-__--~- pees ee RA eR ies Na Isaed 6 Senpalmatedplovere. = 92 he aes tg ppl ae heh IRN alee A, TOR gee > eat 2 Riddy curnstonet ee. Ve eee eee 2 Rg MA ENR a OR SERN 20 OSnLe yes ees eae BV aes tee se See STO At DE al! 32, 810 These rookeries were first brought to the attention of ornithologists by John James Audubon, who, in his masterful ornithological biog- raphies, gives us an account of a visit to these keys in May, 1832. W. E. D. Scott, in his paper “On birds observed at the Dry Tor- tugas, Florida, during parts of March and April, 1890,”* gives us the first list of birds noted in the group, while Dr. Joseph Thomp- son, United States Navy, in 1903 described “The Tortugas tern colony ” in the fifth volume of Bird Lore.‘ It is safe to state that the most intensive scrutiny to which a wild bird colony has been subjected was made upon the birds of Bird Key by Dr. John B. Watson, professor of experimental and comparative psychology at the Johns Hopkins University, and Dr. K. 8S. Lashley, while a Johnston scholar in psychology at the same institution. These gentlemen subjected the terns to exhaustive psychoanalyses with the hope of throwing light on the problem of the homing instinct. In getting at the basic data underlying this problem they found it necessary to study the various phases of the activities displayed by the birds in and about the island. The results of their splendid efforts are embodied in a series of papers from which I shall take the liberty to quote at some length.* ° 1 Based upon Doctor Watson’s census of 1908. 2 An estimate admitting two-fifths as many offspring as we had parents. 3The Auk, vol. 7, pp. 301-314. *Bird Lore, vol. 5, pp. 73-84. 5“ The Behavior of Noddy and Sooty Terns,” John B. Watson, Papers from the Tortugas Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, vol. 2, No. 103, 1908, pp. 189-255. ’* Homing and Related Activities of Birds,” papers from the Dept. of Marine Biology of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, vol. 7, No. 211, AG? ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. It is the homing instinct of birds that renders the Tortugas the most interesting group of all the Florida Keys, for here no less than four species of terns perform their housekeeping, and two of these, namely, the sooty and noddy tern, are not known to breed in any other part of the United States. Most of our birds leave their place of birth as soon as they have attained sufficient strength to roam. Many of them perform re- markable journeys in their annual migration from the breeding grounds to their winter home in the fall; and when the breeding season approaches and the reproductive instinct asserts itself they go back to the breeding grounds in the spring. The late Prof. W. W. Cooke, has shown that the golden plover and the arctic tern dwell alternately in the Arctic and in the Antarctic, performing a journey of over 11,000 miles twice a year. He has pointed out that the golden plover in one flight covers a distance of 2,400 miles without a stop. Unlike man, who seems ever ready to shift his tent to where he is afforded the most favorable conditions for existence, most birds cling tenaciously to the immediate surroundings jin which they were cradled when it comes to a selection of a nesting site. This fact was first demonstrated by sea birds known to breed on certain islands, and on these only. More recently it has also been shown that many of the lesser birds cling equally persistently to their nesting site and it has been found that some not only seek the same general region, but the same shelf of rocks and even the same nest year after year. Look at a good hydrographic chart (pl. 1) and you will note that the Tortugas, though situated on the shallow continental shelf, are on the extreme outer limit thereof, away out in the Gulf of Mexico, removed from the murky waters of the southward drift that constitutes the coastal waters of the peninsula, and in a little less de- gree that bathing the upper keys. Here we have the clear water of the Gulf Stream and the first clear water shallows available for a spawning ground to the fishes of the Gulf. The presence of an enormous number of small fish fry at the proper season was, prob- ably more than any other factor, the determining cause in the selec- tion of this site for the rookery by the ancestors of the enormous tern colonies that breed here. It is also quite possible that the factor de- termining the time of arrival and departure of the birds may depend upon the migration and spawning season of the fish used by these birds as food. When not on the breeding grounds, the noddy and sooty terns roam in small groups over the waters to the south of our islands. I have met them on both coasts of Cuba and Haiti, where they can be ’ BIRD ROOKERIES OF TORTUGAS—BARTSCH. 473 seen fishing as they are wont to do in the Tortugas, or resting on float- ing driftwood, sand beaches, or low, rocky ledges, but in March or April (the time seems to vary in different years, as shown by the table below) the homing instinct seizes them and they head for their favorite island of the Tortugas group. Table showing dates of arrival and departure. Data furnished by the Biological Survey, U. S. Department of Agriculture, whose warden protects the colony from eggers.) Year. Arrival. Departure. INU Gehs5 Sscos se oases sass she eb cess obsess dee seas Stee ADE eta see seen Sept. 22. IR Dsacinecegos cee SaeeboSoaano doedse Suu cbee see qa0Sen 4 Hea boSa SOs caeS nc eDaeeeeeSeac Aug. 15-27. POLO ere se ane cee ee sce cee ae enateaa= cies’ INDIE Di siee aes tee seas eces TAD LSA eS eee SE aS De et et Se ae Sa Series = Aprs14-May 622. ./22 ee Aug. 9-Sept. 25. TOLD MEER eerste ee Snaee e eacers SER niet oetste sm aieielete See Mar 20825 tise sete sess Aug. 28-Sept. 20. INT BS sca Se ROR ese Seana netoncds Sap SeT OARS HOSE OE Se PDE OF we seats -eeee ar Aug. 29-Sept. 12. BOILGS a Mia see cee cra ego ase epee eee eee 4 Aprs lS <2 -cc.285 - qaSeree sek Watson and Lashley, in speaking of the Bird Key rookery, 1915, page 61, say: The terns breed in great numbers upon Bird Key. * * * Their nests, of which there were more than 10,000 in 1908, are in many cases closely crowded together, as many as 30 sooty nests being found in an area of 100 square feet, and the nests and eggs are almost indistinguishable to the human observer. Indeed, the island suggests a city of 10,000 houses, all much alike, unnumbered, and set down at random, without streets or definite landmarks. The birds choose their own hests, without error, from among hundreds of similar ones, and under normal conditions never show the slightest hesitation in making their choice. I will now consider, one by one, the various species in the order of their numerical representation. I shall use freely the data furnished by Audubon, Watson, and Lashley in the discussion of the various forms. THE SOOTY TERN (Onychoprion fuscatus). By far the largest number of breeding birds on the Tortugas belong to this species, of which probably more than 25,000 are present on Bird Key at the close of the breeding season. Our earliest record of this colony was furnished by that master of ornithological biography, John James Audubon.t' The description which he gives us of the colony, based upon a visit during the early part of the last century, is extremely interesting. The rareness and in- accessibility of the volume demands a full quotation in order that an adequate comparison may be had with the now existing conditions, We therefore quote the following: Early in the afternoon of the 9th of May, 1832, I was standing on the deck of the United States revenue-cutter the Marion. The weather was very beautiful, 1 Ornithological Biography, vol. 3, pp. 263-269. 1835. 474 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. although hot, and a favourable breeze wafted us onwards in our course. Captain Robert Day, who stood near me, on looking toward the south-west, ordered some person to be sent to the top to watch the appearance of land. A young lad was instantly seen ascending the rigging, and not many minutes after he had at- tained his post, we heard from him the cry of ‘land.’ It was the low keys of the Tortugas, toward which we had been steering. No change was made in the course of the “ Lady of the Green Mantle,” who glided along as if aware of the knowledge possessed by her commander. Now the light-house lantern appeared like a bright gem glittering in the rays of the sun. Presently the masts and flags of several wreckers showed us that they were anchored in the small but safe harbour. We sailed on, and our active pilot, who was also the first lieutenant of the Marion, pointed out to me a small island [Bird Key] which he said was at this season the resort of thousands of birds, which he described by calling them “ Black and White Sea Swallows,” and again another islet, [Bush Key] equally well stocked with another kind of Sea Swallow, which he added were called Noddies, because they frequently alighted on the yards of vessels at night, and slept there. He assured me that both species were on their respective breeding- grounds by millions, that the eggs of the first lay on the sand under bushes, at intervals of about a foot, while the nests of the last were placed as thickly on the bushes of their own chosen island. ‘‘ Before we cast anchor,’ he added, “vou will see them rise in swarms like those of bees when disturbed in their hive, and their cries will deafen you.” You may easily imagine how anxious I was to realize the picture; I expressed a wish to be landed on the island; but the kind officer replied, ‘My good Sir, you will soon be tired of their incessant noise and numbers, and will enjoy the procuring of Boobies much better.” After various tacks, we made our way through the curious and extremely dangerous channels leading to the small harbour, where we anchored. As the chain grated the ear, I saw a cloud-like mass arise over the “ Bird Key” from which we were only a few hundred yards distant; and in a few minutes the yawl was carrying myself and my assistant ashore. On landing, I felt for a moment as if the birds would raise me from the ground, so thick were they all round, and so quick the motion of their wings. Their cries were indeed deafening, yet not more than half of them took to wing on our arrival, those which rose being chiefly male birds, as we afterwards ascertained. We ran across the naked beach, and as we entered the thick cover before us, and spread in different directions, we might at every step have caught a sitting bird, or one scrambling through the bushes to escape from us. Some of the sailors, who had more than once been there before, had provided themselves with sticks, with which they knocked down the birds as they flew thick around and over them. In less than half an hour, more than a hundred Terns lay dead in a heap, and a number of baskets were filled to the brim with eggs. We then returned on board, and declined disturbing the rest any more that night. My assistant, Mr. H. Ward, of London, skinned upward of fifty specimens, aided by Captain Day’s servant. The sailors told me that the birds were excellent eating, but on this point I cannot say much in corrob- oration of their opinion, although I can safely recommend the eggs, for I con- sidered them delicious, in whatever way cooked, and during our stay at the Tortugas we never passed a day without providing ourselves with a good quantity of them. The next morning Mr. Ward told me that great numbers of the Terns left their island at two o’clock, flew off towards the sea, and returned a little before day, or about four o’clock. This I afterwards observed to be regularly the case, unless there happened to blow a gale, a proof that this species sees as well during the night as by day, when they also go to sea in search of food BIRD ROOKERIES OF TORTUGAS—BARTSCH. 475 for themselves and their young. In this respect they differ from the Sterna stolida, which, when overtaken at sea by darkness, even when land is only a few miles distant, alight on the water, and frequently on the yards of vessels, where if undisturbed they sleep until the return of day. It is from this cir- cumstance that they have obtained the name of Noddy, to which in fact they are much better entitled than the present species, which has also been so named, but of which I never observed any to alight on a vessel in which I was for thirty-five days in the Gulf of Mexico, at a time when that bird was as abundant during the day as the other species, of which many were caught at my desire by the sailors. The present species rarely alights on the water, where it seems incommoded by its long tail; but the other, the Sterna stolida, which, in the shape of its tail, and in some of its habits, shows an affinity to the Petrels, not only fre- quently alights on the sea, but swims about on floating patches of the Gulf Weed, seizing on the small fry and little crabs that are found among the branches of that plant, or immediately beneath them. I have often thought, since I became acquainted with the habits of the bird which here occupies our attention, that it differs materially from all the other species of the same genus that occur on our coasts. The Sterna fuliginosa never dives headlong and perpendicularly as the small species are wont to do, such as St. hirundo, St. arctica, St. minuta, St. Dougallii, or St. nigra, but passes over its prey in a curved line, and picks it up. Its action I cannot better compare to that of any other bird than the Night Hawk, while plunging over its female. I have often observed this Tern follow and hover in the wake of a porpoise, while the latter was pursuing its prey, and at the instant when by a sudden dash it frightens and drives toward the surface the fry around it, the Tern as suddenly passes over the spot, and picks up a small fish or two. Nor is the flight of this Tern characterized by the buoyancy and undecided- ness, if I may so speak, of the other species mentioned above, it being as firm and steady as that of the Cayenne Tern, excepting during the movements per- formed in procuring its food. Like some of the smaller gulls, this bird not un- frequently hovers close to the water to pick up floating objects, such as small bits of fat pork and greasy substances thrown overboard purposely for making the experiment. It is not improbable that the habits peculiar to this species, the Noddy, and one or two others, of which I shall have occasion to speak else- where, may tend to induce systematic writers to piace them in a new “sub- genus.” There is a circumstance connected with the habits of the two species of which I now more particularly speak, which, although perhaps somewhat out of place, I can not refrain from introducing here. It is that the Sterna stolida always forms a nest on trees or bushes, on which that bird alights with as much ease as a Crow or.Thrush; whereas the Sterna fuliginosa never forms a nest of any sort, but deposits its eggs in a slight cavity which it scoops in the sand under the trees. But, reader, let us return to the Bird Key. Early the next morning I was put on shore, and remained there until I had completed my observations on the Terns. I paid no attention to their lament- able cries, which were the less piercing that on this occasion I did not molest them in the least. Having seated myself on the shelly sand, which here formed the only soil, I remained almost motionless for several hours, in con- sequence of which the birds alighted about me, at the distance of only a few yards, so that I could plainly see with what efforts and pains the younger females deposited their eggs. Their bill was open, and their pantings indicated their distress, but after the egg had been expelled, they immediately walked off in an awkward manner, until they reached a place where they could arise AT6 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. without striking the branches of the bushes near them, when they flew away. Here and there, in numerous places within twenty yards of me, females, havy- ing their complement of eggs, alighted, and quietly commenced the labour of incubation. Now and then a male bird also settled close by, and immediately disgorged a small fish within the reach of the female. After some curious reciprocal nods of their heads, which were doubtless intended as marks of affection, the caterer would fly off. Several individuals, which had not com- menced laying their eggs, I saw scratch the sand with their feet, in the manner of the common fowl, while searching for food. In the course of this operation, they frequently seated themselves in the shallow basin to try how it fitted their form, or find out what was still wanted to ensure their comfort. Not the least semblance of a quarrel did I observe between any two of these interesting creatures ; indeed, they all appeared as if happy members of a single family; and as if to gratify my utmost wishes, a few of them went through the process of courtship in my presence. The male birds frequently threw their heads over their back as it were, in the manner of several species of gulls; they also swelled out their throats, walked round the females, and ended by uttering a soft puffing sound as they caressed them. Then the pair for a moment or two walked round each other, and at length rose on wing and soon disappeared. Such is one of the many sights it has been my good fortune to witness, and by each of them have I been deeply impressed with a sense of the pervading power of the Deity. The Sooty Tern always lays three eggs as its full number, and in no instance, among thousands of the nests which were on the Bird Key, did I find one more when the female was sitting close. I was desirous of ascertaining whether the male and the female incubate alternately; but this I was unable to do, as the birds frequently left their eggs for half an hour or even three-quarters at a time, but rarely longer. This circumstance, together with the very slight difference in size and colour between the sexes, was the cause of my failure. It was curious to observe their actions whenever a large party landed on the island. All those not engaged in incubation would immediately rise in the air and scream aloud; those on the ground would then join them as quickly as they could, and the whole forming a vast mass, with a broad extended front, would as it were charge us, pass over for fifty yards or so, then suddenly wheel round, and again renew their attack. This they would repeat six or eight times in succession, When the sailors, at our desire, all shouted as loud as they could, the phalanx would for an instant become perfectly silent, as if. to gather our meaning; but the next moment, like a huge wave breaking on the beach, it would rush forward with deafening noise. Vhen wounded and seized by the hand, this bird bites severely, and utters a plaintive cry differing from its usual note, which is loud and shrill, resem- bling the syllables o0-ee, oo-ee. Their nests are all scooped near the roots or stems of the bushes, and under the shade of their boughs, in many places within a few inches of each other. There is less difference between their eggs, than is commonly seen in those of water birds, both with respect to size and colouring. They generally measure two inches and one-eighth, by one and a half, have a smooth shell, with the ground of a pale cream colour, sparingly marked with various tinges of lightish umber, and still lighter marks of purple, which appear as if within the shell. The Lieutenant, N. Lacoste, Esq., informed me that shortly after the young are hatched, they ramble pell-mell over the island, to meet their parents, and be fed by them; that these birds have been known to collect there for the purpose of breeding, since the oldest wreckers on that coast ean recollect; and that they usually arrive in May, and remain until the beginning of August, when they retire southward to spend the winter months, BIRD ROOKERIES OF TORTUGAS—BARTSCH, ATT I could not however obtain a sufficiently accurate description of the different states of plumage which they go through, so as to enable me to describe them in the manner I should wish to do. All that I can say is, that before they take their departure, the young are grayish-brown above, dull white beneath, and have the tail very short. At Bird Key we found a party of Spanish Eggers from Havannah. They had already laid in a cargo of about eight tons of the eggs of this Tern and the Noddy. On asking them how many they supposed they had, they answered that they never counted them, even while selling them, but disposed of them at seventy-five cents per gallon; and that one turn to market sometimes produced upwards of two hundred dollars, while it took only a week to sail backwards and forwards and collect their cargo. Some eggers, who now and then come from Key West, sell their eggs at twelve and a half cents the dozen; but where- ever these eggs are carried, they must soon be disposed of and eaten, for they become putrid in a few weeks. On referring to my journal once more, I find the following remarks with reference to the Sooty Tern. It would appear that at some period not very remote, the Noddy, Sterna stolida, must have had it in contemplation to ap- propriate to itself its neighbour’s domains; as on examination of this island, several thousand nests of that bird were found built on the tops of the bushes, although no birds of the species were about them. It is therefore probable that if such an attempt was made by them, they were defeated and forced to con- tine themselves to the neighbouring island, where they breed by themselves, although it is only a few miles distant. That such interferences and conflicts now and then occur among different species of birds, has often been observed by other persons, and in several instances by myself, particularly among Herons. In these cases, right or wrong, the stronger party never fails to dis- lodge the weaker, and keep possession of the disputed ground. Soon after the birds arrive on the island a nesting site is sought. Dr. Watson gives a most graphic account of this. I shall therefore let him speak. My observations began late one afternoon, before any eggs had been laid. Hundreds of the birds were grouped together, incessantly fighting and scream- ing. It quickly became apparent that most of them had chosen a nest site and were defending it against all late comers. Both male and female were present. Each pair in this particular locality defended a circular territory, roughly 14 inches to 2 feet in diameter. Other birds in wandering around would stumble into this sacred territory and a fight would ensue. The fights would often lead to encroachments upon the territory of still other birds. The number of those fighting would thus be constantly increased. I have seen as many as 14 sooties thus engaging in a fight. Birds 10 and 15 feet away would rush into the fight and the noise and confusion beggared description. Sometimes as many as 10 or 15 such fighting groups could be observed in the area of 1,000 square feet. Quiet would momentarily ensue and then be broken by another series of fights. During the choice of the nesting site the fights continue day and night, with only intermittent periods of quiet. Of the actual nest construction he tells the following: The actual construction of the nest, when a nest structure is formed, begins after an undefended area has been found. The process of nest building is some- what as follows: The bird puts the breast to the ground, thereby supporting the body and leaving the legs comparatively free. The feet are used as a com- 478 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. bined scraper and shovel. A few backward strokes of the feet are made, which serve both to loosen the sand and to remove it from beneath the body. The bird then turns slightly and repeats the process. When it has turned 360° (or less) it begins to use the breast as a shaper. By continuing this process, the depression is soon made to assume the required diameter and depth. My notes show that the bay cedar leaves are often gathered up and placed around the rim of the nest as the hole is being dug. I can not say which sex does the work, but I believe that both male and female engage in it. As soon as the depres- sion is made, both birds begin to defend it. Naturally, where no nest is made, the nest site alone is chosen and defended as described above. An approximate count of the total number of the sooty nests was made in 1908 in the following way: Those parts of the surface of the island containing nests were subdivided into 10 separate areas. The number of square feet in each area was next determined. The average number of nests (spots where eggs were deposited) per square foot was then determined separately for each area. By means of these data, the total (approximate) number of nests on the island was found to be 9,429. Multiplying by two, as in the previous case, we have 18,858 as the total number of adult sooties. It may be said that the above determination was made late in the brooding season, after all the eggs had been laid. It may also be of interest to note that in localities where the nests are very numerous they often are not more than 10 to 12 inches apart. Plates 5, 6, 8 show the disposition of the nests, for each bird in the picture is occupying his home. The sooty usually lays but one egg, though occasionally two are deposited. Watson found only 25 nests containing more than one egg in all the thousands examined and but a single one in which two birds were actually hatched and reared. On plate 8 are figured five eggs selected to show the greatest range of color variation observed, for although the general type of coloration is very similar, a con- siderable diversity is found to be present when one actually searches for variations from the typical form which is represented by the figure. Watson gives us an intimate picture of the changes that take place in the habits of the adult bird during the various stages of the cycle that begins with nest building and probably ends with the birds leaving the island. He has with infinite patience worked out the daily life routine, with all of its vicissitudes, of the young bird from the time it breaks from the shell until it finds its wings. I shall therefore let him speak. The general disposition of the sooty, like that of the noddy, changes after the egg is laid and in the same way. Some of them become far bolder than the noddies in a corresponding situation. It was possible for me to lie down within a few inches of a brooding sooty and have it remain on the nest indefinitely. If the hand is extended toward the sooty it will attack vigorously, but I have never had a group of flying sooties attack me as I approached the vicinity of their nests, as was sometimes the case when I ventured too near the nests of the noddies. The birds are very variable in this respect. When one ap- proaches a neighborhood containing many nests, the majority of the birds will fly up into the air, circling round and round, screaming all the while. If one remains quiet, the birds will gradually return and cover the eggs. Gradually BIRD ROOKERIES OF TORTUGAS—-BARTSCH, A479 the nests nearest one’s position will be cautiously approached and then occupied. A certain small percentage of the birds will remain on the nest, no matter how violent the disturbance. It appears * * * that the shift at the nest is roughly a diurnal one, but that at times it may not occur except once in 48 hours. * * * Apparently most of the shifts are made at night. I attempted on many occasions to deter- mine the hour of shifting by leaving a lantern near the nest and making ob- servations during the night, but the light could not be arranged so as not to frighten the birds, and their reactions consequently were not natural. The birds would refuse to cover their eggs if the light were made intense enough to be of value to me. Watson tells us that observation on 16 marked nests proved that the period of incubation for the sooty is 26 days. We continue to quote from him: During the first three days after the appearance of the young, the sooty is reluctant to leave the young and nest on disturbance. Later the adults fly away at the slightest disturbance, much as they do during the “laying” sea- son. It is interesting to observe at every disturbance of a nesting place how quickly the ground will be deserted by both young and old, after the young have reached the age of 3 days. As they leave, the alarm cry is sounded and the commotion spreads to all the near-by nests. When quiet is restored the birds again alight near the nest and gradually approach it. The young birds meantime have run to the bushes, where they remain motionless after sticking their heads into the crotch of some bush or depressing the body against any convenient solid object. The protective coloring of the young sooties is marked. When motionless, aS above suggested, they are difficult to find. When the adult returns to the nest, the young birds gradually come from their hiding places at the peculiar clucking call of the parent. The parents (after the first few days) recognize their own offspring with ease and accuracy, often going to meet them as they emerge from the bushes. * * * The adult would circle over the area and give a call; it would be an- swered and random movements would give place to direct. The bird would steer immediately for the source of the call. By peculiar chuckling sounds, which are emitted at this period when mates return, one can be sure that the proper nest has been located. I observed this many times during one evening. After the young were 20 to 30 days old I have heard the young birds answer the call of the parent back and forth a dozen times before the latter actually alighted. Neither young nor old is quiet during this period of the nesting season. On the contrary, the noise is practically doubled. In addition to the ordinary sounds made by the adults and the new cries which are added at this time, there is present the high-pitched, insistent ‘‘peep-peep” of the young terns. Mo- mentarily the sounds of the adults will cease and the cries of the little ones remind one very strongly of a poultry yard on a tremendous seale. Though the parents feed the young at any hour of the day, feeding can be most easily observed at dusk. It has already been mentioned that the sooties hurry home at nightfall in great numbers. From 4 until 8 p. m. this feeding process keeps the island in commotion. The feeding of the young birds has many interested spectators. While I have never seen the:terns from the neigh- boring nests, which may be observing the process, attempt to rob the young bird, I judge from the actions of the feeding parent that such is occasionally the case. If the parent happens to disgorge more than the young tern can take into its 480 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. beak and the food is allowed to fall to the ground, it is ludicrous to watch the rapidity with which the parent picks up the food and reswallows it. Often- times the mate of the feeding parent is near; its role is a purely passive one except when the “ spectators ” attempt to approach too near. Its part is then to assist in warding them off. * * #* The parents alternately feed the young, but instead of a diurnal period of feeding, such as the parents have before the appearance of the young, the inter- vals vary anywhere from four to seven hours. * * * The care of the young, especially from 20 days on, must be an exhausting process for the parents. They become emaciated and somewhat bedraggled in appearance. This is not to be wondered at when we consider that a healthy young sooty can eat anywhere from 20 to 40 minnows of no insignificant size in a day. It may be of general interest to note that after the first few days the parent always recognizes and feeds its own young and no others, and fur- thermore, the young tern recognizes its own parents and attempts to feed only from them. Never but once out of many thousands of observations did I see a young tern begging food from a stranger. Watson and Lashley have shown conclusively by a large series of experiments that the sooty tern seems to entertain man’s legal aspect of property rights. Many attempts were made to shift nests to the edge of the beach with the purpose of transferring them to rafts in the hope of ultimately transplanting a part of the colony to other keys, but however slowly such shifts were made (6 inches or so per day) the nests were either abandoned when moved 4 feet or less from their original position, or the eggs were rolled back as fast as they could be moved forward. On the other hand, a vertical elevation of the nest to a considerable height did not cause its abandonment, as shown by the following experiment made by Watson: A nest was chosen in an open space, but very close to some bushes. I ob- literated the nest as the bird had constructed it, inserted a black pan, filled this with sand, and constructed a nest inside of it. This gave me an oppor- tunity to move the nest wpward as well as laterally. On returning, the bird alighted on the nest without showing any signs of disturbance. An hour later I came back and pulled the pan out of the sand and put a few sticks under it. The bird returned, but was not disturbed by this slight change. I then drove in four stakes 10 centimeters high and mounted the pan thereon. This served to raise the nest upward without disturbing the other relations of the nest. The bird on returning alighted immediately on nest. The other birds gathered around. craning their necks and peering upward. The bird then stood up and came to the edge of the pan and peered down. This seemed to disturb it and it flew to the ground, but hopped up again immediately, covered the egg and sat there in comfort the rest of the day. Raising the nest 10 centimeters in the air requires almost no adjustment on the part of the bird. On account of a storm on the island, which lasted for two days, no further experiments were made at this time on this nest. I next raised this nest 100 centimeters ; bird alighted immediately squarely on the top of the nest; did not make a false movement. On craning neck over the edge of the pan a little later, however, became disturbed and alighted on the ground, and remained there for 45 min- utes without attempting again to get on nest. I forced the bird to fly up. Again BIRD ROOKERIES OF TORTUGAS—BARTSCH. 481 alighted on the nest and began to brood the egg in comfort. On my return several hours later it was still sitting quietly on nest. On the second day after this (when this same bird was at the nest again) I lowered the nest back to 10 centimeters, its first vertical position. On return- ing the bird alighted squarely on the nest, making perfect adjustment. 1 scared the bird away. On its return the bird again adjusted accurately. I next moved the nest back to the height of 100 centimeters. Bird returned and alighted on egg and adjusted to it before I could get back to my position in the bushes. Adjustment in the vertical plane is made with exceeding rapidity and ease. I then moved the nest 100 centimeters to the east, leaving it 100 centimeters above the ground. Behavior of bird very interesting. Would not alight on nest. Alighted at the former ground position. After a long time flew from the old position and up to new position of nest. Immediately hopped down and began a most peculiar performance. Bird would hover in space, attempting to adjust to the nest in the air at its former position and height. It would then fly away again and come back to the old position and try to alight in space. This was done 20 times. At the end of 20 minutes the bird alighted upon the pan in its new position and sat down on egg. I then scared the bird away 5 successive times, to see if it would alight immediately upon the pan. Each time on returning the bird alighted at the old ground position and pro- ceeded from this point to the new position of the nest. I then put the pan back in its old position. Bird returned and alighted on pan immediately. In this position I then raised the pan to a height of 200 eentimeters. This raised the nest well up above any of the surrounding bushes. This did not cause the bird the slightest disturbance. I forced it to make three or four adjustments to the nest in immediate succession. It made them all with equal precision. Watson tells us that the habit which he has called the sunning reaction in the noddies, while present to some extent before the appearance of the young, shows itself in completed form as the development of the young progresses. He also states that he has never seen sooties roosting upon stakes and buoys, etc., but that “ the sooty always leaves the island and returns to it without at any time having ceased its flight. This seems rather remarkable when we take into account the fact that the sooty leaves the island in the early morning and oftentimes does not return until toward night- fale”? At times, however, they do rest in elevated positions, as shown in plate 4, in which a group of sooties is occupying the tops of a bunch of bay cedars. When flying low over the water to the fishing ground the sooty resembles the black skimmer in its flight to such a remarkable degree that I have very often been forced to pick up my glass in the hope of listing this bird for the Tortugas region. The fishing is done by quickly picking up such small fry as may be forced to jump above the surface by pursuing larger fish. The birds may be seen fishing singly or sometimes a hundred or more of both noddies and sooties 482 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN. INSTITUTION, 1917. may be present. The number usually depends upon the size of the harassed school of fish. As to the nocturnal activities of the birds, Watson states: From other observations, too numerous to mention separately, I conclude that all birds return to the island at night. Many times just at sundown I have come from Loggerhead Key to Bird Key. The terns are coming in by hundreds and thousands, flying low over the water. By the time twilight has faded the water is entirely deserted. Several trips made to Fort Jefferson late at night showed that these birds do not leave the island at night. The moment the island is reached, however, no matter at what hour of the night, cne finds the sooties busily flying from one place to another on it. An interesting pastime of the sooties is described by Watson. The sooties often soar round and round, getting higher and higher until lost to sight. They usually join the frigate birds in this reaction. I am inclined to think that the sooty when sufficiently fed spends a large part of its time in such maneuvers. It will circle in the air again and again, giving out the shrill nasal alarm ery of 63h, Gh, 64h. It is the most restless and noisy bird I know, and almost as much so at night as during the day. Sleep apparently is taken during both day and night by dozing momentarily at intervals. How the bird maintains its vigor with no more continuous rest than it takes is a mystery. This pe- culiarity of the sooty has led to the popular nickname of “ wide-awake tern.” THE NODDY TERN (Anois stolidus). Here, as in the case of the sooty tern, we are indebted to Audubon tor the first account of this colony. I shall quote what he has to tell us of his experience with these birds on the Tortugas in 1832. This sketch is the more interesting on account of the fact that the birds no longer breed upon the key (Bush Key) on which he found them nest- ing, as all the vegetation, in fact, most everything shiftable above the sea, has long since been swept away by the waves. His reference to noddy nests on Bird Key mentioned in his sooty tern biography shows that noddies had built nests in the bay cedars of that key, although he states that they were not occupied at the time of his visit. Since then the colony has been forced to make a complete shift and the choice between Bird and Loggerhead Key has fallen to the former, where Watson estimated the presence of 1,400 adult birds in 1908. We shall now quote from Audubon. About the beginning of May, the Noddies collect from all parts of the Gulf of Mexico, and the coasts of Florida, for the purpose of returning to their breeding places, on one of the Tortugas called Noddy Key. They nearly equal in number the Sooty Terns, which also breed on an island a few miles distant. The Noddies form regular nests of twigs and dry grass, which they place on the bushes or low trees, but never on the ground. On visiting their island on the 11th of May, 1832, I was surprised to see that many of them were repair- ing and augmenting nests that had remained through the winter, while others were employed in constructing new ones, and some were already sitting on their BIRD ROOKERIES OF TORTUGAS—BARTSCH. 483 eggs. In a great many instances, the repaired nests formed masses nearly two feet in height, and yet all of them had only a slight hollow for the eggs, broken shells of which were found among the entire ones, as if they had been pur- posely placed there. The birds did not discontinue their labours, although there were nine or ten of us walking among the bushes, and when we had gone a few yards into the thicket, thousands of them flew quite low over us, some at times coming so close as to enable us to catch a few of them with the hand. On one side might be seen a Noddy carrying a stick in its bill, or a bird pick- ing up something from the ground to add to its nest; on the other several were seen sitting on their eggs unconscious of danger, while their mates brought them food. The greater part rose on wing as we advanced, but re-alighted as soon as we had passed. The bushes were rarely taller than ourselves, so that we could easily see the eggs in the nests. This was quite a new sight to me, and not less pleasing than unexpected. The Noddy, like most other species of Terns, lays three eggs, which average two inches in length, by an inch and three-eighths in breadth, and are of a red- dish-yellow colour, spotted and patched with dull red and faint purple. They afford excellent eating, and our sailors seldom failed to collect bucket- fuls of them daily during our stay at the Tortugas. The wreckers assured me that the young birds remain along with the old through the winter, in which respect the Noddy, if this account be correct, differs from other species, the young of which keep by themselves until spring. At the approach of a boat, the Noddies never fiew off their island, in the manner of the Sooty Terns. They appeared to go farther out to sea than those birds, in search of their food, which consists of fishes mostly caught amid the floating sea-weeds, these Terns seizing them, not by plunging perpendicularly downwards, as other species do, but by skimming close over the surface in the manner of Gulls, and also by alighting and swimming around the edges of the weeds. This I had abundant opportunities of seeing while on the Gulf of Mexico. The flight of this bird greatly resembles that of the Night Hawk when passing over meadows or rivers. When about to alight on the water the Noddy keeps its wings extended upwards, and touches it first with its feet. It swims with considerable buoyancy and grace, and at times immerses its head to seize a fish. It does not see well by night, and it is perhaps for this reason that it frequently alights on the spars of vessels, where it sleeps so sound that the seamen often catch them. When seized in the hand, it utters a rough ery, not unlike that of a young American Crow taken from the nest. On such oc- easions, it does not disgorge its food, like the Cayenne Tern and other species although it bites severely with quickly repeated movements of the bill, which, on missing the object aimed at, snaps like that of our larger Fly-catchers. Some which I kept several days refused all kinds of food, became dull and languid, and at length died. 4 While hovering over us near their nests, these birds emitted a low querulous murmur, and, if unmolested, would attempt to alight on our heads. After a few visits, however, they became rather more careful of themselves, although the sitting birds often suffered us to put a hat over them. Like the Sooty Tern, this species incubates both day and night. The differences exhibited by Terns with respect to their mode of nestling and incubation, are great, even in the same neighbourhood, and under the same degree of atmospheric temperature. This species breeds on bushes or low trees, placing several nests on the same bush, or in fact as many as it will hold. The Sterna fuliginosa scoops out a slight hollow in the sana, under the bushes, without forming any nest, and in- A84 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. cubates closely like the former. The Sandwich, the Cayenne, and the Roseate Terns, drop their eggs on the sand or the bare rock, and seldom sit upon them until evening, or during cloudy or rainy weather. The Cayenne, Sooty and Noddy Terns differ greatly in their flight, their manner of feeding, and the extent of their migrations. The tail of the Noddy is cuneate, instead of being forked, in which respect it differs essentially from that of the other species. Perhaps the naturalists who placed it in the same genus with the Roseate Tern may have been nodding over their books. The several years of study by Watson and Lashley have added much to our knowledge of this species, and I shall take the liberty to quote from them extensively in order to render the picture as complete as possible. Of the mating, Watson states: My notes contain a rather full account of a striking series of reactions between two noddies which I tcok to be a case of mating and choice of nest site, but since it occurred late in the season and did not lead to a completed nest, I advance it tentatively. One day I observed several noddies “sunning” upon the wire covering of one of my large experimental cages. Suddenly, one of the birds (male) began nodding and bowing to a bird standing near (female). This nodding reaction is one of the most interesting and ludicrous acts of the Noddy Tern. It is quite elaborate. Two birds will face each other, one will then bow the head almost to the ground, raise it quickly almost to a vertical position, and then quickly lower it. He will repeat this over and over again with great rapidity. The other bird goes through a similar pantomime. If a stranger bird alights near the group, he salutes those nearest, and is in turn saluted by them. During the pantomime a sound is rarely made. The female gave immediate attention and began efforts to extract fish from the throat of the male. The male would first make efforts to disgorge, then put the tip of the beak almost to the ground and incline it to the angle most suitable to admit her beak. She would then thrust her beak into his (the ordinary feeding reaction). The feeding reac- tion was alternated with the nodding. After this series of acts had been repeated 20 times, the male flew off and brought a stick. He deposited this near the female and then again offered to feed her. She again tried to feed, then the male attempted sexual relations. She immediately flew away, but almost immediately returned and alighted at a slightly different place. The male again brought the stick and again bowed and offered to feed her. She accepted the food, but again flew away when the male attempted to mount her. At this juncture the island was disturbed and my observations could not continue. The noddy constructs its nest from (1) loose dead branches of the bay cedar bushes; (2) of seaweed; (3) of a combination of these; (4) of a com- bination of either or both of these with various kinds of sea shells and coral. When the shells and coral are employed, they are often placed as an inner lining to the nest and the egg is deposited directly upon them. The nest itself is a quite variable structure, and usually loosely put together. It is very shal- low, and this is rather singular, since the wind often blows the egg or the young to the ground. The nests remaining from year to year are utilized ty the birds at succes- sive nesting periods; whether or not by the same pair can not with certainty be answered at present. On account of this utilization of the old nest from BIRD ROOKERIES OF TORTUGAS—BARTSCH. 485 year to year, some of the oldest nests have grown to enormous size, due to the addition of new materials at each successive season. Both birds work, bringing sticks, seaweed, shells, and coral. Both birds shape the nest clumsily by pecking and pulling at the sticks. They never weave the sticks so as to form a compact and durable nest. The stick is dropped on the rim, then drawn into position. Frequently, first one bird, then the other, sits in the nest and shapes it. In order to do this the bird rises on its feet and depresses its breast and turns round and round. The material is obtained both far and near. Floating sticks and seaweed are gathered from the water. They frequently alight under the nests of other birds and gather up the fallen branches. They even take the material from other nests which are left momentarily unguarded. Frequently fights ensue. The birds work neither steadily nor rapidly; 10, 15, 20 minutes elapse before either makes a trip. Very often the nest has the appearance of being constructed directly upon — the ground, but a closer examination usually shows that it has been built upon a tuft of grass or upon the stem of a bush, the branches of which have been broken off close to the ground. The nearest approach I found to the laying of the egg upon the bare ground was in the case of two nests built on a bare horizontal board lying among the cactus growth. In each of these cases the egg was laid directly upon the board, but some dozen or two small sticks re- tained the egg in position. * * * While observing the noddies at work upon the nest, it soon became apparent that the daily routine of the female was different from that of the male. From many hundreds of observations it was also evident that the male feeds the female at more or less regular intervals. * * * The male returns with a full-laden crop. He alights directly upon the nest or near the female. The female at once shows signs of life, and as they ap- proach each other they begin nodding. Then the male invites the female to feed by putting his beak down in a position convenient to her. She gets the food by taking it directly from the mouth of the male, the male disgorging it by successive muscular contractions of the throat and abdomen. The impression one gets from this ludicrous performence is that the bird is choking to death. During the whole of the process of feeding a soft, nasal, rattling purr is emitted, presumably by the female. This purring sound is an invariable indi- cation that feeding is taking place. It is to be heard on no other occasion. After the egg is laid a marked change appears in the behavior of both the male and the female. The birds will attack even a human intruder, and their defense of the nest against their own kind becomes even more strict than before. Oftentimes the birds will sit on the egg and allow themselves to be caught, striking viciously all the while with their long, keen, pointed beaks. Individuals vary greatly in this respect. On my daily rounds, as I approached the vicinity of a group of nests, several noddies would usually advance to meet me, striking viciously at my head. Their attacks would continue until I withdrew. Many times I have had my hat knocked off and the blood brought from my scalp by their vicious attacks. Still another marked change occurs in the habits of the birds: The male no longer feeds the female. Each bird takes equal turns at brooding the egg. My attention was first called to this while I was watching the habits of the birds before the egg was laid. Several nests in the vicinity of the place of observation already contained eggs. At these nests I was never able to ob- serve the feeding of the female by the male. At this period the two birds become practically automata. Their life is taken up in alternately brooding the egg 65133°—sm 1917——-82 486 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. and in feeding. The birds spend little or no time together except at night. The one comes to the nest, the other flies away to feed. The period of incubation varies for the noddy from 32 to 35 days. This fact was determined on the basis of 16 observations. The young began to appear on the island about May 9 (1917). The young are cared for in the nest until they become strong enough to leave it and live upon the ground. The young birds born in low nests, even at a very early age (20 days and even earlier), clamber from them with alacrity and hide in near-by bushes when danger is imminent. in many cases these young birds can not get back to the nest. Under these circumstances they remain near the nest locality, and the parents on returning first alight on or near the nest and later hop to the ground and. feed the young pind = Sea As the young advance in age (20 days and at all later ages) the parent will readily leave the nest when disturbed. The tendency in this respect is to revert to the behavior exhibited during the egg-laying season. Examination of the stomach contents of both young noddies and sooties showed the presence of representatives of the two families of fish, Carangidae and Clupeidae.. * * * The birds fish by following schools of minnows which are being attacked by larger fish. The minnow, in its efforts to escape, jumps out of the water and skims the surface for a short distance. The terns pick off these minnows as they hop up above and over the surface of the water. * * * The birds feed singly or in groups, usually in groups. The group may be composed of both noddies and sooties and may contain sometimes as many as 50 to 100 individuals. All during the day groups of noodies and sooties may be seen at work. As the minnows cease to jump above the surface of the water, the group disbands and scatters in every direction. An instant later, as an attack is made upon the minnows in some other locality, the birds im- mediately rush there and renew their feeding. (See plate 21.) In this connection I would add that I have at such times seen noddies dive for their prey with almost the same vigor that the common and least terns engage in their pursuit. I will let Watson continue. Apparently, at the end of two hours the noddy has supplied its needs, for at this time it returns to the island and relieves its mate at the nest. The latter then comes out upon the water and takes, roughly, a two-hour turn at fishing, then likewise returns to the nest. This routine of spending two hours at the nest and two hours on the water is engaged in by all of the noddies during the seasons of brooding and of rearing the young. Watson and Lashley also record an interesting and rather rare habit. In 1910 we saw one noddy fiy into the water, fold its wings, and begin swim- ming like a duck. About 10 other noddies joined this one. This is the only oceasion upon which we have ever witnessed swimming movements. We have never seen the sooty in the water, except when accident has overtaken it. There is one rather interesting difference between the ‘habits of the noddy and those of the sooty which may be mentioned here: Every stake, buoy, or possible resting place upon the water is utilized by the noddy. It will sit al- most motionless upon any object projecting from the water for long periods of time. This habit of theirs is like that found in the cormorants, boobies, and pelicans which are present in the neighborhood. BIRD ROOKERIES OF TORTUGAS—BARTSCH. 487 Speaking of the sunning habits of the noddy, Watson states: Although the reaction is at bottom gregarious * * * the birds are stol- idly indifferent to one another’s presence. They sit silent, head to the wind, elaborately preening their feathers, pecking first at one toe, then at another. Occasionally when another noddy joins the group a mutual nodding is engaged in which at times for no observable reason ends in a fight. The birds here as elsewhere are silent. It is interesting to note that a definite distance is maintained between birds engaged in this activity. The distance is determined, I believe, by the long diameter of the body of the bird—they must have a free space in which to turn. I have seen 10 to 12 birds upon the comb of the roof of the house separated from one another by distances so regular that the un- aided eye can with difficulty distinguish inequalities in the spacing. At night the two birds usually remain in branches near the nest, but if disturbed, both fly away for a short distance and circle back almost immedi- ately to the nest. In flying at night both the noddy and the sooty break their graceful flight into short, ungraceful, and ill-directed choppy swoops, very similar to the way the nighthawk breaks its flight when flying after dusk. THH LEAST TERN (Sternula antillarum antillarum). The call for bird plumage with which to decorate feminine hats bade well to exterminate this most diminutive of our terns. Thanks to the good work of the Audubon Society, enough were saved to leave a remnant for restocking. A small colony formerly bred on the southern end of Loggerhead Key, but the persistent efforts of eggers have banished the species from that island. Last year (1916), however, a single pair reestablished itself here and our plate 22 repre- sents these individuals. The southern sandy end of Long Key boasts of a colony of about 200 pairs. The nest of the least tern is a mere hollow scraped in the sand in which the two, sometimes three, or very rarely four eggs are placed. Not a bit of lining is used, nor is there a rim of shells or shell frag- ments placed about the edge of the nest, as is done by some of the other terns. The nests are always scattered, never crowded. The eggs harmonize extremely well with the coloration of the sand and are very difficult to see, even at a distance of 6 feet. It is their shadow that usually relieves them from the sand, and aids in revealing their presence if you walk on the shady side. The young birds are equally well protected by their mottled coloration, and the tiny chaps seem well aware of this, for they will press themselves flatly against the gravel or shelly beach and remain perfectly motion- less as long as danger threatens. At such times they are extremely difficult to see, and it is usually the dark eye, though partly closed, that offers the greatest contrast and gives the clue to the whereabouts ‘of the little fellows. It is remarkable how this harmonious coloration effectively appears to eliminate an entire colony from the scene, save the flying, piping, and screeching parents. One may, for example, 488 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. pass over the sand flat of Long Key after the young have slipped from their shell, and not see a dozen young birds, but set up your tent on the breeding grounds, and take a station within it, and you will soon see the parents arrive and their call will cause the little fellows to appear on all sides and run up to the parents to accept the dangling minnow from their bill. They seem to be springing from the very ground, for places which you may have carefully scrutinized only a few moments before and passed as sand only, now yield these tiny, animated fluffs of down. A little later the young birds follow the shore line of the beaches, where they indulge in the never-ending occupation of preening the growing feathers, wading, bathing, and occasionally taking a swim. If you surprise them at such a time they will boldly strike out from shore to rapidly place as much dis- tance between you as possible; after a wide detour to the beach, they will make a rapid rush for the cover of the rougher ground or vege- tation. Our figures show birds in various stages of development, ustially in the hiding place. The adult least tern, so far as I know, has no enemies while on the breeding ground. The eggs, however, and probably the young are destroyed by the ghost crab (Ocypode albicans Bosc.) (pl. 26). I have seen large members of this species sidle up to the resting terns and in spite of the vigorous wing beating to which they were subjected, force the bird from the place which it was occupying. This persistent annoyance on the part of the crab appears to permit of but one interpretation; that is, that they are after eggs or young fledglings. I have twice found young birds that had escaped with a partially clipped off wing. One of these, almost fledged (pl. 25), had the primary portion of its wing clipped off very recently, for the wing was still bleeding when the bird was found. The young least terns may also fall the prey of the few laughing gulls that frequent the breeding ground during the season, and it is equally possible that the man-o’-war birds occasionally stoop for these tiny morsels. The fishing of these little terns is a marvelous thing. They are by far the most active and quickest members of the entire group, a bun- dle of nervous energy. They speed over the shallow lagoon until a place is found where, at this season, small fish fry congregate in countless numbers, then a momentary halt, a headlong plunge, a dive with sufficient force to make you fear for the safety of the bird as he strikes the water, but it is only a moment, and he is back in the air, shivers the water from his feathery dress, talking, meanwhile, in his ever-pleasant chatty way as he heads for his family with his slender shining prey. I wish that you might spend a couple of hours within my tent on the breeding grounds of these beautiful creatures and watch their BIRD ROOKERIES OF TORTUGAS—BARTSCH. 489 home life; see the pride with which the male comes with the food for his mate, for he provides for her during the incubation period, and note how coyly she accepts it, and listen to the music of their conversation, for the male apparently begins to tell about how he caught it the moment he heads for shore. At times you would be greatly amused to see how he teasingly refuses to relinquish a choice shiner, turning it before her, now on this side, then on the other, ever deftly squirming to keep it from her; such, and many other little tendernesses occasionally observed in creatures of a higher order, are the order of the day. An hour of watching these swallows of the sea gives one a feeling of kinship and materially expands one’s sympathies for the larger universe. THE ROSEATE TERN (Sterna dougalli). Last year (1917) a colony of about 100 pairs of the roseate tern established itself on the rough coral and shell-strewn northeastern end of Long Key. During the time of my visit, the last 12 days of July, no eggs were found, but young in various stages of develop- ment from a few days old to individuals just finding their wings. It was interesting to quietly drift up the shallow bay inclosed in the curve of Long and Bush Key and on landing at the northern end, make a rush across the narrow hurricane rampart that connects Long with Bush Key. The outer shoal of this rough portion of the key formed the habitat frequented by the young birds. The result of such a sudden visit would be to put all of the adult birds in the air screaming a concerted protest to the intruder (pl. 27), while the young birds would execute a quick scramble for shelter or the water. Ina few minutes a raft of small birds would be swim- ming in a compact body at some distance offshore (pl. 82), and of those remaining on land not one would be in sight. A careful hunt, however, would soon reveal them tucked away in the crevices between the coral boulders, sometimes several young birds under a single coral head. When possible they will crawl completely from sight, but if no cover is present, they will content themselves by merely hiding their heads, as shown by our pictures (pl. 29). At times, too, they merely flatten themselves against the rough ground (pl. 30, fig. A). No matter what their position may be, the young birds are always completely in harmony with their surroundings; the colora- tion of the young birds is in perfect accord with the general color scheme. We have given a number of plates showing the different developmental stages of the bird and its plumage. THE BLACK TERN (Chlidonias nigra surinamensis). During last summer’s visit we found this aberrantly colored mem- ber of the sea swallows present on Long Key during my entire stay at 490 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. the Tortugas; that is, from July 19 until the end of the month. There were at least two dozen birds varying in plumage from the adult blacks through the checkered of the adolescent to the immature of the year. Their occurrence at this time seems to almost. indicate that they might have bred here, but I greatly doubt that this could have been the case, for we have no record of black terns breeding any- where nearly as far south as this. J also failed to find any signs of nests, which I am sure I should have been able to locate had they been present, for I am thoroughly familiar with their nesting habits in the North. THE ROYAL TERN (Thalasseus maximus). A few royal terns are always to be found about the Tortugas during the spring and summer months, but we have no record of their breeding here. A bunch of 14 frequented the northern hook of Log- gerhead Key on fair days where they would preen and doze for hours at a time, usually during the warmer parts of the day, in which oecu- pation they were frequently joined by an even larger number of least terns. Plate 37, figure B, shows the birds in this place in char- acteristic poses. THE MAN-O’-WAR BIRD (Fregata magnificens rethschildi). Until the young noddy and sooty have slipped from their shell, man-o’-war birds are not especially abundant about the Tortugas. It is true, Fort Jefferson, some old stakes and pieces of wreckage on Bird Key, and on the outer reef, furnish desirable resting places for them, and the abundance of fish likewise an adequate food supply, so that there may be a few more birds here at all times than one would see along the rest of the keys,excepting, of course,their roosting place, the little island near New Found Harbor Key and Key West, whose refuse furnishes a never failing food supply. However, when the young terns begin to appear on the ground, the man-o’-war birds increase in numbers until four to five hundred will be found crowding all the available wreckage on Bird Key (pl. 36), where they augment their finny diet by occasionally swallowing a young tern. I have seen them pick up and fly away with an almost fledged bird. We will, therefore, have to consider the man-o-’war bird an enemy of the tern. If you come to dislike the man-o’-war bird for his pilfering en the tern rookeries, you soon lose your dislike when you see him on wing, for there is no bird in existence that equals him when it comes to soaring, a feat for which every airman who sees him envies him. Fort Jefferson, on Garden Key, is an ideal place from which to study his powers of wing. The high wail that circles the structure catches the slightest breeze that may ripple the sea and causes the BIRD ROOKERIES OF TORTUGAS—BARTSCH. 491 air to be upthrust on the windward side, and upon this column of air the man-o’-war birds will poise themselves with such perfect balance that they seem fixed to a certain spot in the sky. A hundred or more birds at a time may be seen thus hanging motionless suspended over the northeast portion of the fort, low down when the wind is slight, and high up when strong, always in the place which suits their powers of adjustment best. Their power of vision is likewise marvelous. I recall being at work in a shallow stretch of water when a fish broke above the sur- face, evidently pursued by a larger member of the finny tribe. A brown pelican at once gave chase and almost reached him, as the fish leaped from the water the third time in short intervals, but a man-o’- war bird that had been suspended way up in the air so high as to appear a mere speck, came down with a rush and snatched it almost from the very beak of the pelican. I have many times since enjoyed casting fish out into the water of Key West Harbor to watch the speed with which man-o’-war birds, soaring high up in the air, will notice them and stoop to pick them up without touching a feather or missing a strike. Our plates 33, 34, and 35 show a series of pictures giving different poses, responses to such baiting in Key West Harbor, while plate 36 shows the man-o’-war birds on Bird Key. At times a superior-winged man-o’-war bird will give chase to a less endowed individual that has captured a fish and worry him until he disgorges it. The pursuing bird will quickly follow the falling fish and snatch it before it reaches the water. The gulls and boobies are similarly parasitized by the man-o’-war. Dr. Charles H. Townsend, the director of the New York Aquarium, gives an interesting brief account on the homing of the man-o’-war bird, from which the following quotation is taken: In the course of a winter’s voyage on the U. 8S. S. Albatross in the South Seas, the writer found among the natives of the Low Archipelago many tame frigate birds. The latter were observed on horizontal perches near the houses, and were supposed to be merely the pets of the children who fed them. They were entirely tame, having been reared in captivity from the nest. As our acquaintance with the people developed, we discovered that the birds were used by them after the manner of homing “ pigeons” to carry messages among the islands. The numerous islands of the Low Archipelago extend for more than a thou- sand miles in a northwest and southeast direction, and it appears that the birds return promptly when liberated from quite distant islands. They are distributed by being put aboard small vessels trading among the islands. The birds are liberated whenever there is news to be carried, returning to their perches sometimes in an hour or less from islands just below the horizon and out of sight of the home base. Generally they are in no great hurry. As the food of the frigate bird may be picked up almost anywhere at sea, there is no means of ascertaining how much time the bird loses in feeding or trying to feed en route, It may also linger to enjoy its liberty with other frigate birds. 492 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. I did not observe tame frigate birds elsewhere in Polynesia, but Mr. Louis Becke, who is familiar with most of the South Sea Islands, says they were used ’ as letter carriers on the Samoan Islands when he was there in 1882, carrying messages between islands 60 to 80 miles apart. When he lived on Nanomaga, one of these islands, he exchanged two tame frigate-birds with a trader living on Nuitao, 60 miles distant, for a tame pair reared on that island. The four birds at liberty frequently passed from one island to the other on their own account, all going together on visits to each other’s homes, where they were fed by the natives on their old perches. Mr. Becke’s pair usually returned to him within 24 to 36 hours. He tested the speed of the frigate by sending one of his birds by vessel to Nuitao where it was liberated with a message at half past 4 in the afternoon. Before 6 o’clock of the same day the bird was back on its own perch at Nanomaga, accompanied by two of the Nuitao birds, which not being at their perch on that island when it was liberated, it had evidently picked up en route. Sixty miles in an hour and a half is probably easy enough for the frigate bird, as in Malayo-Polynesia it is said to have frequently returned a distance of 60 miles in one hour. It becomes entirely tame and familiar when raised from the nest, and if given liberty returns regularly to its home perch at night. THE BOOBIES (Sulu leucogastris) and (Sula sula). Both the booby and the red-footed booby are found in the Tortu- gas, the first usually predominant. They do not breed here at the present time, having probably been exterminated by the fishermen and eggers, who are said to have been particularly fond of the flesh of the young birds. I have never seen them on any of the islands dur- ing my six annual visits, but have always found them seated upon the top or crossbar of the channel stakes. They are usually quite shy; so much so that it is very difficult to approach them sufficiently close to secure a photograph. This summer, however, we found a booby willing to pose, and a number of rather satisfactory pictures were se- cured, some of which are assembled on plate 38. Audubon, in volume 8 of his Ornithological Biographies, gives a graphic account of a breeding colony of boobies on the Tortugas. From his description one is almost tempted to believe that in the early part of the past century both the white-bellied and red-footed boobies resorted to these islands for housekeeping, for his description of Booby Island, probably North Key, which has since disappeared, would fit the requirements for a nesting site of the booby, as it agrees well with the character of the nest requirements now used by this species in Cay Verde, Bahamas, the nearest breeding colony. The de- scription of the breeding birds on Noddy Key, probably Bush Key of our charts, would indicate the red-footed booby as far as habits are concerned. The nearest place where this species is known to breed at present, is Cayman Brac, about 120 miles off south central Cuba. We will now quote from Audubon’s observations of the booby colony at the Tortugas: BIRD ROOKERIES OF TORTUGAS—BARTSCH. 493 As the Marion was nearing the curious islets of the Tortugas, one of the birds that more particularly attracted my notice was of this species. The nearer we approached land, the more numerous did they become, and I felt delighted with the hope that ere many days should elapse, I should have an opportunity of study- ing their habits. As night drew her somber curtain over the face of nature, some of these birds alighted on the top-yard of our bark, and I observed ever afterwards that they manifested a propensity to roost at as great a height as possible above the surrounding objects, making choice of the tops of bushes, or even upright poles, and disputing with each other the privilege. The first that was shot at, was approached with considerable difficulty ; it had alighted on the prong of a tree which had floated and been fastened to the bottom of a rocky shallow at some distance from shore; the water was about four feet deep and quite rough; sharks we well knew were abundant around us; but the desire to procure the bird was too strong to be overcome by such obstacles. In an instant, the pilot and myself were over the sides of the boat, and onward we proceeded with our guns cocked and ready. The yawl was well manned, and its crew awaiting the result. After we had struggled through the turbulent waters about a hundred yards, my companion raised his gun and fired; but away fiew the bird with a broken leg, and we saw no more of it that day. Next day, however, at the same hour, the Booby was seen perched on the same prong, where, after resting about three hours, it made off to the open sea, doubtless in search of food. About eight miles to the north-east of the Tortugas Lighthouse, lies a small sand-bar a few acres in extent, called Booby Island, on account of the number of birds of this species that resort to it during the breeding season, and to it we accordingly went. We found it not more than a few feet above the surface of the water, but covered with Boobies, which lay basking in the sunshine, and pluming themselves. Our attempt to land on the island before the birds should fly off, proved futile, for before we were within fifty yards of it, they had all betaken themselves to flight, and were dispersing in various directions. We landed, however, distributed ourselves in different parts and sent the boat to some distance, the pilot assuring us that the birds would return. And so it happened. As they approached, we laid ourselves as flat as possible in the sand, and although none of them alighted, we attained our object, for in a couple of hours we procured thirty individuals of both sexes and of different ages, finding little difficulty in bringing them down as they flew over us at a moderate height. The wounded birds that fell on the ground made immediately for the water, moving with more ease than I had expected from the accounts usually given of the awkward motions of these birds on the land. Those which reached the water swam off with great buoyancy, and with such rapidity, that it took much rowing to secure some of them while most of those that fell directly into the sea with only a wing broken, escaped. The island was covered with dung, the odour of which extended to a considerable distance leeward. In the evening of the same day we landed on another island, named after the Noddy, and thickly covered with bushes and low trees, to which thousands of that species of Tern resort for the purpose of breeding. There also we found a great number of Boobies. They were perched on the top-branches of the trees, on which they had nests, and here again we obtained as many as we desired. They flew close over our heads, eyeing us with dismay but in silence; indeed, not one of these birds ever emitted a cry, except at the moment when they rose from their perches or from the sand. Their note is harsh and guttural, somewhat like that of a strangled pig. and resembling the syllables, hork, hork. The nest of the Booby is placed on the top of a bush at a height of from four to ten feet. It is large and flat, formed of a few dry sticks, covered and 494 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. matted with sea-weeds in greater quantity. I have no doubt that they return to the same nest many years in succession, and repair it as occasion requires. In all the nests which I examined, only one egg was found, and as most of the birds were sitting, and some of the eggs had the chicks nearly ready for ex- clusion, it is probable that these birds raise only a single young one like the Common Gannet or Solan Goose. The egg is of a dull white colour, without spots, and about the size of that of a common hen, but more elongated, being 2% inches in length, with a diameter of 1%. In some nests they were covered with filth from the parent bird, in the manner of the Florida Cormorant. The young, which had an uncouth appearance, were covered with down; the bill and feet of a deep livid blue or indigo colour. On being touched, they emitted no cry, but turned away their heads at every trial. A great quantity of fish lay beneath the trees in a state of putrefaction, proving how abundantly the young birds were supplied by their parents. Indeed, while we were on Noddy Island, there was a constant succession of birds coming in from the sea with food for their young, consisting chiefly of flying-fish and small mullets, which they disgorged in a half macerated state into the open throats of their offspring. Unfortunately the time afforded me on that coast was not sufficient to enable me to trace the progress of their growth. I observed, however, that none of the birds which were still brown had nests, and that they roosted apart, par- ticularly on Booby Island, where also many barren ones usually resorted, to lie on the sand and bask in the sun. The flight of the Booby is graceful and extremely protracted. They pass swiftly at a height of from twenty yards to a foot or two from the surface, often following the troughs of the waves to a considerable distance, their wings extended at right angles to the body; then, without any apparent effort, raising themselves and allowing the rolling waters to break beneath them, when they tack about, and sweep along in a contrary direction in search of food, much in the manner of the true Petrels. Now, if you follow an individual, you see that it suddenly stops short, plunges headlong into the water, pierces with its powerful beak and secures a fish, emerges again with inconceivable ease, after a short interval rises on wing, performs a few wide circlings, and makes off toward some shore. At this time its flight is different, being per- formed by flappings for twenty or thirty paces, with alternate sailings of more than double that space. When overloaded with food, they alight on the water, where, if undisturbed, they appear to remain for hours at a time, probably until digestion has afforded them relief. The range to which this species confines itself along our coast, seldom ex- tends beyond Cape Hatteras to the eastward, but they become more and more numerous the farther south we proceed. They breed abundantly on all such islands or keys as are adapted for the purpose, on the southern and western eoasts of the Floridas and in the Gulf of Mexico, where I was told they breed on the sand-bars. Their power of wing seems sufficient to enable them to brave the tempest, while during a continuance of fair weather they venture to a great distance seaward, and I have seen them fully 200 miles from the land. The expansibility of the gullet of this species enables it to swallow fishes of considerable size, and on such occasions their mouth seems to spread to an un- usual width. In the throats of several individuals that were shot as they were returning to their nests, 1 found mullets measuring seven or eight inches, that must have weighed fully half a pound. Their body beneath the skin, is covered with numerous aircells, which probably assist them in raising or lowering themselves while on wing, and perhaps still more so when on the point of per- forming the rapid plunge by which they secure their prey. BIRD ROOKERIES OF TORTUGAS—BARTSCH. 495 Their principal enemies during the breeding-season are the American: Crow and the Fish Crow, both of which destroy their eggs, and the Turkey Buzzard which devours their young while yet unfliedged. They breed during the month of May, but I have not been able to ascertain if they raise more than one brood in the season. The adult birds chase away those which are yet immature dur- ing the period of incubation. It would seem that they take several years in attaining their perfect state. When procured alive, they feed freely, and may be kept any length of time, provided they are supplied with fish. No other food, however, could I tempt them to swallow, excepting slices of turtle, which after all they did not seem to relish. In no instance did I observe one drinking. Some authors have stated that the Frigate Pelican and the Lestris force the Booby to disgorge its food that they may obtain it; but this I have never witnessed. Like the Common Gannet, they may be secured by fastening a fish to a soft plank, and sinking it a few feet beneath the surface of the water, for if they perceive the bait, which they are likely to do if they pass over it, they plunge headlong upon it, and drive their bill into the wood. When a Booby has alighted on the spar of a vessel, it is no easy matter to eatch it, unless it is much fatigued; but if exhausted and asleep, an expert seaman may occasionally secure one. I was informed that after the breeding season these birds roost on trees in company with the Brown Pelican and a spe- cies of Tern, Sterna stolida, and spend their hours of daily rest on the sand- banks. Our pilot, who, as I have mentioned-in my second volume, was a man of great observation, assured me that whiie at Vera Cruz, he sew the fishermen there go to sea, and return from considerable distances, simply by following the course of the Boobies. The bills and legs of those which I procured in the brown plumage, and which were from one to two years of age, were dusky blue. These were under- going moult on the 14th of May. At a more advanced age, the parts mentioned become paler, and when the bird has arrived at maturity, are as represented in my plate. I observed no external difference between the sexes in the adult birds. The stomach is a long dilatable pouch, thin, and of a yellow colour. The body is muscular, and the flesh, which is of a dark colour, tough, and hav- ing a disagreeable smell, is scarcely fit for food. I am unable to find a. good reason for those who have chosen to call these birds boobies. Authors, it is true, generally represent them as extremely stupid; but to me the word is utterly inapplicabie to any bird with which I am acquainted. The Woodcock, too, is said to be stupid as are many other birds; but my opinion, founded on pretty extensive observation, is, that it is only when birds of any species are unacquainted with man, that they manifest that kind of ignorance or innocence which he calls stupidity, and by which they suffer themselves to be imposed upon. A little acquaintance with him soon enables them to perceive enough of his character to induce them to keep aloof. This I observed in the Booby Gannet, as well as in the Noddy Tern, and in certain species of land birds of which I have already spoken. After my first visit to Booby Island in the Tortugas, the Gannets had already become very shy and wary, and before the Marion sailed away from those peaceful retreats of the wandering sea-birds, the Boobies had become so knowing, that the most ex- pert of our party could not get within shot of them. The Tortugas are used as a stepping-stone by many of the lesser migratory birds that winter in the West Indies and even farther south. In the northward journey in spring and the southward flight 496 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. in autumn, these birds rest here for a varying length of time before continuing their travels. These migratory land birds always show the effect of their stay on these keys, for most of them look entirely different from the trim little creatures which we are accustomed to see on the mainland. The little warblers and even the bobolinks are all fluffed up and ragged and their appearance and motion sug- gest “the dim gray dawn of the morning after,” the after effect of a “night out.” They are lacking in shyness and appear quite as care- less about their safety as they do about their appearance. The eagerness with which they take to a pan of fresh water or the dripping of a leaky storage tank leads me to believe that it is the want of fresh water that is responsible for this change of habit. The only regular supply of fresh water that these birds can obtain on any of the keys are the droplets of dew in the early morning hours and that furnished by an occasional shower. This, then, means a full drink and bath in the early morning and a long thirst through the rest of the hot day. The bathing is rather an interest- ing function under these circumstances. n=) Hood peed bs Seq] 0 bese Sene| Seo AelSeoel aa-2|beor Anhinga CAMMngO ANNING@) =n ce-eacccatese ns oan == Bese es i lr lap et “ Soil caretst| sata emt Florida cormorant(Phalacrocorax auritus floridanus) ....|....|..-.|----- u poke oe be eee bot Ba Brown pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis)......-.--------- bee a8 ee se5e| Saee roe * sel S38 ty Man-o’-war bird ( Fregata magnificens rothschildi)....... all Rail ee Le, = eal or aie Mallard'(Alnas platyrhynchos) sec cecccessso ses sn2-~ o> se|s=<=|eecc|s2+-2|> MIDS” YS 09 Axes a9 *, Yee | ie Ae i ol Oe z is iS Nsw ae ell a Hi \ Bg fee) Sate Lil Oe Seo 2 eG 166 fe Yee “ YS 449 S Pus | } ‘ : 7 ~ 44+ 2, F e7 | i a 61 YS 449 09 UC HIO Blt AA | SLV1d *yosueg—'/ 16 ‘odey uB/uOSY}IWS °G ALV1d ‘say aYIg *yosuRg— ZI6L ‘Hodey ueluosYy}}WS Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Bartsch. PLATE 3. CHARACTERISTIC TERN ACTIVITIES ON BIRD KEY. A, looks northeast; B, southwest from center of island. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Bartsch. A. GENERAL VIEW LOOKING NORTHWEST FROM CENTER OF BIRD KEY. B. SooTY TERNS RESTING UPON TOPS OF BAY CEDARS, A RATHER UNCOMMON PRACTICE. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Bartsch. PLATE 5. OPEN GROUNDS NORTHWEST OF THE HOUSE ON BIRD KEY, SHOWING CLOSE DISTRIBUTION OF SOOTIES AND THEIR YOUNG. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Bartsch. PLATE 6. BIRD KEY LOOKING NORTHWARD FROM THE HOUSE, SHOWING GENERAL DISPOSITION OF SOOTY TERNS IN OPEN REACHES. “GNNOUF) SNIGSSY¥q AHL NO SNYSL ALOOS a gtr ~ he Nyt tes. pe * "lL 3LlW1d “yYosueg—'/|6| ‘woday uPluOsYy}IWS Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Bartsch. FIVE EGGS OF THE SOOTY TERN, SHOWING RANGE OF VARIATION IN MARKINGS. Natural size. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Bartsch. PLATE 9. THREE YOUNG SOOTY TERNS SHOWING DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES. A, about 1 week old; B, more than 1 month old; C, about 25 days old. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Bartsch. PLATE 10. YOUNG SOOTY TERNS. A. Bird old enough to try its wings. B. Bird just prior to beginning to fly. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Bartsch. PLATE Il. A. GROUP OF ADULT SOOTY AND NoDDY TERNS SUNNING THEMSELVES ON THE BEACH. B. OLD AND YOUNG OF BOTH THE SOOTY AND NODDY TERN ENJOYING A SUN BATH ON THE GLARING, HoT, WHITE SAND. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Bartsch. PLATE 12. INSTANTANEOUS PICTURES SHOWING POSES ASSUMED BY SOOTY TERNS ON WING. "SISSAN YISHL HLIM GA0MOYDO 3yYy SuvdeO AvVd SHL A1as0190 MOH SNIMOHS ‘AS Gylg NO SNYSL AGGON Cpe Oe a oat Seg Fae > tape “El ALV1d ‘yosteg—'Z16] ‘Hodey uBluosYy}}WS "SuvVdad AVG TIVL AHL SO ANO NI SNYAL AGGON SO dnoys ‘Pl S1lV1d "yostuegG—'/J 161 ‘J4oday uevluosYy,IWS PLATE 15. Bartsch. Smithsonian Report, 1917. NEAR VIEW OF TWO NODDIES ON THEIR NESTS. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Bartsch. PLATE I6. NoppyY TERNS ABOUT THEIR NESTS, SHOWING CHARACTERISTIC ATTITUDES. THE YOUNG BIRD IN THE MIDDLE PICTURE IS ALMOST READY TO FLY. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Bartsch. PLATE I7. EGGs OF THE NODDY TERN SHOWING RANGE OF VARIATION IN MARKINGS. Natural size. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Bartsch. PLATE 18. A, YOUNG Noppy, PROBABLY A WEEK OLD; B, BIRD APPROXIMATELY I8 DAYS OLD. Note development that has taken place in the interim. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Bartsch. PLATE 19. A, Noppy AsouT 22 Days OLD; B, NoppyYy ABouT 28 Days OLb. Note progress made in growth and feathering. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Bartsch. PLATE 20. A, Noppy TERN AsBouT 40 Days OLD; B, ADULT BIRD. Note difference between fledged bird and parent at the time the young begin to fly. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Bartsch. PLATE 2I. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Bartsch. PLATE 22. es OP oe 5 emesis Se A LEAST TERN, HER NEST AND EGGS, SOUTH END OF LOGGERHEAD KEY, I9I6. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Bartsch. PLATE 23. THREE YOUNG LEAST TERNS FROM COLONY ON SOUTH END OF LONG KEY, SHOWING DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES AND PROTECTIVE COLORATION. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Bartsch. PLATE 24. Two VIEWS OF YOUNG LEAST TERNS ILLUSTRATING PROTECTIVE COLORATION. In the upper picture the bird is flattened against flotsam of the high tideline. Theeye, alittle tothe left of the median line, will givea cue to the rest of the body. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Bartsch. YOUNG LEAST TERNS. A, Able to fly for a short distan B, with wing clipped off by ghost crab. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Bartsch. PLATE 26. GHOST CRAB (OCYPODE ALBICANS BoSC), ONE OF THE DESTRUCTIVE AGENCIES ON THE TERN ROOKERIES. *ANO1OO SIHL SO SYSEWAL! OSTV SGYIG DNIATA ‘Aa SNOT] JO GNF HLYON NO NYS NOWWOD AHL 40 SdNOoYeH ONIGSaY4g "16 ALW1d *yostueg—'/ 16] ‘Woday uvluosy}WwS Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Bartsch. YOUNG COMMON TERNS. A, ABOuT 5 Days OLD; B, ABOouT IO Days OLD. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Bartsch. PLATE 29. A. TWO YOUNG COMMON TERNS HIDING UNDER A DEAD CORAL BLock. B. THE SAME BIRDS WITH THE BLOCK REMOVED. They are probably 8 and 12 days old, respectively. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Bartsch. PLATE 30. YOUNG COMMON TERNS. A, ABOUT 2 WEEKS OLD; B, ABOUT 3 WEEKS OLD. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Bartsch. PLATE 3I. Youna COMMON TERNS. A, ABOUT 28 DAyYs OLD; B, ALMOST READY TO FLY. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Bartsch. PLATE 32 A. YOUNG COMMON TERNS SWIMMING OFF SHORE. B. YOUNG BIRD SWIMMING AWAY FROM SHORE. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Bartsch. PLATE 383. sy any, SOOT a ee o MAN-O’-WAR BIRDS HUNTING IN KEY WEST HARBOR. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Bartsch. PLATE 34. INSTANTANEOUS PHOTOGRAPHS SHOWING CHARACTERISTIC POSES OF THE MAN-O’-WAR BIRD ON WING, KEY WEST HARBOR. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Bartsch. PLATE 35. MAN-O’-WAR BIRDS FISHING IN KEY WEST HARBOR. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Bartsch. SHORE LINE OF BIRD KEY, SHOWING GREAT NUMBER OF MAN-O’-WAR BIRDS. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Bartsch. PLATE 37. A. PAIR OF LAUGHING GULLS ON THE NORTHEAST END OF LONG KEY. B. ROYAL TERNS SUNNING ON THE SANDSPIT, NORTH END OF LOGGERHEAD KEY. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Bartsch. PLATE 88. nies on 45 aloha ae OR, BooBYsS PHOTOGRAPHED OFF BIRD KEY, TORTUGAS. CATALEPSY IN PHASMIDAE:? By P. ScHMIDT. In the spring of 1912 the author obtained eggs of Carausius (Diuip- pus) morosus Br. vy. W. which was imported from abroad and bred by amateurs in Petrograd nurseries. After hatching, he fed the growing material mainly on parsley. During the rearing he has made some observations and experiments which led him to conclude that these insects are subject to catalepsy. Never very active, the young of Carausius are the most mobile. The adults, on the other hand, spend nine-tenths of their lives in a state of perfect stillness, as if transfixed. When at rest the four hind legs are extended, while the front legs are extended forward where their tarsi meet the ends of the antenne, which are also extended forward. The abdomen is also perfectly straight, the end alone being occasionally raised upward. This is the pose the adult insect maintains for hours, frequently a whole day without stirring leg or antenna. Only after long intervals of such quiescence, particularly at night, do some of them stir in search of food. The transition from the state of rest into activity is accompanied by very rapid lateral swinging on its legs. Its active existence is always preceded by such vibration. This swinging frequently pre- cedes also the transition into the resting state. The swinging, he be- lieves, is for the purpose of starting circulation in its limbs which - “ go to sleep” during the extended quiescence. A very few experiments sufliced to convince the author that the state of rest in Carausius is a state of catalepsy. Following are some of the observations the author records. By carefully placing a forceps under the head of a resting speci- men and raising it so that the portion composed of the head, pro and mesothorax forms an angle of 40° to 45° with the metathorax and then removing the forceps the insect remains in this position for hours. By aid of the forceps the folded front legs may be pried apart and placed at any angle to the body. Carausius retains this Mantis- like pose of prayer for hours. A specimen resting on the side of the jar may be flung to the bottom without provoking a change of the posture of rest. However, on falling, it often assumes another pose; 1 Abstract from Rey. Russ, d’ Ent., Vol. 13, No. 1, pp. 44-60 (1913), 65133°—sm 1917. 30* 501 502 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. it extends the anterior forelegs straight forward and the hind legs backward, all clinging close to the body, except the tibie of the last, which are set at a slight angle. This position represents a state of most perfect catalepsy and at the same time of perfect mimicry, be- cause the insects retain it longest and in it most resemble inanimate objects, like sticks. The insect thus lying still can be raised onto its legs without dis- turbing the cataleptic state. To do this one need but carefully bend its legs by means of forceps and they will retain the position given them; then it must be turned over and placed on its legs. During this operation some reflex stirring is observed occasionally, but it afterwards remains rigid in the given pose. Standing on its legs the insect may be given any desired pose, not excepting most unnatural and difficult ones. It may thus be made to stand on three legs, by raising one of the middle ones. It may be made to stand on the four front Jegs and hold the hind ones raised. He sometimes succeeded in making it stand on three legs on one side, the end of the abdomen serving as support for the other side. The antennex, too, may be extended forward, put back or placed at right angles to the body—and they will retain the position given them. Finally, the abdomen may, for instance, have its end bent upward almost to the vertical, a position never assumed by the adult insect. Under a highly cataleptic state the insects can be stood on their heads, supported by the first two pairs of legs, or even the first alone, and the antennz pointing the other way. One insect remained in this position for 44 hours. These simple experiments show that the phasmid’s state of rest is different from the usual state of rest of animals. It differs radi- cally from its state of activity which should be the normal but which in fact is more rare and of shorter duration. The resting insect passes into the active state after strong provocation as, for in- stance, when the end of its abdomen is pinched with the forceps or struck with it, ete. Sometimes the insect wakes also when an antenna or leg is pinched or it is simply breathed on, when it jumps up, takes several swings and runs. But sometimes it stirs, makes refiex motions, and returns to quiescence. When awake Carausius reacts to all strong stimuli with energetic running. Thrown on its back, it immediately turns over and jumps to its long legs. Caught by the tail it strains with all six legs to ex- tricate itself and run forward; caught by the antennee it pulls back- ward. Any of its appendages raised are forthwith lowered and run- ning away is induced. Thus no trace is left of the plasticity of the appendages observed in the resting insect. It reacts like‘a normal living animal. CATALEPSY IN PHASMIDAE—SCHMIDT. 503 But while these superficial observations show a strong similarity between the quiescent state of Carausius with the symptoms of catalepsy in man and higher vertebrates, greater study of details proves complete identity between the two categories of phenomena. Closer examination shows first that the muscles of the resting insect are shortened and taut; femora and tibia, for instance, are at a certain angle to each other, to change which force must be applied, when again a definite angle is formed which is retained for a long time. This changing of angles, however, must not exceed the limits of the elasticity of muscles and ligaments. But the muscles are not as set as they are in tetanus. The muscles are plastic and yielding. These properties of the muscles exactly characterize the cataleptic state of man and vertebrates (hare, hen, and frog). The eminent French physiologist, Ch. Richet, thus describes the cataleptic state of the muscle: “ A muscle in catalepsy is slightly elastic, so that little strain takes it out of the original position; at the same time it is not quite elastic enough so that, taken out of the original position, it does not return to it and retains the new position indefinitely. Just as a piece of wax or butter retains impressions made in it, so the cataleptic muscle is changed by the mechanical influences to which it is subjected.” A contracted muscle differs from the cataleptic in that the latter “is incomplete contraction. A tetanic muscle is very similar to a cataleptic. In both, voluntary shortening of the muscle is impossible, and of its own accord the muscle does not weaken; the difference is only that in catalepsy the shortening of the muscle is moderate and can be overcome by slight mechanical force, while in tetanus no force can overcome it.” Thus the difference between con- traction and catalepsy is quantitative only, catalepsy is incomplete contraction. As a further characterization of catalepsy Richet gives “ absence of fatigue; the contraction of the muscles, however taut and pro- tracted, produces no sensations of fatigue, so that a muscle contracted remains so for many hours, days, and months even, producing no ex- haustion or fatigue in the subject.” This is true of the phasmids. Tt can not be said they do not feel tired, but this is established by the fact that they retain most difficult poses during long stretches of time. They also are as active at the end of a cataleptic fit as before it. Catalepsy is also characterized by the absence of feeling—* an- aesthesia ”’—the subject may be pricked, cut, scorched without react- ing. Experiment proves this also true of cataleptic phasmids. The author snipped one-quarter of the antenna of a resting phas- mid. Sometimes there is slight shiver, due to shock, probably, but otherwise the insect remains motionless without even changing pose. Several minutes later another one-fourth antenna was cut; result 504 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. the same. Little by little he cut off the antenne and began to cut off pieces of the forelegs; the insect is bleeding, but remains unmoved. He even cut off bits of the abdomen and still it remained unmoved. But let it be pinched on the cut end of the abdomen, i. e., given pro- tracted excitement of the nervous system, it wakes from the trance and runs away. No doubt, therefore, this is catalepsy. An experiment similar to hypnotism, may be performed with the insect by placing the ends of the extended legs and antenne on one book, end of abdomen on another. Strips of paper may now be placed on the middle and the body thus weighted down, but the insect does not stir. To ascertain the parts of the body with which catalepsy in Carau- sius is associated, what produces it and what is its biological sig- nificance and genesis, the author took a resting specimen and snipped it in two in front of the mesothoracic legs. The body re- mained standing on the four legs as if nothing had happened and the front part fell, also without changing pose. Several minutes later, however, the legs weakened apparently, and no longer supported the weight of the body, which sank to the surface of the table, but the legs retained their former position. But when the leg muscles were examined it was found their waxen flexibility had vanished. The body became very sensitive, reflex action is manifest. When a leg is touched it contracts and often the other legs also. Other tests showed that no trace of catalepsy was left in this part of the body. Some muscles, on the other hand, showed signs of a tetanus state, the seized legs breaking at the joints. He notes, by the way, the great vitality of this half of the insect; ligatured and protected from excessive desiccation it lived in one instance 12 days. The head end has less vitality, lives only two or three days, but otherwise behaves as if it were attached to the body, the brittleness of the legs in the coxal joint being the only difference. Catalepsy is still there, if not so pronounced as normally. For hours the legs and antenne: remain extended cephalad, and can be placed in any de- sired position. By excitation it can be brought into activity. The difference in behavior between the two halves of the body is explained by the fact that catalepsy depends on the head ganglia (the prothoracic, he found, does not count) and is induced by some special internal conditions surrounding muscles and nerves (like special composition of blood, excess of carbonic acid in it, etc.) and in all probability is @ special form of nerve excitation. This specific excitation is produced by unknown processes in the central organ of the nervous system, and, permeating the entire nervous system, produces depression of reflex action, of sensation and a special state of muscle shortening bordering on contraction. The results of these CATALEPSY IN PHASMIDAE—SCHMIDT. 505 phenomena taken together, represent what we call catalepsy. With the severance of the connection between the nervous system and the head ganglia the possibility of this phenomena vanishes. As to the causes producing this specific excitation of the nervous system the author can not say. All his attempts at producing it in active insects failed. They entered it more readily when left alone, showing the causes are internal and the author therefore calls it “ autocatalepsy.” The author believes that the “death feigning” phenomenon is intimately associated with catalepsy and hopes soon to compare that of Ranatra with Carausius. He thinks it will be found that the im- mobility of caterpillars mimicking twigs and of J/antis in awaiting prey are similar phenomena. Finally, even hibernation may be related to it. From the biological standpoint, the cataleptic quiescence of phas- mids is only a specific adaptation of the muscular and nervous sys- tems for the purpose of mimicking still portions of plants. Compared with usual animal immobility, catalepsy is at an ad- vantage: First, economy of energy, no fatigue developing; second, suppression of reflex action which might expose the insect. This adaptation is most interesting and remarkable. It is not morphological, but physiological, and consists, moreover, in the de- velopment of a specific action of the nervous system which up to now was observed only in man-produced, artificial conditions—hypnotism of man and catalepsy of animals. Catalepsy in phasmids, the author believes, is the first instance of normal, regular, internally produced catalepsy in the animal kingdom. cue PQ Rahat wmeans AY yeeataD narra a Eee os RRIA A esas siya ; phe Cerner none adh ae fnatapni wig Athi a simol ) as eiowiety fi peeks chin iq Catadepey. 4 to ccpadauat | : eee guseng . ad n raanen Su 4 ts. eth yeh ti thes SNE a ae ; a ota al the nap J i igo leecac. | Soaaaeoeer ie) dy Lee Zoned, ee “ht Shela he AN ECONOMIC CONSIDERATION OF ORTHOPTERA DI- RECTLY AFFECTING MAN. By A. N. CAUDELL, Division of Insects, U. S. National Museum. Orthoptera directly concerning man, either beneficially or in- juriously, affect him either physically or psychically, that is his physical person, externally cr internally, or his spiritual or emo- tional nature. Orthoptera may, to the uninitiated, appear scarcely worth mentioning as directly affecting man injuriously but litera- ture contains a number of incidents of sufficient interest to merit brief reference. Forms injuriously affecting man’s person exter- nally is a subject dealing mostly with injuries inflicted by biting. In dealing with this and allied subjects it is not easy to separate popular superstitions from actualities and when the evidence rests upon the observations of laymen it is often more or less faulty. Actual inci- dents are evidently sometimes exaggerated by recognized observers and more popular and less scrupulous writers often go still further. Inexperienced or ignorant people misconstrue facts and thus our literature teems with questionable statements. This was especially true in times far past but continues true, unfortunately, to a consider- able extent even yet. A superstition long prevailed in Maryland that if a black beetle, that is a cockroach, enters your room, or flies against you, severe illness, or perhaps even death, follows.2, As a recent example of evident error in observation I may mention a letter from a physician in New Mexico relating how a boy was bitten on the toe by a Steno- pelmatus and, though the toe was immediately incised by a doctor, severe results followed, the boy being in a critical condition for some days and nearly losing his life. While it is very doubtful if the insect was the real cause of the boy’s ailment, it is undoubtedly true that at least quite severe mechanical injury and pain may be caused by the bite of orthopterous insects. I have myself been bitten in the palm of the hand by a native Orchelimum, an insect scarcely exceeding an inch in length, so severely as to almost draw blood, and 1Reprinted from Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington, vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 84-92, 1916. ?Cowaun’s Curious Facts, p. 82 (1865). 507 508 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. similar bites on the finger or back of the hand by some of our larger and more powerful Orthoptera would easily pierce the skin. Davis states that Belocephalus bites severely * and Bernard records natives sleeping in vineyards in France as being bitten by E'phippigera? Brunner lost a piece of flesh, bitten out by the powerful jaws of Saga,? and Wellman writes that Brachytrupes, a large cricket, can draw blood with its strong jaws.* Cockroaches are known to bite off the eyelashes and nibble the toenails of children in South America,® and in addition they scratch the faces of men, bite the greasy fingers of sleeping children ® and even eat the toenails of sailors.*’ And not only do roaches bite man but they annoy him in other ways. Thus, Reverend Laock, an early Swedish clergyman in Pennsylvania, had a roach enter his ear, causing intense pain until drowned out with water like a rat from its hole.* There are other similar incidents recorded and the name “earwig” was given the Forficulidae by reason of the widespread belief that they habitually enter the ears of man. Orthoptera directly injuring man’s person internally is a subject pertaining mostly to their causing disease and the dissemination of the same. This phase of orthopterous economy is closely connected with that dealing with external injuries by the entrance of the ear by roaches, etc., as mentioned above, and especially by injuries to the skin by secretions given off by certain species. Thus an African katydid exudes a clear yellowish fluid from pores in the side of the body near the junction of the thorax and abdomen which causes a quite severe eruption if it comes into direct contact with the skin. The natives appreciate and fear this property and its potency was verified experimentally by Dr. H. Stannus,? who thinks extensive ulceration of various parts of the body may sometimes result from this cause when proper medical advice is lacking. Certain earwigs are reported by Dr. Wellman to be considered poisonous by the natives of Angola, and Wellman himself thinks it possible that septic matter may be introduced by a “bite” from the powerful forceps of the forficulid in question.’° Hasselt has written on an affection of the lips of persons to whose mouths roaches are attracted for food or drink." 1 Journ. N. Y. Ent. Soc., vol. 20, p. 305 (1912). 2Tech. trait. Vigne (1914). 3 Burr. Proc. 8. Lond. Ent. Soc., 1899, p. (11) (1900). * Ent. News, vol. 19, p. 29 (1908). 5H. H. Smith, in circular, 2 ser., No. 51, Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agric., p. 6 footnote (1902). ®Catesby, Nat. Hist. Carolina, vol. 2, p. 10 (1748). 7 Gates, U. S. Naval Med. Bull., vol. 6, p. 212-214 (1912). 8 Cowan’s Curious Facts, p. 79 (1865). ® Bull.’ Ent. Research, Lond., vol. 2, p. 180 (1911). 10Ent. News, vol. 19, p. 32 (1908). 1 Tidschr, voor Ent., vol. 8, p. 98-99 (1865). ORTHOPTERA AFFECTING MAN—CAUDELL. 509 There are few Orthoptera recorded as the direct cause of disease in man. In 1872 there was published in Philadelphia an eight- paged pamphlet which reads like a production of pre-Plinyan days.t The writer contends that locusts and grasshoppers are the prime cause of the eruptive diseases of living things. He proves his asser- tions by biblical quotations and qualifies as a learned scientist by various interesting statements, such as that house flies originate from the intestinal worms of man. Some species, indeed, are objects of barter in some regions. Thus gryllids are sold in little cages in the streets of Florence on Ascension day as songsters® and caged crickets are sold in Portugal for their song and for the good luck which they are supposed to bring their owner.’ Considerable use is made of Orthoptera in sport, especially in China and Japan. ‘The Chinese are much given to gambling and are said to win and lose fortunes on cricket fights as American sportsmen win or lose at horse races. In China the fighting crickets are trained and cared for as carefully as if they were blooded horses. They are given a fixed diet, partly of honey and boiled chestnuts, and if one falls il] it is fed on mosquitoes. A good cricket fight will last half an hour and, to win, one of the combatants must slay his adversary or throw him bodily over the 6-inch wall inclosing the arena. These fighting crickets, which are all males, are bought and sold like horses, one with a good record bringing $5 or $10, while a champion often sells for as much as $50. 1MeNeill, Ent. Amer., vol. 5, p. 103 (1889). 2 Hitchcock’s Rept. Geol. New Hamphire, vol. 1, p. 862-380 (1874) ; 23rd Ann. Rept. Wnt. Soc. Ontario, 1892, p. 62-78 (1893). 3 Sitz. ber. Akad. Wiss. Wien. Math.—Nat. Klasse, vol. 97, p. 487-488 (1908). 4Bates, Journ. Ent., vol. 1, p. 474-477 (1868). 5 Moufet, Ins. Theatr., p. 1386 (1634). 6 Burr, Proc. S. Lond. Ent. Soc., 1899, p. 12-13 (1900). 7 Bather, Bull. Brooklyn Ent. Soc., vol. 8, p. 56 (1918). AN OUTLINE OF THE RELATIONS OF ANIMALS TO THEIR INLAND ENVIRONMENTS.2 By CHaxsies C. ADAMS, Ph.D. fessor of Forest Zoology, The New York State College of Forestry, at aus F Syracuse University. THE DYNAMIC RELATIONS OF ANIMALS. 1, INTRODUCTORY NOTE. As creatures of habit, the attitude of mind with which we approach a scientific problem has much influence upon what we see in it or get from it. Although the essence of life is activity—the response of the changing organism to its changing environment—yet this dynamic conception of animal relations, and all that it implies, has not become as prevalent a mental habit among biologists as one might expect. While some naturalists view the animal from a more or less dynamic standpoint, they do not include a similar conception of the relation of an animal to its environment. Still others view the en- vironment more or less dynamically but do not extend this concep- tien to the animal, and thus both of these conceptions lack complete- ness and are not thoroughgoing and consistent. The study of ac- tivities, or in other words the study of processes, has made great progress in the allied sciences, much to their advantage, and un- doubtedly the prevalence of similar conceptions will lead to similar advances in biology. In the present brief paper I have attempted to discuss only certain phases of the problem with the idea of emphasizing the general prin- ciples involved, and in the hope that it may aid in making these con- ceptions of more practical value in investigation, and also facilitate an understanding of the discussion contained in a report on the inver- tebrates of the Charleston (Illinois) region, to appear in a subsequent paper of this volume of the Laboratory Bulletin.? 2. THE RELATIONS OF ANIMALS TO THEIR ENVIRONMENT. The study of animal ecology may be taken up from many sides and in many ways. One of the most interesting and fundamental of these 1 Reprinted, with the addition of the footnotes, from the Bulletin of the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History, vol. 11, pp. 1-32, 1915. 2 An Heological Study of Prairie and Iorest Invertebrates. L. c., pp. 83-280, 1915. 515 516 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. is that which considers the dependence of the animal upon its en- vironment, and at the same time orients it in the gamut of energies and substances. Many phases of this discussion, though elementary and for this reason easily overlooked, are yet of fundamental impor- tance. Every boy who has kept pets in confinement, and who has had the responsibility of caring for them and every one who has cared for domestic animals, knows what constant attention must be given to keep them supplied with food, water, shelter, and other “necessities of life.” And who can overlook the fact that it requires attention to maintain his own physical health? In the laboratory this dependence upon the environment is readily tested experimentally by any method of isolation which will prevent an animal from securing any “ vital necessity ” as air—when sealed in a vessel; or food-—when locked up without it; or a favorable temperature. No animal can survive such isolation from its normal environment. Every student of animals in nature must also realize that similar supplies and con- ditions determine and control the existence and welfare of all wld animals. The animal is not self-sustaining, but requires a constant intake of energy and substance from its environment. Chemical methods will readily show the source from. which the materials com- posing the animal body have been derived. The ash came from the soil or rock, and shows the animal’s dependence upon the solid earth: the liquids came from the water of the earth and constitute from 50 to 95 per cent of the bulk of the animal’s body, showing that a rela- tively large quantity of this substance is essential to all living ani- mals; the abundant gaseous element was derived from the atmos- phere, to which it will again return. The substance composing the animal body is thus derived mainly from the water and the air rather than from the relatively inert and stable earth. It will be profitable for us to imagine these proportions so changed that the solids instead of the relatively mobile liquids and gases form the principal mass of the body, keeping in mind meanwhile the slow rate of chemical change in solids compared with the change in substance in a finely divided condition, such as liquids and gases. If the solids predomi- nated, the rate of the chemical change, upon which the active life of animals depends, would be greatly retarded, and animals, including man, would be stolid beyond comprehension. Furthermore, we must not overlook the fact that animals are not maintained solely by sub- stance, because substances are also carriers of energy, substance and energy never being separated. The living animal is not a producer— it can make neither substance nor energy—nor is it a kind of energy; it is solely a transformer, a chemical engine which changes the form of substance and chemical energy and produces new combinations from the old. The living plant transforms energy and inorganic substance, from the air, water, and earth. into complex chemical com- ANIMALS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENTS—ADAMS, 517 pounds, and thus concentrates powerful chemical energy in such a form that the animal, by a further change, is able to set it free and to utilize it. Sugar, starch, and gluten are familiar examples of this “tablet” or “cartridge” form of chemical energy which animals explode or set free and then use in maintenance. During this trans- formation, in which chemical energy is set free, waste products— inert chemical substances—are formed which if not eliminated from the’ animal system will prevent its operation, just as ashes if not removed will check a furnace. Respiration aids in the removal of carbonic-acid gas—a waste product—frem the body, but we often forget that the chemical energy derived from the oxygen is an im- portant feature in respiration. By another process the liquid and the solid waste is removed. Thus gases, liquids, and solids are taken into the body and later returned to the environment in a different chemical condition, thus completing a cycle of transformation. That the animal body is so largely made up of solutions and gaseous sub- stances is an important factor in its relatively unstable chemical con- dition, a condition of wnstable equilibrium, which determines the active and dynamic character of the animal. Since, then, chemical activity is one of the essential characteristics of a living organism, its influence forms one of the main problems of the zoologist when studying the changes in animal activities, their orderly sequence, and the laws which govern them. On account of the fact that the animal is a chemical engine, it is able to use chemical energy to the fullest extent. If we assume a hierarchy in the forms of energy, chemical energy seems to belong to the upper class; for though some forms of energy are not readily transformed into chemical energy, chemical energy can be trans- formed into ali others. As a result the animal, being a chemical engine, has, as it were, an “ inside track” to the main sources of en- ergy, and thus by transformation is able to utilize chemical energy to form light, as in the firefly, or electricity, as in the electric eel; and other forms of energy useful to the animal are similarly derived. This study of the activities of living animals, as contrasted with the study of dead ones, is a phase of the general science of energetics, a science which furnishes the basis for the correlation of many di- verse branches of knowledge. The activities and transformations within the animal body show us very clearly how an animal is dependent upon environmental conditions. The animal transforms air, water, and rock, and all animal habitats and environments must contain these elements. In nature these are combined in a multitude of ways. The interrela- tions of these fundamental environmental units have been strikingly expressed by Powell (1895 :22-23) as follows: The envelopes of air, water, and rock are so distinct that they can be clearly distinguished; and yet, when they are carefully studied, it is discovered 65133°—sm 1917——34 518 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. that every one encroaches upon the territory of the others, not only by inter- action but also by interpenetration. It has already been shown that the water penetrates deep into the rock. Every spring that falls from the hillside gives proof that the rocks above its level hold water, which they yield slowly as a perennial supply; and the innumerable hills of the continents and islands have their innumerable springs. Every well proves that there is water below; every artesian fountain shows the existence of underground waters; and every boring in the crust of the earth, and every excavation in underground mining, discovers the presence of water. Wherever water flows, air flows with it, and all natural waters are per- meated with air. The aqueous envelope is everywhere permeated with rock, which it holds in solution or suspension, and there is no natural water absolutely pure. The sea is full of salt. Salt lakes are more than full of salt, and so they must throw it upon the bottom; and the waters hold lime and many other substances. Not a drop of pure water can be found in the sea; not a drop can be found in a lake; not a drop of pure water can be found in any river, creek, brook, or spring; and not a drop of pure water can be found underground; it is all mixed to some degree with rock. All natural waters are aerated. No drop of water unmixed with rock and air can be found, except by the process of artificial purification. But surely there is pure air? Nay, not so. There is no natural air unmixed with rock and water. All the air that circulates above the land and sea, within the ken of man, and all the air which circulates underground, is mixed with rock and water. Pure air is invisible; it will not reflect light; it is transparent, but will not convey light. Light is conveyed through the atmosphere by ether, and is reflected and refracted by rock and water; and it seems to be largely affected in this manner by rock. If the ambient air of the earth were pure, there would be no color in the sky, no rainbow in the heavens, no gray, no purple, no crimson, no gold, in the clouds. All these are due largely to the dust in the air. The purple cloud is painted with dust, and the sapphire sky is adamant on wings. Land plants live on underground waters; were there no subterranean cir- culation of water, there would be no land plants. Fishes live on underwater air; were there no circulation of subaqueous air, there would be no fishes in the sea. The clouds are formed by particles of dust in the air, which gather the vapor; were there no dust in the air, there would be no clouds; were there no clouds, there would be no rain. Up to this point we have considered mainly the processes of main- tenance of the animal body, but there are other processes as well which must. be called to mind, such as growth, development, multipli- cation, and behavior. Physiologically considered, none of these activities are essentially different from the fundamental phases of metabolism and all are dependent upon it; they are special forms of the transformation of substances and energy within the animal. As the individual animal grows and develops in its life cycle, its metabolism, form, and behavior change in an orderly manner, and this transformation is in the main a continuous process like the other transformations of matter and energy. The changes which take place during ontogeny are often greater than the differences which ANIMALS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENTS—ADAMS. 519 exist between very distantly related adults, and these differences re- sult in very different roles which the animal often plays in the economy of nature. Comparable to the responses of the animal to its environment, and indeed essentially of the same kind, are the responses of any part of an animal to all its other parts, the entire organism, in this case, being considered as a unit. The environment of an internal parasite is formed by the body of its host, and in a similar sense the different parts of the body are parts of the environment of the other parts. The different parts of the animal body are what they are on ac- count of three conditions. The first is determined by its relative position and responses as a member of a series of successive genera- tions. In this way the hereditary potentialities are determined. Ecologically considered heredity may be regarded both as the re- sponse of individuals (unicellular) and germs to the conditions of life, and as the mutual responses of different germs to one another. The crossing and intermingling of germinal elements is as truly a response as are other forms of activity. Secondly, there is consider- able evidence which indicates that at some stage in the development of an animal any part is potentially capable of developing into any other part. The character of development, then, is conditioned by the character of the cell-environment—its relative position, and all that implies with regard to environment. A fragment of a regener- ating animal develops differently according to its position, and this is a response to its relative position in the cell community. Thirdly, the development of an animal is conditioned by its external environ- ment. The external conditions influence animals by changing their internal activities. The internal changes modify the cell community and change development. ‘In this manner every part of the animal is influenced by the conditions of its existence. The processes of metabolism are continuous as long as life lasts. Thus, as an animal respires there is a gaseous exchange, from the earliest stages of its existence until its maturity and death. Eggs respire as surely as larve and adults, and the chemical, physical, and physiological changes within them vary with their growth and devel- opment. Some of these changes are primarily dependent on the orderly course of development during the life cycle, and are thereforé irreversible processes, because no higher animal which is mature may reverse its development and become young again. At different stages of development different enzymes and harmones appear which mod- ify the physiological conditions of growth, development, and be- havior. Environmental changes, persistent and uniform, or periodic in character, tend to modify and alter these internal processes, and are an additional source of change, which is particularly shown in behavior. 520 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. It is interesting to observe in this connection that certain factors are important as they hasten or retard other processes. Thus enzymes hasten chemical changes which without them would take place at a very slow rate, and they set free much energy in a relatively short time. Temperature is another hastener of chemical reaction. Not only is it a condition which sets limitations on the chemical reaction in animals, but it also influences their optimum, and with increasing temperature chemical changes take place within the animal irrespec- tive of the control of the animal, except in the warm-blooded animals, where a mechanism exists which regulates, within certain limits, temperature conditions. 3. OPTIMA AND LIMITING FACTORS. We have seen that the animal is dependent upon its environment for both substance and energy. If, therefore, the environment does not contain, in available form, both substance and energy, animals will not be able to live in it permanently, although with energy stored in their bodies they may be able to make more or less prolonged and successful invasions into such an environment. The optimum is the most favorable condition for any function. We may consider optima corresponding to units of different rank; a single cell or tissue in action, an organ or system of organs, the animal as a whole, a taxo- nomic unit—and so on, to an animal community or association. There are, then, many kinds of optima, and the study of the condi- tions which produce them is a complex subject. The optima for different functions may differ much; for example, that for growth is often different from that for reproduction, and the optima may also change greatly with the development of the animal. Optima, there- fore, are not fixed conditions, even though they do represent a condi- tion of physiological relative equilibrium. The amount or intensity of substance and energy which produces an optimum is limited above by the maximum and below by the minimum. Thus departures from the optimum, toward an increase or a decrease, are departures from the most favorable conditions toward less favorable conditions, and hence toward limiting conditions. This ferm of expression is mainly that of the laboratory; it is desirable therefore, in addition, to express it in terms of the normal habitat. In nature we look upon the opti- mum as that complex of habitat factors which is the most favorable, and departure in any direction from this optimum intensity is in the direction of a less favorable degree of intensity or into unfavorable conditions. From this standpoint any unfavorable condition ts a limiting factor and may retard, hasten, or prevent vital and eco- logical activities. Optima are thus almost ideal conditions, and are probably realized in nature only to a limited degree; in other words ANIMALS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENTS—ADAMS. boi only approximately. Here also, as in the laboratory, they represent a condition of relative equilibrium. The laws of the transformation and development of optima are of great ecological importance, as [ pointed out several years ago (1904). In field study probably the most valuable criterion to be used in the recognition of ecological optima is the normal relative abundance and influence of animals in their breeding environment. In the preceding discussion no special emphasis has been placed upon the time element, or the rate at which changes may take place. Natural environments are complexes, in the composition of which several factors are involved. This being true, it is desirable to recall the fact that the rate of change is determined by the pace of the slowest factor, or, as Blackman (1905 :289) has expressed it: When a process is conditioned as to its rapidity by a number of separate factors, the rate of the process is limited by the pace of the “slowest” factor. This is a general Jaw and applies to all changes, internal as well as environmental. In closing this section, I wish to call attention to another conciu- sion of the English plant physiologists Blackman and Smith. They state (1911) that from experimental study of the assimilation of water plants, the conception of the optima is untenable, and that the phenomena are better explained as the result of “interacting limiting factors than by the conception of optima” (p. 412). This principle is formulated as follows (p. 397) : When several factors are possibly controlling a function, a small increase or decrease of the factor that is limiting, and of that factor only, will bring about an alternation of the magnitude of the functional activity. Tt will be cf much importance to test the application of this idea to animal responses. } 4. DETERMINATION OF DYNAMIC STATUS, Tn any study of the energetics of organisms it is desirable to have clearly in mind one of the fundamental conceptions of this science— the dynamic status. The law of conservation of energy teaches us that energy can not be destroyed; that it is transformed only, and thus undergoes a cycle of changes. The animal or an animal com- munity, as a unit and as an agent or transformer, is constantly transforming energy, setting it free. In this sense it originates, but not at a uniform rate. At one time much energy may be transformed and at another very little. When a 2reat amount of energy is being set free, when the animal or community is exerting much influence, we may look upon it as producing pressure or strain. A condition 1See also my paper, Migration as a Factor in Evolution: Its Ecological Dynamics. American Naturalist, vol. 52, pp. 465-490, 1918; vol. 58, pp. 55-78, 1919, for additional reasons for discarding the conception of optima. boo, ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. of stress is not a permanent one, because the pressure tends to cause such change as will equalize or relieve this condition. This is con- sidered as the process of adjustment to strain, and is called Ban- croft’s law (1911). An animal in an unfavorable condition is stimulated, its normal activities are interfered with, and a physio- logical condition of stress is produced which lasts until by repeated responses or “trials” the animal escapes stimulation or succumbs and a relative equilibrium is established. An area may become over- populated and consequently there may be established a condition of stress, which results in an adjustment by a reduction (through many causes) in the excess of population and a restoration of the nor- mal, or a condition of relative equilibrium. From these examples it may be seen that the dynamic status means the condition of a unit or system with regard to its degree of relative equilibrium. The cycle of change may be considered to begin at any point. I have taken as the initial stage of the cycle the condition of stress or pres- sure, and have indicated how this condition tends to change in re- sponse to pressure, bringing about the process of adjustment to strain, and leading to the condition of adjustment to strain, or that of rela- tive equilibrium. The activity of the agent produces the condition of stress, the process of adjustment to the strain follows, and this leads to the product—the establishment of the condition of adjustment or of relative equilibrium. These conceptions are very suggestive when applied to various phases of organic activity, and aid greatly in utilizing the dynamic conceptions which are in constant use in many of the physical sciences. But we can not assume that these ideas will take definite form unless the student makes some special effort to master the principles involved.1 5. ANIMAL RESPONSES. The general character of the changes within the animal, which re- sult in the transformations of energy and substance or the process of metabolism in its broadest sense, is the basis of all animal responses. It is well known that growth, development, and behavior are condi- tioned by certain metabolic processes, the rate of which are further conditioned by the presence of certain substances, as enzymes (from liver, etc.), and internal secretion (from thyroid, testes, adrenals, etc.). The influence of certain physiological conditions or processes is thus well known to affect the behavior of animals. The changes of instinct through the removal of the testes or ovaries, may be cited as examples of this influence. An animal whose metabolic processes 1See Adams’s Migration, ete. (loc. cit.), for an amplification of dynamic principles, a discussion of the relation of Bancroft’s law to the phase rule, and the biological signifi- cance of these ideas, ANIMALS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENTS—ADAMS. 523 have reached a certain stage is said to be satiated; later it is in the condition of incipient hunger; and still later, in the physiological condition of intense hunger. These internal changes cause the ani- mal to react very differently to any food which is in its immediate vicinity. These changes in physiological conditions are strictly comparable to the change which an animal passes through in its ontogeny; to the life cycle of an insect, for example, in which the physiological conditions and behavior of a caterpillar are very differ- ent from those of the pupa and of the adult or moth. One of the higher animals, a dog, for instance, will undergo internal changes which will completely alter its responses at the sight of an old rival or enemy. Such considerations as those just cited show clearly that extensive internal physiological changes take place in animals, and that while some of them are very gradual others are exceedingly rapid. These internal conditions or changes have been well char- acterized by Jennings (1906:289) as follows: The “ physiological state” is evidently to be looked upon as a dynamic con- dition, not as a static one. It is a certain way in which bodily processes are taking place, and tends directly to the production of some change. In this respect the “law of dynamogenesis,” propounded for ideas of movement in man, applies to it directly (Baldwin, 1897 :167) ; ideas must indeed be considered so far as their objective accompaniments are concerned, as certain physiological states in higher organisms. The changes toward which the physiological state tends are of two kinds. First, the physiological state (like the idea) tends to produce movement. This movement often results in such a change of condi- tions as destroys the physiological state under consideration. But in case it does not, then the second tendency of the physiological state shows itself. It tends to resolve itself into another and different state. I may thus summarize the relation of metabolic processes to physiological conditions and processes of behavior by the following table. TABLE 1—The dynamic relations of animal activities. ( The animal as an agent (activity ofan agent). Processes of activity. | Products of activity. New states. Movement. The animal as an agent transforms energy and Response. substance by its metabolic processes. These This unstable internal con- |} Regulation. are accompanied by physiological conditions ||dition tends toward change, || Adjustment. or states; they constitute a condition of un- ||resulting in— Relative equilibrium. stableequilibrium. Thetransformations take (1) New conditions; Learning. place as— (2) Movement; Orientation. (1) Continuous and irreversible processes, as (3) The processes of behay- || Data. development, differentiation, etc.; or are— ior: Trial, experiment, inves- || Concepts. (2) Periodic or rhythmic processes, as diges- ;|tigation, etc. Explanation. tion, sexual activity, ete. Theory. Hypotheses. Ideals. Changes in the internal conditions are produced also by external stimuli. 524 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. The responses of animals to the conditions in which they live are of a composite character. Certain responses, such as the chirping re- sponse of a coot within the egg, are inherited and are relatively auto- matic in character; others are greatly modified by experience, as when an animal “learns,” or forms a habit by repeated responses. The responses of animals to the conditions of existence are the basis for any study of their relations, not only to other members of their own species, but to all elements, living or otherwise, of their complete environment. It is from this standpoint that animals must be considered in estimating their place in the economy of nature; that is, in estimating how they influence one another in an association of animals living together in the same habitat, and in judging of their relation to the succession of animal communities, and even to man himself. 6. THE INTERRELATION OF ANIMALS. A group or association of animals or plants is like a single organism in the fact that it brings to bear upon the outer world only the surplus of forces re- maining after all conflicts interior to itself have been adjusted. Whatever expenditure of energy is necessary to maintain the existing internal balance amounts to so much power locked up and rendered unavailabie for external use.—S. A. Forbes. We have now seen the dependence of the animal upon its environ- ment, as this forms the basis for an understanding of conditions in- volved in the problem of maintenance or the upkeep of the animal. The optimum conditions for prolonged maintenance produce the vital and ecological optima. These conditions imply more than mere maintenance; they mean as well, a degree of favorable conditions which permits the animal to exert an influence or stress upon its en- vironment. As Forbes has said, if all the energy available to the animal is utilized internally there will be nothing left to influence the environment. Metabolic changes show that large amounts of energy and substance are used in maintenance. Under optimum conditions even greater amounts must exist. An animal must not only be able to maintain itself against other kinds of animals but even against its own kind, for the overproduction of its own race will be practically self-destructive. A good example of this kind of in- fluence is seen in the hordes of lemmings which migrate, even into the sea, when overproduction becomes extreme. | The vital and ecological optima are thus to be looked upon as in- ternally balanced, but externally, not as a stateof balance or poise, but as a condition in which the animal is exerting stress, pressure, or in- fluence upon its environment, instead of being passive or inert. A group of animals living together in any given condition such as an association, is an assemblage of interacting organisms. The active, free-moving animals collide with each other, with other kinds of ani- ANIMALS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENTS—ADAMS. 525 mals, especially the relatively sedentary kinds, and with their environ- ment of plants and the inorganic factors. The relatively sedentary animals are correspondingly bombarded by all elements of their en- vironment. The association, as a whole, is thus in a continuous proc- ess of bombardment and response from every possible angle, and just as the individual animal is stimulated and responds, so all the mem- bers of any association are stimulated and respond in a similar man- ner. It is by this form of activity that animals not only maintain themselves but exert a radiating influence. It will assist in realizing the constant pressure exerted by animals if we compare their activity to the flow of a stream. The pressure ex- erted by the stream may be realized if by a dam or similar means the current is resisted. Think for a moment of the amount of energy which would be transformed in an effort to prevent animals (or plants) from taking possession of a favorable habitat. Imagine an area 10 feet square and think of the effort it would require to prevent animals permanently from invading and establishing themselves in this habitat if no barriers were interposed, and if the means of de- struction of the invaders were not so drastic that they materially changed the character of the habitat. Increase the size of the area and the difficulties will increase in geometrical ratio, and the utter futility of such an undertaking will soon be realized. The spreading processes of the gypsy moth in Massachusetts, and of the San Jose scale and the cotton boll weevil, show us in terms of human experience something of the energy expended by these radiating animal activities even when there are strong human economic inducements against such mvasions. When a balanced condition, or relative equilibrium, in nature is referred to we must not assume that all balances are alike, for some are disturbed with little effort and others are exceedingly difficult to change. This distinction is an important one. Once the balance is disturbed the process of readjustment begins. This is a phase of the balancing of a complex of forces. Just what stages this process will pass through will depend to an important degree upon the extent of the disturbance. Shght disturbances are taking place all the time and grade imperceptibly into the normal process of maintenance, as when a tree dies in the forest and its neighbors or suppressed trees expand and take possession of the vacancy thus formed. Disturb- ances of a greater degree, on the other hand, may only be adjusted by a long cumulative process. This change can progress no faster than the rate at which its slowest member can advance. Thus a forest association of animals may be destroyed by a fire so severe that all the litter and humus of the forest floor is burned. The animals which live in the moist humic layer as a habitat, such as land snails, diplopods, and certain insects, can not maintain themselves upon a mineral soil, rock, or clay. As such a forest area becomes reforested 526 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. these animals can only find the optimum conditions: when the slow process of humus formation reaches a certain degree of cumulative development. Under such circumstances this later stage must be pre- ceded by antecedent processes, and restoration of the balance is long delayed. Some adjustments take place so quickly that little can be learned of the stages through which they pass. There are, however, many slow processes which afford an abundance of time for study; in fact some are too slow to study during a lifetime. The processes which are moderately slow are often particularly illuminating be- cause all stages are frequently so well preserved that comparison is a very useful method of study; the slowness of a process has a certain resolving power, as it were, recalling the influence of a prism upon a beam of white light, which reveals many characteristics obscure to direct vision. A study of the processes of adjustment among ani- mals is a study of an important phase of the problem of maintenance. The continued process of response will, if circumstances permit, lead to a condition of relative adjustment, or to a balancing among all the factors in operation. 7. ECOLOGICAL UNITS FOR STUDY. In the study of animal responses many different units are avail- able, and a brief consideration of these will aid in an understanding of the methods which are useful. Because the animal body has been found to be composed of a single cell or a multitude of cells, a com- mon belief has grown up that the cell is the natural unit for study. This opinion seems to be due to overlooking the fact that there is just as much reason for considering the whole animal as the unit. The unicellular animals are whole animals as truly as they are cells, and in multicellular animals the activity of single cells means little inde- pendently of the animal as a whole. It thus seems that ecologically at least the smallest valuable unit for study is the individual animal. ‘The responses of the individual, as a kind of animal, to its condition of existence form the basis for what may be called individual ecology. Animals which are related by descent from common ancestors, as a community of social animals (e. g., an ant colony), or taxonomic units, such as genera, families, orders, etc. (e. g., fish, birds, catfishes, and salamanders), are also units which may be studied ecologically. Some of these hereditary units are, ecologically, fairly homogeneous, as, for instance, when a taxonomic unit is equally distinct ecologi- cally: e. g., the woodpeckers with their arboreal habits. In other cases the taxonomic unit contains animals of great ecological diver- sity, as in the case of beetles, which possess almost unlimited ecolog- ical diversity, including littoral, aquatic, suoterranean, and arboreal ANIMALS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENTS ADAMS. 527 habitats, and parasitic, herbivorous, and predaceous habits. The study of ecology, upon the basis of such a unit, may be called aggre- gate ecology. Still another unit is available, based upon the animals which live together in a given combination of environmental condi- tions, as in a pond, on the shore of the sea, in a cave, within the bodies of animals, on the floor of the forest, or in the tree tops, etc. The animals found living together in such conditions form an animal association or a social community, and the study of the responses of such a community is the province of associational ecology. 8. THE ANIMAL ASSOCIATION. In the study of the animal association as a unit, we consider it as an agent, whose modes of activity, or responses, are of primary inter- est. We desire to know the kinds of animals which compose the community, the optimum and limiting influences which control its activity, the character of its responses, and the orderly sequence of changes in the environment to which it is responding. The maintenance of an association depends upon the maintenance of the individual members which compose it, just as the maintenance of the entire animal depends upon the activities of the cells. There is the same basis for speaking of the responses of the association as there is for speaking of the responses of the individual. The asso- ciation can continue to exist indefinitely only in such environments as possess, in available form, substance and energy for its individual members. The activities of the individuals transform energy and substance, producing growth, development, multiplication, and be- havior. The persistence of an association in a given habitat brings about the formation of certain waste products, which if not changed or transformed at a certain rate, or transported from the environ- ment in some way, tend to limit the optimum activity of the indi- viduals and of the association. In the association, as in the individ- ual, there must be an internal relative balance before there can be. such a surplus of energy that the association can radiate or exert outward stress or pressure. An association which is only maintain- ing itself is not at an optimum, for in this latter condition there is a surplus of energy, and‘ the activity, rate of multiplication, and favorable development under normal conditions are favorable to the extension of the association. The pressure which such an association exerts is shown by the progressive extension of its range of influence. By the active movements of the animals, by the activity of the en- vironment, or by both together, they tend to invade other habitats and areas, and in such of these as afford favorable conditions they tend to survive and extend the area of the association. From the 528 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. standpoint of the association the behavior of these active pioneering animals corresponds to the trial activities in the behavior of the indi- vidual animal. These activities are not different in kind from those which are involved in normal maintenance. They are those which form the initial stages in the establishment and extension of the asso- ciation in a new locality or the reestablishment in an old one, and thus lead to a sequence or succession of associations. Ecological suc- cession thus consists in an orderly sequence or series of associations which occur successively and form a genetic series. 9. ASSOCIATIONAL SUCCESSION, A succession of associations takes place either through a trans- formation of older ones, or through the origin of a new one on a surface which has been newly formed and has had no population. A favorable habitat without a population of animals is comparable in some respects to a vacuum; it exists as a condition of unstable equi- librium which tends to change toward a more stable state. The active life of animals tends to lead them into all possible habitats, and where they find the conditions favorable for existence they tend to survive and thus bring about the establishment of an association. Each association, like the individual animal, has a certain amount of unity and tends to maintain or perpetuate itself. But the stability of associations is only relative, and some are much more stable than ethers. Naturally the unstable ones are those which show succession most readily. Thus if we destroy a few trees in a hardwood forest and produce a glade, a large number of the characteristic animals of the dense forest will disappear and be replaced by animals which normally frequent open places; then in a few years sprout-growth and young and suppressed trees will change the conditions so much that the kind of forest animals which were eliminated for a time will begin to return; and when the new growth is replaced by the mature forest the animals of the mature forest will return and a new equilibrium will be formed. In such a forested region the glade is to be looked upon as an unstable condition, which through a succes- sion of associations will later arrive at a relatively stable condition, which is able to perpetuate itself indefinitely under existing condi- tions. Such an association is considered a climaa, or the culmination cf a series of successions under existing conditions. The succession of associations leading to a climax represents the process of adjustment 1o the conditions of stress, and the climax represents a condition of relative equilibrium. Climax associations are large units, and are the resultants of certain climatic, geological, physiographic, and bio- logical conditions. ANIMALS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENTS—ADAMS. 529 THE DYNAMIC RELATIONS OF THE ENVIRONMENT. 1. INTRODUCTORY. In the preceding section we have seen that to understand animals we must consider them as active living agents which are constantly changing and responding to their environment. That the environ- ment of animals should also be studied as an actively changing me- diwm has not been as clearly recognized by students of plants and ani- mals as one might anticipate from its importance. Some students feel that the study and understanding of the environment is not a part of zoology, or at least not an essential part. Furthermore, to some of these students at least, the environment seems largely chaotic, a confused unwieldly mass with no evident favorable point of attack. This view is quite natural to those who have had no training and practical experience in recognizing the “ orderly sequence ” or laws of environmental changes, and particularly to those who do not feel that environmental relations are an essential part of their subject. By many such students the environment is viewed in a manner com- parable to the prevailing chaotic views on weather before meteor- ology became a science, or on taxonomy before Linneeus, or on geol- ogy before Lyell. If one has serious doubts on this point, he need only turn to the standard treatises on zoology and search for a com- prehensive and adequate recognition and utilization of the orderly and regulatory character of the environment as an essential part of the subject. The fallacy of this position has been well expressed as follows by Brooks (1899) : I shall try to show that life is response to the order of nature. * * #* But if it be admitted, it follows that biology is the study of response, and that he study of that order of nature to which response is made is as well within its province as the study of the living organism which responds, for all the knowledge we can get of both these aspects of nature is needed as a preparation for the study of that relation between them which constitutes life. Later he says: But if we stop there, neglecting the relation of the living being to its environ- ment, our study is not biology or the science of life. No one seems to have attempted to refute this; naturally an easier path is followed—to ignore it. Perhaps up to the time of the present generation there has been some excuse for this confusion; but now the responsibility does not rest upon students of the physical and vege- tational environment but upon students of animals, because the former students have arranged their scientific data in a manner which clearly shows the orderly lawful sequence of changes in environ- mental activities. This should form the basis for a study of the 530 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. corresponding series of changes which take place within the animal, and also be the basis for a study of the reciprocal responses taking place between the animal and the environment. Tn this section an outline will be given of some of the most impor- tant phases of environmental changes in inland areas viewed as law- ful and orderly, particularly those changes which influence animal habitats. 2. THE DYNAMIC AND GENETIC STANDPOINT. Since Lyell taught the scientific world that a study of processes now in operation is the key to an understanding of the present as well as of the past, the process method has been slowly but inevitably pene- trating to the utmost subdivisions of inquiry. With the progr essive appreciation and use of this method its efficiency has been increased. Its progress has been the most rapid where the principles of its appli- cation have been most clearly understood. As models become known in each field of work others will find the method much easier to apply, and for this reason it is desirable that such examples become fairly numerous and widespread. In the application of the process method to an imperfectly under- stood subject, and particularly to a complex one, it is desirable to con- sider the subject as a unzt or entity. This unit may then be regarded as an agent whose process of activity is to be studied, for the activity of an agent g OlVves US a process. Thus an organism, a iat society, or an animal community is a very complex unit or agent, which largely through chemical energy, under conditions of a normal environment, responds in an orderly sequence of changes. The environment changes, the internal conditions of the animal change, and so do the correspond- ing responses on the part of the animal. When all of these changes are studied as orderly processes, we are able to see the advantage of this method of study. It is desirable to investigate all phases of ani- mal responses in this manner, such as growth, development, heredity, etc., in order to determine the causes and conditions of this orderly sequence. Asa rule our recognition of the orderly sequence or laws of action or succession precedes our knowledge of the causes and condi- tions of the sequence. This order of sequence is thus of fundamental importance and must be recognized before it can be investigated or explained. This method of studying the activity of agents, the char- acter of their processes, constitutes the dynamic standpoint. When the dynamic relations of an agent have been investigated, the orderly sequence of its responses established, and the causes and con- ditions of its activity determined, it is then possible to explain fully the origin of genesis of its activities. The genetic method is the study of origins in terms of the processes involved, and therefore the classification of facts genetically implies a knowledge of the proc- ANIMALS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENTS—ADAMS. 5381 esses involved in their origin. There are thus many degrees or stages in the development of a genetic classification, the first step of which is to determine the orderly sequence of changes. In a certain sense, in its broadest application, the process method is universal and includes the genetic, but until their mutual relations become clearly recognized and are generally understood both should be emphasized. Particular attention should be called to the fact that the activity of an agent results in a process, and processes give us the laws of change. Many processes are reversible; that is, a process may go forward in one direction and then become reversed and proceed in the opposite direction. Other processes are nonreversible, and oper- ate in only one direction, being in a sense orthogenetic, as in the later stages of the ontogenetic process. Let us summarize the main characteristics and principles involved in the dynamic and genetic method. They have been well expressed by Keyes (1898), and for my purpose are arranged as follows: A truly genetic scheme for the classification of natural phenomena thus always has prominently presented its underlying principle of cause and effect. * * * To begin with, an adequate scheme should be based directly upon * * * agencies. * * * All products must find accurate expres- sion in terms of the agencies. * * * The primary groupings of the * * * processes must be based, therefore, upon the manner in which these agencies affect the * * * materials. * * * Constructive and destructive agencies can be recognized only when the phenomena are made the basis for the scheme. Processes are merely operative. If coupled with products at all, in classifica- tion, all must be regarded as formative or constructive. The product’s de- struction, its loss of identity, is wholly immaterial. The action of agencies is merely to produce constant change. Van Hise (1904) has formulated other principles of the process method as follows: The agent is the substance containing energy which it expends in doing work upon other substances. The substance upon which work is done may thereby receive energy and thus become an agent which does work upon other sub- stances; and so on indefinitely. Indeed, the rule is that one process follows another in the sequence of events, until the energy concerned becomes so dis- persed as to be no longer traceable. Theoretically this goes on indefinitely. * * * We have seen that the action of one or more agents through the exertion of force and the expenditure of energy upon one or more substances is a geological process. It is rare indeed, if it ever happens, that a single agent works through a single force upon a single substance. * * * If geology is to be simplified the processes must be analyzed and classified in terms of energies, agents, and results. Each of the classes of energy and agent should be taken up, and the different kinds of work done by it discussed. * * * The general work of each of the agents and the results accomplished should be similarly considered. Not only so, but the work of the different forms that each of the agents takes should be separately treated. Thus, be- sides considering the work of water generally, the work which it does both running and standing must be treated. The first involves the work of streams; the second the work of lakes and oceans. This involves the treatment of 532 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. streams as entities. * * * ‘The treatment of the agents will be more satis- factory in proportion as the work done by each of the forms of each of the agents is explained under physical and chemical principles in the terms of energy. Viewed from this standpoint it is remarkable how many of our current zoological conceptions are essentially static and how con- fused are our conceptions of the process method. Physiology is supposed to be devoted solely to processes, yet. physiologists use the terms anabolism and katabolism, constructive and destructive in- fluences, and, likewise, zoologists frequently use the expressions “ the friends” or “the enemies” of animals—a dual terminology which has a certain utility but which exists mainly on account of the static conceptions of organic relations. The dynamic or process concept is a difficult one to attain, and to apply in all cases, as any one will soon learn if he strives to do this consistently ; and yet as a scientific ideal there can be no doubt that it has the same supericrity over the older static methods and point of view that an explanation has over an empirical description. 3. DYNAMIC AND GENETIC CLASSIFICATION OF ENVIRON MENTS. In the natural histery sciences we have two main sorts of classifi- cations of phenomena, those which we call “natural” and those which we call “ artificial.” Natural classifications are those in which the basal criteria are of origin, the method of processes or genesis. A classification of lakes upon the basis of the processes which operated in their origin—crustal movements of the earth, the mean- ders of streams, the work of an ice sheet, volcanic activity, ete— would at the same time furnish an explanation of them in terms of their origin. Artificial classifications are those in which the criteria are arbitrarily chosen. Any character may be made the basis for an artificial classification. Thus lakes may be classified upon the basis of their size, depth, color of the water, distance from cities, number. of boats upon them, ete., but such classification would not furnish the basis for a scientific explanation of lakes. The artificial is often use- ful or convenient for a special purpose; the genetic is illuminating from the standpoint of scientific interpretation. This method may be applied to any kind of environment, physical, physical and biological combined, or solely biological. To the degree that the environment is dominated by the physical conditions the laws of physical change and physical genesis will preponderate in the origin of such environ- ments, and cerresponding relations apply to biological environments. he dependence of the genetic method upon causes and conditions makes it impossible to divorce it from the local conditions. This is at once the strength and weakness of this method, for it is particular, and generalized averages mean Jittle because origins are different un- ANIMALS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENTS—ADAMS, 533 der different conditions; this is the key to individuality. Thus streams viewed as stages in the progressive transformation of a liquid me- dium for life, may be formed in many diverse ways, and for this reason the general principles of the method of genesis may be ex- pressed most simply in an deal case. Genetic series are wnending, they extend into the past and will continue in the future. The point of departure for study must therefore be arbitrarily chosen, and the more nearly a natural basis can be approximated the simpler its ap- plication becomes. For this reason a cycle will be followed here which begins with a condition of stress, advances through the process of adjustment to strain, and reaches a condition of relative equilib- rium. The starting point in such a cycle we will consider as the original conditions, and the later activities as the derived ones. The original conditions we will assume to be an uplifted undulating plain, composed of relatively homogeneous materials, in a humid climate, and covered by a varied vegetation, including trees. The elevated condition of the land produces a condition of unstable equilibrium or stress for the rain falling upon its surface; and, furthermore, the vegetation will tend to spread over the entire surface and thus exert a certain pressure also. These original conditions, are, therefore, unstable and destined to change, and mutually to influence and regulate one another. If we now imagine the rain “turned on” under such conditions, what are the main processes which will operate? The rain falling in a depression will be supplemented by that which drains from the ele- vations; thus, through the agency of running water a standing-water habitat will have its origin. With this concentration of water will come also a burden of débris from the upland; and in this way the “constructive” and “destructive” processes will begin at the same time. Plants will invade such a depression and add their remains. Some of the depressions will overflow and the outflowing streams will cut down the outlet to progressively lower levels and ultimately drain the basin. On the other hand, inwash and organic débris may to- gether accumulate at such a rate as to raise the level of the basin above ground water and thus transform the conditions to that of land. The progressive stages of the process of degradation thus favor the transformation of the depression and a progressive formation of lakes, which are converted into ponds and swamps, and ultimately, with drainage, to dry land. For depressions we thus get a genetic series which we may call the lake, pond, and swamp series. This does not classify the depression series according to size, depth, char- acter of water, etc., as in an artificial classification, but in the order of their development or genesis through the agency of running water. Accompanying this sequence there are of course changes in size, depth, etc., but these are subordinated in the classification to the 65133°—sm 1917-——35 5384 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. developmental sequence centering about the process of the degrada- tion of the land by the agency of running water. This is therefore a classification of environments, not on the basis of the product, as it might appear from calling it a depression or standing-water series, but upon the bass of the activity or processes of the dominant agent. We will assume that all the lakes, ponds, and swamps, due to the original relief of the land, become drained and constructively con- verted into streams or dry land. Let us consider the streams, particu- larly those which did not develop from the lake, pond, and swamp series, in order to consider them in their simpler conditions of development. The first shower on the new land surface, or the beginning of a cycle, forms an extensive ramification of small streamlets, their den- dritic branches flowing down all slopes. With the confluence of the smaller branches the progressively larger trunks are formed, and with their increase in volume, cutting progresses; but all traces of this stream itself tend to vanish soon after the shower is over, al- though some water may linger in pools in the deeper depressions. These conditions form an ¢énitial stage in the development of the activity of running water as an animal habitat. These temporary streams are rain waters intermingled with dust from the air and soil from the ground. Since, viewed chemically, such waters have not existed as a liquid long enough to dissolve much gaseous and solid material, they represent a relatively original condition, or an initial stage in the chemical development of the stream as a medium for living animals. Again and again these showers are repeated, and where there is a slight variation in the hardness of the substratum small pools are formed on the softer materials, where erosion is more rapid. In these pools it is possible for some aquatic or amphibious animals, of marked powers of dispersal, to become lodged, or even entrapped, as in the case of animals which migrate up the stream during its temporary flow; such pools, in fact, may be reached even by individuals from the ground water. Finally these temporary streams cut down to the ground-water level and become permanent. Such a stream then, in addition to the fresh rain water which it receives with each shower, has a perma- nent supply of ground water. This water, having filtered through the soil, contains both gas, particularly CO,, and minerals, and thus as a solution differs much from rain water. The composition of ground water varies much with the chemical differences of the sub- stratum. Such water generally contains enough substance in solu- tion to be a favorable medium for plant growth, such as alga— aquatic pioneers which are comparable to the lichens in their in- vasion upon bare rock. But the temporary flow of water is still dominant, and will remain so until the supply of permanent ground ANIMALS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENTS—ADAMS. 535 water is of such a volume that, having a good current, it rushes over the obstacles in its path; then a permanent brook has been evolved, and a permanent rapid-water habitat has originated. As the erosion of the stream advances, organic débris not only multiplies indigenously in the water, but it is also washed and blown in, and through its decay the composition of the water is changed, particularly in the amount of CO, present. This gas causes the water to take into solution a greater amount of lime; and at the same time the agitation to which it is subjected while dashing over ob- stacles or flowing over falls increases the amount of oxygen present, a process further aided by the oxygen set free in it by water plants. Carbonic acid, moreover, is set free by the rapids and falls. It is thus very evident that the chemical processes are undergoing an important development as the stream progresses, since there are going on both the process of gaseous equilibrium with the air, and an increase of the solids in solution. The stream is progressively becoming a more favorable or enriched culture medium for organ- isms. The rapidly flowing water which characterizes the brook is the predominant physical feature of this environment, the stretches of relatively quiet water which form the pools, between the more rapidly flowing parts, anticipating the kind of conditions which are destined to increase with the transformation of the brook conditions into those of a creek. With the progress of development in drainage a brook is progressively transformed by the processes of erosion into a creek. Here the rapid-water conditions are more nearly equaled by a corresponding enlargement of the pool or the quieter stretches of water, where the finer sediments are deposited and the animals dwelling on the surface film or in the mud and sand, find suitable conditions. The falls and rapids which charac- terize the brook are exceptional in the creek, but may linger where the rate of change has been very slow on account of the resistance of the substratum. The alternation of rapid and slower water, which characterizes the creek stage, with the preponderance of the relatively rapidly flowing water, is gradually transformed into that of a river, where the water fiows at a slower rate and rapids and falls have asa rule become extinct, and where a condition of relative chemical equilibrium has also been reached. Here the burden of coarse débris is at a minimum, and the surface, sides, and bottom of the stream have become differentiated as relatively distinct hab- itats. With progressive approach toward base level all conditions of the environment tend to become more stable and equalized until the stream erodes to tide level, becomes brackish and finally as salt as the sea itself, and reaches an equilibrium determined by the dom- inant animal environment upon the earth—that of the sea. 586 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. We have now outlined the developmental sequence of wet depres- sions, the lake-pond-swamp series, and the running water, the brook- creek-river series, these two series including the main inland animal environments in a liquid medium in a humid climate. We have yet to consider the animal environments of land animals proper, those which live in the gaseous medium of air. The complexity of condi- tions upon land is much greater than that in water, either fresh or salt. In other words the land habitats are the most complex on earth. For simplicity in handling this involved problem, an ideal series will also be followed, and instead of attempting to discuss all the prin- ciples involved, only such will be mentioned as may be illustrated by a single example. This will serve to show the application of the method. We shall consider the process of degradation of the land, such as might be developed during a topographic cycle of erosion, and as applied to a snowcapped conical mountain in a temperate humid region. Let us consider the series of processes which operate upon such a mountain. The snow and rain which fall upon it are in unstable equi- librium, the snow creeps or plunges down the slopes, and the water flows down. In the zone of ice and snow physical and mechanical changes preponderate; but at lower altitudes, with the melting of the snow and ice, on account of the higher temperature, chemical changes become more prominent and supplement the mechanical work of run- ning water. Here, also, plants and animals become an important fac- tor in modifying the processes of change by hastening or retarding the processes of degradation. We thus see that on different parts of a mountain there are important modifications in the processes of degradation. The same general processes which operate to form lakes, ponds, swamps, brooks, creeks, and rivers, are also at the same time producing changes in the land habitats. The entire surface of such a mountain is undergoing change, but because of the concentra- tion of degradative progress near its base, particularly on account of the concentration of the drainage there, ravines and valleys develop here more rapidly and converge toward the main divide, the moun- tain top. As these ravines and valleys enlarge, the mountain is low- ered; and ultimately all is reduced to a plain, and to baselevel. The condition of stress which existed upon the slopes of such a mountain as degradation progressed, became relatively adjusted at that place, but where the degraded materials were deposited a stress was becom- ing cumulative, and it is this ever-changing adjustment of stresses which makes natural processes unending. With the degradation of the mountain, progressively higher zones are lowered; the snow cap disappears; the region above the tree limit, and later the lower parts, are spread over a large area, and the mountainous character is largely gone. In this manner and at the ANIMALS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENTS—ADAMS. 537 same time as the land is degraded to a lowland by running water, in the water itself a series of habitats is developing, and thus all the environment is being transformed, along relatively distinct but mu- tually interdependent lines, toward the same general direction or condition—a relative equilibrium resulting from the balancing of all stresses near sea level. In the preceding discussion no emphasis has been placed onthe fact that degradation of the land is only a part of a large cycle of activ- ity, and that the deposition of the degraded materials may be a cause of so much stress as to initiate an elevation of the land. If the heavy soluble materials from the land are washed into the sea and only lighter materials remain behind, the increased stress resulting be- tween the sea and the land will tend to elevate the lighter areas until an equilibrium is established between the heavy sea and the lighter land; therefore, some crustal movements, at least, may be com- plementary phases of the degradation of the land. The elevations and depressions of the surface of the land with regard to the sea level may thus initiate new cycles of transformation in all environ- ments. These processes do not need amplification here, although they should be noted ; but this lack of amplification does not imply a minor influence of this factor. Still another cycle may be initiated by the processes of vulcanism, a factor the influence of which is easily over- looked in large parts of the world but in others is very prominent. Only one more comprehensive physical factor will be mentioned; that due to alterations in the atmosphere—climatic changes, Al- though the temperate humid climate has been made the basis for the preceding discussion, it must be remembered not only that there are other kinds of climates, but that these undergo transformation or changes from such extremes as the cold arctic deserts on the one hand, to the dry hot deserts on the other. Within this great ampli- tude of climatic possibility is found one of the greatest causes both of complexity in land environment and of many local differences in the transformation of habitats. To simplify this sketch of the operation of the physical features of the environment the organic factors have been neglected, and these should now be considered. On account of the ultimate dependence of animals for food upon vegetation, many intimate relations exist be- tween plants and animals; furthermore, in addition to the food rela- tions there are many other important ones, such as the physical and chemical influence of the vegetation upon the soil, its influence upon _ the temperature and humidity of the air and on light; and, finally, there is qualification of these influences by the different kinds of vege- tation. A vegetational cover of grass has a very different effect from one of shrubs or a forest cover; conifers and hardwood forests differ in effect also; and the succession of plant societies varies, not only with 538 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. different kinds of vegetation but also in different climates, and with different physiographic conditions. As Cowles (1911) has shown, there are several cycles or series of successions of vegetation. Many of these changes are dependent upon physical conditions which are equally potent in their influence upon animals. Thus physical and vegetational changes in combination influence animals directly and indirectly, and in the conditions due to this fact we find the basis for the important control which vegetation exerts upon animals. Animals themselves form an important part of their own environ- ment, not only in their relation to their own kind, as mates or as prog- eny, but also as members of an animal community whose members must adjust their activities to one another through symbiotic, com- petitive, or predatory relations. If any animal becomes abnormally abundant, that is, more numerous than the conditions can support, this number in itself becomes a weakness, through the positive attrac- tion of the organisms (plant and animal) which are able to prey upon it, and soon the normal abundance is restored. For example, in a coniferous forest, bark beetles (Scolytoidea) may increase to such an extent that the forest is largely destroyed, and a succession is pro- duced in the vegetation as the conifers are replaced by a growth of aspen and birch. As a result of this destruction of the kind of food and habitat essential for the next generation of beetles, a proper habitat is lacking, and the restoration of the normal number of beetles is hastened. This same example also shows how one kind of animal may influence the character of a whole community by its control over the vegetation. The influence of man must be looked on from the same standpoint as one views the activity of any other animal; as that of a member of an animal community. He hastens and retards the changes in his environment as do other animals. In general his early methods are predatory; he reaps where he does not sow; but later the milder competitive and symbiotic relations and the constructive or produc- tive aspect become more prominent. Civilization is an attempt to make the environment “to order,” but as yet man has not learned how to produce a permanent “optimum” along the lines of an eco- logical community. As has already been said, to understand man we should view him as an integral part of an ecological community, as one member of a biotic community of plants and animals, or at least of an animal community which includes all animals that are influenced by man—and not consider him, as some students do, as a distinct entity with little regard to his animal and plant associates. The main features of the preceding discussion may be summarized as in the following table: ANIMALS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENTS—ADAMS., 539 Taste 2.—The genesis and formation of inland habitats in a humid climate and the dynamic status of the processes. Dynamic status. | Phases in the formation of inland environments. Original conditions; elevated land area, or new land surface, or I. Unstable equilibrium—condition beginning of new cycle. bi of stress or pressure. II. Process of adjustment to stress | Process of formation of habitats; all habits are constructive. or strain. e 2 g g @) Ou n —™ ow Bes Se se S'S 226 Sg of 5 8 ‘ % © os @ ars B =) B is B Bs 8 a © no 3° a na eo) B Bene 3 2 Saye} 2 BBS Bee a 8 ct ie} + et Le Sarl * 9 © © n & = . n oO e SB ea 5 ae Ss 8 3A o a ay SS i= A a co] B (The following are examples of the Sik LY a9 = 2 : i ae =| = ) major processes): et 4 8 ° 5 & & a = a} ise ee 2 5 45 Bie, 3 5 8 So re) o 1. The processes of degradation of 24 3 a fe e 2 : a - the land BE Say “3 a - = ou 7 ate : 3 Fi iS q =] 2. The processes of adjustment to sels © 'g “ae a = ay ey 3 8 climate. o ® o § o 9 3. The process of the establishment 4 of biotic (plant or animal) b y iS w dominance. 8 5 F| S BB i 2 7 for) 2 2 = f°) ot fo] Z S) 3 & B an is) ies} a8 Web aoe : be) 5 B BB 5 ne g nan Qa 0d oO op rH B < 2, - sys . co Til. Relative equilibrium. & Derived conditions; lowland area, old land surface (base-leveled to the marine environment), end of a cycle, or dominance; under relatively stable conditions. The preceding discussion is based upon the conditions of a humid climate, but the semiarid and the arid climates should also be touched on. In time, as ecological studies are extended to all kinds of land areas, it will be possible to formulate all of the general principles of the origin or process of development of land habitats; but at present vast areas of the land have never been observed by a zoologist from a modern ecological standpoint. Most of the ecological studies of ani- mals have been carried on in a humid climate, only slight attention having been given to the ecological relations existing in an arid cli- mate, and still less to those in alpine and polar regions. After the 540 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. humid regions have been better studied, the arid regions will probably be the next to be carefully investigated. The plant ecologists, by their studies in these regions, have already furnished important facts, pre- paring the way for the animal ecologist, because they have investi- gated both the physical and vegetational conditions upon the prairies and plains of the West. If the regions of progressively increasing aridity are examined, there will be found to be a corresponding series of changes in the animal habitats. The standing-water series of habitats found in such a series, in contrast with those of humid re- gions with fresh-water lakes, ponds, and swamps in addition to the temporary fresh waters, are alkaline and salt waters, and we find an extensive series ranging from Great Salt Lake, Salton Sea, and Devil’s Lake, to strong briny pools and alkaline mud fiats. These are, of course, as capable of a genetic treatment as are the corre- sponding fresh-water bodies of humid areas. The stream series is also present in the arid region, but it exists under conditions quite different from those in humid areas. The through-flowing streams are relatively independent of local conditions because their main sup- ply of water is from the mountain; but they are nevertheless much modified by the character and amount of the burden which they carry during the time of high water, and they tend to become clogged at low-water stages. The chemical composition of such waters is quite different from that of regions continually leached by rains. The small streams flowing from the mountains, whose diminishing volume does not allow them to traverse the arid regions, succumb, and disap- pear in the dry earth—examples of a second degree of dominance of the desert or plains. But the truly characteristic streams of the arid regions are those primarily dependent upon the desert conditions. Such streams are well within the arid regions and are dominated wholly by them. They are solely of a temporary character, and cor- respond to the initial stage of stream development, the temporary stream, in a humid climate. In an arid climate, however, develop- ment does not proceed beyond this early stage, and the degradation and base-leveling of the land is due to the combined influence of water and the wind. On land the movements of the soil by the wind, as in the sand- dune regions of true deserts, show us a characteristic condition; in a more humid climate, however, the dunes would tend to become anchored by vegetation. Other soils than sand are also blown about. The extreme of dry desert conditions must be looked upon as the ultimate or climax condition, a condition of relative equilibrium, under present climatic conditions, for certain regions. A slight departure from these extreme conditions is seen in such localities as receive most abundant showers during the growing season for vege- tation. These are able to influence the development of the drainage ANIMALS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENTS—ADAMS. 541 only in a minor way, but they moisten a shallow surface layer of soil and permit the growth of short grasses, such as the buffalo-grass (Schantz, 1911:40). Very recently another important source of water in the arid regions has come to be recognized. This, McGee has shown to be the subsurface or artesian waters which come up from below; and this is an important supplementary source of moisture in extensive areas in the arid West (McGee, 1913), where the evapora- tion is large. It is not unlikely that even in humid regions where the soils are very sandy, as upon the Coastal Plain, and where the strata dip in such a manner as to favor an underflow of water, this supply may be of considerable importance to the biota. With a greater rainfall during the growing season, permitting a relative humidity greater than on the short-grass area of the plains, a deeper-rooted vegetational cover gives us the long prairie grasses of the eastern prairie. As soon as the physical conditions permit a growth of vegetation this material becomes an environmental factor which reflexly modifies the physical conditions of the air, the soil, and the animal habitat. This is shown to a marked degree in the humid area of the southeast- ern United States, where the rainfall, greater than that on the arid plains and prairies, favors the development of a forest cover. Such a forest not only tends to retard evaporation but also acts as a sponge, and by its vegetable débris and loose soil retards the run-off. In this manner not only are land habitats influenced but this conservation of moisture tends to prolong the duration of temporary streams and to stabilize the flow of permanent ones; and, further, through the same influence the ground-water level declines slowly, and bodies of stand- ing water are also influenced. Thus all the more important habitats are to some degree regulated and made more stable by a forest cover. The foregoing discussion and examples, selected from the activities of animals and changes in their environments, are varied enough to show how diverse are the applications of the process method to inves- tigation. The general idea is easily grasped, but to make the dynamic method a regular habitual procedure in investigation is truly difficult, so difficult, indeed, that there is reasonable ground for doubting if this method can be mastered without a practical application of it to a concrete problem, at the same time giving special attention to the method of procedure. REFERENCES TO LITERATURE. Adams, C. C. 1904. On the analogy between the departure from optimum vital conditions and departure from geographical life centers. Science, n. s., 19: 210-211. ‘ 19138. Guide to the Study of Animal Ecology. 183 pp. New York. (This book contains numerous references to the literature bearing upon the subject of this article.) 549 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. Bancroft, W. D. 1911. a a v4 al Pel = RS “4 > wn q O > em WY > ee fd a =x Z _o tay | LEONHARD FUCHS, PHYSICIAN AND BOTANIST, 1501- 1566.7 By Frertrx NEUMANN. (With 7 plates.) itp One of the most wonderful chapters in the history of mankind and in the development of the human mind is that period of the late Middle Ages, particularly the fifteenth century, which we call the Renaissance, or the time of the humanists. Literary in its aspect, it gave birth to the revival of learning and paved the way for the modern spirit of Europe. The study of classical antiquity as dis- closed in literature, art, philosophy, and science of ancient Greece and Rome became the object of all scientists of that epoch and infused new life into the spiritual stagnation of former centuries.2 The in- vention of printing in the middle of the fifteenth century revolu- tionized and facilitated the dissemination of knowledge; the discovery of a new continent near the close of that century enlarged the geographical and spiritual horizon and opened unlimited perspectives to the human mind. This was the foundation on which learning in the sixteenth century was built, and with this begins our modern history. Humanism originated in Italy and spread slowly over Europe. In Germany it took root about the end of the fifteenth century, and it reached its zenith in the first two decades of the sixteenth century so that Ulrich von Hutten enthusiastically exclaimed: The mind is awakening, arts and science are flourishing. Oh, century, what pleasure to live in thee! ® The study of classical antiquity naturally manifested itself in the prevalence of philological studies, and stamped all investigations in the various branches of science of that epoch. No other branches 1 Read before the Society of Medical History of Chicago, Jan. 15, 1917. 2 Voigt, Georg. Die Weiderbelebung des klassischen Altertums oder das erste Jahr- hundert des Humanismus. 2 Bde. 3. Aufl., besorgt von M. Lehnerdt. Berlin, G. Reimer, 1893. 3“ seculum! O literae! Juvat vivere ... Vigent studia, florent ingenia.’’-—Ulrichs von Hutten Schriften, hrsg. von Eduard Bécking. [Epistola ad Bilibaldum Pirckheymer, 25 Oct. 1518. Bd. I, p. 217. Leipzig, B. G. Teubner, 1859. 635 636 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. showed this influence of humanism more than medicine and natural science, and it is no exaggeration when the philosopher Windelband * says in his history of philosophy: Natural science is the daughter of humanism. The history of medicine in the thirteenth and first part of the four- teenth century covers that period which has been called the Arabic era; a period which gave a new impetus to the scientific evolution in medicine and enriched medical science in many fields. But while the Arabic influence is not to be underrated, it became evident upon the revival of learning and under the growing influence of classical studies, especially of Greek, that the Arabic medical writers, includ- ing Avicenna, had never had access to the originals of the great medical writers of antiquity and therefore had either misinterpreted or misunderstood their doctrines. It was felt necessary to go back to the original source of information, to study the great writers in their original language, to examine critically their writings, to com- pare the different texts, and to annotate them for better understand- ing. This was the origin of that tendency in medicine during the latter part of the fifteenth and the first part of the sixteenth century which stimulated the scientific endeavors of many medical writers, who formed what Haeser? so appropriately terms “The philological medical school.” a Gis The most prominent of these writers, equally distinguished for his learning both in philology and in medicine, and also as one of the founders of scientific botany, is Leonhard Fuchs, whose name is commemorated by the genus Fuchsia named in his honor. While in the histories of botany Fuchs is treated with that thoroughness which he deserves, the historiographers of medicine have paid less attention to him with the exception of Kurt Sprengel.*? Haeser, in the short chapter devoted to the philological medical school, mentions him among the other writers who belong to this circle. The character of Pagel-Sudhoff’s introduction to the history of medicine‘ precludes a detailed sketch of his life and work. Leonhard Fuchs, born in 1501, at Wemding, Bavaria, was the son of Johann Fuchs, a councilor of the same town, and of Anna Denton, whose father was also a councilor. Since his father died when he was 1 Windelband, W. Geschichte der neueren Philosophie, 5 Aufl. 2 Bde. Leipzig, Breit- kopf & Hirtel, 1911. 2 Haeser, Heinrich. Lehrbuch der Geschichte der Medizin. 3. Bearbeitung. 38 Bde. Jena, H. Dufft, 1875-82. 3Sprengel, Kurt P. J. Versuch einer pragmatischen Geschichte der Arzneikunde. 3 Aufl. 5 Bde. Halle, J. J. Gebauer, 1821-28. 4Pagel, J. L. Winfiihrung in die Geschichte der Medizin. 2. Aufl, Durchgeschen vou Karl Sudhoff. Berlin, S. Karger, 1915. LEONHARD FUCHS—NEUMANN. 637 only 5 years of age, the credit for his education belongs to his mother. He first attended school in the town of his birth, and must have manifested exceptional ability and zeal for learning even at that early age, for he was only 10 years old when his mother, who evidently was in good circumstances, sent him to Heilbronn, in Wiirtemberg, to a school which had won a great reputation under a certain Conrad as head master, who instructed in Latin and read with his pupils the comedies of Terence and the odes of Horace. Here he made such rapid progress within a year that it was thought advisable to send him to the St. Maria School at Erfurt in Thuringia. There he re- mained a year anda half and distinguished himself to such a degree that he was able to enter the University at Erfurt when in his thir- teenth year. He pursued his studies with the same eagerness and suc- cess as before, and the baccalaureate degree was conferred upon him, He was also given an appointment as instructor in the same institu- tion. He returned to his home town for a short interval and, al- though very young, conducted a school with great success. But his ambition and zeal for learning was not satisfied, and in 1519 he be- took himself to the University at Ingolstadt, Bavaria, where he studied philology and philosophy. The University of Ingolstadt since its foundation in 1472 had taken a prominent part in the dis- semination of humanism! and had counted among its teachers scholars of the highest scientific reputation, among them none more famous than Johann Reuchlin, perhaps the greatest of the humanists, the resuscitator of Hebrew and Greek learning, and who is rightly called “the Father of the Reformation.” This great man was one of the chief teachers of Leonhard Fuchs, with whom he studied Greek, Hebrew, Latin, and philosophy. Another teacher of high standing was Jacobus Ceporinus, who was also his instructor in these three languages. In 1521, when 20 years of age, Fuchs finished his studies, after having received his master’s degree. During this period he acquainted himself with the writings of Martin Luther and accepted his doctrines, a fact which had great influence on his life. Indeed, it is not impossible that the acceptance of the new creed led him to the study of medicine. His critical mind was awakened and sharpened; he was essentially a man of facts, al- though still very young. For three years he studied medicine at the University of Ingolstadt, but he did not neglect his classical studies, which enabled him to read fluently and to understand thoroughly the noted Greek writers and made him one of the best Latin writers of the sixteenth century. On March 1, 1524, he acquired the degree of doctor of medicine, then moved to Munich where he practiced his profession successfully. His residence in Munich, where he married 1 Bauch, Gustay. Die Anfiinge des Humanismus in Ingolstadt, Miinchen, R. Olden- bourg, 1901. 638 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. Anna Friedberger of the same place, covered little more than two years, for in May, 1526, he returned to Ingolstadt to become a lecturer of medicine at the university, and also to practice his profession. He must already have won some distinction in this direction, for other- wise Margrave George of Ansbach would not have appointed him his court physician. He entered upon his new duties in May, 1528, and soon gained the confidence and friendship of the margrave, who also had accepted Luther’s doctrines. He became known as a successful physician, especially through his treatment of the English sweating disease, which in 1529 spread over a large part of Europe. I can not find any publication of his, either in Latin or in German, which deals with this subject, but I find in the Catalogue of Printed Books in the British Museum the following entry: A most worthy practise of * * * L. Fuchsius * * * moste neces- sary in this needful tyme of our visitation * * * both for the sicke and for them that would avoyde the daunger of the contagion. Rouland Hall for M. [ichael] Lobley, London, n. d. This copy is the only one in existence, so far as I am able to trace; it evidently refers to Fuch’s treatment and cure of the English sweating sickness. Added to the entry, in brackets, is the date 1575, with a query; but this date is without question a mistake. The sweating sickness? visited England first in 1486, again in 1507, 1518, and 1529 (in which latter year it spread over a large part of Europe), and the last time in 1551. The book must have been printed at an earlier date than 1575, for we know that Michael Lobley flour- ished in London as a bookseller between 1531 and 1567, and that the printer Rouland Hall died in 1563.? Tn connection with this book, I wish to mention another work, the authorship of which is attributed to Fuchs, and which, while dealing with a different subject, may be characterized as an undertaking of similar character. Albrecht von Haller quotes in his Bibliotheca medicinee practice (Vol. I, 1776), among other writings by Fuchs: Tabula oculorum morbus comprehendens, Tubing, 1538, folio, which entry Wilhelm Gottfried Ploucquet, 20 years later, copied in his Initia bibliothecsee medico-practice et chirurgice, vol. vi. These are the only two bibliographers who mention this work; in the history of ophthalmology it was not known. In 1899 Dr. Edward Pergens, of Brussels, a well-known oculist, and greatly interested in the history of his specialty as well as in the history of medicine, 1 Hecker, J. F. C. Der englische Schweiss, ein Arztlicher Beitrag zur Geschichte des 15 and 16. Jahrhunderts. Berlin, T. C. F, Enslin, 1834. 2 As the service of the British Museum is limited during the present war, I will com- municate with the librarian after the war and will ask for a photostat copy, which may enable me to give some more information as to whether the book was really written by Fuchs or whether it was the undertaking of an enterprising bookseller who took advantage of an illustrious name to stimulate the sale. LEONHARD FUCHS—NEUMANN. 639 published in volume 23 of the Centralblatt fiir praktische Augen- heilkunde! an exact reprint of what seems to be a German transla- tion of the Latin edition of 1538. The book is entitled: Alle Kranck- heyt/der Augen durch den hochge/lerten Doctor Leonhard fuchsen zu Onoltz/bach zusammen gezogen allen augen/artzten hochnottig zu/wissen. Getruckt zu Strassburg durch Heinrich Vogtherren Anno/MDXXXIX. The reprint is preceded by a brief historical introduction , in which Doctor Pergens quotes the Latin edition, according to Ploucquet (that Haller had mentioned it first had escaped him), and then presents a history and description of the German copy. Doctor Pergens had found the work in the Bibliothéque Royale at Brussels. The book contains an illustration on the reverse of the title-page, reproducing a figure of the eye with a part of the chiasm. (Plate 2.) Whether this illustration is an original one, Doctor Pergens does not decide; three years later this illustration was reproduced by Jakob Ryff in his Kleinere Chirurgie, Strassburg, 1542. The copy found in Brussels by Doctor Pergens is not the only one. Prof. Julius Hirschberg, of Berlin, found another copy in the Koeniglche Bibliothek in Berlin, and I myself was so fortunate as to find still another copy enumerated in catalogue No. 319 of K. F. Kobler’s Antiquarium, Leipzig, 1879, No. 28. Perhaps this copy is identical with one of the copies in the libraries mentioned. Doubt of the authorship and criticism of the scientific value of the German edition are not expressed by Doctor Pergens. The question of the authorship of the German edition and the question of the ex- istence of the Latin edition is taken up by Professor Hirschberg? in his Geschichte der Augenheilkunde. Stimulated by Doctor Pergens’ article and by the reprint of the German edition, he made a thorough search for the Latin edition in all the German libraries, but without success. Not discouraged, Hirschberg carefully examined the chief medical work by Leonhard Fuchs, Institutiones medicinae, and his labor was not in vain. He found in Liber III, sectio I, capitulum xii: “ Vitiorum oculi succincta explicatio,”’ the original of the so-called German edition, “but,” he adds, “ without the ridiculous mistakes and without the ill-fitting therapeutic interpolations, and, of course, without the supplement which consists of prescriptions.” Hirsch- berg is completely convinced that the German edition was not written by Fuchs. From internal evidence he takes it for granted that Jorg Vogtherren, and Conrad and Bartholomaeus Vogtherren, relatives of the printer Heinrich Vogtherren, are responsible for the book, 1 Leonhard Fuchs’ alle Kranckheydt der augen (1539), neu herausgegeben von Dr. Ed. Pergens (Priissel), p. 197-203; 231-238. *Hirschberg, Julius. Geschichte der Augenheilkunde. 2. Aufl. II. Bd. 8S. 316-319. Leipzig, W. Engelmann, 1908, 640 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. having used the name of Leonhard Fuchs without authority. This theory is very plausible, as the same printer issued anonymously in 1538, and again in 1539, a book, which deals also with the eye. The title is as follows: Eyn Newes hochnutzlichs Buechlin/und Anothomi eynes auffgethonen augs auch seiner/erklaerung bewerten purgation Pflaster Colliri/en Salblin puluern vnnd wassern wie/mans machen vnd brauchen sol. Getruckt zur Strassburg durch Heinrichen/Voet- herren. Anno MDXXXIX. (Plate 3.) The Surgeon General’s library has a copy each of the editions of 1588 and 1539, but unfortunately the former lacks the title-page. The edition of 1539 has on the title-page, below the title, an illustra- tion; “Anatomia oculi,” which does not differ materially from that reprinted in the so-called German edition by Leonhard Fuchs. I now resume the narrative of Fuchs’ life. The time spent by him at Ansbach, which lasted five years, or until 1533, was not entirely consumed by his duties as court physician and by his general practice. A born student, by temperament and habit a scholar, he here laid the foundation of his career as medical writer and man of science. As a complete bibhography of Fuchs has not yet been com- piled, a want already expressed by Ernst H. F. Meyer, the historian of botany, it is not an easy matter to harmonize the many contradic- tory statements in regard to the dates and the number of his numerous writings. Some authors attribute to him, as written in Ansbach, three books, some four, and others even more. As I shall give a de- scription of his writings later on, it is here sufficient to state that they gained for him the reputation of a very learned writer, who possessed original ideas, and who had the courage of his convictions. This caused the famous jurist and chancellor of the University of Ingolstadt, Leonhard von Eck, to request Fuchs-in 1533 to rejoin the teaching staff of that university by tendering an assistant professorship of medicine, which Fuchs accepted. I have already stated that, while a student in Ingolstadt, Fuchs had familiarized himself with the writings of Luther and had become a strict adherent of his doctrines. In Ansbach, where the margrave and the court were also followers of the new creed, Fuchs found mutual under- standing and was accustomed to express his religious convictions with candor and frankness. In Ingolstadt, however, conditions were different, and especially in the university; here Fuchs met very strong opposition, particularly as he did not suppress his opinions. Under these circumstances Fuchs’ position at the university became untenable, and in August of the same year he left Ingolstadt to return to Ansbach at the invitation of the margrave. But as Ansbach became infested with the plague, he accompanied the margrave to 1 Meyer, Ernst H. F. Geschichte der Botanik. 4 Bde. Koenigsberg, Gebriider Born- triiger, 1854-57. LEONHARD FUCHS—NEUMANN. 641 Culmbach, where the court resided for some time, returning in 1534 to Ansbach. In the same year Fuchs published his Parodoxorum medicine libri tres and dedicated it to Ulrich, Duke of Wurttem- berg, which was evidently the reason why the duke, who was just beginning to reform and to rejuvenate the University of Tiibingen, appointed Fuchs as professor of medicine in 1535 to replace Prof. Rudolf Unger, who was more than 70 years of age and no longer able to adapt himself to the reforms contemplated by the duke. On August 14, 1535, Fuchs entered upon his duties in Tiibingen, where he lived and labored until his death, 31 years later. In his dedi- cation to the duke, Fuchs states that the medical school of Tiibingen, which had once given to the medical profession such excellent schol- ars, had greatly deteriorated and had lost its prestige. To modernize this school and to make it regain its once illustrious name as a seat of learning was Fuchs’ chief aim, and in this he had the full sup- port of the duke. In an order,’ dated November 3, 1536, con- cerning the reform of the university, Duke Ulrich stipulated that two ordinary professors of medicine should lecture daily and read with the students those books necessary for the understanding of their science, especially Hippocrates and Galen, in Greek. The two ordi- nary professors were Leonhard Fuchs and Michael Rucker.? The appointment of the latter was unfortunate. He still belonged to the old school of medicine, and Duke Christopher, Ulrich’s successor, said of him that he had peculiar opinions and bad habits. Fuchs was not only the leading spirit in the medical faculty but unquestionably was the most important teacher in the university. Twice he was elected rector, from 1536 to 1537 and from 1540 to 1541, and the stat- utes of the medical faculty, issued in 1539, were written by him. These statutes are important to the history of the study of medicine at German universities in the sixteenth century and show that Fuchs was inspired with the modern spirit of the time—a true humanist. The keynote of the statutes is his opposition to Arabism in medicine. “Those who study medicine from the Arabic writers,” he says, “ will draw water from turbid rivers.”* The Greek writers, as Hippoc- rates, Galen, and Dioscorides, should be studied in their own lan- 1Urkunden zur Geschichte der Universitiit Tiibingen aus den Jahren 1476-1550, Tiibingen, H. Laupp’sche Buchhandlung, 1877. S. 189: ‘Zum fiinfften zwen Medicj ordentlich zum wenigsten vnd teglichen lesen und leeren, die Biecher zu verstand der kunst, vnd dem gebruch dienstlich, fiirnemlich Hippocratis vnd Galeni, mit behilff der griechischen sprach, die dann dise in iren schrifften gefiert hatben.” 2“Michael Rucker von Wiesenstaig inser. 1521, Mag. 1526, Med. D. 1529. Er war kein Freund der neuen Lehre. Noch 1556 sagt eine Instruction H. Christophs von ihm, er sei nit allein ein Papist, sondern habe noch mehr besondere opiniones und Untugenden. Stirbt 1561.”—Urkunden z. Geschichte d. Universitit Ttibingen, S. 166. 3“ Et quum nemo sit, qui nesciat Arabes omnia ferme sua e Graecis transcripsisse, parcissime deinceps ad doctrinam studii hujus adhibebuntur, quod consultius sit artis praecepta a fontibus, quam turbidis riwulis haurire.’—Urkunden z. Geschichte d. Uni- versitiit Tiibingen, S. 311. 642 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. guage, and he enumerates the works of Hippocrates and Galen which should be read and explained during the lectures. Then comes an innovation in the study plan of universities: During the summer months the students of medicine should often go to the coun- try and to the mountains, and with intelligence collect and study the plants;* this study should become a part of the curriculum in medical schools. As Fuchs, himself, paid special attention to the study of anatomy, he took the reform of this important branch of medicine very much to heart. While the old statutes of the medical faculty, issued in 1497, ordered a dissection only every three or four years, he dissected twice a year whenever possible. He also discon- tinued the use of Mundinus’s anatomy in his lectures on anatomy, and himself subsequently wrote the handbook Libri quatuor de fabrica corporis humani, which was used a great deal in German uni- versities during the sixteenth century. While he still had great ad- miration for Galen as an anatomist, Fuchs also extolled the great work of Vesalius, for whom he entertained the friendliest feelings, calling him “Summus noster amicus,” a friendship that Vesalius reciprocated. The two had met when Vesalius came with the impe- rial troops to Tiibingen. An interesting account of their first meeting is given by Crusius in his Annals.” Vesalius visited incognito the anatomical lectures given by Fuchs. One day Fuchs made some derogatory remarks concerning Vesalius’ anatomy. At the close of the lecture, Vesalius approached Fuchs: “Why,” he courteously inquired, “do you find fault with me? In what way did I do you any harm?” “Are you Vesalius?” asked Fuchs. ‘“ You see Vesalius himself,” replied the latter. Then fol- lowed the expression of mutual pleasure, a friendly meeting and an invitation to Vesalius to be Fuchs’ guest. That his reputation as anatomist, physician, and medical teacher was recognized, not only in Germany but in foreign countries as well, is evident from the fact that Duke Cosmo de Medici of Tuscany asked Fuchs to become Vesalius’ successor at the University of Pisa. Hitherto Germany had called to its universities scientists from Italy, but this offer to Fuchs was the first instance that a German scholar was called 1“Aetatis denique tempore cum medicinae studiosis rura montesque salpius petat ac plantarum uultum diligenter obseruet illisque uiuas eorundem imagines demonstret, neque ut hactenus consueuere multi, simplicium notitiam seplasiariis illis hominibus rudibus et stultis mulierculis committat. Haec itaque docendi ratio posthac in scholis medicis obseruator.’ Urkunden z. Geschichte d. Universitit Tiibingen, S. 312. 2Crusius, Martinus. Annales Suevici. 4 pts. Francoforti, 1595-96.—Pt. III, 728: “Tnviserunt Hispanorum docti, quando in praesidiis hujus Ducatus erant, lectiones quoque frequentarunt ejus et curatione ejusdem usi sunt fideli. Quedam die carpsit, nescio quid, in Anatomicis Vesalii auscultante peregrino viro. lLectione finita, is ad Fuchsium accedens cur me, comiter inquit, reprehendisti? Qua in re te laesi?—Esne tu Vesalius, inquit Fuchsius. Vides ipsum Vesalium, refert hic—Tum inter eos gratulatio, amica collatio et ad convivium invitatio.”’ LEONHARD FUCHS—NEUMANN. 643 to fill a chair in an Italian university. Much earlier, in 1537, Duke Albrecht of Prussia had endeavored to persuade Fuchs to become court physician to his brother-in-law, King Christian III of Den- mark, and also professor of the medical school of Copenhagen.* These two offers, which were distinct honors for Fuchs, Haller evidently had in mind when he said in his Bibliotheca medicinae practicae that Fuchs was the first German physician whose fame reached beyond the borders of his own country. (‘“ Primus inter Germanos ad magnam celebritatem apud exteros pervenit.”) Another medical subject in which Fuchs took special interest next to anatomy was his lectures on the practice of medicine. In these, as in his writings, his chief aim was to exclude as much as possible the Arabic writers from the medical curriculum, but instead to read and explain the Greek medical writers. This leads us to Fuchs’ activity as a medical writer, which is very comprehensive. His writ- ings on this subject may be divided into three sections: (1) Transla- tions of and commentaries on Greek writers; (2) his own contribu- tions; and (3) his polemic writings. There are nine translations and commentaries, of which five deal with Galen, three with Hippocrates, and one entitled Nicolai Myrepsi Alexandrini medicamentorum * * * Hactenus in Germania non visum * * * @ Graeco in Latinam recens conversum lucullentis- simisque annotationibus illustratum, Basilaae, 1549 (Plate 4); and several times reprinted. This translation of a Greek manuscript has an interesting literary history. The author of this collection of pre- scriptions is really Nicodemus Myrepsus? Alexandrinus,* who flour- ished from the middle to the end of the thirteenth century. Fuchs supposed him to be identical with Nicolaus Prepositi,* whom he con- founded with Nicolaus Salernitanus, who lived at Salerno at the beginning of the twelfth century, a mistake committed also by other medical writers and bibliographers. We are indebted to Ernest Wickersheimer, librarian of the Académie de médecine in Paris, for correcting this bibliographical blunder. In an instructive article® published in 1911 (Archiv fiir Geschichte der Medizin, Bd. V, 302—- 310) he was able to prove that Nicolaus Salernitanus, wrongly called Prepositus and Nicolaus Prepositi are two distinct writers; the latter was a student at the University of Paris in 1472, and evidently flourished until the early years of the sixteenth century. 1Voigt, Joh. Briefwechsel der beriihmtesten Gelehrten des Zeitalters der Reformation mit Herzog Albrecht von Preussen. Koenigsberg, Gebriider Borntrager, 1841. 3 Mupeos, apothecary. ® After the city of his birth, Alexandria. 4“ Quod certo comperiet, qui fragmentum hoc quod passim sub Nicolai Praepositi nomine circumfertur ”. . . . Nicolai Myrepsi Alexandrini Medicamentorum opus. ...a Leon- harto Fuchsio . ..e graeco in latinum vecens conuersum. ... Basileae, 1549. Prae- fatio, A%, recto. 5 Nicolaus Prepositi, ein franzroesischer Arzt ums Jahr 1500; von Er. Wickersheimer (Paris). 644 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. Fuchs’ original writings, not including the various editions and reprints, are about 20 in number, most of them dealing with the method and practice of medicine, and with materia medica. The three most important are: (1) Libri quatuor de fabrica corporis humani, Tubinge, 1551, which I have already mentioned. Next to Vesalius’ great work this was considered the best handbook of anat- omy in the sixteenth century, and was much used and frequently con- sulted, as it best represented the various anatomical doctrines of the time. (2) Paradoxorum medicinae libri tres, Basilae, 1535. The first book deals only with pharmacology; the second treats questions of general and special pathology and therapy, and the third contains anatomical and physiological criticisms. This work and (3) Institu- tionum medicinae libri quinque, form Fuchs’ chief weapons against Arabism in medicine. Only a writer of such learning and reputation as Fuchs could risk saying that Avicenna, who, though he copied the Greek writers, did not understand them, should not be considered as the greatest physician. Two books are to be mentioned which have as their subject materia medica and therapy: Annotationes de simplicibus a medicis hacte- nus perperam intellectis et aestimatis, Argentorati, 1532, and De componendorum medicamentorum ratione, Basileae, 1549. Sche- lenz,! in his Geschichte der Pharmazie, says that the Annotationes were still in use in Cologne in apothecary shops in 1627. The De componendorum medicamentorum ratione was used as a handbook in the pharmaceutical lectures of many universities as well as in pharmaceutical practice. Fuchs’ polemic writings are numerous; some are controversies of a scientific character, others are caused by piratical undertakings of publishers. The most important one, famous in the history of medi- cine, is: Apologiae tres, adversus Guilelmum Pateanum, Sebastianum Montuam et Triverum Brachelium, Basileae, 1529. Its inspiration was Peter Brissot’s famous work, Apologetica discertatio de vena secanda in pleuritide, Basileae, 1529. The question of venesection (blood letting) divided the physicians of the sixteenth century into two hostile factions.2. One, the Arabic school, asserted that venesec- tion should be undertaken, in case of inflammations, as far as possible from the seat of the disease, and then very slowly; while the Hippo- cratic school, based on Brissot’s doctrine of revulsion, recommended the venesection near the diseased part and then very copiously. Jere- mias Drivere (Triverus Brachelius), Sebastian Montuus, and Wil- helm Puteanus defended the Arabic theory, while Fuchs sided with Brissot. Fuchs was without question the best informed and most 1Schelenz, Hermann. Geschichte der Pharmazie, Berlin, J. Springer, 1904. 2 Bauer, Jos. Geschichte der Aderliisse. Miinchen, Beck, 1870. LEONHARD FUCHS—NEUMANN. 645 persistent defender of the Hippocratic school. The controversy lasted almost throughout the sixteenth century and ended with the victory of the Hippocratic school. This is what Fuchs has accom- plished for medicine. Here may be the place to speak of him as an academic teacher. Regarding the spirit in which he presented his lectures and the method which he employed, we have the testimony of his contem- porary and colleague, Georg Hizler, professor of Greek in the Uni- versity of Tiibingen, who delivered the obituary at the memorial meeting held for Fuchs at the university. It is significant that a philologist was selected for this honor and not a member of the medi- cal faculty. This oration was published in separate form and was reprinted in volume I of Fuchs’ opera,? issued in Frankfurt the year of his death. (Plate 5.) Hizler? says: In the discharge of his office as academic teacher, what diligence, persever- ance, and devotion! Here his enviable reputation was based on two vital con- siderations, to wit, sound method, and pure, perspicuous speech. In the dis- cussion of medical authors he took the most useful and expeditious road; he never mixed in anything that was not to the point; he diligently explained the words in their true sense; he did not spend more time than the topic in ques- tion required; he did not, however, omit anything that could facilitate the ex- planation. Then he gave his instruction in such a clear and simple way that all could follow him with ease. Add to this the elegance of his discourse and it is plain that all listened to him with pleasure. Thus his teaching of anatomy was conspicuous for ability and clearness. ‘He showed and illustrated all the parts of the human body and the functions of the several parts; he explained the nature of all bones and cartilages; he pointed out the various muscles, veins, arteries, nerves, and the like, and demonstrated all this ‘ad oculos.’ I come now to another field of Fuchs’ scientific activity, in which he achieved so much and which contributed so largely to the spread- ing of his fame throughout Europe. 1 QOratio de vita et morte clarissimi viri, medici et philosophi praestantissimi, D. Leon- harti Fuchsii, artis medendi in Academia Tubingensi professoris doctissimi; a doctissimo viro Georgio Hizlero, Graecarum & Latinarum literarum in eadem professore habita & seripta. 2“ In docendi munere quanta sedulitas, fides, diligentia? Duabus autem maxime rebus in docendo necessariis, summam consequebatur laudem: tum illa artium via, quae pévodos a Graecis dicitur: tum sermone puro, perspicuo & aperto. Nam in explanandis medi- corum scriptis, primum expeditissiman & utilissimam viam cognoscere & inire: nihil a re alilnum asserre: verba sensumque, genuinum diligentissime explicare: non diutius haerere & immorari, quam res, quae ad cognoscendum exponebatur, requirere videretur: eorum, quae necessaria ad explicandum erant, nihil omittere. Deinde tam pure, tam aperte, tam simpliciter omnia tradere, ut facilime omnes assequerentur. Itaque, non tam ordine & modo, quem seruabat, optimo, quam orationis elegantia animos auditorum conciliare, ita ut cum fastidio ipsium audiret nemo. Hujus rei inter multa alia, exem- plum potest esse anatome: quam docuit dexteritate & perspicuitate singulari. Humani enim corporis partes, & singularum partium actiones & figuras ostendebat: omnium ossium, cartilaginumque, naturam, musculos, venas, arterias, nervos & caetera indicabat, & oculis subjiciebat.” 65133°—sm 1917——42 646 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. i: At the outset I called attention to the influence of humanism on the revival of learning and how humanism in its immediate consequences caused and created a new phase in the evolution of medicine and natural science. One event of entirely different character enlarged and enriched these two branches of science in another direction—the geographical discoveries at the end of the fifteenth century, and especially the discovery of America. Until then the contemplation of nature was entirely neglected. From the time Pliny had written his encyclopedic “ Naturalis Historia ” natural science had been prac- tically at a standstill. The discovery of America opened an entirely new field for observation of objects of natural science. The study of plant life was the first field to profit by it, and under the stimulating influence of the revival of learning botany became a science. In this movement Germany took a leading part. Three names will always be connected with the history of botany in Germany, and it is not by chance that all three were followers of humanism; Otto Brun- fels, 1484-1534; Hieronymus Bock, 1498-1554; and Leonhard Fuchs. Each of these wrote his own herbal; but Fuchs was the most promi- nent and the most learned of these three herbalists. In Brunfels’ Herbarum vivae eicones, published in three parts in 1530-1536 by Schott in Strassburg, we admire the illustrations which are drawn true to nature, though the descriptive text is of no scientific value. The first edition of Bock’s work, New Kreutter Buch von under- scheydt, wiirckung und namen der Kreutter, so in Teutschen Landen wachsen, Strassburg, 1539, was not illustrated; the second and the subsequent editions, from which the word “new” is dropped, con- tain about 470 illustrations. But the chief merit of Bock’s book is the text, which describes only that which he actually observed; it appeals at once to the reader on account of its popular style, and yet is full of power and vivacity. The famous book by Fuchs, De historia stirpium commentari, Basileae, 1542 (Plate 6), surpasses the two previous herbals in text as well as in illustrations. He is the first botanical writer to attempt a botanical nomenclature. The arrange- ment of the work is alphabetical. In his plant description he applied the following method, which was used as a pattern by succeeding botanists: (1) The name of the plant in Greek, Latin, and German; (2) the form; (3) locality; (4) time of blossoming. The illustra- tions are of the highest order. Heinrich Fiillmaurer and Albert Meyer drew the plants, and Rudolph Speklein, all three of Strass- burg, engraved the woodcuts. To show his gratitude to these three artists, Fuchs reproduced their portraits on the last leaf of the book (Plate 7), while his own portrait (Plate 1) is found on the reverse of the title-page. The work met with the greatest success, having larger LEONHARD FUCHS—NEUMANN. 647 circulation than any similar scientific work of its day. There exist in all, including translations and abridgments, 35 editions. It was Fuchs’ intention to continue and to reissue the work in three volumes. From 1556 he had been collecting material and had assembled 1,500 plates, but he could not find a publisher on account of the heavy ex- pense. He petitioned several princes, amongst others Duke Albrecht of Prussia, for support, but without avail. It is uncertain what be- came of the manuscript; the plates unfortunately became scattered. Part of them remained in Tiibingen, and part of them found their way into the Gessner collection in Ziirich.' There remain to be added a few facts about the later years of Fuchs’ hfe. Three years before his death he had the misfortune to lose his wife, with whom he had lived in the happiest union. As he was obliged to support a large family, and as the care of his domestic affairs absorbed much of the time so greatly needed for his studies and lectures, he married again, this time the widow of minister Graeter of Schwabisch-Hall. But he only had a few years more to live, for, although he had previously enjoyed good health, his continuous application to work brought on insomnia, and he died May 10, 1566. But even while confined to his room Fuchs’ interest in his studies continued. Hizler, in the panegyric style of his time, compares him to Socrates, but those of more sober judgment will hardly go so far. Fuchs’ modesty, which prevented him from assuming the rank of nobility which Charles V bestowed upon him in recognition of his services to mankind as physician and scientist, would have protested against such comparisen. IT myself would compare him with Nicola Leoniceno, who was born in 1428 in Vincenza and died in 1524 in Ferrara. Both were humanists; one in Italy, the ether in Germany. Hach was a reformer of medicine in his country, with the same aim and purpose—the study of the Greek writers of medicine in their own language; and the liberation of medicine and natural science from the influence of the Arabic writers. Leipzig, F. A. Brockhaus, 1817-18.—Meyer, Ernst H. F. Geschichte der Botanik. 4 Bde. Koenigsberg, Gebriider Borntriiger, 1854-57.—Sachs, Julius. Geschichte der Botanik vom 16. Jahrhundert bis 1860. Miinchen, R. Oldenbourg, 1875.—Roth, F. W. FH. Leonhard Fuchs, ein deutscher Botaniker, 1501-1566. In Beihefte zum Botanischen Centralblatt, Bd. Vili, Heft 3, p. 161-191. Cassel, Gebriider Gotthelft, 1898.—Greene, Edward Lee. Landmarks of botanical history. Part 1—prior to 1562. Washington, Smithsonian Institution, 1909. : ; ih BP spl oa Dad Des Larter eae ee: Bey 5th ok et Zi: one ne Bee site iii) reer at ; ; : . perree Ne ae Sid “ ake ab ee tune oy ' eae 2M 4 Be Or, oa oat gp Sree say Lit. 915 may io, is PIAL sf PRG me hat bisa perros rest R's dog, T9hto ur sai fas. i pre 3 a oar oy he “CLENOD ; “ F pet . corp pe “a nf ote oP 7d, Te aa ATS a 10, BL SSI po Pie ub ae) ae aS Be ore. ts “uae Bas pine TES O94 ’ tae = ata i)4 B4i ‘i ] : ; is + tyeitnt nak re ti pha titel teat “4 fais 7 te Ipfpees) < Fe. . Cathet PET hat ; Paro wt nae an 3 Teh Ba Cee Tht tay ve be eee ag ib teeta eae esos) * bensabie RAR ol ORS Ie Loti ie A de ial Sada * ig) Ciirtor psi Paes ae ; c reus sides, Obordes : cus. Engosd: s tere Omen a ~ Sie, Ae E 5 iy aoe eS m uel Hoes Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Neumann. Eyu Mewes hodnucglids BirGlin/ 1d Anorhomi eynes auffgethonen angs / auch feincr crElArung/bewerrent purgation/Pflafter/Collirs cn/ Galblin pulvern vnnd waffcen/wie mans madden vndbrauder fol. ANATOMIA OCVLI SHNIIN) smdydo lp Getrnce $4 Strafburg durch Heinriders Vogtherzen, Anno Gd. D. pwviv. PLATE 3. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Neumann. PLATE 4. NIGOLAL MYREPSI ALE XANDRINI MEDICAMENT O- RVM OPVS, IN SECTIONES QVADRAGINTAOCTO DIGESTYM, hactenus in Germanianonuifum, omnibus tum Medicis,tum Se- plafiarts mirum inmodum utile, a LEONHART® FVCHSIoO medico, & Scholz Tubingenfis profeflore publico,¢ graco inlatinum recens conuerfum,lu’ culentifsimisgq3 Annotationi- bus illuftratum. Accefsit non folum rerum ¢7' uerborum , fed ¢ medicaminum fingulis morbis destinatorum locupleti{s- mus Index. Cum Cef, Maieft. gratia & priuilegioad quinquennium, BAST ERCAE, PERs:1TO.; ODOR nun,Anno rs 49. ALenfe Martio, Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Neumann. PLATE 5 Operum LEONHARTIEFVCHSIE MEDICT ET PHILOSOPHI EXCELLENTISSIMI Tomus Primus: Medicamentorum omnium componendi, mifcendig rationem ac modum, Li. bris Quatuor,omnibus cum Medicis tum Pharmacopais longe veilifsimis & fumme neceffarys, complectens, ~@ VVM OLIM TRES DVNTAXAT, ET EOS Q VIDEM BREVES admodum de componendis acmifcendis medicamentis libros ediderimus nunc illis-ynus adhucygue ordine fecundus esl, i Wonca ide valgus medicornm loquitur,Difpenfatoriam di- citur,acce/sit. Praparandornm quog, medicamentoriwm ratio, que mm preovibus editionibus omning defiderabatur,adieta eS. Compofitzones denig, hodte viitate, <7 que m officints medicorum vena= les proftant,omnes ¢ foncibus fists pecita,er ab erroxsbus multis ac pernictofis purgata, acluculentifsimis annocationthus pafsimelluftrata, hoc in Opere exhibentur. AD Dis A’ Esk APPENDIX AVT APOLOGTIA, IN qua criminationibus ac calumnijs foannis Placotomi libros hos arrodentis,obiter refpondetur, Icem oratio de Vita & Morte autoris,omnium quoq; operum ipfius Catalogum continens. Accefsitlocuples rerum &% verboruminijs memorabilium INDEX. Omniaab Authore ipfo pants ante mortem recognita,autia or locupletata, Ss ij Cum gratia & pritilegioad Decennium. FRANCOFVRTI AD MOENV™M, wnno M.D. LXV L Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Neumann. PLATE 6 mr HISTORIA STIR PIVM COMMENTARII INSIGNES, MA ‘XTMEStEMPENSIS ET-VIGILIIS ELA BORATIL “ADIEGTIS EARVNDEM VIVIS PLVSQVAM quingentis imaginibus, nunguam antea ad nature imitationem artificiofius effi Gis Xexprefsis, LEONHARTO FVCHS10 medicohac -noftra etate longe clarifsimo,autore, Regiones perggrinas plerig,,alij alias, fumptu ingenti, ftudio indefeffo,nec fine difcrimine uitz non- nunquam, adierunt, ut fimpliciam marerix cognofcendz facultatem compararent fibi: eam tibimateriam uniuerfam fummo & impenfarum & temporis compendio, procul difcrimine omni,tanquam in uiuo iucundifsimog uiridario,, magna cum uoluptate, hinc cognofcere licebit, » Accefsit is fuccin@taadmodum uocum difficilium & obfeurarum ~ pafsimin hocopere occurrentium explicatio, ped, we ~ -Vndcum quadruplici Indice,qaorum primus quidem ftirpium nomencla- L | turas graecas, alterlatinas, tertius officinis feplafiariorum & . ee erbarijs ufitatas,quartus germanicas continebit, _ ; ; i % f j ‘ f IR KARO ALERT OT ES e f Jur ino. ~~ Cautum preterea est inuichfsimi sx 0 v1 Imperatoris decreto,nequis ~~ wie alius impune ufquam locorum hos de firpium bisloriacom=_. > mentarios excudat, iuxta tenorem priuilegij anté nobrs euulgatt, BASILEAE, £N OFFICINA ISINGRINIANA, ANNO CHRISTE MD xULrE Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Neumann. PLATE 7. Pil. Cal O-RVES. OPE RES, Heinricus Lullmaurer. Mlbeveus Sever. S 6 V_E PT OR Ditus Rovolph. Spectle. eA ioe an ' ie sea Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Richn IN MEMORIAM—EDGAR ALEXANDER MEARNS, 1856-1916. By CHartes W. RICHMOND. [With 1 plate. ] In the death of Doctor Mearns the American Ornithologists’ Union has lost one of its founders and most active members, and ornithology one of its most enthusiastic disciples. Friendly and genial in disposition, with an all-consuming interest in the study of nature, he craved the society of men of similar tastes, and looked forward with keen anticipation to the rare occasions when he was permitted to attend the annual sessions of the Union. As an Army surgeon, he was subject to the vicissitudes and uncertainties of that calling, and during the greater part of his 26 years of active mili- tary service was far removed from museums and libraries, both indis- pensable adjuncts to the working naturalist. While this cireum- stance greatly interfered with his systematic studies, and prevented him from publishing any extended results of his discoveries, which he was well equipped by training and experience to perform, it undoubtedly contributed largely to his development as a field natur- alist, in which field he was without an equal in this country, and enabled him to amass collections that are probably unrivaled as the efforts of a single individual. His activities of over 40 years cov- ered a wide range, of which but little, aside from his ornithological achievements, can receive mention in the present notice.” Edgar Alexander Mearns, son of Alexander and Nancy Reliance (Carswell) Mearns, was born at the home of his grandfather (Alex- ander Mearns), at Highland Falls, near West Point, N. Y., Sep- temper 11, 1856. His grandfather, born a few miles from Aberdeen, Scotland, in 1786, came to New York in, 1805, after making several 1 Reprinted by permission from The Auk, January, 1918. 2The War Department was asked for a copy of Doctor Mearns’s military record, but the request was refused, owing to the great amount of extra work now placed on the department. 649 650 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. perilous voyages at sea. He settled at Highland Falls about the year 1815, where Alexander, his son, one of seven children, was born in 1823. Doctor Mearns’s father died in 18738, but his mother, whe comes of New England stock, is still living. Edgar Mearns manifested a remarkable interest in birds and ani- mals at a very early age, and this taste was fostered by his father, who bought him a large illustrated book on the native birds. He took great pleasure in looking at the pictures—he was only 3 years old at this time—and his mother spent hours in teaching him their names and histories, and he soon developed a wonderful knowledge of the subject for one of his years. As he grew older, his father gave him a gun, and they would shoulder their arms and wander through the fields together, close companions. He was taught to set box traps in these early years, and if there was no one at hand to go with him to inspect them, he would steal out alone to see what the traps contained. As a schoolboy he was often tardy as a result of lingering in the woods in search of specimens. Every natural object interested and attracted him. Young Mearns was educated at Donald Highland Institute, at Highland Falls, and subsequently entered the College of Physicians and Surgeons of New York, from which he graduated in 1881. At the outset of his medical course he became personally acquainted with several of the young naturalists of the time, E. P. Bicknell, A. K. Fisher, C. Hart Merriam, and others, some of whom were attending the same routine of studies. He and Doctor Fisher chanced to share the same room at a boarding house at this time, and it was here that the budding young Linnean Society held its early meetings. When he was about 10 years old he began to write out and preserve his observations on birds, and some of these, written in a very youth- ful hand, are still extant; but it was not until 1872, when a boy of 16, that his efforts had crystallized into a plan to prepare a report on the vertebrate fauna of his region, and he set to work with all the energy and enthusiasm of youth to gather material and information for this purpose. It was in the spring of this year that he seriously began a collection, and he then formed the habit of carefully labeling his specimens, noting any important items connected with each ob- ject, such as its dimensions in the flesh, the color of its eyes, and other facts of interest. This habit was faithfully followed in after years, - and in birds alone it is estimated that over 60,000 measurements were recorded in his various field catalogues. He did not confine his atten- tions to zoology, but devoted himself to the flora as well, and unlike many young students he was ambitious to learn something of foreign species, for as early as 1875 he was in correspondence with one or EDGAR ALEXANDER MEARNS—RICHMOND. 651 more European collectors, from whom he obtained many specimens in exchange. His first published paper, on “ The Capture of several Rare Birds near West Point, N. Y.” 1 appeared in January, 1878, and it is worthy of comment that under the first species mentioned in this paper he acknowledged some information received from his “friend, Mr. Theodore Roosevelt,” inasmuch as almost the last field work he ever undertock was with this same leader of men. Three other notes followed shortly, while a paper on “ The White- headed Eagles in the Hudson Highlands,” * presented at the meeting ef the Linnean Society of New York, on April 6, 1878, was the first communication read before that newly formed society, and was ap- propriately published on July 4. Toward the end of the year he had made sufficient progress with his big undertaking to look forward to a suitable medium of publication, and he wrote to Dr. J. A. Allen for advice. This letter, a copy of which was found among his manu- scripts, is here reproduced, as it emphasizes the importance he at- tached to specific, as opposed to vague general records, and illustrates the serious and painstaking method with which he handled his sub- ject, a method of precision that he adhered to throughout his scien- tific work. 147 W. 22nd St., N: ¥., Nov. 17, 1878. Mr. J. A. ALLEN, Dear Sir: I have wanted to ask you several questions with regard to publish- ing a list of the Bds. of the Hudson River, and take the present opportunity to do so. Singularly enough, there is no medium of publication for such an article in this State. The ‘‘ New York Academy ” has recently changed very much in its character, and Mr. Geo. N. Lawrence tells me it would be impossible to get them to publish any lengthy paper on zoology, as he has much difficulty in get- ting them to take even brief articles of his own. I am writing quite a bulky list of the Hudson Valley Bds., with which I am taking the greatest pains; particularly regarding dates of migration, breeding, life-habits, ete. One of the more important points is the northern extension of the “Caro- linian Fauna” up the Hudson. I think the whole number of species that have been taken in the Hudson Valley (none others will be included), will amount to about 215. I have been compiling the data of this list for several years. And now my object in writing to you, is to enquire whether there are any available facilities for getting the list published during the coming winter or spring. Would the “Boston Society Natural Hist.,” or “ Bulletin Essex Institute” do it? If you will be kind enough to advise me I shall be extremely grateful. I have tabulated all of the specimens I have taken (1800) in Hudson region, and have formulated tables of measurements of all of the specimens taken. I think that these tables contain matter of sufficient interest and importance to warrant publication, in the case of the rarer species especially. As time pro- gresses, we all know that very considerable changes take place, respecting the 1 Bull. Nuttall Orn. Club, ITI, No. 1, January, 1878, 45, 46. * Forest and Stream, X, No. 111, July 4, 1878, 421; No. 113, July 18, 1878, 462, 463. 652 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. geog. distribution of the Bds. Very many ornithologists of the present day receive with incredulity many statements of the old naturalists, which may be worthy of perfect credence. Now, if De Kay and Giraud, who are about our only N. Y. State authorities had made specific instead of general statements regarding such species as Huspiza Americana, Lophophanes bicolor, Thryo- thorus ludovicianus, Parus Carolinensis and Corvus ossifragus, their observa- tions would be of the greatest value; but many persons now doubt the accuracy of these observations. I think the tables of specimens captured and their meas- urements would be useful in this way if in no other. However I am quite willing to be advised in this matter. This paper, “A List of the Birds of the Hudson Highlands, with annotations,” was begun shortly in the “ Bulletin of the Essex In- stitute,” seven installments appearing between 1879 and 1881, with an “Addendum” issued in “ The Auk,” in 1890. As printed, it lacks the tables of measurements, these having been reduced to a simple statement of the average dimensions of each species. Doctor Allen, in reviewing the first four parts, said: * * * His own notes, even when relating to some of our best known birds, are replete with new information attractively presented, few lists having ap- peared which offer so much that is really a contribution to the subject in a field where so little really new is to be jocked for. In announcing later parts, the same reviewer wrote: The high praise accorded the earlier installments is equally merited by those now under notice, Mr. Mearns’s ‘ List of the Birds of the Hudson Highlands ” ranking easily among the best of our long list of contributions to local orni- thology. There is much said about the habits of various species that is enter- taining or new * * #* Doctor Mearns intended this paper as the beginning of a complete catalogue of the vertebrates of the region, but his entrance into the Army in 1883 caused the abandonment of this plan, although he later (1898) published part of his data on the remaining subjects in a paper entitled “A Study of the Vertebrate Fauna of the Hudson Highlands, with Observations on the Mollusca, Crustacea, Lepidop- tera, and the Flora of the Region.” ? After completing his medical course in 1881, he married Miss Ella Wittich, of Circleville, Ohio, who shared his love of natural history, especially botany, and gave him considerable assistance with his col- lections. They had two children, a son, Louis di Zerega Mearns, and a daughter, Lillian Hathaway Mearns. In 1882 Doctor Mearns took an examination for entrance into the Medical Department of the Army, but the events of that period are best told in the following extract from a letter he afterwards wrote 1 Bull. Essex Inst., X, 1878 (1879), 166-179; XI, 1879, 43-52; XI, 1879, 154-168; XI, 1880, 189-204; XII, 1880, 11-25; XII, 1881, 109-128; XIII, 1881, 75-93. 2 Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., X, 1898, 303-352. EDGAR ALEXANDER MEARNS—RICHMOND. 653 (March 16, 1885) to his old preceptor, Robert Donald, then at Lanes- boro, Minn.: I informed you, I think, of my determination, you know it had been my wish, to enter the Army, of my coming up before the Army medical examining board and of my passing satisfactorily the examination. I did not receive my commission at once but spent the summer in settling up our business affairs and in preparing to go to New York for the winter. I stored my collection of specimens at the American Museum of Natural His- tory, N. Y., and on the first of October was called there as temporary curator of Ornithology, and spent the winter. While there I labeled all of their large collection of Huropean birds, and many others from Asia and Africa, and got up catalogues of all the ornithological and oological specimens in manuscripts with printed headings for all items of desirable data concerning the specimens. The most important thing that I accomplished there was the establishment of a cabinet collection in vertebrate zoology for the use of students. Confirmation of this last statement is found in a recent work,! where it is stated that “the first material for study collections was given by Dr. E. A. Mearns in 1882, consisting of skins and eggs of North American and European birds.” Doctor Mearns participated in the organization of the American Ornithologists’ Union in September, 1883, and on December 3 of that year received his commission as assistant surgeon in the Army, with the rank of first lieutenant. He was offered a choice of several sta- tions, and selected that of Fort Verde, in central Arizona, as promis- ing an exceptional field for natural history investigations. He was accordingly assigned to this post, which he reached early in 1884. Fort Verde, abandoned as a military station in 1891, was then a deso- late arid place, but to Mearns it represented a new world, peopled with strange animals and plants, all worthy of the closest study. Within sight of the fort were ancient cliff dwellings, silent reminders of a vanished race; and San Francisco Mountain, then practically unexplored, was also visible in the distance. He set to work with his customary vigor, devoting all of his leisure time to the formation of a splendid collection of the animals and plants of this section of Arizona. The ruins in the neighborhood were also examined in con- siderable detail, excavations were made, and thousands of relics rescued from oblivion. He wrote a delightful and extremely inter- esting account of these explorations under the title, “Ancient Dwell- ings of the Rio Verde Valley,” which appeared in Popular Science Monthly for October, 1890. During the nearly four years he was stationed at this Arizona post he was attached to various expeditions, some of them peaceful ones, others sent in pursuit of renegade Indians. In the letter to Mr. Donald, quoted above, he wrote: We reached Fort Verde on March 25th, 1884, and, by a curious coincidence I am just in receipt of orders to leave on that day this year as surgeon in charge 1The Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., its History, etc., 2d ed., 1911, 67. 654 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. of the two Cavalry regiments that are about to exchange stations between this department and Texas. I will have two acting Ass’t surgeons with me, which will make my duties light, and on the 900 miles of horseback riding that I will have, there will be much leisure and opportunity for zoological and bo- tanical work. I was given the first choice to go on this expedition, and gladly accepted for the sake of the information which I expect to acquire of the fauna and flora of the southern part of Arizona and New Mexico. The medical director is personally friendly towards me, and General Crook, who commands the Department, is particularly interested in my pursuits and has chosen me to accompany him on two long expeditions through the wildest and least known portions of Arizona. On each of these trips an entire month was spent in the saddle, and a large collection of several hundred specimens of vertebrate animals was made, which were transported, together with the rest of our plunder, upon pack mules in panniers. The contemplated trip was duly performed, and a long account of it was recorded in one of his manuscript journals. Doctor Mearns was popular with his brother officers, who marveled at his diligence and untiring zeal in the preparation of specimens, and many of them brought him trophies of various kinds as con- tributions to his collections. These cordial relations with his official associates continued throughout his career; indeed, his earnest and trustful nature and genuinely frank and straightforward character permitted no other course. Early in 1888 he was transferred to Fort Snelling, Minn., where he remained until 1891, returning to his post again in 1903. In the winter of 1889-90, at which time he received his captaincy, a few months spent at the American Museum enabled him to describe sev- eral new mammals and birds from his Arizona collections, as well as to complete other manuscripts. During his stay at Fort Snell- ing he borrowed a large series of sparrow hawks from various friends and museums and investigated the geographical variation in this species, the results of which were embodied in a paper entitled “A Study of the Sparrow Hawks (subgenus Tinnunculus) of America, with especial reference to the continental species (alco sparverius Pann. ). 42 When the Mexican-United States International Boundary Com- mission was organized in 1891, Doctor Mearns was directed to act as medical officer, with orders to report for duty on February 1, 1892. By “previous correspondence with Lieut. Col. J. W. Barlow, senior commissioner,” he had obtained authority to establish “a bio- logical section of the survey, provided this could be accomplished without additional cost” to the commission. By cooperation with the United States National Museum he was enabled to carry out his designs, and he personally was able to conduct observations along the entire line from E1 Paso to the Pacific, including San Clemente 21 Auk, IX, July, 1892, 252-270. EDGAR ALEXANDER MEARNS—RICHMOND. 655 Island, which he visited to carry his investigations to their logical terminus. The work was continued up to September, 1894, except for an interval of a few months in the preceding year, when his time was divided between Forts Hancock and Clark, in Texas. During his work on the boundary line he had the services of one assistant for a considerable part of the time, as well as the voluntary aid of his associates on the survey. As a result of their combined industry about 80,000 specimens were collected and transmitted to the United States National Museum. The collections had been carefully made, to illustrate changes in the animals and plants in the various faunal areas through which the expedition passed, with the view of throw- ing some light on subspecific variation in them. At the close of the Mexican boundary work, Doctor Mearns was ordered to duty at Fort Myer, Virginia, with permission to study his collections at the National Museum. In the time at his disposal he made considerable progress in identifying the mammals, and in discriminating the several life zones of the boundary line. Im addi- tion to the faunal zones currently recognized he suggested several lesser geographical areas, which he termed “ differentiation tracts.” He had planned an elaborate report on the biology, geology, etc., based on the boundary collections, and had accumulated a vast amount of data and manuscript for this purpose, but Congress withheld the sum estimated to cover the cost of printing and illus- trations, and the project was reluctantly given up. The first part of his report on the mammals, the only one thus far published, was issued in 1907, and contains upward of 500 pages, with many plates and text figures. It includes much introductory matter of a general nature, with an itinerary of the expedition, an account of the life areas, lists of the trees, etc., of the Mexican border, and is an excellent example of the careful and detailed methods of its author, In the autumn of 1896, he devoted his vacation to field work in the Catskills, and to rambles in the vicinity of his old home. A paper entitled “ Notes on the Mammals of the Catskill Mountains, New York, with general remarks on the Fauna and Flora of the Region,” ? was based on investigations made at this time. After a few months’ duty at Fort Clark, Texas, in 1897-1898, he was commissioned brigade surgeon (later chief surgeon) of Volunteers, with the rank of major, in the Spanish-American War, serving until March 22, 1899, when he was honorably discharged and re- sumed his regular duties. His next station was Fort Adams, Rhode Island, where he served during parts of 1899-1900. While there he joined the Newport Natural History Society, and took an active 1 Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 56, Pt. 1, 1907. *Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XXI, 1898, 341-360, figs. 1-6. 656 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917 part in its work, especially in collecting information relative to the present and former status of the mammalian fauna of the State. Toward the close of the year 1900, he suffered a nervous breakdown, probably complicated by earlier attacks of malaria, and was granted several months’ sick leave, part of which time he passed in Florida in an effort to regain his health. Three months or more were spent in camp in the Kissimmee prairie region, and while there, in Feb- ruary, 1901, he received notice of his advancement to surgeon, with the rank of major. Upon his return in May, much benefited by his outdoor life, he stopped at Washington and devoted several weeks to a study of the series of jaguars and other tropical American cats at the National Museum, the results of which appeared in a number of papers published during the next few months. At Fort Yellowstone, where he was on duty in 1902, he was particu- larly active in gathering botanical material. It was here that he became aware of the destruction of bird and animal life through the presence of a heavy gas, supposed to be carbon dioxide, which settled in certain depressions and cavities of the earth, causing the death of all small animals that ventured into them. In the course of a few months he detected 16 species of birds, numbering many individuals, that had perished in this manner, and he was of the opinion that “ hundreds, if not thousands ” died from this cause dur- ing the year. He recorded the observations made here in a paper entitled “ Feathers beside the Styx ”;! and, before leaving the park, he requested the superintendent to have the most dangerous spots provided with wire screens to prevent the birds entering them. Military service in the Philippines, which he visited in 1903-1904 and again in 1905-1907, afforded Doctor Mearns his first oppor- tunity to study nature in an entirely new dress. The islands possessed a rich and varied fauna, with many areas still unexplored or but slightly known, while many problems bearing on the distribu- tion of species within the group remained to be solved. He was largely responsible for the formation of the “ Philippine Scientific Association,” a society organized on July 27, 1903, and having as its chief object the promotion of scientific effort in the Philippine Islands. It was begun under the presidency of Major General Leonard Wood, a broad-minded officer, who encouraged every form of scientific endeavor. Mearns was a most active member of this league from its inception, and his quiet but effective powers of persuasion, and his ability to enthuse others were the means of securing much material and information for later study. During the year covered by his first visit, he served as surgeon in the mili- tary department of Mindanao, where his time was fully occupied, 1 Condor, V, 1903, 36-38. EDGAR ALEXANDER MEARNS—RICHMOND. 657 so much so, that it was often necessary for him to work far into the night to preserve specimens brought in to him during the day. In his official capacity he accompanied eight punitive expeditions against hostile Moros, but even under these circumstances his col- lections continued to grow, through the cooperation of his associ- ates. Ethnological material, such as bolos and other native imple- ments and weapons, together with various editions of the Koran, were secured on these forays and utilized as specimens. He accom- panied General Wood on three trips of inspection to various islands, some of them zoologically unknown and rarely visited, and during parts of June and July, 1904, he ascended Mount Apo, the highest peak in the Philippines, where he made general collections and secured much information of value. In the exploration of Mount Apo he was anticipated by two English collectors, who had made collections there hardly a year before. Hard work, combined with exposure in a tropical climate, had its effect, and in September, 1904, he was sent to the Army General Hospital at San Francisco, suffering from a complication of tropical parasitic disorders. He visited Washington after he had partially recovered his health, and took advantage of this opportunity to study some of his Philippine material, and in a series of five papers issued in the early part of 1905, he described 6 new genera and 25 new species of mammals, a new genus and 19 new species of birds, besides recording 8 species of birds not previously known from the islands, with notes on other of the rarer forms. Other new types embraced in his collections were made known by experts in several branches of zoology. On July 20, 1905, Mearns stopped at Guam, on his way back to the Philippines, and here he made the inevitable collection that attended his every pause, however brief, in a new locality. In the few hours spent at Guam he obtained 23 birds and a variety of other material. To him every specimen had a potential scientific value, and if worth picking up at all was worth labeling with its full history. This applied to all material, whether in his own chosen field or not, his theory being that if a specimen proved to be of no interest it could be easily discarded at any time. During the two years of his second period of service in the Philip- pines he was enabled to reach many interesting and obscurely known islands, having the good fortune to accompany General Wood on tours of inspection to the northernmost and southernmost points of the Archipelago, but space forbids notice of other than his two chief exploits. In May, 1906, he was placed in command of a “ Bio- logical and Geographical Reconnoissance of the Malindang Moun- tain Group,” in western Mindanao, which was organized to explore 658 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. and map the region and make collections of its natural products. This expedition, originally consisting of 21 white and 28 native carriers, left the old fort at Misamis, on May 9, and experienced many difficulties, ascending one spur of the mountain after another, only to discover that an impassable gorge several thousand feet deep separated it from the main peak. By May 25 the party had become reduced to half its original number, through the departure of various members to the coast. The remainder pushed on, and at 11.30 o’clock on the morning of June 4 reached the top of Grand Malindang, the second highest point in the Philippines, and pre- viously unvisited by civilized man. It was foggy and cold, but Doctor Mearns remained on the summit three days and nights to secure a good series of animal life of that altitude. The return to the coast was comparatively uneventful and occupied only a few days. A good map of the region was prepared, and a number of new animals and plants were discovered, including Malindangia, a new genus of birds. One achievement among Mearns’s Philippine experiences stands out more prominently than any other, namely, his ascent of Mount Halcon, which was undertaken at the worst season of the year. This notable expedition, headed by Doctor Mearns, was organized “under the direction and with the support of Major General Leonard Wood,” its object being to “determine some feasible route to the mountain, to ascend the highest peak, to secure as much data as possible, and to collect cbjects of natural history.” Elmer D. Merrill, botanist of the expedition, has fortunately given an account of this trip, and the extracts here quoted are from his paper. Haleon, the third highest peak in the Philippines, is situated in the north- central part of Mindoro. With no known irails leading to it, surrounded by dense forests, cut off from the coast by difficult ridges and large rivers subject to enormous and appalling floods, it stood seemingly inaccessible. Its location is perhaps in the most humid part of the Philippines, where the rains continue for nine months in the year, in a region geographically quite unknown and inhabited by a sparse population of entirely wild and very timid people, and on an island regarding which there is a widespread and generally accepted belief as to its unhealthfulness. Although within 100 miles of Manila and not more than 15 from Calapan, the capital of Mindoro, so far as I have been able to determine it remained unconquered up to the year 1906. John Whitehead, an English collector, who reached one of the out- lying spurs of Halcon in the winter of 1895, wrote of this region: I have seen a good deal of the Tropics, but I never encountered such deluges, such incessant rain, or such thousands of leeches. The Mearns party, consisting of 11 whites and 22 natives, left Cala- pan on November 1 for Subaan, where it began its journey inland. The expedition discovered several uncharted rivers, which had to be forded or crossed on rude bridges constructed by the party, and prog- EDGAR ALEXANDER MEARNS—RICHMOND. 659 ress was impeded by the almost constant rains, the difficulties of trail cutting, and the swarms of leeches, the latter constituting a notorious drawback to travel in the forests of that region. The privations of the journey are graphically set forth by Merrill, who states that the expedition reached the summit on the afternoon of November 22, but remained cnly long enough to take aneroid readings and deposit a record of the trip. The return to the coast was not without trouble, since nearly 14 days were required to reach Subaan. Carriers sent down in advance for food and supplies had not returned; the remain- ing members were obliged to carry heavy loads; a bridge made by the party was washed away and had to be rebuilt; blinding rain con- tinued for days without a pause; two men were lost for several days and later discovered in a half-famished state; and all of the party were on short rations. These and other troubles were incidents of the return trip. At length, however, the party reached Subaan, December 5, after an absence of 40 days. The zoological results of the trip were disappointing, since only by the exercise of great effort could specimens be prepared or saved from later destruction by mois- ture. Furthermore, Doctor Mearns noted that the mountain birds had descended to lower levels to escape the rains, and flocks of them were observed passing up the mountain side when the party was on its return to the coast. Late in 1907, Doctor Mearns returned from the Philippines and was ordered to Fort Totten, New York, where he remained nearly a year. While at this station he indulged in a garden and derived much satisfaction from growing a variety of vegetables and registering in his notebooks the results of his toil, indicating the treatment, yield and value of each kind planted. It was at Fort Totten that he became aware of the presence of the disease that finally brought his career to an end. In 1908, President Roosevelt planned an extensive hunting and scientific expedition to Africa, and invited the Smithsonian Institu- tion to participate, with the view of securing the best results in the preservation of both large and small game. The proposition was accepted, and Doctor Mearns was suggested for the position of natu- ralist. He agreed to undertake the journey, and on January 1, 1909, he was retired, with the rank of lieutenant colonel, but “ assigned to active duty with his consent,” with orders to “report in person to the President of the United States for duty.” Concerning the objects of the expedition President Roosevelt wrote him: While our collections will be mainly of mammals and birds, yet if we can add reptiles and fresh-water fish, it will certainly be desirable. While not making a special effort in the collection of insects and plants, it will yet be desirable to do all that can conveniently be done in these directions. Doctor Walcott recommended you to me as being the best field naturalist and collector in the United States; and as I already knew well the admirable work 660 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. you had done I was only too glad to assent to the recommendation, and, accord- ingly, at his request detailed you to take charge of the scientific work of the expedition. I know no one who could do it as well. The party, consisting of Colonel Roosevelt, his son Kermit, Doctor Mearns, and Messrs. Heller and Loring, sailed early in March, 1909, and was absent nearly a year. It traversed sections of British East Africa, where Mearns seized the opportunity to collect material on the slopes of Mount Kenia up to the snow line; Uganda, across which he journeyed on foot, to enable him to make better collections and observations; finally passing through the Lado Enclave, down the White Nile to the coast. The course of the expedition and its results are matters of history, and it will suffice here to say that of the upward of 4,000 birds collected, over 3,000 were obtained by Doctor Mearns, who also secured many small mammals, plants, and other objects. Upon his return to Washington, Dr. Mearns began a general re- port on the birds and published several preliminary papers describ- ing new forms obtained on the expedition. While thus engaged he was requested by Mr. Childs Frick to undertake another African journey, which was to include Abyssinia and little traveled parts of eastern Africa. Although less physically fitted to undertake difficult journeys than formerly, the advantage of having more material for comparison appealed to him, and he was unable to resist the tempta- tion. He became a member of this expedition, and the latter part of the year 1911 found him again in Africa, from which he returned in September, 1912. The party entered at Djibouti, French Somaliland, and traveled inland to Dire Daoua, thence to Addis Abeba, the Abyssinian capital. From there it worked generally south by way of the Abaya lakes, through the Galla country, making a loop round Lake Stephanie and skirting the south end of Lake Rudolf, and finally reached Nairobi. Part of the territory traversed was pre- viously unexplored, and the liberal collections made over the whole route enabled Doctor Mearns to add greatly to his knowledge of the birds of eastern Africa. In April, 1912, when the expedition was in a remote part of southern Abyssinia, his son, Louis Mearns, a most estimable and promising young man, who had accompanied him on many lesser collecting trips, died in Baltimore, Maryland. The news of this sad occurrence, which was withheld by his family until his return to the United States, proved a severe shock to him. With largely increased collections—the Frick expedition having added over 5,000 birds to his available material—Doctor Mearns again resumed his studies, intending to work up all of the African series together. He had been relieved from further active duty at the end of the year 1910 and felt he could at last make his plans and move as he pleased. For years he had cherished the desire to settle RICHMOND. 661 EDGAR ALEXANDER MEARNS down to museum research, to work over his collections and complete reports long projected. The opportunity was now at hand, but, alas! not to be realized. The privations and exposure of his many travels, together with the progress of his malady, had so undermined his system that his vitality had reached a low ebb. He continued at work for two or three years, with ever widening periods of inability to reach his office. Thinking to benefit his condition, he made several short field trips in this period, from which he returned without much improvement, and at length he succumbed, in the midst of his greatest undertaking, surrounded by a wealth of material that was largely the result of his own industry. He passed away at the Walter Reed Army Generai Hospital, in Washington, November 1, 1916, leaving his mother, widow, daughter, and a large number of friends to mourn his loss. Doctor Mearns was of an exceedingly generous disposition, one who had no desire to retain the fruits of his labor for his own glory and satisfaction, but preferred to donate them to museums where they would be accessible to all for study. His earlier collections, made up to 1891, went to the American Museum of Natural History, and later ones were given with equal liberality to the United States National Museum. Of shells, and probably other objects collected in large quantity, he distributed sets to various museums, while a series of human skeletons and crania from the cliff dwellings at Fort Verde was sent to the Army Medical Museum. An inkling of the im- portance of his contributions may be gathered from the statement of Standley (1917), who writes: . As naturalist of the Mexican Boundary Survey of 1892-93 he collected or had eollected under his direction the largest and best representation ever obtained, consisting of several thousand numbers, of the flora of that part of the United States and Mexican boundary which extends from El Paso, Texas, to San Diego, California. Doctor Mearns secured also what is undoubtedly the largest series of plants ever obtained in the Yellowstone National Park, and in addition he col- lected extensively in the Philippines, Arizona, Florida, Rhode Island, Min- nesota, and southern New York. All his collections are deposited in the United States National Museum, and probably no one person has contributed a larger number of plants to that institution. Hollister, in 1913, referring to Philippine mammals, said that of 1,454 specimens in the National Museum, “ probably by far the largest collection from the archipelago in any museum,” Doctor Mearns had given 1,012. More impressive figures may be cited in the case of birds, when it is known that more than one-tenth of the total number of specimens of birds in the United States National Museum were either collected or contributed by him. The published writings of Doctor Mearns number about 125 titles, chiefly on biological subjects, although medicine, archeology, and biography are also represented. Fifty or more new species of animals 65133°—sm 1917——43 662 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. and plants have been named in his honor, as well as three genera, the latter constituting a rather unusual distinction. Mearnsia, a tree of the myrtle family, is a native of the slopes of Mount Halcon, and the same name has been conferred on a rare swift from the island of Mindanao, while Mearnsella commemorates a genus of fishes from the last-named locality. Doctor Mearns was a patron of the American Museum of Natural History ; associate in Zoology of the National Museum; correspondent. of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia; fellow of the American Ornithologists’ Union; member of the National Geographic Society, of the Biological Society of Washington, of the Linnean _ Society of New York, and of various other societies. For one who had engaged in many difficult journeys, Doctor Mearns was of rather frail build, not more than 5 feet 4 inches in height, and probably never weighed much in excess of 140 pounds, but he was blessed with a spirit of determination that enabled him to accom- plish nearly every task he undertook. Withal, he was modest and unassuming in demeanor and seldom referred to his own exploits, but was a good auditor and always interested in the experiences of his friends. He avoided arguments and never indulged in criticism of others; was fair and impartial in his appraisement of men. He was always willing to seek advice and give weight to the opinions of others. Serene and placid in disposition, cheerful and optimistic in temperament, he was fond of the beautiful in nature and art, even of poetry, yet philosophical and analytical and systematic by nature. As a friend, he was sympathetic, generous, steadfast, and intensely loyal. WILLIAM BULLOCK CLARK? Dr. William Bullock Clark, professor of geology in the Johns Hopkins University, eminent for his contributions to geology, died suddenly from apopiexy on July 27, 1917, at his summer home at North Haven, Maine. William Bullock Clark was born at Brattleboro, Vermont, De- cember 15, 1860. His parents were Barna A. and Helen (Bullock) Clark. Among his early ancestors were Thomas Clark, who came to Plymouth, Massachusetts, in the ship Ann in 1623 and who was several times elected deputy to the general court of Plymouth Col- ony; Richard Bullock, who same to Salem, Massachusetts, in 1643; John Howland, a member of council, assistant to the governor, and several times deputy to the general court of Plymouth Colony, who came to Plymouth in the A/ayflower in 1620; John Tilly, who hke- wise came in the Mayflower; and John Gorham, captain of Massa- chusetts troops in King Philip’s War. Among later ancestors were William Bullock, colonel of Massachusetts troops in the French and Indian War, and Daniel Stewart, a minuteman at the Battle of Lex- ington in 1775. Clark studied under private tutors and at the Brattleboro High School, from which he graduated in 1879. He entered Amherst Col- lege in the autumn of 1880 and graduated with the degree of A. B. in 1884. He immediately went to Germany and from 1884 to 1887 pursued geological studies at the University of Munich, from which he received the degree of doctor of philosophy in 1887. Subsequently he studied at Berlin and London, spending much time in the field with members of the geological surveys of Prussia and Great Britain. Before leaving Munich Doctor Clark was offered and accepted the position of instructor in the Johns Hopkins University. He was in- structor from 1887 to 1889, associate from 1889 to 1892, associate professor from 1892 to 1894, and professor of geology and head of the department from 1894 until the time of his death. He had been for a long time a member of the academic council—the governing body of the university—and always took a very active interest in its affairs, acting as one of the committee of administration while the university was without a president. 1 Reprinted from Science, Aug. 3, 1917, n. s. vol. 46, No. 1179. 663 664 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. In 1888 he was also appointed an assistant geologist on the United States Geological Survey and detailed for work on the Cretaceous and Tertiary formations of the Atlantic Coastal Plain. At the same time he was requested to prepare the correlation bulletin on the Socene, one of a series of reports which were presented to the Inter- national Geological Congress in Washington in 1891. Professor Clark spent the summer of 1889 in a study of the Eocene deposits of the far West, while the remaining period was occupied in the investi- gation of the Eocene formations of the Atlantic border. He was advanced to geologist on the staff of the United States Geological Survey in 1894 and held this position until 1907, since which time he has acted as cooperating geologist. Professor Clark organized the Maryland State Weather Service in 1892, of which he was appointed the director and held the po- sition continuously until his death. In 1896 he organized the Mary- land Geological Survey, and had been State geologist since the establishment of that bureau. The geological survey was enlarged in scope in 1898 by the addition of a highway division, which was in- structed to investigate and report on the conditions of the roads of the State and the best means for their improvement, and Professor Clark and his associates through their publications and addresses aroused much interest in the subject throughout the State. In 1904 the duties of the highway division were much increased by the appropriation of $200,000 annually, to be met by a similar amount from the counties, for the building of State-2id roads by the survey. A sum exceeding $200,000 was also subsequently appropriated for the building, at the expense of the State alone, of a highway connecting Baltimore and Washington. The duties of the highway division were transferred in 1910 to a newly organized State roads commis- sion, of which Professor Clark was made a member and which posi- tion he held until 1914. Nearly $2,000,000 had been expended, however, by the State geological survey in the supervision and build- ing of roads up to the date of the transfer. Under an act of the legislature passed in 1900 Professor Clark was appointed commissioner for Maryland by the governor to represent the State in the resurvey of the Maryland-Pennsylvania boundary, commonly known as the Mason and Dixon line. This survey was completed four years later and an elaborate report prepared. In 1906 he was made a member of the Maryland State Board of For- estry, and elected as its executive officer, which position he held at the time of his death. The governor appointed him in 1908 a mem- ber of the State conservation commission. Professor Clark organized and directed the preparation of the offi- cial State exhibits of Maryland mineral resources at the Buffalo, Charleston, St. Louis, Jamestown, and San Francisco expositions in WILLIAM BULLOCK CLARK. 665 1901, 1902, 1904, 1907, and 1915. These exhibits attracted much attention at the time and received a large number of conspicuous awards. The exhibits have been permanently installed as a State mineral exhibit at the statehouse in Annapolis. When President Roosevelt invited the governors of the States to a conference on conservation at the White House in May, 1908, it was arranged that each governor should appoint three advisers to accompany him. Professor Clark was one of the Maryland advisers and took part in the conference. After the great Baltimore fire in 1904 the mayor of the city ap- pointed Professor Clark a member of an emergency committee to prepare plans for the rehabilitation of the burnt district and for several months he served as vice chairman of the important sub- committee on streets, parks, and docks, whose plans resulted in the great changes subsequently carried out. The following year he was appointed by the mayor a member of a committee to devise a plan for a sewerage system for the city which has resulted in the build- ing of the present modern system of sewers. Again in 1909 the mayor also appointed him a member of a committee for devising a plan for the development of a civic center for Baltimore. Since 1901 Professor Clark had been president of the Henry Wat- son Children’s Aid Society of Baltimore and was a delegate to the White House conference called by President Roosevelt in February, 1909, to consider the subject of the dependent child. He was also a member of the executive committee of the State tuberculosis associa- tion and a vice president and chairman of the executive committee of the federated charities of Baltimore. Numerous scientific societies elected him to membership, among them the National Academy of Sciences, of which he was chairman of the geological section, the American Philosophical Society, the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the Deutsche Geologische Gesell- schaft, the Washington Academy of Sciences, Paliontologische Gesellschaft, and the American Association for the Advancement of Science. He was councilor and treasurer of the Geological Society of America at the time of his death. In 1904 he was elected a for- eign correspondent of the Geological Society of London. He was also president of the Association of State Geologists. Amherst con- ferred on him the degree of LL. D. in 1908. He had numerous offers from other institutions, perhaps the most important being the pro- fessorship and head of the department of geology at Harvard Uni- versity, but all of these were refused, and his devotion to Hopkins and the ideals for which it stood was unswerving. At the time of the International Geological Congress in St. Peters- burg in 1897 Professor Clark was an official delegate from the 666 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. United States and spent several months in an extended trip through Russia and its Provinces. In 1906 he spent the summer on an ex- pedition to central Alaska, visiting the region to the north of Prince William Sound. He traveled extensively in western America and Mexico, reaching distant portions of the western Sierra Madre dis- trict. With the outbreak of the war Professor Clark became actively in- terested in problems of defense and economic preparedness. He was appointed a member of the National Research Council and was chairman of the subcommittee on road materials and a member of the committee on camp sites and water supplies. He was also chair- man of the committee on highways and natural resources of the Maryland Council of Defense. Professor Clark made numerous contributions to geological litera- ture, his work being confined largely to the Cretaceous and Tertiary formations of the Atlantic Coastal Plain and the Carboniferous de- posits of the central Appalachian region. Professor Clark’s chief paleontological interest was centered in the Echinoidea, to the eluci- dation of which group he published several monographs. One of his monuments will be the series of reports of the Maryland Geological Survey, which set a new standard for State publications both as to subject, matter and bookmaking. The systematic reports in which he was most interested will be of perennial service to science. He was.a member of numerous clubs, including the University, Maryland, of which he was a vice president, Baltimore County, Johns Hopkins, and City Clubs of Baltimore and the Cosmos Club of Washington. He was married October 12, 1892, to Ellen Clarke Strong, daugh- ter of the late Edward A. Strong, of Boston, and had four children, Edward Strong, Helen, who was recently married to Capt. H. Find- lay French, Atherton, and Marion, all of whom survive him. Professor Clark’s administrative ability and professional attain- ments are largely responsible for the extensive development of Mary- land’s mineral resources, and his loss will be severely felt in all quar- ters. He was always keenly interested in the educational value of the work of the various State bureaus which he directed and had just finished writing a geography of Maryland for school-teachers. At the time of his death he was engaged in writing a report on the underground waters of the State and another on the coals. TN Dax, A. Page. JN GPO ONG: KO Coes tek Be he pe ay Bk ASR dN SN Rete ee errors eet X15 20, 27,05 ANYON OCG Te 91 Gd fs LS es Se SOR ee eee ee Aa eet ar tenses Blase bones een 90 NYG OY OF a Se) Ga SO eS EERE SE tN rs LOR anny ea, et 14, 22, 33, 35 Sah | OUEST GES TNA yee 1B RENO es VS 2 2 a aS eles SL ee a eee 22 Adams, Charles C. (an outline of the relations of animals to their in- PAB CERETEOMENCIGS ere eames fee eee SS NN PBs od eg Ik gs 515 PAN CLEDITAS OV ase are Giga Se EN ee A pe ey eB hh xox ACCLOUMM AI CAls uADOnatony, Wan gleya == oe ee ee eee 124 Aeronautics; National Advisory Committee for ___.__-_______-__ 5 Agriculture, Secretary of (member of the Institution) ____________-____ oe MDE RiAnG. BEitisn. COMM DIA, Gx eCC UOT tO mae ee 6, 125 A \ WS IEICE) Oa Dig 4 BA ag RORY a AE SE ee ON RENEE SAAS TOS. xi, 27, 90 Algae, fossil, and coral reefs, explorations in the Ohio Valley for______ 9 Je IMMGYTOCLESO YESS 10S Sorusiogaer) 3 390 Appalachian valley, hunting graptolites in___-u) oe 8 Aschemeien: | Cope Wis tate leis Pe ci Pipe. TEE, Age Wl, fe gd lS AS tLOphySical (ObsenvahOryse== 252225. se P(e Aes} Mount Wilson.) Se yar 25 Orrin EBs 93 reportionstateys eters hei i sah Jo sara 88 Attorney General (member of the Institution) ______-_______________- x B. ICT WAC N= ae i Se ne ge ee a ee Se ee xi YF) egy ALE Ee es fe Se a crs UL i 25,50. Baker, Newton Diehl, Secretary of War (member of tke Institution) —_ x Barbero sale sbavin ge COMP Uys =o) = nee Se eee or ee 40 DEES EMTS SCC ga AUD eee ee ee eS 12, 186 (bird! rookeries.o& the yRortugas) 22. = 8 eae 469 IBASSTOT Ri Sa 2 eee oe tS eee eee 8,9 Bather, F. A. (national work at the British Museum—museums and advancement, Of leutnin®) 2.2 2 ae eae ae ge ee 619 BEedtpra’ Wile ore. = ee eran) are eee 25, 72 PS C@SOT AG) Win oe ee ee ee ee a xi Belle Alexander. Graham (Regent) = 2222 2. ee Bee ee exe SOME Cimeel anTVC Spo ee ee es ee er ee ee xi Benoit MOC eCHIE = =a 2 el ee fase oe Se aes ee ee 34 IONAMIN, VIMIAT CUS! - 2 oe ee ee et yal BiGloeiealeswotke. ine Gli sy) 2 i. ge ee ee ee 13 Cubasangh, BUvitl ie st aan eee ee ee een ee 12 668 INDEX. Page Birderookeriestor the ortucas db ariseh)) aaa ars eee eee eee 469 JesbeOlsy @ie JER RAObISSs Teeny (Sito gah) ae 42 Boardsor Recents. proceeding sro hin eae ae nn es ual7i PS OU Z5 RERUN nase eee cc esiat A ES 2 ee as Ss ee a Se XG ANAL FO SES OILED OTIVEDS PIC CU yi Oe Sa rae eae age oy ed nD 35 BOOve EHeod oney de! aie. owe A eee en eee re oa ee ae oe A) eee ae 36 BorneoyandCelebes;nexpedition) tomes sea si ar is ees 126 Botanical exploravions ing these aiyyali ame isle Gls emewean ees ieee al) Botanicals Station, Cm Chron see ee ep ee BY 11270 rid eC OMIT Cr rast Shes ee ee ee eee wie tls SiN Dali British Columbia, Alberta and, expedition to_______ OTROS SLI AL Si 2) 125 Brockett, Paul, assistant librarian of the Institution__—____= Bxeuop Dy Brooks, Charles E, P. (correlation of the Quaternary deposits of the British Isles with those of the Continent of Europe)___-_____________ PHELE STOW IDS 5 x ete eres ee en oie ae or ee Xo BULCATIOL AMeCrICATMtNNOLOSy— = - = ee e gm emID COME CHLOM Se Se Ber re rs Se ee ee 60 library === sea Sieg en Sh) Soe es ee 59 DUDA Ons ea eee ee CANE 2 EROS 58 EeDOb === PETIT WR Serer ees Ss Pes em ee oA 45 Burleson, Albert Sidney, Postmaster General (member of the Institution ) x BES UTS Ear TESS) Dv sE Cl a ee ee ee eek ee ee 57 Ojibway habitations and other structures________-_____ 609 C. Garnecie Corporation, viftt. of 2 == ihe Ree al ee A 127 Catalepsy in JPhasmidae (Schmidt)! 22 titers) feria iy ey 501 Caudell, A. N. (an economic consideration of orthoptera directly affect- IN IN TD) ES ee i i 507 Celebes and! Borneo, expedition to. ase jag = SE TAG Chief Justice of the United States (member of the Institution) _________ x China, biological work in] 2) 2 free heat eats yy eee ee 13 Choate: ;Charles i jr.e(hegent,) £2 ate Se A ee ee eee aX Cinchona ‘Botanical Station =a ee ee ales a ZA0/ Clark: A. Howard, editor-of the:Institution====-=—"=" “= =.-=s>ss=ses x, 20, 106 @lark,. .Wlliam:B ull 0k. — + ~ aA a TERA (CL ANF] OY Beal LoL SY en) | cg a ae a al ae a gd oe aT AGS Te Cote Topet Gorell | Te yes Oo Des oN UT ese = eee a he ree er 22, ole bee Hircnchesclenbistss TeCEDELON! LM NOMOR Oi. a — sen a ee ee 21 Fuehs, Leonhard, physician and botanist (Neumann) ----______________ 635 Hubloneoy Ohamrles \ Wise ee ag ee ee ee 15 670 INDEX. G. Page. Glare r= COU S OO 10S Oe © Kap Ca He Tao ee 126 Gatschet, A. S__-__~ eee Herat at ae sepa yen ean ee a 52 Geological explorations in the Canadian 1 oY) eh SY a Aen eh ee ah 8 WN faa 6 Geolocicnleneldesnidieca=s = ase: eae ee decent eit fail ae 8 SEDI Gay OIE SOLE Ol NTeAVeNENG “(CU riaye Fea eval Va Se ee ee MBS/ CANDO Teter CCS CN Gea a a ae nan ep gee sd xi Ge TG Ten TC 0 Y ere saree no oe sre ner ri ne a a nn ma es wr he i 8h oil 9) Gold and silver deposits in North and South America (Lindgren) ——~—___ 147 GoldSmibhetd: eS eso ete LE SR AL a SINE Ee Ee aE xi Craptohtes; huntingsin=the-Appalachian- Valley fora sess ss es 8 CEE TeeLy ctu Cr COTE Cree (PEC CS OM Ee) se carr cal err ee eee eo dD SW ee OS aX Gregory, Thomas Watt, Attorney General (member of the Institution) —_ aK Gunnell yebeonard Clea ae ee peaiidamesaitrate 20s xi, 108 CGE ES yeast JOISTS) 0) a ip tt ae aaa el send ieee Beet te pep GEHS oal S xi, 58 H. Ves LPS] OES eI OT a) Ca ea ee a a ee Ed Oe 55 Hat Cubasand biological work ines een 22s 12 iEale. Georgevh =e sienh «ater Ss EGE ee Se Le, JE LP Tee CO AY ISTE 1 bh AV0 eee ee ce Sl ee ee x SER IPE, 8 SO PELE MEW WTR TN OUT UCM es eet i ee eae xi, 52 Hawaiian islands, floral vaspectsiof (Gentchcock) = ee ae 449 hlawikess GisiGu & OO = =a 2 es ee PRE NO Ey LONE Dice eo 18 Se ie 40 Henderson, John B: GRegents) e555) st ae ee ee ee xi, 12, 36 ewitt odiwN.. (B22 tae Pec: pe Shy Feet Peco carb! hay ery ere es xi, 24, 49 eye NGeoree [Gare OE ee cotta ote! Fond asst 36 BIL ee, property clerkiok thesinstitmbiOons ae Seen er a oe Entcheoek; HA. Seether cop reel bet ah ah ape had et 18 sr ea ee ner oe 12 (floral aspects of the Hawaiian Islands) 2222-22022 449 Hodge mh. ew ees2= Pe eC Bs BS ae ad eT xi} 120)235 383745 Hollis, Henry French (eseut) gE 8 Ri ee Bees See esa VEC ee Ke FTOUMISTCT MAIN CCl es Ee 2S ou Fae ee 2 ee ee Xdls PAD), 25, (National Zoological Park, a popular account of-its collec- TENCOVGRS}) bh ke et Soe om Same WEEN Maa ger S Na Remy T ATFs Aes a on St 543 ELOUY ES Wali bie rt Te ds ee seh eee S952 J ste te ae xi OTA AY Ve a Be a, Eg 26, OU ete W allt Ci ae is Seer ee ee ee xi, 33 Houston, David Franklin, Secretary of Agriculture (member of the Insti- EUIGA© 10!) Re ET oe ee ee hp a ee ees x Howards lu; (OU Ce ae 2 eee eee ee yd) ae ee ee ee Sell Er dlicka e4Ales 222 eh eee 8 2 aa pe ee A 2 xi, 10, 22, 34 Hughes, Bruce__---- ~~ Diagt th are actos 2/93. be ha ey Cale ie Pe 44 RUE GEY SOI 5 Greate okt nd Biv oe ts Sh a i ee 2 ee 23, 36 Elutchinson, (Cary sass os esto i 2 2 a eee ehse 17 Te Interior; Secretary of (member of the Institution) —~—~_—-- 22222222225" x International catalogue of Scientific literature. —2=4 "2 22 ase 28 MEPONEs PON 4. = 2 Gee een Te ee ee 108 Imternationaly exchane eg. se 3. ae eee eee 24 MO DONGAOM goes Se he eas ie Se ae ee 62 INDEX. 671 J. Page. POWM SOMsn Teall Ne © TOSS pees eee ee ee me ee ne eee es 41 =LFTEK I Ls SENSIS IMS a el a ETS a nad ao pe GL iD eerie 9 3 33 K. Cerne dye a Spt te meee see ce ee oe ee DEC ee eee ee ee 35 RSTO WL SOV Vis tN ete oe rece es ota natn a om eed a ee xi | RCTROVEV OYE TCs ist edad to i A a a ac or ee pa tia Rite enw Sree PA Sef 57 L. apor, secretaryor Gnemberlot the institution). 2e ss ee ee Xs CHAR + TEESE YS eh SERIE YE hf SPN ELS ee ee xi, 57 Lane, Franklin Knight, Secretary of the Interior (member of the Institu- (UCSD) RL oe KPI a oh ENA TN a MO eh eae ee 8 xe ILS (ON SA Ce Oe eee RE Eee ee eS Ee RTE 4 Langley Aerodynamical Laboratory______________ pM ai RSNA Sa fig oy 4S oo ALIS 124 Lansing, Robert, Secretary of State (member of the Institution) —~~_____ x BUSSES eASTSSV fee Ean ca erm a Ot we Ie eS re xi 1 Erase sh ate 1 SC Oye) Ue ee ee a SS ee ee 34 LEEW LOH OLS al OT CC) eet SE ee a ei xa Tea se elie LeU LENA GS Se A Et a EE is AR BL Os Ch Pas XS) OY) GLE ACO} 0 ears es eee a aS, 0 Ne OE ee Se Sm eae SC 2 ee 95 Lindgren, Waldemar (gold and silver deposits in North and South Amer- TICGR Ye St CO 8 ch awe Ry Ae = pee ar ee Mee re a ard tt ns Ld lea Be 147 MLO SenMeS Mls (GOR OTN) Ie a a a ee Ke hodce;saenry- Cabot: (Regent) = — ts = ee ee ae eee x OPIN Coed. PACU CN === seman ee ae ie eee ey eee cee eee 26 M. McAdoo, William Gibbs, Secretary of the Treasury (member of the In- CSET EH STG 1) a 8 hee ees Se Mea al Pe = AN te ete en eo ei Ea x Marshall, Thomas R., Vice President of the United States (member of the ES GUO Me) atone ee eS Ee Oe eee ee eee x VE EOTI SS VV Ate b Uaioe ees ere eR Pie ie le ee OE Se Se ee eee xi MEV TOs GCOnl Oe) On fanaa aS ee oe Sees Se ase oes nae ee oa Means) Hd carreNlexand OPas=" ies ean aes Sees eee eee ee eee 21, 44 Me MemMoOranh ChTChM ON) a ee ee 649 VUE TES H!I eet GeO Te Coe yee ase ae me ar oe oe Ne eee cleo! (composition and structure of meteorites compared Within ator bees tals POGKS)) see nee ee iey Michelson atruman™ S22 se os soles ee ee ee ee xi, 51 TNT Ege AESS ir a SE ee eee ee Rap ma NMUI NAM EVOMeI nA eee eee se ae a ye iL Miscellaneous Collections, Smithsonian_____________________ arb tet, Sew 19 Monroe. Charles hss 2. 222 ee Ee ee ee 131 Mooney WJamese. =... ook Se a ee eo Se xi, 47 WOOT Cheba e heath aba wees ts ene oe oa Boe ee eee ee ee 90 Moore, H. F. (the sea as a conservator of wastes and a reservoir of food)_ 595 N. National Advisory Committee for aeronautics________-_-_______~-_-____ 5 Natron aeG Mery Ol. Aint = sa ceel os A ee see 8 ee eS a 121 IN SALON aya OL OSG) sa ee ee 40 672 INDEX. Page. INatonal Mu Se umes ee a ee ee ee ee ee 22 COM CC TLIO SER aes ae eee oe ee ea ee 33 Hreer Galllerye Oi Arb eres ee ale eee eee a ee 31 meetings and congresses_______=_-______ Cis 42 NationalsGalleny= Of eAn bas 22 ase er eee 40 PD UNDUE CA GT OTN S ee se eee en ene CN oe ee 20 TC SY OLOGY 60) G1 A a A BS Tt is 31 INDTOnal Researen) COUnC === Se eee es eh ee 16 INAION ale ZOOL OST Gal aly eee ee eels hah pe pee i* 1238 ACCESSIONS SE Se aS Fs 28 Be eee se eigen eee eee zs Te alteration of western boundary_—____ = 84 IMP LOVEMIE MUS = eee pet Sp ee sahiet 2, Ib oui ayes ede] vere lititioy oy =e ve ee Ah belts 26 pO EYE, 6 [= mama eee earch ses ge Weg mae NAS ye al ihe al 1 85 popular account of its collections (Hollister) 548 TEDORG OL es ahaa a oe Sa a 71 Natural history of Paradise Key and the near-by Everglades of Florida (Saftord)) oe 2 ee eee ae one oon ea ee cee ee tee eee eee 377 Navy, Secretary of (member of the Institution) —-_______-____________=_ xx Neumann, Felix (Leonhard Fuchs, physician and botanist) ~~ _----_____~ 635 O. Ohio Valley, explorations in the, for fossil alge and coral reefs________- 9 Ojibway habitations and other structures (David I. Bushnell) —~--_-____ 609 Outline of the relation of animals to their inland environments (Charles BSS ANCL AN TITN PS)) ata a a Ga ar I Sa 515 BP: BelMeT.y VW a ee 38 Paradise Key and near-by Everglades of Florida, natural history of (Saf- RECT: C9) ese ee ee a ee 377 RaAternot. VWauriCe ee eee tee eee ie cto geg arty aes sales 2, Pecan, notes on the early history of, in America (True) _—~-—_______--___ 435 FETT NEA OSS a a a et ee ia iets IR a 42 ROASt eM SS see eae ey eee OS RA a and aide a 3 Stee Eee eae 45 Postmaster General (member of the ane arti behiiemrapeaseaelsl Gi S 1L x BrecipitaklOn, TORN oe eee ee A ee ee ee ee 125 President of the United States (member of the Institution) ____---______ xx RriMntine and! publicaon= COMM lEee ONS === as ase ee eee 20 Proceedings of the Board of Regents_________ wid eles Pe ele AA A WT PLOJECHMILES* CONLALMIM SEXP LOSLVES (CA rose ng) ree rs ace ee ee 131 Publication S222 22a. ree Jet eee ee Sfhe leer eae pee es NAR. 19 Lepore OD. 2i2 a ae ae ee Se ee er eee 106 Q. Quaternary deposits of the British Isles, correlation with those of the Continent.of Hnrope: (Brooks) 25) se ee ee ee ee 277 R. EVANS Sites ETNA ys WW ea a ee ee 40, 121 Rathbun, Richard (assistant secretary of the Institution) ______________ XoEKEL Raven; “He O22 5- aS Aen ne VRS eae ee eee er a 14, 33, 35 Ravenel Wie Ge@ Cana e se a a ee ae ee xi INDEX. 673 Page Reception in honor of the French scientists____._._____ Pall Redfield, William Cox, Secretary of Commerce (member of the Institu- WOM eee Baal a retin Te Ld Pvtas a oy Peet dee A eae a x Regents of the Institution® 21). soe i este att iy! abou a tay Bab sey x; fl IR@COAG, Srey ligoub na =o ee ee a ee ee Sere ne a eae ae 19 Rescarche COnpOnat OnMee ss see ean et 8 Fe ee oe ee ee 15, 125 Resedrehy Council ii National 22 oes ee eae re Sil eae 16 Researches, ands explorations 3 soatu sion i wilt es Boi es ee 6 PRG SSC hae Ga Hie te eee oe ee a 2 eee on ae 8 Richmond, Charles W. (in memoriam, Hdgar Alexander Mearns) _______ 649 EEO ELV ats ERO DC Tab ree ee ee Is ee ee el xi REXON, JUNO As 1 as eee Toki dehy ny soaps ET teh 3 eee ebseat PF oe aE 52 ODerLS Mrnestu Wes. CREePents) 2 2 ete ee eee ae 5. Rockies, Canadian, geological explorations in________ eNOS Oshy, 7 Rane 6 Roland -Orlandowty tn sss ten iy ae Te is hace pl a Bek Wee eo 42 RoGhs sh Walierec eae wr eee eS NS Meco athe d Ce 2h ce ER Laer NE ey ae 33 RutheriordsSirMbmmest its. Sete bes be ti lt ay Sete Eo cape ay Pail S. Safford, W. E. (natural history of Paradise Key and near-by Everglades OM SEE Tr Cl eA) es ee ee a ee a rete se es Sit Santo Domingo, explorations in--__________ Be Sete AG Schmidt,-P. (catalepsy in Phasmidae)__________ =A oS ee ra, Sey (it PSKELE (00 (ey oo (Sd eR SNe aS Pence SA pe ae a Ne eR eect oe SS xi Sea as a conservator of wastes and a reservoir of food, the (Moore)_____ 595 Secretary OL uneminstituiione ==) 22 = a ee Hb de, Sale IL (Gy, Oth TES) Sea RO mm Hathese Wine ee Se ee ee ee ee ee 37 RSI RESUS Ee MN tees et ee ess ES pn aS ey et ee Jae ees xi, 62 ps ARTIREN I eA POS OE =e tere Se Se a 0 ee sd a ee ee ee 45 SLE RES eS 9 i a i gel ie ee AL EPR ee A is NE Maree et PANN A 41 ‘Sinha, “Akolevoled BYo} a0 cs) lege a ee ee es eee 21, 44, 95 Social, educational, and scientific value of botanic gardens (Coulter)____ 463 SOU America secolofyot (bind eren)= == = ss eee pe el Si SONOS LATE OD ae eva C pe eee SR ia ee eee oe re RIN ye Ss ae 13, 36 Seen MMlCH TONS = 32 tle. boo Fe ee ee 19 SURG NB SEEN DT O See EES ee eae eee cme a ee eee ee ce eee Ne Be CE 37 States seeretary, of (member of the Institution) == eee x STS Tyce TUE NE Te ee ee at eR x20 Scone wallliams) ia (Resent)) = ase. 2S ee a ee eee Xi: Swanton; JOnM) Nei. 20 oe owes 2 Sn oo ee xi, 47 in BTS y Ores VTS ae TT yee ee Nee ee ee ee ee ee ee 53 Meiieea dian GS-8 SRS ee ee he ee ee eee 24, 55 MOkweAS se iEderookeries.o& the (Bactseh) === ee ee eee 469 Treasury, Secretary of (member of the Institution) ____________________ x True, Rodney H. (notes on the early history of the pecan in America)___ 435 Cente OI) Ge Teas C0 oes Do ee he FE NS ee Ee ae a 40 674 INDEX. Vie VanderbiltssMrsisiGeorgenwiiet ). a2 aim 2 a aie eo a Vaughan, Thomas Wayland (corals and the formation of coral reefs) —___ Vice President of the United States (member of the Institution) ~~ _____ W. Mielcott,.. Charles: Deane ners by ee eee ee THOL) 9:¢5 Baby Ty (5 A War, secretarycors(member of the lnstitution)) == Seen ee hae Wier sin ip usa sg Mir seeN Tiegh cree eee eee ee ee ee Werth; Mrs. Mary oMdurypenmet inion not caer At LON ee eat pe Waite, Dawid so o> = a gee erg ee a es ie ee el oe White, Edward Douglass, Chief Justice of the United States (member of the slnstitution)))< === ved see sees eee ee Se enh ee Aen White: Henry (Regent ),= 6's 22 92 es teers, Lolitas soi pen Wilson, William Bauchop, Secretary of Labor (member of the Institu- U1) ye ae ae ee i a eee Wilson, Woodrow, President of the United States (member of the In- Stitt On) pea ee ee SEE ee ee ee ee ee ees WVODCHS REIN Os Serene eens re re Ee Ue ine. 22 eee Witiehi@apraim == sas tiaiere Yab sche ye aah Ure Wee eo ee CCE Ks Bored UIT CS Pee lars es SE Ee oe, te eee ieee BTR Page. aa, Sif 189 ) A 21 7103 14 ” w a 1 < c a al 7 fe) ————— SSS ——— —SS=== ——— a < z fo) wo ag) |=) = wo