: ee ae Eee Ht , A t' ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION SHOWING THE OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND CONDITION OF THE INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30 1919 (Publication 2590) WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1921 LETTER FROM THE SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, SUBMITTING THE ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1919. SMITHSONIAN INsTITUTION, Washington, September 24, 1920. To the Congress of the United States: In accordance with section 55983 of the Revised Statutes of the United States, I have the honor, in behalf of the Board of Regents, to submit to Congress the annual report of the operations, expendi- tures, and condition of the Smithsonian Institution for the year end- ing June 30, 1919. I have the honor to be, Very respectfully, your obedient servant, W. ve C. Ravens, Acting Secretary. Iil aes, a Tai 1p Morven Rees Se . ae SR AS — Organ i BOTA ce wht i ga ho agtirtede heaceast oft to 8086 aoifooa ddiw < _@taogo Io bteofl odi to Haslod a aie ol -ibsoque eaoidsraqo ont to. pet egines seiooatiLin - ett saad axl) ovad E eter 08 OT he ca a en a agrntvens’ ait . Lx CONTENTS. Letter from the secretary, submitting the annual report of the Regents (EUR GIT CPE FETS SS aS EE PLE eee aR organ emma GET UNL Or URS pe RIN MRI We ede SUGMIECHIES OF PHETCDOPE eee ey ee tae ee LOSES ODE OLS 124 MRS or RE ae I A ca Se 1 5 at OE 5 TER Oa General subjects.of the annual report -2. 2-342 ee oe a Ofmeialsof the Institution and its: branches. 2232228 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. PhecSniithsonian IMstitution= 2220 ta." Se vin tne ta ingen NYS DISS EN GUTSY OB TYE Ty alts Ri Ng SR LS A en ed UR WM EVE BYOPE IG LON bead Gal Ste 25 MTN 3 aca RN le li ee se Caner iCONSIOCE ALI ONS] ce 2 epee el os i yee eee Sk Dae eras EASTON ON CSAS ON CAS eI A HAS tS ORLY 1 SEY SN i LAR SI NEN NINA Researches and explorations: Geological explorations in the Canadian Rockies_______________ Geological work in the Middle Atlantic States__________________ The Collins-Garner French Congo Expedition__________________ ihe SMiehsonian: Atrican HxXpeginlon Cus Le Botanical explorations in Hcuador__________ ae aay heer das Nea RA Cinchona BotanienheNtaw ones. flee ees ee La ee Anthropological work in Peru and Bolivia_____________________ The proposed Roosevelt Memorial_______ Ape le nen ana fe pea PVOSCHTED NC OLPOPALIONS wien mmonl cs yw noch ous a Popular Screntinie: Jecturese.s ) 2. Sane se a es iy SiiNt aa as one AS Congress of Americanists________________ tigen} aD gi UMA te TESTO GEST SY OS URS TE ll Sr i al De ORL Ea eR FU NST FIO OAT) SR EN i ae I HNL a IE POR SE) ISA A i SR JQ EN Savas 9 LORIN BT YET ae ss YS ee NEON GRC ieee REA O be AMMO CANN HEY CMT LOL ysis eae) eu tenis Na ees LR eee eee ea inpernational HWxchangeg. ee fe SS TTA NES A aie eA IAN BEAST eUST hi SA1Oy OS PR i) ea i a I ets MORN ST A SY aE RI mapa sical (OUSCIyaLOry ate i Co a International Catalogue of Scientific Literature________________________ TENSOR UD YEA AO Me ARIA AS I NN So DSLR RN (NS Appendix 1. Report on the United States National Museum_____________ 2. Report on the Bureau of American HEthnology..___________ 3. Report on the International Hxchanges_______-_________ __ 4, Report on the National Zoological Park__._.____._________ 5 6 7 . Report on the Astrophysical Observatory__________________ SEE EN OOT tees OOTD EEE Cha UR LTD Vict cas at coe aL ge rt are . Report on the International Catalogue of Scientific Tp eee oe SU sae aR SE Bo a AT CN A ce HR SSORCDOLEE FON: DUO LIEAtIOM Se les ey AUR Rae eee ea est aa EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE AND REGENTS. ReEpOLeO HI XeCCULIVE “COMMNIIEECE 22 Neo Rn Gnu iis Th ctl Sale ye Proceedings) of Board of Regents 22) 220 oe VI CONTENTS. GENERAL APPENDIX, Modern theories of the spiral nebulae, by Heber D. Curtis________-_---_~ A determination of the deflection of light by the sun’s gravitational field, from observations made at the total eclipse of May 29, 1919, by Sir Ro Weibyson, A. S.pHadineion, andy!) aera som as hee ee ee Wireless: telephony; by .N;H Slaughters 22 28 ee ee eee Radium and the electron, by Sir Ernest Rutherford___-_-______________ The “HD-4.” A 70-miler with remarkable possibilities developed at Dr. Graham Bell’s laboratories on the Bras d’Or Lakes, by William Sp EIS OY GLU Wg 0 Deol 6) 6 Yetta a spr ae es 5 eth a eo boo Natural resources in their relation to military supplies, by Arthur D. 1 Cpl Ke resem a a a ae Nalgene pea ih su idiphe Ms Lh late a ara iio cee se iicpeyeag elf Glass and some of its problems, by Sir Herbert Jackson_-__-_-_-____-___ The functions and ideals of a national geological survey, by F. L. Ran- The influence of cold in stimulating the growth of plants, by Frederick Aap OOO KS RAN A Wh et NE IS Soe RS NG UAL OTS ER tN Floral aspects of British Guiana, by A. S. Hitchcock_______-___________ Milpa agriculture, a primitive tropical system, by O. F. Cook ___-______ On the extinction of the mammoth, by H. Neuville-____--________________ A preliminary study of the relation between geographical distribution and migration, with special reference to the Palaearctic region, by 3 EME (NAYES BA 0 W250 A A RS NS un Ua Ne Sapna ey edi lc The necessity of State action for the protection of wild birds, by Walter 1 SDP Gr oy Ue mee i ie Fy ee en la aaa eh one iene Sy Glimpses of desert bird life in the Great Basin, by Harry C. Oberholser__ The Division of Insects in the United States National Museum, by J. M. PENIICG BiG) epee gr ss en ibaa Nani A peal sna inn Atlee Aaa NAN ea Rete e Nk The seventeen-year locust, by R. H. Snodgrass__--____-____-__-_____-___ Hncomolosy sand: thenwat, byl OF ELOWATE 22 She Two types of southwestern cliff houses, by J. Walter Fewkes____________ On the race history and facial characteristics of the aboriginal Ameri- ELEN ONS Hn) Oar Vege fev) Era wo epee Nar pn ea agg YR Nye Toe AUP ae The opportunity for American archeological research in Palestine, by AEDT YY OS Ne IVETE TUNEL Yosser ay ge cer eel ee Ree The differentiation of mankind into racial types, by Arthur Keith_______ The exploration of Manchuria, by Arthur de C. Sowerby_-_-_---------_- The origin and beginnings of the Czechoslovak people, by Jindfich JA eel 20 fy ee patie mie nal asyacetee ki meee Aimee bbl rnchshurmahOrl pines cy 2Mnbe sul obE il thn Npinssats ely gi Geographic education in America, by Albert Perry Brigham ____-_______ Progress in national land reclamation in the United States, by C. A. 1 BSC Hl pepe pea. fain Wace fet yc add ci ce at abl deg Mins bend tude gs SNe Richard Rathbun: by Marcus sen a mine eee ee eee A great chemist; Sir William Ramsay, by Ch. Moureu-_-_---_-.-.--_.—_.. LIST OF Defiection of light (Dyson) : Plate 1_ uy Wireless telephony (Slaughter) : JENS Weir) Reet ep SCO ONE I a ea TOS eae se Oe Le aS TEARS eich tats (Garg we ee tena pe The “HD 4” (Nutting) : Plate Mesa beitee, ONS Sua ad LEABEW TENS CU cs ea ao OR aA Plate gyn soe eto ed Cold and growth (Coville) : 1 SIE oes hh02 b= (seal ts Wi Ce a TEAS EES) ASH AC ea eee eae PTAs tOm iy oe eee ee Plate —2 0) eee es Flora of British Guiana (Hitch- cock): TEA I revi a tel pian CRS AnD St Milpa agriculture (Cook) : EOS) ny) Se a es Hxtinction of the mammoth (Neuville) : Plates 1-3 Division of insects (Aldrich) : TRI Weep) Es) SUR Me EIEN ade aan aA of plants Page. 133 184 188 190 205 206 208 282 284 286 290 306 326 PLATES. Seventeen-year locust grass) : Y ICCTA 5 Uae Mana ear nnle i ee Plate 2 __ Re sliea cual as GE ICSE| NWS 5 ane AS Ba srt ec ora d Bellf ay oe yinca Cater a a Cp RAL OM at aay Ply) ewe Cliff houses (Fewkes) : PLATES CDE Lm R A Nt ee aes) tap Gye ks ees ae Aboriginal Americans (Holmes) : Plates Wiese! wel cus oo nal Palestine (Montgomery) : Ud 42H WSU lyoko ph lnbia ke eNaahy ine ELCs oe ip Dieeaie RRND LORS a LE later Sikee Seek ts sab ie Manchuria (Sowerby) : SAIC Ti ens iag Ls ARN Nee LOR ane aN PLACES ot Ae see Nonna Czechoslovak people (Matiegka) : Da at evan [5 Se a SR AL J CUE Tg ets eA yo et 2 ene Progress in reclamation (Bis- sell) : PTAC yetel eae eh a ee PALES) Get er Be d GehIEs Wat ey tor Coa (0 aca de A aes Richard Rathbun (Benjamin) : 1 eel Ee SNM Lap UL RA ee Eo Dyin toi h Sm el coe ead Peta) ee: pois . hs a 3 Lei LULD i iohD a hy LENA etait eed RY 4 2 tat YRS CHILLS tf ¢ vier bie rors Feo aot e ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1919. SUBJECTS. 1. Annual report of the secretary, giving an account of the opera- tions and condition of the Institution for the year ending June 30, 1919, with statistics of exchanges, etc. 2. Report of the executive committee of the Board of Regents, exhibiting the financial affairs of the Institution, including a state- ment of the Smithsonian fund, and receipts and expenditures for the year ending June 30, 1919. 3. Proceedings of the Board of Regents for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1919. 4. General appendix, comprising a selection of miscellaneous me- moirs of interest to collaborators and correspondents of the Insti- tution, teachers, and others engaged in the promotion of knowledge. These memoirs relate chiefly to the calendar year 1919. Ix oe ie alsa aa May teense =~ to banotl oil perpen: ait to. rouse THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. June 30, 1919. Presiding officer ex officio.—Woopvrow WILsoN, President of the United States. Chancellor.—Epwarp DouGLAss WHITE, Chief Justice of the United States. Members of the Institution: Wooprow WILson, President of the United States. THoMAS R. MARSHALL, Vice President of the United States. Epwarp DovuGLAss WHITE, Chief Justice of the United States: Rospert LAnsine, Secretary of State. CARTER GLASS, Secretary of the Treasury. NEWTON DIEHE BAKER, Secretary of War. A. MitcHELL PstMER, Attorney General. ALBERT SIDNEY BURLESON, Postmaster General. JOSEPHUS DANIELS, Secretary of the Navy. FRANKLIN KNIGHT LANE, Secretary of the Interior. Davip FRANKLIN Houston, Secretary of Agriculture. WILLIAM Cox REDFIELD, Secretary of Commerce. WILLIAM BaucHop WILSON, Secretary of Labor. Regents of the Institution: EpwaArpD DovcLAss Wuite, Chief Justice of the United States, Chancellor. THomas R. MarsHAtt, Vice President of the United States. Henry Casot Lopcr, Member of the Senate. CHartes 8. THomas, Member of the Senate. Scott Frrris, Member of the House of Representatives. LEMUEL P. PapceTt, Member of the House of Representatives. Frank L. GREENE, Member of the House of Representatives. ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, citizen of Washington, D, C. GerorcE GRAY, citizen of Delaware. CHARLES I’, CHOATE, Jr., citizen of Massachusetts. JOHN B. HENDERSON, citizen of Washington, D. C. Henry WHITE, citizen of Maryland. Rovert S. BRooKines, citizen of Missouri. Hxrecutive committee.—GEORGE GRAY, ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, HENRY WHITE. Secretary of the Institution—CHARLES D. WALCOTT. Assistant Secretary.—C. G. ABBOT. Chief Clerk.—HApry W: Dorsey. Accounting and disbursing. agent.—W. I, ADAMS, EHditor.—W. P. TRUE. Assistant librarian.—PavL BRocKET?. Property clerk.—J. H. HIt1, XI XII ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. THE NATIONAL MUSEUM. Keeper ex officio —Cuartes D. Watcort, Secretary of the Smithsonian Insti- tution. Administrative assistant to the Secretary, in charge.—W. Dr C. RAVENEL. Head curators —Wi11AM H. Hotmes, LEonNHARD STEJNEGER, G. P. MERRILL, Curators.—Pavut BarrscH, R. 8. Basster, T. T. BeLore, F. W. Ciarke, F. V. CoviLtz, W. H. Dati, CuHester G. GILBERT, WALTER Hoven, L. O. Howarp, ALES HrprréKa, New M. Jupp, Freprrick L. Lewron, Gerrit S. Miter, Jr., JosepH E. Poaur, Ropert Rieway. . Associate curators.—J. M. Atpricu, J. C. Crawrorp, C. W. Gi~morE, W. R. Maxon, CHARLES W. RicHmonp, J. N. Rosz, Davin WHITE. Curator, National Gallery of Art—W. H. HoLMEs. Chief of correspondence and documents.—H. 8. Bryant. Disbursing agent.—W. I. ADAMS. Superintendent of buildings and labor.—J. 8. GOLDSMITH. Editor.—Marcus BENJAMIN. Assistant librarian.—N. P. SCUDDER. Photographer.—L. W. BEESON. Registrar._S. C. Brown. Property clerk.—W. A. KNOWLES. Engineer.—C, R. DENMARK. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY. Chief. —J. WALTER FEWKES. Ethnologists—Joun P. Harrineton, J. N. B. Hewitt, Francis La FLESCHE, TRUMAN MICHELSON, JAMES Moonry, JoHN R. SwANTON. Honorary philologist—FRanz Boas, Editor.— STANLEY SEARLES. Librarian.— Lia LEARY. Illustrator.—DrE LANcEY GILL. INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES. Chief clerk.—C. W. SHOEMAKER. NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK. Superintendent.—NEpD HOLLISTER. Assistant Superintendent.—A. B. Baker. ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY. Director—C. G. ABBOT. Aid.—F.. E. Fowte, Jr. Assistant.—L. B. ALDRICH. REGIONAL BUREAU FOR THE UNITED STATES, INTERNATIONAL CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE. Assistant in charge.—Lronarp C. GUNNELL. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Cuartes D. Watcott, FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1919 To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. GENTLEMEN : I have the honor to submit herewith an annual report on the activities and condition of the Smithsonian Institution and its branches during the year ending June 30,1919. The activities of the Institution proper are reviewed in the first part of the report, together with a brief summary of the affairs of each of the several branches. In the appendices will be found more detailed accounts of the work of the National Museum, the Bureau of American Ethnology, the International Exchange Service, the National Zoological Park, the Astrophysical Observatory, the Smithsonian Library, the Inter- national Catalogue of Scientific Literature, and an account of the publications of the Institution and its branches. The reports of the Museum and Bureau of Ethnology are published in greater detail in separate volumes. THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. THE ESTABLISHMENT, The Smithsonian Institution was created by act of Congress, in 1846, according to the terms of the will of James Smithson, of Eng- land, who in 1826 bequeathed his property to the United States of America “to found at Washington, under the name of the Smith- sonian Institution, an establishment for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men.” In receiving the property and acccept- ing the trust Congress determined that the Federal Government was without; authority to administer the trust directly, and therefore constituted an “establishment,” whose statutory members are “the President, the Vice President, the Chief Justice, and the heads of the executive departments.” THE BOARD OF REGENTS. The business of the Institution is conducted by a Board of Regents composed of “the Vice President, the Chief Justice of the United States, and three Members of the Senate, and three Members of the 1 2 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. House of Representatives, together with six other persons other than Members of Congress, two of whom shall be resident in the city of Washington and the other four shall be inhabitants of some State, but no two of them of the same State.” The regents elect one of their number as chancellor, usually the Chief Justice, who is the pre- siding officer of the board, and elect a suitable person as secretary of the Institution, who is also secretary of the board and the executive officer and director of the Institution’s activities. The changes in personnel of the board during the year were the appointment of George Gray, citizen of Delaware, to succeed him- self; the appointment of Robert S. Brookings, citizen of Missouri, to fill the vacancy caused by the death of Charles W. Fairbanks. The roll of regents on June’30, 1919, was as follows: Edward D. White, Chief Justice of the United States, chancellor; ‘Thomas R. Marshall, Vice President of the United States; Henry Cabot Lodge, Member of the Senate; Charles S. Thomas, Member of the Senate; Scott’ Ferris, Member of the House of Representatives; Lemuel P. Padgett, Mem- ber of the House of Representatives; Frank L. Greene, Member of the House of Representatives; Alexander Graham Bell, citizen of Wash- ington, D. C.; George Gray, citizen of Delaware; Charles F. Choate, jr., citizen of Massachusetts; John B. Henderson, citizen of Washing- ton, D. C.; Henry White, citizen of Maryland; and Robert S. Brook- ings, ities of Missouri. The board held its annual meeting on December 12, 1918. The proceedings of that meeting, as also the annual arlancial report of the executive committee, have been printed, as usual, for the use of the regents, while such important matters acted upon as are of public interest are reviewed under appropriate heads in the report of the secretary. A detailed statement of disbursements from the Govern- ment appropriations under the direction of the Institution for the maintenance of the National Museum, the National Zoological Park, and other branches will be submitted to Congress by the secretary in the usual manner in compliance with the law. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. In addition to the usual activities and routine duties, the scientific staff of the Institution continued, until the day of the signing of the armistice, to assist the Geeetkimertt's in every way possible toward the successful prosecution of the war. The Museum staff were in constant touch with Army and Navy officials, furnishing much tech- nical information, and the staff ofthe Astrophysical Observatory con- ducted numerous valuable researches. Mr. L. B. Aldrich, of the ob- servatory, carried out successful experiments.on the pressure exerted by the wind upon projectiles, at the request.of the.Coast Artillery Station at Fortress Monroe. Assistant Secretary Abbot and Mr. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 3 Aldrich together worked’ on the problem of searchlights for Army use, and, after numerous experiments, they were able to improve the existing searchlights, both by. diminution of size and. increase in light- ing power. The new form of searchlight was constructed and used in France several months before the close of hostilities. At the time of the signing of the armistice several valuable devices were being perfected by Dr. Abbot and the observatory staff, among them a recoilless'gun devised by Dr. R. H. Goddard, of Clark College, which was a development of work being done by Haiti for the Insti- tution on a multiple-charge rocket intended to reach great heights for meteorological observations; an instrument for determining geo- graphical Seer: from an airplane or a ship at sea without refer- ence to landmarks, whether’ celestial or terrestrial; and a rotating projectile constructed on the turbine principle to be fired from a smoothbore gun, which would have been specially valuable for use in trench mortars. On December 16,1918, Dr. C. G. Abbot, Director of the Astrophysi- cal Observatory, was appointed assistant secretary of the Institution to fill the vacancy caused by the death of Dr. F. W. True some years ago. In addition to his administrative duties in connection with the Institution, Dr. Abbot will be in charge of the Smithsonian Library, the International Exchange Service, and the Astrophysical Obser- ‘vatory. The work of the National Research Council, of which your secre- tary was first vice chairman, was continued under the war organi- zation during the first part of the year.. After the signing of the armistice every effort was concentrated on the organization: of the council upon a peace basis, and this was accomplished very suc- cessfully before the close of the year under a definite plan in accord- ance with an Executive order’ from the President of the United States requesting the National Academyof Sciences to perpetuate the National Research Council. | The secretary of the Institution was also chairman of the executive committee of the national advisory committee for aeronautics, which performed. work-of great value to the Government on airplane pro- duction and improvements. 3 An important peace-time event was the organizing just: before the ‘close of the year of an extensive exploring expedition to the heart of Africa, The material collected will come to the Institution to be used for purposes:.of comparison in working up the results. of “various expeditions to the Dark Continent by Col. Roosevelt, Paul _Rainey, and others. * Bequests.—An important bequest was made to the Institution dur- ing the year by Mrs. Virginia Purdy Bacon, of New York, which will do much. toward extending our knowledge of the fauna of the 4 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. world. That portion of Mrs. Bacon’s will relating to the Institution reads as follows: (f) To Smithsonian Institute the sum of fifty thousand dollars ($50,000), to be used in establishing a traveling scholarship, to be called the Walter Rathbone Bacon Scholarship for the study of the fauna of countries other than the United States of America; the incumbents to be designated by said Institute under such regulations as it may from time to time prescribe and to hold such scholarships not less than two years, and while holding such scholarship to conduct for said Institute investigations in the fauna of other countries under the direction of said Institute. | The terms of the will had not been executed at the close of the year. . FINANCES. The invested funds of the Institution are as follows: Deposited in the Treasury of the United States under authority o£ Gotigres§2. 52. sot! ota gos eel ed Efe ee Payoh phe $1, 000, 000. 00 CONSOLIDATED FUND. Brooklyn Rapid Transit 5 per cent notes, due July 1, 1918______ 8, 528. 44 American Telephone & Telegraph Co. 4 per cent collateral trust boends,,,due,,dvily Vj) 1929-27 3. teh ht aed Se ps eee 15, 680. 00 Province of Manitoba 5 per cent gold debentures, due Apr. 1, 1922_ 1, 935. 00 West Shore Railroad Co. guaranteed 4 per cent first mortgage bonds, due Jan. le 2oole a Pa pla acpi hil it. consid dala 37, 275. 00 Cleveland Electric Illuminating Co. first mortgage 5 per cent SON eho corn hs Uae OBO tae oa a A ae 5, 670. 00 Wnited, States.Ginst. Liberty JO@AM 222 nS? Se Rn 200. 00 United States second, Liberty loan eg 100. 00 Wnited States “third” Lverly ddan ee ee 10, 150. 00 United States fourth Liberty loan-_~_-~2_--~~__+-_-~---2__-_-__ 50. 00 United States war-savings stamps, series of 1918-_-_-_----=-_-_ 100, 00 PA GUUSEIMENES (PtP eee es ee kk ee 105. 94 TOtalEBich: FR 5s)! Be NO EE aay (OPT OAR ON Leraetes 1, 074, 794. 38 The sum invested for each specific fund and the manner in which the several investments were made is given in the following state- ment: "iressury.. [dated fana,| Total ShaavigeyeyalaqpbnG (So 22 Son soa oe oan Ee oneee oe Sou oS Ecos moSocueeESs $727, 640. 00 $984. 00 $728, 624. 00 Sta bolhiundencs. Jew ene Mee cee ea ere eben deer wadan 500: 00 [e--- acon sn-0 500. 00 Hamilton fund 22 1. AS Ee POR OL RIA 23500200 | Jee 2, 500. 00 Hodgkins general fund. . .-..-.--+--s.-. Sete tere oe eearee> ee 116, 000.00 |. 37, 275.00 153, 275.00 Hodgkins specific fund. - 0-20-5522 sos -65s2.0 deren ssteewe- = 100, 000. 00 |......---..- 100, 000. 00 HOUSE ENG cere saeco meert ter aeee cae meena srianine= crise mace cere 590. 00 74. 00 664. 00 Bby oryMund2t < $33 Tes SE. ee Rt OS. BOI 14,000:00 | 14, 824. 45 28, 824. 45 AddisoniT.. Reid-fund.. fof": fared. 8 cath ee et Te 11,000.00 | 1,348.00 12,348.00 Lucy T. and George W. Poorefund..............--2----2-2--+ 26,670.00}. . 2,819.00 29, 489.00 George K. Sanford fund 3 io. sec ces- cess ene men consee acca seneuaes 1, 100. 00 142. 00 1, 242. 00 Chamberlain fand2£: 1.0115. 435.) Dee BA, Be Brea be bie par CCRT 10, 000. 00 10, 000. 00 Bruce, Hughes finds--0 4. Ag ogeescee Sh er then eth. . ot peel ol. se dep ede. 7,327. 93 7,327.93 Totale leegc (BE sae 2uS sae Ne CME os 1,000, 000/00 | 74,794.38 | 1,074, 794.38 —— = REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 5 The Brooklyn Rapid Transit Co. was placed in the hands of re- ceivers on July 1, 1918. For the $5,000 in 5 per cent gold notes which failed of redemp- tion on the above date, $1,500 was subsequently paid to the Insti- tution in cash and the balance of $3,500 is held by the receivers pending final adjustment. A single piece of real estate bequeathed to the Institution by the late Robert Stanton Avery, and located in the District of Columbia, 326 A Street SE., was sold and the sum of $3,046.50 was realized therefrom. Several lots of unimproved land located near Lowell, Mass., and forming a part of the bequest known as the Lucy T.. and George W. Poore fund, were also sold and the sum of $520.50 was realized, making a total of $3,567 derived from the sale of real estate during the year. Income not required for current expenditures continues to be placed with local banks on time deposit; the interest so earned dur- ing the year amounted to $1,048.10. The income of the institution during the year, amounting to $144,- 100.58, was derived as follows: Interest on permanent investments and other sources, $64,466.94; repayments, rentals, publications, etc., $34,723.33; contributions from various sources for specific purposes, $26,348.26; bills receivable, $15,000; proceeds from sale of real estate, $3,567. Adding the cash balance of $1,289.90 on July 1, 1918, the total resources for the year amounted to $145,390.43. Mr. B. H. Swales, honorary custodian, section of birds’ eggs, has contributed $300 to the Institution for the purchase of specimens. The disbursements which are described in the annual report of the executive committee amounted to $143,267.65, leaving a balance, on deposit with the Treasurer of the United States, in cash, and in bank, of $2,122.78. The Institution was charged by Congress with the disbursement of the following appropriations for the year ending June 30, 1919: ARINC STEVE CUCINA UNO ETAT Sees la ahs at ante PNM Ds EN $35, 000 ER LLC ATL AAT LU ee ey Mes Rte ener Nana Perea £0 SYN VELL AANO eee Meet EA 2 Su mee eee 42, 000 International catalogue of scientific literature_________-_______-_____ 7, 500 Astrophysical -obNervatony =e oe Se Be per Mo TS ee 13, 000 UNG TOT aU AIMS Wyn aa a8 a Se ea eee Ee Fi HUTMISure end, fixchyre ss ts eo eee Be Tee ee 15, 000 TMS a GOES oY ONSET WIPES OY ia keg Nh Cae Sh AN a Ne ea pcp Seem i ce 55, 000 Preservation for+collections “2 2avtos {Deo aU Asi nue bh 300, 000 Biilding, épains 60 25 Be OE pee eR ls eh Pot ul s. 10, 000 1 E00) Scie arse aR RR Ghetey eee ae a Ame SIE eRe OO) Some ROAR a Od santa et 4) 2, 000 i SCO S| if 3 le es RY ee ETS 3 SUE NOS NTO RNY Toad DS Ma ae 500 Bass he SAUL Ge Ug 7 22 a a i 3 ee 115, 000 Increase of compensation (indefinite)_.-.___.___. = 12573°—21—_—_2 6 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. In addition to the above, there was included under the general appropriation for printing and binding an allotment of $76,200, to cover the cost of printing and binding the Smithsonian annual re- port and reports and miscellaneous printing for the Government branches of the Institution. RESEARCHES AND EXPLORATIONS. The institution every year sends out or cooperates in expeditions to various parts of the world for the purpose of gathering all the information possible on the inhabitants, the fauna and flora, and other features of little-known regions, and thus carries out one of its primary objects—‘ the increase of knowledge.” While the war con- ditions prevailing during the first half of the year blocked certain projects, several expeditions of importance to science were under- taken, and a few of these are briefly summarized here. The annual Exploration Pamphlet issued by the institution and the reports of the various branches describe these and other researches more in detail. GEOLOGICAL EXPLORATIONS IN THE CANADIAN ROCKIES. The geological explorations which have been conducted in the Canadian Rockies by your secretary for a number of years were con- tinued during the summer season of 1918, chiefly for the purpose of determining the geological structure of the upper Bow Valley north of Lake Louise, Alberta, and also at the headwaters of the Cascade River, at Sawback Lake. Another aim of the investigation was to locate any possible occurrences of unusual beds of fossils in the regions visited. Leaving the Canadian Pacific Railway at Lake Louise Station, the Bow Valley extends to the northwest parallel to the Continental Divide, which forms its southwestern side. Bow Lake at the head of the valley is a beautiful sheet of water hemmed in by bald moun- tain slopes and cliffs on the west and north and by the mass of Mount Molar on the east. From the west numerous glaciers drain into the lake. The first one encountered is Crowfoot, which flows from the great Wauputek snow field along the Continental Divide. Bow Pass, 4 miles north of the head of Bow Lake, has been eroded by glacial action into a broad, park-like area, so that the passage over into the valley of the Mistaya River of the Saskatchewan River drainage is scarcely realized until steep slopes indicate the approach toward Lake Peyto. This beautiful lake, with a glacier at its head, drains into the Mistaya River. The bold escarpment on the north side of the lake is continued to the north down the Mistaya River to the Saskatchewan. Several sections were examined along this front, REPORT OF THE SHCRETARY. y which were found to be similar to the section at the head of Bow Lake. The broad canyon valleys that unite the headwaters of the Sas- katchewan River are all carved by erosion out of the same type of Cambrian rocks as those exposed in the vicinity of Bow Lake, and also in the Bow Valley south of Lake Louise Station. At the close of the season a fine pair of mountain sheep, a black bear, one mule deer, a mountain goat, and a wolverine were collected, the skins and skulls being shipped to the National Museum. GEOLOGICAL WORK IN THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES. During the field season of 1918 the members of the geological staff were chiefly occupied in collecting material for the museum exhibi- tion series, most of the work being done in Virginia, Maryland, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and New York. Sufficient material illustrat- ing the weathering and decay of rocks was obtained by Dr. J. C. Martin, assistant curator of geology, United States National Museum, to make up 100 sets for distribution to those agricultural and other colleges which give instruction in rock weathering and soil formation. Dr. Martin also visited several localities in Penn- sylvania, New Jersey, and New York for the purpose of filling cer- tain gaps in the ore and rock collections. In continuance of the search begun in recent years for large ex- hibition museum specimens to illustrate the various phases of struc- tural geology and stratigraphic paleontology, Drs. Bassler and Resser, of the division of paleontology, report as follows: Field work was begun with an investigation of the Cretaceous rocks of west- ern New Jersey, where the prime object was to secure suitable exhibits of such economically important rocks of organic origin as glauconite, or greensand, and calcareous marl. The greensand area in the vicinity of Vincentown, N. J., afforded the best results in fossil and rock specimens for both study and exhibi- tion, The very incoherent greensand could not be obtained in masses of a size suitable for exhibition, but by use of shellac a large piece was hardened suf- ficiently to be shipped to Washington without breakage. In the marl pits unusually well-preserved fossils were found scattered through an unconsoli- dated sand formation. Here specimens abound literally by the millions, and large numbers were collected by passing quantities of the sand through a fine- meshed sieve, the residue in this process usually consisting of nothing but well- preserved fossils. They then proceeded to the Lancaster Valley of Pennsylvania, where they were fortunate enough to secure intact a large mass of finely banded, crinkled limestone. This illustrates, on a small scale, the folding to which the earth’s erust has been subjected, and forms a much-needed addition to the exhibits. On the east front of the Allegheny Mountains Dr. Bassler obtained exhibition specimens illustrating faulting and its accompanying phenomena. In western Maryland a fault passes through a Silurian conglomerate composed of small, rounded pebbles of pure white quartz, forming an interesting educational ob- ject, and along the fault zone the conglomerate has been broken into angular 8 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. fragments and recemented together into a hard rock. In one case this re- cementation had been caused by silica and in another by iron ore. Large ex- amples of both kinds of this fault breccia were collected. Photographs of these specimens in situ were secured so that explanatory exhibition labels can be illustrated. THE COLLINS-GARNER FRENCH CONGO EXPEDITION. In December, 1916, an expedition known as the “ Collins-Garner Expedition in the interests of the Smithsonian Institution” sailed from New York for Bordeaux and from there to Africa, with the object of procuring a general collection of vertebrates and especially the great apes. The expedition encountered many difficulties and delays owing to the war, but by the summer of 1918 they had estab- lished permanent headquarters near Fernan Vaz, French Congo. A letter from Mr. R. L. Garner, who has the general management of the expedition, states in part: Our domicile is located on the edge of a vast plain, traversed here and there by belts and spurs of forest. In those plots of bush live great numbers of chimpanzees, and for the first time in my long experience among them I have seen whole families of them out on the open plain. Frequently they cross the plain from one belt of bush to another, in some places a mile or so in width, and not a tree or bush in that distance to shelter them from attack. They often come within 200 to 300 yards of my house and sometimes manifest deep interest in trying to find out what this new thing is set up in their midst. I have seen as many as four or five different groups of them in the same day, and one of these contained 11 members. Mr. Aschemeier has collected well on to 2,000 specimens, and nearly all of them he has killed with his own gun. Some of these specimens are exceed- ingly rare and valuable. When you recall the fact that he came as taxi- dermist of the expedition and not as chasseur, he was not expected to provide the specimens that he was to preserve. We have forwarded six consignments of specimens to the Museum and have a seventh well on the way; but we find great difficulty in getting the steamers to take them from Port Gentil (Cap Lopez), because they are all under the direction of the French military authorities. Two of our last shipments were still at Port Gentil last month, where one of them has been lying since last January and all steamers declined to take it. Once both shipments were taken aboard the steamer and bill of lading signed when the captain changed his mind and sent the whole lot back on shore, with the accumulated charges of 40 francs for embarkation and debarkation. We have sent 12 or 13 specimens of buffalo, several specimens and species of antelope, and two or three fine specimens of the “red river hog,” beside a large collection of monkeys, representing six or seven species of both sexes and various ages. I think in all we have sent over 1,500 up to this time. Of course, this includes birds, etc., not insects, and we have on hand a goodly number. War conditions seriously interfered with the shipment of the material collected, but later on a large number of interesting ses mens were ee by the Museum. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 9 THE SMITHSONIAN AFRICAN EXPEDITION. Shortly before the close of the fiscal year a collecting expedition to Africa was organized, to be known as the Smithsonian African Expedition, under the direction of Edmund Heller, in conjunction with the Universal Film Manufacturing Co. The expedition sailed from this country a few days after the close of the year for Cape Town, Africa, from which city arrangements were to be made for the plunge into the interior of the continent. The expedition is to collect animals, plants, and other material for uses of comparison in working up the collections made in Africa by Col. Theodore Roosevelt, Paul Rainey, and others, already in the National Museum. Representatives of the Universal Film Manufacturing Co. accom- panied the expedition to make extensive motion pictures of life in the mysterious interior. The expedition will explore the jungles, deserts, lakes, and rivers and will be out at least a year. Exploration is contemplated in various parts of the Cape region, the great Victoria Falls of the Zambesi River, and western Rho- desia. From there the expedition will cross to the sources of the Congo in Belgian Congo, then turn east toward Lake Tanganjika, following, to some extent, the trails of Livingston and Stanley in this region. From the town of Ujiji, on the eastern shore of the lake, the temporary headquarters of the expedition, excursions will be made into the former German East Africa and the Uganda Pro- tectorate, especially the Ryvenzori Mountain region. The primary purpose of the expedition is to secure additional specimens of plants and animals, chiefly from the interior and from South Africa, in which the Museum is rather deficient. These will prove a welcome supplement to the magnificent collections brought home by Col. Theodore Roosevelt and others and on which mono- eraphic reports are desired, but which can not be worked up intelli- gently and satisfactorily until more material is obtained. The experienced collectors, Mr. H. C. Raven, representing the institu- tion, and Dr. H. L. Shantz, of the Department of Agriculture, will undoubtedly send back to this country much material of value con- cerning the little-known parts of the “ Dark Continent” which have puzzled scientists and laymen for a long time. BOTANICAL EXPLORATIONS IN ECUADOR. As a part of a cooperative plan for an investigation of the flora of northern South America, organized by the United States National Museum, the New York Botanical Garden, and the Gray Herbarium, Dr. J. N. Rose, associate curator in the division of plants of the Museum, spent three months making botanical collections in Ecuador. A large quantity of desired material, including 6,000 botanical speci- 10 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. mens, 100 jars of fruit seeds and plant products preserved in formalin, a number of wood specimens, and samples of bark, was collected. It is expected that this and other proposed botanical researches in this region will be of much value to the agricultural and horticultural interests in this country. In the course of Dr. Rose’s work in Ecuador two sections were made of the coast across the western range of the Andes to the interior Andean Valley; one in the south from Santa Rosa to Loja, and the other near the center of the country from Guayaquil to Ricbamba. A longitudinal section was made down the Andean Valley from San Antonio to Loja. This last section was over the route followed by Alexander von Humboldt at the beginning of the eighteenth century. Many of the plants collected by him on this memorable journey were re-collected. CINCHONA BOTANICAL STATION. With the consent of the governor of Jamaica the three-years’ lease of the Cinchona Botanical Station, held by the institution, was can- celed during the period of the war, as it was found impracticable to undertake any botanical research there during the unsettled condi- tions prevailing. The lease was terminated, however, with the hope that it could be taken up again with the return of normal conditions, and a few days after the close of the fiscal year a letter was received from Prof, Duncan S. Johnson, chairman of the committee of sub- seribers to the maintenance of the station, at that time in Jamaica, stating that he had begun negotiations with the Government to renew the lease, beginning January, 1920. ANTHROPOLOGICAL WORK IN PERU AND BOLIVIA. Mr. Philip A. Means, honorary collaborator in American arche- ology, United States National Museum, spent some months during the year in archeological work in Peru and Bolivia. The region around Lima, according to Mr. Means, is undoubtedly one of the richest in South America from the archeological standpoint. After visiting a number of the ancient ruins in this section, considerable time was spent in examining the archeological] collections of several South American scientists. In an account of his work, Mr. Means says: Two of the least known places visited were Maranga and Pando. They are very close together, and are about 6 miles northwest of Lima. In its prime, Maranga had four fine terraces, with a spacious terreplein at the top. At the bottom the pyramid is about 450 feet square and the summit terreplein is about 250 feet by 350. The material of construction is adobe. This pyramid is prob- ably of Inca construction; it is much like the Inca-built Temple of the Sun at Pachacamac and has yielded many Inea artifacts. Lying somewhat north and northwest of Maranga are the ruins of Pando. These cover an immense amount of ground, and consist of several pyramids REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 11 even larger than Maranga, but not so well preserved. The old city at this place was inclosed in a massive wall, with easily defended gateways. These latter were narrow, and, at either side, sunk in the thickness of the wall, there was a raised platform or niche where possibly a guard could stand and effectually oppose ingress. At the western side of Pando there are the remains of a fine, though small, palace or temple. Although it is only about 85 feet square, this little building is remarkable on account of the attractive arabesque patterns made in the stucco coating of the walls. The western end of the main room was provided with a platform, raised some 3 feet above the rest of the floor. Behind this there was a passage which led to other apartments. It is not now possible to know exactly what sort of roof there was, for the wind has eroded the tops of the walls and signs of roof beams or joists are no longer visible. THH PROPOSED ROOSEVELT MEMORIAL, On January 29, 1919, a bill was introduced in the House of Repre- sentatives by Congressman F.. C. Hicks, providing for the erection of a museum of history and of the arts as a memorial to Theodore Roosevelt. It was intended that the proposed museum would contain the extensive collections already in the National Museum of relics and mementoes of illustrious patriots of our country and of the events conspicuous in its history. The bill provides that the building should be planned and erected under the direction of the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, and, when completed, would be admin- istered by them. The site selected is the north side of the Mall, on a line with the present beautiful structure of the Natural History Building of the National Museum. The memorial museum would contain also collections relating to arts and industries, including the great divisions of mechanical and mineral technology, such as objects and models illustrating the devel- opment of the electric telegraph and telephone; the phonograph; transportation by land, water, and air; musical instruments, from primitive to present forms; printing, illustrating, and bookmaking; photography, from the earliest invention to the modern moving-pic- ture apparatus; ores and minerals, their natural occurrence, processes of extraction and manufacture, from the native state to the finished product; textiles; drugs; foods; and animal and vegetable products. Provision would also be made for the present National Gallery of Art, in the development of which President Roosevelt took an active and timely interest. The collections of the National Gallery now approximate $1,000,000 in value, and would grow more rapidly if adequate installation were insured. In my letter to Congressman Hicks regarding the memorial, I stated, in part, as follows: The proposed museum would not be a dead memorial, but a virile living tribute to Roosevelt that for ages would serve to educate and stimulate all classes of Americans. Its educational value would be great to the child, the 12 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. youth, and mature men and women. It would stimulate the historian, artist, designer, manufacturer, and artisan, and bring to the American people in the most realistic manner the extent and character of their historical and in- dustrial development, and place side by side with the American many of the developments in art and science of other lands. I can not conceive of a more powerful influence for good that could take the form of a memorial to Roosevelt. We have the great monument to Washington, the great mausoleum to Lincoln, and if on the same great parkway between the Capitol and the Potomac this tribute to Roosevelt could be erected it would be a tribute worthy of what he himself stood for in the life and thought of our country. The bill providing for this memorial to Theodore Roosevelt was not brought up before the Congress for action during the session, at which it was introduced, but it was reintroduced on May 21, 1919, during the first session of the Sixty-sixth Congress, and at the close of the fiscal year was still in committee. | RESEARCH CORPORATION. The Research Corporation, mentioned in several previous reports, is the outgrowth of the gift to the Smithsonian Institution by Dr. F. G. Cottrell of his patents covering the electrical precipitation of suspended particles. The process is now in successful operation in a number of smelting and refining plants in which the precipitation of fumes is an impor- tant item. From the income of these applications there was estab- lished a fellowship, amounting to $2,500 each year, for research along technical lines. POPULAR SCIENTIFIC LECTURES. In furthering one of the purposes of the Institution, “the diffu- sion of knowledge,” a series of popular scientific lectures, illustrated by lantern slides, was instituted during the year, and given in the auditorium of the National History Building of the Museum. These lectures were open to the public and were all well attended, showing the interest of the people of Washington in scientific matters. Hight lectures were given in the series, on alternate Saturday afternoons, as follows: . Photographing in the Canadian Rockies, by Charles D. Walcott. . Sun Rays in Many Lands, by C. G. Abbot. . The Indian as a Stone Mason, by J. Walter Fewkes. . Meteorites and Shooting Stars, by George P. Merrill. . The Story of Our Local Aborigines, Historic and Prehistoric, With Demon- strations of Their Instrument Making, by William H. Holmes. 6. Harmful and Beneficial Insects, and How the National Museum Helps in Their Study, by L. O. Howard. 7. The Story of Silk, by Frederick L. Lewton. 8. Why the Wild Flowers Are So Wild, by Frederick V. Coville. It is intended to continue these lectures during’ the coming year. oR ON eH REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. { 13 CONGRESS OF AMERICANISTS. The twentieth international congress of Americanists which was to have been held at Rio de Janeiro in June, 1919, was postponed until the following year, when more favorable conditions may be expected. PUBLICATIONS. The institution and its branches issued during the year 98 volumes and separate pamphlets. The total distribution was 161,288 copies which includes 404 volumes and separate memoirs of Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, 15,603 volumes and separate pamphlets of Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, 13,885 volumes and sepa- rates of the Smithsonian Annual Reports, 118,332 volumes and sepa- rates of the National Museum publications, 11,483 publications of the Bureau of American Ethnology (all series), 1,444 special publica- tions, 10 volumes of the Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory, 69 reports of the Harriman Alaska Expedition, and 58 reports of the American Historical Association. An unusually large number of rabhietiont were in press at the close of the year, owing to the overcrowded condition of the Govern- ment Printing Office during the war. Allotments for printing—The allotments for the year for the printing of the Smithsonian report and the various publications of the branches of the Institution were practically used up and the allotments for the year ending June 30, 1920, are as follows: For the Smithsonian Institution: For printing and binding the annual reports of the Board of Regents, with general appendices, the editions of which shall not exceed 10,000 copies_______._-______ $10, 000 For the annual reports of the National Museum, with general ap- pendices, and for printing labels and blanks and for the bulletins and proceedings of the National Museum, the editions of which shall not exceed 4,000 copies, and binding in half morocco or material not more expensive, scientific books and pamphlets presented to or acquired by thenNational Museum eibrary 2s. 2 0 i Re eee een 37, 500 For the annual reports and bulletins of the Bureau of American Eth- nology and for miscellaneous printing and binding for the bureau___ 21, 000 For miscellaneous printing and binding: Internationals exchiam meg erae ca) law iy eee es ee aed a a 200 International Catalogue of Scientific Literature_________________ 100 SN NT OTN AO OL 1 CeO MN aT Ke ero ee ec 200 ASTTODHY SICAL OSCE VALOR: = = tess Bi td TD ME RO Tyee aN SER AE 200 For the annual report of the American Historical Association_________ 7, 000 Committee on printing and publication—All manuscripts offered for publication by the Institution or its branches are considered by the Smithsonian advisory committee on printing and publication. 14 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919, Thirteen meetings were held during the year and 79 manuscripts were acted upon. The membership of the committee is as follows: Dr. Leonhard Stejneger, head curator of biology, National Museum, chairman; Mr. N. Hollister, superintendent of the National Zoologi- cal Park; Dr. George P. Merrill, head curator of geology, National Museum; Dr. J. Walter Fewkes, chief of the Bureau of American Ethnology; and Mr. A. Howard Clark, editor of the Institution and secretary of the committee until his death in December, 1918, when Mr. Webster P. True succeeded him as editor and secretary of the committee. LIBRARY. The library of the Smithsonian Institution is maintained for the purpose of assembling a collection of periodicals and. publications of a scientific nature, as well as the journals and other publications of scientific institutions of the world, the whole forming a library of reference and research. In addition to the main bulk of titles housed in the Library of Congress, and known as the Smithsonian Deposit, there are 35 sectional technical libraries and 4 branch libraries—the National Museum library, the Bureau of American Ethnology library, the Astrophysical Observatory library, and the National Zoological Park library. The number of accessions during the year which were added to the previous collection of over half a million titles numbered 7,502. Of these 2,077 were for the Smithsonian Deposit, 639 for the Smith- sonian office, Astrophysical Observatory, and National Zoological Park, and 4,786 for the National Museum. Seventy-eight titles have been added during the year to the insti- tution’s collection of aeronautical publications, in which continued interest has been shown by aeronautical research workers in the Army, Navy, and scientific institutions. Author cards for 1,722 titles of books in the De Peyster Collection have been made, and the 869 volumes on French history have been made accessible. In the Museum library the most important acquisition was a set of catalogues of the J. Pierpont Morgan art collection, presented by J. Pierpont Morgan, jr. The technological library added 346 vol- umes, and the books in the sectional library, division of plants, have been revised and all available works on botanical subjects brought together and rendered accessible. The collection in the art room, statuary, as well as books, has been carefully gone over and put in thorough order. NATIONAL MUSEUM. The National Museum suffered the loss at the beginning of the year of the assistant secretary in charge, Mr. Richard Rathbun, who died July 16, 1918. His duties devolved upon Mr. W. de C. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 15 Ravenel, the administrative assistant, whose title was changed to Pa ae assistant to the eeties and on November 1 was also designated director of arts and industries. The scope of the National Museum embraces many subjects, which may be classed under the following headings: 1. Natural history. 2. Applied science and art (Arts and Indusiries). 3. The fine arts (the National Gallery of Art). 4, American history. These various departments are combined under one administration, which insures greater economy and efficiency in management. During the war the Museum furnished the Bureau of War Risk Insurance with 138,600 square feet of space for its offices. Members of the Museum staff in all departments continued to render service to the various governmental agencies until the signing of the armistice, and their work was successful in bringing the Museum into closer relationship with the executive departments. The total number of accessions received during the year was 526,- 845, classified and assigned as follows: Department of Anthropology, 12,333; Zoology, 442,383; Botany, 40,357; Geology and Mineralogy, 4,750; Paleontology, 26,050; Textiles, etc., 884; Mineral Technology, 62; and National Gallery of Art, 26. Three thousand and ninety-six pe were loaned for ehifatiens mainly for the divisigns of history and American archeology ad the Gallery of Art. Pur- chases were made from the Frances Lea Chamberlain fund and the Henry Ward Ranger fund. During the year the Museum began the collection of a most val- uable and interesting series of war relics. One of the most instruc- tive features of this collection is an exhibit showing the development of the airplane, from the original Langley models to the first Gov- ernment-owned aeroplane of the world, purchased by the United States from the Wright Brothers in 1909. Through the director of military aeronautics, Bureau of Aircraft Pgoduction, two types of planes used by the French at the front in 1917 were received, and a Curtiss training plane of the model used at flying fields all over the United States, as well as the first battle plane constructed in this country for the United States Government—the DH—4—made by the Dayton-Wright Airplane Co. in 1917. This machine was flown over 100,000 miles. The Department of Anthropology received exceptionally large additions relating to the war with Germany. They include the Combined Order of Battle Map, corrected to November 11, 1918, with its accessories, as used by Gen. Pershing and his staff at Chaumont, France, throughout the progress of the American military 16 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. movements; a collection of German military paraphernalia captured by American troops during various engagements; collections of the equipment of the various branches of the American Army; and an almost complete series of uniforms, insignia, decorations, and medals of the Army and Navy, as well as a collection of relics of Lieut. Ben- jamin Stuart Walcott, United States Army, who entered the French air service as a member of the Lafayette Flying Corps, and who was killed in aerial combat on December 12, 1917. Another interesting addition consists of a large series of costumes and accessories worn by the late Richard Mansfield in his extensive repertoire of historic characters, presented by Mrs. Mansfield. The chief addition in the Department of Biology was a collection of Antillean land mollusks, aggregating 400,000 specimens, donated by Mr. John B. Henderson, a regent of the Smithsonian Institution. The final installment of Dr. Abbott’s Celebes collections was re- ceived likewise. The collections in the National Herbarium were enriched by a donation of 12,000 plants from Mexico, 9,600 from the Philippines, and many from the South American countries. The Division of Textiles received for exhibition purposes from the office of the Surgeon General of the United States Army a col- lection consisting of apparatus, hospital appliances, and field equip- ment used by the Medical, Dental, and Sanitary Corps in the war. This included examples of all kinds of equipment of a thousand-bed hespital overseas. ‘The food exhibits were continued and an arrange- ment was made with the States Relations Service of the Department of Agriculture, whereby regular demonstrations of the value, use, preparation, and conservation of foods were given. Over 2,100 per- sons attended the lectures and various demonstrations. Work on the Freer Building progressed satisfactorily, and it is ex- pected that the structure will be completed early in 1920. The Na- tional Gallery of Art acquired from Mr. Ralph Cross Johnson a rare gift of 24 paintings, which comprises selections from the work of 19 of Europe’s foremos§ masters. The most pressing neéds of the Museum are a separate building for the National Gallery of Art, which has long since outgrown its present temporary quarters, and also one for American history. It is likewise imperative to increase the scientific and technical staff in order that the Institution may keep pace with the rapid develop- ment of the country. The total distribution of Museum publications during the year aggregated 118,332 copies. Over 4,000 volumes, pamphlets, and unbound papers were added to the library, which now contains 54,685 volumes and 87,109 pamphlets and unbound papers. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 17 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY. The usual activities of the Bureau of American Ethnology, defined by law as “ ethnological researches among the American Indians, in- cluding the excavation and preservation of archeologic remains,” have been carried on during the year under the direction of Dr. J. Walter Fewkes, chief. Intensive studies were made of the dying lan- guages of the numerous Indian tribes in order to discover the rela- tionship of the various stocks of the aborigines and to gain a clearer insight into the origin, history, and migration of man on this con- tinent. The continued study of the material culture of the Indians also has its practical value, while another instructive line of work relates to the history of the Indians both before and after the advent of Europeans. Field researches include, in addition to those mentioned above, the excavation and preservation of archeological remains. A few of these researches are mentioned very briefly here in order to show the nature of the work. A somewhat more detailed account of these and other undertakings of the bureau during the year will be found in an appendix hereto. Valuable work was done by Dr. Fewkes in the McElmo and tributary canyons in Colorado and in Utah as far west as Montezuma Canyon, on the aboriginal castles and towers of that region, and through his efforts the Aztec Spring Ruin was presented by the owner, Mr. Henry van Kleeck, of Denver, to the National Park Service, and accepted by the Secretary of the Interior. Dr. J. R. Swanton, ethnologist, devoted much of his time to the collection of material from published sources for a study of the economic background of the life of the American Indians north of Mexico. He has also continued his study of the languages of the Indians of the lower Mississippi Valley and of the social systems of the Choctaw and Chickasaw Indians. Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt, ethnologist, prepared for the press the Onondaga version of the Myth of the Beginnings, the Genesis Myth of the Iroquoian peoples, and continued his previous study of the league. Mr. Francis LaFlesche, ethnologist, is now completing for publica- tion his notes on the rite of the chiefs, the tribal rite of the Osage people. In this ritual is embodied the story of the four stages of the development of the tribal government, including both the military and the civil forms, beginning with the chaotic state of the tribal existence. Mr. J. P. Harrington, ethnologist, has obtained. important corrob- orative evidence of the validity of his discovery that there is a close genetic relationship between Tanoan pueblo dialects of New Mexico 18 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. and the Kiowa. The bearings of this discovery on theories of the origin of modern Pueblos is very significant. Special research work was done among the Salish Tribes, the Paw- nee, and Chippewa. Dr. Walter Hough, curator of ethnology, United States National Museum, undertook archeological work in the White Mountain Apache Reserve, Arizona, and Mr. Neil M. Judd, curator of American archeology, United States National Museum, suc- cessfully investigated five prehistoric ruins in the Cottonwood Can- yon caves. Dr. AleS Hrdlitka, curator of physical anthropology, United States National Museum, was detailed to make an examina- tion of the remains of southwestern Florida, especially of the shell heaps along the coast south of Key Marco. Mr. Gerard Fowke has made careful detailed study of the numerous caves in the Ozark region of central Missouri, and also transmitted a valuable collection of relics to the Museum. The number of publications distributed was 11,483, an increase of 4,189 over the number sent out last year. The library accessioned 380 new books and 210 pamphlets. INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES. The total number of packages handled by the International Ex- change Service during the year was 270,860, an increase over the number for the previous year of 3,914.. Although it has not yet been possible to put the service on a prewar basis as far as the shipment of consignments abroad is concerned, shipments in boxes are being made as frequently as present conditions will permit to all countries except Austria, Bulgaria, Germany, Hungary, Montenegro, Roumania, Russia, Serbia, and Turkey. The exchange service has continued its policy of international helpfulness in procuring publications desired by governmental and scientific establishments both abroad and at home. As an instance of this service, sets as nearly complete as possible of posters relating to the war were assembled and transmitted to the British Museum at their request, a similar service having been rendered to the French Government the previous year. Owing to the excessive charges on ocean freight, many packages were sent by mail. Late in the fiscal year shipments to Belgium and the northern neutrals were resumed. ‘The chief of the Belgian Service of Inter- national Exchanges said, in part, in a letter to the office here: I should fail most lamentably in my duty, Mr. Secretary, if I did not add to this reply warm thanks in the name of the Belgian Government, in the name of our scientific establishments and institutions, and in my own name, for the ex- treme kindness you have shown us in reserving for us until the present time all the numerous “series” and “collections” (one and all of inestimable value) which the war has prevented you from transmitting to us at the proper time. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 19 THE NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK. The National Zoological Park continues in popularity as a means of natural history education and as a place of recreation and amuse- ment for the people of Washington. The total number of animals in the park at the close of the fiscal year was 1,336, including 528 mammals, 71 reptiles, and 737 birds. Among the more important additions were two young Sumatran elephants, purchased at a cost of $5,000, for the children of Wash- ington by a number of their friends and donated to the institution. At the time of their arrival they were about 24 years old and were the first of their kind to be exhibited in Washington. Other important additions were a fine capybara, from the Hon. Henry D. Baker, Trinidad, British West Indies; a great white heron of southern Florida, from Dr. Paul Bartsch; and a pair of Florida bears from Mrs. A. V. N. Stroop. Visitors to the park during the year numbered 1,964,715—a daily average of 5,383. Ninety-eight schools and classes visited the col- lection for instruction purposes. Among the recent improvements are exterior cages for leopards, jaguars, and hyenas, and a new chimney for the central heating plant. A part of the creek-side drive was rebuilt, some animal houses were painted, and small improvements in the animal houses and yards were likewise effected. The need of a new house for the exhibition of birds continues to become more urgent from year to year. An increased appropriation for the expenses of the park is also badly needed, as well as one sufficient for the purchase and transportation of animals, so that the park may take advantage from time to time of opportunities to obtain rare and conspicuous animals not before exhibited. The purchase of a frontage of over 600 feet on Connecticut Avenue, urged for several years by the superintendent, but which has not yet been considered favorably by Congress, would satisfy all the needs of the park as regards necessary expansion and better service to the public on the west side; and it becomes more and more im- portant to secure this land, as the probability of losing the oppor- tunity increases every year. It is also desirable to purchase a small strip of privately owned land between the park and the important highway of Adams Mill Road, because of improvements being made at that point by the District government. The incorporation of this land within the park is of very great interest to the public. — The slight increase in the annual appropriation granted by Con- gress scarcely more than covered the increased cost of maintenance of the park, even by practicing the strictest economy. Lack of funds for grading banks and filling ravines has prevented the com- 20 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. pletion of work begun three years ago for the purpose of obtaining new level spaces for yards and inclosures. ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY. Several important investigations relating to the war, begun last year, were continued by the staff of the Astrophysical Observatory under the general direction of Dr. C. G. Abbot, in addition to the regular work of the observatory. These researches are mentioned elsewhere in this report under the heading “ General considerations.” At Washington work on solar radiation computations has gone on steadily, and progress has been made with the preparation of a new medium, potassium iodide, for the investigation of the rays beyond where rock salt is transmissible. A new instrument, based upon the principle of the perfect radiator, or “ absolutely black body,” was constructed for the purpose of measuring nocturnal radiation, such as the earth sends out to space. At the close of the year this instrument was reported as operating successfully on Mount Wilson. In view of the fact that the total eclipse of the sun of May 29, 1919, would be visible at La Paz, Bolivia, which is not very far from the Smithsonian solar constant observing station at. Calama, Chile, a successful expedition was undertaken by Dr. Abbot, with the double purpose of observing the eclipse and visiting the Calama station. Good photographs of the phenomenon and also pyrano- metric observations by Mr. A. F. Moore of the brightness of the sky were obtained during the progress of the eclipse. A conference was held with officials of the Argentine Government, which is likely to prove of great value in the future, in that it concerned the employ- ment of solar-radiation measurements for weather forecasting by the Argentine meteorological service. At Calama, Chile, Dr. Abbot, in cooperation with the Smithsonian observers there, Messrs. Moore and Leonard Abbot, devised a new method of reducing solar radia- tion observations, so as to determine the solar constant of radiation with at least equal precision to that obtained by the older method, the advantages of the new method being (1) its independence of the variability of atmospheric transparency; (2) the time required is only one-fifth of the former period. On Mount Wilson Mr. Aldrich continued the observations of the solar constant of radiation, and in September, 1918, made an inter- esting observation in cooperation with the Army Balloon School at Arcadia, Calif., on the measurement of the reflection of sun and sky radiation from layers of fog, which led him to conclude that a great horizontal fog bank reflects to space 78 per cent of the radia- tion of the sun falling upon it. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. DA The preparation of Volume IV of the Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory has been in the hands of Dr. Abbot since February; it includes the results of measurements from the year 1913. Mr. Fowle has continued the work of revising the Smithsonian Physical Tables, in which he has received valuable aid from the various scientific departments of the Government and from individuals in colleges and industrial corporations. INTERNATIONAL CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC . _ LITERATURE. The United States Regional Bureau of the Catalogue, supported by congressional appropriation under the direction of the Smith- sonian Institution, undertakes to list and index all scientific articles appearing in the United States each year. These titles are for- warded to the Central Bureau in London, where they are incorpor- ated with the lists from all other countries in a comprehensive cata- logue of the year’s scientific work of the world. The war and the chaotic conditions in Europe since the war, have greatly hampered the work of the catalogue and it has been recognized for several years that a general reorganization will be necessary when conditions be- come more settled. The Central Bureau has published during the year 8 volumes of the Thirteenth Annual Issue, completing that issue, and 12 of the 17 volumes of the Fourteenth Issue have appeared. The United States Bureau has continued to gather and index the scientific titles in this country, and in some of the sciences, notably zoology, the titles have been classified far in advance of the published volumes. It has been recently announced by the Royal Society of London, the principal sponsor of the catalogue since its inception, that after the completion of the Feurteenth Annual Issue a new financial ar- rangement will be necessary in order to continue the work, and scien- tific establishments and academies throughout the world have been asked to offer suggestions as to the best method of accomplishing this end. NECROLOGY. I may here express for myself and on behalf of the staff of the Institution and the National Museum the deep sense of loss caused. by the death during the year of Mr. Richard Rathbun, assistant secre- tary in charge of the National Museum, and Mr. A. Howard Clark, editor of the Smithsonian Institution. These two men, through long connection with the Institution, contributed much to its de- velopment and their passing leaves a deep feeling of personal loss among their associates. 12573°—21——_3 22 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. RICHARD RATHBUN. Richard Rathbun, assistant secretary of the Smithsonian Institu- tion, was born in Buffalo, N. Y., January 25, 1852, and died July 16, 1918. He received his education at Cornell University, specializing in geology and paleontology. Here he was associated with Charles Fred Hartt, professor of geology, who assigned to Mr. Rathbun the task of working up for publication a collection of fossils from Brazil, which resulted in the publication of Mr. Rathbun’s first paper on the “Devonian Brachiopoda of. Erere, of the Province of Para, Brazil.” During this work he had occasion to visit the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Cambridge, where the environment proved so congenial that he remained here fortwo years. During thesummer months he served as a volunteer assistant under Spencer F. Baird in marine explorations on the New England coast. Through his as- sociation with Prof. Baird his connection with the Smithsonian Institution began. . In 1875 he was appointed geologist to the Geological Commission of Brazil, and for the following three years he studied the geological features of that country. On returning to the United States he was appointed a scientific assistant in the United States Fish Commission, in. which service he remained until 1896. During this period several papers from his pen appeared in “ The Fisheries and the Fish Industry of the United States.” During these years also he was involved in the fur seal investigation, The most important international commission to the Fur Seal Islands was the one sent out in 1896, and Mr. Rathbun was named chief advisor to Mr. Hamlin in immediate charge of the case. In 1896 Mr. Rathbun came to the Smithsonian Institution and at the beginning of 1897 took up the duties as assistant in charge of office and exchanges, later being named assistant secretary. The fol- lowing year, holding this same title, he was given charge of the Na- tional Museum, which position he held until his death. One of the most important events during his administration of the Museum was the appropriation for and the construction of the new Natural History Building, in which he took a deep interest, and for which he was in large part responsible. He also undertook the development of the National Gallery of Art, a feature of the Smith- sonian which is mentioned first in the act creating the Institution, but which had remained dormant for lack of adequate facilities. Mr. Rathbun was a member of many scientific societies, including several foreign connections. His bibliography contains nearly 100 titles, including the numerous papers written during his connection with the Fish Commission, and his official reports as administrator of the National Museum. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. aes ALONZO HOWARD CLARK. Alonzo Howard Clark, editor of the Smithsonian Institution, was born in Boston April 13, 1850, and was educated at Wesleyan Uni- versity, receiving an honorary degree of M. A. in 1906. Mr. Clark’s first connection with the Government service was in 1879, when he was put in charge of the United States Fish Commission Station in Gloucester, Mass. In 1881 he was made curator of the division of history of the United States National Museum, and later editor of the Smithsonian Institution, which position he held until his death on December 31, 1918. Mr. Clark was also affiliated with a number of patriotic and historical societies, being secretary and registrar general of the Sons of the American Revolution, and an officer of the Society of Mayflower Descendants and of the Society of Colonial Wars. Matters of patriotic and historical interest were Mr. Clark’s chief delight, and it was through his efforts that were begun the present great historical collections in the Museum. He was especially fitted for his position as curator of this division through his wide experience in historical and genealogical work and his many con- nections with organizations of that nature. Mr. Clark also held a prominent place in the activities of the American Historical Asso- ciation, being secretary of this organization from 1889 to 1908, and curator from 1889 until the time of his death. Respectfully submitted. Cuartes D. Watoorr, Secretary. M8 oh ad ‘hoddiaog deine . ms Bosal Lg gals. ag H Ati? hy BE shaw 4a il, Bec Leic coo” a a). | Aas deotota, + eid, Ae Fi Wis if a , : ats Ba 4 E; ripe shy nba ah na whe APPENDIX 1. REPORT ON THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. Sir: It is with profound sorrow that I record the death at his home in this city on July 16, 1918, of Richard Rathbun, assistant secretary of the Smithsonian Institution since 1897, and, as such, in charge of the United States National Museum since 1898. Out of respect to his memory the flags on the buildings of the Institution were carried at half-mast until after the interment of his remains in Rock Creek Cemetery on July 18. Business was sus- pended in the offices and the public exhibition halls were closed on the day of his funeral. This is not the place to give an adequate review of the work of Mr. Rathbun as a man of science, or to recall his contributions to the upbuilding of the institution with which he was so long con- nected. I may be permitted, however, to express here my sense of bereavement in the passing of a man whose friendship and personal and official confidence I was permitted to enjoy. During Mr. Rathbun’s disability, and after his decease, the ad- ministration of the Museum devolved upon me as next in authority. On November 1, 1918, the position of assistant secretary of the Smithsonian Institution in charge of the United States National Museum was discontinued, and I, as directed by you, assumed charge of the administrative affairs of the Museum, with the title of ad- ministrative assistant to the secretary. In addition to the general duties of the above assignment, I was: designated director of arts and industries. Introduction—The scope of the National Museum embraces many subjects, which may be classed under the following headings: 1. Natural history, comprising zoology, botany, geology, mineral- ogy, paleontology, physical anthropology, ethnology, and archeology. 2. Applied science and art (Arts and Industries). 3. The fine arts (National Gallery of Art). 4, American history. At the capitals of the principal countries abroad there are gener- ally several separate Government museums for these various classes, notably in London and Paris, resulting from the independent origin of the different collections. In London, for example, the subjects combined in the United States National Museum are distributed be- 25 26 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. tween two sections of the British Museum (Bloomsbury and South Kensington), the Victoria and Albert Museum, the Science Museum, the Museum of Practical Geology, Bethnal Green Museum, the Wal- lace Collection, the several national galleries of art, and others. In Washington, on the contrary and very fortunately, the entire mu- seum scheme has, by law, been essentially combined under one ad- ministration, which not only msures greater economy in manage- ment, but permits of a more logical classification and arrangement, the elimination of duplication, and a consequent reduction in the relative amount of space required. The national collections of the United States are not yet to be com- pared as a whole with those of certain Kuropean countries, though in natural history they are probably not surpassed there. In respect to the fine arts, the Freer collection comprises the most important rep- resentation of oriental art in the world. However, in the fine arts generally and in the useful or industrial arts the National Museum has a great task before it, possible of accomplishment only when requisite facilities are supplied. Steps were taken during the year looking to the more definite organization of the department of arts and industries. Elaborate classifications have been proposed from time to time, but none of these have been strictly followed in the arrangement. of the collec- tions, due mainly to the limitation of space. Work is being chiefly centered at present on those subdivisions which are most prominent in relation to current industrial affairs, but there are other subdivi- sions with important collections which are not represented by experts on the staff on account of lack of funds for their employment. As at present constituted the Department of Arts and Industries may be considered to consist of the Division of Mineral Technology, the Division of Textiles, the Section of Wood Technology, the Section of Foods, the Division of Medicine, and the Division of Mechanical Technology. War activities—In the last report the action of the Board of Regents of the Institution at the request of the President of the United States in closing the natural history building to the public on July 16, 1918, was noted, enabling the Museum to furnish the Bureau of War Risk Insurance of the Treasury Department with 138,600 square feet of space for office purposes on the ground and the two exhibition floors. This was done with the understanding that the Museum would be vacated upon the completion of the building then being erected for the bureau at the corner. of Vermont, Avenue and H Street, and that the Museum space would be turned back to the Museum authorities in the same condition in which it was received by the bureau. Late in March the bureau moved to its own. struc- ture, but its funds were then so depleted that it was unable to carry REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 27 out the agreement as to renovating the building. It was therefore unfortunately necessary to reopen the natural history building with- out making the needed repairs, the first floor being opened to visitors on April 11 and the second floor on April 22. Advantage was taken of the closing of the exhibition halls to give additional attention to classifying, arranging, labeling, and other- wise putting in shape the study series in the various departments. In the department of geology this also afforded opportunity to thor- oughly clean and to some extent rearrange the exhibition series, so that when reopened to visitors the halls were more interesting than ever. From the beginning of the fiscal year until the signing of the armistice on November 11, members of the Museum staff in all depart- ments continued along the same general lines as last year to render service to the various governmental agencies more directly engaged in prosecuting America’s part in the great conflict. Much valuable assistance was thus given, and the cooperation of the Museum in this work has resulted in bringing it into even closer relationship with the executive departments with beneficial results. War collections——Karly in the fiscal year, in cooperation with the War and Navy Departments, the Museum undertook the assembling and installation of a collection of materials relating to the late war, which will probably form one of the most important collections ever undertaken by it, and may, ultimately, need a separate building. It is proposed to perpetuate the part taken by the United States in the World War by preserving and exhibiting objects graphically illus- trating the military, naval, and aerial activities, not only of our own side of the conflict but of our opponents as well. The value of such a collection can not be overestimated from the popular or scientific standpoint, not only forming a fitting and serv- iceable supplement to the written and printed records relating to the history of the war, but constituting a most notable memorial to the patriotic forces represented by the individuals who have con- tributed to the preservation of civilization. It will be of the highest value for historical and scientific research. . The scope of this exhibit includes not only the general military equipment, such as tanks, field and machine guns, and other objects used by military organizations, naval equipment, including models of ships, naval guns, docks, yards, etc., airplanes, battle planes, but accessories of all kinds; individual military and naval equipment of the various branches of the service, such as clothing, arms, and other paraphernalia, military and naval decorations and medals, commemo- rative medals of notable events, mementos, trophies, pictures, paint- ings, photographs, maps, books, pamphlets, manuscripts, and other objects of the same character relating to the progress of the war. 98 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. As the natural history building was closed and every available foot of space in it assigned to the Treasury Department, it became necessary to install the material received during the year for the war collections in the arts and industries building, and to place the large and heavy objects in the open to the west of this building. At the close of the year material for the war collections was coming in steadily, and it had become necessary also to assign to this subject all of the central portion of the ground story and the rotunda of the natural history building—space usually reserved for special exhi- bitions. The Museum is particularly fortunate in having a very excellent series of objects showing the development of the airplane, beginning with the Langley models, which have been in its possession for a number of years, and the first Government-owned aeroplane of the world purchased by the United States from Wright Brothers in 1909. Through the director of military aeronautics, Bureau of Aircraft Production, two types of planes used by the French at the front in 1917 were received during the past year, and a Curtiss training plane, such as used at all the training fields in the United States, and the first battle plane constructed in this country for the United States Government—the DH-4, made by the Dayton-Wright Airplane Co. in 1917. This plane has flown over 100,000 miles and been in the air over 1,000 hours. Through arrangement with the Army and Navy the Museum is planning to exhibit examples of every plane, engine, radio apparatus, and other accessory in production in the United States at the time of the armistice, and has secured for this exhibit the temporary metal structure erected on the Smithsonian grounds in 1917 by the War Department for the use of the Air Service. Immediate needs of the Museum.—As pointed out in the report of three years ago, the pressing needs of the Museum are those for addi- tional space for the accommodation of collections and for increase in the scientific and technical staff. It is clearly manifest that these needs must be met if the institution, with its numerous departments, is to keep reasonable pace with the development of the country as a whole. The space congestion especially becomes more pronounced and embarrassing with each passing day. The natural history collections and the laboratories connected therewith require for their reasonable accommodation and adminis- tration the entire natural history building, a structure erected especially for this particular purpose. To-day, however, large areas in the building are assigned—and that from necessity—to the rap- idly growing collections of the National Gallery of Art, and in larger measure even to the great accumulations of historical material relat- ing to the late war which are just now demanding adequate atten- REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 99 tion. The older building, designed to accommodate the nationally im- _ portant department of arts and industries, although not adequate in space to serve this purpose, is from absolute necessity half filled with a great body of unrelated exhibits, representing history, anthro- pology, and art. The National Gallery of Art, now for the first time taking an enviable place among the galleries of the country, is crowded into the natural history building without possibility of expansion, and many liberally inclined collectors of art works who seek a permanent home for their treasures, and who may be favorably disposed toward Wash- ington, are necessarily met with the statement that additional col-— lections, if acquired, must go into storage. These possible benefac- tors of the national collection are thus turned to other institutions or to the auction room. The Nation is thus deprived of the possi- bility of building up, even by gift and bequest, collections of art, such as are highly prized and fully provided for by civilized nations generally. The sooner a building devoted to the fine arts, including all departments, is provided the more quickly will the American people find themselves in the forefront in all that characterizes the highest level of civilization. American history, one of the most essential and vital of the de- partments of museum activity, is not better provided for than art. There is no provision for it save in the present overcfowded build- ings. A building of an order commensurate with a great national purpose is an absolute essential, and its erection should be provided for with the least possible delay. COLLECTIONS. The total number of specimens acquired during the year was ap- proximately 526,845. Received in 1,198 separate accessions, they were classified and assigned as follows: Department of anthropology, 12,333; zoology, 442,383; botany, 40,357; geology and mineralogy, 4,750; paleontology, 26,050; textiles, woods, medicines, foods, and other miscellaneous animal and vegetable products, 884; mineral technology, 62; and National Gallery of Art, 26. As loans for exhi- bition, 3,096 articles were also obtained, mainly for the divisions of history and American archeology and the gallery of art. Material to the extent of 539 lots was received for special exami- nation and report. During the year the Museum made its first purchases from the Frances Lea Chamberlain fund, adding to the Isaac Lea collection of gems and to the Isaac Lea collection of mollusks, respectively. Through the generosity of Mr. B. H. Swales, a member of the staff, a small fund which has been given the donor’s name was established 30 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. during the year for the purchase of additions to the collection of birds. The council of the National Academy of Design inaugurated pur- chases from the Henry Ward Ranger fund by acquiring a landscape by Bruce Crane entitled “ December Uplands.” Under the condi- tions prescribed by the will of Mr. Ranger this painting was assigned to the Syracuse Museum of Art and can be reclaimed by the Na- tional Gallery of Art at any time during the five-year period begin- ning 10 years after the artist’s death. Anthropology.—The additions to the historical collections during the past year have been exceptionally large and are especially inter- esting on account of the fact that so many of them relate to the recent war with Germany. They also include, however, many objects of note connected with the history of the United States prior to that mo- mentous conflict.. Of special note in connection with the collection received relating to the war are many mementos of persons and events, battle-field trophies, military and naval uniforms, insignia, and field equipment. ‘These include the Combined Order of Battle Map cor- rected up to November 11, 1918, with its accessories, as used by Gen. Pershing and his staff at Chaumont, France, throughout the progress of the American military movements, showing locations of all United States divisions and exact location at the signing of the armistice, with the same information as to armies of the Allies and enemies, besides a large amount of other information; a most inter- esting collection of German military paraphernalia captured during the various engagements in which the American troops participated and assembled in France by Maj. Gen. H. L. Rogers, United States Army, while serving as chief quartermaster of the American Expe- ditionary Forces; two French military airplanes used on the western front and the first battle plane built in America; collections of in- fantry, artillery, cavalry, air service, and chemical warfare equip- ment of the type used during the war; a practically complete series of the uniforms, insignia, decorations, and medals of the Army and Navy; a notable collection of relics of Lieut. Benjamin Stuart Wal- cott, United States Army, who entered the French air service as a member of the Lafayette Flying Corps, was killed in aerial combat, and fell within the German lines December 12, 1917; also loan col- lections of uniforms worn by French officers. The war collections already received will be supplemented by others until the Museum possesses a complete representation of the vast amount of parapher- nalia required in the prosecution of a modern war, including repre- sentative series of objects actually used during the recent conflict by the United States, the Allies, and the enemy countries. The most notable collection not connected with the war received by the division of history during the past year consists of a very REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 31 large and interesting series of costumes and accessories worn by the late Richard Mansfield in his extensive repertoire of historic char- acters, presented by Mrs. Mansfield. Many other historical relics were received, among them the gold medal awarded by act of Con- gress to Capt. Thomas Truxtun, United States Navy, in recognition of the defeat of the French ship Vengeance, February 1, 1800, lent by Mr. Thomas Truxtun Houston; a silver-mounted telescope owned by Thomas Jefferson, lent by Brig. Gen. Jefferson Randolph Kean, Medical Corps, United States Army; and a jeweled sword presented to Maj. Gen. John R. Brooke, United States Army, by American and Cuban friends in 1899. The operations of the curators of the divisions of ethnology and archeology in Arizona have added considerably to the collections in archeology, and Dr. W. L. Abbott has supplemented the material generously contributed by him in previous years from Celebes with a large series of costumes, ornaments, and implements collected by Mr. H. C. Raven. Especially interesting are the decorative de- signs on the bark cloth used for costumes on these islands. In physical anthropology very important accessions from the ancient pueblo region were received through Mr. F. W. Hodge, as a gift from the Museum of the American Indian, and as a gift from Dr. Edwin Kirk valuable crania and other physical remains from the territory occupied by the Haida and Tlingit tribes of Alaska. Biology—The number of specimens received during the year by the department of biology, totaling about 482,740, vastly exceeded the number accessioned last year. This great increase was chiefly due to the incorporation of the unrivaled collection of Antillean land mollusks, aggregating approximately 400,000 specimens, which was donated by Mr. John B. Henderson, a regent of the Smithsonian Institution. It is one of the most complete and extensive collections of its kind in existence not only because it contains nearly all the known West Indian species but because of the large number of types and authentic specimens which it includes. Among the many other important collections received, it may be well to mention the final in- stallment of Mr. Raven’s Celebes collections, which we owe to Dr. W. L. Abbott’s generosity, and the interesting material from the Collins- Garner Expedition to the French Congo, containing as it does, besides a large number of birds and smaller mammals, three gorillas and several chimpanzees. Secretary Walcott, during his explorations in British Columbia, collected several large mammals for the Museum, including a mule deer, Rocky Mountain goat, and Rocky Mountain sheep, which made a valuable addition to our collections. Among the additions to the National Herbarium may be particu- larly mentioned about 12,000 plants, chiefly from Mexico, donated by Brother G. Arséne and representing the result of eight years’ botani- 82 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. cal collecting by himself and associates among the Christian Brothers. The collection of Philippine plants was greatly increased by the ad- dition of two lots, aggregating more than 9,600 specimens, one received in exchange from the Bureau of Science, Manila, the other acquired by purchase. The South American series was also aug- mented considerably by the donation of 1,761 Venezuelan plants by Dr. H. Pittier and 1,077 specimens exchanged with the Museu Goeldi in Para, Brazil, besides the Museum’s share of about 2,000 specimens from the Ecuadorean Andes collected by Dr. J. N. Rose on an expedition undertaken jointly with the New York Botanical Gar- den and the Gray Herbarium; while exchanges with the last-men- tioned institution added approximately 1,450 more South American plants. j The exhibition collections were closed most of the year on account of the space having been turned over to the Bureau of War Risk Insurance. However, toward the end of the year the halls on the first floor, containing mostly the mammals and birds, including the great biological groups, were reoccupied by the Museum and opened to the public, after certain additions and improvements in the in- stallation had been made. Geology—The additions to the collections in this department during the year were but 135 lots, aggregating an approximate total of nearly 31,000 specimens. This number, although somewhat less than that of the preceding year, is, in part, compensated for by the unusual value of sundry individual specimens. Among these may be mentioned examples of tungsten minerals both from domestic and foreign sources, including a magnificent specimen of scheelite pre- sented by Dr. J. Morgan Clements, of New York City, and upward of 16.5 kilograms of the extraordinary meteorite which fell at Cum- berland Falls, in Whitley County, Ky., on the 9th of April, 1919. The availability of the Frances Lea Chamberlain fund has enabled the department to begin once more a systematic building up of the Isaac Lea gem collection. A 7-gram kunzite, a 16-gram black opal from Nevada, and 5 beautiful examples of Australian opals of a variety heretofore unrepresented in the collections are among the more important additions. The Middle Cambrian collections obtained by Secretary Walcott from Burgess Pass in British Columbia number nearly 7,000 indi- vidual specimens, and form an addition of unusual value. The same is true of a collection including both fossil invertebrates and plants, mainly from Carboniferous and Silurian rocks of Indiana, and especially rich in beautifully preserved crinoids. This collec- tion, comprising not less than 10,000 specimens, was a gift of Mr. Alva Schaefer, of Brazil, Ind. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. oo Excellent exhibition materials in the line of vertebrate fossils, including part of a skeleton with a skull of the curious amphibial Diplocaulus copet from the Permian of Texas; a skull of Mono- clonius; a skull, partial skeleton, and two hind paddles of Tylo- saurus; aud an articulated series of caudal vertebra of Platycarpus are among the more important accessions. Mention should be made of the addition to the exhibition series of the mounted skeleton of Dimetrodon gigas, which was secured some few years ago. This forms the most complete restoration of this extraordinary animal that has thus far been secured by any museum in the world. Museum work, as in other departments, suffered through interrup- tions, including the closing of the exhibition halls, incidental to the war, the head curator himself being engaged a part of the time in procuring for the National Research Council important materials needed in newly devised apparatus. Continual demands were made upon the department throughout the entire period of the war for materials for experimental purposes, and it is felt that the depart- ment fully justified itself in its capacity for supplying that which was needed. Advantage was taken of the relief from all exhibition work caused by the closing of the halls, to complete the records and attend to other work such as had heretofore suffered more or less neglect through pressure of other duties. . Incidental mention may be made of the preparation of 100 lots in sets comprising 21 specimens each, illustrating the secular decay of rocks and intended primarily for distribution to the agricultural schools. Considerable progress was also made in the preparation of 100 sets of upward of 80 specimens each of ores and minerals which are intended for distribution as occasion may demand. This is a work which is ordinarily done at odd moments, as no funds are directly available for the purpose. Textiles—To the collections under the charge of the curator of textiles, which, besides textiles, embrace wood technology, medicine, food, and animal and vegetable products, the most important addi- tion was the collection received by transfer from the Office of the Surgeon General of the War Department, consisting of apparatus, hospital appliances, and field equipment used by the medical, dental, and sanitary corps in the war with Germany, including examples of all kinds of equipment of a thousand-bed hospital overseas. At the end of the year this was being made ready for the public in connec- tion with the war collections on the ground floor of the natural his- tory building. Among the gifts were medicinal plants, pharmaceutical products, pile fabrics, novelty dress fabrics, leather cloth, and other waterproof textiles extensively used during the war, knitting and crocheting 34 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. yarns with examples of pattern stitches, an extensive collection illus- trating the production, classification, and conservation of foods, with many such from the Department of Agriculture and the United States Food Administration, and an exhibit illustrative of neglected sources of supply of fats and oils for food purposes. In making the food exhibits as useful as possible a cooperative ar- rangement was entered into with the States Relations Service of the Department of Agriculture whereby regular demonstrations on the value, use, preparation, and conservation of foods were given at the Museum by experts of the department. A large room in the arts and industries building was fitted up as a demonstration kitchen and space provided for displaying foods, models, and household equip- ment. This work soon broadened into a household consultation cen- ter, with lectures and demonstrations covering a wide range of sub- jects. There were lectures on the Business of the household; Food for the family on $2 per day; Direct marketing; What becomes of the consumer’s dollar; What to give your children to eat; Milk, its nutrition and use; Meat substitutes; Housekeeper’s use of market schedules; and Influence of weave structure upon the durability of fabrics. ‘The demonstrations included labor-saving appliances for the kitchen; the fireless cooker; the pressure cooker; the electric wash- ing machine; preserving eggs; cooking dinner in 30 minutes; the one- dish meal; invalid cookery; dried milk powder; Christmas sweets; sugarless candies; and fruit juices in summer drinks. By classes and demonstrations for housekeepers in the mornings and afternoons and special classes for war workers at 5 p. m., over 2,100 persons were reached during the year. Mineral technology.—tin mineral technology the customary work of the division was shelved in favor of special activities with a more direct bearing on the national emergency. As the war progressed the call for specialization on the part of its technical staff increased. While the country was still actively involved on a basis of war, scarcely a day passed without bringing calls from some governmental agency for assistance with reference to one or another industrial issue up for consideration on an emergency rating, the questions ranging from determining a fair price for mica to determining the likelihood of a paralyzing petroleum shortage. As the year ad- vanced, however, two absorbing lines of special investigation de- veloped to such a degree that during the latter half of the year they largely engrossed the attention of the staff. Their general nature may be gathered from the titles under which the results were issued. One, “A Report on the Political and Commercial Control of the Nitrogen Resources of the World,” represents an effort to unravel the complexities of the nitrogen situation left behind in the passing REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 35 of the war. The other, “'The Energy Resources, a Field for Recon- struction,” coordinates and summarizes the work of several years. THH NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART. The National Gallery of Art is fortunate in the acquirement of art works of exceptional importance during the year. Among these the most noteworthy is a gift by Mr. Ralph Cross Johnson of 24 paintings, which comprises selections from the brushes of 19 of EKurope’s foremost masters. The Gallery is thus more fully assured of a worthy position among the galleries of the Nation. The exten- sion of the Gallery’s activities to wider fields than heretofore is marked by the acquirement by gift of an installment of a rich col- lection of art works of European origin from Rev. A. D. Pell, of New York. Notwithstanding the prevailing labor conditions much: progress was made during the year on the building being erected by the Institution at the expense of Mr. Charles L. Freer, on the south- western corner of the Smithsonian reservation, to house the Freer collections of American and oriental art. The building was entirely inclosed at the end of the year, the exterior granite and marble walls and the roofs being completed. Work on the interior is now progressing satisfactorily, and it is expected that the structure will be entirely finished this autumn. MEETINGS. Shortly after the armistice was declared and as soon as the audi- torium, which had been vacated late in November, could be re- painted and the chairs replaced, there was inaugurated a series of popular lectures, under the auspices of the Institution, on alternate Saturday afternoons, between the hours of 4.45 and 5.30, commencing January 18,1919. The lecturers and subjects are noted in the report of the secretary. The meeting facilities afforded by the auditorium and committee rooms were also availed of, as follows: By the United States Employment Bureau of the Department of Labor, for lectures by Dr. Meeker on the gathering and interpreta- tion of statistics, and by Dr. Prosser on training of the handicapped ; by the Children’s Bureau for a conference on child’s welfare, with an illustrated lecture; by the Ordnance Bureau of the War Depart- ment for an illustrated lecture by Lieut. Col. G. M. Barnes on battle scenes in the World War; by the Artillery Division of the Army for an illustrated lecture on the method in camouflaging used by that division during the war; by the Public Health Service of the Trea- sury Department for a moving picture, “Fit to win,” before the 36 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. faculties and students of the departments of medicine and dentistry of the Georgetown University, with remarks by Asst. Surg. Gen. Pierce and by Dr. George E. Kober and Dr. Bruce L. Taylor; by various divisions of the Bureau of War Risk Insurance on numerous occasions for various purposes; by the American Society of Mam- malogists; by the Wild Flower Preservation Society; by the Biologi- cal Society of Washington; by the Louisiana Society of Washington, with an illustrated lecture by Hon. M. F. Alexander, State commis- sioner of conservation, on the work accomplished by the Alabama Conservation Commission during the past 10 years; by the National Women’s Trade Union League for a lecture by Miss Margaret Bond- field, of England, on the new spirit of British labor; by the Mini- mum Wage Board of the District of Columbia for a conference; by the District of Columbia Chapter of the Sigma Xi for its annual meeting and an illustrated lecture by Maj. R. M. Yerkes on the re- lationship of Army tests to education and vocational guidance; and by the scientific and technical Federal employees for the purpose of forming an organization with a view to joining the Federal Em- ployees Union. The main hall, range, and chapel of the Smithsonian building proving inadequate for the annual meeting of the National Academy of Sciences in April, the sessions of the last two days were trans- ferred to the Museum auditorium. The auditorium was also used two days for a conference on the American merchant marine, the Hon. Joseph E. Ransdell presiding. MISCELLANEOUS. The distribution of duplicates for educational purposes, chiefly to schools and colleges, aggregated 3,441 specimens, while over 5,000 more were used in procuring additions to the collections through ex- changes. Material sent for study to collaborators of the Museum and other specialists amounted to 19,851 specimens, mainly zoological. During the approximate three months that the natural history building was open the attendance of visitors was 94,240 for week days and 38,619 for Sundays, an average of 1,149 for week days and 2,758 for Sundays. From November 10 to April 6 the opening of the arts and industries building was extended to include Sundays as well as week days, the attendance there for the year being 225,927 on week days and 40,605 on Sundays, a daily average of 721 for the former and 1,845 for the latter. At the Smithsonian building the total attendance was 101,504, with a daily average of 324 persons. The publications of the year consisted of two annual reports, those for 1917 and 1918, two volumes of proceedings, four bulletins, and 71 separate papers. The total distribution of Museum publi- cations during the year aggregated 118,332 copies. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 87 The Museum library was increased by 2,172 volumes and 2,614 pamphlets and unbound papers, mainly procured by gift or exchange. Among the more important acquisitions was a set of catalogues of the art collections of J. Pierpont Morgan, presented by J. Pierpont Mor- gan, jr., the valuable library of Dr. Richard Rathbun, relating to the museums of the world and to natural history subjects, the gift of his heirs, and the 12 volumes of its Humanistic Series, donated by the University of Michigan. The library now contains 54,685 vol- umes and 87,109 pamphlets and unbound papers. Respectfully submitted. W. ve C. RavENeEL, Administrative Assistant to the Secretary in charge U. S. National Museum. Dr. Cuartzs D. Watcort, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Aveust 25, 1919. 12573°—21—4 APPENDIX 2. REPORT ON THE BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY. Sir: In response to your request I have the honor to submit the following report on the researches and other operations of the Bureau of American Ethnology during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1919, conducted in accordance with the act of Congress approved July 1, 1918, making provision for sundry civil expenses of the Government, and following a plan submitted by the chief and approved by you as Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. The act referred to con- tains the following item: American ethnology: For continuing ethnological researches among the American Indians and the natives of Hawaii, including the excavation and preservation of archzologic remains, under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, including necessary employees and the purchase of necessary books and periodicals, $42,000. The ethnological and archeological researches of the staff which are considered in the following report being by law restricted to the American Indians thus from necessity are more or less limited in scope, but notwithstanding this limitation and the intensive work that has been done in the past there is no indication that this field has been sufficiently cultivated or is approaching exhaustion. It is evident that aboriginal manners and customs are rapidly disappearing, but notwithstanding that disappearance much remains unknown, and there has come a more urgent necessity to preserve for posterity by adequate record the many survivals before they disappear forever. The remnants of languages once spoken by large populations have dwindled to survivals spoken by one or more centenarians, and when they die these tongues, if not recorded, will be lost forever. Such a fate nearly happened with an Indian language in California last year on account of a contagious disease, but fortunately, through the field work of one of our staff, it was rescued before its extinction. The continued study of the material culture of the Indians has a practical economic value. Certain food plants, like maize, and fibers, like henequen, have already been adopted from our aborigines, and there are others of vast economic value which await investigation. Ethnological studies of our Indians along these lines are being made by the members of the staff. Another instructive line of work the past year relates to the history of the Indians both before and after the advent of the Europeans. 38 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 39 Such studies tend to a broader appreciation of racial character and have special value when we reflect how rapidly the Indian population is merging into American life. The excavation and repair of pre- historic monuments in our Southwest is enlarging our knowledge of history as well as attracting more and more tourists and replacing threadbare prejudices with saner ideas of Indian possibilities in many lines. The logical results of the events of the last years appear in the calls for information made on the staff for accurate knowledge of other races besides the American Indian. It needs no prophet to predict that the future will demand an extension of the bureau work to other races. The calls for ethnological information on the Indian during the past year have been many and varied and considerable time of the ethnologists has been taken up in answering the many requests of this nature that are made. The chief has given much time to admin- istration and routine work. In addition to administrative duties the chief has been able to devote considerable time to research work in the field and has pre- pared for publication several scientific articles, the largest of which will soon be published as Bulletin No. 70. These field researches are in accordance with the above-mentioned act of Congress, which in- cludes the excavation and preservation of archeological remains. In September he took the field, continuing his explorations of the castles and towers of the McElmo and tributary canyons in south- western Colorado, extending his studies westward into southeastern Utah as far as Montezuma Canyon. The object was to determine the western horizon of the area of the pure type of pueblos and cliff dwellings, and to investigate the remains of antecedent peoples from which it sprung in order to obtain data bearing on the question of the origin of the San Juan drainage culture. The country traveled through is especially rich in prehistoric towers and castellated build- ings, but contains also many clusters of mounds formed by fallen, walls of large communal buildings, many of which were wholly or partially unknown to science. The work was largely a reconnoissance and no extensive excavations or repair work was attempted. Special attention. was paid to the structure and probable use of towers which are combined with cliff houses like Cliff Palace, or great villages like those of the Mummy Lake and upper San Juan and its tributaries. Among the most significant new towers discovered were two found in McLean Basin, near the old Bluff City trail not far from the State line of Utah and Colorado. The McLean Basin ruin has a rec- tangular shape, with a round tower on one corner and one of semi- circular form on the diagonally opposite angle, each 15 feet high. The building on which these towers stand must have presented a very exceptional appearance in prehistoric times before its walls 40 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. had fallen. Another ruin found in a cave in Sand Canyon is in- structive on account of its being the only one yet found with a single kiva of the unit type. It was probably a ceremonial cave, the room showing scanty evidence of having been inhabited. One of the discoveries made was the recognition that the build- ings on McElmo Bluff had a crude masonry characterized by stones set on edge, the walls being made of adobe and logs. The stones of one or more rooms on this site were large, indicating megalithic stone houses. All the data assembled indicate that they antedated the fine horizontal masonry of the pueblos and cliff dwellings. While in the field the chief carried on a correspondence with Mr. Van Kleeck, of Denver, owner of the Aztec Spring Ruin, which led to that ruin being presented to the National Park Service and later accepted by the Secretary of the Interior. The presentation of this interesting ruin to the Government is important and it is to be hoped that it will later be excavated and repaired and thus present an addi- tional attraction to tourists and an important aid to the archeologist in the interpretation of this type of southwestern ruin. In May the chief visited Austin, Tex., and inaugurated work on the antiquities of that State, the archeology of which has been neglected. . This work is now being prosecuted by Prof. J. E. Pearce, of the University of Texas, and bids fair to open up a most instruc- tive chapter in a field of which we know comparatively little. Im- portant discoveries have been made in the aboriginal workshops and village sites at Round Rock and near Austin, where fine flint imple- ments are very abundant. The work will be continued into the timbered region of eastern Texas, where we find pottery related to that of Louisiana and Arkansas and evidences of a radically differ- ent prehistoric culture from that of central Texas. Mr. James Mooney, ethnologist, at the beginning of the fiscal year was at his former field of labor among the Kiowa and associated tribes of western Oklahoma, where several months were devoted to the collection and revision of material and observations of cere- monies among the Kiowa, Comanche, Kiowa Apache, Cheyenne, Arapaho, Caddo, and Wichita in continuation of studies of their aboriginal heraldry, social and military organization, and religion. Since his return to Washington in November he has been employed chiefly in the coordination of material obtained in the field and in the compiling of data for reply to current letters of ethnologic inquiry. Dr. John R. Swanton, ethnologist, devoted a considerable part of his time during the past year to the collection of material from published sources for a study of the economic background of the life of the American Indians north of Mexico. This involves an exami- f j i ; : ; REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 41 nation of the sources, location, and quantity of food supplies and of new materials used in the industrial life of the various tribes—mate- rials of wood, stone, bone, shell, etc. In this way it is hoped that a more complete understanding of the density and distribution of the prehistoric population may be reached, and the location and sig- nificance of trade routes established. A clearer idea is also sought of the shifts in population undoubtedly brought about by the intro- duction of corn. Without some study of the kind no proper estimate of the social and religious institutions of the people of prehistoric America is possible. His work on the languages of the Indians of the lower Mississippi Valley has been continued, and at the end of the year it was directed particularly to the preparation of a grammatical sketch of the Natchez language from materials collected by him during the last 10 years from one of the three surviving speakers of that tongue. In April Dr. Swanton visited Oklahoma in order to collect addi- tional information regarding the little understood and now almost forgotten social systems of the Choctaw and Chickasaw Indians. Although small in bulk, the material obtained in the course of the investigation is valuable. It has already been incorporated into a manuscript paper on the social organization and social customs of the Indians of the Muskhogean stock. During the trip he also secured the. services of an educated Chickasaw in writing texts in his native tongue, and one of these has already been received. Before his return to Washington, Dr. Swanton visited Anadarko, where he learned that the language of the Kichai Indians is on the point of extinction, and began the collection of a vocabulary. He has made arrangements for more extended work upon this language in the fall. He has submitted two papers for publication during the year, first a philological paper entitled “A Structural and Lexical Com- parison of the Tunica, Chitimacha, and Atakapa Languages,” which is being published as Bulletin 68, in which he believes he has shown the relationship of what had hitherto been classed as three inde- pendent stocks; and, second, an extended historical study of the Creek Indians and their neighbors. Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt, ethnologist, on his return from field work, July 5, 1918, took up the final reading of the proofs of his report in the Thirty-second Annual Report of the Bureau of American Eth- nology. These proofs were sent to the Printing Office November 9, 1918, and tho printed report was ready for distribution May 12, 1919. At this time he also took up the work of preparing for the press the texts, with free and interlinear translations, of an Onondaga version of the Myth of the Beginnings, the Genesis Myth of the Troquoian peoples, as the second part of Iroquoian Cosmology, the 42 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. first part having been printed in the Twenty-first Annual Report of the bureau. The copying of the pencil text was completed, aggre- gating 316 typewritten pages. This includes the supplementary myth of much later date than the accompanying version of the Myth of the Beginnings. The most interesting feature of the supplemen- tary myth is the naive description of one of the most remarkable figures developed by the cosmic thinking of Iroquoian poets. This potent figure, in whose keeping are life and the endless interchange of the seasons, is most striking in his external aspect—one side of his body being composed of living flesh and the other of crystal ice. In the longer preceding myth, to which this is supplemental, the Master of Life is an independent personage, and so also is his noted brother, the Master of Winter, the Winter God, whose body is composed of crystal ice. The Life God, or Master of Life, controlled the sum- mer, and his brother, the Winter God, controlled the winter. So in this peculiar figure there appears the inceptive fusing together of two hitherto independent gods who were brothers because they dwelt together in space and time. This remarkable figure is, in fact, the symbol of the absorption of the personality—the functions and activities—of the Master of Winter (the Winter God) by the Master of Life and his powerful aids, manifested in the power of the Master of Life (the Life God) to save and to protect from dissolution and death his many wards, all living things that comprise faunal and floral life. This fact emerges from the experience of the human race from year to year. This submergence of one divine personality in that of another is a process of cosmic thinking encountered in the mythic philosophy of other races. This figure, as described in this text, is worthy of inten- Sive study by the student of comparative mythology and religion. The pencil texts of these myths aggregate 1,057 pages and the type- written 316 pages. The tentative draft of the free translations of these texts aggregates 250 pages of typewriting. Some work was also done in supplying the first text with a literal interlinear trans- lation. This will be ready for the press at an early date. Mr. Hewitt also continued work on his league material, in which he completed the copying of the corrected and amended native text of the tradition of the founding of the Iroquois League, or Confedera- tion by Deganawida, making 189 typewritten pages, and also the amended and corrected text of the Chant of the Condoling and Installation Council, detailing some of the fundamental laws of the league; this occupies 13 pages. Upon request, Mr. Hewitt also submitted an article on the League of the Iroquois and Its Constitution for the Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution; it occupies 30 typewritten pages. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 43 Mr. Hewitt has also attended the meetings of the United States Geographic Board, on which he represents the Smithsonian Insti- tution. As custodian of manuscripts, Mr. Hewitt has charged out and received back such items as were required by collaborators. Mr. Hewitt also spent much time and study in the preparation of matter for official replies to letters of correspondents of the bureau or to those which have been referred to the bureau from other depart- ments of the Government. On May 12, 1919, Mr. Hewitt left Washington on field duty. His first stop was on the Onondaga reservation, situated about 8 miles south of Syracuse, N. Y. There he was able to record in native text all of the doctrines of the great Seneca religious reformer, Skanyo- daiyo (“ Handsome Lake”). This is an important text, as it will serve to show just how much was original native belief and how much was added by the reformer from his impressions formed from observing the results of European intrusion. This text contains about 14,000 native terms. He also recorded the several remnant league rituals and chants which are still available on this reserva- tion. But they are so much abbreviated and their several parts so confused and intermixed one with another that with these remains alone it would be absolutely impossible to obtain even an approxi- mate view of their original forms and settings—a most disappoint- ing situation for the recorder. Only the most elementary and super- ficial knowledge of the structure and constitution of the Iroquois League survives here. Having completed his projected work at this reservation, Mr. Hewitt. went, May 31, to the Six Nations reservation on Grand River, Ontario, Canada. Here he resumed the analysis, correction, amendation, and translation of the league texts which he had re- corded in previous years. Satisfactory progress was made in this work up to the time of the close of his field assignment. During the year Mr. Francis LaF lesche, ethnologist, devoted a part of his time to the task of assembling his notes taken at the time of his visit among the Osage people in the month of May, 1918. These notes relate to the tribal rite entitled Ga-hi’-ge O-k’o", The Rite of the Chiefs. The ritual contains 27 wi’-gi-es (recited parts), 20 of which belong to individual gentes and 7 of which are tribal. In this ritual is embodied the story of the four stages of the de- velopment of the tribal government, including both the military and the civil forms, beginning with the chaotic state of the tribal exist- ence. The securing of the information relating to this rite required con- siderable tact, patience, and time, because the men familiar with all the details still regard the ancient rites with reverence and supersti- 44. ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. tious awe. The transcribing of the wi’-gi-es from the dictaphone records and the translation of the words from the Osage into the English language were laborious and tedious tasks. This rite will soon be entirely forgotten, as it has been abandoned now for a num- ber of years, and the rescuing of it for preservation has been timely. This rite, which will make the first part of the volume now being completed for publication, covers 182 typewritten pages without the illustrations, maps, and diagrams. The office of hereditary chief has been abandoned and since 1881 has been elective. Upon the completion of The Rite of the Chiefs, the work of ar- ranging for publication the ritual entitled Ni’-ki Wa-tho", Song of the Sayings of the Ancient Men, was taken up. This ritual tells of the origin of the people of the Ho*’-ga subdivision of the Ho*’-ga great tribal dual division. The story of their descent from the sky to the earth and of their subsequent movements is put into wi’-gi-e form and recited at the initiatory ceremonies. Each gens has its own version of the story and has in it a proprietary right, a right that in olden times was not infringed upon by the others. Mr. LaFlesche was fortunate in becoming acquainted with an Osage by the name of Xu-tha’-wa-to®-1" and of winning his friend- ship. This man belonged to the Tsi’-zhu Wa-no® gens of the Tsi’-zhu great tribal dual division. Without the slightest hesitation he recited for Mr. LaF lesche the Ni’-ki Wi’-gi-e of his own gens, and he also gave with it some of the shorter wi’-gi-es that accompany certain ceremonial acts of the ritual. These origin rituals when completed will cover more than 220 type- written pages, to which two short wi’-gi-es of a like character, nearly ready, will be added. These pages added to those of The Rite of the Chiefs will bring the number of typewritten pages, without the illus- trations, close to 430, The Fasting Ritual, which was completed some time ago, and covers 492 pages, exclusive of the illustrations, and the two rituals above referred to, will make the first volume of a projected work on the Osage tribe. On July 1, Dr. Truman Michelson, ethnologist, visited Tama, Iowa, and completed his field work on the grammatical analysis of the text of “The Owl Sacred Pack of the Fox Indians.” On his .return to Washington he worked out a practically exhaustive list of verbal stems and submitted a manuscript for publication. He also observed mortuary customs under peculiarly fortunate conditions and obtained a number of texts written in the current syllabary on mortuary customs, eschatology, etc. He restored phonetically and translated, with a few exceptions, 310 personal names. He verified a previous discovery that certain gentes have their own peculiar names REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. | 45 for dogs and horses, and translated 127 of these names for a forth- coming paper on Fox sociology. Dr. Michelson finished the correc- tion of Jones’ Ojibwa Texts, part 2, which with part 1, previously corrected by him, will form the basis of a proposed sketch of Ojibwa grammar. During the fiscal year he also from time to time furnished data to answer official correspondence. The beginning of the fiscal year found Mr. J. P. Harrington, ethnologist, at Taos, N. Mex., engaged in the correction and comple- tion of his manuscript on the Tiwa language. The Taos material of the late Mrs. M. C. Stevenson, which is of considerable bulk and great value, was also checked up and made more complete, especially in its linguistic aspects. The close genetic relationship of the Tanoan dialects of New Mexico with Kiowa is remarkable, a very large num- ber of stems and affixes having practically the same sound, while the grammar runs parallel throughout. Certain subtle and unusual phonetic hardenings occurring in these languages make it impossible to assume anything but common descent from a not very remote ancestral tongue. ‘These discoveries open up far-reaching specula- tions and problems with regard to the origin of the Pueblo Indians. In August Mr. Harrington proceeded to southern California, where he continued his studies of the Chumashan Indians, most of the time being devoted to the Venturefio, which was also the dialect most successfully studied. During the course of the work the last good informant on the language of La Purisima died. Important information was recorded on the ancient customs attending birth, marriage, and death, and some idea was gleaned of the manner of conducting primitive pre-Spanish fiestas. Data on native foods was also obtained, including detailed descriptions of the prepa- ration of acorn and other vegetal foods in this region, information on these processes having never before been recorded. For example, in the preparation of acorns various species were employed, and also certain individual trees were noted for their preferable fruit, but the final palatableness of the acorn mush depended largely on the pa- tience and skill of the woman who prepared it. A kind of acorn bread was also prepared by cooling the mush in small molds which were placed in running water. Certain other vegetal foods, as the pit of the islay or California wild cherry, required long and com- plicated preparation. As primitive beverages may be mentioned toasted chia or similar seeds stirred up with the fingers in cold water; a satisfying drink made by soaking the bark of the ash in water; blackberries crushed in water; and a drink prepared from the fruit of the manzanita. A delicious sugar was obtained from a species of reed, and the fruit of the juniper was ground into a sweet, yellowish food. Interesting snatches of information reveal the former plenitude of fish and game. Fishing paraphernalia was evi- 46 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. dently quite highly developed, both nets and harpoons having been in use, but the whale was not hunted, although the flesh of stranded whales was eagerly made use of. Mr. Harrington returned to Washington at the close of May and spent the following month in the preparation of manuscript material. SPECIAL RESEARCHES. Dr. Franz Boas, honorary philologist, has been engaged in the correction of the proof of the Thirty-fifth Annual Report. Contin- ued correspondence with Mr. George Hunt, of Fort Rupert, Van- couve? Island, has added a considerable amount of new ees! to the original report. Preparatory work for the discussion of the ethnology of the Kwa- kiut] Indians was also continued during the present year. A chap- ter on place names and another one on personal names and material for maps accompanying the chapters on place names has been sub- mitted. Thanks are due to Dr. Edward Sapir, of the Geological Survey of Canada, through whose kindness the detailed surveys of the land office of British Columbia have been utilized. Other de- tailed maps showing the distribution of garden beds and charts illustrating the genealogies of a number of families have been pre- pared. After the unfortunate death of Mr. Haeberlin, the work on the Salish material was transferred to Miss Helen H. Roberts, who, in the course of the year, completed the study of the basketry of the Salish Indians. A considerable amount of additional information, the need for which developed during the work, was supplied by Mr. James Teit, who, at Dr. Boas’s request, and following detailed questions, reported on special aspects of the decorative art of the Thompson Indians. This work has been carried on with the con- tinued financial support of Mr. Homer E. Sargent, whose interest in ethnological work in the Northwest has already furnished most important material. During the year the work on the map accom- panying the discussion of the distribution of the Salish tribes was also completed. Work on the second part of the HE ABSdK of American Indian Languages also progresses. The completed sketches of the Alsea language, by Dr. Leo J. Frachtenberg, and that of the Paiute, by Dr. Edward Sapir, were received by the end of the preceding fiscal year, and the editorial work on these sketches has nearly been com- pleted. These two sketches and that of the Kutenai, which has partly been written, will complete the second volume of the Hand: book. Dr. Walter Hough, curator of ethnology, was detailed to continue archeological work in the White Mountain Apache Reserve, Arizona, REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. . AN on ruins reconnoitered in 1918. Dr. Hough was aided in his field work by Mr. and Mrs. S. W. Jacques, of Lakeside, by whom his work was much facilitated. Field work was especially devoted to the ruins called by the Apaches Nustegge Toega, “ Grasshopper Spring,” and clusters of sites in the near vicinity which form a very large group, indicating extensive intermingling of cultures. The main cluster stands in the open green valley and consists of two great heaps of stones covered with squaw bush, walnut, juniper, and pine, with occa- sional fragments of projecting walls, evidences of two large compact pueblos separated by Salt River draw. The west village (four or five stories high) has a court near the south end, 90 by 140 feet, con- nected with a small plaza, and covers more than an acre. The east village is more than half an acre in area. North of the west village is a plaza 300 feet long, flanked in part on the west by an isolated clan house of 18 rooms. The six ruins in the cluster that may be regarded as clan houses differ in size and arrangement of rooms and in general show considerable skill in construction. A third form of building west of the large village is indicated by large rectangular areas outlined with building stones scattered over the level ground. The foundations are of four or five courses, but never were buried more than 18 inches, indicating that they did not support a heavy superstructure. Two lenticular rubbish heaps, measuring 60 by 72 feet and 4 feet high, lie on the meadow 100 yards south of the walls of the large village. A feature of Pueblo masonry discovered here was retaining walls of quite large stone set on bedrock, apparently intended to counter lateral thrust. of heavy walls. Several rooms were cleared out by Apache laborers under Dr. Hough’s direction and many artifacts and some human skeletal material were ob- tained. : Mr. Neil M. Judd, curator of American archeology, prosecuted archeological field work in certain caves in Cottonwood Canyon which he had visited in 1915. He successfully investigated five pre- historic ruins in Cottonwood Canyon caves during the two weeks in which work was possible. Walls of houses were found to be built entirely of adobe, as well as the customary structures made of stone bound with clay mortar. Associated with these dwellings were rooms of still another type—houses whose walls consisted of vertical posts set at intervals and joined by masses of adobe. It will be noted that all three types closely resemble those structures exposed during the excavation of mounds in central Utah and previously reported.* The dwellings in “ Kiva Cave ” form the best preserved. cliff village yet visited by Mr. Judd north and west of the Rio Colorado. Two of the four houses visited are practically intact; the ceremonial 1 Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 66, No. 3, pp. 64-69; No. 17, pp. 103-108; vol, 68, Ne. 12, p. 83. 48 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. chamber, from which the ruin takes its name, being in excellent con- dition, although constantly exposed to the snow and summer rains. After excavating this cave considerable restoration was attempted in order that walls weakened by action of the elements and by thought- less visitors might be preserved for years to come. At the suggestion of Mr. B. A. Riggs a fence was constructed around the house to keep cattle from that portion of the cave. Buildings with masonry walls were also found in “ Ruin Cave,” but in this case were built directly upon remains of other structures of an entirely different character. The latter are usually circular and their walls were formed of posts to which horizontal willows were bound at intervals of 7 or 8 inches; adobe mud was pressed between these posts and over the willows, but additional and larger supports were required to take the great weight of the roof. A1- though these structures lie generally beneath the stone houses, it is evident that both types were built by the same people and the oc- cupancy of the cave was at no time long interrupted. Prehistoric house remains were also found in each of the other three caves excavated, but they consisted chiefly of small rooms with walls constructed entirely of adobe. Still other ruins were discovered high up under the ledges that lie on either side of Cottonwood Canyon, but unusual conditions prevented examination of these. Upright sandstone slabs invariably form the inner base of the walls in ruins throughout the region under consideration, a fact which con- nects them with the so-called “slab-house” people of the San Juan drainage. Whether there is, in fact, any justification for this term re- mains yet to be proven, but the cultural relationship of the prehistoric peoples in southwestern Utah with those south of the Rio Colorado is at last definitely established. The bureau purchased from Miss Frances Densmore papers on “Chippewa Remedies and General Customs” and “Chippewa Art.” The latter article has 164 pages, with 42 pages of old Chippewa de- signs and numerous photographs pertaining to industries, medicinal plants, customs, and toys of children, games, processes of weaving, tanning, and other industries. ‘The lists of plants were identified by Mr. Paul C. Standley. Miss Densmore likewise submitted much new manuscript material on the music of the Mandan, Hidatsa, and Pawnee. With this addi- tion her account of the Mandan-Hidatsa music contains 340 pages, more than 40 illustrations, and two new forms of graphic representa- tion of their progression. This article is now ready for publication. An important field of aboriginal music thus far not sufficiently in- vestigated is among the Pawnee. While engaged in the study of the music of this tribe at Pawnee, Okla., Miss Densmore witnessed a Hand Game, the Buffalo, Lance, and two Victory dances, and later REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 49 recorded on the phonograph the numerous songs sung at the three first gatherings. This material, with musical transcription tabulated and descriptive analyses, has been purchased by the bureau. Dr. Ale’ Hrdli¢ka, curator of physical anthropology, was detailed to make an examination of the archeological remains of southwest- ern Florida, especially of the shell heaps along the coast south of Key Marco, a region very little explored by archeologists and one of the least known sections of that State. In spite of difficulties, Dr. Hrdlicka’s field work was successful. He visited several groups of shell heaps of large size as yet unrecorded and opened up a most in- structive field for future exploration in a report which has been presented for publication. He also made highly important observa- tions on physical features of the remnants of Indians that still in- habit the little known regions of Florida. Mr. David I. Bushnell, jr., continued the preparation of manuscript for the Handbook of Aboriginal Remains East of the Mississippi, adding various notes to the manuscript. He likewise added about 30 pages to the manuscript entitled “ Native Villages and Village Sites Kast of the Mississippi,” now being printed as Bulletin 69. During the same period he completed a manuscript bearing the title “ Native Cemeteries and Forms of Burial East of the Mississippi,” which is to appear as Bulletin 71 of the bureau series. With an allotment from the bureau Mr. Gerard Fowke has been engaged in special archeological investigations in the Ozark region of central Missouri. His careful detailed studies have been confined to the numerous caves in that region. If “ cave men,” using this term to designate the predecessors of any race or tribe known to history, ever existed in the Mississippi Valley, we would find in no part of it natural features better adapted for his requirements than the Ozark Hills, but so far not the slightest trace of his presence has been revealed. Products of human industry have been reported as occurring under other conditions at great depths, even at the bottom of the loess, though in all such cases there is some uncertainty as to the correctness of the observations. On the con- trary, whatever may be the depth of the deposit containing them, the artificial objects exhumed are uniform in character from top to bot- tom. The specimens found on the clay or solid rock floor are of the same class as those barely covered by the surface earth. Moreover, when they cease to appear they cease absolutely. By careful search in the caves and rock shelters of which the In- dian known to history availed himself extensive and interesting museum collections can be made. To find an earlier man it will be necessary to investigate caverns which he found suitable for occu- pancy and in which the accumulation of detritus, from whatever source, has been sufficient to cover his remains so deeply that they 50 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. can not be confused with those of a later period, and it may be neces- sary to discover with them bones of extinct animals. No examina- tion of a cavern is complete unless a depth is reached where glacial deposits are undeniably of such age as to antedate the possible ap- pearance of man upon the scene. The Ozark region promises im- portant revelations in the study of prehistoric man in America. Mr. Fowke has thoroughly investigated one of the caves in this region and has prepared an important report on his work which will later be published by the bureau. He has also transmitted to the National Museum a collection which is the largest yet obtained from this locality. The results of the work thus far are technical and can not be adequately stated in this place, but are not only very important additions to the archeology of the region investigated but also highly significant in comparative studies of ancient man in North America. MANUSCRIPTS. In addition to the manuscripts submitted for publication by the bureau there was also obtained by purchase an article by Mr. C. S. Simmons dealing with the Peyote religion. EDITORIAL WORK AND PUBLICATIONS. The editing of the publications of the bureau was continued through the year by Mr. Stanley Searles, assisted by Mrs. Frances S. Nichols. The status of the publications is presented in the follow- ing summary: PUBLICATIONS ISSUED. Thirty-second Annual Report.—Accompanying paper: Seneca Fiction, Leg- ends, and Myths (Hewitt and Curtin). Bulletin 59.—Kutenai Tales (Boas). Bulletin 61.—Teton Sioux Music (Densmore). Bulletin 64.—The Maya Indians of Southern Yucatan and Northern British Honduras (Gann). Bulletin 65.—Archeological Explorations in Northeastern Arizona (Kidder and Guernsey). Bulletin 66.—Recent Discoveries of Remains Attributed to Harly Man in America (Hrdlitka). List of publications of the bureau. Introduction to Seneca Fiction, Legends, and Myths (Hewitt) —F¥rom Thirty- second Annual Report (Hewitt and Curtin). PUBLICATIONS IN PRESS OR IN PREPARATION. Thirty-third Annual Report—Accompanying papers: (1) Uses of Plants by the Indians of the Missouri River Region (Gilmore) ; (2) Preliminary Account of the Antiquities of the Region between the Mancos and La Plata Rivers in Southwestern Colorado (Morris); (8) Designs on Prehistoric Hopi Pottery (Fewkes) ; (4) The Hawaiian Romance of Laieikawai (Beckwith). Thirty-fourth Annual Report—Accompanying paper: Prehistoric island cul- ture areas of America (Fewkes). REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 51 Thirty-fifth Annual Report —Accompanying paper: Ethnology of the Kwakiutl (Boas). Thirty-sizxth Annual Report.—Accompanying paper: Harly History of the Creek Indians and their Neighbors (Swanton). Bulletin 40.—Part 2: Handbook of American Indian Languages (Boas). Bulletin 60.—Handbook of Aboriginal American Antiquities: Part 1, Introduc- tion; The Lithic Industries (Holmes). Bulletin 67.—Alsea Texts and Myths (Frachtenberg). Bulletin 68.—Structural and Lexical Comparison of the Tunica, Chitimacha, and Atakapa Languages (Swanton). . Bulletin 69.—Native Villages and Village Sites Hast of the Mississippi (Bush- nell). Bulletin 70.—Prehistoric Villages, Castles, and Towers (Fewkes). Bulletin 71—Native Cemeteries and Forms of Burial East of the Missis- sippi (Bushnell). DISTRIBUTION OF PUBLICATIONS. The distribution of the publications has been continued under the immediate charge of Miss Helen Munroe, assisted by Miss Emma, B. Powers. Publications were distributed as follows: Reports;and separatesses ) The Proceedings of the United States Na- tional Museum; and (¢c) The Bulletin of the United States National Museum, which includes the Contributions from the United States National Herbarium. The editorship of these publications is vested in Dr. Marcus Benjamin. . During the year the museum published 2 annual reports, 2 volumes of the proceedings, 48 separate papers forming parts of these and other volumes, 6 bulletins, and 20 separate parts of other bulletins. The issues of the proceedings were as follows: Volumes 52 and 53 complete. The issues of the bulletins were as follows: Bulletin 50, Part VIII. The Birds of North and Middle America, by Robert Ridgway. Bulletin 99. Hast African Mammals in the United States National Museum; Part I, Insectivora, Chiroptera, and Carnivora; and Part II, Rodentia, Lago- morpha, and Tubutidentata, by N. Hollister. Bulletin 100. Contributions to the Biology of the Philippine Archipelago and Adjacent Regions. Volume 1, part 4: Report on the Chaetognatha collected by the United States Fisheries Steamer Albatross during the Philippine Hxpedition, 1907-1910, by Hillis L. Michael; part 5, Hydromedusae, Siphonophores, and Cteno- phores of the Albatross Philippine Expedition, by Henry B. Bigelow. Volume 2, part 1: The Salpidae collected by the United States Fisheries Steamer Albatross in Philippine waters during the years 1908 and 1909, by Maynard M. Metcalf; part 2: The Salpidae—a taxonomic study, by Maynard M. Metcalf and Mary M. Bell. Volume 3: Contributions to the Biology of the Philippine Archipelago and Adjacent Regions. Starfishes of the Philippine Seas and Adjacent Waters, by Walter K. Fisher. Bulletin 102, volume 1. The Hnergy Resources of the United States—a field for reconstruction, by Chester G. Gilbert and Joseph E. Pogue. Also, The Min- eral Industries of the United States. Part 5: Power—its significance and needs, by Chester G. Gilbert and Joseph E. Pogue. Part 6: Petroleum—a Resource Interpretation, by Chester G. Gilbert and Joseph E. Pogue. Part 7: Natural Gas—its production, service, and conservation, by Samuel S. Wyer. Bulletin 103. Contributions to the Geology and Paleontology of the Canal Zone, Panama, and geographically related areas in Central America and the West Indies, represents the work of a number of specialists, whose papers were issued, in separate form, as follows: Pages 1-13: On some fossil and recent Lithothamnicae of the Panama Canal Zone, by Marshall A. Howe. Pages 15-44: The Fossil Higher Plants from the Canal Zone, by Hdward W. Berry. Pages 45-87: The Smaller Fossil Foraminifera of the Panama Canal Zone, by Joseph Augustine Cushman. 12573°—21—_8 102 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. Pages 89-102: The Larger Fossil Foraminifera of the Panama Canal Zone, by Joseph Augustine Cushman. Pages 103-116: Fossil Echini of the Panama Canal Zone and Costa Rica, by Robert Tracy Jackson. Pages 117-122: Bryozoa of the Canal Zone and related areas, by Ferdinand Canu and Ray S. Bassler. Pages 123-184: Decapod Crustaceans from the Panama Region, by Mary J. Rathbun. Pages 185-188: Cirripedia from the Panama Canal Zone, by H. A. Pilsbry. Pages 525-545: The Sedimentary Formations of the Panama Canal Zone, with special reference to the Stratigraphic relations of the fossiliferous beds, by Donald Francis MacDonald. Pages 547-612: The Biologic Character and Geologic Correlation of the Sedimentary Formation of Panama in their relation to the geologic history of Central America and the West Indies, by Thomas Wayland Vaughan. Bulletin 104 (one part). The Foraminifera of the Atlantic Ocean, by Joseph Augustine Cushman, viz: Part 1, “Astrorhizidae,” was issued. Of the remain- ing separates, two formed parts of volume 20, Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, while 19 were from volume 54, and 29 from vol- ume 55 of the Proceedings. Bulletin 105. Catalogue of the Postage Stamps and Stamped Envelopes of the United States and Possessions, issued prior to January 1, 1919, by Josiah B. Leavy. PUBLICATIONS OF THE BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY. The publications of the bureau are discussed in Appendix 2. The editorial work of the bureau is in charge of Mr. Stanley Searles, editor. During the year five bulletins, the Thirty-second Annual Report, an advance extract from this report, and a list of publications were issued, as follows: Bulletin 59. Kutenai Tales. Franz Boas. 1918. 387 pp. Bulletin 61. Teton Sioux Music. Frances Densmore. 1918. 561 pp., 82 plates. Bulletin 64. The Maya Indians of Southern Yucatan and Northern British Honduras. Thomas W. F. Gann. 1918. 146 pp., 28 plates. Bulletin 65. Archeological Explorations in Northeastern Arizona. Alfred Vin- cent Kidder and Samuel J. Guernsey. 1915. 228 pp., 97 plates. Bulletin 66. Recent Discoveries Attributed to Harly Man in America. AleS Hrdlitka. 1918. 67 pp., 14 plates. Introduction to Seneca Fiction, Legends, and Myths. Collected by Jeremiah Curtin and J. N. B. Hewitt. Edited by J. N. B. Hewitt. 1919. An advance separate from the Thirty-second Annual Report. 71 pp. Thirty-second Annual Report—Accompanying paper: Seneca Fiction, Leg- ends, and Myths. (Hewitt and Curtin.) 819 pp. List of publications of the bureau. There are at present in press five annual reports, and nine bulletins as follows: Bulletin 60. Handbook of Aboriginal American Antiquities. Part' 1 (Holmes). Bulletin 67. Alsea Texts and Myths (Frachtenberg). Bulletin 68. Structural and Lexical Comparison of the Tunica, Chitimacha, und Atakapa Languages (Swanton). REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 103 Bulletin 69. Native Villages and Village Sites Hast of the Mississippi (Bush- nell). Bulletin 70. Prehistoric Villages, Castles, and Towers (Fewkes). Bulletin 71. Native Cemeteries and Forms of Burial Hast of the Mississippi (Bushnell). Bulletin 72. The Owl Sacred Pack of the Fox Indians (Michelson). Bulletin —. Handbook of the Indians of California (Kroeber). Bulletin —. Northern Ute Musie (Densmore). REPORT OF THE AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. The annual reports of the American Historical Association are transmitted by the association to the secretary of the Smithsonian Institution and are communicated to Congress under the provisions of the act of incorporation of the association. Volume 1 of the report for 1916 was published during the year, and volume 2 of the same report was in press on June 30. REPORT OF THE NATIONAL SOCIETY OF THE DAUGHTERS OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. The manuscript of the twenty-first annual report of the National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution was trans- mitted to Congress according to law shortly after the close of the fiscal year. THH SMITHSONIAN ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON PRINTING AND PUBLICATION. The editor has continued to serve as secretary of the Smithsonian advisory committee on printing and publication. This committee passes on all manuscripts offered for publication by the Institution or its branches, and considers forms of routine, blanks, and various other matters pertaining to printing and publication. Thirteen meet- ings were held during the year and 79 manuscripts were acted upon. Respectfully submitted. W. P. Trun, Lditor. To Dr. Cuartes D. Watxcort, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. ara fe (>, SONG hy lermang pepe Yack at » veoh Sp weit & re ‘ TA i: ATMS itz pe ie sO EA solibe a A) eto pen: REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 380, 1919. To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution: Your executive committee respectfully submits the following report in relation to the funds, receipts, and disbursements of the Institution and a statement of the appropriations by Congress for the National Museum, the international exchanges, the Bureau of American Eth- nology, the National Zoological Park, the Astrophysical Observatory, the International Catalogue of Scientific Literature, etc., for the year ending June 30, 1919, together with balances of previous appro- priations : SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. Condition of the fund July 1, 1919. In addition to the total sum of $1,000,000 deposited in the Treasury of the United States, and authorized under section 5591, Revised Statutes, the details of which were given in our last report, there has accumulated from incomes, bequests, and by transfer the sum of $74,794.38, which has been invested in bonds of approved character for the following specific accounts and carried on the books of the Institution as the consolidated fund, viz: TE Uy He Raver a SH we MEU GG Map key mon piconet ifs $37, 275. 00 TRUSS OY Les ec a ae or hg el Pa aces tong Nar enue ves oe eee tear eNO 74. 00 BAS Tray aces LT Chater eae «RAR SRN PS a EN Ne 14, 824. 45 SCOUOU TONG, A DE Ree het 0 Peaks ey eo ee CL a MCN RNIN Dye SE FA 1, 348. 00 vey trance G COLSC a Was OOre wt Umno Aaa SNS 2 eee ee 2, 819. 00 Georzen is Santorg) fund se. 2 os Tab ede Ep PMR ALDEN NYA EL 142. 00 psi eh SY DTT BLU ETH Le lea Nhs kg eB ial ga cs A og hic a AR fll 984. 00 (Gohan a SreN ER Wea oo 0 be ee cle oft Ly ee LO OOOS OO) J Brey (Sau) EU Md wf eno 01 a a ea a ea 7, 327. 93 ih OY SE2) hel cetnc snet ecaRAE NRE eRe Se NI RC 2d hn A a 74, 794. 38 One of the pieces of real estate bequeathed to the Institution by the late Robert Stanton Avery has been sold and the proceeds rein- 105 106 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. vested in bonds comprising the consolidated fund. Only a single parcel of ground with improvements thereon remains of the several bequeathed to the Institution by this benefactor. Among the assets comprising the Lucy T. and George W. Poore fund were several lots of unimproved property near the city of Lowell, Mass. A part of these lots have been sold during the year, and the sum of $520.50 was realized. Statement of receipts and disbursements from July 1, 1918, to June 30, 1919. RECEIPTS. Cash on deposit ‘The value of the micrometer screws Hae in n right ascension and declination) is 6.25’. i 18. The results of the measures are as alld . 147 DEFLECTION OF LIGHT—-DYSON AND OTHERS. “OOUSTUOAUOD [OTJOUAY JIT IO; OATZISOd pue [[eus Aq ‘xq JO SON[eA O44 OYLU 04 JNO ToyeY OOM “SUIT OY} MOTAq WATS 6-040 *5¢¢'0— ‘00S I— siequamu ony, 1 eS a sa a Ae ae ee a ee Sg a ee eae me pe ea ne ee ray GAs ae COS geeT— | 491 T— Ot 2 | 700 Tee glpI— | SoLT— met— |:s.t T= pp t— | S91 T— BerI— | SerT— elet— | est 1— J f Ag “Iq TOT | oset— 4} pep-T— gic t+ ~| 606° — | 9¢¢°1— oue'T+ | se0'T— | $zPI— e9gT+ . | ec0'T— ~ | gue-1— Gre T+ 710 T= ets peet+ | te0oT— | 96¢1— 19T‘T+ | c20T— | g20°1- abet | ogeI— | e20-1— Lf d a “oq. Ag Burg aT Ty G&S “IT — 00 ‘I— REL? eS 00S *T— 99T ‘T— oso G68° + 892 — 96° — i ea 610 °E+ 028 * — 6 = 8&3 = 7 i a 888° — 68° — LOB = est ‘T+ O10 *I— 056° = 466° — Pl t+ 820 “T— 6gé “T— 6ST “T— TIT i | PAY Gal Bom Sol ‘T— C86 “T— $96 0+ 9SF “T— a 4 L L ‘lid BUF GE ‘ig “2 “TITA TIA] 198° + SE6 °F S66° + 6IL T+ £98" -- O&t T+ 864° + b&S “T+ S82" + 291 °T-+- IeZ + 198° 89F° + 026 ‘0+ 907 0+ 4 ue Aig "tq “A P68" = Tr6* + Teg° + pos" + g6g° + pos° + gee" + 0g8 0+ 069° + Po eh" + Pigsmate GSLs GGL* +r 269° + GCL “O-- + 096° + 690 °T-++ 096° + G10 E+ PIL T+ 980 °T-++ Geo Tr 8061+ 668+ | OLTT+ || 486" + | 906° — G96. | 6841+ 5) COrt+ | eett— GPE T+ | Let || 466% + | OFT — Wott. | Cle ts: 4) 6+ | Hee HOVT+ | GOST+ |] POT. | €10— Sel T+ | Gre T+ | O€ ft 9GL° + CIE *T— 166 “I — 996 "0+ G6 ‘0+ oS “T— OTP *T— L or i f hig ROG ig “20 ‘TH TT A 601° + 906° + PoL* + }OST* +: PE cet 8&E = — pss 0— "78S JO “ON { -aypos—saqnjd asduyoq— J] FIavy, "IBIS JO ‘ON | 252 4 3 148 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. 19. The values of Dx and Dy were equated to expressions of the form az + by +¢+ aH, (= Dz) da + ey + f+ ak, (= Dy), and where a, y are the coordinates of the stars given in Table I, and E,, Ey are coefficients of the gravitational displacement. The quantities ¢ and f are corrections to zero, depending on the setting of the scale plate on the plate measured, a and e¢ are differ- ences of scale value, while 6 and d depend mainly on the orientation of the two plates. The quantity a denotes the deflection at unit dis- tance (7. ¢., 50’ from the sun’s center), so that aE, and aE, are the deflection in right ascension and declination, respectively, of a star whose coordinates are x and y. The left-hand sides of the equation for the seven stars shown are :— No. Right ascension. Declination. 11..| c—0.1606—1.261a—0.587a. ..| f—1.261d—0.160e+0.036a. 5...] €—1.1076— .160a— .557a...| f— .160d—1.107e— .789e. 4...) c+ .472b+ .334a— .186a...| f+ .334d+ .472e+-1.3360. 3...| c+ .36004+ .348a— .222a...| f+ .348d+ .360e+1.574a. 6...| C+1.0996+ .587a+ .080a...| f+ .587d+-1.099¢4- .726a. 10. .| €+1.321b+ .860a-+- .158a...| f+ .860d-+-1.321e+ .589a. 2...| c— .328b+-1.0790-+1.540a...| f-+1.079d— .328e— .156a. 20. Normal equations formed from these equations of condition are as follows: TaBLE III.—Lclipse plates, right ascension. +7. 000c-+-1. 6576-+-1. 787a-+0. 226a—=| +2.159 | +2.986 | +3.250 | +2.461 | :+2.185 | +3.263 | +2. 648 +4, 664 +2.089 +0.335 =| —0.063 | +0. 986 | +1.320 | +0. 866 | +1.051 | +1. 464 | +1.130 +4.094 42,534 =|] +1.034 | +1.689 | +1.866 | +1.469 | +1.480 | +1.972 | +1. 723 +3.142 =| +0. 712 | +0.919 | +0.924 | +0. 860 | +0. 844 | +0.930 | +0.973 +4. 2710-+-1. 666¢+0. 28la=| —0.575 | +0.278 | +0.550 | +0.283 | +0.533 | +0.691 | +0.502 +3. 683 +2.476 =| +0.483 | +0.928 | +1.037 | +0.841 | +0.923_| +1.140 | +1.048 +3.135 =| +0.643 | +0. 823 | +0.820 |} +0.781 | +0. 774 | +0. 826 | +0.888 +2. 988¢-+-2..366ae=| +-0. 707 | +0. 820 | +0.822 | +0. 731 | +0. 715 |. +0.871 | +0. 852 +3.116 =| +0.681 | +0.805 | +0..784 | +0. 762 | +0. 739 | +0. 780 | +0. 855 +1. 2420=| +0.121 | +0.156 | +0.133 | +0.183 | +0.173 | +0.090 | +0. 180 o=| +0.098 | +0.126 | +0.107 |. +0.148 | +0.140 | +0.073 | +0.145 a=] +0.158 | +0.174 | +0.189 |'+0.127 | +0.128 | +0. 233 | +0. 169 b=] —0.203 | —0.011 | +0. 048 | +0.007 | +0.042 | +0.066 | +0.042 Aa A te DEFLECTION OF LIGHT—DYSON AND OTHERS. TaBLteE IV.—Comparison plates, right ascension. 149 14oq. 1490. 15). 152. 17%. 17>. 182. +7.000¢ +1.657b +1.787a +-0.226a =|} +1.190 | +0.364 | +1.463 | +0.214 | +1.214 | +0.983 | +-0.146 44.664 +2.089 +0.335 =| +0.700 | +0.017 | +0.992 | +0.078 | —0.340 | +0.603 | +0.083 44.094 +2.535 =| +0.638 | +0.220 | +0.499 | +0.073 | —0.172 | +0. 450 | +0. 085 43.142 =| +0.253 | +0.159 | —0.029 | +0.037 | —0.164 | +0.105 | +0.041 +4,271b +1.666a +0.28le =| +0.418 | —0.069 | +0.645 | +0.027 | —0.627 | --0.370 | +0.048 +3.683 +2.476 =| +0.334 | +0.127 | 4-0.126 | +0.018 | —9.481 | +0.199 | +-0.048 +3.135 =| +0.215 | +0.147 | —0.076 | +0.030 | ~0.203 | +0.074 | +0. 036 +2.988a +2.366a =| +0.172 | +0.154 | —0.126 | +0.007 | —0.236 | +0.055 | +0.029 43.116 =| +0.188 | +0.152 | —0.119 | +0.028 | —0.162 | +0.050 | +0. 033 +1, 242a =| +0.052 | +0.030 | —0.019 | +0.022 | +0.025 | +0.006 | +0.010 a =| +0.042 | +0.024 | —0.015 | +0.018 | +0.020 | +0.005 | +0. 008 a =| +0.024 | +0.032 | —0.030 | —0.012 | —0.094 | +0.014 | +0.003 b =| +0.086 | —0.030 | +0.164 | +0.012 | —0.111 | +0.081 | +0.010 TABLE V.—LHclipse plates, declination. I. Il. Iii. IV. Vv. VII. VIII +7.000f +1. 787d +1.657e +3.316e =| +3.688 | +1.927 | +1.646 | +1. 452 | +1.389 | +1. 718 | +1. 906 44,094 +2.089 +1.840 =| +2.200 | +1.168 | +-0.719 | +0.823 | +0.555 | 0.610 | +0. 840 +4,664 +3.694 =| +1.860 | +1.159 | +1.129 | +0.984 | +0.874 | +1.023 | +1.193 +5.784 =| +2.657 | +1.681 | +1.535 | +1.361 | +1.335 | +1.545 | +1. 707 4+3.638d +1,666¢ +0.994a =| +1.260 | +0.677 | +0.299 | +0. 453 | +0.201 | +0.172 | +0.354 +4,271 +2.908 =| +0.986 | +0. 702 | +0.739 | +0.640 | +0.545 | +0.616 | +0. 741 +4,212 =| +0.909 | +0.768 | +0. 755 | +0.673 | +0.677 | +0.731 | +0. 804 +3.508e +2. 453a =| +0.409 | +0.392 | +0.602 | +0.431 | +0.453 | +0.537 | ++0.579 +3.941 =| +0.565 | +0.583 | +0.673 | +0.549 | +0.622 | +0.684 | --0. 707 +2.224a =| +0.279 | +0.309 | +0.252 | +0.247 | +0.305 | +0.308 | +0. 302 a =| +0.126 | +0.139 | +0.114 | +0.111 | +0.137 | +0.139 | +0. 136 e =| +0.029 | +0.015 | +0.092 | +0.045 | +0.033 | +0.056 | +-0.070 d =| +0.299 | +0.141 | +0.009 | +0.074 | +0.003 | —0.016 | +0.028 12573°—21—_11. 150 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. TABLE VI.—Comparison plates, declination. +7.000f +1. 787d +1.657e +3.3160 =| +0.446 | +0.661 | +0.964 | +0.343 | +1. 861 | +0. 752 | +0. 868 +4.094 +2.089 +1.840 =] +0.060 | +0.420 | —0.156 | +0.140 |} +1.038 | +0.041 | +0. 476 +4.664 +3.694 =| +0.202 | +0.394 | —0.203 | —0.117 | +0.526 | —0.110 | +0. 122 +5. 784 =| +0.380 | +0.482] +0.220 | +0.044 | +1.004 | +0.296 | +0.419 +3.638d +1.666e +0. 9940 =| —0.054 | +0.251 | —0.402 | +0.053 | +0.563 | +0.151 | +0. 255 +4.271 +2.908 =| +0.096 | +0.237 | —0.431 | —0.198 | +-0.085 | —0.288 | —0. 084 +4.212 =| +0.168 | +0.169 | —0.237 | —0.119 | +0.122 | —0.060 | +0. 008 +3.508e +2.453a =| +0.121 | +0.122 | —0.247 | —0. 222 | —0.173 | —0.219 | —0. 201 +3.941 =] +0.183 | +0.100 | —0.127 | —0.133 | —0.032 | —0.019 | —0. 062 +2. 2240 =| +0.098 | +0.015 | +0.046 | +0.022 | +0.039 | +0.134 | +0.079 a =| +0.044 | +0.007 | +0.021 | +0.010 | +0.040 | +0.060 | +0. 036 € =| +0.004 | +0.030 | —0.085 | —0.070 | —0.077 | —0.104 | —0.082 21. The values of « are collected in Table VII: Taste VII. Right ascension. Declination. “ Compari- Eelipse— Compari- Kelipse—scale. | son—scale. scale. son—scale, r rT rT T +0. 098 +0. 042 +0. 126 +0. 044 +0. 126 +0. 024 +0. 139 +0. 007 +0. 107 —0. 015 +0. 114 +0. 021 +0. 148 +0. 018 +0. 111 +0. 010 +0. 140 -+-0. 020 +0. 137 -+0. 040 +0. 073 +0. 005 +0.139 -++0. 060 +0. 145 +0. 008 +0. 136 +0. 036 Mean +0. 120 +0. 015 +0. 129 +0. 031 By substraction the « of the comparison plates the scale plate is eliminated, and we derive from right ascensions «-=-+-0.105" and from declinations «=-+0.098". Reference to the normal equations shows that the declination re- sult is of double the weight of that from the right ascensions. Thus a= -+0.100"= +.0.625””, This is at a distance 50’ from the sun’s center. At the time of the eclipse the sun’s radius was 15.8’; thus the deflection at the limb as) 1.987": The range in the values of @ is attributable to the errors inherent to the star images of the different plates, and can not be reduced by DEFLECTION OF LIGHT—DYSON AND OTHERS. - 15] further measurement. The mean values -+0.015" and 0.031" arise from the errors in the intermediary scale plate. 22. The probable error of the result judging from the accordance of the separate determinations is about 6 per cent. It is desirable to consider carefully the possibility of systematic error. The eclipse and comparison photographs were taken under precisely similar in- strumental conditions, but there is the difference that the eclipse photographs were taken on the day of May 29, and the comparison photographs on nights between July 14 and July 18. A very satis- factory feature of the photographs is the essential similarity of the star images on the two sets of photographs. The satisfactory accordance of the eclipse and comparison plates is shown by a study of the plate constants. The following correc- tions for differential refraction and aberration are calculated from the times and dates of exposure. a. é db. d. T T BH PSONDIAGCS yee) ner (oa eter eect es +0. 240 +0. 168 +0, 062 +0. 062 SGELD [LURES SABES LE eh Bea id se i tiie Be Sale + .423 + .207 + .096 + .096 ontysrisOn 14h). vi2ae sees eee eke segn = aes eteabinn - + .409 + .207 + .091 + .091 V4gp:------- 222-2 2 eee eee ++ . 409 + .207 + .091 + .091 1b) Bee: Ase eee ee Seeee eee eee een sno eoe + .390 + .207 + .087 a eOsT iy PA e sec aeeee 348 Gee Eno eae See See See + .370 + .202 + .087 ++ .087 oY RR ones e eee Sine eee ene te ae + -399 + ..207 + .091 ++ .091 17... -------------- 2222222 eee eee eee + .337 + .202 + .077 + .077 Lohpesans Gaddos dct sosedepeaecdsecracen sabe + £327 + .202 + 2072 + .072 _ When these are applied to the values of the constants found from the normal equations we find the following values of the scale of the several photographs and their orientation relative to the scale plate: Scale value. Orientation. Adopted scale and orientation. From z. From y. From 2. From y. |° a Q r T r T MICH pPsetT Ios Ie- wee =) TRE 5 ese —0. 025 —0. 010 —0. 237 —0. 265 0.000 —0. 251 1 A ee el eee a — .009 — .024 — .045 r=. 107 0.000 — .076 ITE eR Laie +..006 + .053 + .014 + .025 0.000 + .020 NTN fh NS oe oe ae — .056 + .006 — .027 — .040 0.000 — .034 AV) ee en Bae gee — .055 — .006 + .008 + .031 0.000 + .020 VALE RES Bese Mae + .050 +. .017 + . 032 + .050 0.000 + .041 S00 015 Sa Pee eee See — .014 + .031 + . 008 ++ . 006 0.000 + .007 Comparison 149g....--.-----.-- + .010 + .004 + .081 + . 033 +0, 013 + .057 Ey ee or ee eas + .018 + .030 — 035 — .049 + .013 — .042 Gop ko deee sens —.. 063 — .085 + 155 + . 086 — .084 + .120 LS eae re et ome — .065 — .075 + .003 — .035 — .084 — .016 LR SESSA. Joe — .118 — .077 — .116 — .174 — .084 — .145 WC ASE ee, a — .072 — .109 + .062 + . 029 — .084 + .046 TSP eats © = Cees aaa — .093 — . 087 — .014 — .074 — .084 | 2 ss 152 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. The agreement in the scale values obtained from x and y is satis- factory. There appears to be a small difference in the orientations as derived from the two directions in the comparison plates. This is, however, of small importance in the determination of «. There is a difference of scale value from July 15-18 shown in both coordi- nates. For the purpose of exhibitmg the gravitational displace- ments residuals have been computed using adopted values for the seale and orientation given above along with the calculated correc- tions for differential refraction and aberration. This has the ad- vantage of reducing the number of constants employed in the reduc- tion of the plates and lessens the possibility of masking any dis- cordances, though greater irregularities necessarily appear when four arbitrary constants instead of six are used in the reduction of each plate. The quantities are converted from revolutions to seconds of arc, as the more familiar unit facilitates judgment of the results. TABLE VIII.—Comparison of the Eclipse and comparison photographs with the scale plate after correction for differential refraction and aberration, orien- tation, and change of scale. ECLIPSE PLATES, RIGHT ASCENSION. No. of star. I. TI. TIT. Iv. Vie Vil. Vill. Mean. wv aA w Ld Lid Ls wr a TE SRE aCRe aa Soc aber ae —0. 18 —0, 51 —0. 46 —0.07 —0. 04 —0, 72 —0. 43 —0.34 RY eed aneanqseonseerce — .45 ee = 38 08 — .60 — .36 — 62 — .i4 hee boring sea caeaece + .08 =e ead: = 208 i aki cil — 216 = 218 — .06 Boece onebarse: Ss60o8s =H. 20 ae! = ie) — .05 — 202 — .02 — 01 — .09 5 eS eats AS — .14 + .23 —, 2.09 — 11 — .18 + .13 — .08 — .08 Wee Gag sees sess sss: ae kT, + .06 sme ole! — 1) ao erie am cil: — OF + .08 DERE S. TEOLASIS. eee + .7 +1. 03 +1.06 +1. 09 +1. 01 + .98 +1.30 +1. 03 ECLIPSE PLATES, DECLINATION. Isat Me Ase ae ee 0.00 — 00 —0. 03 +0. 02 +0.17 +0. 15 +0. 01 +0. 03 Ppa ere sates te iaieieinia jer as — .38 — .54 = 5 OL — .30 aL) ie — ob — de es aRE HBC See GaSe +1.19 +1. 04 +1. 03 = ici Sele +1. 19 +1. 24 Sel eit! Bi sbetockgsduacces sis +1. 42 +1.58 +1. 50 +1.39 +1. 55 +1. 49 +1.49 +1.49 Gece waumaninew sere + .65 a ac ad +1.01 + .97 +271 “+ 295 +1.01 + .87 ieee Sodsscseneescan< + .62 + .46 +1. 03 “F.5d + .56 + .58 + .74 + .65 (oe eS paeeicse | J 35-idoee =P. Ob + .25 — .40 — .09 — .22 — 14 —.17 =i 145q. 1405 151 152. In 172, 18. Mean. a a wv nr uw ” wr La ye ae a ala we ielattetatalete l= —0.19 —0. 24 —0, 23 —0. 28 +0. 11 —0.19 —0. 02 —0.15 Gs bE egos se4insooo5cas — .2 do} (— 230 — .32 — 224 — .33 — .26 — .25 {ogc daooaseneutgogacce =~ 01 +203 — .01 + .05 = 04 + .23 + .08 + .05 Dobe Sec ogee Aca dacicme spaces Seney + .28 + .10 — .03 +. 21 —i 01 Src Cacronegtsessucedorsile +. 02 — .18 + 126 + .06 -".13 + .03 +14 + .07 TUE oe i A Shee 7 — .06 + .20 + .18 - 13 =F 02 +15 Gras! CRAB MAGEE AG sonia tesa + 31 + .18 — .16 + .22 — .04 + .08 — .06 + .08 DEFLECTION OF LIGHT——-DYSON AND OTHERS. 158 Taste VIII.—Comparison of the Eclipse and comparison photographs, etc.—Con. COMPARISON PLATES, DECLINATION. Betas elaine atin <)sie~i= —0. 07 +0. 08 —0. 26 —0. 04 —0, 26 —0.18 —0. 16 —0. 13 De sena ne osteecee ase. — .23 — .03 + .03 -00 Sig + .03 — .20 — .08 Bmeepeerisi oP eis 7/2 = a + .23 + .05 + .29 +..18 + .45 + .53 + .23 + .28 Seat ose Ree oe + .64 + .41 +,.42 + .36 + .48 + .60 + 204 =>) 249 Pasencat se teeckeeaaass + .22 + .36 + .33 + .26 + .41 + .21 + .32 + .30 1 A oa Maen + .28 + .32 + .31 + .36 + .36 + .15 + .29 + .30 Po bsncerposcnasae eee + .25 +) e/14 + .18 + .21 + .09 — .03 + add + .16 Subtracting the results of the comparison plates so as to eliminate the errors arising from the intermediary scale plate we find for the displacements of the different stars, as compared with those as given by Einstein’s theory, with value 1.75’’ at the sun’s limb: Displacement in right Displacement in ascension. declination. No. of star. eee Observed. | Calculated.| Observed. | Calculated. ur au wt ve DEST SECE 234 —0;19 —0.32 +0. 16 +0. 02 Shae sides — .29 — .31 — .46 — .43 Bee h ae scasee — .ll — .10 + .83 arate! Seee's ese — .20 — .12 +1. 00 45 d2y (ese ae as — .10 + .04 + .57 + .40 DOLE Bae — .08 + .09 + .35 + .32 Dette eee oe + .95 + .85 — .27 — .09 {The sign of the displacement in right ascension of No. 6 was printed in Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London as +. This and several other typographi- eal errors, kindly pointed out by Prof. Bauer, have been corrected.] PHOTOGRAPHS TAKEN WITH THE ASTROGRAPHIC OBJECT GLASS. 23. As stated above, these photographs were taken with the astro- graphic object glass stopped down to 8 inches, mounted in a steel tube and fed by a 16-inch celostat. From many years’ experience with the object glass at Greenwich it is certain that when the object glass is mounted in a steel tube the change of scale over a range of temperature of 10° F. should be insignificant, and the definition should be very good. It was realized that this high standard would not be obtained with the glass used in conjunction with the ccelostat taken to Brazil, but nevertheless the results shown when the plates were developed were very disappointing. The images were diffused and apparently out of focus, although on the night of May 27 the focus was good. Worse still, this change was temporary, for with- 6 The following note made at the time is quoted in full: ‘“‘ May 30, 3 a. m., four of the astrographic plates were developed, and when dry examined. It was found that there had been a serious change of focus, so that, while the stars were shown, the definition was spoiled. This change of focus can only be attributed to the unequal expansion of the mirror through the sun’s heat. The readings of the focussing scale were checked next day, but were found unaltered at 11.0 millimeters. It seems doubtful whether much can be got from these plates,” 154 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. out any change in the adjustments, the instrument had returned to focus when the comparison plates were taken in July. These changes must be attributed to the effect of the sun’s heat on the mirror, but it is difficult to say whether this caused a real change of scale in the resulting photographs or merely blurred the images. The photographs were measured in the astrographic duplex mi- crometer, the eclipse photographs being directly compared with the comparison plates taken in July. All the stars shown were measured. They were reduced by the same method as that employed for the “4-inch” photographs. With the exception of plates Nos. 15 and 16, taken through clouds, the stars numbered 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 11, and 12 are shown on all the plates; the fainter stars 2, 7, 8, and 9 are some- times shown, but No. 1, which is very near the sun, is always drowned in the corona. These plates were only measured in declination, as the right ascensions without No. 1 are of little weight. 94. In the following table is given the value of «, the constant of the gravitational displacement, as calculated from the measures; the apparent difference of scale e between the eclipse and comparison plates; d, the difference of orientation of the plates given by the measures of y and depending on the adjustment of the plates in the measuring machine. TasLe IX. (1?s=12,.3”.) Values of d, e, a in revolutions Reference at 50’ distance. No. of eclipse plate. ean ie a ina epee: oaoibacal eae MEAN sun’s limb late! * é a in are. r T tT m ihe 2) ae Oe ee ee aR ERT eT es oe 184 a +0. 051 +0. 089 +0. 033 +1. 28 Des deere ep tied. Scien atts eee 184 ll — .009 + .059 + .025 + .97 Se ae ree ect nes Saree yer 184 8 — .074 + .101 + .028 +1. 09 Ee AB ea cain te nie tare are estate eae 184 11 — .168 + .091 + .033 +1. 28 i P tdee SESE. By. SU: Pe Be 113 10 + .094 + .076 + °.025 + .97 Bice caret abs) Yo acai 113 ll + .186 + .082 + .021 + .82 Va ceed hepish oats eat Ua, Aaiecore eee a 143 12 + .006 + .119 . 000 .00 Mee eae cere Eee ce ree 183 7 — .054 + .166 . 060 . 00 eS SS. LEP BERS Eee 143 10 + .093 + .064 + .021 + .82 De ae Eoin em cRies Sa Ee 174 7 — .096 + .129 + .008 + .31 HO ee a aise areas ela ke 17% 10 + .090 + .045 + .026 +1.01 eee ee Oe Se OS eee 1h; 10 + .073 + .061 + .032 +1.24 TORE A SE, EE Fass 1h; il — .009 + .102 + .049 +1. 91 5 Ae EIR pe SAY SAO Ot Sy Rs 172 7 — .102 + .114 + .019 + .74 Doe ise tec dacisiaae we macicee eases 153 6 + .111 + .036 + .018 “+ .70 DBs en se ppaiu cise eins cee oe 153 7 — .002 + .037 + .018 + .70 Die che sayeeh at och? bapeterd: sieetes = 172 8 — .022 + .109 + .012 + .47 PBwer: swiibo ies th ele yess aka, 172 7 + .045 . 000 + .030 +1.17 | | | | | cq“ ig fo) + oS B + - . + i=) g : ; | DEFLECTION OF LIGHT—DYSON AND OTHERS. 155 Thus the mean value of « obtained from all the astrographic plates is 0.86’, a figure considerably less than that obtained from the 4-inch photographs. 25. Reference to the diagram shows that the measurement of dis- placement depends essentially on the position of the stars Nos. 3 and 4 relative to 5 on one side and 6 and 10 on the other. These are all bright stars, and in this respect their images are more comparable than are the images of the fainter stars. The measures of these stars are given in the following table: Measured values of Dy for stars Nos.— Measured values of Dy for stars Nos.— No. of No. of eclipse eclipse ; plate. 5 4 3 6 10 plate 5 4 3 6 10 r r r T r r r Tr Tr r ihe og: oe —0. 051 |+0.175 |+0.169 |+0. 201 |+0. 235 |} 9--...--- —0. 059 |+0.121 |+0.109 |+-0. 205 | +0. 180 eee Lee +0. 558 |+0.656 |+0. 724 |+0. 668 |+-0. 702 || 10..-.... +0. 033 |+0. 270 |+0.188 |+0.258 | +0. 280 See ssacis +0. 124 |+-0. 285 |+-0. 286 }-++0. 274 |+0.355 |] 11......- +0. 025 |+-0. 215 |+0. 210 |++0. 233 | -++0. 274 Bee sctet +0. 111 |+0. 222 |+0..247 |+0. 231 |+0.167 || 12....... —0.068 |-+0. 144 |+-0.124 |+-0.160 | +0. 167 Tansee +0. 034 |-++0. 228 |+-0. 232 |+-0. 218 |+0.308 |] 15.....-- —0.038 |-+0.138 |+0.107 |+0.172 |.-.....- Geeacceacc +0. 164 |+0. 488 |+0. 478 |+0. 557 |-+0. 637 |] 16......- —0. 050 |+0.076 |+0.046 |+0.127 | +0.073 Te Ae —0.051 |+-0.156 |+-0. 162 |++0. 250 |+0.279 |} 17......- —0. 071 |+0. 104 |+0. 081 |+0.186 | +0. 164 Se eia ws ath +0. 108 |++-0.330 |++-0.314 |+0.376 |+0.397 |} 18......- +0.016 |+0.092 |+0.109 |+0.099 | +0. 084 The equations given by these stars are: —0.160d—1.107e—0.789¢+f/=Dy, (1) -+-0.3834d-++0.472e+-1.336a-+7=Dy, (2) -++0.348d-+--0.360e+1.574a+f=Dy, (3) +0.587¢d-+1.099e-+0.726a+f=Dy, (4) +0.860d-+-1.321e-++0.589a+7=Dy,, (5) The mean of (4) and (5) added to (1) gives +0.564d-+0.103e—0.131¢4+2f=Dy,+4(Dy,+Dy,,). While the sum of (2) and (8) gives +0.682d-.0.832¢-+2.9100-+2f—=Dy,+Dy,. Subtracting these we get 3.041 a-+-0.729e+-0.118d=Dy, +Dy,—Dy;—3 (Dy, +Dy,,). This equation has a small coefficient for e and a very small one for d. / Calculating the quantities on the right-hand side, assuming e to be the same for all the plates, and substituting the values of d from the previous table, we find: ie r a+0.240e=+0.056__--1 a+0,240e=+0.035____ 9 a+0.240e=+0.049____2 a+0.240e=-+0.048____10 a+0.240e=+0.047___-3 a+0.240e=-+0.045___ 11 a+0.240e=-+0.059____4 a+0.240e=-+0.059____12 a+0.240e=-+0.050____5 2+0.283e=-+0.026____15 a+0.240e=-+0.059____6 a+0.240e= +0.024____16 a+0.240e=-+ 0.036____7 a+0.240e=+0.028____17 a+0,240e=+0.046____8 a+0.240e=+0.029____18 156 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. In photograph No. 15, star 10 is not shown, and the equation is slightly modified. It may also be noticed that the values are some- what smaller for Nos. 15 to 18. The means of the 16 photographs treated in this manner give a+243e=-+0.0435", or with the value of the scale 0.082" from the previous table a=-+0.024"=0.93’" at the limb. It may be noticed that the change of scale arising from differences of refraction and aberration is 0.020". If this value of e be taken instead of 0.082" we obtain a—=-+0.039T=+1.52”" at the sun’s limb. The equations on page 155 were also solved by least squares for each plate. There is a considerable range in the deduced values of a, as is to be expected when « and e are determined independently for each plate. The mean result for « is 0.99’’, or very nearly the same as that already found. The photographs taken with the astrographic telescope support those obtained by the “4-inch” to the extent that they show con- siderable outward deflection, but for the reasons already given are of much less weight. IV. THE EXPEDITION TO PRINCIPE. [Observers, Prof. A. S. Eddington and Mr. EH. T. Cottingham. ] 26. The expedition left Liverpool on the Anselm on March 8, and traveled in company with the Sobral expedition as far as Madeira. It was necessary to wait there until April 9, when the journey was continued on the Portugal, belonging to the Companhia Nacional de Navegacio. ‘The expedition landed at the small port of San Antonio in the Isle of Principe on April 23. Vice Admiral Campos Rodrigues and Dr. F. Oom of the National Observatory, Lisbon, had kindly given us introductions, and every- thing possible was done by those on the island for the success of the work and the comfort of the observers. We were met on board by the acting administrator Sr. Vasconcélos, Sr. Carneiro, president of the Association of Planters, and Sr. Grageira, representing the Sociedade d’Agricultura Colonial, who made all necessary arrange-_ ments. The Portuguese Government dispensed with any customs examination of the baggage. 27. Principe is a small island belonging to Portugal, situated just north of the equator in the Gulf of Guinea, about 120 miles from the African coast. The extreme length and breadth are about 10 miles and 6 miles. Near the center mountains rise to a height of 2,500 feet, which generally attract heavy masses of cloud. Except DEFLECTION OF LIGHT—DYSON AND OTHERS. 157 for a certain amount of virgin forest, the island is covered with coco plantations. The climate is very moist, but not unhealthy. The vegetation is luxuriant, and the scenery is extremely beautiful. We arrived near the end of the rainy season, but the gravana, a dry wind, set in about May 10, and from then onwards no rain fell ex- cept on the morning of the eclipse. We were advised that the prospects of clear sky at the end of May were not very good, but that the best chance was on the north and west of the island. After inspecting two other sites on the property of the Sociedade d’Agricultura Colonial, we fixed on Roca Sundy, the headquarters of Sr. Carneiro’s chief plantation. We were Sr. Carneiro’s guests during our whole visit, and used freely his ample resources of labor and material at Sundy. We learned later that he had postponed a visit to Europe in order to entertain us. We were also greatly indebted to his manager at Sundy, Sr. Atalaya, with whom we lived for five weeks; his help and attention were invaluable. Mr. Wright and Mr. Lewis of the cable station kindly assisted us as interpreters when necessary. Sundy is situated in the northwest of the island overlooking the sea at a height of 500 feet, and as far as possible from the cloud- gathering peaks. Our telescope was erected in a small walled in- closure adjoining the house, from which the ground sloped steeply down to the sea in the direction of the sun at eclipse. On the other side it was sheltered by a building. The approximate position was latitude 1° 40’ N., longitude 29m. 32s. E. 28. The baggage was brought to Sundy on April 28 mainly by tram, but with a break of about a kilometer, where it had to be transported through the woods by native carriers. After a week spent on the preparations, we returned to San Antonio for the week May 6-13, as it was undesirable to unpack the mirror so early in the damp climate. On our return to Sundy the installation and adjustments were soon completed, and the first check plates were taken on May 16. Meanwhile the gravana had begun, which, al- though there is no rain, is generally accompanied by increased clouds. There were, however, some days of clear sky, and the nights were usually clear. The ceelostat was mounted on a stone pier built for the purpose. The clock weight fell into a pit below the clock deep enough to allow a run of 36 minutes without rewinding. Care was taken to use a particular part of the ccelostat sector, considered to be the most perfect, in photographing the eclipse and the check field. The telescope (Oxford astrographic object glass, see p. 137) rested on wooden Vs near the two ends, the Vs bemg supported on packing cases; the one at the breech end could be moved laterally to allow 158 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. of different declination settings, and was marked with an approxi- mate declination scale. A series of exposures of one second was made on a bright star to test whether there was any shake of the telescope after inserting the plate; no shake was detected even when the exposure was made immediately; but as a safeguard for the eclipse photographs a full second was allowed to elapse before be- ginning the exposure. The exposure was made by moving a card- board screen unconnected with the instrument. The telescope pointed slightly downward, and the-tube was turned so as to give the right orientation to the plate, the lines of declination being 2° or 38° in- clined to the horizontal. A canvas screen was arranged to protect the tube and object glass from the direct radiation of the sun. The adjustments call for little comment. In view of the purpose of the observations it was desirable to adjust the tilt of the object glass and plate with special care. It was also important that the setting on the field should be nearly exact. The sun appeared on the eclipse day in sufficient time to allow of the setting being made by means of the solar image; but arrangements had been tested by which the correct field would have been obtained if it had been cloudy up to totality.’ The telescope was focused by trial photo- graphs of stars, and owing to the uniform temperature of the island the focus was unchanged for day observations. The object glass was stopped down to 8 inches for the eclipse photo- graphs and for all check and comparison photographs used in the reductions. 29. The days preceding the eclipse were very cloudy. On the morning of May 29 there was a very heavy thunderstorm from about 10 a. m. to 11.30 a. m.—a remarkable occurrence at that time of year. The sun then appeared for a few minutes, but the clouds gathered again. About half an hour before totality the crescent sun was glimpsed occasionally, and by 1.55 it could be seen continuously through drifting clouds. The calculated time of totality was from 2 hours 18 minutes 5 seconds, to 2 hours 18 minutes 7 seconds, Greenwich mean time. Exposures were made according to the pre- pared program, and 16 plates were obtained. Mr. Cottingham gave the exposures and attended to the driving mechanism, and Professor Eddington changed the dark slides.. It appears from the results that the cloud must have thinned considerably during the last third of totality, and some star images were shown on the later plates. The cloudier plates give very fine photographs of a remarkable prominence, which was on the limb of the sun. A few minutes after totality the sun was in a perfectly clear sky, but the clearance did not last long. It seems likely that the break-up ™The method depended on setting the cross wires of the theodolite (attached to the eelostat) on a terrestrial mark, and then starting the clock at a particular instant. DEFLECTION OF LIGHT—DYSON AND OTHERS. 159 of the clouds was due to the eclipse itself, as it was noticed that the sky usually cleared at sunset. It had been intended to complete all the measurements of the photographs on the spot; but owing to a strike of the steamship company it was necessary to return by the first boat, if we were not to be marooned on the island for several months. By the inter- vention of the administrator, berths, commandeered by the Portu- guese Government, were secured for us on the crowded steamer. We left Principe on June 12, and after transshipping at Lisbon reached Liverpool on July 14. 30. The following is a list of the photographs, including the comparison photographs kindly taken for us by Mr. F. A. Bellamy at Oxford, before the instrument was dismounted. All the eclipse photographs are given though only W and X furnished results. Of the other series only the exposures actually used jn the reductions are given. List of plates. Check Field (R. A. 14h. 12m. 47s., declination + 20° 30’). Local sidereal] Expo- | Approx.| Barom- | Ther- Reference. Place. Date. time. sure. Z.D. eter. |mometer.| Flate 1919 emis s Ss $ in 3 Chak POO Oxford Jan. 16 12 *55 “10 60 35 29. 64 37.0 i) Bynes MOUS by do... 17 13 10 40 60 34 29. 83 35.3 S Ce ee Wor ee 17 13 54 55 60 31 29. 83 35.3 iS} ES OO eC) ee do 17 14.9 25 60 31 29. 83 35.3 s (EGER a en Gone 255 23 Teeedox) BO 60 33 30. 45 29.0 Ss Greenwich Expo- | Approx. | Barom- Ther- Reference. Place. Date. | meantime. | sure. ap: eter. |mometer.| Fate. 1919 Wem Us. .8 $ ° in 5 Wie anise cacao Principe May 22 12 25 40 40 43 29.45 76. 5 S.R Thee acts Leek] SSE doseii.t 22 12 31 20 40 45 29. 45 76.5 S.R aE eke cpus Boss csxe 22 12 37 50 80 46 29, 45 76.5 S.R OP SABES ERS Beton Gems Gots. 25 12 22. 20 40 45 29, 45 76.5 S.S Cap is desea bodies | tll do: fs. <2. 25 12 26 20 40 46 29, 45 76. 5 s.s Eclipse Field (R. A. 4h. 19m. 30s., declination +21° 43’). Local sidereal) Expo- | Approx. | Barom- Ther- Reference. Place. Date. time. sure. 7 D. eter. |mometer.| Fate- 1919. h. ™. 8 ° in. ‘A Die gue ccesien Oxford..-.| Jan. 16 3) 58% .41 5 30 29. 65 39.0 s Giese ge ek do.. 22 4 4 39 5 30 30. 30 31.0 s 15 & (eyes aan a [eas do.2o 2%: 22 4 34 28 5 30 30. 30 31.0 Ss TRAE Shas REL dose 5A 22 4 48 46 10 31 30. 30 31.0 s Tigi eats ee ee a als dois his. Feb. 9 4 45 24 10 30 30. 48 24,5 Ss 160 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. List of plates—Continued. Reference. Place. Date. Grawie, Fone A a oi aaoee eae, Plate. 1919. hm. 8 8. ®, in. 6 ee Principe..| May 29] 2 13 9 5 46 29.45 | 77.0 S.B g Die be angers EL do. 29 2 13 “28 10 46 29. 45 77.0 S.R MSS EER A Ges do. 29 2 13 46 3 46 29. 45 77.0 S.R Nie oS sein arepal seis dQ. base 29 2 14 #1 5 46 29. 45 77.0 E C0 PEE ep a a OC eae 29 2 14 20 10 46 29. 45 77.0 8.8 Pe eaten sts oc Soles do. 29 2 14 44 15 46 29. 45 77.0 S.S Qe ae Ty er (opens 29 Oy R5ne 7/6 i} 46 29, 45 77.0 S.R As oe th do. . 29 2 15 (30 20 46 29. 45 77.0 S.R Bere teen saan Nd Oye sce 29 Zito) oo 3 46 29. 45 77.0 8.8 US NS clas ba a gag ATAGe Cs oe 29 Papel Maul 5 15 46 29. 45 77.0 E ROSH pe ite eee oe Fea 30} Seay 29 2 16 37 10 46 29. 45 77.0 S.R IAC aT ops Seer aR wdOn abe ia 29 2 16 56 5 46 29. 45 77.0 S.S 0) (Gb A a ete ieee (es Sethe certs 29 2 hi he 10 46 29. 45 77.0 § eee cee ao 29 2° 17° 33 3 46 29. 45 77.0 S.R Bis Sea bee ees] aie GU Eames 29 2 17 47 2 46 29. 45 77.0 S.R SADE, SIR NEY Sey dose eae 29 Paes La Sens b 2 46 29. 45 77.0 S.R NOTES. Column 1. The letter is marked on the original plates (preserved at Cambridge Observa- tory). The number refers to the exposure, disregarding exposures taken without the 8-inch stop. Column 2. The coordinates of Oxford Observatory are 5m. 3s. W., 51° 46’ N., and of the site at Principe, 29m. 32s. E., 1° 40’ N. Column 4. The mid instant of the exposure is given. Times for check plates at Principe were only noted roughly. Times for the eclipse plates are deduced from the calculated time of totality, the interval from the end of one exposure to the beginning of the next being assumed uniform. Column 7. Readings at Principe were taken with an aneroid recording instrument, and therefore automatically reduced to the latitude of England. The barometer during our visit was practically constant, except for a regular semidiurnal wave of amplitude about 0.05 inch. Column 9. Brand of plate: S., Imperial Sovereign; S. S., Imperial Special Sensitive; S. R., Ilford Special Rapid; E., Ilford Empress. Backed plates were used at Principe. The large proportion of Ilford Special Rapid plates used at the eclipse was due to the fact that experience in developing the check plates showed that these suffered less than the others from the high temperature of the water (78° F.). Ice was generally available for the check plates through the kindness of Sr. Grageira; but the supply failed after the eclipse, and formalin was used to harden the films. This was unsatisfactory except for the Ilford Special Rapid plates, and so plates P, S, T, W were brought home undeveloped. The de- veloping at Principe was done at night, and the drying was acceler- ated by use of alcohol. The use of an 8-inch stop in front of the object glass was suggested to us by Mr. Davidson, who showed that a great improvement of the images resulted; it was originally intended, however, to use the full aperture for part of totality. Early measures of check plates made at Principe soon convinced us that the results from the full aperture DEFLECTION OF LIGHT—DYSON AND OTHERS. 161 were greatly inferior, and we decided to rely entirely on the 8-inch aperture. THE CHECK PLATES. 31. In addition to the eclipse field, a check field was photographed both at Oxford and at Principe. The field chosen included Arcturus, so that it was easily found with the ccelostat. Its declination was nearly the same as that of the eclipse field, and it was photographed at the same altitude at Principe in order that any systematic error, due to imperfections of the celostat mirror or other causes, might affect both sets of plates equally. The primary purpose was thus to check the possibility of systematic error arising from the different conditions of observation at Oxford and Principe, and from possible changes in the object glass during transit. Unlike the Sobral expe- dition, we were not able to take comparison photographs of the eclipse field at Principe, because for us the eclipse occurred in the afternoon, and it would be many months before the field could be photographed in the same position in the sky before dawn. The check plates were therefore specially important for us. As events turned out the check plates were important for another purpose, viz, to determine the difference of scale at Oxford and Principe. As shown in the report of the Sobral expedition, it is not necessary to know the scale of the eclipse photographs, since the reductions can be arranged so as to eliminate the unknown scale. If, however, a trustworthy scale is known and used in the reductions, the equations for the deflection have considerably greater weight, and the result depends on the measurement of a larger displacement. On surveying the meager material which the clouds permitted us to obtain, it was evident that we must adopt the latter course; and accordingly the first step was to obtain from the check plates a deter- | mination of the scale of the Principe photographs. 32. All the measures were made by Professor Eddington with the Cambridge measuring machine.* An Oxford and a Principe plate were placed film to film so that the images of corresponding stars nearly coincided—this was possible because the Oxford plates were taken direct, and the Principe plates by reflection in the ccelostat mirror. The small differences Av and Ay, in the sense Principe-Oxford, were then measured for each star. Eight settings were made on each image; for half of them the field was rotated through 180° by the reversion prism. Five pairs of plates were measured, and the measures are given in Table XI. 8 Monthly Notices, R. A. S., Vol. L:XI, p. 444, 162 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. TABLE XI.—Check plates, measures. Approximate coordinates. ee! wi—by S2—Cy ™—d M1—e) Star. —— ee ee ee eee ee « y At. | Ay, | At. | Ay. | At. | Ay. | Az | Ay At | Ay Fees Se 1.41 | 20.31 | 4,346 | 7,180 | 3,199 | 4, 259 | 6,012 | 7,375 | 3,921 | 8,796 | 5,435 | 4,399 mye COLT BE 5.89 | 12.74 | 3,865 | 6,405 | 3,394 | 4,129 | 4,922 | 6,132 | 3,039 | 7,440 | 5,978 | 4,170 Ande orogd 9.46 | 11.13 | 3,640 | 5,932 | 3,408 | 4,118 | 4,369 | 5,366 | 2,638 | 6,776 | 5,966 | 4,441 fee Rea eile 12.00,|, 6.84,| 3)312"| 5,590.|...---<|--.-22- 3, 831 | 4,752 | 1,938 | 6,156 |....... 4,314 ‘etrall agen: 12.80 | 27.33 | 5,415 | 6,561 | 3,192 | 5,140 | 7,689 | 5,925 | 5,379 | 7,580 | 5,032] 5,794 PU CES 13.75 | 13.78 | 4,076 | 5,630 | 3,496 | 4,290 | 4,801 | 4,805 | 3,101 | 6,461 | 5,906 | 4, 826 gidi ape. 4 15650 ia. 38°t 60254 6, 3004... fl ectba aolater Pho odon al. 5,139 | 5,412 pNSeene St ae 20.13 | 10.49 | 3,965 | 4,940 | 3,679 | 4,505 | 4,656 | 3,568 | 2,866 | 5,370 | 6,398 | 5,229 = less oem 20.81 | 0.93 | 2,874 | 4,352 | 3,876 | 3,759 | 2,845 | 2,815 | 1,238 | 4,758 | 7,268| 4,482 ge eOY ON 22.91 | 6.23 | 3,685 | 4,436 | 3,931 | 4,158 | 4,039 | 2,738 | 2,270 | 4,551 | 6,765 | 5,076 grr. Lerche 26.46 | 8.96 | 4,222 | 4,288 | 4,045 | 4,326 | 4,724 | 2,232 | 2,720 | 4,120 | 6,836 | 5,561 The unit for # and y is 5 millimeters, which is approximately equal to 5’. The differences Ax, Ay are given in units of the fifth place of decimals = 0.003’”. The center of the plate is near # = 14. y = 14. Plate constants were then calculated in the usual way, by the formule Av = ax-+ by+e Ay = du + ey +f These were applied, and the residuals A,w, A,y converted into arc are as follows: TABLE XII.—Check plates, residuals. m1—-A wi—by So—Cy m—d 1-41 Mean Star. SS a SS SSS SSS EEE Ait. | Ary. | Art. | Ary. | Ait. | Ary. | Art. | Ary. | Art. |} Ary. | Ait. | Arg. as ay ay ” a” aw ay ar au aA tsa ar 1 LEIS seat ie ee —0.02 |+0.02 |+0.29 |—0, 34 |+0.02 |—0.07 |—0.03 |+0. 22 |+0.49 |+0.01 |+0.15 |— 0.04 Ee Sere ee + .39 [+ .15 |+ .16 |+ .14 |+ .69 00 |-+ .69 |— .29 |+ .10 |— .23 |4+ .41 |— .05 Say. Gar Rut — .14 |— .04 J— .16 |4 .09 |— .38 |= .12 |— .02 |— .37 |— .54 |+ .12 |— .25 |— + .06 Opt bean: ace 08), [rai dObihe Borys ' “ .* NATURAL RESOURCES—LITTLE. 229 two large Government cyanamid plants were started, though these were not completed until well into 1916. According to figures con- tained in the final report of the nitrogen products committee of the English, Government, which was issued in January, 1920, Germany hada producing capacity in 1915, which carried through into 1916, of 500,000. metric tons of cyanamid, which, is roughly equivalent to 90,000 tons, of nitrogen. .When: one realizes the importance. of nitrogen and its derivatives in military operations, one can see to what purpose Germany’s early experiments in its production were directed. ) Germany did possess. a, highly developed by-product coke: and dyestuff industry, with all its collateral advantages in the manufac- ture of high explosives from benzol, toluol, etc., and she had a vast and highly organized and elastic industry, which is at least as essen- tial to military success as the natural resources and raw materials of a nation. Having thus. in mind a few of the more salient features in the situation of our chief antagonist as to ultimate supplies, and keep- ing still before us the compelling and inclusive demands of military necessity, let us consider briefly the more direct relationships of these demands to specific natural resources. ‘Coal puts the bone in the teeth of battleships; and though petro- leum may for.a time make the, bone look larger we shall ultimately— and it may be soon—return to coal for driving power. Its energy turns the propellers of steamships, transports, cargo. carriers, and the countless other. vessels whose sailing orders are determined by the needs of war. It hauls foodstuffs, munitions, and raw. materials. It smelts ores, converts hematite and limonite to steel. It furnishes light and heat and power. Through its distillation coal) supplies benzol, toluol, ammonia, and phenol for explosives; coke for carbide; acetylene and carborundum; graphite for electrodes and for lubri- cants; and coal tar for dyes. The distillation of a ton. of average coal yields 1,500. pounds of coke, 10,000 cubic feet of gas, 22 pounds of sulphate of ammonia, more than 2 gallons of benzol, and 9 gallons of tar. Under the stimulus of war the output of our by-product coke ovens was increased to more than one-half the total coke output in 1918. Such increase was highly important since it forms the basis for the coal-tar industries, including dyestuffs, high explosives, and synthetic drugs, as salvarsan. Germany has more coal than other European countries, but only one-eighth as much as the United States, which has 21 times as much as Great Britain. Moreover, the output of British coal was for a time jeopardized by the lack of mine timbers from the Baltic ports. ‘France has always depended largely upon Germany for coal and must 12573°—21——-16 230 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. still so depend, although her control of the Saar Basin gives France about 18,000,000 tons of coal a year. Since coal is a basic raw material, without which no modern war could be fought at all, it is gratifying to realize that not only is the United States the greatest coal producer in the world, but that we also have the world’s greatest reserves of iron ore within the North Atlantic Basin, where our coal reserves are largely located. Ninety- six per cent of the world’s reserves of coal are in the northern hemi- sphere; about 70 per cent are in North America, and over 50 per cent in our own country. Our production of soft coal in 1918 was over 585,000,000 tons, an increase of 38 per cent over the output in 1914. Industrial preeminence and therefore military power rest on coal and iron. Together, these constitute 90 per cent of the world’s min- eral output. Of all belligerent countries the United States is the only one with well-balanced coal and iron reserves. Ore goes to the coal, and the coal locations, therefore, determine those of industrial de- velopments and markets and consequently those of iron furnaces. Speaking generally, the limiting factor in coal production is the number of empty cars which the railroads can place at the mines, and our own coal troubles during the war were really due to the congestion of our railroads due to other freight. A similar conges- tion of transportation was experienced in all the belligerent coun- tries and emphasizes the need of avoiding coal transportation wher- ever possible. This has led to proposals for superpower plants at the mines in England and to great plans for common-carrier trans- mission lines for power in the industrial region along our own North Atlantic coast. Before the war it was a common practice to haul the coal from one field over other coal fields and past the mouths of operating mines much nearer the ultimate destination of the coal so transferred. The zoning system which we adopted put an end to much of this need- less transportation and led consumption to the territory nearest the producing field. Moreover, in a time of war a consumer’s right to any commodity must be conditioned by the relation of his activities to the national necessity, and the early recognition of this limitation led to the establishment of priority schedules covering coal and other essential raw materials. The railroads of the United States use 27 per cent of the coal we mine, and they use much of it in transporting coal itself. To save transportation, therefore, a system of rigid inspection was insti- tuted, for with crippled transportation facilities we could not afford to haul slate and bone and dirt. Nowhere in the world does there exist another general storehouse of useful minerals comparable to the United States, but natural eee ae oS a ee ee ee ee ee ee ee a a NATURAL RESOURCES—LITTLE. 231 resources in themselves have only potential values, which require for their realization industrial skill, technical knowledge, great reserves of capital, and efficient transportation. We have been able to demonstrate that, with the exception of the last, we are in posi- tion to bring effectively to bear all these factors so essential to quantity production. Even as regards transportation we are, so far as the steel industry is concerned, most fortunately situated; so fortunately, indeed, that the Great Lakes waterway, which permits a transportation rate of less than 0.7 mill per ton-mile, may properly be regarded as the determining factor in our position as the world’s greatest producer of iron and steel. In the decade ending in 1913 we produced 248,000,000 metric tons of pig iron. The German out- put was 140,000,000, and the combined production of the United Kingdom, France, and Belgium 154,000,000. Under the stress of war our blast and steel furnaces increased their output by 30 to 40 per cent respectively between 1913 and 1919, thereby justifying the conclusion that the United States must now possess one-half the steel-making capacity of the world. During the same period the British output increased 27 per cent. We have already had in the methods of fixing atmospheric nitro- gen an interesting example of the extent to which both the absolute and relative military position of a country may be modified by a new chemical process. An equally striking example is found in the metallurgy of steel. The original Bessemer process, using an acid lining in the converter, required for its effective operation pig iron with an extremely low phosphorus content. Thomas and Gilchrist in- troduced the basic converter process by lining the crucible with cal- cined dolomite and adding lime to the charge, dolomite itself being a mixed carbonate of lime and magnesia. They were thus enabled to operate on iron containing 2 per cent or even more of phosphorus, thereby making available the great reserves of ore in Sweden, Rus- sia, Central Europe, and Lorraine, and so introduced new and dis- turbing factors in the industrial, military, and diplomatic situations in many countries. . . The supreme importance to modern civilization of alloy steels in naval construction, ordnance, metal working, automobiles, and count- less other directions is too well known to require comment. The metals commonly used in these alloys are manganese, chromium, molybdenum, nickel, tungsten, vanadium, and latterly zirconium, which finds its chief use in steel for armor plate and armor-piercing projectiles. Its ores come from Brazil, but the metal may be ob- tained from the zircon sands of the South and from western mine tailings. The United States is well supplied with most of these es- sential metals, though there is a deficiency in ores of manganese and 932 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. chromium, our domestic ores being of such'relatively low grade that - their use would, involve important changes in practice. Practically all of our manganese, or 99 per cent, was, before the war, imported by our, steel makers from ‘south Russia, then from India, and finally from Brazil, but during the war we.so greatly increased.our domestic production as to become, for the time being nearly, independent. We were most fortunate in this regard, for in modern steel making man- ganese has become almost as necessary asiron itself. Chromium is,another of the most essential war minerals, although this is by no means monopolized in steel making. Its use has revolu- tionized the tanning industry, and,its compounds are much used in dyeing, particularly in the khaki shades. We have always produced a little chromite here, but: the world’s center of production was Turkey and later Rhodesia and New Caledonia. Before the war we obtained our chromite chiefly from Rhodesia and New Caledonia. It now comes from Brazil, Cuba, and California, but our own deposits will soon be exhausted if worked at the war rate. Nickel is perhaps the most widely. used alloy component of steel, its presence conferring such hardness and elasticity that nickel steel is used for steamship shafts, armor plate, shells, structural steel, and rails. The world depends for its supply. upon Canada, whose reserves are estimated to contain 150,000,000 tons of ore, an amount apparently sufficient to,meet the requirements for another century. Modern metal working, with all that it, involves in the use of tools and the construction of machines, may, be said to rest on tungsten because of the greatly increased efficiency of cutting tools of tung- sten steel, due to the fact that tungsten raises the temperature at which steel holds its temper. Tungsten ores are rare and widely scattered, the United States, Burma, Indo-China, Bolivia, and Portugal being the principal producers. The world’s output is only about 25,000 tons of tungsten ores figured on the basis of 60 per cent of tungstic oxide. These are smelted in electric furnaces for metallic tungsten or alloys like ferrotungsten. Tungsten has a further and important, although indirect, influence upon the efliciency of produc- tion through its use in mazda lamps, in which the tungsten filament functions so efficiently as to produce far more light with the same expenditure of current. It is interesting to note that not only did Germany hoard tungsten before the war, but that the submarine Deutschland carried. 55,000 pounds of the metal from the United States. The universality of the use of copper both in war and peace needs no comment, and the greatly increased demand for the metal, due to the expanding demands of the electrical industries, is manifest. The proportion of such use to that of iron has steadily increased from the ratio of 1 to 104 in the period from 1880 to 1885 to 1 to 53 in a i eee a. a) ng, iw. Set ee Soi eaeyree NATURAL RESOURCES—LITTLE. 233 1916. The demand for copper by the Central’ Powers caused roofs to be stripped and brass and bronze articles of use or ornament to be everywhere commandeered. Our own position in regard to copper may be summed up in the statement that the Americas’yield 75 per cent of the world’s output and the United States almost 60 per cent. We have in the flotation process as applied to copper production another good example of a new industrial method, due to research, which in the nick of time permitted a vast’ expansion in the output of an essential metal. Zine, which finds a great use in brass, composed normally of two- thirds copper and one-third zinc, enters obviously into the constitu- tion of a vast variety of military supplies. The demand for zinc led to an orgy of zinc smelting because most of the world’s smelters outside of Germany and the United States stood along the Meuse River in direct’ line of the’ German advance. As to this metal Germany was favorably placed, since one of the greatest zinc fields in the world is in Silesia. The Allies, however, suffered immense losses of brass during their retreat early in 1918, and toward the end of the war the United States became practically theirsole source of supply. The shortage of copper in Germany led in that country to the'substitution therefor of various alloys of zinc. Lead is one of our most useful metals and has been identified with military operations since the arquebus replaced the crossbow. It is almost indispensable for pipe, solder, bearing metals, terne-plate, small arms, bullets, shrapnel, and functions with perhaps equal effectiveness in the type so essential to propaganda. The United States has always imported much lead ore from Mexico. The supply was short in 1917, but increasingly stable conditions in that country enabled her to send us almost as much lead in the first half of 1918 as we imported from all countries in the previous year. For many uses antimony is closely associated with lead by reason of the greatly increased hardness of antimony-lead alloys.’ Anti- mony, therefore, also finds extensive use’in the type foundry and is a common constituent of bearing metals. Reference has already been made to the ubiquity of the indispen- sable tin can, and the shortage of tin was the cause of almost as much anxiety as that of platinum, the world’s output of 140,000 tons being inadequate to meet the demand. We ordinarily consume 70 per cent of the world’s supply, to which we contribute practically nothing. Tin finds important use as a constituent of solders, in which, however, it may, if necessary, be replaced’ by cadmium, and some cadmium was used in France as a deoxidizer in bronze for tele- phone and telegraph equipment. Aluminum is one of the most important and interesting of all the war metals, and its whole history is replete with peculiar interest. 234 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. For its production cheap water power is essential, and the raw mate- rials involved are bauxite, which we obtain from our Southern States or from France, and cryolite, a double fluoride of aluminum and sodium, for which the world is dependent upon Greenland. In 1883 the United States produced only 80 pounds of aluminum, whereas our output in 1914 was 80,000,000 pounds. Our producing capacity at this time is greater than that of all other nations combined. Aluminum is of vast importance in the construction of airplanes and dirigible balloons, since it is the lightest metal available. It con- stitutes the framework of dirigibles and enters largely into the con- struction of their engines and that of automobile parts and engines. It is an essential constituent of the explosive ammonal and of thermit in its many applications as a constructive and destructive agent. Aluminum has, moreover, great potentialities and some present use as a substitute for copper in the transmission of electricity. The Lewis ground gun has an aluminum heat radiator surround- ing the barrel, and the shortage of aluminum actually held up for a short time the manufacture of gas masks by reason of the difficulty of securing pure aluminum sheet for the eyeglass rims, practically all the metal having been absorbed in the making of aluminum die castings for shell and other ordnance. For the same reason hun- dreds of valuable brain hours were spent in the development of hard- rubber die castings and complicated brass stampings merely to save the little bit of aluminum required for gas-mask mouthpieces. Troubles of this kind could be largely eliminated by the military man if in his peace-time studies of design he would allow the neces- sary large factor of safety between war-time supplies and demand. This is especially true, for example, in the case of design of ordnance, such as shell, for if the nose of a shrapnel fuse is made in peace time of an aluminum die casting, it is too late when war comes to substi- tute anything else, for the change would affect the entire ballistics of the shell and its ranging. The mineral magnesite, which is a carbonate of magnesium and essential to the steel industry by reason of its use for furnace linings, was imported previous to the war, but altogether adequate supplies are now received from great deposits located in Washington. The metal magnesium itself is much lighter and stronger than aluminum, but, unfortunately, is very susceptible to corrosion by oxidation. Although useful, therefore, in some alloys, as in those with aluminum, its chief war value is for flares and pyrotechnics, to which reference has already been made. Production in the United States began in 1915 and in 1917 had reached 116,000 pounds and was increasing very rapidly. The electric furnace production of the metal from mag- nesium chloride requires cheap water power and coal. NATURAL RESOURCES—LITTLE. 235 With a possible exception of steel, no metal is more vitally essential to the conduct of modern warfare than platinum, though there is probably not more than 10,000,000 ounces—approximately 425 tons— in use in the world to-day, and of this probably 95 per cent came from Russia. The importance of platinum is chiefly due to its extensive use as a catalyst in the synthetic production of such fundamentally basic supplies as sulphuric acid and ammonia, and it functions sim- ilarly in the manufacture of many other compounds. It is indis- pensable for certain chemical equipment, and a, light film of platinum on glass is an essential part of Navy range finders. The importance of mercury as a war metal is altogether dispropor- tionate to the small amount used. It finds employment in periscope mirrors, thermostats, clinical and technical thermometers, and as mer- cury fulminate in priming charges. Corrosive sublimate, which is vitally important in surgery, is mercuric chloride, and the red oxide of mercury finds effective use in paints for ships’ bottoms. We de- pend chiefly upon California for our mercury, and the Central Powers drew upon Austria and possibly Asiatic Turkey for their supply. Graphite crucibles are essential to the industries employing non- ferrous metals, and for such crucibles we have heretofore depended upon the flake graphite coming from Ceylon, our own supplies of graphite being of the amorphous variety. Under the stress of neces- sity, however, entirely satisfactory mixtures composed in large part of domestic graphite were developed. The whole structure of modern chemical industry, with all the ramifications arising from military demands, is based upon sulphuric acid, made either from pyrites or from native sulphur. Of the latter our, immense deposits in Louisiana and Texas made it possible to increase our 1913 production of 34 million tons of 50° acid and 23,000 tons of acid above 66° to 6,000,000 tons of 50° acid in 1917 with 760,000 tons of the stronger acid, which finds its chief use in the production of explosives. Sulphuric acid is also largely used in the refining of petroleum and the pickling of metals. ; Portland cement, made from limestone and clay or clay-bearing limestone, is obviously a military supply of the first importance, en- tering into foundations and construction of all sorts—roads, dugouts, “ pill boxes,” and even ships, well named Yaith. Fortunately, both our producing capacity and our supply of raw materials proved ade- quate to all demands. Similarly, it may be pointed out that crushed stone for road con- struction proved so vitally important to military operations that it is said that in France, next to the transportation of troops and ammunition, the transportation of crushed stone had priority over practically everything else. 236 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. In spite of the vast and even overshadowing importance of pe- troleum and its products as war supplies, space permits only an inci+' dental reference thereto. The United States leads the world in’ petroleum production and provides about two-thirds of the world’s: supply. Fuel oil has revolutionized naval ‘design and tactics, and during the fiscal year of 1919 the Navy used 10,500,000 barrels:: Practically every piece of operating machinery in the world de- pends for its proper functioning upon the lubrication of its moving parts by petroleum products. Automotive transportation and the flight of airplanes depend for the present at least on gasoline. We have reached the peak of our petroleum production, and consump- tion has overtaken the supply. Fortunately, we have another source of gasoline in natural gas, from which we'secured in 1913, 24,000,000 gallons and in the first half of 1918, 175,000,000: gallons: Here, again, we have, however, no promise oh a dontitahia supply. | The effective use of the airship and the ‘observation balloon as instruments of war is greatly curtailed by reason of the dangers due to the extreme inflammability of the hydrogen upon which their lift- ing power depends ‘and the explosive character of mixtures of hydro- gen and air. When a bailoon was hit by an incendiary bullet’ the interval between the initial burst of flame and the final explosion was rarely more than 15 to 20 seconds. ‘The average life of a kite balloon’ on an active sector of the Western front was 15 days, ‘while some lasted only a few minutes. It became obvious, therefore, early in the war that if it were possible to substitute for hydrogen a non- inflammable gas of substantially the same lifting power the military value of both balloons and airships would be greatly augmented. Such a gas—helium—was known to exist in the atmosphere in the proportion of 1 volume in 250,000 volumes of air. Its existence in proportions reaching 24 per cent by volume had been demonstrated in the natural gas from certain wells in Kansas, Texas, and else- where, but prior to 1916 the total world production had not reached’ 100 cubic feet at a cost of $1,700 or more per cubic foot. On ‘armistice day we had on the docks 147,000 cubic feet and were building plants for the extraction of 50,000 cubie feet'a day. Thus through the dee- laration of war has a natural resource, so rare as to constitute'a chem- ical curiosity, suddenly been established as a military necessity of the first order.’ Helium can not be ignited or exploded; its diffusion rate through balloon fabrics is about two-thirds that of hydrogen ; it has over 92 per cent of the lifting power of hydrogen; it permits with comparative ease’ the passage of electric discharges, and had it been available in quantity would have placed the entire aero- nautical program on a vastly more effective basis. | NATURAL RESOURCES—LITTLE. 237 Nothing perhaps could better illustrate than helium the changing relation which specific natural resources may bear to military sup- plies. The usefulness and value of any natural resource for military as for industrial purposes will always be conditioned primarily on our own ability to employ them to advantage. Such values are not intrinsic, but are established by research, and their basis is scientific and technical knowledge. 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Dee dednijeeiesl “Hite fay RH AS res Ge Shetek ps EERE SE Eee Nee aR ae bar tor Vk cin Bae Tine aatoins hiner Ot al rae sees ict cE 48) RAD BE eae D8 (cea as Beiainn A a a a Hit howe sre wan Gade: ip Seay ORR eae MMe AL | Daa ce bat +255 oui et 4 <4 j Cpe gale i ik hkenlines (iae eininy RS at aa Bate oy ek Hee pete Chay Me Beas Nope kaka ee aia aie ea So Ohya Te taatites. “Che iene ei eee “ee Cae , iy fiat Lilt were nemet ste aihoh aay te idan Gate ae WS Hiss ees Pathe pasa Gee CAT RENE Re ities Pen ee Si rl ee * ae ~ ¥ i * ’ he) t tt ates x iN : ee Wr es a) phe Pte ee rn: i ) “ Fe BBY Fa ay yy 4 Vite thea, AS re Pes Se y S hy i ak ? ue Bt RB et day t rs tt Sie tain ar we ? Reva y PSE on 7 i ‘ ; eae ‘ fava Oy Y i Se Wee. lta : rs i we tn) f Lagan * wikal pe Le eae eae ees ay es re oe ile tele lke . oy , ‘ 5 4 ka ti A TRE UT GRE SERS SP CADE sana eek eae ee eee Ea os nals a Eat v rete ial GO Gea UAE ae i eee on Pikes Red ee eh De ‘ Piierits a. tig Cees 4 eae cava ab hus Wr IER RA Ys GER BE ohh Sia ae inane ft Y yhbg i wie aang, Sia ses rae het hee is' rian Bh Te: Gee iG hin ae 2 GLASS AND SOME OF ITS PROBLEMS.1 By Str Hersert Jackson, K. B. E., F. B.S. Before I begin the lecture, I should like to say how much I appre- ciate the privilege of being asked to give this, the second Trueman Wood lecture. Our chairman has stated the origin of these lectures, namely, to keep alive the memory of the long and distinguished work of Sir Henry Trueman Wood in promoting and increasing our knowledge of the arts and sciences in the best interests alike of this Society and of the Nation. I am sure I express the feelings of every- body present when I say how delighted we are that he is here to- day and when I express the hope that he may be able to attend many more lectures to be given in his honor. Tt was suggested to me that this lecture should have something to do with glass, and it was hoped that there might be experiments. The production of glass is difficult to illustrate efficiently in the course of a lecture. It will, therefore, only be dealt with very briefly and generally before turning to some of the problems connected with glass which I hope to make the chief part of this lecture. The chair- man, in his opening remarks, has spoken of the many varieties of glass. We hear of optical glass, window glass, table glass, indus- trial and scientific glass, opal glass, colored glass, etc., all of which have many properties in common while exhibiting differences which depend chiefly upon the materials used in making them, the various proportions in which the materials are used and, to some extent also, on the methods of manufacture. It will be convenient to take window glass as one of the simplest of glasses, and briefly to con- sider its composition. The essential materials required are sand, chalk, and sodium carbonate. When these are heated together in suitable proportions, there results a glass containing silica, or the oxide of the nonmetal silicon; lime, or the oxide of the metal cal- cium ; and soda, or the oxide of the metal sodium, combined together to form what is generally spoken of as a soda lime silicate. Of these ingredients the silica is the acid constituent, and the lime and soda are the basic constituents of the glass. Most glasses are com- posed of acids as oxides of nonmetals, and bases as oxides of metals combined together. The chief acid ingredients to be found in various 1Reprinted by permission from the Journal of the Royal Society of Arts, Jan. 16, 1920, 239 240 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919, glasses are silica, boron trioxide, arsenic trioxide, and pentoxide, phosphorus pentoxide, tin oxide, and antimony pentoxide. The chief bases are the oxides of potassium, sodium, lithium, barium, calcium, magnesium, zinc, and lead. Aluminium oxide, a constituent of sev- eral glasses may, in some, play an acid part and in others may act as a base. With certain reservations, this may be said also of anti- mony trioxide. The list is not exhaustive, but is sufficient to indicate that a number of glasses is possible from various combinations of these acids and bases.. (The materials used, for producing opals and colored glasses will be referred to later.) The number of glasses made is very large, and it would take at least all the time at my, disposal to describe in any adequate manner how.they differ from one another in composition and in those properties, which make each one suitable for the purpose for which it was devised. It may, however, be ap- propriate here to mention that in the great variety of optical glasses, there are many which do not differ materially in composition from glasses used for other purposes.. For example, a good window glass could be made with pure materials and stirred in the process of its manufacture, so as to secure. such a clear and homogeneous product as would serve as one type of optical glass. The chief general prop- erties which are desirable in. all optical glasses are identity of. com- position throughout the whole mass of the glass, great clearness and transparency for all the colors of the spectrum, freedom from strain arising through imperfect annealing, and durability under ordinary exposure to the atmosphere. It will be seen,, therefore, that apart from considerations of special optical properties, I refer to the re- fractive indices and dispersive powers of various optical glasses; the main difference between them and other glasses is that the. highest art of the glass manufacture ‘is called. for in their production, and great care is needed. to insure purity of the materials used and accuracy of proportions, so as not only to be able to produce glass of the optical properties required, but, to reproduce it with the closest possible identity of composition. With these very brief remarks on glass generally, we may turn now to some of the problems which I thought might. be interesting to consider, and the first one is how far can glass be called a solid? A solid is defined in a dictionary. as having a fixed form and being in a state in which the component parts do not tend to move freely among themselves. With regard.to glass, we may ask for how long is it fixed in form, and what are the limitations of freedom of move- ment which we ought toconsider? It is a common experience that long straight pieces of glass rod or tubing, left supported. so that their own weight tends to bend them, will bend in the course of time, and in some years will become definitely bowed. Varieties of glasses GLASS—JACKSON. 241 differ in the readiness with which they show this flow under stress; but not any glass is ‘so perfectly solid as to give no indication of move- ment under stress if tested by sufficiently delicate means. This ques- tion of permanent stability of form in glasses has some bearing on the choice of glass for the manufacture of large lenses and prisms, and the flowing of the surface of glass under mechanical pressure comes in as a very important matter in the explanation of the mechanism of polishing glass surfaces. A great deal has already been written on this subject; and it would take too long to deal with it here. An- other reason why I refer to it but intend to leave it is that I hope it will not be long before the published papers and other work of Sir George Beilby on the influence of mechanical disturbance on the physical state of a very large number of substances will be brought together into one connected story, when it will be seen that this sub- ject of polishing glass has been dealt with in a comprehensive man- ner, and that the principles underlying it are shown to have very wide application. The question of the relative plasticity of various glasses has two important bearings which are of some interest. For many indus- trial and scientific purposes it is necessary to be able to seal metallic wires into glass, and early in the war some difficulties were experi- enced in obtaining suitable glasses. To obtain successful joints be- tween the metal and glass without fear of the latter cracking, it was generally considered that the glass aimed at should be one which had a coefficient of expansion as close as possible to that of the metal. intended to be used, and there is no doubt that this question of expansion has to be taken into account. In making a large num- ber of glasses and in experimenting with them there did not appear to be'that close connection between the coefficient of expansion of the glass and its behavior with metal wires which was at first ex- pected. ‘The coefficient of expansion of copper is about double that of platinum, and the coefficient of iron is about midway between the two. Glasses were made which gave successful joints with platinum and copper wires, but which cracked inevitably with iron wire. It did not appear, therefore, that the coefficient of expansion was the only factor to be taken into consideration. It is an important factor, but not the only one, and it soon became clear from the study of various glassés that the plasticity of the glass had a great deal to do with its utility. A careful examination showed that there was evidence that in the case of soft metals, like copper and platinum, the glass in setting could pull and deform the metal wires so that no great strain was permanently left in the glass. With hard metals like iron and tungsten, it was necessary to devise a glass which had marked plasticity over such a long range of temperature that when 9492 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. the glass and metal joint cooled, the glass would flow and follow the contraction of the metal and so the stress would, to some extent, be relieved. And this is an example of the need of asking the question: Is glass truly a solid, and how far can a glass be made which will flow, very much less, of course, than pitch, but in an analogous manner? The other bearing of the question is on the cracking of glass vessels with rapid changes of temperature. It is clear that.if the strain set up by such changes can be quickly and readily released, the danger of cracking will be very small. The coefficient of expansion is, of course, a very important factor in this respect. Jt is well known that vitreous silica vessels can be heated to redness and plunged into cold water without cracking, and this is, no doubt, correctly considered to be due almost entirely to the low coefficient of expansion of silica. In the case of glasses also, the lower the coefficient of expansion of a glass the better will that glass stand rapid changes of temperature; but it is possible to make glasses approximately with the same coefficient of expansion and to find one—and that, perhaps, the one with a slightly higher coefficient of expansion—which will not crack under conditions in which the other cracks readily, and a study of the two glasses shows that the more stable one is the more plastic. On the whole, perhaps, it is not too much to say that glass may be looked upon as an extremely viscous liquid so slow in its movements in some types of glass that ages might elapse before any marked change in form could be observed under a strain just short of a breaking one for the glass, while in others it is possible to show that the glass does flow, even at the ordinary temperature, to a small extent in a relatively short time. The next problem to be considered may be also put in the form of the question: Is glass truly amorphous or vitreous or has it any crystalline structure or tendency to crystalline structure? There are many substances which can be obtained in the vitreous state and also in the crystalline state, and which can be changed from one to the other. As one example, arsenic trioxide may be mentioned. It can be produced as a clear transparent glass which slowly changes at. the ordinary temperature into an opaque white substance re- sembling porcelain in appearance. ‘The opaque white substance is crystalline. It is the crystalline variety into which the vitreous will be slowly but completely changed. Again, if sulphur near its boiling point be poured in a thin stream into cold water it sets as plastic threads, and for our purposes we may speak of this as the vitreous form of sulphur; left at the ordinary temperature, it slowly changes into the crystalline form. Two other examples may be given which, in a way, are perhaps more closely analogous with glass, since they are solutions of substances, GLASS—JACKSON, 943 and not merely single substances as in the previous illustrations. Solutions of sodium acetate and Rochelle salt, obtained by adding to hot water as much of the salts as will dissolve and cooled so that no unfiltered air can enter the containing vessels, and carry nuclei to start crystallization, remain clear and fluid at the ordinary temperature. If such a “supersaturated ” solution of sodium acetate be cooled in liquid air it is converted into a vitreous solid quite clear and trans- parent. On removal from the liquid air its temperature rises and very soon crystallization starts and proceeds right through the vitreous mass.’ The solution of Rochelle salt treated in the same way yields a similar vitreous mass, but as it warms up no crystallization takes place. It slowly goes back to the original liquid condition. The cold vitreous sodium acetate solution may be taken as analogous to a glass from which crystals readily separate on warming up, while the Rochelle salt is analogous to a glass which shows no tendency to crystallize through the whole range of temperature from the solid form to the point at which it is a mobile liquid. Glasses are known which tend to crystallize in all degrees of readiness. As a simple glassy substance, zine silicate may be taken. It can be ob- tained, by moderately quick cooling of the molten mass, ina vitreous form which is stable for a number of years—at least, some has re- mained with no sign of crystallization at the ordinary temperature for 22 years. By heating to a few degrees above its softening point, it changes to a translucent crystalline mass. Taking a more complex glass, but still a moderately simple one, we may study the behavior of heat on a lime soda silicate glass. The specimen of greenish glass with some large and many smaller opaque nodules in it was given to me in the early part of the war by Mr. Frank Wood as an example of glass taken out of a tank furnace. The nodules are calcium silicate, which is the least fusible silicate potential in the glass. They have been formed through the glass in the particular part of the furnace from which it was taken being at a temperature too low to keep this silicate in solution or combination, and it has separated out in the form shown. To get this glass back to a complete vitreous state again would require a somewhat higher temperature than is used in the manufacture of the glass, since the calcium silicate is itself very infusible, and the rest of the glass has to be made very fluid before such masses of this silicate can be dissolved in any reasonable time. . This glass, then, in a molten state, is an example of a solution out of which a slightly soluble constituent has separated, when the condi- tions were suitable for that separation. It may be interesting to turn for a moment to a consideration of conditions for crystallization and to go back to simple glassy bodies such as zine silicate and some borates. With all the vitreous substances which have been tried and 244 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. have been made to crystallize, there is.a certain’ temperature at. which crystallization proceeds readily, and \for small ranges above or below that temperature no. crystallization occurs. Associated. with altera- tion of temperature, there is change in, the viscosity of the vitreous substances, and hence in 'the freedom: of movement of their particles among. one another.. The effect. of this can be well,seen when’ a cr iste full of. molten zinc silicate is removed from the furnace... If the mass be small so that cooling is quick, it remains a glass and has to be: reheated before crystallization occurs. With a larger quantity and consequently slower cooling, the mass may become wholly erystalline,:or only partly so if, some of. the vitreous form reaches a temperature at which its viscosity is too great, and freedom of move- ment of its particles too small for rearrangement into crystals to take place..Seme borates are very convenient for illustrating the change from the vitreous to the crystalline state. Boric anhydride itself has not been made to crystallize, and as might be expected, the greater the proportion of it-in a borate, the less marked is the tendency of a fused mass of that borate to crystallize on cooling. Of the three borates, CaO.2B,0,, CaO.B,O,; and 2Ca0.B,O3, the first can be obtained vitreous by fairly quick cooling, and pieces of it can, with care, be heated again to remove the strain produced, that is to say, it can be annealed. The second crystallizes from fusion much more readily, cooling has to be quicker to keep it in the vitreous state, and only small glassy pieces can be obtained, which crystallize, however, on attempting to anneal them. |The third borate can pe be kept vitreous in very small globules. Statements, however, of the bulk which can be obtained of any readily crystallizable vitreous body require ‘a. certain reservation. It is well known that: crystallizable bodies in the fluid state may be cooled considerably below the temperature at which they would ordinarily solidify to a crystalline mass, if they are, freed from all foreign material... Water is. a well known example, and among many others which could.be cited; mention may be made of salol (phenyl salicylate). It melts at 43°.C., and if the crystallization of a film of the molten liquid be watched under the microscope, numerous small bubbles of gas can, be seen to form during crystallization. The gas appears to be modified air. If salol be melted, allowed to solidify, and remelted-in vacuo, so as to remove all this gas, and the process repeated several times, it is found that the molten salol must, be cooled many degrees (50 or more) below its melting point before crystallization. takes place. A small, crystal of salol will start it unless, as can be done on small quantities, cooling has been carried far enough to increase the viscosity of the fluid to such an extent that the particles have not the freedom of movement necessary for ses la i ac Rw i ried in? i ace Rica ee gh hates Cia ras GLASS—JACKSON. 945 the change to the crystalline form. So it is also with a great number of glassy bodies, and the bulk which will retain the vitreous form can be largely increased since by fusion and crystallization several times they solidify at progressively lower temperatures, until the time comes when they get quite cold in the vitreous state. For instance, the amount of vitreous zinc ‘silicate obtained has been raised from 20 grams at one heating up to a kilogram by 5 fusions. The calcium borate 2CaO.B,O, has, after several fusions, been cooled to 500° below its ordinary solidifying point. When it does crystallize and the temperature rises the recalescence is remarkably bright. Long continued heating a few degrees above their solidifying points similarly retards the crystallization of many vitreous bodies, but it is not so effective as the alternate fusion and _ solidification. One reason at least is not far to seek, if the two processes be tried so that gases evolved can be pumped off and their amounts measured. The process with alternations yields much more gas in any given time. With all the glasses, simple silicates and borates, which have been studied so far, the chief gas evolved has been found to be water vapor, and with the progressive removal of it the vitreous state has been found to persist more and more. Direct intro- duction of water subsequently has been found to promote ready crystallization. . In connection with the comparison of long-continued heating of a melt with alternate fusion and solidification, one extreme instance is worth noting. For a special optical glass, rich in phosphoric anhy- dride, an experiment was tried with ammonium phosphate to find if this substance could be used in the batch mixture for the glass. A nice, clear fluid melt was obtained, which was kept fluid for several hours after all traces of gas bubbles had gone. The melt was well stirred and cooled till it was quite viscous, when it was left to get cold slowly. The next morning the furnace top was found forced off, and resting on a spongy mass of about thirty times the volume of the original glass melt. The changes occurring when solidification was approaching had evidently been accompanied by the evolution of a large volume of gas, no doubt most of it ammonia, since this sub- stance was smelt on grinding the spongy mass up. The ground ma- terial was then fused and gave a stable glass. Reverting to the question, Is glass truly vitreous, or is there evi- dence of any crystalline structure in it? and bearing in mind that glasses are known which exhibit all states of preparedness to yield crystals at some temperature or other, and that the tendency to the segregation of some ingredient of a glass is enhanced by the presence of small amounts of foreign substances and notably of water, one would rather expect to find a good many glasses in which some 12573 °—21——_17 246 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. evidence could be discovered of the early stages of orderly arrange- ment of particles toward the crystalline form. So far, etching glass surfaces with hydrofluoric acid has failed to reveal any of the net- work of crystalline structure filled in with vitreous material which is sometimes described as representing the texture of glass. Tearing the surface of glass by letting a film of strong glue dry and contract on it is also stated to reveal a crystalline network. Both the etching and this method give markings, very like a network, no doubt, but the figuring of the surface seems to be more correctly ascribable to surface tension. Nothing which could be called definite evidence of crystalline structure is visible with any kind of illumination under the microscope of such surfaces, but this is not to deny that the texture of some glasses may be that of a network of crystalline com- pounds inclosing vitreous bodies. Certain facts, from which it appears reasonable to conclude that many glasses have something of a crystalline nature in them, have been obtained from a study of the phosphorescence of various glasses and other vitreous compounds exhibiting different degrees of readi- ness to pass into the crystalline state on heating. Much of the work was done about 20 years ago, but more recent experiments have not modified the conclusion then formed that a truly vitreous body ex- hibits no phosphorescence in ultra-violet light or X-rays or under cathodic discharge. Nearly every glass shows some phosphorescence and some show it very strongly, as, for example, the glass from which X-ray bulbs are largely made, and which gives the well-known green glow when the tube is in use. If some of this glass be fused and very rapidly chilled, as, for example, by making a Rupert’s drop from it, the glass is practically nonphosphorescent so far as its surface is concerned. A very little distance below the surface the chilling was not sudden enough to prevent some change of the truly vitreous to an attempt at crystalline structure, so that just below the surface, as shown by broken pieces of the drop, the glass exhibits phos- phorescence. The tail of such a Rupert’s drop, if heated below the temperature at which the thin thread of glass bends, is found to be strongly phosphorescent, and the glow under cathode discharge can be seen to fade slowly away toward the part which was not heated. Many observations with vitreous borates and silicates have shown similar phosphorescence, appearing more and more strongly as the vitreous bodies are made to approach the crystallizing stage. There does seem, therefore, reason to state that, given a body which in its crystalline state exhibits phosphorescence, it will not do so when it is in a truly vitreous state, and to infer that if a glass be phos- phorescent there is something of a crystalline nature in it. It would not be right to come to the conclusion that a glass showing no phos- GLASS—-JACKSON. 947 phorescence is free from anything crystalline, since there may be crystalline structure in it which is not in the sensitive state to be revealed by phosphorescence. It would take up too much time to elaborate this further, but generally it may be said that a number of experiments on glasses, borates, etc., go to show that in some non- phosphorescent glasses there is most likely some crystalline forma- tion, since the introduction of minute amounts of certain bodies not usually present in these glasses, as manufactured, will render them quite markedly phosphorescent; and again, the surfaces of Rupert’s drops made from these sensitive glasses show no phosphorescence. Before going on to deal shortly with some points about devitrifica- tion, I may point out that boric anhydride, which has a marked effect in preventing crystallization in glasses and in enhancing the stability of the vitreous form, is a fatal ingredient to add to a uranium glass if strong fluorescence in ultra-violet light be aimed at. It may be concluded from what has been said or suggested that the question whether glass is crystalline or not has a bearing on the problem of devising, manufacturing, and annealing optical glasses. It has, perhaps, a more obvious bearing on the problem of producing glasses capable of being freely worked in a furnace or in the flame of a blowpipe. To the flame worker especially, a glass prone to devitri- fication is a source of trouble. It would take at least a whole lecture to deal adequately with all the changes noticed in the numerous types of glasses which have been studied for their behavior in the flame. I will confine myself merely to mentioning that the segregation of less fusible vitreous bodies giving a kind of crinkled skin to the glass, separation of amorphous silicates, the formation of very minute bub- bles giving a gray look to the glass, as well as true crystallization, are all frequently referred to as devitrification. It is mainly about the last form of it that there is time in this lecture for a few remarks. There is great variety in the behavior of glasses in a flame. A soda-lime silicate can be made which is hardly workable at all in the flame, it devitrifies so soon; but the same glass may be worked, if heated by radiation—for instance, in a muffle furnace. At the same time, it must be understood that exposure in the muffle may bring about devitrification even quickly if the temperature is such as to bring the glass to the right state of fluidity for rearrangement of some of its particles in the crystalline form. It would appear, therefore, that the difference between the behavior of the glass heated in the flame, and heated by radiation, may be explained by the difference in temperature reached by the glass in each case, and no doubt this is a most important part of the explanation. Recalling what was said, however, about the conditions for crystallization of vitreous bodies, there is, apart from temperature, the question of purity to be taken 248 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. into account. The problem is whether the readier devyitrification of a glass in the flame can be ascribed solely to the surface of the glass being exposed to a very high temperature, and so for a thin layer reaching the right state of fluidity for crystallization or whether chemical action also plays a part, i, e., whether the hot gases of the flame act on the glass and assist the segregation of parts of it by dis- turbing the chemical equilibrium of the bases and acids of the glass. Attempts to get an exact reproduction of the behavior of a glass in a flame by exposure of thin pieces of the same glass to intense heat by radiation, have given results showing close similarity in some glasses and great differences in others. It would be somewhat out of place, and certainly tedious in a lecture such as this, to go into the details which seem to justify the statement that a survey of the relative be- haviors of a very large number of different types of glasses exposed to flames or to heat by radiation, and chemical examination of the prod- ucts, leads to the conclusion that water, and to a smaller extent carbon dioxide, do act chemically when many glasses are heated in flames, and that this action plays an important part in the initial stages at least of devitrification. As the most simple example, which I can choose, of marked difference in composition of a glassy body heated by radia- tion, or in a blowpipe flame, ordinary borax, Na,O.2B,0,, may be taken. Heated in a muffle up to about 1,450° C. until much of it has volatilized, the residue may, according to the time of heating and the temperature, have a composition represented by anything between Na,O.8B,0, to Na,O.15B,0,; but it has not been found. possible, under any conditions, in a klowpipe flame, to get a residue from borax with the proportion of boric anhydride greater than is represented by about Na,O.3B,0,. It is difficult to ascribe this difference solely to the effect of different temperatures. With some glasses, however, there is visible evidence of the disturbing influence of the hot gases of the flame. A glass containing barium oxide, which was heated and reheated many times by radiation of varying intensity, and which was most reluctant to show any signs of crystallization, became, in the blowpipe flame, or in a hydrogen flame, gray at once over its surface, and soon afterwards signs of crystallization were readily noticeable. The initial gray effect was seen under the microscope to be due to numerous very minute bubbles caused apparently by the rapid. absorption and subsequent evolution of gases. As the question considered here is the influence of the hot gases of a flame to hasten devitrification, there is no occasion to discuss the well-known effect of an ordinary blowpipe flame to blacken glasses containing lead or similarly reducible metals, except to say that experiments show that in many instances the process of alternate reduction and oxidation which sometimes occurs when such glasses GLASS—JACKSON. 249 are being worked in the flame, does also appear to hasten devitri- fication. Mention was made above of the influence of boric anhydride to retard the crystallization of glasses in which it is an ingredient. Alumina is another substance the presence of which confers upon a glass the property of working well in the flame without devitrification. More striking, perhaps, as a vitrifying agent is titanic oxide. A soda- lime silicate glass was made which could not be worked in a flame at all so readily did it devitrify. The substitution of a small amount of its silica by titanic oxide converted the glass into one which could be heated and worked in the flame almost indefinitely without visible change. The statement “without visible change” is true of the behavior of this glass; but some, and notably very soft glasses con- taining titanic oxide, become colored in the ordinary blowpipe flame through reduction of this oxide to a lower state of oxidation. Zir- conium, tin, and thorium oxides have been found to promote the sta- bility of the vitreous state in a number of glasses prone to devitrifi- cation in the flame. They are mentioned as being of the same chemi- cal family as silica and titanic oxide; but to deal with the effect of a number of rarer compounds not generally employed.in glass-making would take up too much of the rest of the time at my disposal.. Arse- nic and antimony oxides may also be put among substances which render glasses less liable to devitrification; but glasses containing these oxides are not suitable for ordinary working in the blowpipe, since they darken in the reducing area of the flame. Tin oxide, men- tioned above, is also not a generally suitable ingredient, since some glasses containing it darken badly through reduction in the flame, though others can be made which are quite workable except in the hottest kind of blowpipe flame. I must leave out of consideration the relation of general composi- tion and of varying proportions of ingredients to the tendency of glasses to devitrify, and content myself with the remark that for glasses of comparable composition those containing soda only as the alkali, are usually found to devitrify more readily in the flame than those in which the alkali is potash, or a good proportion of potash with soda. In this lecture it will only be possible to deal more or less briefly with opal and colored glasses. Many vitreous bodies which crystal- lize fairly readily when heated can be seen to pass through a stage in which the material segregating from them appears first as an opal- escence increasing in density as the heating is continued and finally passing into a visibly crystalline form. A glass approximating in composition to Na,O.CaO.,Si0, shows this opalescence well before small crystalline nodules appear similar to those in the tank glass 250 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. referred to earlier. Various silicates and borates of calcium, barium, and magnesium show the same kind of phenomenon more readily and by quickly cooling when a stage of dense opal appearance is reached, sections (or, what is just as good for the purpose, the finely ground glassy material mounted in Canada balsam) can be examined under the microscope and the opal effect shown to be due to the scat- tering of light by numerous small transparent globules. Any glass from which, on cooling, part of it segregates out in very small particles evenly diffused through the mass, may be called an opal glass whether the fine particles are crystalline or amorphous, but the usual opals owe their milkiness to globules in which no evidence at least of the crystalline state can be found. Under the microscope the globules, if sufficiently visible as distinct particles, appear vitreous and trans- parent, just as in milk the fat globules are seen to be themselves colorless and transparent. Among the many substances which can be used to produce opal glasses, the most common are fluorides such as calcium fluoride, cryolite (the double fluoride of sodium and alumi- nium), and calcium or sodium phosphate, less commonly the arsenates of these metals. These substances can be included in the batch mix- tures of ordinary soda or potash lime glasses, or lead glasses or zinc glasses. In the making, opal glasses are usually clear at a high tem- perature and “strike” opal on cooling. To what extent the glass has to be cooled before becoming opal depends on the concentration of the particular opal-producing compound which is held in solution in the very hot glass. Opal glasses produced with phosphates “ strike,” generally speaking, at higher temperatures than those made with fluorides, the compounds formed in the glass by the latter being more soluble than those due to phosphates, at least in the case of most opal glasses made on a commercial scale. Whatever opal-forming material is potential in the molten glass, if its concentration be great, the glass “ strikes’ opal quickly and with relatively little cooling and becomes a denser opal as cooling proceeds, until the stage is reached when no more material segregates. Just, however, as in the crystal- lization of an ingredient in a glass, cooling may occur so quickly that a state of viscosity is reached in which crystallization can not proceed, so with opal glasses the concentration of the opal-producing material may be such that only a little of it comes: out of solution before the viscosity of the glass gets too great to allow of further separation. With still less concentration, moderate-sized pieces of the glass may even solidify in a perfectly clear condition, but again, just as reheating will often cause a glass which has cooled vitreous to become more or less crystalline, so reheating the intended opal glass will cause it to “strike.” This can be illustrated by blowing a bulb from a tube of an opal glass. If the bulb be not too thick, sh amt ADI PD ge SUE BCE A el Se a pra GRR REN ed tee ESN nar ee oy SR ees GLASS—JACKSON. 251 and the concentration of the opal-forming material be not too great, the glass will go quite clear in the flame and the blown buib will remain quite clear on cooling. If the bulb be then again heated gradu- ally in a flame, the whole process from a mere trace of opalescence to a very dense opal can be watched. If during the various stages of opacity the light transmitted through the glass be observed, it will be seen to change from light orange yellow to darker and darker orange and orange red, until no more evidence of color is seen, but only a general translucence. If thin sections (or ground-up pieces mounted in Canada balsam) of the opal glass in the various stages be examined under the microscope no separate particles in the earlier stages will be seen, even with lenses of large angular aperture, though their existence can be inferred from the opalescence which is to be well seen under the microscope with suitable black ground illumina- tion. In the later stages of denser opal, separate particles are visible, and are seen to be progressively larger as the density of the opal is greater and greater. When an opal glass is required for articles, the making of which involves working the glass in a mufile or in the flame, it is important that the separated elobules shall not tend to aggregate or to pass into the crystalline state, otherwise the glass is found to have a rough surface. To guard against this, too great concentration of the opal-forming material must be avoided, and some workers prefer a glass which does not reach its full opal until it has been in the an- nealing oven. Asa general experience with a wide range of all kinds of opals, it would appear that fluoride opals are more kindly in working than phosphate opals. This is more especially true for the denser kinds of opal. For merely opalescent glasses, phosphates give quite good results, but with greater concentration of the opal- forming substance there is a. tendency toward crystallization, which is more marked as a rule in the phosphate than in the fluoride opals. A dense opal suitable for working in a flame should “ strike” opal even in thin pieces on removal from the flame, and should stand long- continued heating without losing its fine polished surface. When such a glass while opal is drawn out into a rod and longitudinal sec- tions of the rod are examined under the microscope, the globules are to be seen egg-shaped or even elongated into minute rods. If an end of the opal rod be heated again to softening point and sections of that end be examined, the opal-forming material is seen to have gone back to spheres, showing that even when separated out the opal ma- terial has about the same softening point as the rest of the glass. It is easily to be understood that if it has not, and the globules are of appreciable size, a glass containing them can not be worked without roughening. One more point may be mentioned before concluding 252 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. this short general account of opals. A glass may be required which, while remaining clear in thin pieces after removal from the flame, will “strike” on reheating so readily that the temperature needed to develop the full density of the opal is not high enough appreciably to soften the glass and so cause deformation. One way of securing this behavior is to add as an ingredient a small amount of a sub- stance which will produce a trace of a compound insoluble in the glass except at very high temperatures. In the flame this compound persists as a slight turbidity and appears to facilitate the “ striking ” by affording nuclei on which the opal material can collect. Colored glasses are sometimes divided into two main groups: (a) Those in which the coloring matter is diffused in very small particles throughout the glass, and which may be likened to colloidal solu- tions; and (6) those in which the coloring substances are in a state resembling that of solution, and which may be likened more nearly to aqueous solutions of colored salts. Just, however, as in aqueous solutions there may be traced or inferred all grades of subdivision of the coloring matter from separate particles which can be revealed by their scattering action on light, and which may be seen in the ultra microscope through smaller and smaller particles scattering light less and less obviously down to those in the extreme state of subdivision frequently described as that of true solution, so in glasses similar grades of subdivision of their coloring matter may be seen or inferred. It is in fact impossible sharply to divide colored glasses into these two groups; but it can be said of certain glasses that they are typical of group (a), and among the more common of these may be men- tioned those owing their colors to the presence of gold, copper, and selenium. It is generally considered that these coloring agents exist in the glasses as metallic gold, metallic copper and elementary selenium respectively, and the varying colors which can be obtained in each case appear to depend on the state of division of the coloring agents, or at least to be associated with it. How far there is evidence that selective absorption of light has also to be taken into account, is a question which can hardly be dealt with in a short time. With gold the colors most readily obtainable range from red to Liue through varying stages of purples. With copper in the metallic state the common color is red; but it is possible to get variations very similar to those seen in gold glass, and a copper glass giving a definite blue by transmitted light has been obtained. It is to be understood that this blue was not due to copper in an oxidized condi- tion, but to metallic copper. Selenium glasses are also generally red, but again states of division of this material can be secured which give other colors, although it is difficult, except on a very small scale, GLASS—JACKSON, 253 to obtain other than grays or neutral tints. With each of the glasses in which gold, or copper, or selenium is present, quick chilling of the molten glass will, as in the case of opal glasses, yield a clear and colorless glass, and the greater the concentration of the coloring agents, the more sudden must the chilling be to secure this result. On reheating these colorless glasses they, like the opals, “strike” and yield the colors which could have been obtained by slower cooling of the molten glasses. It may be of interest to deal with a gold glass a little more in detail. It is not easy to get a strongly colored glass with gold added, in the form of gold chloride, to the batch mixture of an ordinary soda lime glass. Among the substances which enable one to prevent gold separating from the molten glass in the ordinary metallic state the commonest used are the oxides of lead, tin, and antimony. Bismuth oxide acts similarly, and so also does uranyl oxide. There are physical and chemical problems of much interest involved in this behavior of these oxides; but it would lead us too far into technical details to attempt their discussion here. A gold glass containing oxide of tin may be chosen, because it can be made so that its behavior can be studied either in the furnace or in a blowpipe flame. With a suitable concentration of the gold, and very slow cooling of the melt, all the ranges from red by trans- mitted light to a pale blue can be observed, and if rods are drawn out from the pot at intervals, and examined in a beam of light, it will be seen that, starting from a fine deep red by transmitted light through the various stages of reddish and blueish purple and blue to the pale blue, there is progressively more and more marked scat- tering of the light, and the rods look more and more of an opaque brown color by reflected light, until in the later stages the appearance of precipitated gold is so marked as to leave no doubt that what has occurred has been a progressive aggregation of the gold into larger and larger particles. Microscopical examination of the glass at the different stages gives clear confirmation of this and of the great similarity in the manner of separation of the gold to that of the materials which give opal glasses. Remarks made under opals and crystallization of glasses about the influence of changing viscosities apply also, in a general way, to gold glass. There is one point in this connection which is worth referring to. If the suddenly chilled and colorless glass be returned, in small pieces at a time, to a pot in a furnace at a high temperature, about 1400° C., the glass can be melted end the gold still retained in it without appreciable loss by separa- tion into the ordinary metallic state; but if it be slowly heated up it passes through the stages of color previously described and, after complete fusion at a high temperature, practically all the gold will be found in a button at the bottom of the pot. Now, except in the 254 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. case of a very soft gold glass, heating and working the colorless glass in the flame will only give a red glass, and no passage through the other stages is seen, or, in general, if the glass at any of the stages of color be worked in the flame, the change of color is but slight. The explanation seems to be that, throughout the mass of the glass the temperature never reaches high enough to give the state of viscosity for free aggregation of the gold particles, while, on the immediate surface of the glass the temperature may be so high that the gold is retained in solution, as it is in the highly heated furnace. Tt is very difficult to get a gold glass to behave like some opal glasses, in the sense that it will go clear and colorless in the flame and remain so when quickly cooled; but a copper glass can be made in a similar manner with tin oxide, which will go quite colorless in the flame. Bulbs can be blown from it which remain white on cooling, and the gradual “striking” of a deep red color observed on gently reheating in the flame. It has been noticed in experiments with some copper glasses that, in the initial stages of “striking” the color which develops is not red, but a dark neutral tint with a suggestion of olive green in it. This may be from copper in the very finest state of division in which it can exert visible action on light, or it may be due to the presence of traces of oxidized copper in the glass giving rise to the well-known dark compounds of cuprous and cupric copper. Certainly very dark glasses of rather similar tint can be obtained by intentionally allowing some oxidation to take place in the making of a red copper glass, or by fusing together a reduced copper glass with one in which the copper is fully oxidized. At the same time it is worth noting, and is perhaps suggestive, that a chilled and colorless gold glass which goes through the stages of very pale red to a fine full red on heating in the flame has, after six months’ expo- sure to the @-rays of radium, only developed a dusky neutral tint. A piece of glass of the same composition, except that there was no gold at all in it, has not been affected by the radium. It would lead too much into theoretical discussion to consider in what form gold, copper, and selenium exist in the respective chilled and color- less glasses, and how far they may be looked upon as being in com- bination, or merely in so fine a state of division, that they have no visible effect on light. The chemical and physical evidence that, when they do give color they are in the elementary state seems to be fairly conclusive; but this does not necessarily exclude the pos- sibility of their being in something very like chemical combination in their colorless states. Perhaps it is needlessly striving after definiteness to attempt to distinguish between. bodies being dispersed in an extremely fine state of division, partly at least through chemical attraction for their solvent, and being held in a loose kind of chemical combination. GLASS—JACKSON. 255 Some consideration of such a question, however, is helpful in sug- gesting experiments, and some instances may be given. One is in connection with the composition of a glass to give the full possible color with copper. The notion of something like chemical combina- tion of the copper leads to the study of the effect of varying the relative amounts of the basic and acid ingredients of the glass. More of the basic part, such as the alkalies, might be expected to turn the copper out of combination, and more of the acid part to keep it in. It would be tedious to describe in detail the results of numerous trials with glasses, and the point can be equally well illustrated by simple experiments with borax beads. Copper oxide mixed with about twice its weight of tin oxide can be dissolved in molten borax in an oxidizing flame and then reduted in a reducing flame. On cooling, the bead is either colorless or “strikes” red, according to the concentration of the copper. If colorless, it can, with suitable concentration, be made to “strike” by reheating. Now, if to the bead which “ struck” red on cooling, more boric anhydride be added, and the bead again fused, it will remain colorless on cooling; but unless too much boric anhydride has been added it will “strike” red on reheating. Addition now of more alkali, in the form of sodium carbonate, will restore the property of striking red at once on cooling. Similarly it follows that a bead which remains color- less on cooling, but “strikes” on reheating, can be prevented from giving any color of copper at all by more boric anhydride, and the property of “striking” red on reheating can be restored by the fur- ther addition of alkali. Of course, in making these various addi- tions of alkali and acid to the bead there must be a change in the concentration of the copper; but a bead can be got in so sensitive a condition that a mere trace of alkali will determine whether a red color is developed or not, and a number of experiments on glasses and glazes do confirm the notion of chemical action playing a part on lines which would be expected from general chemical experience. When manganese dioxide is added to a glass as a so-called de- colorizing agent, it is intended to be left in an oxidized condition, so as to give a violet color which will disguise the green color due to iron and produce only a slight darkening of a neutral tint, scarcely visible except in thick pieces of the glass. ‘Sometimes the violet tint is overdone and can easily be seen, and sometimes so much of the manganese dioxide has been reduced that the green due to iron is fully visible, the lower oxide of manganese giving no color to the glass. In many instances of glasses in which one would be inclined from mere inspection to say that all the manganese dioxide had been reduced in the furnace, it has been found that a strong violet color can be developed by exposure to radium or by cathode discharge in vacuum tubes. In parenthesis it may be 256 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. remarked that potash glasses generally give a good violet and soda glasses a brown or a brownish violet. Using small amounts of manganese dioxide in batch mixtures, as free as possible from iron, it has been found possible to get glasses practically colorless to the eye, some of which readily give color on exposure to radium for a period during which others develop no color. In making the latter, the conditions in the furnace were arranged for complete reduction of the manganese dioxide. In making the former, as little deoxida- tion as possible was aimed at. In one instance thin rods drawn from the melt of one of these, in which very little manganese dioxide was used, cooled almost colorless, but “struck” quite a marked violet color on reheating. This chilled glass was also very sensitive to radium. More urgent work prevented further experiments, but the facts so far obtained are mentioned as relevant to the question of the chemical condition of coloring agents in glasses, and as an illustra- tion of one which would appear to be somewhat of a border line ex- ample of the groups (a) and (6), referred to previously. I am reluctant to dismiss the matter in this rather summary fashion, but the interesting speculations which will occur to many can hardly be dealt with shortly. I would, however, recall the well-known pink or violet color to be seen in some window glasses which have been exposed for years to daylight. In all examples which I have been able to examine, manganese has been found to be present, and I can imagine that the color has developed in daylight in a manner similar to that in which it has been found to be developable in manganese glasses by radium, by cathode discharge, or by heat. The color of the old window glasses is a little puzzling, if they are soda-lime glasses. One would expect them to be browner in tint; but perhaps on in- sufficient grounds, since no direct experiments have, so far as I know, been made with manganese glasses made with potash and with soda- batch mixtures and exposed to sunlight for a long period. It is a matter for regret that when the old tinted window glasses were ex- amined for manganese the idea of the influence on the color of the alkalies present did not occur. [Having regard to the effect of manganese greatly to enhance the phosphorescence of potash and soda-lime glasses, and to the known coloration of certain potassium and sodium compounds under cathode discharge, it is possible that the colors in the old window glasses described are not due to man- ganese dioxide itself, but that manganese may have rendered the alkali compounds in the glasses more sensitive to light of short wave lengths. The fact that glasses containing no manganese did not color under cathode discharge, etc., is not conclusive, since such glasses showed but feeble phosphorescence. The observation, however, that of two glasses containing the same amount of manganese, and giving equal phosphorescence, the one in which there is evidence of some GLASS—JACKSON, Q5'7 of the manganese being in the higher state of oxidation becomes very markedly colored by an amount of exposure to rays which has no visible effect on the other glass in which the lower oxide of man- ganese only is present, seems at least to point to some special behavior of manganese dioxide. ] The influence of different alkalies and the remarks already made on the effect of varying the relative proportions of bases and acids on the copper glasses bring me to a short consideration of the behavior of coloring agents which would generally be placed in group (0) as existing in glasses in a state more nearly resembling that of true solution than that which may be considered to obtain in the more colloidal solutions of gold, copper, selenium, and other substances such as silver, sulphur, carbon, etc., with which there has been no time to deal. I must confine my remarks to but few of group (bd), and perhaps nickel and cobalt will be the most suitable to illustrate the effect of different alkalies and also that of varying proportions of one and the same alkali. If three similar and moderately soft glasses be made containing, respectively, potash, soda, and lithia as the alkalies present in chemi- cally equivalent proportions, and if the same amount of nickel oxide be present in each glass, marked difference in the colors is observed. The potash glass is a fine deep violet, the soda glass is almost brown, with only a hint of purple in the brown, and the lithia glass is a yel- Jowish brown, with less strength of color altogether in it than there is in the soda glass. Similar differences can be seen in beads made from nickel oxide dissolved in the bi-borates of the three alkalies. Of these alkalies potash is the strongest and lithia the weakest base. The glasses mentioned would not be described as acid glasses, but as glasses containing a fair proportion of basic to acid ingredients. If highly acid glasses be made with the three alkalies and the same proportion of nickel oxide, the lithia glass is only slightly colored a brownish yellow, the soda glass is a lighter brown, with no trace of purple in it, and the potash glass is rather darker in shade than the soda glass, but a definite brown. Again, very similar results can be obtained in beads of the borates of the alkalies by varying the proportions of acid and alkali, and using the same amount of nickel oxide in each set of experiments. With potash as the alkali the proportion of boric anhydride and alkali and the concentration of nickel oxide can readily be adjusted to show a bead colored brown when cold, but becoming a definite violet when heated just below a dull red heat. A like change of color has been observed in experi- mental glasses made for studying the colors obtainable from nickel. With cobalt oxide as the coloring agent, the difference between the blue colors of potash and soda soft glasses is not very noticeable; but a similar lithia glass is less colored, and there is an appreciable 258 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. violet tint in the color. If, however, using any one of the three alkalies, a highly acid glass containing the same amount of cobalt oxide be made, the difference between it and the comparable soft glass is very marked. There is much less depth of color altogether. What there is is a somewhat violet blue in the case of the potash glass, a rather lighter and more violet blue in the soda glass, and a still lighter pink violet in the lithia glass. This nearly pink glass goes to a weak but quite distinct blue when heated. The effect of the alkalies potash and soda on the color of borates is not so marked in the case of cobalt as it is in that of nickel. Lithia in comparison with them always gives for equivalent pro- portions a much more decided violet tint in the blue. The influence of the proportion of base to acid, however, is marked, and can be very well seen by using any one of the alkalies in varying proportions with molten boric anhydride, to which a small amount of cobalt oxide (about 0.25 per cent) has been added. [Cobalt oxide dissolves in highly heated boric anhydride, but on cooling cobalt borate separates out, giving an opaque, very pale blue, glassy mass.| Taking lithium carbonate as the alkali and adding only a very small amount (about 0.25 per cent) the whole of the cobalt remains in solution on cooling, and the resulting glass is'seen to be blue while still hot, to change to a more and more violet tint on cooling, and to be almost a pink when cold. The addition of more of the alkali intensifies the blue color, giving greater depth of color, and the mass when cold is a violet blue. Similar variations in color can be obtained with equivalent quantities of potash and soda, but the effect of these alkalies is always to give a more pronounced blue as the amount of alkali is increased. Comparing the weakest base, lithia, then, with potash, the strongest, and progressively adding each to borate beads con- taining cobalt, no amount of lithia, up to the point when it is im- possible to keep the bead vitreous, will give as blue and as strongly colored a bead as the equivalent, or even less than the equivalent, of potash will produce. There is always a more violet tint in the lithia bead. In conclusion, a brief reference may be made to another coloring agent, copper oxide. This oxide is not soluble in boric anhydride when a bead of the latter is heated in an oxidizing flame, but by the addition of an alkali a clear blue bead is obtained. Should the alkali, e. g., potash, be added in very small amount, so as to give a highly acid mixture of about the composition, for instance, represented by the portions K,0.50B,0,, the coloration due to about 0.25 per cent of copper oxide is so faint that the bead is practically colorless, although this amount of the oxide is sufficient to give a markedly blue bead in potassium bi-borate, K,0.2B,0,. In this case, also, then the color becomes more intense as the amount of alkali used is increased. | GLASS—-JACKSON. 259 One is tempted to compare this effect of alkali on the copper oxide and boric anhydride mixture with that of water on copper sulphate, which, in the anhydrous state, represented by the formula CuSO,, is white. The addition of water sufficient to give the composition CuSO,.H,O leaves the substance still white; but with more water the well-known blue copper sulphate CuSO,5H,O is produced. Without going so far as to call this an example of hydrolysis by water, it may not be too much to speak of the development of color as indicating in CuSO,.5H,0 a greater tendency to the formation of blue copper hydroxide than is possible with the smaller mass of water in CuSO,.H,0. The notion that there is an analogy here with the progressive de- velopment of color in glasses and borates with increase of alkali may be suggested, but with reservations. Still, the changes from brown to violet in the case of nickel, from pink to blue in the case of cobalt, and the progressive development of the color of copper, all brought about by increasing the proportion of alkali, do seem to point, if not to a definite separation out of the oxides of these metals, to some- thing like it in the sense that with very little of the alkali present the oxides of the metals may be playing a basic part, but are turned out by more of the stronger base (the alkali), and may be either freed or caused to play the part of acids to the alkali. The study of a wide range of coloring agents in glasses has furnished some facts which, from a chemical point of view, lend plausibility to the notion and others which seem to need a great deal of interpretation to support it. As an idea it has been useful in suggesting methods of producing as well as preventing color in glasses. More facts, however, must be accumulated for a fuller and more correct shaping, in its physical and chemical aspects, of one of the many interesting problems con- nected with glass. panes CHIE Teas Xt Lert me ty eRe oe | | a i ate asd, ii ashi eri de 1 aIY a8 * THE FUNCTIONS AND IDEALS OF A NATIONAL GEO- LOGICAL SURVEY. By F. L. Ransome, United States Geological Survey. INTRODUCTION. During the period of unrest and uncertainty through which we are still painfully groping the many distracting calls upon my time and thoughts have made performance of the duty to prepare a presi- dential address particularly difficult. In view of these circum- stances I may perhaps hope for your indulgence if my effort shows some lack of thoroughness in its preparation and falls short of the high standard set by some of my distinguished predecessors. The subject of a presidential address to the academy should, I think, be of wider interest and more general character than would ordinarily be an account of work in the speaker’s particular branch of science, and this condition I have attempted to fulfill. Although what fol- lows will deal especially with national geological surveys, much of it will apply in principle to any scientific bureau conducted as a Government organization. REASONS FOR THE EXISTENCH OF A NATIONAL GHOLOGICAL SURVEY. In the beginning it may be well to review briefly the reasons for the existence of a national geological survey. Why should the Gov- ernment undertake work in geology while it leaves investigations in other sciences to private initiation and enterprise? The reasons that may be adduced will differ with the point of view. The geologist will suggest that whereas some sciences, such as chemistry, physics, or astronomy, may be pursued successfully with stationary and per- manent equipment at any one of a number of localities, geology is regional in its scope and is primarily a field science as contrasted with a laboratory science. Geology, it is true, must avail itself of laboratory resources and methods, but the geologist can not have the greater part of his material brought to him; he must himself seek it afield. Thus it comes about that comprehensive geologic 1 Address of the retiring president of the academy delivered Jan, 13, 1920. Reprinted by permission from the Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences, vol. 10, No. 4, Feb. 19, 1920. 12573°—21——-18 261 262 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. problems require for their solution the equipment of more or less expensive expeditions or travel over large areas. Such projects, as a rule, can not be undertaken by individual geologists or by local organizations, The preparation of a geologic map of a whole coun- try, with its explanatory text, generally recognized as essential fun- damental work, is an undertaking that requires consistent effort by a central organization extending over a period of years. Such a niap is not likely to result from the patching together of the results of uncoordinated local effort. From a broadly utilitarian point of view the intelligent layman as well as the geologist must recognize that the development of a country’s natural resources in such a manner as to secure their maximum use for the greatest number of its citizens necessarily depends upon reliable information concern- ing the character, location, and extent of these resources and that this information should be available before they are exploited by those who have eyes only for their own immediate profit or before they pass entirely into private contro] or are exhausted. Such infor- mation can best be obtained and published by an impartial national organization responsible for its results to the people as a whole. Such a layman will recognize also that knowledge of the mineral resources of a country must rest upon a geological foundation. As Prof. J. C. Branner has recently said in his “ Outlines of the Geology of Brazil”: After a life spent chiefly in active geologic work and in the direction of such work I should be remiss in my duty to Brazil if I did not use this occasion to urge on Brazilian statesmen the serious necessity for the active encouragement and support of scientific geologic work on the part of the National and State Governments. Knowledge must precede the application of knowledge in geology as well as in other matters; and unless the development of the country’s mineral resources be based on and proceed from a Scientific knowledge of its geology there must inevitably be waste of effort, loss of money, and the delay of national progress inseparable from haphazard methods.’ Finally the citizen of narrower vision will regard as sufficient justification for a national geological survey the fact that he himself can turn to it for information and assistance in the development of particular mineral deposits to his own material advantage. As a matter of fact most of the progressive countries of the world maintain geological surveys, so that the desirability of such an or- ganization appears to. have been generally recognized, whatever may have been the particular reason or reasons that set in motion the machinery of organization in each country. Recognizing the fact that most of the principal countries have established geological surveys and granting that there are -good reasons for considering the maintenance of such an organization 1J. C. Branner, Outlines of the geology of Brazil, Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull. 30;194. 1919. NATIONAL GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—RANSOME. 963 as a proper governmental function, we may next inquire, What should be the ideals and duties of a geological survey? How may these ideals be realized and these duties performed ? GENERAL LEGAL FUNCTIONS. The organic act of the United States Geological Survey specifies indirectly and in general terms the field that the organization should occupy. It states, with reference to the director, “this officer shall have the direction of the Geological Survey and the classification of the public lands and examination of the geological structure, mineral resources, and products of the national domain.” Doubtless the laws or decrees under which other national geologi- cal surveys have been established also prescribe to some extent their duties. Such legal authorization, however, is as a rule so general as to leave room for considerable latitude in its interpretation. I pro- pose first to discuss the functions of a national geological survey without reference to legal prescription or definition and afterwards to consider the extent to which some of the actual conditions inter- fere with the realization of these ideals. USEFULNESS IN SCIENCE. It has been the fashion in some quarters of late to emphasize use- fulness as the chief criterion by which to judge the value of scien- tific research under Government auspices. It has been intimated that this or that scientific bureau of the Government must do “ use- ful” work if it is to justify its existence and its expenditure of public funds. The statement is usually made with an air of finality, as if a troublesome question had been once for all disposed of and the path of the future made plain. As a matter of fact, however, when it is said that science must be useful in order to receive Government support we have really made very little advance. Probably the most idealistic scientific man will admit that ultimate usefulness is . the justification for scientific research, although that end may not enter into his thoughts when he undertakes any particular investi- gation with the hope of increasing human knowledge. Men will differ very widely, however, as to what is meant by usefulness in science. It is well known to all scientific men, although not yet as widely recognized by others as it should be, that the utility of re- search is not generally predictable. For example, the investigations on electricity for hundreds of years preceding the middle of the nineteenth century had, so far as could be seen, no practical bear- ing. The experiments of Volta, of Galvani, and even those of our own Franklin, outside of his invention of the lightning rod, were not conducted with any thought of utility and were probably looked 264 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 1919. upon by the people of the time as diversions of the learned, not likely to have much effect upon human life and progress. How erroneous such a view was it is unnecessary to point out to a gen- eration accustomed to daily use of the trolley car, telegraph, tele- phone, and electric light. Not only is the utility of science not always predictable, but it is of very different kinds. That astronomy has certain practical applications in navigation and geodesy is well known; but important as these applications are they seem insig- nificant in comparison with the debt that we owe to this science for enlarging our intellectual horizon. This, too, is usefulness which I venture to think is of a truer and higher sort than much that passes current for utility. The classic researches of Pasteur on the tartaric acids, on fermentation, on the anthrax bacillus, on the silkworm dis- ease, and on rabies were so-called applied science of the very highest type, indistinguishable in the spirit and method of their pursuit from investigations in pure science. They were not merely the application of knowledge to industry, but were extraordinarily fruitful scientific investigations undertaken to solve particular industrial and humani- tarian problems. They are especially interesting in the present con- nection as probably the most conspicuous example in the history of research of the merging of pure and applied science. Pasteur was doubly fortunate in that he not only enormously enlarged human knowledge but was able to see, at least in part, the practical applica- tion of his discoveries to the benefit of humanity. The value of his results measurable in dollars is enormous, yet this is not their only value. Prof. Arthur Schuster, in a recent address, remarks: The researches of Pasteur, Lister, and their followers, are triumphs of science applied directly to the benefit of mankind; but I fancy that their hold on our imagination is mainly due to the new vista opened out on the nature of disease, the marvelous workings of the lower forms of life, and the almost human at- tributes of blood corpuscles, which have been disclosed. The effect on a community is only the summation of the effect on individuals, and if we judge by individuals there can be little doubt that, except under the stress of abnormal circumstances, pure knowledge has as great a hold upon the public mind as the story of its applications. Quite independently of any recognized usefulness, investigations that yield results that are of interest to the public are willingly sup- ported by the people, and this fact is significant in connection with what I shall have to say later on the function of education. As illustrations of this truth may be cited our Government Bureau of Ethnology and our large public museums. Probably few who read the admirable Government reports on the aboriginal antiquities of our country and on the arts and customs of the Indian tribes could point out any particular usefulness in these studies; but they have to do with human life, and their popular appeal is undeniable. The NATIONAL GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—RANSOME. 265 average visitor to a museum probably has little conception of what to a scientific man is the real purpose of such an institution. He gazes with interest at the contents of the display cases without realiz- ing that by far the greater part of the material upon which the scientific staff is working or upon which investigators will work in future is hidden away in drawers and packing cases. The principal recognizable result, so far as he is concerned, is that he is interested in what he sees and feels that he is being pleasantly instructed. In other words, it is as important for man to have his imagination quickened as to have his bodily needs supplied, and in ministering to either requirement science is entitled to be called useful or valuable. It may be remarked in passing that Pasteur’s work had this in common with pure science, or science pursued with the single aim of adding to human knowledge, in that Pasteur himself could not foresee all of the applications that would in future be made of his discoveries. Enough, I think, has been said to show that the term “ usefulness ” as applied to science covers a wide range and that when employed by people of imagination and liberal culture it may include much more than when used by those whose only standard of value is the unstable dollar. FUNCTIONS UNDER AN IDEAL AUTOCRACY. Tf government were in the hands of a wise and benevolent autocracy a national geological survey would be so conducted as to be useful to the people whose taxes go toward its support, but it would probably be useful in the broader sense that I have outlined. It would give the people not perhaps what they thought’ they wanted but what, in the wisdom of their government, seemed best for them. I believe that a survey so directed would aim to encourage and promote the study of geology by undertaking those general problems and regional investigations that would be likely to remain untouched if left to private enterprise. It would lay the foundation for the most eco- nomical and efficient development of the natural resources of the country by ascertaining and making known the location, character, and extent of the national mineral resources. As an aid to the intelligent utilization of these resources and to the discovery of de- posits additional to those already known, it would properly occupy itself with problems concerning the origin and mode of formation of mineral deposits. Last, but not least, it would accept the responsi- bility, not only for making known the material resources of the country but for contributing to the moral and intellectual life of the Nation and of the world by seeing to it that the country’s resources in opportunities for progress in the science of geology are fully utilized. I may illustrate my meaning by examples taken from the 266 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. publications of the United States Geological Survey. In my opinion, such work as Dutton’s Tertiary History of the Grand Canyon, Gil- bert’s Lake Bonneville, and the investigations of Marsh, Cope, and their successors on the wonderful series of reptile, bird, and mammal remains found in the Cretaceous and Tertiary strata of the West are fully as adequate and appropriate a return for the expenditure of public funds as a report describing the occurrence of a coal bed and giving the quantity of coal available in a given field. Many years ago when the United States Geological Survey was under heavy fire in Congress one Member of that body in some unexplained way learned that Professor Marsh had discovered and had described in a Government publication a wonderful fossil bird with teeth—a great diver up to 6 feet in length. He held this up to ridicule as a glaring example of the waste of public funds in useless scientific work, quite unaware of the light that this and similar discoveries threw upon the interesting history of the development of birds from reptiles and upon evolution, or of the intellectual value of such a contribution to knowledge. The representative of a people educated in the value of geologic science would, by such an exhibition of ignorance, discredit himself in the eyes of his constituents. FUNCTIONS IN A DEMOCRACY. Our Government, however, is not an all-wise benevolent autocracy, but is democratic in plan and intent and suffers from certain well- known disadvantages from which no democracy has yet been free. The wishes of the politically active majority control, and these wishes may or may not coincide with those of the wisest and most en- lightened of the citizens. The funds for Government work in science must be granted by Congress, and the vote of each Congressman is determined by the real or supposed desires of his constituents. A national scientific bureau, if it is to survive, must have popular sup- port, and to obtain and hold such support it must do at least some work that the majority of the people can understand or can recognize as being worth the doing. Here evidently compromise with scientific ideals is necessary. Something must be sacrified in order that some- thing can be done.. Such concessions and compromises are inseparable from democratic government, and the scientific man of high ideals who is unable to recognize this fact will inevitably fail as a director of the scientific work of a government bureau. Such a man is likely to insist that no concessions are necessary and that the public will support science which is not interesting to it or from which it can see no immediately resulting material benefit. One very eminent geologist with whom I was once conversing held this view. He said that he had always found that he could go before a legislative body NATIONAL GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—-RANSOME. 267 and secure appropriations for scientific research by being absolutely frank and making no attempt to show that the results of the work would be what the average man would term “useful” within the immediate future. His confidence was possibly well grounded, but I am inclined to think that the success gained by him was rather a tribute to his earnest eloquence and winning personality than a proof that the people are yet ready to contribute their taxes to the support of investigations that, so far as they can see, are neither useful nor interesting. | | CHARACTER OF COMPROMISES. Lest it be supposed that I am advocating the surrender of the high ideals of science to the political business of vote getting, I hasten to point out that surrender and compromise are not synonymous and may be very far apart. Some compromise there must be, but in my opinion the most delicate and critical problem in the direction of a national scientific bureau is to determine the nature and extent of this compromise so as to obtain the largest and steadiest support of real research with the least sacrifice. Complete surrender to popu- larity may mean large initial support but is sure to be followed by deterioration in the spirit of the organization and in the quality of its work, by loss of scientific prestige, and by final bankruptcy even in that popular favor which had been so sedulously cultivated. The extent to which concessions must be made will depend largely, of course, upon the general level of intelligence of the people and upon the degree to which the less intelligent are influenced through the press and other channels by those who are able to appreciate the value of science... The more enlightened the people the more general and permanent will be their support of science. IMPORTANCE OF POPULAR. EDUCATION IN GEOLOGY. This leads us to the consideration of what I believe to be one of the most important of the functions of a government scientific bureau, namely, education. Of all forms of concession, if needed it is really a concession, this is the least. objectionable and most fruitful. Its results are constructive and cumulative. It is not, like other conces- sions to popularity, corrosive of the scientific spirit of an organiza- tion, and in so far as it calls for clear thinking and attractive presen- tation by those who put it into practice, as well as the ability to grasp and expound essentials, its educational effect may be subjective no less than objective. Whatever may be true of those engaged in other sciences, geologists in this country have shown little interest. in popu- larizing their ‘science or in encouraging its pursuit by amateurs. Such attempts as have been made have often been inept and unsuc- 268 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919, cessful, and other professional geologists have looked with more or less disdain upon those of their fellows who have tried to expound their science to the people. They have felt that men with unusual ability for research should devote all of their energy to the work of enlarging the confines of knowledge rather than to that of disseminat- ing and popularizing what is known to the few. There is undoubt- edly much to be said for this view, and when applied to certain ex- ceptional men. it -is strictly correct. When, however, we think of Darwin and compare the magnitude of his achievements with the pains that he took to make his conclusions comprehensible by the multitude, we are inclined to feel that only by extraordinary ability and performance in certain directions can an investigator in natural science be altogether absolved from the duty of making himself in- telligible to more than a few specialists in his own line. There are un- doubtedly many scientific men, thoroughly and earnestly convinced of the importance of their researches, who would in the long run be doing more for humanity and perhaps for themselves if they would spare some time to tell us as clearly and attractively as possible what it is that they are doing. While I believe this to be true of scientific men in general, it is particularly true of those who are officially serv- ants of a democracy. A democratic government might almost be characterized as a government by compromise, and this is one of the major compromises that confronts scientific men in the service of such a government. The conclusion that a very important function of a national geological survey is the education of the people in geology and the increasing of popular interest in that science appears to be unavoidable, yet it is surprising how little this function has been recognized and exercised... The results of such education are a direct and permanent gain to science, whereas, on the other hand, the consequence of prostituting the opportunities for scientific work to satisfy this and that popular demand for so-called practical results in any problem that happens to be momentarily in the public eye is a kind of charlatanry that is utterly demoralizing to those who prac- tice it and that must ultimately bring even popular discredit on science. A bureau that follows such a policy can neither hold within it nor attract to its service men animated by the true spirit of investigation. METHODS OF EDUCATION. It is not practicable in the present address to discuss in detail the many possibilities of educational work in geology. Only a few general suggestions can be offered. In the first place the importance of education by a national geological survey should be frankly recognized, and the idea that it is beneath the dignity of a geologist to participate in this func- NATIONAL GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—RANSOME, 269 tion should be discountenanced. A geological survey should in- clude on its staff one or more men of high ability who are especially gifted in interesting the public in the purposes, methods, and re- sults of geologic work—men of imagination who can see the romance of science; men of broad sympathy who know the hearts and minds of their countrymen from one border to the other; men imbued with the truthful spirit of science; and, finally, men skilled in the art of illuminating the cold, impersonal results of science with a warm glow of human interest. It should be the duty of these men to see that so far as possible all the results of geologic work are interpreted to the people so that every citizen can benefit to the limit of his individual capacity. Magazines, the daily papers, moving pictures, and all other possible means of publication should be utilized. There should be close contact with educators, and special pains should be taken to pre- pare material for use in schools and colleges. Carefully planned courses at university summer schools and elsewhere might be given by members of the educational or publicity staff or by certain selected geologists from the field staff. Geologists in preparing papers and reports should consider with particular care the question, Who may be reached by this? Some scientific results can not be popularized, and papers on these may be written in the concise, accurate language of science. Others, however, may, by taking sufficient care and trouble, be made interest- ing to more than a small circle of scientific colleagues. Every effort should be made to enlarge this circle by simple and attractive pres- entation. I am inclined to think that in some cases a geologist might issue separately or as a part of his complete report an abstract or résumé in which all effort is concentrated on an endeavor to be interesting and clear to as many people as possible. If this were done, I am sure that the writer would be in a position to appraise more truly the value of his complete report and might proceed to rewrite some portions of it and to omit others, without loss to science and at a saving in paper and printing. RELATIONS WITH UNIVERSITIES. In connection with the subject of education attention may be called to the fundamental importance of establishing and main- taining close and cordial relations between a government scientific bureau and the universities. The advantages of such relations are so many that it is difficult to enumerate them all, but it may be pointed out that any plan of popular education in science will be seriously crippled if the professional teachers, whose influence in molding the thoughts and determining the careers of the young 270 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. men and women of the country is so great, are out of sympathy with the government organization that is attempting to quicken the interest of the people in a particular branch of science. Moreover, itis vital to such an organization that it should attract to its service young men of exceptional ability in science. This it is not likely to do if professors of geology feel that they must conscientiously advise their most promising graduates to avoid government service. Doubtless some teachers of geology in the universities fail to realize the necessity for some of the compromises inevitable in a govern- ment bureau or in their impatience at some of the stupidities of bureaucratic procedure are inclined to place the blame for these where it does not belong; a few may cherish personal grievances. No class of men is without its unreasonable members, and neither rectitude nor tact can prevent occasional clashes; but if a national geological survey can not command the respect and hearty support of most of the geological faculties of the universities the con- sequences to the progress of geology must be deplorable. Any ap- proach to such a condition demands immediate action, with less emphasis on the question, “ Who is to blame? ” for in all probability there may be some fault on both sides, than on “ What can be done to restore relations of mutual regard and helpfulness?” THE AMATEUR IN GHOLOGY. In the present age of specialization we are apt to forget how much geology owes to amateurs, particularly in Britain and France. Sir Archibald Geikie in the concluding chapter of his Founders of Geology dwells particularly on this debt. He says: In the account which has been presented in this yolume of the work of some of the more notable men who have created the science of geology, one or two leading facts stand out prominently before us. In the first place, even in the list of selected names which we have considered, it is remarkable how varied have been the ordinary avocations * of these pioneers. The majority have been men engaged in other pursuits, who have devoted their leisure to the cultivation of geological studies. Steno, Guettard, Pallas, Ftichsel, and many more were physicians, either led by their medical training to interest themselves in natural history, or not seldom, even from boyhood, so fond of natural history as to choose medicine as their profession because of its affinities with that branch of science. Giraud-Soulavie and Michell were clergymen. Murchison was a retired soldier. Alexandre Brongniart was at first engaged in superintending the porcelain manufactory of Sévres.. Demarest was a hard-worked civil serv- ant who snatched his intervals for geology from the toils of incessant official occupation. William Smith found time for his researches in the midst of all the cares and anxieties of his profession as an engineer and surveyor. Hutton, Hall, DeSaussure., Von Buch, Lyell, and Darwin were men of means, who. scorned a life of slothful ease, and dedicated themselves and their fortunes to the study of the history of the earth. Playfair and Cuvier were both teachers 3“ Vocations ’’ would seem to be the right word here. F, L. R. NATIONAL GEOLOGICAL SURVEY——-RANSOME. 271 of other branches of science, irresistibly drawn into the sphere of geological inquiry and speculation. Of the whole gallery of worthies that have passed before us, a comparatively small proportion could be classed as in the strictest sense professional geologists, such as Werner, Sedgwick, and Logan. Were we to step outside of that gallery, and include the names of all who have helped to lay the foundations of the science, we should find the proportion to be still less. From the beginning of its career, geology has owed its foundation and its ad- vance to no select and privileged class. It has been open to all who cared to undergo the trials which its successful prosecution demands. And what it has been in the past, it remains to-day. No branch of natural knowledge lies more invitingly open to every student who, loving the fresh face of Nature, is willing to train his faculty of observation in the field and to discipline his mind by the patient correlation of facts and the fearless dissection of theories. To such an inquirer no limit can be set. He may be enabled to rebuild parts of the temple of science, or to add new towers and pinnacles to its superstructure. But even if he should never venture into such ambitious undertakings, he will gain, in the cultivation of geological pursuits, a solace and enjoyment amid the cares of life, which will become to him a source of the purest joy. In this country at the present time, as Mr. David White, in an as yet unpublished address, has, I believe, pointed out, the amateur geolo- gist is rare, owing partly to the way in which the subject is taught, and few indeed are the contributions made to the science by those who follow geology as an avocation or hobby. This is unfortunate, and an improvement of this condition should be one of the major objects of the educational program of a national geological survey. The science lends itself particularly to pursuit as a recreation by men of trained intellect who must find in the open air some relief from sedentary professions. In a country still so new as ours geologic problems lie on every hand, and many of them can be solved wholly or in part without elaborate apparatus or laboratory facilities. The standards for the professional geologist should be high, but there is no necessity that maintenance of such standards should be accom- panied by a patronizing or supercilious attitude toward the work of the amateur. Rather, let the professional geologist cultivate sympathy, tolerance, and generosity toward all who are earnestly seeking for the truth; let him help by encouragement instead of deterring by disdain. There is no better evidence of a wide interest in geology than the existence of numerous amateur workers, and it is decidedly to the advantage of the professional geologist and of the science to encourage in every way possible the efforts of such workers and to increase their number. KINDS OF WORK TO BE UNDERTAKEN BY A NATIONAL GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. There has been considerable difference of opinion as to the kinds of work that should be undertaken by a national geological survey. 272 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. Shall its field be confined to what may be included under geology or shall it embrace other activities, such as topographic mapping, hy- drography and hydraulic engineering, mining engineering, the classi- fication of public lands, the collection and publication of statistics of mineral production, and the mechanical arts of publication such as printing and engraving. These various lines of activity may be divided into two main classes—those that are more or less contribu- tory to or subordinate to the publication of geologic results, and those that have little, if any, connection with geology. I am one of those who believe that a geological survey should be essentially what its name implies—that it should confine its activity to the science of geology. This opinion is held, however, in full realization of the fact that here, as elsewhere, some compromise may be necessary. This may be dictated by law or may be determined by policy. 7 The organic law of the United States Geological Survey, for ex- ample, includes among the duties of the organization “ the classifica- tion of the public lands.” ‘There may be some difference of opinion as to what the framers of the law meant by this provision, but it is at least a reasonable conclusion that they intended the sort of classi- fication adopted by the General Land Office. If so, the determina- tion of the so-called “ mineral” or “nonmineral” character of public lands is undoubtedly a proper function of the United States Geolog- ical Survey, although it is one that was neglected by that survey for many years and has not yet received the recognition of a specific ap- propriation, except recently in connection with the stock-raising and enlarged-homestead acts. TOPOGRAPHIC MAPPING. Inasmuch as the preparation of a topographic map is a necessary preliminary to accurate and detailed geologic mapping, a geological survey is vitally interested in seeing that satisfactory maps are available as needed. Whether a particular geological survey should itself undertake this mapping depends upon circumstances. If an- other Government organization is equipped for doing this work and can provide maps of the requisite quality when needed, it would ap- pear that the Geological Bureau should leave this work to the other organization, particularly as the maps required to keep abreast of geologic requirements are likely to constitute only a part of the work of the topographic bureau. There are certain decided advantages, however, in having the topographic work done by the Geological Survey, and these advantages must be weighed against other consid- erations. With the topographic and geologic work under a single control, the geologist is more likely to be assured of getting the kind NATIONAL GEOLOGICAL SURVEY——-RANSOME. 93 of map he desires at the time it is needed. Cooperation between geologists and topographers is apt to be both closer and more flexible than it would be if the two staffs were in separate organizations. Finally, the field work in topography and geology is in some respects alike and is carried out by similar methods and equipment. Occa- sionally the two kinds of work can be combined and carried on simul- taneously. The general question—whether a national geological survey shall do its own topographic mapping—appears to be one that can not be answered once for all but must be determined for each country. In an old country, where accurate and detailed maps have long been made by military and other organizations, a geological survey may be under no necessity of providing its own topographic base maps. In a new country, where exploration is still in progress, the Geologi- cal Survey may have to make its own topographic surveys. The main point, as I see it, is that the Geological Survey must have maps of the standard required by it with the least possible delay but should not undertake to make them itself if other organizations that can and. will provide the maps needed are already in the field. STATISTICS OF MINERAL PRODUCTION. We have seen that there is at least a very close connection between topographic and geologic mapping and that in this connection may lie a sufficient reason why both kinds of work should be undertaken by the same organization. Is there as good a reason why the study of geology and the collection of statistics of mineral production should be united ? When shortly after the organization of the United States Geo- logical Survey the collection of statistics was begun, those geologists who were most influential in urging that the survey should under- take statistical work adduced as the principal reason that the people desired such figures, and if the Geological Survey did the work it would be able to secure larger appropriations than if the task were left for others. It does not appear to have been thought at that time that geologists were the only men who could satisfactorily do statis- tical work or that it was necessary to impose this task on them. Subsequently, however, the work was apportioned among the geolo- gists. The reasons for this step appear to have been, first, that the results of having the statistical reports prepared under contract by specialists who were not on the regular staff of the organization had proved unsatisfactory; second, that by apportioning the work among the geologists already on the staff not only would the apparent cost in money be less than under the former arrangement, but it would, in a bookkeeping sense, be very much cheaper than taking on new men 274 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919, for this particular work; finally, it was argued that geologists could apply their knowledge of the field relations of ore deposits to improve the character of statistical reports and would themselves benefit by additional opportunities to visit and examine many deposits that they might not otherwise see. : It is undoubtedly true that the statistical reports of the United States Geological Survey have greatly improved in accuracy, fullness, and general interest since this plan was adopted. It is also true that some geologists have turned their opportunities as statistical experts to good account both in enlarging their experience and by gathering material that has been worked into geological papers. Nevertheless, the policy has, in my opinion, been a mistake both economically and scientifically. It has insidiously filched the time of highly trained men who have shown originality and capacity for geologic research and has tied these men down to comparatively easy and more or less routine tasks. Some geologists who were once scientifically productive no longer contribute anything to geological literature but are immersed in work that men without their special geological training could do as well. To a certain extent the policy is destructive of scientific morale. A young geologist sees that a man who publishes, annually or at shorter periods, reports on the sta- tistics of production of some metal becomes widely known to all interested in that metal and is considered by them as the United States Geological Survey’s principal expert on that metal. This easily won recognition, with all that it implies or seems to imply in the way of promotion and of industrial opportunity, must constitute a real temptation so long as a scientific man is expected to contribute his own enthusiastic devotion to science as part payment of his salary. The incidental geological opportunities offered by statistical work are found chiefly in connection with a few of the minor min- eral resources, rather than with such industrially dominant com- modities as petroleum, iron, or copper, and these opportunities for the individual geologist are soon exhausted and are likely to be pur- chased at a price far out of proportion to their value. The suppo- sition that geological training is essential for good statistical work in mineral products is a fallacy, and no man who shows promise of making real contributions to geologic science should be placed in such circumstances that he is virtually forced to worship an idol whose head may be of gold and precious stones but whose feet are as- suredly of clay. Iam emphatically of the opinion that the collection of mineral statistics is not logically a function of a national geo- logical survey. If, however, such a survey is committed to this task by law, by the lack of any other organization to do the work, or by well-considered reasons of policy, then it is even more certain that NATIONAL GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—-RANSOME. 975 the duty should not devolve upon geologists at the expense of their own science but should be cared for by a special staff. Some coopera- tion between the statistical staff and the geologic staff may be advis- able, but the extent of this cooperation should be determined by executives who are fully alive to the necessity of safeguarding geol- ogy against encroachments by statistical work. WATER RESOURCES. Studies concerned with the occurrence of underground water are of course as much geological as those concerned with the occur- rence of petroleum. Investigations of surface waters, however, in- cluding stream gauging and the study of water power, come within the field of engineering and have so little connection with geology that it is difficult to see any logical ground for their inclusion within the group of activities belonging properly to a geological survey. In an ideal apportionment of fields of endeavor among the scientific and technical bureaus of a government, stream gauging and estima- tion of water power would scarcely fall to the national geological survey. As it happens, the United States Geological Survey does perform these functions, and I am not prepared to say that there is not ample legal and practical justification for this adventitious growth on a geological bureau. There has been little or no tendency to draft geologists into hydraulic engineering, and consequently the principal objection urged against the inclusion of statistical work within the sphere of a geological survey does not here apply. Ap- parently the only practical disadvantages are the introduction of additional complexity into a primarily scientific organization and the consequent danger of the partial submergence of principal and pri- mary functions by those of adventitious character. It should be pointed out in this connection that certain studies of surface waters, especially those that are concerned with the char- acter and quantity of material carried in suspension and in solu- tion in river waters, have much geological importance. Such studies supply data for estimating the rate of erosion and sedimentation. They are to be regarded, however, rather as an illustration of the way in which geology overlaps other branches of science and utilizes their results than as reason for considering hydraulic engineering as normally a function of a geological survey. FOREIGN MINERAL RESOURCES. One of the results of the war was to suggest the advantage to the citizens and Government of the United. States of a central source of information concerning the mineral resources of foreign coun- tries. The United States Geological Survey undertook to gather 276 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. this information, primarily for the specific purpose of supplying data to the American representatives at the peace conference. As the Director of the Survey states in his fortieth annual report: Two general purposes were served—first that of obtaining a clear under- standing of the relations between our own war needs and the foreign sources of supply from which these needs must or could be met; second, that of ob- taining an understanding of the bearing of mineral resources upon the origin and conduct of the war and upon the political and commercial readjustments that would follow the end of hostilities. This work, of a kind that so far as known has not been previously undertaken by any national geological survey, has been continued with the view that it is important for those who direct American in- dustries to possess as much information as possible concerning those foreign mineral resources upon which they can draw or against which they must compete. The results aimed at are directly practi- cal and are largely obtained by compilation of available published and unpublished material, as it is manifestly impossible to make direct detailed investigations of the mineral resources of all foreign countries. Nevertheless the work appears to fall appropriately within the field of a geological bureau, and if it can be made to furnish the opportunity, hitherto lacking, for geologists in the Gov- ernment service to make first-hand comparison between our own mineral deposits and those of other lands the experiment will prob- ably bear scientific fruit. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. Mineralogy and paleontology are so closely related to geology that there can be no question of the propriety of including the pursuit of these sciences within the scope of a geological survey. The appli- cation of chemistry and physics to geological problems admits of more discussion. Chemical work, however, as carried on in connec- tion with geological investigations is of such special character and must be conducted in such intimate contact with geological data as to make it almost certain that better results can be obtained with a special staff and equipment than would be possible were the routine and investigative work in geological chemistry turned over to some central bureau of chemistry. The same argument is believed to be applicable also to physics. Research in geophysics was at one time a recognized function of the United States Geological Survey, but since the founding of the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie In- stitution of Washington this field has been left almost entirely to that splendid organization, which is unhampered by some of the unfortunate restrictions of a Government bureau. Under these par- ticular and unusual conditions this course may have been wise, NATIONAL’ GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—RANSOME. 977 although it does not negative the conclusion that, in general, inves- tigation in geophysics are logically and properly a function of a national geological survey. SOILS. The study of soils, with reference to origin, composition, and classification, is unquestionably a branch of geology, but the geolo- gist, with tradition behind him, generally looks upon soil as a nuisance, and geological surveys have reflected his attitude. In the United States the classification and mapping of soil types has for some years been in progress by the Department of Agriculture. While quite devoid of any enthusiasm for engaging in soil mapping, I wish to point out merely that this work, if its results justify its performance by the Government and if the classification adopted is based on chemical, physical, and mineralogical character, rather than on crop adaptability, is properly a function of the national geologi- cal survey. SEISMOLOGY. Another subject that is comparatively neglected by national geo- logical surveys is seismology. It can scarcely be asserted that earth- quakes have no economic bearing, and conspicuous or destructive examples usually receive some official attention—after the event. The comparative neglect of systematic study of earthquakes is prob- ably due to a number of causes. One of these is that few geologists specialize in selsmology—a science in which little progress can be made unless the investigator possesses unusual qualifications in mathematics and physics. Another reason, probably, is that to most men the difficulties in the way of gaining real knowledge of the causes of earthquakes, and especially of predicting with any cer- tainty the time, place, intensity, and effects of earthquakes appear rather appalling. Finally, earthquake prediction, or even the recog- nition of the possibility of future earthquakes in a particular part of the country, is likely to have consequences decidedly unpleasant to those responsible for the prediction. Experience in California has shown that a community still staggering from a violent shaking may insist with some acerbity that nothing of any consequence has hap- pened and that it never felt better in its life. Notwithstanding these difficulties, I believe that a national geo- logical survey, in a country where sericus earthquakes have taken place and may occur again, should consider the collection and inter- pretation of seismological data as part of its: duty. Such work is regional in scope and can not be carried far by local initiative and by individual investigators on their own resources. In spite of diffi- 1255 21-4 278 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. culties, I believe that it is within the range of possibility that some day we shall be able to predict earthquakes wae sufficient: reliability to give the prediction practical utility. SUMMARY. Briefly summarizing what has gone before, I conclude that the chief primary function of a geological survey is geological research and that the spirit of investigation should be the same whether the work is undertaken to increase knowledge and to serve as the starting point for further attacks on the unknown or is begun with a definite economic or practical result as its desired goal. Compromise and concession are inevitable, but the necessity for making them should not and need not permit the real purpose of the organization to sink from sight. If the members of a scientific bureau can confidently feel that those charged with its direction make such concessions wisely with the higher purposes of the bureau really at heart, their whole attitude towards their work will be entirely different from that into which they will fall if they become convinced that scientific ideals receive only perfunctory regard and that the real allegiance is directed elsewhere. What may be called the chief secondary function of a national geological survey is believed to be popular education in geology, both for the benefit of the people and as providing the most endur- ing basis for the support of such an organization by a democracy. Such education should be conducted through every possible channel and in close cooperation with all the educational institutions of the country. One of its objects should be the revival and encouragement of amateur geological observation and study. In.this connection I heartily approve the present trend in the policy ‘of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and believe that this great organization will fulfill its purpose and advance science much more effectively than at present if it will leave to the various special scientific societies the holding of meetings devoted to the presenta- tion of scientific papers, — apply itself to the popularization of science and to the encouragement of cooperation between different branches of science. , PERSONNEL. Finally, a few words may be said concerning the relation between the personnel of a geological survey and the results obtained by the organization. If such a survey is to attract to its service men of first- rate ability and to hold these men after their development and experi- ence have made them of the highest value, certain inducements must be offered. Salary is ceded tele the frat of these that comes to NATIONAL GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—-RANSOME. 979 mind under conditions that’ continually force the scientific men in Government service to recognize painfully how inadequate at present is the stipend upon which he had existed before the war. It is all very well to insist that the scientific man does not work for money and should not trouble his thoughts with such an unworthy con- sideration. Nevertheless if he is to do the best of which he is capable, he must be lifted above the grind of poverty, be able to give his chil- dren those educational advantages that he can so well appreciate, have opportunity for mental cultivation, and feel his social position to be such that he can mingle without humiliation with his intel- lectual peers. If it: is destructive to the scientific spirit to set up material gain as an object, it may be equally blighting to scientific achievement: to force the attention continually downward to the problem of meager existence. The normal scientific man usually has other human beings dependent upon him, and the traditional spirit of self-sacrifice and the indifference to material reward that are com- monly attributed to the true investigator may, when these members of his family are considered, come very close to selfishness. However, salary, important as it is, is by no means the only deter- minant. If it is reasonably adequate, most men who are animated by the spirit of science will find additional reward in their work itself if this is felt to be worthy of their best efforts. A man of first- rate scientific ability, however, will not enter an organization in which consecutive application to a problem is thwarted, in which he is expected to turn to this or that comparatively unimportant: task as political expediency may dictate, or in which the general atmosphere is unfavorable to the initiation and prosecution of re- search problems of any magnitude. If a man of the type in mind finds himself in such an uncongenial environment, he is likely to go elsewhere. The final effect upon the organization will be that its scientific staff will be mediocre or worse and it will become chiefly a statistical and engineering bureau from which leadership in geology will have departed. If, on the other hand, a young geologist can feel that every possible opportunity and encouragement will be given to him in advancing the science of geology; that results on the whole will be considered more important than adherence to a schedule; that imagination and originality will be more highly valued than routine efficiency or mere executive capacity; that he will not be diverted to tasks for which, important as they may be, his training and inclination do not particularly fit him; that those who direct the organization are interested in his development and will give him all possible oppor- tunity to demonstrate his power of growth; and that appreciation and material reward will be in proportion to his scientific achieve- 280 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. ment, he will then be capable of the best that is in him and will cheerfully contribute that best to the credit of the organization that he serves. A national geological survey should hold recognized leadership in geology in the country to which it belongs, and attainment of this proud position must obviously depend upon the quality of its geological personnel. With respect to personnel, at least three conditions may be recognized—first, that in which the ablest geolo- gists in the country are drawn to and remain in service; second, that in which geologists perhaps of a’ somewhat lower grade as regards scientific promise are attracted to the service for a few years of training and then pass out to positions where the opportu- nities for research or for increased earnings are greater; and, third, that in which able young men no longer look upon the geological survey as a desirable stepping-stone to a future career. Who can doubt that it is the first condition that raises an organization to pre- eminence in science and the last that marks opportunities lost or unattained? Those responsible for the success of a geological sur- vey, if they be wise, will watch the trend of the organization with reference to these conditions much as the mariner watches his barom- eter and, like him, if the indication be threatening, take action to forestall disaster. a a ae THE INFLUENCE OF COLD IN STIMULATING THE GROWTH OF PLANTS. By FREDERICK V. COVILLE, Botanist; United States Department of Agriculture. [With 27 plates.] In regions having a cold winter like ours, with prolonged or re- peated freezing, the native trees and shrubs become dormant in autumn. According to the general belief this condition is brought about by the cold. It is also the general belief that warm weather is of itself the sufficient cause of the beginning of new growth in spring. Both these ideas are erroneous. It is the object of the present address to show, first, that in our native trees and shrubs dormancy sets in before cold weather, and that cold weather is not necessary for the establishment of complete dormancy; second, that after such dormancy has begun, the exposure of the plants to an ordinary growing temperature does not suffice to start them into growth; third, that these plants will not resume normal growth in the warm weather of spring unless they have been subjected previ- ously to a period of chilling; and, finally, a theory will be advanced to explain this paradoxical effect of cold in stimulating growth in- stead of retarding it. The subject will be presented in a series of numbered statements, each followed by supporting evidence. 1. Trees and shrubs of cold climates become dormant at the end of the growing season without the necessity of exposure to cold weather. A little more than 10 years ago, while engaged in a series of green- house experiments, the writer came upon a strange phenomenon which was wholly unexpected and which threatened to interfere seriously with the successs of the experiments. Healthy blueberry plants, intended to be used during the winter for breeding purposes, were brought into the greenhouse at the end of summer and were kept at an ordinary growing temperature. They refused to continue their growth during the autumn, gradually dropped their leaves, and 1 Address delivered Apr. 27, 1920, before the National Academy of Sciences. Re- printed from the Journal of Agricultural Research, vol. 20, pp. 151 to 160, 1920, 281 282 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. went into a condition of complete dormancy. They did this at a greenhouse temperature which in spring and summer would have kept the plants in a condition of luxuriant growth. The completeness of the condition of dormancy which such plants reach can be best ap- preciated from photographs. (See pl. 1.) Since 1910 this experiment has been repeated many times, and with many species of plants, and without exception those trees and shrubs native of our northern cold-winter region which were tested went dormant in fall or winter regardless of temperature. In com- paring outdoor plants with indoor plants of the same species the most that can be said in favor of outdoor conditions is that dormancy progresses a little faster in outdoor plants, evidently because their foliage is injured by freezing weather, and they drop their leaves somewhat earlier than indoor plants. 2. Trees and shrubs that are kept continously warm during the winter start into growth much later in spring than those that have been subjected to a period of chilling. In the late winter and early spring of 1910 I waited patiently, and then impatiently, for my indoor plants to bloom, and at. last I was forced to realize that they never would bloom. When com- pared with plants of the same kind that had been outdoors during the winter and had been brought into the greenhouse, in early spring, the difference was astonishing. The outdoor plants burst into. leaf and flower luxuriantly, while the indoor plants remained com- pletely dormant and naked. The experiment was repeated many times and with various species of plants, some of which may be used in illustration. (See pls. 2 to 5.) At first it was supposed that the plants needed to be frozen to start them into growth, but a single freezing proved not to be effec- tive. And then it was found that the dormant plants would start into growth without any freezing whatever. It was necessary only that they be subjected to a period of prolonged chilling, usually two to three months, at a temperature a few degrees above freezing. If plants are kept continuously in a warm place without chilling, the dormant condition often continues for an extraordinary length of time. In some instances plants have remained dormant for a whole year under conditions of heat, light, and moisture that ordi- narily would make the same plant grow with the greatest luxuriance: 3. The stimulating effect of cold is limited to such portions of the plant as are subjected to the chilling. . The conspicuous difference in spring growth between chilled plants and plants not chilled has already been shown. These differences, furthermore, can be produced experimentally upon different parts 2 Pat ee ‘ez Arenuer uo exe} SEA Ydeisojoyd oy, “IoJULA PUe [[ej 100pyno ue Jo plod pure 4sory oy OF posodxe ueyM op Apeurpi0 Aer} sv ysn{ Gueuriop AjejeTdur0d eureoeq pUv SoAvET TOY} poys syuerd oseyy ‘Arseqentq ey} Jo YJ AO018 yf} 10F 91nje19du194 o[q/eIOAT AOA G SISTOI USNOUITY “OL 01 SS Jo ounyesodure4 & 4B osnOyUWoe1s V ULIOJUIM pure [[ey oy} SULIMp 4doxy O10 ‘sjod qour-g uL‘ssuT[poes Ailoqenyq eseq,L, "Gd10D LNOHLIAA LNVNYOG AGVIAI “NWNSOSWAYOO WOINIDDVA “SLNVId AYHYasaN1g "| Alwid "a]I[ACO— 6161 ‘odey UBIUOSYIWS Smithsonian Report, 1919.—Coville. PLATE 2. CHILLED AND UNCHILLED PLANTS OF WILD CRAB, MALUS CORONARIA. The plant at the left had been outdoors during the fall and winter, leafless and dormant, exposed to the frost and cold. The plant at the right had been in the warm greenhouse during the fall and winter at a temperature of 55° to 70° F.and became, like the other, leafless and dormant. When the outdoor, chilled plant was brought into the greenhouse in the early spring it promptly began to put out new leaves and twigs, as shown at the left, but the indoor, unchilled plant continued its dormancy, as shown at the right. The photograph was taken April 24,1917. (One-fifth natural size.) _ -(azIsTeInyeu YYste-0ug) ~{UeULIOp Ajej0[AuL09 [Is e10M ‘sdoq10 8] SB OJep SUTeS oT} WO pozjoded 010M pus ‘J0,U1M pues Tied OU} 118 “AT o0L 09 9o¢ Je OSNOYUMooIs ouTeS oy} UI Used pey YOM Qyst1 oy) 4e squad XIs oy} OTM ‘SIoMOG PU SeAvET Od podopeaep pey Aow ‘uoxe7 SEAN ydeiso10yd oy wom ‘OZ Tudy UO ~pejjodor e10M pues “T OL OF oG¢ Jo o1nyerodule} @ SUTAVY OSNOYTIdIS B OJUT GZ YoIBI] WO S10OpUry {ASN o1OM ‘SUTTYO 10JUTM IOOPINO We Ioqye “Ayoy OU} 4B squeid Arreqon{q xIs ot, "SLNVId AYYSESaN1Ig GATIHONM GNV GaTTIHD “€ AlV1d “A//IAOO—6L6L ‘J4Odey UR!UOSYYIWS “jueurIop Ajojo[du0 T[Ys or8A\ ‘osy puesy-yyst1 oy} Aq poyesjsnyT sv ‘osnoyuTIeA oY) UT syed 91} OTA “oInsy PULY-3J9] OY} UL WMOYS 08e4S ay peyovor pey Aoy} “wey sum ydeisojoyd oy} usm “FI6T ‘2, TIdy Uo pue Moi3 04 Ueseq {I UL s}ueld ey} osnoypyoo sty} dn pouiemM soinyesredur0} suds TOYA “Wf OF 0F GE JO omnjesoduro} B 4v eshoyWoaIs POO B UT Po1OJUTM SRAM YJOT OU] 1B OU ON} OTM “WT .0L OF .SG Jo o1nyes0dure} B42 osnoy, -UW9013 THIGM @ UTIo,ULM oy} SUTIMp 4doyx SVM 44ST OY} 7% OUlO OY YeTT) 4dooxe “AIO4STY OULES Of} YITA SSUTTPI0s pjo-1e9A4-U0 OA\4 SMOTS HOM CIASN]L OM, “WONVOIEANY WONYNglA “AYYaaasnouS 30 SLNVId GATIIHONA GNV dATIIHD “vy ALV1d "B|1AOO—6 161 ‘odey uxuosyyWS (ezISTVIM{VN) *o1OJoq IGA Ot7} JO SOABOT sq A[UO peMOYsS TMS Weld popTgoun oy} opm ‘IeyVoM SuTIds TIM 94} Ul Y}MOIs Meu 4no 4nd pey jueld pero ou) ‘FI6T ‘OT [dy uo ‘uexey StM Ydeis0j0yd oy} Woy AL “A OL 04 GG JO ornjeredure] B Ye BSNOYUSIIs ULIVM & UT YS OY} 12 OUO 9) “WT OF 0} cg JO einyesedu9} & 4 osnoy, -110019 POd B UT Poloj}UIM SEM IJoT OY} 4V OO oy.7eY} Ydooxe Aioisty oures oy} pey savy ‘exsepy Ur pounooad "YNIOINV1 XIHUV7] “HOVYVNVL SO SLNVId GATTIHON( GNV GATTIHD pe0s WOT WMOIS ‘ssUT[PooS OA\4 CSOT, “Gg SLV1d "8|[|AOO—'61L6L ‘J4odey UB!UOSY}IWS Smithsonian Report, 1919.—Coville. BLUEBERRY PLANT WITH ONE BRANCH STIMULATED TO GROWTH BY COLD. The right-hand branch has been stimulated to growth by chilling; the left-hand branch has been kept dormant by heat. For a detailed description of this experiment see page 283. (One-seventh natural size.) ‘Te Av opeutsea ydeisojoyd puooes oy], “4ULUIIOP poureUied [IMs “ULIeA 4day Moog pey Yor ‘osnoyueess oy) opIsuT Yoursq oy} op ‘omnsy puey ~JUSIL 9Y} ULUMOYS SB “yeoT[BULIOU OFUT IsINq “PoT[M[o Usoq Pry Yor ‘soyourAd OpIsino OM} oY} oMAva SuTIdS TAA “JOMOJUT ULIVA\ OY} OFUT TCA SseIs OU} Yenory) possed sem youRsd o[sUIs B PUL eSNOYtoaIS & OPTsINO joys v UO pooe[d sem yuLid oy} SUITE MOD Jod ey, OVep IeU1UEG -ZLeT ‘eT Areniqe,y wo pereedde ise “od your, eur 4uerd Arreqenyq 100purt JUeMIOp & UAMOYS SI 4Jol OU} IV °9 OFT UL pozeajsuypI yUoMMTIedxe oy Jo WOTeOyTPOUE B SMOUS WON VIYSN]L STL, “IV4H Ad LNVWHOd Lday HONVYR ANO HLIM LNV1d AYssasanig *L ALW1d *2IAODO—"6 16} ‘Ja0dey uBluosyzIWS ' COLD AND GROWTH OF PLANTS—COVILLE. 983 of the same plant. Plants'thus treated present a very curious and remarkable appearance, as shown in plates 6 and 7. On February 3, 1912, a blueberry plant (pl. 6) 44 inches in height, which had shed ‘its leaves and become dormant in a warm green- house, maintained at a temperature of 60° to 70° F., was subjected to the following experiment: It was repotted in a 7-inch pot and set in the south end of a greenhouse at the temperature already men- tioned. A small opening was made in the glass, and through this Opening was pushed one of! the two stems of the plant. The open space about the stem where it passed through the glass was care- fully plugged with moss. During the rest of the winter the plant remained in the same position, the pot and the stem shown at the left in the illustration continuing in the warm temperature of the green- house, while the stem at the right, projecting through the glass, was exposed to the rigors of winter, with its alternate freezing and thaw- ing. The illustration, from a photograph made April 18, shows that when spring came the outdoor branch started into normal growth while the indoor branch continued dormant. A second illustration (pl. 7) shows a modification of the first ex- periment. In this case the plant was set on a shelf outside the green- house and a single branch was passed through the glass wall into the warm interior. When spring came it was this interior branch that remained dormant, all the outside peat putting out leaves promptly and normally. From a comparison of the two experiments it 1s evident that the difference in behavior of the indoor and outdoor branches could not have been caused by any special action of the root system, for in one experiment the roots were inside, in the other outside. It is clear that the causes that stimulated growth in the exposed stems operated in the stem itself, not in the roots. This principle is still further exemplified and confirmed by the behavior of cuttings taken from blueberry plants in the first stages of their dormancy. Such cut- tings if kept warm continue their dormancy into late spring or sum- mer, but if chilled for two or three months they start into Again at the motel time in early spring. It should be stated here that: the difference in the amount of light inside and outside the greenhouse had nothing to do with the stimu- lation to growth, for chilled plants are ready to start into growth promptly whether the chilling is done in the full light of an outdoor situation, or in the partial light of a greenhouse, or in the complete darkness of an ordinary refrigerator. 4. The stemulating effect. produced on dormant plants by cold is intimately associated with the transformation of stored starch tito sugar. 984 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. In most of our wild species of trees and shrubs the reserve carbo- hydrate material is stored away during summer and autumn in the form of starch, At the beginning of dormancy the twigs and sap- wood are gorged with this material, the starch grains being stored ordinarily in the cells of the medullary rays and sometimes in the pith. As the process of chilling goes on, this starch little by little is transformed into sugar. The presence of large quantities of starch in the fall and early winter. may be observed by applying to freshly- cut surfaces of the twigs the well-known starch test of a 2 per cent solution of iodine in:a,1.per cent solution of iodide of potassium. With a strong hand lens the starch is readily observed, if present, by the deep blue color it assumes under this treatment. The intensity of the coloration gives roughly an idea of the number of starch grains present, and thus by this simple means anyone may observe in the twigs of trees and shrubs the gradual disappearance of their starch as spring approaches. The measurement of the increasing amount of sugar is more difficult and must be done by chemical analysis. Through the courtesy of the Chief of the Bureau of Chemistry exact data can be presented. on this point from analyses by Mr. Lorin H. Bailey. In samples of dormant blueberry wood, taken in early spring when growth was about to begin, the ratio of sugar to starch proved to be seven times what it was in similar dormant wood taken in autumn. I-desire at this time to comment on the fact that one of my colleagues reading the manuscript outline of this address criticized the use of the word “stimulate” as applied to the effect which chilling produces on these dormant plants. His idea was that the chilling induced certain physiological changes in the cell contents, but that the actual stimulation to growth came from the temperatures that followed the chilling. I defend, however, the propriety of the language I have used, for although the later stages of growth ad- mittedly can not take place without warm temperatures, not only. does the transformation from starch to sugar take place at the chilling temperature, but the buds actually swell and push if the chilling temperature is continued for several months. In illustra- tion I may cite the following experiments: On March 3, 1915, 286 cuttings were made from dormant outdoor blueberry plants. They were stored in bundles, some in moist sphag- num moss, others in moist birch sawdust, at a contemplated tempera- ture of 31° F., just below freezing. The cuttings remained in cold storage until December 6, a little more than nine months. An examination of the cuttings on that date showed that with the ex- ception of a small number which were mildewed and dead one or more buds had begun to swell on every cutting. In other words, Smithsonian Report, 1919.—Coville. PLATE 8. BLUEBERRY CUTTINGS STARTING TO GROW AT 86° F. These cuttings were placed in cold storage while still completely dormant. Although the temperature did not go above 36° F'., buds on each of the cuttings finally began to push, as shown in the illustration. Itis to be noted that although growth took place in the buds the other kind of growth, which results in the formation of a callus, or healing-over tissue, at the severed base of the cutting, is -wholly lacking. Callus- ing can not take place at solow a temperature. (Natural size.) (ozIs[eInjeN) *UIOL ZF JO T4SUE] OT 04 YIMOId MOT OpeUL yuUSTMTIOdxe sm} ULSJUL[d oN} JO euIOG “soAveT MOTO popuvdxeun Tjeus AI0A ITM SJOOYS OFA SB WOT VIISHT[L OY} UL Sivedde suoMIpU0d esey} JopUN opeUr YJMOIs MoT OUT, “WT .98 01 ,gE Woay postviomyeiodure) oy, “ST6T “F JoquroDIg 0} Og YouvN Wor FUOUAYST[GeISO SUTVIOS IOI [BIOIOUNUIOD B UL YILp OY} UL osv10JS pjoo UTSEM JUL] Stay, “d .9€ Lv HYVC AHL NI SNIMOYS LNVId AYYasanIg °6 AlVid *A||1AOO—'6I16L ‘J4odey UelUOSYURIWIS COLD AND GROWTH OF PLANTS—COVILLE. O85 Hours OO Re BY oe ee are ag a a 5, 591 SOS Wt SN MMMM UR ISDA fig 2 OVE ARIE op ee ee es Rie ecg 990 SoS 0 ns eee ae embed tas 3 358 ON ih 8 a 91 The temperature record did not go above 34°. It is an astonish- ing fact that temperatures so very near freezing will start dormant plants into growth. On March 8, 1915, 58 cuttings from dormant outdoor blueberry plants were placed in moist birch sawdust in commercial cold storage at 33° to 36° F. On December 4, nine months later, buds on every cutting had begun to grow. Not one of these cuttings gave a starch reaction when tested with iodine. The transformation of their stored starch into sugar was complete. (See pls. 8 and 9.) 5. The theory advanced in explanation of the formation of sugar during the process of chilling is that the starch grains stored in the cells of the plant are at first separated by the living and actwe cell membranes from the enzyme that would transform the starch into sugar, but when the plant is chilled the vital activity of the cell membrane ts weakened so that the enzyme “leaks” through i, comes in contact with the starch, and turns it into sugar. I have stated the theory in these words out of regard for simplicity and general understanding, but if anyone should require that it be presented in orthodox technical language it might be restated as follows. The reserve amylum carbohydrate bodies are isolated from the amylolytic enzyme by semipermeable protoplasmic living mem- branes of high osmotic efficiency, but under the influence of low temperatures the protoplasmic membranes are proximately devital- ized, they become permeable to the amylolytic enzyme, and amyloly- sis ensues. I may add, however, that the use of such terminology seems to me to involve a certain degree of unnecessary cruelty. From the evidence already presented no one, presumably, will question that the chilling of dormant trees and shrubs is followed by growth and that the growth is associated with the transformation of starch into sugar. But the hypothesis that this transformation is brought about by the weakening of the cell membrane and the consequent leakage of starch-transforming enzymes into the starch chambers may very properly be challenged. In the Tropics there is no chilling weather, yet trees and shrubs spring into growth after the dormant period of the dry season, just as they do in tem- perate climates after the dormant period of winter. The critical scientific man will therefore ask: Are there not other agencies than chilling which will start, dormant trees and shrubs into growth even 286 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. in our latitude?’ It must be said in reply that there are. And it will be worth while to consider some of these causes, for not only are they of interest in themselves but also, instead of weakening the hypothesis here presented, they serve to strengthen and confirm it. The data may best be presented through a series of illustrations. The pruning of a long-dormant plant will often start it into growth. (See pl. 10.) Girdling produces a similar result. (See pl. 11, fig. 1.) Notching the stem does the same. (See pl. 11, fig. 2.) Rubbing the stem also starts the plant into growth. (See pls. 12 and 13.) In all these examples of the stimulation of growth by injury it is conceived that the enzyme is brought into contact with the starch as a direct result of the breaking and straining of the cells. Sugar is then formed and growth begins. ~ It should be observed’ that when a normal chilled plant starts growing it grows from many buds (pl. 14), for the effect of the chilling on sugar formation is general. When a dormant plant starts growing as the result of injury, however, it usually starts, as shown in several illustrations already presented, from a single bud, the one nearest the point of injury. The injury is local and both the sugar formation and the growth that follows it are local. We are now brought to the consideration of a phenomenon which I take to be of special significance, namely, the procedure by which the dormant plant starts itself into growth in the absence of chill- ing. After a blueberry plant has remained dormant at a warm temperature for a very long period, sometimes a whole year, the tips of the naked branches begin to lose their vitality. Just before or just after the death of the tip a single bud, or sometimes two buds, situated next below the dead or dying part starts growing. (See pls. 15 and 16.) The new growth of the stem is confined to the one or two buds, just as was found to be the case with growth induced by injury. My interpretation of the phenomenon is that as death ap- proaches the cell membranes become weakened in much the same way as when chilled; the enzyme passes through into the starch storage cells, sugar is formed, and the adjacent bud begins to grow. The process going forward here in a restricted portion of the stem, and due to a local cause, is ‘essentially the same as that taking place generally over the plant from a general cause when the plant’ is chilled. | In the Tropics some plants are able to grow continuously, others become dormant in the dry season and'start into growth again at the coming of the rainy season. ‘Tropical plants probably have various methods of coming out of their dormancy, and there is every reason Smithsonian Report, 1919.—Coville. PLATE 10. DORMANT WILD CRAB STIMULATED TO GROWTH BY PRUNING. This plant had remained dormant in the warm greenhouse during the fall and winter at a temperature of 55° to 70° F. On April 5 three branches were pruned, and on April 24, when the photograph was taken, the uppermost bud on each of the pruned branches had begun to grow. On other, unpruned plants no bud growth had taken place. (Two-thirds natural size.) Smithsonian Report, 1919.—Coville. PLATE II. DoRMANT WILD CRABS STIMULATED TO GROWTH BY GIRDLING AND BY NOTCHING THE STEM. These plants had had the same preliminary treatment as the one illustrated in Plate 10, that 1s, they had been kept in the warm greenhouse all winter, without chilling, dormant and leafless. On April 4 a ring of bark was removed from the plant shown in the left-hand figure and the soft cambium was carefully scraped away down tothehard wood. On April 24, when the photo- graph was made, the bud next below the girdle had begun to push. In the case of the right- hand plant the stem was notched in early April. The bud next below the notch soon began to grow, and the photograph was taken on May 2. (Naturalsize.) Smithsonian Report, 1919.—Coville. PLATE 12. DORMANT BLUEBERRY BUDS STIMULATED TO GROWTH BY CHALKING THE STEM. This plant was brought into the greenhouse February 4, 1913, to be used in breeding experiments. It flowered, but having been insufficiently chilled, only a few of the uppermost leaf buds on each stem grew. In order to keep small ants from crawling up the stems and interfering with the pollination experiments, the stems were chalked near the middle. The dormant buds in and just below the chalked area started growing. The photograph was taken April 5, the stems being rechalked over the same areas that were originally chalked. After numerous repetitions of the experiment it was found thatif the chalking was donelightly the buds would not grow, butif the stems were rubbed hard in the process of chalking, as commonly happened in the case of very smooth stems, the buds grew. It was the hard rubbing, not the chalk, that stimulated the growth. (Naturalsize.) Smithsonian Report, 1919.—Coville. PLATE 13. DORMANT BLUEBERRY BUD STIMULATED TO GROWTH BY RUBBING THE STEM. The photograph, which was taken June 14, 1913, shows a single bud starting into growth on a dormant blueberry plant. The dark area just above the bud is a brown band on an otherwise green stem. It shows the position of a rubbing that was given the stem with a smooth knife handle a few weeks earlier. This bud afterwards grew into a long vigorous branch, while all the other buds remained dormant. (Naturalsize.) Smithsonian Report, 1919.—Coville. PLATE 14. NORMAL SPRING GROWTH ON A BLUEBERRY STEM. Thisillustration is from a photograph taken April 24, 1909. Inthe preceding season the plant had sent up an unbranched shoot. After an outdoor chilling through the winter and early spring it put out flowers and new twigs, asshownin theillustration. The fact to be especially noted is that the new growth on this stem took placefrom numerous buds. (Natural size.) Smithsonian Report, 1919.—Coville. 5 PLATE I5. ABNORMAL SPRING GROWTH ON A BLUEBERRY STEM, DUE TO LACK OF CHILLING. This photograph wastaken on May 19,1913. Growth is taking place from only one bud, the third from thetip. The uppermost bud isa flowering bud, the second aleafbud. Both are dead or dying. This plant has stood in the warm greenhouse all winter and spring. Ifit had had the usual two or three months of chilling, its starch would have been transformed into sugar and the stem would have flowered and put out new twig growth from numerous buds in the same manner as the stem shown in Plate 14. (Natural size. Smithsonian Report, 1919.—Coville. PLATE I6. ABNORMAL GROWTH OF AN UNCHILLED BLUEBERRY PLANT. This plant became dormant in the autumn in a warm greenhouse, and not being chilled it continued its dormancy through spring and summer for a period of nine months. Then three of its stems began to die at the tips and, following this, growth began to take place from a single bud next below the dying tip on each stem, as shown in the illustration. For the explanation of this abnormal activity see page 286. The photograph was taken October 12, 1916. (Half natural size.) Smithsonian Report, 1919.—Coville. PLATE 17. BLUEBERRY LEAF EXUDING SUGAR FROM GLANDS INTERPRETED AS OSMOTIC-PRESSURE : SAFETY VALVES. This is a leaf of the high-bush blueberry, Vacciniwm corymbosum. The photograph was taken May 19, 1916, and isenlarged four diameters. The sugar-secreting glands, sometimescalled extrafloralnectaries, are situated in this plant on the back of the midrib and along the margins of theleaf, toward its base. The drops of sugar solution have been wiped away from the glands on theleft-hand margin and from two glands on the midrib at the base ofthe second and fourth lateral veins above thesugar drop shown nearthe middle ofthe picture. Thisexudation ofsugarisinterpreted as a means ofrelieffrom excessive internal pressure that might burst the cells ofthe plant or derangeits physiological activities. ' COLD AND GROWTH OF PLANTS—COVILLE. 987 to expect that some of them will be found to accomplish this act in the same way as our long-dormant greenhouse plants, by the weak- ening of their cell membranes. ‘This, I have endeavored to show, is in its effect substantially identical with chilling. 6. The twigs of trees and shrubs after their winter chilling and the transformation of their starch into sugar may be regarded as mechan- isms for the development of high osmotic pressures which start the plant into growth. . Food in the form of starch can not be utilized by a plant directly. The starch must be changed into sugar before it can be used in mak- ing new growth. But this transformation does more than make the starch available as food for the growing plant. It serves also to increase the tendency of the cells to swell and enlarge. In the form of starch the material is inert in the creation of osmotic pressures, but when transformed into sugar it becomes exceedingly active. Ac- cording to the rigid experimental tests of H. N. Morse and his asso- ciates, a normal solution of cane sugar at'32° F. has an osmotic power of 25 atmospheres of pressure. It has been demonstrated that there sometimes occur in the cells of plants osmotic pressures as high as ‘30 atmospheres, or 450 pounds to the square inch, a pressure sufficient to blow the cylinder head off an ordinary steam engine. It can hardly be questioned that these or even much lower osmotic pressures take an important part in forcing open the buds of once dormant plants. We have evidence that there sometimes arise within the plant osmotic pressures of such intensity as to threaten the rupture of the cells. Consider the case of the exudation of drops of sugar solution from certain specialized glands. When this exudate of sugar occurs in flowers it is known as nectar and it serves a useful purpose to the plant by attracting sugar-loving insects which unconsciously carry pollen from flower to flower and accomplish the beneficial act of eross-pollination. But sugar solution is often exuded outside the flower, in positions, or at times, that preclude any relation to cross- pollination. For example, a blueberry plant during its spring growth, when a leaf has reached nearly full size, is sometimes ob- served to exude drops of sugar solution from certain glands on the margins of the leaf and on the back of the mid-rib. (See pl: 17.) It is physically impossible that the sugar has left the cells by osmosis. The sugar serves no useful purpose to the plant through the attrac- tion of insects. The exudate certainly can not represent. the elimina- tion of a waste product, for sugar is one of the substances most used by plants in forming new tissues. I can conceive of no reason why the plant should exude sugar except to relieve a dangerous physio- logical condition, namely, the development of excessive osmotic pressures which would burst the cells of the plant or in some other 288 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919, way derange its physiological activities. I look upon such sugar glands as safety valves for the relief of excessive osmotic pressures that are dangerous to the internal economy of the plant. And not only is this conception applicable to extrafloral nectaries in general, but it may serve also, in the case of floral nectaries, to explain their origin. Having once arisen as osmotic safety valves, the usefulness of the floral nectaries.as an aid to cross-pollination would tend strongly to bring about their natural selection and perpetuation. 7. The establishment of a dormant condition. before the advent of freezing weather and the continuation of this dormancy through warm periods in late fall and early winter are protective adapta- tzons of vital necessity to the native trees and shrubs. A little consideration will show how important the principle of chilling is to those species of trees and shrubs which are subjected each year to several months of freezing weather. If they were so constituted as to start into growth as easily in the warm days of late fall as they do in the warm days of early spring, many species would come into flower and leaf in those warm autumn spells that we call Indian summer, and the stored food that the plant required for its normal vigorous growth in the following spring would be wasted in a burst of autumn growth, which would be killed by the first heavy freezes, and would be followed by a winter of weakness and probable death. But when two or three months of chilling are necessary before a newly dormant plant will respond to the usual effect of warmth, such plants are protected against the dangers of growth in Indian summer. It is probable that all our native trees and shrubs are thus protected. Any member of this audience may make, next fall and winter, a simple and instructive experiment with such early spring blooming plants as alder, hazelnut, pussy willow, yellow bush jasmine, forsythia, Japanese quince, peach, and plum. In mid-autumn bring into your living room and set in water freshly cut dormant leafless branches of these plants. They will not bloom. At intervals of a few weeks during late autumn and winter try the same experiment again. You will find that the branches cut at later dates will come into bloom under this treatment. They will not do so, however, until the expiration of the period of chilling appropriate to the various kinds of plants included in the experiment. The required period of chilling varies greatly. In the case of some of the cultivated shrubs about Washington, especially the yellow bush jasmine (Jasminum nudifiorum), so brief a period of chilling is required that extraordinarily cold weather in late October or early No- vember may chill them sufficiently to induce them to bloom if a period of warm weather follows in late November. The period of COLD AND GROWTH OF PLANTS—COVILLE. 289 chilling required for the peach is so short that in Georgia unusually warm weather in December sometimes brings the trees into flower, and their crop of fruit is destroyed by the freezes that follow. From these facts it appears that our native trees and shrubs are so intimately adjusted to the changes of the climate to which they have been long subjected that they are almost completely protected from injury by freezing, but some of the cultivated species brought from parts of the world having a climate different from ours are only imperfectly adapted to our climatic changes. They grow at times when our native species have learned to hold themselves dor- mant, and they often suffer severely in consequence. Chilling, as a protective adaptation, has become a physiological -necessity-in the life history of cold-winter trees and shrubs. So fixed, indeed, is the habit that it appears to be a critical factor in determining how far such plants may go in the extension of their geographic distribution toward the Tropics. In the Tropics our common northern fruit trees, apples, pears, peaches, cherries, grow well for a time and then become half dormant. In the absence of chill- ing they never fully recover from their dormancy; they grow with weakened vitality and finally die. If these fruits are to be grown successfully in the tropics they must be given artifically the periodic chilling they require. When it became evident from the earlier observations and ex- periments that chilling played so essential a part in the behavior of our trees and shrubs it was clear that additional experiments ought to be conducted in which actively growing plants might be sub- jected to chilling temperatures without being put in a dark place like the ordinary .refrigerator. To meet the requirement of both cold and light a glass-covered, outdoor, brick chamber was con- structed in 1912. It was kept above freezing by heating with electric lights, which were turned on and off automatically by a simple thermostat. In summer the chamber was kept cool, though not really cold, by means of ice and electric fans. Although much was learned with this apparatus it was crude and inadequate. To pro- vide for more exact experiments a glass-covered compartment chilled by a refrigerating machine was constructed in one of the Department of Agriculture greenhouses. The refrigerating apparatus is a sul- phur-dioxide machine having a refrigerating power equivalent to 1,000 pounds of ice a day. It is run by a 2-horsepower electric motor, and it furnishes ample refrigeration for the lighted com- partment, which is.a glass-covered frame 25 feet long, 3 feet wide, and 14 to 20 inches in depth. The first of these refrigerated frames was devised and constructed in 1916. In this enterprise I had the valued advice and assistance of Dr. Lyman J. Briggs. The useful- 290 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. ness of this refrigerated frame in experimental work with plants was so great that another similar equipment was installed in 1918. With the aid of this apparatus many of the experiments described in this address have been carried on or verified, as well as other experiments of a related character.. For example, at ordinary summer temperatures many kinds of seed will not. germinate but remain dormant until death overtakes them. Under the influence of chilling, however, these seeds are stimulated to prompt germination. (See pl. 18.) f The experiments thus far made indicate the importance of a much wider use of the principle of chilling in many lines of experimenta- tion bearing on the improvement of horticultural and-agricultural practices.. I commend the subject of chilling to experimenters in - these lines, and I wish to call especial attention to the desirability of determining proper temperatures for the storage of seeds, bulbs, cuttings, and grafting wood; proper temperatures for the treat- ment of plants which are to be forced from dormancy to growth at unusual seasons; and proper temperatures for the storage of nursery stock, so that, the nurseryman may haye plants in proper condi- tion for shipment on any date he desires. (See pls. 19 to 23.) The whole. question of the effect of chilling on herbaceous peren- nials is an open field. An understanding of the process of chilling explains the reason of some of the practices of gardeners, which they, as well as botanists, have erroneously ascribed to the need of “resting.” What a gardener calls “resting” is often in reality a period of chilling, characterized not, by physiological rest, but by pronounced internal activity.. Rest alone would not, in the case of our. cold-climate trees and shrubs, ac- complish the purpose the gardener has in mind. It is chilling, not rest merely, that is, required. The practice of gardeners and nur- serymen known as the “stratification” of seeds is probably to be explained as in reality a process of chilling. As a single example of the application of the principle of chilling let me cite the case of the blueberry. For several years we have been trying at the Department of Agriculture to domesticate this wild plant.. We have raised many thousand hybrids and have set. them out in waste sandy lands in the pine barrens of New Jersey. (See pl. 24.) We have grown the bushes to fruiting age and brought them into highly productive bearing. (See pl. 25.) We have made them fruit so lusciously. and so abundantly that they have brought. returns to the. grower at the rate of more than $1,000 an acre.. In a word, we have changed the blueberry froma small wild fruit the size of a pea to. a fruit the size of a Concord grape, and we have made its culture a profitable industry. (See pls. 26 and 27.) These things we should not (‘0zIs [eInjeN) ~°Aressodouun SI SjUeuTTIedxe esey} UL poll} seseo om} T[@ UI TOM ‘Burzoosy 0} Jooyo yeLoyoueq S71 0ynqr144e ATyensn Aoyy ynq ‘sieuopies Aq poorjoeid sou -QUIOS SI JoY}BIM IOJUTM 0} SpoesS JO OINSOdx9 OUT, “SPooS JUBMLIOP SUOT 9SOYY JO 9UO WHOA] MOIS UOTISISNTT oy} UT UMOYsS jueld AyATeoy AIA ONL, “YJUOUL B WITIIM poejyeuroties Ao] OSHOTUI0IS oY} OJUT YOVG JYsNo1q usyM pus “7 OF OF GE JO OINJeIodUI, & 4 SYJUOM OMY IOF PoTTYO Wey? 918M Spoes Soy, “SUJUOUL ZI Ul UOTYeUTUIIOS OU PaMOYsS *T ,GG US] Sse] JOU JO o1nyeINdmM94 & 4V BSHOYUeIS B UT ydoy INq 93ep 9UTeS OY} 10 pomos Spoos oUl¥s OY} JO JO, Joyjouy -“suTIds surMoOT[Oy oy} ATZdutoId poyeUTUAIs JejUTM OY} SUTINp peTyo pue ‘ZTET ‘6 1940300 peMos spoos A1Ioquoung “ONITMIHD LNOHLIM ALVNINYSS LON Od HOIHM S40 Sdaas aHL “SISNAGVNVO SNNYOD ‘AUNASHONNG dO INVid V "81 Alv1d "a||IAOO— 6161 ‘4oday uB|UosYyyWS Smithsonian Report, 1919.—Coville. PLATE 19. TRAILING ARBUTUS, EPIGAEA REPENS, FLOWERING SPARINGLY FROM LACK OF CHILLING. This plant oftrailing arbutus was grown fromseed. Intheautumn, when about a year old, it laid down clusters of flowering buds. It waskeptin a warm greenhouse all winter, but when flower- he time aan most ofits flower buds were dead and brown. Only a single flower opened. atural size. : (-9ZIS [eInjeN) “[eu10u pus ‘ a attain ne) ata ta Agiinatls 4 errs thf, Aa iste of i. ‘ded atil. 30 annioh. 5116 PASTh Ey 0h, conmat ont ser ea end ety Ban Soe) at ¥ Ty Reg het eres ‘Re ate ton lnode.o art aii PORE. f Deageiine od re Be aie he j f ba is BW S See waar ey : Dw ons, t ta) REE POG. Be ¥E ¢ il GLIMPSES OF DESERT BIRD LIFE IN THE GREAT BASIN. By Harry ©. OBERHOLSER, Stretching far away to the westward beyond the slopes of the Rocky Mountains lies the country of the Great Basin, the great desert region of the United States. From Utah and Arizona it reaches north to Oregon, and west to the lofty barrier formed by the Cas- cade Range, the Sierra Nevada and the San Bernardino and San Jacinto Mountains. This whole vast area is an almost continuous desert, spreading indeed its powerful influence to the contiguous slopes of the mountains that guard its confines. Yet it is not all alike, for many of its parts differ widely in climate, physiography, vegetation, and animal life. Mountain ranges of varying height and extent, sometimes close together, sometimes with broad valleys - interposed, traverse the entire region, most numerously in Nevada where they are chiefly parallel, least so in parts of southeastern Oregon, extreme southeastern California, and southwestern Arizona. The loftiest of these are in central Nevada and in the Death Valley country of eastern California. The valleys and plains, often of great extent, are stretches of sand, gravel, or clay, with now and then the bed of an ephemeral lake conspicuously’ shown by its dazzling efflorescence of alkali. Rivers are few, the two most important being the Colorado, which, except for a small portion of its course, is hardly within the region; and the Humboldt, which, after following a tortuous course across Nevada, discharges its waters into the outletless Humboldt Lake, thus offering itself as a great but ineffectual sacrifice to the all- devouring aridity of the desert. There are some smaller streams, but most of them, aside from such as issue from the high mountains, are only dry washes except during seasons of rain. Springs, some of considerable size, occur in the hills and even out on the open desert ; while hot springs are to be found in a number of the valleys. Lakes, many of which, like so many of the streams, have but a transitory existence, yield some relief from the monotony of the broad expanses of parched land. Those that are permanent, with few exceptions, are in the northern part of the Great Basin, in Utah, Nevada, California, and Oregon. They are all shallow, 355 356 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. more or less salt or alkaline, have no outlets, and derive their sup- port chiefly from springs or short mountain streams. Heat and lack of moisture, which are the dominant features of the climate, increase markedly toward the south, and reach their ex- treme in parts of western Arizona and southeastern California, where a summer temperature of 100° to 120° in the shade is of almost daily occurrence, where the average aridity of the atmosphere is more than three times as great as in the eastern United States, and the annual rainfall, confined chiefly to the winter months, is only 3 to 9 inches. Little of all this dreary and forbidding region lacks vegetation entirely, for only the mirage-haunted alkali plains and the barest rocky slopes of the seared desert ranges are shunned by the hardy desert shrubs. The bottoms of the valleys, the sloping or nearly level mesas, the sides of the hills and mountains are all clothed with a growth, sometimes scanty, sometimes wonderfully varied, of mes- quite, sagebrush, greasewood, cactuses, yuccas, or other similarly characteristic forms. The only trees worthy the name, except on the mountains, which rise partly beyond the arid influence of the valleys and support in places forests of pines, are the cottonwoods, and these are found only at springs or along streams. An environment apparently more uninviting to every form of animal life it would be hard io find; for the bare rocks, the reaches of sand, the pebble-strewn mesas, and the clay fiats incrusted with salt and alkali offer seemingly no protection or concealment; while the fiery heat, the desiccating air, and above all the lack of water appear hostile alike to all kinds of living creatures. Yet life there is, and relatively much; lizards of brilliant hues scamper about over the sand or lie on the rocks to bask in the sun; coyotes roam the plains by day and bark from the hills at night; rock squirrels and wood rats inhabit the cliffs; the little pocket mice and the singular kangaroo rats live in holes on the gravelly slopes or among the sand dunes; and many birds of many kinds are conspicuous almost every- where, as well in the summer as when during the seasons of migra- tion their numbers in species and individuals are greatly augmented. Only the bare and barren expanses of salt and allxali in the valleys are uninhabited, and even here at times some bird of strong flight may be seen soaring on lofty pinion above the inhospital region. The lakes of the region form the great attraction for most of the water birds and those that are usually termed waders, and furnish, too, along their sometimes marshy shores, a home for various other species. The American avocet, in its becoming attire of black, white, and cinnamon, is a conspicuous and characteristic figure about these DESERT BIRD LIFE—-OBERHOLSER. 857 lakes, as in search of its food and insects and crustaceans it often, with wings half raised, daintily wades in the shallow water along the shores; or, having passed beyond its depth, rides out buoyantly upon the waves. Startled from its humble nest in the grass or rushes, the avocet employs all the arts and wiles known to the anxious parent bird in the endeavor to entice the intruder to a safe distance; and, even after the young have joined their elders on the beach, any threat- ened danger will bring the old birds about with loud cries and de- meanor almost as anxious as when the nesting haunts are invaded. The avocet is always a noisy bird, and, by its loud, reiterated notes, has earned the significant sobriquet of “ lawyer.” The black-necked stilt, trim and neat in its dress of black and white, and of even more distinguished appearance, is found almost, always intimately associated with the avocet. In habits it is quite similar to its companion, though less demonstrative, and in the shallow water it moves with slow, dignified, almost ludicrously cau- tious steps, pausing every now and then, with bill half immersed, as if meditating or listening. Many kinds of ducks—the mallard, gadwall, redhead, ruddy, and cinnamon teal—enliven the marshes as they pass to and fro in their businesslike way overhead or paddle about among the tules or out in the open water, sometimes alone in search of food, sometimes fol- lowed by their downy ducklings. The cinnamon teal is probably the most generally distributed of all the ducks that inhabit the Great Basin, for it is often to be seen at the springs, waterholes, and even wooden tanks in the midst of the desert, where scarcely do land birds find a congenial abode. In many of the more extensive marshes may be seen the beautiful Forster tern, a bird which, though of wide North American dis- tribution, is preeminently a denizen of the interior, and contentedly takes up its abode about many of the lakes of the Great Basin, undeterred by the heat and the drought of the desert, so foreign to its northern or eastern home. Graceful of flight as elegant of form, it is in its movements in the air a source of constant and fascinating delight to the observer. Starting from the stake, stump, or dead tree that may chance to be its resting place, it sweeps on easy wing low over the marsh, giving forth at intervals its harsh, cackling cry, or with bill pointed downward beats back and forth over the lake and the ponds looking for fish. But soon the eager eye has discerned its prey; the flight is arrested; with spreading tail and quivering wings the bird for a few seconds hovers in air; there is a quick plunge, a splash, and straightway the long, thin white wings rise with their burden, and the’ bird bears its booty away to young or mate. But “there’s many a slip ‘twixt the cup 12573°—21 24. 358 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. and the lip,” as well in the life of a tern as of men, and many a poise, many a descent, even many a plunge, brings no other reward than the lesson of patience and perseverance. Among the tules and other rushes that frequently border the desert lakes the Forster tern may be found breeding, often in close-crowded colonies and on friendly and intimate terms with grebes, gulls, or other marsh- loving species. The nest is built up from the ground, often with some care, of reeds and flags and other water plants, with a lining of similar material. The approach of any intruder is well-nigh sure to arouse a clamorous outcry from the rising birds, which dash threateningly at him from above, but when near at hand swerve to one side and pass swiftly by and up again to repeat the performance. The well-known coot, in its somber dress of gray, with mask of startling white, frequents these ponds and lakes wherever there is promise of requisite seclusion. It moves unobtrusively in and out among the reeds that skirt the margins of the pools; and if at times it ventures more into the open, it is ever ready at the slightest alarm to seek the cover again. It may perchance be seen cautiously slip- ping away from its nest, on which it can scarcely ever be surprised ; or it may be found swimming about surrounded by its gaudily be- decked but sturdy and precocious infants. Tule Lake, in northeastern California, close to the western edge of the Great Basin, is a good example of the shallow, though some- what extensive, desert lakes. It is so named from the common dark- green, round-stemmed tule, or rush, which grows luxuriantly in the water about its margin, particularly at the northern end. This growth of tules reaches out in places fully a quarter of a mile from the shore, now intermittently, now in wide stretches unbroken save by small spaces of open water, and forms extensive marshes that attract myriads of birds. Among the waterfowl drawn to these marshes the western grebe is notable for size, dignity of appearance, and grace of carriage, as it lightly rides the water with head well poised and neck erect, and were it not commonly so retiring in disposition would much more frequently claim attention. Although it is able to fly well, its home is the water, and there in habit and action it is strikingly loonlike. It swims excellently even entirely submerged, or with but the head and the long bill protruding above the water, presenting then a strikingly serpentine appearance. Sometimes, when at rest on the water and seeking escape from observation, it may be seen to settle slowly lower and lower, as though drawn downward by an unseen force, till body, neck, and finally head sink out of sight, leaving not the suggestion of a ripple to disturb the mirrored surface of the water. Out in the lake, among the tules, it heaps up a rough-looking DESERT BIRD LIFE—OBERHOLSER. 359 yet sufficiently substantial nest of the dead and floating vegetation, molds a depression in the top for the two or three eggs, and moors the whole securely to the upright stems of the growing plants or leaves it to drift at the impulse of wind and waves. A smaller, less sedate, more gayly attired species, the abundant American eared grebe lives in these great tule marshes in neighborly fashion with the western grebe, and builds a floating nest of typical grebe architecture, which is a familiar feature of the place. While the eggs are the object of her solicitude, the mother bird is always on the watch, and at the approach of any intruder hastily covers her treas- ures with the loose decaying vegetation of the nest and slips away; but later on, when the appearance of the little family has added to her maternal cares, she leads forth her vagrant brood to share with them the perils and the possibilities of the little world in which they move. Multitudes of ungainly, dark-bodied cormorants roam this lake. They are awkward enough on land, but perfectly at home on the water, and able to swim long distances below the surface. Their nests are coarse structures of sticks and tule stems, which occupy either convenient niches in the rocks or the branches of low trees, and are to be found near those of pelicans, gulls, and herons along the eastern side of the lake on rocky islets covered with a growth of small willows. Quite in contrast to the clumsy cormorant is the airy-winged black tern, whose name “water swallow” seems aptly chosen, for in its wonderful evolution as it courses the air after insects it recalls to mind most of all its smaller namesake of the land. Somewhat ex- clusive, too, is the black tern, and in its selection of a nesting place it withdraws to a separate part of the marsh. South of Smoke Creek Desert in extreme western Nevada, wellnigh completely surrounded by low mountains and fed by the clear, cool stream of the Truckee, is Pyramid Lake. It is one of the largest and deepest of the Great Basin lakes; and in places the shores are pre- cipitous, ascending sheer from the water, though seldom to great height, while here and there they are adorned with curious masses of calcareous tufa, fashioned into great domes or other strange forms. Two high, steep, rocky islands are conspicuous, and from the triangu- lar, pyramidal shape of the smaller the lake takes its name. To this body of water resort regularly and in numbers many species _ of shore birds and waterfowl, as well as land birds that have a fond- ness for bold cliffs near the water. A colony of California gulls oc- cupies part of the larger island; the clumsy white pelicans also live there, and, whether foraging daily along the shores and the marshes at the head of the lake or straggling back to pitch their nightly camp, 860 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. they are picturesque and striking features of this wild scene; an oc- casional lonely great blue heron is to be seen, perchance passing to his immense nest on the rocks; the savage duck hawk makes frequent raids from his eyrie high up on an inaccessible crag; and multitudes of violet-green swallows skim the water’s surface or, hovering about the honeycombed cliffs, pass in and out to their nests like a swarm of bees. Southeastward beyond the low mountains that encompass Pyramid and Winnemucca Lakes there is a broad desert, the bed of an ancient lake, most of it level and marked by numerous alkali flats, hot, arid, and practically treeless save for the oases made by irrigation. Here are the “sinks” of the Carson and Humboldt Rivers, whose wide marshes, grown up to tules, flags, and rank grass, are alike in au- tumn, spring, and summer attractive to multitudes of birds. Strange- appearing white-faced glossy ibises, that move from place to place in flocks of often regular outline, much after the fashion of geese, line up along the shore or the edge of the marsh in their search for breakfast or dinner; night herons patrol the lagoons and the bayous by day and retire to the tops of the bushes or low trees at night; many kinds of ducks gabble over their possessions among the reeds; various wading birds pursue their wonted peaceful vocation on the flats; red-winged blackbirds chatter among the tules, or fly here and there in quest of food or nest material; and coots swim unconcernedly to and fro, unconsciously conspicuous in their gray plumage. A quiet contented community is here in this marsh in the desert, whose inhabitants live together in perfect harmony, and with rarely a dis- turbance from without. But sometimes that fierce marauder of the plains, the prairie falcon, appears on one of his forays. Then what a change! The varied voices are suddenly hushed; the blackbirds drop hurriedly into the rushes; the herons disappear; the ibises mount into the sky or cringe statue-like in their places; the shore birds scatter to the shelter that before they disdained; the ducks and coots scurry for their hiding places; and soon the place that just now was instinct with life and vocal with happiness is to every intent deserted by all except him that is the cause of the panic. Yet this dreaded intruder has learned by repeated experience not to advertise his coming, and possibly even now, as the signal of distress is being passed along, he has secured and is bearing away his victim. From these marshes on every side the level desert reaches far away to the hills, in places bare, but mostly covered with a sparse growth of low, thorny shrubs, tufts of salt grass, gray-green annuals, and bright green greasewood, the last the only relieving feature of the landscape. Along the bases of the hills are areas where the bushes, spreading often into miniature thickets, catch and hold the DESERT BIRD LIFE—OBERHOLSER. 861 drifting sand until it rises into dunes and even at length com- pletely covers the vegetation within. Among these sandy heaps the curious long-tailed kangaroo rats hold nightly revels, watched, or perhaps joined, by the humbler pocket mice. By day, after his springtime return, the shy little black-throated sparrow, nothing daunted by his cheerless environment, flits about in the bushes or on the ground, chirping contentedly the while. Then, after he has found his mate, and the cosy little nest is growing in the midst of yonder shrub, he gives expression to his happiness in a song of quaint, sweet, tinkling notes that are strangely attractive and far-carrying in the still air of these desolate surroundings. Into these sandy wastes comes also the horned lark, here as everywhere throughout the Great Basin a frequent and characteristic figure. Singly, in pairs, or in small companies, it seeks the more open places among the dunes and the brush, and roams the stony or bare sun-baked plains, venturing at times even out upon the wide level wastes of snowy-white alkali that covers in places the hard, heat-seamed clay soil, where scarcely another living thing appears, and nothing meets the eye but the blazing sky, the hazy, quivering atmosphere, and the barren land- scape. Into such a furnace even the hardy desert inhabitants might well enter with timidity; but heat and aridity alike seem little to appall this pretty lark, for as it runs to and fro on the ground, or circles in towering flight like its cousin, the skylark, its cheerful twit- tering song appears to be just as happily an expression of its con- tentment here as in the beautiful, green, flower-strewn meadows of the far-away eastern country. From what few enemies it may have it is well protected by the colors of its plumage, whose browns and grays blend so perfectly and so marvelously with the surroundings, wherever in the desert the bird may chance to be, that to disappear from sight it has only to remain at rest. The low rocky hills, with their scant vegetation of small shrubs, which rise beyond the sand dunes, lack but little of being as un- inviting as the plains, yet the sprightly rock wren claims them as his own particular abode. Among the rocks, bowlders, and little ledges he may be found busy and active, and, though alert, not over- shy or suspicious. If started up from work or rest his quick, jerky flight to the nearest point of observation preludes a sharp, harsh note of interrogation and alarm, almost startling in its suddenness and volume, which degenerates into a prolonged sputtering scold, as the bird works himself into a ridiculous frenzy of voice and of action over what he doubtless regards as a wholly unwarranted and quite reprehensible intrusion. But his is an acquaintance that may well be cultivated, for once we are in his confidence he is found to be more than ordinarily interesting; he will sing for us, and this 362 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. performance is by no means monotonous or unattractive; or, con- fiding in our friendship, he may even lead us to the spot where, protected under an overhanging ledge or hidden away in a crevice of the rocks, is his little home. His lot, with several voracious mouths to feed in this all too barren land, might readily seem to be a hard one, but this is only apparent, for the desert yields to the patient toil of this little worker far more than falls under the gaze of the passing traveler. A region of dry hills and vales, with occasional mountain ranges, succeeds the Carson Desert on the east, extending, with scarce an in- terruption more important than broad valleys, all the way to Utah and the Great Salt Lake. Typical desert vegetation covers this whole area: greasewood and other thorny shrubs in the lower val- leys and on the hot slopes; sagebrush on the higher ground; and on many of the hills scattered junipers, which with their deep color give a little more variety to a needy landscape. Characteristic forms of bird life, too, are here to be found. Haunting the cliffs, the canyons, and the rocky slopes, wherever its fancy dictates, the Say phoebe becomes almost an essential part of the scene, and many a time, though out of sight, announces its pres- ence far up the hillside by a tremulous, mournful call. Perched often on some commanding outpost of the cliff, or on even so humble a place as a fence-post by the roadside, it makes frequent sallies into the air in pursuit of its prey, or at times, as it seems, simply in sport. It nests usually in some niche along the cliff, on a little shelf in some cave, in an old well, or about the timbers of an abandoned cabin, much after the manner of the familiar eastern phoebe. Few birds are more characteristic of the chaparral throughout. this region, and in other parts of the Great Basin as well, even toward the south, than the white-rumped shrike. Sinking from the sum- mit of the bush on which it may happen to rest, it passes in rapid, undulating, well-sustained flight through or barely above the brush, its gray and white particolored plumage curiously suggestive of the mockingbird. Quite as individual a trait as its flight is its almost motionless pose on the top of a bush or post, where it waits and watches with seemingly limitless patience. But let an unwary grass- hopper cross its vision, or even a thoughtless little sparrow venture too near, and instantly it dashes away in pursuit of the intended prey. Ruthless, cruel, and wasteful it is, and has fairly earned the reputation that its name “butcher-bird ” implies; for, not content with killing for use, it carries on the work of slaughter as long as opportunity remains, and, after its appetite is sated, impales its fur- ther victims upon the long thorns of the desert shrubs or the barbs of the wire fences. Nor is this, even in such a land of famine, a wise DESERT BIRD LIFE—-OBERHOLSER. 868 provision against future need, as might naturally be supposed, for seldom does the shrike return to these relics of its former successes save only in passing on some new foray. Its nest may be found hid- den away in some bush, guarded by a veritable chevaux-de-frise of branches and formidable thorns; and if eggs or young are there the parent is well-nigh sure to appear close at hand in vigorous defense of its own, ofttimes approaching with apparent loss of all fear, scolding energetically the while. Attractive alike in song, bright dress, and confiding ways, the house finch is particularly welcome in the desert. About the cliffs and rocky slopes, or among the cottonwoods along the streams, it is not less at home than when it comes around the ranch house or frequents the streets of the town with all the familiarity of the well- known house (English) sparrow. Though thus in some of its habits similar, yet it has few of the obnoxious traits of that pest. It builds its nest and rears its young about the house, under the eaves of sheds or barns, in walls, caves, or in any such place that gives prom- ise of requisite convenience. Pleasant indeed it is, at early morn- ing, ere the heat of the day has dried up the fountain of action, to stroll along at the foot of the rocks down to some tree-sheltered spring in the desert, and to hear from all around the many voices of the birds, as led by the house finch they join in matin chorus; an experience that seems not a little unexpected, and strangely at variance with the surroundings, but which for this reason all the more strongly emphasizes the thought it suggests, that contentment is a condition of mind rather than of environment—that the house finch is happy in spite of his living in the desert. The bright starry night of the desert has its birds as well as the day. Scarcely has the darkness begun to fall before the poorwill may be heard mournfully calling from over the valley, or seen in the deepening twilight seeking the margin of the water or an open place in the brush in pursuit of its insect prey. Very like a huge moth it is, as it glides low on noiseless wing, flutters for an instant, drops to the ground and is lost to view. Owls, little and big, from time to time hoot in the hills. Among them is the giant great horned owl, whose nest may here be found perched on a crag, for the exigencies of a treeless country compel recourse to unusual nesting sites, and, like the large hawks, the owl takes to the rocks. In the wider and higher valleys and on the far-extending plains where the “everlasting” sagebrush prevails, here but nowhere else the renowned sage grouse makes its home. Secure in the excellent protection that the brush affords, the bird rarely takes flight at the advance of a possible enemy until closely approached, when with a loud whirr it rises with apparently great effort until the tops of the 364 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. bushes are cleared; then on powerful wing it travels swiftly and far, at length sailing like the prairie hen and disappearing over a knoll or down into the monotonous expanse of sagebrush. At the nuptial season the curious actions of the male draw more than casual atten- tion, as with tail spread, neck and fore-breast enormously inflated and thrown forward till they brush the ground, he moves pom- pously about. Besides the sage grouse, the sagebrush country has other avian inhabitants; the abundant, widely distributed lark sparrow starts up all along the roadside, displaying its prettily pat- terned tail as it flies, or from over in the brush regales the listener with its varied song; the more humble Brewer sparrow sings its melodious little lay, or, perhaps, too anxious, betrays the secret of its home in some near-by bush; the sage sparrow, becomingly at- tired in black, white, and gray, flits through the shrubbery or runs rapidly along the ground; the trim green-tailed towhee skulks elusively, almost mouse-like, under the bushes, or from some hidden perch sends forth its rhythmical notes; and the sage thrasher may be heard in vivacious song, or perchance seen unobtrusively leaving its well-hidden nest. In the grass or rushes bordering the springs and ponds the little western savanna sparrow is often to be found at home, and among the tules or in the thickets along the streams the western yellow- throat and the song sparrow find congenial surroundings, though neither is by any means so common as in the East. The wide expanse of the Great Salt Lake, its mountainous islands, its muddy or stony shores, the level lands along its borders, white with salt and alkali, and the fields in the valley, made fertile by the magic of irrigation, have each a particular attraction for birds. Graceful terns, ducks of many kinds, together with grebes, among them the pied-billed, frequent the open water or the marshes, while multitudes of wading birds range the beach and spread out over the flats. Down by the margin of the lake, over the meadows and the marshes, the bittern heavily files, or stalks about in dignified, secre- tive, yet apparantly nonchalant way, pausing now and then to utter, with curious, not to say painfully ridiculous, contortions, its hollow, strangely resonant notes, but ceasing and turning to a statue well- nigh invisible at the slightest hint of danger. The wild-eyed, wild- voiced, wild-mannered long-billed curlew guards its preserve along the lake with jealous care, and at any act of trespass pours forth a torrent of abuse that is intended to be very threatening, but under the circumstances is vastly amusing. There are bright-plumaged orioles in the cottonwoods; sparrows and yellow-throats in the thickets along the sloughs; house wrens about the dwellings; western meadowlarks that rise from the meadow where the bobolink soars and sings; and ee a DESERT BIRD LIFE—-OBERHOLSER. 365 big Swainson hawks that come and go high up in the blue ether. Some of the rocky islands that ascend precipitously hundreds of feet from the surface of the lake, dry and barren as for the most part they seem to be, support a bird population by no means inconsiderable, for here, among many, are the house finch; the brush-loving sage thrasher; those birds of the chaparral—the black-throated, Brewer, and lark sparrows; the well-known catbird of eastern thickets; the horned lark; the modest little flycatcher; the white-rumped shrike; and that lovable little songster, the warbling vireo. The stranger in these deserts is at once impressed with the pallid vegetation, so fully in keeping with all around; but in the southern part of the Great Basin—in extreme southern Nevada, western Ari- zona, and southeastern California—this monotonous color tone is relieved by the dark, rich green of the shiny, resinous leaves of the handsome creosote bush, and in places by the great tree yuccas, whose branches, spread in strange, even fantastic, shapes, support a massive, spiny foliage. Here, out in the brush, lives the Gambel partridge, often in great numbers. Ordinarily, if venturing from its chosen cover, it is ever alert for the signal of danger; but if unmolested it becomes in due time and place so unsuspicious that it is scarcely alarmed even when the passer-by is near at hand. The ash-throated flycatcher, unob- trusive, yet by reason of its abundance, conspicuous, is one of the most distinctive birds of the desert, and its mildly strident call is one of the common sounds. 'The active and excessively shy Leconte thrasher is far more difficult of acquaintance than some of its neigh- bors, but its delightful song and odd, interesting ways abundantly repay the painstaking observer. The cactus wren is particularly fond of the great tree yuccas and the tall cactuses, where his rough, globular nest is so much in evidence; but, modest architect that he is, he presents to view not himself but only his work. The far- famed mocking bird, too, so oft proclaimed the prince of singers, here “wastes his sweetness on the desert air,” but finds hardly so congenial a dwelling place as in some other climes. The Costa humming bird, midget though it is, defies the heat and the drought of the desert, living here in apparent happiness and comfort; the little yellow-headed verdin fashions its curious retort-shaped nest in the bushes, and, more provident than some of its fellows, repairs the same one for winter use or builds another; in the canyons lead- ing into the hills and the mountains, where the strikingly attired phainopeplas congregate to chat and eat and the cliff swallows are busily engaged in their household cares at the colonies of their closely crowded homes on the rocky walls, the sweet-voiced canyon wren fills the air with ringing melody or, exulting in its impreg- 366 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. nable fortress, flings down a note of taunting defiance; the golden eagle, holding himself sternly aloof from his neighbors, wheels about his eyrie on the crag or, leaving it behind, soars majestically out over the valleys; and the Texas nighthawk, in its pursuit of insect prey, silently at dusk haunts the vicinity of the springs and lakes and streams. Few places there are in this or any other country where desert conditions are more intensified than where, walled in by ranges of barren, mountains and partly below the level of the sea, lies the famous Death Valley of California. Yet even here bird life is not wanting. The ubiquitous killdeer frequents each pool and stream and little marsh, and by its petulant cries, at times continued far into the night, makes itself known. The mourning dove, common in all the great West, is here so regular a visitor to the springs that its presence betokens almost with certainty the nearness of water. Here, too, that strangest of all strange birds of the desert, the road- runner, though shy and retiring, betrays itself now by tell-tale foot- prints in the sand, now by occasional distant fugitive appearances as it runs among the bushes or, with head and tail erect, pauses mo- mentarily to survey its surroundings. The rough-winged swallow is found about the springs; the least vireo in some of the lower mountain canyons; once in a while a kingfisher wanders over into the valley; the powerful-winged white-throated swift comes down from its inaccessible home in the cliffs to hunt in the low country; vultures appear at times in search of their grewsome re- past; and the hoarse croak of that sombre-hued bird of ill omen, the raven, is a familiar and peculiarly suggestive sound in this valley of solitude and death. THE DIVISION OF INSECTS IN THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. By J. M. Awpricy, Associate Curator. [With 15 plates.] HISTORY. The insect collection of the National Museum owes its beginning to Dr. C. V. Riley, who became Chief of the Division of Entomology in the Bureau of Agriculture in 1878. He brought with him from his nine years of great activity as State entomologist of Missouri a good working collection of the insects commonly met with at that time in economic work, as well as many others accumulated along with them. The Riley collection was formed with a very distinct practical object; as a standard with which to compare insects en- countered in the daily work of an economic entomologist, in order to find out the extent of distribution of injurious forms, or to be sure that specimens referred to him for name were really the same as those which had proved to be injurious or beneficial. This sort of work, very elementary at first, gradually took on a more specialized character as the number of insects important in agriculture increased with the growth of economic entomology. The few assistants on Riley’s staff took up various groups of insects for study in their avail- able time, and by collecting added largely to what had been origi- nally brought to Washington. In 1882 Riley deposited the collec- tion for safekeeping in the National Museum (old building), and was designated honorary curator of entomology on the Museum staff. In 1886, in consideration of the appointment of an assistant curator to be paid from Museum funds, Riley formally transferred the whole insect collection, then numbering some 115,000 specimens, to the Museum; as before, however, it continued to receive the attention of specialists in the division, and to serve the same economic pur- poses. The assistant chosen was John B. Smith, of Brooklyn, who remained about three years and then became State entomologist of New Jersey. After his departure the position was unfilled, but Martin Linell was appointed aid, continuing in this grade until his death in 1896. 367 368 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. Until Riley came to Washington the policy of the National Museum had been to distribute the entomological collections received to various specialists and to maintain no national collection of insects. Riley’s predecessor, Townend Glover, had preserved specimens only for illustrating and identifying them; in consequence his remarkable work left but little impression upon the national collection. Upon the foundation laid in 1886 as above indicated, the insect collection of the Museum has grown by the addition of material from many sources. The principal collections acquired through Riley’s influence (up to 1895) were those of the following collectors: John B. Smith (mostly Lepidoptera and Coleoptera). Martin L. Linell (Coleoptera). G: W. Belfrage (miscellaneous insects, mostly from Texas, but including Palaearctie Coleoptera and Hymenoptera). H. K. Morrison (miscellaneous insects from Georgia, the White Mountains of New Hampshire, and the West; many named Coleoptera). Asa Fitch, first State entomologist of New York (miscellaneous insects, with some types acquired long after his death). Cyrus Thomas, State entomologist of Illinois (grasshoppers). S. W. Williston (type collection of Syrphidae). Geo. Marx (spiders and other arachnids). C. H. Bollman (myriopods). The sudden death of Riley in 1895, and the appointment of Dr. L. O. Howard, his successor in the Agricultural Department, as honor- ary curator in the Museum, was another point of importance in the history of the collection. Simultaneously with Howard’s appoint- ment several of his economic staff were designated as custodians in the Museum: Coquillett in Diptera, Ashmead in Hymenoptera, and Schwarz in Coleopterous Larve. O. F. Cook, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, was made custodian of myriopods. The meaning of these appointments was that the men were recognized as authori- ties in the groups under their charge, and were expected, while con- tinuing on the pay roll of the Agricultural Department, to give much of their time to identifying insects sent in to the department; and in the intervals of this work they were to classify, improve, and increase the collections. The entomological work of the Department of Agriculture in- creased rapidly from about this time; what had been called the Division of Entomology became a bureau shortly after. Its field stations with an enlarging number of workers brought ever larger quantities of material to Washington for identification, and this compelled a gradual increase in the number of custodians. In 1898 H. G. Dyar was put in charge of Lepidoptera; in 1899 Schwarz was given Coleoptera, and Banks, Arachnida. Others were added later. The completion of the new National Museum in 1908 afforded room for the staff, and the collections were segregated and placed in DIVISION OF INSECTS—-ALDRICH. 369 several rooms. W.H. Ashmead was assistant curator from 1898 to 1907, H. G. Dyar for a few months, and J. C. Crawford from 1908 to 1911, and associate curator to 1919. Under the administration of Dr. Howard, the principal collections added up to 1900 were the following: The Hubbard and Schwarz collection, mostly Coleoptera and their larve; this was accompanied with the entomological library of the donors, rich in complete sets, which formed the foundation of the present library of the division. The southern California collection of D. W. Coquillett, comprising mainly Diptera and Coleoptera, with some important Hymenoptera. Additions since 1900 have been numerous and important, especially in Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera, and Hemiptera; but the limits of space forbid continuing the analysis further at present. A few lines may, however, be given to foreign collections, in which the beginnings have been in general more recent. Some named for- eign material was included in several of the collections noted above. In 1905-6 Busck and Knab collected in tropical North America un- der a grant from the Carnegie Institution, mosquitoes being the pri- mary object, though insects in other orders were also secured in some numbers. In 1907 Busck collected in the Canal Zone under the auspices of the Canal Commission. In 1911 the Smithsonian Insti- tution made a biological survey of the Canal Zone, in which Busck and Schwarz participated, Busck continuing the work the next year. In the butterflies and moths of tropical America the Museum be- gan to receive named material from William Schaus in 1901, the result of his own expeditions; his life work in this field has been generously devoted to the Museum, in recognition of which he was in 1919 made honorary assistant curator of insects. Dr. W. L. Abbott began sending to the division his collections from tropical Africa and Asia as early as 1890, and has continued to the present, his many shipments running well into the thousands of specimens. The custodians of various orders have in the last 20 years given. increasing attention to exchanging as a means of acquiring named foreign insects, and through this method there is a constant growth of the foreign collection. The almost inconceivable number of kinds of insects in the world makes the undertaking a slow one, even to achieve here and there, for limited groups and for limited parts of the earth’s surface, something approaching completeness. FUNCTIONS. The Division of Insects, as will appear from the preceding histor- ical sketch, is organized on a cooperative basis. The Bureau of En- tomology of the Department of Agriculture, which employs a very 370 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. large staff of entomologists in economic work throughout the United States, concentrates here the work of identifying the vast number of insects that are sent in. Such sendings come in large part from its own agents, but almost as many come from officials of the State experiment stations, and no small number originate with the general public. The staff of trained specialists which does this indispensa- ble work is furnished by the Bureau of Entomology, which also turns over to the Museum each year some thousands of insects that have been reared or collected by its agents in the course of their investi- gations... The Museum, on its part, provides an associate curator and two preparators, and working quarters for the staff, as well as furniture and fixtures, insect cabinets, and entomological sup- plies generally. The older specialists are designated by the Museum as honorary custodians of the various groups (several have been do- ing this work for periods of time extending from 15 to 40 years) ; they give such portions of their time as are not required in identifi- cation work to the general improvement and classification of the collection. This system has resulted in the accumulation of a large and well- classified collection of the insects of the United States. Something has been done in getting together the insects of other countries also; but considering the enormous number of kinds of insects existing in the world, the foreign collection is still comparatively very small, and its increase is considered one of the foremost needs of the division. The economic importance of having a large and well-classified collection of foreign insects might not be evident at first glance, but can be easily demonstrated. Almost all the first-class insect pests that we have are foreign in their origin. Many have been traced back to very nearly the exact time and place of their entrance within our borders. A few of these may be cited to emphasize the point. The gipsy moth, which has done great damage in New England, and is a source of some hundreds of thousands of dollars of expense every year, was introduced from Europe in 1869. The brown-tail moth, in the same region of the United States and only a little less injurious and expensive, came from Europe in 1893. The pink boll- worm of cotton, for the eradication of which an elaborate campaign has been carried on for several years, was introduced from Egypt by way of Mexico, reaching the edge of the United States in 1915. The European pine sawfly (pl. 10) came into New England about 1914. The Japanese peach moth? came from Japan about 10 years ago. The European corn borer, which is making its way westward 1The Museum also receives material additions every year from the Bureau of the Biological Survey. DIVISION OF INSECTS—ALDRICH. 371 from the Atlantic coast, was introduced about four years ago. The —eotton-boll weevil came from Mexico about 1892. The European pine-shoot moth was introduced about 1918. The Japanese beetle was discovered in New Jersey in 1916, and at present an expensive campaign of extermination is in progress, financed jointly by the State and the Federal Government. To prevent other dangerous introductions, the Federal Horticul- tural Board was established a few years ago; among other activities, it has a system ot inspection of vessels and cargoes at seaports. In- sects found therein are sent to the staff at the Museum to determine whether they are likely to be of sufficient importance to justify con- demnation proceedings or quarantine against shipments. Hence in the last analysis the Museum staff decides this vital question. But how are they to know? Evidently the efficiency of their work de- pends very much upon having access for purposes of comparison to a well-classified collection of the insects of the country involved. Aside from the very direct economic object just mentioned, the study of insect life from a world viewpoint is desirable for another reason. ‘The distribution of existing species of animals and plants throughout the world has been determined by the evolution of life under the conditions prevailing in the past and present. The laws of evolution can only be determined by prolonged study of existing and extinct forms. These laws must be of great importance to humanity; how great only the future can disclose. When Darwin, before publishing his Origin of Species, spent more than 20 years in patiently collecting the facts which would convince the world of the truth of his principle, he did not stop to calculate whether his work would have any economic results. He was interested in getting at the truth. Yet the most far-reaching benefits to humanity have come from the acceptance of the evolution point of view and more are to be expected as a fuller understanding of the laws of life is attained. Most of what we now know about human heredity has been entirely reorganized and given new significance through discoveries made by breeding experiments on certain flies (Drosophila). ‘There are other. great possibilities in the study of the lower forms of life. And in this study national lines have no existence; a world viewpoint is the only scientific one. Adding to these considerations the further one that insects offer innumerable illustrations of exquisite beauty (as shown in slight de- gree by the colored plates accompanying this article), it may justly be said that there are reasons economic, scientific, and esthetic for the building up in the Nation’s capital of a world collection of in- sects. This is the primary function of the Division of Insects. _?2 While this article was in preparation a specialist in the Museum identified another Japanese moth from within the United States for the first time, and it is now under further investigation, 372 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. Allied to this and almost a part of it, the Museum should furnish such conditions of safe preservation that private collectors would make it the ultimate repository of their collections. It is an indica- tion of progress in this direction that the describing entomologists of the country are quite largely sending in their type material, or at least paratypes, without waiting to put the gifts in the form of a bequest. To make its valuable material available to advanced students under regulations, liberal yet consistent with the permanent preservation of the specimens, is a third function. A large number of entomolo- gists visit the Museum each year to study the collection. To promote a popular interest in its field through exhibits, lectures, etc., is another very clear function. Owing to the fact that the per- sonnel of the division is almost entirely derived from the Department of Agriculture and has duties primarily economic, but little has yet been accomplished in the direction last indicated. INSTALLATION. The Division of Insects now occupies eight rooms on the third floor of the New National Museum Building, with a total floor space of 6,150 square feet. The space assigned to the various orders is in- dicated on plate 1. The pinned collections are kept in steel cabinets, constructed in units holding 50 glass-covered drawers in two columns of 25, each column having two detachable steel doors (pl. 2). The drawers are about 18 inches square, and are finished in two styles. In one case they are lined with compressed cork and the pins are inserted mn this in the usual way; this method is used for butterflies and moths, dragon flies, and some other large insects. In the second style the drawer is unlined, but is filled with four columns of deep pasteboard trays of uniform width and multiple-unit length, which are cork- lined. Each species is kept in a tray by itself, which can readily be lifted out for study or for rearrangement; the number of specimens on hand of the species determines the length of the tray used for its reception. Alcoholic material is kept in vials in tin-bottomed trays, labeled on the end. Microscope slides are used for preserving lice, fleas, and some other groups where the size is small, as well as for extensive collections of dissected genitalia, other anatomical preparations, cast larval skins, mosquito larve, etc. This method of mounting seems to be increasingly in favor for small insects as higher powers of magnifica- tion gradually come into use. Type material is recorded under a serial number, which is the same for all the specimens of a species. Each specimen bears a red DIVISION OF INSECTS——ALDRICH. 373 label with this number, and the word “ Type,” “Allotype,” or “ Para- type.” In the Division of Insects the record of these numbers is in the sixth volume, and includes 22,969 numbers. INVENTORY. In 1886 Riley estimated the collection which he transferred to the Museum at more than 115,000 specimens. In his report for 1894 he estimates that the collection contained 45,000 species of insects, repre- sented by 610,000 specimens. In 1901 Dyar announced by actual count 16,653 species and 129,789 specimens in the Lepidoptera. In 1905 in a special report Schwarz estimated the Coleoptera at 30,000 species. There appear to be no other estimates on file until June, 1919, when an effort was made to get an inventory of all the orders. On account of the magnitude of the task and the shortage of workers in some orders it was necessary to make estimates rather than abso- lute counts in some cases; these, however, were made from examina- tion and are conservative. In summarizing below the results by orders, the items are reduced to two—the number of named species and the total number of specimens. Of these the former is by far the more significant, as a specimen may be anything from a duplicate housefly to a moth which a generous benefactor purchased for $100 and presented to the Museum. In groups where single specimens are likely to have little value the figures have, however, been reduced to a very conservative basis—in scale insects, for instance, only speci- mens mounted on microscope slides are included. Summary of collection, June, 1919. Order. Rane spec Order Scones. speci Mhysanura oS sss. 2-2 oee 1100 ¥700)|, Orthoptera 222222222255 -22 22-2 2,556 25, 988 Odlonat aes. Meee! LS cts 705 16,642) | Hemiptera. 3050.84) 13,876 | 1244, 637 ESODLCE Asse cea Wesel ososes 173 | 1100,000 || Lepidoptera.............-.-.-. 30, 653 275, 920 Ephemerida.......-.-----.--- Di ptera-weewe ee ee 10, 253 210, 880 PlCCopiet avec esse tase ae Siphonaptera-....---- 1) chet 1130 1 432 Cormodentiajs. ses -ce <2 see 647 14.721 Coleoptera-/s0.5. 2.2 132,500 | 1738, 000 Mecopterans. sce. 522s: : Hymenoptera......-.---.---- 17,638 | 493, 757 richopterassce ie -/5 aie = 2\s- Thysanoptera...---.--------- 200 750 INGUBOREREAS Sc. sa ciaticis see ce Strepsiptera.......-.-.---.-.. 159 414 Matlophara ses. see ise. se5cc 1125 11, 250 Ra eeu eealene GLE che Dermaptera RaALge seesiAs ha PL Ma ee 180 1, 098 Tobale. 22222222822. 22 98, 925 2, 125, 189 1 Estimated. The collection is unique among those of the great museums in the large number of immature stages which it includes; this is a natural result of the immense amount of biological work on insects carried 12573°—21——_25 374 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. on by the closely related Bureau of Entomology. Material illustrat- ing life histories, the interrelations of insect species through parasit- ism and otherwise, and other biological phases of insect life is con- stantly accumulated by bureau workers; and after having served its immediate purpose as a basis for economic bulletins it is deposited in*the Museum. Thus there has been accumulated a biological col- lection which in parasitic Hymenoptera and Diptera, and probably in some other groups, far surpasses that of any other Museum in quantity of reared material. The fact that all of the Museum staff in the division have been more or less occupied with the rearing of insects in the course of economic studies has always kept the biological side uppermost in the division. PERSONNEL. (April 1, 1920.) Administrative : L. O. Howard, honorary curator.’ J. M. Aldrich, associate curator. William Schaus, honorary assistant curator.® Specialists: In Coleoptera— BE. A. Schwarz, honorary custodian.’ H. S. Barber.® Adam Boving (larve).? F. C. Craighead (larvee).? W. S. Fisher.® In Lepidoptera— H. G. Dyar, honorary custodian.* August Busck.* William Schaus.® Carl Heinrich.’ In Orthoptera— A. N. Caudell, honorary custodian.° In Hymenoptera— S. A. Rohwer, honorary custodian.’ A. B. Gahan.’ R. A. Cushman.’ William M. Mann.’ L. H. Weld.’ In Hemiptera— BH. H. Gibson, honorary custodian.* BH. R. Sasscer, scale insects.’ A. G. Baker, plant lice.® Harold Morrison, scale insects.* In Odonata and other Neuropteroids— R. P. Currie, honorary custodian.’ 2On the Bureau of Hntomology staff. 5 On the Bureau of Plant Industry staff. 4Voluntary, donating their services. DIVISION OF INSECTS—ALDRICH. 875 In Diptera— J. M. Aldrich, custodian. Charles T. Greene, honorary assistant custodian.* H. G. Dyar, mosquitoes.* In Isoptera— T. HE. Snyder.* In Arachnida— H. E. Ewing.’ In Myriopoda— O. F. Cook, honorary custodian.°® In addition to the scientific staff as listed, there are 10 preparators and clerical helpers furnished by the Bureau of Entomology and two furnished by the Museum. ILLUSTRATIONS. Since the division, owing to the peculiarity of its organization and the nature of its material, is not able to reach the public to any great extent with exhibits up to the present, a few pilates have been specially prepared from Museum specimens to accompany this article. Some of these represent groups of insects from a local standpoint with notes on habits; other plates show related insects from a distant region or from scattered localities. Species of beau- tiful colors or striking form have to some extent been favored in making the selections, and it has not been thought inconsistent with a popular aim to include many rarities which have never before been figured. Acknowledgment is made to the Bureau of Ento- mology for the services of Mr. Snodgrass and Miss Carmody. EXPLANATION OF PLATES. PLATE 1. Ground plan of rooms occupied by the Division of Insects, on the third floor of the new National Museum. PLATE 2, One steel cabinet unit, open to show drawers containing the pinned insects. Below, one drawer filled with unit trays for small insects; another containing large insects not in unit trays. PLATE 3. Hurycantha horrida Boisd. From New Guinea. Natural size. Belongs to the walking-stick family of the order Orthoptera. The specimen is a female, and this sex has not heretofore been figured. ?On the Bureau of Hntomology staff. 5 On the Bureau of Plant Industry staff, £Voluntary, donating their services, 376 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. om & & Ol pp Oo tS et oP 0 Ne PLATE 4. Additional orthopterous insects. Natural size. . Stilpnochlora couloniana Sauss. A katydid from Florida. . Plagiostira albonotata variety brevipes Caud. A katydid with rudimentary wings, from Arizona. . Eggs of No. 1, attached to a twig. Florida. . Archimandrita marmorata Stoll. A cockroach from Nicaragua. . Young specimen of No. 4, from Costa Rica. Nore.—Nos. 1, 2, and 3 not previously figured. PLATE 5, Dragonflies (order Odonata). » Natural size. . Calopteryx splendens Harris, male, from Spain. . Rhinocypha fenestrella Rambur, male, from lower Siam. . Libellula cyanea Fabr., female, from Maryland. . Agrion dimidiatum variety apicale Burm., male, from Maryland. . Argia fumipennis Burm., male, from Florida. . Pseudoleon superbus Hagen, female, from Arizona. A Central American species ranging northward to our Southwest. . Nannothemis bella Uhler, female, from Maryland. . Perithemis domitia Drury, female. The specimen is from Maryland, but the species oceurs widely in tropical and eastern North America. . Celithemis elisa Hagen, female, from Maryland. PLATE 6. Neuropteroid insects. Natural size. Stilbopteryx costalis N. An ant lion from West Africa. . Ascalaphus ramburi McLachl., from Japan. . Panorpa nuptialis Gerst. A scorpion fly from Texas. . Polystoechotes punctatus Fabr., from California. . Acanthaclisis americana Drury. An ant lion from Virginia. PLATE 7. Two-winged flies (order Diptera) of the family Bombyliidae. Members of this family are parasitic in the larval stage upon other insects. All natural size. 1. Exoprosopa pueblensis Jaennicke, from Mississippi; occurs southward to feb fad et fd tet iP OO ND be SOMNAMH wh Central America. . Exoprosopa capucina Fabricius, from Germany. Hyperalonia hela Erich., from Mexico; occurs in Guiana. . Exoprosopa limbipennis Macquart, from Canal Zone. Bombylius punctatus Fabr., from Dalmatia. Bombylius discolor Mikan, from Europe. Ezoprosopa dorcadion Osten Sacken, from Utah. . Exoprosopa fascipennis Say, from Utah. . Hyperalonia gargantua Knab, from Jamaica. Type. . Hyperalonia latreillei Macquart, from Guatemala. . Hyperalonia cerberus Fabr., from Porto Rico. . Spogostylum pluto Wied., from Mount Washington, N. H. . Hyperalonia tantalus Fabr., from Java. . Anthrax abbreviata Wied., from Paraguay. DIVISION OF INSECTS—ALDRICH. 377 PLATE 8. Conspicuous beetles (order Coleoptera) from the vicinity of Washington, D. C. Natural size. 1. Scaphinotus shoemakeri Leng. A bluish-bronzed bettle found rarely in the wooded ravines of Rock Creek Park and along the Virginia shore of the Potomac above the city; adults are found in September. They feed on snails. 2. Calosoma scrutator Fabr. wk wy 3 Rae, ; 1cm=30 km. ‘a a eA an RA Carte dressée par Frantisek Machat. ° Imprimd: VN rt, Prague-Smichov. FRONTISPIECE.—THE CZECHOSLOVAK REPUBLIC. Aiba ti Neuere eral ‘adfq, ULISBIG puv Uenesny jo sreling-aig ‘SeLIBPUNOd IIJOV[VIP JUESeIg ———— ‘Spunoy, V *SOqlI} ABIY JO S9T10}II10} JeqyeT -------- ‘S01NJ[ND ISOPlO oy} JO SoqIs pue sfeling e ‘SOUL], OLOPSIYIIG WI VIAvIOW pue vimeyog jo suljdosd ey,—T ‘“dI7 we* ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. 472 CZECHOSLOVAK PEOPLE—MATIEGKA. 473 ' amphitheater surrounded on all sides by mountains. Moravia, Slovakia, and Subcarpathian Russia, well protected by mountains in the north, are relatively open toward the south; but the western part of Slovakia is protected on this side by the Danube. The territories are rich in natural resources, and Bohemia with Moravia are highly developed, developed in fact to the limit, agriculturally. Northern Slovakia and northeastern Russinia abound in forests. Of the population of Bohemia 41 per cent are industrial, 32 per cent agricultural; in Moravia con- ditions are about reversed. The Slovaks and Russinians are essentially agri- eultural and pastoral (61 per cent agricultural, 20 per cent industrial). A. HrpricKa, ANTIQUITY OF MAN IN THE CZECHOSLOVAK TERRITORIES. OLDER CULTURES OF CENTRAL BOHEMIA. Various finds in the Czechoslovak territories relating to man’s antiquity show that man existed in these countries already during the diluvial epoch, contemporaneously with the formation of the deposits of yellow brick clays and certain gravels and while the fauna still included the mammoth, the rhinoceros, the elk, the rein- deer, the wild horse, the cave bear, and the cave hyena. The climate at that time was colder than at present, the period corresponding to the latest ice invasion, when most of northern Europe was covered with glaciers. The mountains surrounding Bohemia were then also covered with ice and snow, but in the foothills and in the ice free interior there were “stations” of diluvial man. The most precious discoveries of remains of man from this period have been made in Moravia, in the vicinity of Brno (Briin), in caves near Stramberk,? and especially at Ptedmost, where Professors K¥iz and Maska made extensive excavations and important collections. Bohemia itself has given us so far the diluvial remains of Podbaba (a skull, etc.) and of a number of other localities. The finds include the bones of extinct mammals and many paleolithic implements. The art of polishing stone or of making pottery was as yet unknown. But finds in Bohemia itself have been thus far all slightly more recent than those of Moravia, dating from the period of recession of the last ice invasion. In Moravia, on the other hand, we have remnants not merely from the period of the last ice invasion itself, but also older, such for example as the Sipka lower jaw, and others. An interesting feature of cranial remains from the more recent periods is that some of them retain more or less the characteristics of tha older diluvial (Neanderthal) forms, such as. pronounced supra-orbital ridges and sloping forehead, justifying the opinion 2 Nore.—Pronunciation of Czech letters: ¢ C—=as ch in child or cherry; 8 S—as sh in shoe or sherry ; 4 Z—=as j in French jolie; 7 R—=difficult sound, approached by combination - of rz or rzh, 474 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. that early man in Europe, including the Czechoslovak territories, did not completely die out, but left traces in the later population. These ancient strains represent the oldest, even though but a feeble root, of the people of these regions. NEOLITHIC POPULATIONS. If man in the Czechoslovak territories was scarce during the diluvial epoch, he was much more common there during the neo- lithic times. Meanwhile the climatic and environmental conditions had considerably changed; the diluvial fauna had become extinct; the reindeer receded to the far north. Man himself had advanced from the stage of a hunter to pastoral and agricultural life. His occupation now bound him to the soil, and we find his remains along rivers and other favorable locations both in Bohemia and Moravia, and even in parts farther east. Southernmost Bohemia, however, appears to have remained unsettled, which may be explained through its higher elevation, and hence colder climate with lesser fertility of soil, which characterizes this region to this day. The remains of a large number of neolithic settlements in Bohemia and Moravia lead to the conclusion that the earlier part of the neolithic period was of long duration in these countries. Its begin- nings in the Czechoslovak territories may be placed at as far as 4000, possibly even 5000 to 6000 B. C. The neolithic culture was distinguished by numerous and char- acteristic stone implements, various implements and tools of bone and horn, and especially by pottery. Some of the pottery was decorated in various ways, and its characteristics help us to sub- divide the epoch into a number of secondary phases or periods. It is unknown whether the art of making pottery originated gradually in the later part of the diluvial epoch or whether it developed or was introduced into the territories in question during the neolithic times, but no pottery has hitherto been found except in connection with neolithic or later burials. Curiously, we do not know as yet how the early neolithic popula- tion of Bohemia and its sister lands dealt with its dead, having thus far found no burials; but on the Rhine burials that may be attributed to a related stock have been discovered, and it was found that the people to whom they belonged were of the dolichocephalic type, which was widely prevalent in Europe in the neolithic period. Approximately 2000 to 1500 B. C. there began to enter from vari- ous directions into what are now the Czechoslovak territories, out- side influences, and with them came the first objects of metal—small copper axes and bronze jewelry. The culture changed, forming a large “transitional” period of a number of phases or localized CZECHOSLOVAK PEOPLE—MATIEGKA. On, % gent bt eaes' | 5 pinned ’ = . "tp eyegees e* Fie, 2.—Characteristie objects and crania from the older cultures of the Czechoslovak Territories, 1. b. 475 The Paleolithic Period (ending 10,000-8,000 Big Ce ahi Ei he Podbaba skull. . The Neolithic Period (ending 2000—1500_ B. C.). 8. Transitional Period. a,b, Northern phases. ec, Western phase. d, South- ern and south- eastern phase. .- The Older Bronze Period. (1200—800 B. C.) A76 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. developments. The people of this period buried their dead in the contracted or “ fetus-in-utero” position, with the body lying on its side. With the body were buried various mortuary offerings, par- ticularly pottery. The multitude of objects known as a result from this period permits us to recognize the influence on the population of southwestern, western, northwestern, and northern, besides southern and southeastern cultures. There was evidently a very free contact with the outside world. Besides cultural influences, however, there were also during this period actual influxes of other people. It has been found that skulls from burials showing objects of nordic culture are dolichocephalic, while those of burials showing a strong influence of western cultures are brachycephalic, in addition to which there were mixed elements. The population assumed a considerable heterogeneity. The preva- lent cranial type was probably the dolichocephalic, but accompanied, there are some reasons to believe, not with blond but rather dark hair and eyes. THE BRONZE CULTURE. On the basis of the final “ transitional” neolithic period and under the influence of additional contacts there next developed in the Czecho- slovak territories, approximately about 1200 B. C., the “older bronze culture.” The body was buried in the contracted position, was sur- rounded by stones, and with it were placed various forms of pottery, nicely shaped and with characteristic decorations. In addition there are also bronze armlets and pins, bronze or gold rings and earrings, amber-bead necklaces, characteristic bronze axes, and bronze daggers. Large burial grounds and a multitude of valuable burial offerings show that the people of this period lived in larger settlements, had trade relations with the north as well as the south of Europe and enjoyed considerable prosperity. This older bronze culture, while extending beyond the borders of Bohemia, found its highest development in the center of that coun- try. The skeletal remains from this period show people of higher stature, which may perhaps be explained by generally better living conditions. The skulls are prevalently oblong (dolichocephalic) and elliptical, with more or less marked parietal prominence. The population may be regarded in the main as the result of a fusion of the various ethnic elements of the transitional period. THE MOUND CULTURE OF SOUTHWESTERN BOHEMIA. The older bronze culture lasted according to the estimates of Czech archeologists up to the eighth century B. C. About that time the people of Bohemia became subject to the influence of two new outside ethnic elements which penetrated into the country, one from CZECHOSLOVAK PEOPLE—-MATIEGKA, 477 the northeast and the other from the southwest, and which occupied parts of the territory. In southwestern Bohemia the new invasion gives rise to a special characteristic culture the remains of which are found in mounds (see figs. 2-5). The burial is generally on the level of the ground, is surrounded by stones, and covered by a moderate sized earth mound. Occasionally in addition the mound . itself is surrounded by a ring of stones. The older mounds yield objects of the advanced bronze period, such as bronze swords and other weapons, typical long bronze pins, armlets, etc.; but in later burials there begin to appear also objects of iron (knives, arrow points, etc.) and bronze objects character- istic of the younger bronze period. Finally, with the latest burials of this prolonged intrusive phase there are found objects of Roman derivation, such as coins and keys. The bodies of the mound builders were either cremated or buried as a whole; but even in the latter cases the bones, due to the construction of the graves, are generally in r =I Z Soe Ey, 5 OS SP ER Fic. 3.—A section of a mound, showing two old burials covered by piles of stone, and an intrusive more superficial interment. such poor preservation that it has not as yet been possible to form a precise opinion concerning the physical characteristics of the stock or tribe concerned. From the fact that mounds of this nature may be followed into Bavaria and farther on into Switzerland and France, we may judge that the physical type of the mound people in Bohemia resembled that of those regions, and there is some evidence to show that this was a dark-haired people, with rather a short skull. A gradual transition of the mound culture to the plain Slav culture in southern Bohemia (sixth to seventh century) indicates that the mound population was at least partly preserved and assimilated into the later Slav people. ASH-URN CEMETERIES OF NORTHEASTERN BOHEMIA. While or even before the mound culture began to spread over southwestern Bohemia, the northeastern part of the country began to be overspread by another and larger ethnic stream, which oc- A78 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. cupied first of all the sparsely peopled northeastern portions of the territory, but was soon overflowing across the more central regions, and which eventually, strengthened by new accretions, occupied all of Bohemia. The culture of this people is characterized in the first place by a special manner of disposing of the dead. The dead were cremated, the remains of the bones were deposited in urns, and these were interred in communal burial places which are commonly known as “urn fields” or ash-urn cemeteries. Besides the ashes and charred bones, however, there were placed in the urns also burial offerings, such as jewels and even weapons; while about the urns were placed other pieces of pottery, so that the burial occa- sionally resembles a nest of ceramics. The forms and decorations of the urns and offerings 4 ere =6vhave their own : Ch er 482 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. and finally the dead were buried in simple quadrilateral wooden coffins. For a long time, however, the old customs were still manifested by the inclusion in the grave of clay or wooden vessels, evidently con- tainers of food and drink for the last journey of the departed. In addition there is found, especially in female and children’s graves, considerable jewelry, and eventually also Bohemian silver coins (tenth to twelfth century). The reverence toward older burials of other peoples, the care shown in the burials of children and babies, the latter of whom frequently accompany the mother’s body, and other signs are wit- nesses of the gentleness and advanced status of the people of this period. The skeletons of this time show relatively high stature. The skulls, though already historically identified as Slavonic, are still in the majority of cases dolichocephalic or but mesocephalic, and only as we advance toward our period the proportion of short-headedness shows a material increase. In general the skeletal remains indicate that the Czech population of that time arose by the mixture of the more recently arrived with the remnants of the older peoples that occupied the territory. Then the Slav remains become suddenly so numerous and widespread that we are evidently confronted by recent new additions of Slavic tribes, among whom in all probability was also the tribe of “ Czechs ” from whom was derived the present name of the people as well as the country, “Cechy.” The latest influx of Slavic tribes is placed by the historians into the fifth cen- tury and is still alive in Czech traditions, in which the name “Cech” is represented as that of the “father” or chief of the tribe at the time of their advent into the more central part of Bo- hemia, which has ever since remained their seat of occupation. THE PEOPLE OF MORAVIA, SILESIA, AND SLOVAKIA. In the preceding paragraphs attention has been centered on Bo- hemia. In the remaining territories of the present Czechoslovak territories ethnic developments proceeded in much the same manner. There is a lack of the mound culture in Moravia and Slovakia, and hence of the first Keltic invasion, but the La Téne culture, repre- senting the second Keltic stream, is partly represented. Merovingian graves are even scarcer in Moravia than in Bohemia and are limited to a small district in the south. Silesia, although well peopled already in the neolithic period, is especially characterized by its urn field burials, hence by Slav population. From Slovakia we have finds from the earlier neolithic, and from the late neolithic transitional period; eventually the whole territory CZECHOSLOVAK PEOPLE—MATIEGKA. 483 becomes covered by the urn field culture of the Slavs. A few spots of the La Téne culture are known, however, even from this country. DEDUCTIONS. The above brief review of the results of modern archeological and anthropological research in the lands of the present Czechoslovak Republic leads to the following deductions: These territories have been peopled uninterruptedly since at least the early neolithic period, notwithstanding the influence and re- peated invasions of outside peoples. The culture changed from time to time, but we may always observe the transitional changes from the older to the newer conditions, showing that there was no actual interruption. But the influx of various ethnic elements resulted in the gradual formation of a mixed people, composed of remnants of the old elements, as well as of the more recent comers. Due to the preponderant eventual influence of the Slav tribes, this population enters the historical arena as the Czechoslovak people, but the physical characteristics of this people show for long and even to this day their rather heterogeneous origin and admixture. Taking Bohemia alone we find that archeologically and in rough lines the country is divided into three large areas. (See fig. 1.) The central area was evidently peopled first and uninterruptedly from diluvial times. This area saw the development and passing of practically all the cultures of the country, though it was not influenced by all in the same degree. The second area, the southwest, but sparsely peopled in early times, later remains long in the hold of the Keltic mound people, who eventually fuse with the Slavonic arrivals. The third area, the northeast, also but sparsely peopled in the earlier times, becomes later the home of a people whose remains are deposited in the cremation urn-burial fields. This is the old Slav territory, the people of which with new additions from their sources farther northeast eventually prevail over all the country and give it its subsequent marked character. In Moravia we have no mounds, and we may only recognize, outside of the diluvial and the neolithic periods, the northern Slavic urn- field area and a southern portion with cultural diversity. Slovakia resembles Moravia, except perhaps in respect of the diluvial epoch, but a great deal of research remains to be made in this country that for so long was blighted by the Magyar domination. Of Russinia we know as yet but very little archeologically. ARCHEOLOGY YS. HISTORY. _Meager early historical accounts speak of the Boii as the oldest inhabitants of Bohemia, and of the Kotini as those of Moravia. Both 484 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. were Keltic tribes belonging to a stock of people which extended all over what is now south Germany and over Switzerland into France. It was formerly supposed that the Keltic Boii and after them the Germanic Markomanni occupied all Bohemia; but Niederle has shown on the basis of both historical and archeological evidence that the settlements of the Boii were restricted to the southwestern part of the territory, and, judging from the archeological evidence, he ascribes to these people the mounds of southwestern Bohemia. These mounds agree closely with those of Bavaria and may be traced west- ward from that region. A historical note that in the year 114 B. C. the Germanic Cimbry, in their advance eastward from the Rhine, were at the foot of the Bohemian forest repulsed by the Boil, indi- cates the power of this tribe. But already before the first half of the first century A. D. their domination in Bohemia was at an end. This decline is possibly connected with the defeat which they had suffered from the Dacian chief Burvista and their subsequent con- centration along the Danube, rather than with the advance into their territory of the Markomanni as represented by some historians. The archeological finds, as already indicated, lead us to the con- clusion that besides the Boii another Keltic tribe had reached the Bohemian territory in its more central parts, namely, the La Tene people. On the other hand, no graves or sites have as yet been found which could be attributed to the Germanic Markomanns and Kvades (Moravia), tribes which are mentioned by early histo- rians. The Markomanni are supposed to have been led into Bo- hemia by Marobud eight or nine years B. C., but their domination, if such it was, seems to have been of a political rather than cultural nature, and they leit no settlements or burials that could thus far be identified. The power of Marobud was doubtless built largely on the peoples he controlled, which explains the sudden loss of im- portance of the Markomanni after his defeat. The very seat of Marobud has not as yet been positively traced in Bohemia, all of which points to the ephemeral nature of the Markomann occupation. THE SLAVIC TRIBES. We have seen that on one hand both the archeological evidence and the early historical accounts indicate survivals in the country of remnants of the older populations and their eventual fusion with the Czech people. On the other hand, history as well as archeology has come to the conclusion that Slav tribes penetrated into the territories of the present Czechoslovakia long before the first men- tion in history of the Czech tribe. According to all evidence they were the people of the urn-field burials. These urn fields extend northeastward into territory which was the cradle of the Slavs; CZECHOSLOVAK PEOPLE—MATIEGKA. 485 their culture passes gradually into the historic Slavonic culture; the pre-Christian historic Slavs of these territories used cremation as their universal system of burial; and, finally, there is no scientific possibility of attributing the urn-field burials with their remains either to Keltic or Germanic tribes. The rich archeological evidence renders possible the following estimates as to the coming of the Slavic tribes: (1) Penetration of Slavs, with Lusatian culture, into northeastern Bohemia, and thereafter toward the center of the country, approxi- mately 1000 to 800 B. C. (2) Extension of these tribes over central Bohemia, their mixing there with the older population, and their development of a modified culture, about 800 to 600 B. C. (3) Their numerical augmentation in northeastern Bohemia—500 to 200 B. C. (4) Their gradual extension over the whole country—about 300 B. C. to the beginning of our era. (5) A fusion of the preponderant Slav population with the rem- nants of the Keltic tribes—first to fifth centuries A. D. (6) The addition of still other Slav bodies, one of which was the strong Czech tribe that eventually gave its name to the people of the country—fifth to sixth centuries A. D. The earliest known Czech historian, Kosmas (b. 1045), had no idea that Bohemia had ever been occupied by any except the Slav peoples; but Kosmas’s accounts show that even to his time there were over different parts of the Bohemian territories different related Slav tribes, with the Czechs occupying the center of the country. Due to forestation of large intervening tracts of territory and their different admixtures as well as contacts, these tribes developed certain cultural differences, traces of which, with traces of dialectical nature, exist in the Czechoslovak lands to this day. A, series of the names of these late tribes has been preserved, but in the course of time the population has become so intermixed and fused that the names to-day are little more than memories. Nevertheless, anthropological exami- nation of the people from different parts of the Czechslovak terri- tories shows certain differences of type, which are doubtless connected with these earlier subdivisions and different admixtures of the people. (See fig. 6.) The Slav tribes of Bohemia extended in historic times well beyond the boundaries of the country toward the south of the Danube, and in a southwestern direction into Bavaria (regio Slavorum of that country). These overflows later became Germanized. From the twelfth century onward, a gradual German colonization, favored for political reasons by some of the earlier Bohemian kings, 12573°—21——82 486 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. and later by events, took place on the western and northern out- skirts of Bohemia, with some penetration into the interior. This accounts for the present German population of the Republic, and for some recent German admixture. In Moravia the knowledge of the earlier Slav tribes is more ob- scure; but there are several large old groups whose territorial dis- tribution, with dialectic and other differences, have been better pre- served to date than those of the tribes in Bohemia. The southeastern part of Moravia and the subcarpathian territory toward the east, is occupied by the Slovaks. External influences which this tribe has suffered in the course of its existence have produced a certain amount of dialectic and cultural differences; nevertheless everything shows their common origin with the rest of the Slav tribes of the Czechoslovak territories. CONCLUSION. From the data here briefly given it is seen that the roots of the present Czechoslovak people are multiple, as in the case of prac- tically all other now existing branches of the white race, and that some of them reach into hazy antiquity. Besides a little of the ancient blood, there is a Keltic and to some extent also a Germanic or Nordic infusion. Mixtures of this nature, where the racial differences are not ex- treme, represent as a rule favorable biological as well as cultural conditions, and this with the intense struggle for existence imposed upon them by their geographical location, accounts doubtless for the historical prowess and acknowledged capabilities of the Czecho- slovak people. A few notes may be added concerning the physical characteristics of the present Czechoslovaks: The general average stature of the adult males is 169 centimeters, of adult females 157 centimeters. The head is of good size and generally brachycephalic. The latter feature, as we have seen, is of historic development without any recent heterogeneous immigra- tion. The brains, even in proportion to stature, show very favor- able proportions. In pigmentation (color of eyes and hair) the people range from blonds to brunettes with preponderance of the latter. On the whole, physically as well as mentally, they represent a sound stock and one of favorable appearance. 3See among others Weisbach (A.), Kérpermessungen verschiedener Menschenrassen. Berlin, 1878. “AONVYS NI SAITIVY SHL HLIM SNILHSIS SHVAOTSOHOAZD G AlVid “ey Salle W\I—" 6161 ‘Wodey urluosYyyIWS PLATE 3. 9.—Matiegka. Smithsonian Report, 1 = > < o fe) 2 = (2) o Le Zz < = 3 <= 3) Wu N O -! < 2 ou > fF = Se. a: Sp Pies aie ae Sine ae eee EES eta ae a 1, 405, 452 922, 821 858,291 | 32,815, 972 BO Tere SAL ee pees BSc aI. Peed eR Me 1,502,468 | 1,026, 663 966, 784 | 56, 462, 313 Ue ee EE aera Seat eet ram eden Heri pe Riri 5 1,601,934 | 1,119,566} 1,051,193 | 66,821,396 | IMs ote eo par get hein ee. ee, 1, 636,159 | 1,187,255| 1,113,469 | 88,974, 137 The statistics given in the above table do not, however, tell the whole story. The easy terms of repayment granted by the Govern- ment and the high prices received for their products have combined with the other favorable conditions and with the industry of the people to produce a condition of prosperity beyond the indications of the bare statistics. No new projects have been undertaken within the past year, as there have been no funds available for this purpose. The gradual decline in the receipts from the sales of public lands, due largely to the wholesale disposal of these lands under the operation of the 640-acre homestead act, has naturally greatly restricted the opera- tions under the reclamation act. The small payments provided by law from the irrigated lands have kept the returns from the con- structed projects to a low point. It is now necessary, under the provisions of existing law, to set aside $1,000,000 per annum from these receipts to repay the advances to the reclamation fund which were provided by the act of 1910, known as the “bond loan.” It has been possible on this account only slightly to extend the irrigated area by some extension of canal systems and to take care of water- logged conditions as they have arisen on some of the projects. CONSTRUCTION RESULTS. In spite of the adverse labor conditions and the absence of oppor- tunity for the undertaking of new projects, it is noteworthy that PROGRESS IN RECLAMATION—BISSELL. 503 during the fiscal year 1919 the amount of excavation accomplished by the Reclamation Service totaled nearly 14,000,000 cubic yards, and 575 miles of canals and drains were constructed. Reservoir capacity on all projects totals 9,400,000 acre-feet. The following table gives a brief summary of the construction work accomplished by the Reclamation Service in the 17 years of its existence: Summary of construction resulis to June 30, 1919. Item. Unit: pee te STRUCTURES. (SE IRG sootec tone coset so Ghsenesabons 26 S- Scone SSeS: Po ose case ganenences Miles...-.....- 10, 834 SR GIE 8 = asp gnaSene seons sesegseoese -adteebsbse sees cose se saeo te soen (G55 5e On neeeaer 27 IDNEOS Gir | UNGER SR Gand S Sona: oat cea sade Gee Spee OH aMbc See sees See cd= eee eas dOls2.a2 8 97 irnipation aud tain pipe eo = sere ssa eee eee =~ sa or eee amine a soi ec Clingsdiend 500 IM LTE a ao eae oor cse Bo sede ssGe so sec~ sonEe Samo Ace a Sceeeert esa see alk amen Osco es 120 Canallnine Concrete. oo see eee ae sesame ae hae eis eine ae ae [eam Gorse s.e 308 RSs eee ee oe Be oo abe sscoscouce + -sbeeteeae oodeseso sor ee see | Oscnee cee 970 AMR GGUS fees eee e 85 ace eeesoeneeMedS: jasder eal caees Os ceanees - 3, 126 JME RESIGN TIRS\ Ses OS SOE NS ogee o hoe cee ee eee Sole ae dOseeeeree 615 Canal structures: ORB ition si reossabyne nels sobs kobe sbeokt asso eee gee sos SoM Ce Be ei assed seein 32, 722 NOEL ie spaecsee acer, at ie a a i Ee Eee eee eeeiet 4 ee ocaeecee eae 64, 423 ISG oo a Seabee MeO ake eee Es Sok eth oh oe ei aio ego poe 7, 000 (CHITIN coe Se aces aoe kee wae ee see gecco445 sor eet oansoes Ia0cm 2 sCooce Sel Se eaddoce Germans. 9,044 TPerel GUIs Slwnd Se oe Be See oie ton ble ao Sonous “= 1 Soon rg GUboc de scloscaeecuille-ede faces nods 1,374 MATERIALS HANDI ED. Excavation: IDET ATES ES aie SE oie Se RL eiot eer ae Soa ate Uay SPeee Sa Cubic yards... 154, 473, 487 indurated materials os: 05 Soeur et eeneatctelet oes poe Nee cea cls ube te eds doled 9, 913, 065 Led eS be aate Seae bet Sane So eP eR Dade See adeer on OSEIOe megane c= Sch a Pines Oss <5) nae 8, 409, 722 Avail Berise. 2 anode de Seece Se gose oases dos sect Seas soe sen sebe ase ase| lee eee dO-no-seeee 172, 796, 274 Volume placed in dams: WEG elin Paes Angee etere nas Doge snedede ~Senee ae oo MonnnareeBOemsoeee ose ee oles oseuee 2, 087, 991 IDET al APSE cere seee Hee ap eGe7 eas Jedd e Se See He ee ob Sanncuer sare tee tl Gane Os20ccee ee 10, 220, 671 igyoa cable rate taal) Aeros Be aac eoes Ser oc oneear adresse secre OneHores calla seus dOsssenee oe 1, 203, 386 ANNIBl oso g2e s cceadnve seers as coansseogeotee tene dSuecoset cages zssend||:2505 Cha Aosdcior 18, 512, 048 TBAT O25 0 ese ae RS te ee a SE MME EES oe ht Goeth ss 1, 892, 728 TEP A ARS Aaa Pe See Sere Seas Selle peta iae ai mena Ps eines Aiea Soa 2 Square yards.. 819, 408 RSUNICKEL Owes qa ee ae) = 2 eee Meese e sine oe ae aeieeee Meee ees: Cubie yards... 3, 023, 446 (CHRIS Saaetppseee Bee eaee Sis SANE ROhAe s Gem MEN iy pers EIA ath eee Barrels....-.-- 2, 971, 330 RECLAMATION PROJECT OPERATIONS. The Salt River project in Arizona is being operated by the local organization of water users under a contract by which the Secretary of the Interior on November 1, 1917, turned over the works and the income of the large power plants constructed in connection with the project. It is in a prosperous condition, and the income from power 504 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, absai!s a good deal more than pays the construction charges. The Govern- ment connection with this project is confined to occasional inspec- tion and supervision, as provided in the contract. The ground oue iom eee ip < PSAL Ray : N 5 : y BLE} A N é 2 DAR TA Lp O : : BISMARCK ¢ Nad Fai Pale eant _ Burley Dope H oh : nD ox meeemaesians Ge ATHEIND, RESERVOIR” Ba j ies leas t LLEy aed OL, Ulie a” eee ae, onirose IMPERIAL VALLey & K Ze. {\ ‘ N Y a DEPARTMENT? OF THE INTERIOR (te 1 UNITED, STATES RECLAMATION SERVICE =i v LOCATION OF PROJECTS ‘Ss Map No, 18444 1 = Seale of miles’ 1020) ere Fic. 1.—Location of projects, U. S. Reclamation Service. water is rising on this project and will require early attention in order to prevent injury to a considerable area of land. ‘This has been investigated: by the water users’ association, which is alive to the problem and will doubtless take necessary action. jou! Smithsonian Report, 1919.—Bissell. I. GRANITE REEF Dam, SALT RIVER PROJECT. 2. LAGUNA DAM, YUMA PROJECT. PLATE I. *LOaPOUd AATIVA GNVYD ‘LNV1d DNIdWAd GNV IVNVO SNI7] HOI % ALV1d "l9SSIG—6 161 ‘Hodey uvluosyyWS Smithsonian Report, 1919.—Bissell. PLATE 3. |. HARVESTING THE ALMOND CROP, ORLAND PROJECT. 2. IRRIGATED FARMS, UNCOMPAHGRE PROJECT. Smithsonian Report, 1919.—Bissell. PLATE 4. I. NEW RANCH IN PEACH VALLEY, UNCOMPAHGRE PROJECT. 2. OFFICE BUILDING AND POWER HOUSE, MINIDOKA PROJECT. PROGRESS IN RECLAMATION—BISSELL. 505 On the Yuma project, Arizona-California, the Yuma’ Valley, which lies in Arizona, has been placed under public notice, but the payments have been contested by the water users’ association. The Yuma Valley is exceedingly prosperous, having a gross yield for the year 1919 of $184 per acre, exclusive of live-stock increase. A successful sale was held in December, 1919, of a portion of the lands on the Yuma Mesa, which will be irrigated under the provi- sions of a special act of Congress, with water pumped from the main canal south of the city of Yuma. A contract has been executed with the Imperial irrigation district to connect its system with Laguna Dam and provide ‘better security for its water supply. The Orland project in California is regarded as the first unit of a comprehensive project for the Felonies of the Sacramento Val- ley. It, however, stands alone as a self-supporting project, with an ample water supply from Stony Creek, a tributary of Sacramento River, and has been practically completed. Public notice on this project was issued in 1916, and all payments are made promptly when they fall due by the association asa whole. Thus all the an- noyance, expense, and risk of delinquency are voluntarily shouldered by the water users’ association, which has shown a commendable spirit of cooperation from the first. The project is prosperous and constantly growing in development. The only construction work in progress is a small amount of permanent canal lining, which was pro- vided for in the current public notice, and which is necessary for checking the seepage from the canals constructed in coarse material. The Grand Valley project in Colorado is delivering water to a ‘portion of the land which has been opened to entry and occupied by settlers. The agricultural operations are gradually extending and results are encouraging. The physical conditions in this valley are difficult on account of the seamy shale which occurs on the canal system and which has required a large amount of maintenance and betterment work to render the canals tight. Aside from these diffi- culties the works are operating in a very satisfactory manner. The Uncompahgre project, Colorado, is being operated by the United States under contract with the water users’ association upon the payment of the cost of such operation by the association. The contract provides that the operation may be turned over to the water users’ association whenever they so elect, and this is being consum- mated. The existing contract provides for the operation at cost for a period of five years, at the end of which period the project is to be opened under public notice unless further extension is made by the Secretary of the Interior. At that time, according to the contract, the construction repayments will begin. The construction of the project is completed so far as the plans of the Government have been made, but the distribution systems, which remain in the hands of the 506 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. irrigators, are very unsatisfactory and should be enlarged and im- proved. The cultivation of the lands is gradually extending and slow improvement is being made in the use of water, which is very wastefully applied to the lands. Efforts are being made to introduce the rotation system and to charge for water on an acre-foot basis, which will be necessary before early practice in the economy of water can be hoped for. The excessive application of water is manifested by a rising water table and the destruction of the fertility of some of the land. Agriculture in general is successful, and the settlers are prosperous. The Boise project in Idaho includes the Arrowrock and Deer Flat Reservoirs, which have been completed, and a canal system, which now delivers water to the main body of the project. Contemplated extensions will be made gradually to conform to better practices regarding the use of water which is sufficient for irrigating about 40,000 additional acres of land if used with reasonable economy. Public notice was issued in 1917 announcing the charges on the com- pleted portion of the project, but the water users brought suit to escape a portion of the repayment, and this has been tried in the United States court. A preliminary opinion has been handed down by the court, which holds that the full cost of the project must be paid by the beneficiaries, but withholds decision upon several points of detail. In addition to the main project, the United States, under 11 special contracts, delivers storage water to about 150,000 acres of lands that are served by independent systems. The current year has been one of exceptional drouth, and it was preceded also by a very dry year. It is the general opinion, as expressed by the water users and the local press, that the benefits the past season from the storage works constructed by the Government have been greater than the total cost of those works in the increased product upon the lands served by stored water which would have been without water except for these works. The project as a whole is very productive and successful. The Minidoka project in Idaho as originally planned has been completed, but several extensions are possible and desirable. The project is in two portions—that which is served with irrigation water by gravity has been formed into an irrigation district which operates the canal system serving it under contract with the United States; the pumping unit on the south side of the river is operated by the United States. The results of irrigation in this region are very striking and exceptionally successful. The Huntley project in Montana is practically completed, and is one of the most successful and thickly settled projects of the service. Drainage work is in progress and some enlargement of a portion of Res a Mares Witenes eet ae Smithsonian Report, 1919.—Bissell. PLATE 5. |. PLACING CONCRETE LINING, SUN RIVER SLOPE CANAL, SUN RIVER PROJECT. 2. WALEN DIVERSION DAM, NORTH PLATTE PROJECT. Smithsonian Report, 1919.—Bissell. PLATE 6. 2. WEIR AND OUTLET PORTAL, STRAWBERRY TUNNEL, STRAWBERRY VALLEY PROJECT. PROGRESS IN RECLAMATION—BISSELL. 507 the delivery system is also being made. Construction payments upon the lands served are being regularly made. In the Milk River Valley, Mont., water is being delivered through a canal leading from St. Mary River, which diverts that river just below St. Mary Lake. By a treaty arrangement with Canada the waters of the St. Mary are divided on an agreed basis, and this water is being used very completely. The recent demand for irrigation water, on account of the excessive dryness of successive seasons, has been greater than ever before. The water is all used on a rental basis, partly through the works of the service and partly delivered to canal systems of private or cooperative companies. On the Sun River project, Montana, the original unit on the south side of Sun River is being operated as usual. On the north side of the river, where many of the settlers were attempting to secure title to their homesteads without the liability for irrigation water which is included in their filing papers, a series of three dry years in suc- cession has shown that dry farming is not profitable and has revived the demand for irrigation water. Difficulties with the canal sys- tems have been encountered on account of the unfavorable material with which they were constructed, but it is possible this year to de- liver water to about 25,000 acres, and a considerable portion of this is being served on a rental basis. The Lower Yellowstone project, in Montana and North Dakota, has been operated for years on a rental basis, with only a small fraction of the lands irrigated. The neighboring lands have been for years farmed without irrigation, and though the returns from dry farming have always been less than under irrigation, the temptation to avoid the expense of water service has been so great that the project has not yet been placed on a paying basis. A series of dry years, how- ever, has increased the demand for water, and steps have been taken to form an irrigation district and arrange for permanent water rights for the lands to be included. Appropriate laws have been passed by both States and the prospect is good for the success of the project. The demand for water of this project has been more than twice as great this year as in any previous year, and good crops are reported. The North Platte project, in Nebraska and Wyoming, is one of the largest as well as one of the most successful of the reclamation proj- ects. The Interstate unit, on the north side of the river, most of which is under public notice, is largely under cultivation, and im- provement is steadily extending. Drainage is being constructed and considerable areas are yet to be relieved. On the south side of the river the main or Fort Laramie Canal and its lateral system are under construction and water is being delivered under rental con- 508 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. tracts. This is the region of most rapid development’ of anything in the service. The Newlands (formerly epee: Carson) project, in Nevada, has been somewhat held back in past years on account of difficulties in the way of forming an irrigation district to provide funds for necessary drainage work. Recent State legislation has relieved these diffieul- ties and the irrigation district recently: formed has taken up the drainage ‘situation energetically. Another difficulty has been the lack of storage for the lands on the upper part of the system, but legal and other obstacles have been thrown in the way of a proper regulation of Lake Tahoe, the only available reservoir site of conse- quence which can serve this region. The main canals for using water have been built, but storage works are still necessary. Pend- ing their development, no further extension is feasible. The Carlsbad project in New Mexico is gradually increasing its cultivated area, and is in a prosperous condition. Some drainage is still to be accomplished, but the water supply is ample and results are satisfactory. The Rio Grande project in New Mexico and Texas is being operated on a rental basis. Nearly one-half of the land is in cultivation and is being served by storage water from the Elephant Butte Reservoir. The flat topography of the valley, the peculiar fineness of the soil, and the very wasteful use of water in the past have brought up the water table over most of the valley and much of the land has been injured. An extensive drainage system is being installed and is suc- cessful so far as constructed. Its prosecution, however, is greatly hampered by the lack of sufficient funds. The lateral system which has been operated for many years by the local association of irriga- tors is very inadequate and inefficient, and the water is wastefully used. At the instance of the water users the various works are being gradually turned over to the Government and are being rebuilt and put in shape for efficient service. This will to some extent remedy the threatening condition of the rising water table and is necessary for the success of the drainage system planned. The progress along this line has been successful so far, but not very extensive. The North Dakota pumping project, which has not been operated for several years owing to failure of the lands benefited to make pay- - ment therefor, has been formed into an irrigation district and a con- tract made with the Secretary of the Interior assuring its operation and the payment for the cost thereof. It was operated in 1919 with results that under the conditions existing may be considered very good. The Umatilla project in Oregon has always been bothered by drift- ing sand and in some restricted localities by an extremely coarse sub- PROGRESS IN RECLAMATION—BISSELL. 509 soil which allows the rapid escape of irrigation water and the leach- ing of soil. These difficulties are being overcome to some extent, and progress in cultivation is steady and encouraging. Urgent requests have been made for the Government to enlarge the project by taking over some of the private canals which have insufficient water supply and constructing a reservoir to serve them. This can not be under- taken without additional funds. The Klamath project in Oregon and California is being gradually extended as the waters of Tule Lake recede owing to the diversion of the supply through the Government works. Drainage works are in progress and have been successful so far as constructed. The irri- gated land is productive and the settlers generally prosperous. The Belle Fourche project in South Dakota is growing in produc- tion and prosperity. In some localities the water table is rising and drainage works should be installed, but arrangements have not yet been made for the repayment of the cost. A small amount of the land under the feed canal and not served from the Owl Creek Reservoir suffers from water shortage in some years, and plans are under way for providing a small storage reservoir to serve these lands. On the Strawberry Valley project in Utah the principal work con- structed by the Government is a storage reservoir in Strawberry Valley on the headwaters of the Duchesne River and the diversion of its waters through a long tunnel to the westward slope of the Wasatch Range, where the water is diverted from the Spanish Fork River and an irrigation system constructed. This system is being operated by the irrigators under special contract, and payments of construction charges are being regularly made. In many instances canal systems already in existence are being operated by associations which have made arrangements for storage water from the Straw- berry Valley Reservoir and are operating their own canal systems. There are still some water rights in the Strawberry Reservoir for sale. Three extremely dry years—1917, 1918, and 1919—throughout a large portion of the West have broken all records for drought, and thousands of live stock and many private irrigation projects have suffered for lack of water. Dry farming has generally been a failure throughout these regions. The Reclamation Service experienced serious water shortage on one project—the Okanogan project in northern Washington—in 1918, and while there was some shortage also in 1919 it was not so great. Pumping plants were installed at Salmon Lake and Duck Lake to supplement the storage reservoirs, which did not entirely fill. The additional pumping capacity and the enlargment of the reservoir hold-over capacity are the remedies being carried out. 510 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. The Yakima project in Washington includes a large system of storage reservoirs and two canal systems, known as the Sunnyside unit and the Tieton unit.. The project as a whole is very productive and prosperous, and strong pressure is being made to secure the con- struction of more storage, the extension of existing canal systems, and the construction of new canals from the Yakima River and its tributaries. The excellent results obtained show that this would be a wise development. The Yakima project as a whole is one of the foremost in general prosperity and in returning the cost of this construction. The Shoshone project in Wyoming is being gradually extended by additions to the canal and lateral systems on the north side of the Shoshone River. The drainage system, which has been largely com- pleted and has been very successful, is also being extended under contract with the water users in accordance with law. The lands are very productive and the project very prosperous. Preparations are being made for the construction of an additional unit on the south side of the Shoshone River, for which ample storage capacity has been provided in the Shoshone Reservoir. The value of the agricultural products exclusive of live stock pro- duced by the Government reclamation projects during the season of 1919, amounting to nearly $89,000,000, has been over half of the net cost of construction of all of the projects during the last 17 years. On some of the projects the production has exceeded the total con- struction cost. The results in the extension of agriculture and of homemaking have justified the expectations of the advocates of this activity and argue strongly for its extension. CROPS. All agricultural statistics are now dominated bv the effects of the World War, and this is strikingly shown by a comparison of the table of irrigation and crop results presented herewith for 1919 with that for 1914 published in the Smithsonian Report for 1915 (p. 473). For all projects the crop report for 1919 shows a gross value of $89,000,000, or an average of $80 for each of the 1,113,000 acres cropped. Alfalfa continues as the great basic crop, occupying 38 per cent of the crop area and furnishing nearly one-third of the total crop value. Cotton, while grown on only the four southernmost projects, brought in returns of over $20,000,000 in 1919. The follow- ing table presents statistics relating to crop production as collected by Government employees on the Reclamation Service projects. Fig- ures for crops from over 1,000,000 acres of lands on private projects ‘ ¥ : 4 4 f Smithsonian Report, 1919.—Bissell. PLATE 7. CONCONULLY RESERVOIR, OKANOGAN PROJECT. Smithsonian Report, 1919.—Bissell. PLATE 8. |. IRRIGATING AN ORCHARD, YAKIMA PROJECT. 2. FLOATING DREDGE ENLARGING SUNNYSIDE MAIN CANAL, YAKIMA PROJECT. Smithsonian Report, 1919.—Bissell. PLATE 9. re ee . ey 2, JACKSON LAKE DAM, WYOMING. "ONINOAM ‘SYSAIY SXHVNS SHL AO SHSLVMGVAH SHL NO ‘ "Ol S3LVid . *}19SSIG—"6 LOL ‘Uodey uBluOsYyIWS PROGRESS IN RECLAMATION—BISSELL. 511 supplied with stored water from reservoirs constructed by the Recla- mation Service show crops valued at $64,000,000 more. Irrigation and crop results, Government reclamation projects, 1919.- Lands on projects proper covered by crop census. State and project. Crop value. Trrigable | Irrigated | Cropped acreage.? | acreage. | acreage.3 Total. | Peracre. Arizona: . Salt Rivers. 2. .2 2p Spa et, ASC am 4212, 966 |5 205,064 | 188, 232 |$23, 768, 682 $126. 27 Arizona-California: SN ESERE SA a cg we reer er 70, 000 58, 284 52,324 | 7,012,209 134.00 California: MeN See oe RR Oa 20, 533 15, 203 12, 409 892, 259 71.90 Colorado: Raters du Vealloyne eon k Gk a2) bua nlesetun et ee Nee 35,000} 10,049 8, 899 570, 629 64,12 /SPECG(O} 10) 952 01-10 fy a A ae Rs a oe 100, 000 60, 906 59,746 | 3,391, 456 56. 76 Idaho: TE Gist 4500 geal Seale Ace egiet eee ep Laem Baas SC 123,772 | 108,782} 99,093} 6,254,904 63. 12 TEGTAYISTE (UUs A Me eS te a a 14, 500 4,993 3, 959 219, 246 55. 39 Minidoka— (Gir 05 AiG ea oe Up ae Bae A eae 72,589 | 59,259] 57,068] 3,364,049 58. 95 Piranesi Pe eh) ahs 48,976 45, 000 41,780 | 2,562,210 61.32 Montana Huntley-....:::.. mobile! suonl a ves usenet idba ah 31,265 | 19,310] 19,310 948, 968 49.14 AUIS Ri 9 5 OA fae A a 67, 000 25, 485 24,099 600, 864 24.93 Sun River— Fort Shaw division 8............ aN as 14, 023 8, 186 8, 292 348, 820 42.07 Greenfields division No. 1..............---- 9 26, 000 3,310 2, 902 23, 816 8. 20 Montana-North Dakota: ower Yellowstone o.0 20. sesohs.ho. hee 42, 167 21,300 21, 289 869, 117 40. 82 Nebraska- Wyoming: North Platte— Initorstate Unitce 22 eee Eee 111,915} 88,990 | 85,690] 3,916, 736 45.71 INSP deo, Jands oss sees hoes. ok 17,800 10, 428 10,352 363, 718 35.13 Oni Mar atICre tee a ete tt ae eis 12, 132 6, 258 6, 258 148, 367 22. 91 Nevada: ING WIRRGS cts Sees EAE SESE eS 65, 809 44,324 43,296 | 1, 840, 650 10 56. 59 ‘New Mexico: @arlsbad sue ewe ON sy laden VON oases wid) biel ae 24,991 | 20,363] 18,753] 1,988,546 106. 04 ‘New Mexico-Texas: IRI OIG Tan GGsst ts Seung a cee ee nS es 107, 000 77, 033 72,170 | 3,825,107 53. 00 1 Data are for calendar year (irrigation season), except on Salt River project, where data are for corre- sponding ‘‘agricultural year,’’ October, 1918, to November, 1919. 2 Area Reclamation Service was prepared to supply water. 8 Irrigated crops. Excludes smallareas in few projects cropped by dry farming. 4 Includes so-called ‘‘dry lands”’ given right to rent water temporarily on account of ample storage. 5 Includes 3,100 acres within town sites, about 8,500 acres reported “vacant’’ land, on some of which are roadways, ditches, etc., and over 5,000 acres of ‘‘home tracts,” including houses, lots, corrals, etc. 6 Data furnished mainly by King Hill irrigation district. System was built under private auspices aaa finied States has undertaken its reconstruction; operation and maintenance are handled by the strict. 7 Crop reports covered an additional area of 7,287 acres cropped by dry farming, producing crops worth $39,150, or $5.37 per acre. 8 Above figures are for 196 irrigated farms, which included small tracts farmed without irrigation. In addition two units farmed ‘“‘dry’’ reported 3 acres of hay valued at $75 and 20 acres of pasture valued at $120. 9 Limited by water available. Figure is approximate area under ditch. _ 0 For crops in full prodiucucn, excluding 10,247 acres of wild-grass pasture and 4,205 acres otherwise not in full production. For all crops, $42.50, 512 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. * Irrigation and crop results, Government reclamation projects, 1919—Continued. Lands on projects proper covered by crop census. State and project. Crop value. Irrigable | Irrigated | Cropped acreage. | acreage. | acreage. Total. | Per acre. North Dakota: North Dakota pumping...-.....-..-.-2--.-.-: 12, 238 2, 446 2,370 $69, 990 $29. 53 Oregon: Wimiatiile 23): Jess ees tae le enreaieete. ce 24, 501 10, 533 8, 464 633, 380 74, 83 Oregon-California: Klamath Be UM oe eee Lr vameen sae 50,000] 37,881 | 32,688 859, 805 26.30 South Dakota: Belles ourchetre came te ones e eer eR oe 82, 634 56, 255 56,255 | 1,962, 683 34. 89 Utah: Strawberry Valleys. cost see eeea cece onesie 50, 000 33, 123 29,255 | 1,973,059 67.50 Washington: j Okan ogiig £22 2S SOR sn ee pee Ee 10, 099 5, 849 5,314 | 1,951,475 367. 23 Yakima— Sunnyside tmit fSo sa | Pee ee a 2 iaoatiee 100,130 | 90,000} 75,886 | 12, 678, 247 167.07 Miebon unit... OHO. 2). eee ae a eR 32,000} 27,000} 26,300] 4,053,168 154. 10 Wyoming: Shoshone— Garlandiiinit!: - 285.44... Lae ee ane ae |! 56,119 | 34,697 | 34,183] 1,708, 644 49. 98 GRA Te Carats eR Sse ‘ 6, 944 6, 833 178, 333 26.10 ING ETT ee hla geese 2 a Wea 1, 636, 159 |1, 187, 255 |1, 113, 469 | 88, 974, 137 79. 88 INVESTIGATION OF SWAMP AND CUT-OVER LANDS. In the appropriation for the United States Reclamation Service for the fiscal year 1919, the Congress made the following provision for the investigation of swamp and cut-over lands: For an investigation to be made by the Director of the Reclamation Service of the reclamation by drainage of lands outside existing reclamation projects and of the reclamation and preparation for cultivation of cut-over timberlands in any of the States of the United States, including personal services in the District of Columbia and elsewhere, purchase, maintenance, repair, hire, and operation of motor-propelled or horse-drawn passenger vehicles, and for all other expenses, there is appropriated, out of any money in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, $100,000. In undertaking this investigation, the work fell naturally into three divisions, one comprising the States north of the Ohio River and east of the Missouri, another including the Southern States, and a third taking in the States lying partly or wholly west of the hun- dredth meridian. Any classification of the swamp and cut-over lands of the country must be exceedingly rough and general, as, owing to the nature of the case, two different authorities, however careful and skillful, will probably differ widely in results if these are independently obtained. PROGRESS IN RECLAMATION—BISSELL. 518 This is due to the difficulty of setting any definite bounds to any class which may be adopted, owing to the following reasons: Lands needing drainage can not be absolutely delimited owing to the varying necessities of drainage at different times of year and in different years owing to change of season and mutations of climate. The area is also constantly changing by improvement of natural out- lets or the construction of artificial drains, and where the ground water stands too high for one character of production it may be suitable for another. Where the ground water is too high for success- ’ ful agriculture in a wet year it may in a dry year for the same reason be superior to other lands in the vicinity with low water table. Many areas of cut-over lands also require drainage, and to be made agricultural must be not only drained but cleared of brush and stumps. Large areas of cut-over lands are too rough or too rocky for agriculture and should be allowed to reforest themselves; but opinions will differ on this point, and any useful classification must take these facts into consideration, Cut-over lands are even more difficult to define than those need- ing drainage. The majority of existing forests have at some time or other been cut over, and often the land has been actually in culti- vation and practically denuded of trees. The abandonment of fields or the neglect of the cut-over areas permits the growth of young timber, which is sometimes useful and sometimes of little value. Thus, by one definition, any land that has ever been timbered and cleared may be regarded as cut-over land, although in a high state of cultivation. This is obviously not the usual or accepted meaning of the term. If the fields have been abandoned and young brush has started up, it may in some cases be reduced to cultivation again at moderate expense any time in the first few years, but this expense may increase as the timber grows and clearing becomes more ex- pensive. After the lapse of 50 or 60 years the timber may become merchantable and the land, although strictly speaking it has been “cut over,” requires extensive clearing to reduce it to cultivation, and may be similar in its essential characteristics to the virgin forest. Where the merchantable timber has been cut, leaving. stumps, young brush, and smali trees, it constitutes a typical case of what is known as cut-over land, but as time passes the young trees grow to merchantable size, the stumps gradually decay, and in time this land ceases to be “ cut-over” land. Jt is thus obvious that different authorities, however careful or skill- ful, may differ widely in their reports of the actual areas of wet and cut-over lands and still more widely when attempt is made to classify these as agricultural and nonagricultural. For this reason, any sta- tistics on this subject must be regarded with allowance, and should. have the term used carefully defined, for specific tables. : 514 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. The distribution of reclaimable agricultural land is very irregular and erratic. The Lake States, the southern Atlantic, and the Gulf States contain vast areas of lands requiring drainage and also tim- berlands, the majority of which have been at some time or other cut over and a large proportion of which would be suitable for agricul- ture if properly cleared. It by no means follows that al) of such lands should be now or eventually devoted to agriculture. In many places the swamps and overflow lands serve useful pur- poses as reservoir sites to diminish the volume and intensity of the . floods of the drainage basins in which they occur, and each one should be carefully considered as to the advisability of continuing its serv- ices and improving its efficiency for these functions. The regulation of streams is important from many points of view. If our streams could be made to flow with comparative regularity instead of in great flood waves, it would terminate destructive floods that cause such havoc and loss of life. To accomplish this we must carry out gigantic projects, such as those in the Miami conservancy district in Ohio, designed mainly or exclusively to moderate the freshets and regulate the flow of the streams. The feasibility of such works depends largely upon the existence of suitable reservoir sites. A good reservoir site is in several respects a topographic rarity. It must ordinarily have a suitably located basin, with a sufficient watershed above, which can be closed and formed into a reservoir by a feasible dam of moderate cost which will form a reservoir of large capacity in order that its usefulness may be commensurate with its cost. Where such favorable reservoir sites exist they may be of great value and may constitute the key to the feasibility of river regulation, and if reclaimed for agriculture and built up with towns, villages, railroads, and other improvements, their cost soon becomes prohibitive, and the only feasible opportunity of river regu- lation may thus be destroyed. Every scheme for the drainage and reclamation of swamps and low-lying river bottoms should therefore be carefully considered in its relation to the country at large, and especially that below on the streams to which its waters are tribu- tary, and if the proposed reclamation will in fact destroy a good and useful reservoir site, it should not only be avoided but pre- cautions should be taken to prevent the accumulation of improve- ments which will become obstructions to its utilization for storage purposes. This principle is far more important than usually real- ized, because we are apt to overlook the need, the rarity, and the essential characteristics of feasible reservoir sites. ; Similar precautions are necessary in examining areas of timber or cut-over lands with reference to the wisdom of clearing and de- voting them to agriculture. Some lands are so hilly and rocky as PROGRESS IN RECLAMATION—BISSELL. 515 to be unsuited to agriculture, although they may be fairly well adapted to forest growth, and these obviously should be devoted to that purpose; but, though this seems obvious when stated, it should be remembered that the principle has been often and extensively vio- lated. A considerable part of the alleged “abandoned” farm lands in the New England States are lands that should never have been cleared, as they are more suitable for forest growth than for agri- culture, and their abandonment has been simply the recognition of their appropriate use. The existence of rocks and hills is not by any means the only bar to the suitability of such lands for agriculture. The soil may be in some cases unsuitable for various reasons without expensive modifica- tion or application of expensive additions. Even where the soil and topography are highly suitable for agri- culture it by no means follows that it would be wise to clear the cut-over lands and devote them to that purpose. There may be other areas in the vicinity just as favorably conditioned where the cost of reclamation would be less or where the timber that must be removed is less valuable and different tracts should hence be considered in the light of their suitability for agriculture in location, topography, soil, and climate, and also the character of growth which clearing would remove in order that the most valuable timber stands may be allowed to mature. We should never forget that we will always need forests and wood lots to complete the prosperous community, and it is just as im- portant to consider and provide for this need in the most efficient and economical manner as it is to provide for any other community needs. In view of the above it is obvious that only a small fraction of the forested areas which are seen on the general map could be wisely reduced to cultivation at the present time, or even within the next generation. By a wise and skilful discrimination we must select those areas requiring the least expenditure and least destruc- tion to reduce them to cultivation, and must leave uninjured and adequately protected the areas needed for water storage and those most suitable for forest production. This still leaves an ample choice in the States mentioned for all of the reclamation that is likely to be carried out within the next generation, although the rules upon which selection is made must obviously be modified from time to time. RECLAMATION OF NEGLECTED FARMS, In some of the States where little or no opportunity exists for the reclamation of arid, wet, or cut-over lands there are still abun- dant opportunities for development which imvolves reclamation: of other kinds. Many areas exist which have been cultivated and for 516 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919, lack of proper treatment have become so nearly barren as to be considered exhausted and unprofitable for agriculture, and are wholly or partly abandoned. Some of these have improved by the interval of noncultivation, but the major portion require the addition of some of the elements of plant food or the elimination of deleterious qualities by proper treatment. The majority of eastern soils, for example, are more or less acid and require the application of lime or other antidotes to neutralize the acidity. They generally require also the addition of nitrogen, which can be accomplished by the proper growth of legumes to be incorporated with the soil by plowing under. Some also require the addition of phosphates or of potash, and the cases are numerous where such reclamation as that described is as appropriate and as profitable as reclamation of other kinds in other regions. In some cases large areas have been gradually concentrated in single owner- ships, and the system of tenantry which has followed does not pro- duce the best results but leads to the neglect and deterioration of the soil until its cultivation yields little profit. Where such areas can be acquired and cut up into homes they may be restored by proper tillage methods and the addition of nitrogen or other plant food until they are capable of constituting thickly settled and pros- perous colonies. It is often found that large ownerships and tenant farming are the accompaniments if not the causes of neglect and par- tial or entire abandonment of agriculture. Reclamation from such conditions is as wise and as necessary as any other mode of develop- ment. The purpose of the appropriation for these investigations was understood to be the feasibility of preparing farms for settlement by returned soldiers under a planned rural development such as has been carried out in Australia and many European countries with benefit both to the settler and the community at large. Investiga- tions have shown that many of the so-called abandoned or neglected farms in the Eastern and Middle States can be rehabilitated by proper culture with more or less clearing, draining, and leveling and the addition of lime or other needed constituents of soil. The investigations along this line were necessarily of a most pre- liminary nature, as one of the principal facts to be developed is the price of land, and no actual negotiations could be carried on to ascertain this in the absence of authority and funds for the purchase. The information, therefore, is of a general nature, but indicates that such opportunities of an attractive character can be found in prac- tically all the Northern, Eastern, and Middle States, where improved farms can often be purchased at but little increase over the present value of improvements, and by some or all of the methods of reclama- PROGRESS IN RECLAMATION—BISSELL. 517 tion above mentioned can be made suitable for colonization at reason- able price. I Those same States also contain many large areas in private owner- ship, but held at very moderate prices, which belong in the category of wet and cut-over lands, requiring drainage in some cases and clearing in nearly all cases. In some instances they have been under cultivation in the past, but have been abandoned for many years, or used for pasture only, and allowed to grow up in brush, which will require clearing. Most of such lands also require the addition of lime, the building of roads, and the opening of drainage outlets to permit the escape of excessive rainfall. NORTHERN DIVISION. The northern division comprises the area east of the Missouri River and north of the Ohio. The opportunities for settlement are abundant in most of these States, and especially so in the Lake States—Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota—where vast areas of cut-over lands and lands needing drainage are found, and some of them were examined in detail. In several of the States of the Mississippi Valley where agricul- tural conditions are excellent the development has been so complete that only small areas of undeveloped lands have been found. Some of these are cut-over regions, some are naturally wet places needing drainage, and some are overflow lands which require levee protection and drainage works. These States, however, all contain consider- able areas in large ownerships, farmed by tenants, where results are unsatisfactory and are growing worse. Many of these offer favor- able opportunities for soldier settlements which will be nearly as beneficial to the country at large and as favorable for the soldier settlements as the reclaimed lands in other States. With proper local cooperation there is no doubt that favorable colonies can be established in all the States. In New York and Pennsylvania are considerable areas of good cut-over lands, some of which are adaptable to agriculture and very favorably situated for settlements.. The convenience of transporta- tion and the abundance of good markets near at hand give these regions important advantages over some others, and in New York are many areas requiring drainage which apparently will afford favorable locations for colonies. New England presents the extreme case of local need for agricul- ture. The present agricultural production of New England is but a fraction of what it was half a century ago, while the growth of population and of manufacturing industries makes a market which 12573°—21——34 518 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. draws more and more for subsistence upon the Mississippi Valley and the Far West. The development of agriculture here is of first importance in sustaining the manufacturing industries in the face of the necessity of transporting their food and raw materials. Many excellent opportunities for the development of cut-over lands, the drainage of wet lands, and especially the rehabilitation, fertiliza- tion, and building up of areas which have in the past been farmed but are now wholly or partially neglected are offered in this section. The decline of New England agriculture has been due in general to the demand of its growing manufactures for the necessary labor and the competition of cheap, fertile, and extensive agricultural areas of the Mississippi Valley and the great West. These lands are no longer cheap, and the growth of the Middle West is to a large extent absorbing the product of the. western farms, so that New England; must \enter into active competition, for. its food, supply under the handicap of costly transportation. . This condition. has re- versed: the influence which led to the decline of) New England -agri- culture, and in providing for its rehabilitation. the soldier settlement program affords the opportunity of doing this andat.the same time keeping at home the thousands of soldiers who enlisted from ee centers of population. SOUTHERN DIVISION. In the Southern States opportunities for colonization are of the same three classes. The largest areas are of cut-oyer lands. In past years small holdings of timberland have been acquired by lumber companies and merchantable timber has been cut and marketed as lumber. Many of. these large companies are now operating and are anxious to sell the cut-over oe usually ; at low prices. In some cases drainage would be required and in others drainage should be assisted by opening and straightening surface outlets to permit the ready escape of excessive rainfall. In some of the richest localities where land can be had.very cheaply, one of the principal drawbacks which must be overcome is the elimination of the swarms of mosqui- toes, which will require careful surface drainage and elimination of stagnant water. Also the clearing of luxuriant vegetation which springs up after the timber is removed. Such areas can only be suc- cessfully colonized in tracts of considerable size, as it is impracticable to carry out mosquito extermination on a small scale. In many of the Southern States, especially the border States, are to be found extensive areas which have been either abandoned or neglected since the Civil War and are of similar character to those described in New England. They can generally be purchased cheaply and rendered enue by clearing and the addition of lime and nitrates. CR amines We ee ee ee Te ae PROGRESS IN RECLAMATION—BISSELL. 519 WESTERN DIVISION. . The eastern tier of the States comprised in this division—the Dakotas, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas—have. consid- erable areas of humid land in which drainage is frequently needed and irrigation is not needed. Lands can be found in all of these States which are not swampy, but in which a high water table requires that they be drained in order to fit them for other use than pasture or meadow or forest culture. Drainage can in many cases be pro- vided at reasonable cost and where clearing is necessary this also is comparatively inexpensive. Farther west, irrigation projects have been investigated in the past and numerous opportunities of feasible development of this character exist in most of the Western States. _Such reclamation can be applied to public land in Wyoming, Idaho, Washington, Oregon, California, and Arizona. In the other arid States most.of the land to be reclaimed is in private ownership. The areas. west of the hundredth meridian present many oppor- tunities for reclamation not only by irrigation but by drainage and by the clearing of cut-over lands, the latter opportunities occurring chiefly in Montana, Idaho, Washington, Oregon, and California. Only a small percentage of these lands, however, are really suitable for reclamation at the present time. East of the mountain ranges the cut-over lands are mainly arid or semiarid and hence require irriga- tion for successful agriculture. The combination of the cost of irri- gation and of the necessary clearing and leveling of the lands is usually prohibitive even in the cases where irrigation is feasible at all, and in such cases it is usually best to encourage the reforestation of the lands by protecting the young growth from fire. Considerable areas of semiarid land may by scientific methods be successfully culti- vated without irrigation, but as the results are more or less precarious, the values for such agricultural use are usually not high and may exceed the cost of clearing. There are cases, however, where such reclamation may be wisely carried out. In the extreme Northwest, on the Pacific slope, are large areas oi cut-over lands where deep and excellent soil occurs, where the topography is suitable, and where the rainfall is also sufficient for successful farming. Some areas in this region can be profitably and wisely devoted to agriculture, but in a large portion the cost of clear- ing, owing to the number, size, and character of the stumps that are in the way, would at present values of agricultural land make the enterprise prohibitive, and the land can best be utilized by reforesta- tion. This is true also to some extent in western Oregon and north- western California. A large portion of the cut-over lands in the Northwest is, of course, unsuitable for agriculture on account of 520 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. topography and rocky soil and can best. be restored to forest con- dition. The great bulk of the land west of the hundredth meridian which is not too high, cold, or rocky for agriculture is arid. Of this arid portion, over 15,000,000 acres have been placed under irri- gation by private or public enterprise, and in carrying out this work, of course, the more favorable opportunities for such irrigation have been developed. It will still be possible to add many million acres to the irrigated area and perhaps to double the area now irrigated, but this must generally be done at high cost, as the cheap opportuni- ties have been long since exhausted. There are remaining, however, many areas which can be irrigated within feasible costs and will develop values far in excess of the necessary expenditures. They will furnish healthful homes for settlers and will supply agricul- tural products and food resources in proximity to great mining and grazing resources, which will be made more valuable thereby. There is much room for wise and profitable activity in this line in most of the Western States, but the total areas that can be thus reclaimed are much less than those offering opportunities in the States farther east. : ‘The following table summarizes the results of the investigations made in the western division: Projecis and extensions of projects investigated by the Reclamation. Service in the Western States. 1 These estimates must be considered as merely preliminary and subject to change. 2 Indian. 3 Lands not classified; classification shown is assumed. 4 No estimate. Trrigable acreage. Readiness State'and project. altitude. bent epee onctegee Public. | Private. | State. tion. Arizona: Feet. | Inches. Sani@arlogs <-so4: see. 2 40, 000 BOROOM | aocmemenit 1, 500 10 {$13,600,000 | Not ready. California: Imperial Valley......./:} 400,000 |....22.2.2)e..0- 2200 —200 3h | 52,000,000 | Ready. Palo Verdes. .5 2) aie be 405000) | eeee eee 250 3 5, 000, 000 | Not ready. Turlock-Modesto.......|---------- 260, 000 |..---.----- 95 12 | 5,000,000 Do. Rem PS RIVED ic eee ce eles cokes ses 400; G00 S.2er ers. 225 10 | 12,000, 000 Do. Orland extension....-...|-..----.-- 30,000 |--.-. 2-2. 245 18 2,500,000 | Ready. Dron, Cany Oss c ps 2. crs! greet Peers QIAO00 ee. 230 17 | 30,000,000 | Not ready. Cuyamaca, Water Co....|....-.-.-- Bia POU ya aeiceiae 400 12 (4) Do. Volcan Land & Water CoMpt att iss A ERO eee 324,600. f. 22-2522 500 15 ~@) Do. TOSS Vip Me yg ices kA on paces ce’ 517 800) | tes eck 4,400 122 | 1,100,000 Do. Colorado: Grand Valley...:-....-- 15, 000 LS SOO0" eee e2 he 4, 825 8 600, 000 | Ready. Grand Valley drainage .|..-.------ SO; O00 SELES. . 4, 650 8 1,200,000} Do. Orehard Mesavt- 3.5 ccc Bl pes sot <2 OOD Soe sae 4,750 8 800, 000 Do. Uncompahgre.......... 10, 000 OV, QU0!| Sseceeenee 5, 500 93 500, 000 Do. ‘ i PROGRESS IN RECLAMATION—BISSELL. 521 Projects and extensions of projects investigated by the Reclamation Service im the Western States—Continued. Trrigable acreage. Mean Mean Probable State and project. altitude. | rainfall. | cost. Private. | State. Colorado—Continued. Feet. | Inches. Montezuma. ..--..-2----|-----2---- 8,000 5, 000 12 | $3,500, G00 San Luis Valley drain- APCs cece---cnec-S--n-{----------1 400,000 ]-....-..-- 7, 600 7 | 10,000, 000 Idaho: Si ages ie el eEae: SSE 1,000 2, 800 13 700, 000 Black Canyon. ..------- 1, 000 2,400 12 2, 000, 000 Minidoka....-...------- 6, 750 4,300 124 | 15,000, 000 (Gand Ore ao Ramee Ae es a: SOS ere UO Boeoee eee. 2, 350 12 750, 000 Lake Waleotte:.---22.} 2,,4800|....---.-- 20 4, 400 123 215, 000 American Falls Reser- TOE Sas ee eee ee 5 33,000 | 33,000 |....-.-.-- zs 3108 eee ee 12, 000, 000 Island Park Reservoir..}| 610,700) 5,000 |.......-... 6, 250 15 4,000, 000 Boise Valley drainage. .|......--.- ravine eee 2, 500 124 600, 000 Payette Valley drainage.;..........| 10,000 |.--------- 2, 250 114 180, 000 Shelley Canal........--. SHOONOOONE SP eater tees ea 4, 600 14 (4) BEUMeR Es eee) se sche ss BA00SO00) pee 2e4e sa |ee ee 2 4,200 11 (4) Mountain Home...-..--. S4008000) |e 2a stelle eect. Sac 4,000 13 (4) North Side Twin Falls..| 350,000 |..........]....------ 4,000 12 (4) North Side pumping....|? 115,000 |..........]........-- 4,000 12 (4) Hansen Butte.......... Cp O10 Re aera Saye eee eta 4,000 12 (4) Wood River. .-....4...- EAE 1, (0700 Vega ares Lene ya, ae? 4,200 14 (4) BIEDOIS see ee de BOO MOON meee sek | Meketee 4,800 15 (4) Idaho Falls pumping. -.|3100,000 |.....-....|-...-..--- 4,700 15 (4) Montana: Milk River— Chinook Division. .|....-.-... GUN 0p Eee SB eee Seer Rees Seae eeoersasccoe Beaver Creek Divi- SIGN. oe eee tsa 1O,D00) IS <2 seb se 708 2, 200 14 1, 700, 000 Out Bankers tec! soho. 225-000)|', 11,0004... sha 3, 800 13 | 1,200,000 Bun Wiver. 22: 2c2b . 5. 35,000 | 30,000 ;..---.---- 4,100 11 | 4,000, 000 ISTIC eB aaoaaing aes Seeage see SLU RAS See 3, 450 ipl 1, 500, 000 JUCUH Basico oc cabs sla. cleans 36,500} oo 2 sek 4,300 17 2,505, 000 Missoula~Huson........|........-- SU OOM be ae 3, 100 16 313,000 Helona i lats: soe ck c.|l ek TSS DOO gee bs 2,800 16 450, 000 Nebraska: North Platte extensions.| 65,000 88, 000 10, 000 4,100 13 9, 000, 000 Mawson County =< 5-2: --|o-.-42b- << ao, 000)Peeceae === 2, 700 22 2, 500, 000 MEETS Canale sacar nee ee BUNUCUN eect e ee 2, 600 22 | 2,000, 000 Nevada: Upper Carson......-.--- 3, 500 BOROOON Ema Aialssieic 4,800 12 2, 000, 000 Pyramid Lake......-..- 15, 600 ODOM ote ose os 4,000 4.| 1,200,000 Humboldt River.......|.......--- CVC S(OND)s eee Wes 4, 200 9 | 9,000,000 1 These estimates must be considered as merely preliminary and subject to change. 2Tndian. 3 Lands not classified; classification shown is assumed. 4 No estimate. 6 In Fort HallIndian Reservation. 6In Targhee National Forest. Readiness for construc- tion. Not ready. Ready. Do. Do. Not ready. Ready. Do. Not ready. Ready. Do. Do. Not ready. Do. Ready. Not ready. Ready. Not ready. Do. Do. Do. Ready. Not ready. Do. Ready. Do. Not ready. 522 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919, Projects and extensions of projects mvestigated by the Reclamation Service in the Western States—Continued. Irrigable acreage. State and project. a Bee Mean | Probable rainfall. cost. Public. | Private.| State. New Mexico: Feet. | Inches. San Juan Fennec te PARDO OOO Feet ae panes | eran aaa a 5, 200 8 (4) Middle Rio Grande PAIN Ae ween seats aia) ison ae es LOONOOO!| ie eae ce 4,800 7% | $5,500, 000 Oregon: Klamath pumping units}.....-...- 23,000))_. i. 3-4: 4,100 12 1, 200, 000 Langell Valley....-.\...-|..-------- AT OOO Re cea 4,200 124 | 1,000,000 Pulp Lake. foo ees i) ae Abela Sal 4,000 14 | 1,250,000 Ore Riversseehs esos |- eee ase. 30,000 |P2s228. 2s 1, 600 20 | 2,000,000 Greater Umatilla. ...... 3,500 | Be MP = 500 8} | 3,100,000 8 3,050 Owyhee: sain iiie aaa 6,000} 17,000 ].......-.- 2, 200 10 | 2,100,000 Deschutes.......--- Aa al a ners 21 (200,000 Tae eee. 2 3, 200 9 | 12,000, 000 Lower Powder River...| 38,000 25 OOO Wests ca 3, 000 13 7, 000, 000 Horsefly storage. ..-.--- 2,000 CUT eee: Bas 4,100 124 300, 000 South Dakota: Belle Fourcheextension.| 11,000 22, 300 3, 917 2, 800 143 700, 000 Texas: Tornilla-Fort Hancock CSUe | RRR Pe OA ar CS i Ee Ba Pap VA) Ae a 3,500 8 1, 200, 000 Lower Rio Grande......|.........- GOO O00 3 Pees Se 80 26 (4) Utah: Castle Peak...-.....|.--- (0;000 3 eeere-tee ol ceeeEeee 5, 200 9 7, 000, 000 Price MiVer. +2 = = bio) OO; 0003) Saiemert sess aeeeeet oe 5,500 12 (4) 1D bao ae ec ee a 30,000 |-.------ Se eA eee Sees 3, 000 83 (4) Utah Valley drainage...|...-.--.-.- 30; 000) 52 metre 4,500 18 1, 000, 000 Hast duab County .b..4|.222--eese EY B{O)s O100Us | eee Gee 5,000} : 13 | 5,000,000 Washington: : Yakima High line...-.. 13,600 | 130,000 6, 000 1, 000 7 | 20,000, 000 RAGGA Moe sce oes oe 5, 000 62, 500 2,500 1, 800 95 | 8,500,000 Methow-Okanogan.....].......... 842 00ONE aa ospeas 1,000 12 (4) Kennewick irrigation Gistriche 2: Soe ses. Bace 6,400 | 27,500 1,100 600 7 | 6,125,000 Wyoming: Frannie extension . ....-. 35, 000 1,000 1, 800 4,200 6 500, 000 Heart Mountain unit...) 34,100 1,500 3, 200 4,900 6 3, 300, 000 Willwood unit.......... 14, 700 320 600 4,300 6 900, 000 Oregon Basin......-..-- 68000) centers ence 4,500 6 (4) 1 These estimates must be considered as merely preliminary and subject to change. 3 Lands not classified; classification shown is assumed. 4 No estimate. 7 In Navajo Indian Reservation. 8 Railroad. 917,000 withdrawn under Carey Act. Readiness Not ready. Ready. Do. Not ready. Do. Do. Ready. Not ready. Do. Do. Ready. Not ready. Do. Ready. Not ready. Ready. Not ready. he as a ipa i "| ALlv1d *ulwelusg—'616| ‘odey uB!UOSy}IWS RICHARD RATHBUN.« By Marcus BENJAMIN. [With 1 plate.] American science has lost.one of its distinguished authorities on invertebrate zoology, and the United States National Museum its honored chief by the death of Richard Rathbun in the city of Wash- ington early on the morning of July 16, 1918. _ Richard Rathbun was born in Buffalo, New York, on January 25, 1852, and there studied in the public schools until he reached the age of 15 years, when he entered the service ofa firm of contractors, with which he remained for 4, years, acquiring a thorough knowledge of business methods, that was of special value to him during his later years. _ At that time, attracted by the specimens of fossils that abound in western New York, he began the study of paleontology to which he assiduously devoted his evenings and holidays... The collection in the museum of the Buffalo Society of National Sciences was made by him and he was appointed curator. of that subject with charge of its col- lections by the society, In 1871, he met Charles Fred. Hartt, then professor of geology at Cornell University and a pupil of the elder Agassiz, who persuaded him to give up business pursuits and devote himself to science. Young Rathbun accordingly entered Cornell and followed the regular aca- demic course with the class of 1875, specializing, however, in geology and paleontology. The collections of Devonian and Cretaceous fossils. previously obtained by Hartt in Brazil were assigned to him to work up and re- sulted in the publication of his first paper: “ On the Devonian Bra- chiopoda of Ereré, Province of -Par4, Brazil,” in the Bulletin of the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences for 18742 followed by a “ Pre- liminary Report on the Cretaceous Lamellibranchs Collected in the Vicinity of Pernambuco, Brazil,” in the. Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural aig for 1874. p In the preparation of his paper on the Devonian fossils, he spent some time in Albany, New York, where he came under the influence 1 Reprinted by permission from Science, N. S., Vol. XLVIII, No. 1236, September 6, ADLS. orgs 2 Vol. i ay ae 236-261. 8 Vol. 17, pp. 241-256. 523 524 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919, of James Hall, the State geologist of the great Empire State; and later while completing the paper on the Cretaceous fossils he studied at the Museum of Comparative Zoology, where he was so fortunate as to be able to attend a course of lectures by the elder Agassiz, then in the last year of his life. Cambridge proved a congenial environment, and so instead of re- turning to Cornell, he continued at the Museum of Comparative Zoology from 1878 till 1875, acting also as assistant in zoology at the Boston Society of Natural History. During the summer months of those years he served as volunteer scientific assistant under Spencer F. Baird in the marine explorations of the United States Fish Com- mission on the New England coast, and thus began his connection with the Smithsonian Institution, for at that time the scientific work of the Fish Commission was pees under the direction of the Smithsonian. In the autumn of 1875 he received the appointment of geologist to the Geological Commission of Brazil with orders to report to Profes- sor Hartt in Rio de Janeiro, and with that service he continued until March, 1878. His first field work was in the region about the Bay of Bahia, and continued thence down the coast of the province of the same name to near its southern end. Extensive deposits of coal said to occur in parts of that region constituted one of the special objects of the exploration, but the geology was studied in every particular, including the extensive coral reefs that lie along the coast, and also the ethnology of the Indian tribes living inland. The report on the geology and coral reefs was published in the Archives of the National Museum of Rio de Janeiro in 1878.* Later he explored the central and southern parts of the province of Sio Paulo for the purpose of determining the mineral, and es- pecially the coal, resources, and while these proved to be unimportant, he had the opportunity of studying the origin of the rich red lands where the famous coffee of that region is grown. On returning to the United States, Mr. Rathbun brought with him complete series of the Devonian and Cretaceous fossils which have since become the property of the United States National Museum. It had been his hope to have monographed this interesting material, but other duties claimed his attention and with the exception of a few papers such as “A List of the Brazilian Echinoderms, with Notes on Their Distribution,” which he contributed to the Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences for 1879,° the ma- terial was worked up by other scientists. Meanwhile he had accepted from Secretary Baird the appointment of scientific assistant in the United States Fish Commission with “Vol. 3, pp. 159-183. 5 Vol, 5, pp. 139-158. RICHARD RATHBUN—BENJAMIN. 595 which service he then continued until 1896. At first the collections of the Fish Commission were preserved in the museum of Yale Uni- versity in the custody of Prof. A. E. Verrill, to whom he was detailed as assistant, serving also at that time as assistant in zoology at Yale University. In 1880, owing to the approaching completion of the United States National Museum building, Mr. Rathbun was transferred from New Haven to Washington and brought with him a part of the collections which had been stored at the former place. At that time he was made curator of the department of marine invertebrates in the National Museum, an appointment which he continued to hold until 1914. As the Fish Commission grew, much of the administrative work was assigned to Mr. Rathbun by Secretary Baird and the respon- sibility steadily increased until Baird’s death in 1887. Meanwhile, although Professor Verrill of Yale was the nominal head of the sum- mer investigations of the Fish Commission, during much of the time Mr. Rathbun had active charge of the laboratories, steamers, and equipment and was responsible for the general management of the work. The collections were mostly assorted under his supervision for distribution to specialists. His own studies at that time related to the commercial fisheries and to the working up of the natural his- tory of several groups of invertebrates. During 1880 and 1881 he was employed upon the fishery investiga- tions of the Tenth Census and reported on the natural history of, and the fisheries for, the commercial lobsters, crabs, shrimps, corals, and sponges; the marine fishing grounds of North America with the ocean temperatures of the Atlantic coast of the United States. Much of this material appeared in “'The Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States,” which was prepared through the cooperation of the Commissioner of Fisheries and the Superintendent of the Tenth Census under the direction of George Brown Goode. Mr. Rathbun’s contributions to these official reports amounted to. 550 quarto pages with 106 plates. Incidental to his work at this period ¥ was his association with col- leagues in the gathering of material for the Great International Fish- eries Exhibition held in London in 1884. He prepared and described the “Collection of Economic Crustaceans, Worms, Echinoderms and Sponges” * and he was the author of the “ Descriptive Catalogue of the Collection illustrating the Scientific Investigation of the Sea and Fresh Waters.” ” In 1891, at the request of the Secretary of State, he assisted John W. Foster in preparing material for the United States case at the Paris fur-seal tribunal. He had the services of several experts, and ® Bull, 27, U. S. Nat. Mus., pp. 107-1387. TIdem, pp. 511-622. 526 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. was called to report upon the laws of all nations relating to the extra- limital fisheries for whales, hair seals, fisheries, precious corals, pearls, beche de mer, ete., and also upon. the distribution and habits of these forms. Reports of progress were made daily to Secretary Foster, and the more essential parts of the completed report were incor- porated in the extended brief of the American agent. During the entire period of the fur-seal inquiries Mr. Rathbun was in charge of the investigations, except those of the first inter- national commission. The steamer Albatross made yearly trips to Bering Sea with one or more experts, who were directed to study the habits of these animals and to make an annual comparative record of their distribution and numbers by written notes and identical series of photographs. The work was.also extended to the Russian islands. The most important international commission to the fur-seal islands was the one dispatched in 1896. ‘This expedition, with the cooperation of the Secretary of State, was conducted by the Treas- ury Department. Charles S. Hamlin, then Assistant Secretary of the Treasury, was in immediate charge of the case, and Mr. Rath- bun was called to be his chief adviser. The latter was asked to become the head of the American commission, but, declining, was requested to nominate its members, which he did. Mr. Rathbun also prepared the instructions for the commission, which entered into every detail and every accusation on the part of Canada. In December, 1892, Mr. Rathbun was appointed by President Harrison as the American representative on the joimt commission with Great Britain to study the condition of the fisheries in the boundary waters between the United States and Canada and the seacoast waters adjacent to the two countries, and to report such measures as might be deemed necessary to insure the protection of these fisheries: No similar investigation of such magnitude and importance was ever before attempted, and four years were required for its accomplishment. A large party of experts was put in the field on the part of the United States, and Canada assisted to the extent of its facilities. Mr. Rathbun personally visited every point of interest, starting with the Gulf: of St. Lawrence, continuing through the fresh-water systems, including the Great Lakes, and ending at Cape Flattery at the west. The report submitted to the Department of State on December 31, 1896, was transmitted by the President to Congress and printed. It had been Sebuibuity Baird’s intention to have Mr. Rathbun transferred to the National Museum, so that he might give his entire time to the development. of the disphnthaekit ‘of marine invertebrates and the working up of the important collections that were con- RICHARD RATHBUN—BENJAMIN. 527 stantly being received, but on the death of Baird in 1887 Dr. G. Brown Goode, who succeeded temporarily to the office of Fish Com- missioner, persuaded Mr. Rathbun, in consequence of his long expe-~ rience and familiarity with the work, to remain with the commis sion. Later, when Col. Marshall McDonald became permanent com- missioner, he was equally appreciative of Mr. Rathbun’s valuable qualities and likewise was able to induce him to remain with the bureau until his own death in 1895. In 1896, on the invitation of Secretary Langley, he accepted ap- pointment in the Smithsonian Institution, and on January 1, 1897, began his duties as assistant in charge of office and exchanges. Before the expiration of the month his abilities were so manifest and his appreciation of the conditions so complete that he was made assistant secretary. This place he then held until July 1, 1898, when, still continuing as assistant secretary, he was given charge of the National Museum, in which capacity he remained until his death. Tt is almost impossible to attempt to consider in detail the many ramifications of the great work that he accomplished, and naturally the minor, but certainly not unimportant, interests are obscured by the larger events to which he gave the later years of his life. The most important of these was the construction of the new building, in which the natural history collections are preserved. . His intense interest in this undertaking, as well as his remarkable. ca- pacity for studying details, is perhaps best shown by his careful preliminary study “The United States National. Museum: An Account of the Buildings Occupied by the National Collections,” that appeared in the annual report of the United States National Museum for 1903.° _ The years of patient watching and waiting for the completion of the structure, with his perfect knowledge of every detail, can never be satisfactorily told in words, but they are strikingly illustrated by the careful “Descriptive Account of the Natural History Build- ings of the United States National Museum” that forms No. 80 of the bulletin series,® that he published in 1913. on the completion .of the. building. These two publications show how much he gave of himself to the perfection of a work that, must always remain as the greatest monu- ment that can be reared to his painstaking genius. With an interest equal to that shown by him in the construction of the new Museum building, he undertook the development of the National Gallery of Art, an important feature of the Smithsonian Institution, which, although the one mentioned first in the funda- mental act, had remained dormant for lack of adequate facilities, §Pp. 177-315, pls. 1-29. ®Pp. 1-131, with pls. 1-34. 528 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. The valuable collection of painting and art objects bequeathed by Mrs. Harriet Lane Johnston in 1903 to the National Gallery of Art afforded an opportunity quickly appreciated by Mr. Rathbun, who, recognizing its importance, began at once to plan for the building up of a great national art gallery. In 1904 the Freer collection, with its unique specimens of Whistler’s art work, was tendered and ac- cepted by the Institution, and in 1907 William T. Evans began his gifts of selected paintings by contemporary American artists, which number more than 150 canvases and an equal number of other art objects. With these and other gifts the National Gallery of Art has “attained a prominence that has brought world-wide recognition.” A permanent record of this development has been left by Mr. Rath- bun in Bulletin No. 70 of the United States National Museum, under the title of “ The National Gallery of Art, Department of Fine Arts of the National’ Museum,”?° a volume remarkable for its artistic appearance, to every detail of which he gave his personal attention. His natural taste for research and his tendency to go to the bot- tom of things led him to make elaborate studies on the collections, and he has left behind him a valuable series of notes from which the future historians will find little that is lacking concerning the early history of the Museum. At times interesting developments presented themselves, and as typical of those his last important publication may be cited. It was “The Columbian Institute for the Promotion of Arts and Sciences, a Washington society of 1816— 1838, which established a museum and botanic garden under Goy- ernment patronage ” (pp. 1-85), which was published as No. 101 of the bulletin series of the National Museum in 1917. Subsequent to the death of Secretary Langley, in February, 1906, and until the election of his successor a year later, Mr. Rathbun served as acting secretary, and frequently during the absence of Secretary Walcott the guidance of the affairs of the parent institu- tion was intrusted to Mr. Rathbun as acting secretary. His bibliography numbers nearly 100 titles, and, in addition to those already mentioned, he was the author of various scientific papers contributed to the serial publications of the Fish Commis- sion and the National Museum, as well as a few biographies of friends and colleagues, such as Charles F. Hartt and Jerome H. Kidder; several popular articles contributed to current literature; and a series of official reports, of which notably those of the National Museum are conspicuous evidences of his patient industry. Intense devotion to duty was a striking trait of Mr. Rathbun’s character, and so, absorbed in the details of his various activities, 10 Hirst ed., 1909, pp. 1-140, pls. 1-26; 2d ed., 1916, pp. 1-189, RICHARD RATHBUN—BENJAMIN. 529 all of which had to do with the institution to which he gave his life, he had but little time for other interests. Nevertheless, his scientific work gained deserved recognition from Indiana University, which in 1883 conferred upon him the degree of M. S., and in 1894 Bowdoin gave him her doctorate in science. His colleagues found pleasure in dedicating in his honor recently discovered forms of life, and a genus of fishes, Rathbunella (“in recognition of his many services to science”), as well as a genus of starfish, Rathbunaster (“in appreciation of his pioneer work on Pacific starfishes”), and many new species of plants, batrachians, fishes, and mollusks preserve his name in the literature of science. Naturally he was a member of many scientific societies. At home he was active in the Biological Society of Washington, and he was an early member of the Philosophical Society, becoming its presi- dent in 1902; also he was a member of the Washington Academy of Sciences, and in 1905 he was chosen by his associates to be presi- dent of the Cosmos Club, an honor that he greatly appreciated. Among the national societies he was a fellow (since 1892) of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, correspond- ing member of the Boston Society of Natural History, member of the American Society of Naturalists, councilor of the American Associa- tion of Museums, and a member of the American Fisheries Society. His foreign connections included membership in the Fisheries Society of Finland, the Russian Imperial Society for the Acclimati- zation of Animals and Plants, and corresponding membership since 1917 in the Zoological Society of London. Mr. Rathbun was also a permanent councilor of the International Fisheries Congress, a member of the American committee for the Boston meeting of the International Zoological Congress, and in recent years every gathering of scientists, such as the International Congress of Applied Chemistry, the International Congress of Amer- icanists, and the Second Pan American Scientific Congress held in Washington, placed his name on their honor lists of distinguished members. At a memorial meeting of the various members of the staff of the Smithsonian Institution and its branches, held in the National Mu- seum on the day of Mr. Rathbun’s death and presided over by Mr. Henry White, a regent of the institution, record was made of “their profound sorrow at the loss of a sincere friend, an executive officer of marked ability, and one whose administration has had a wide in- fluence upon the scientific institutions of the Nation.” ati aid vr ive ohn oitmtitent gdtedtion sch lpi | “Tagos colncroattagrobak adda 10}, goals, 9ftiik, port caoidiergoons, ‘bayaeeah heading, aro. oftieaiga eul .e29 tn-sergel,odd: tid, MOG, harrokaoa G88 kai. Avis Wa GiEte7 pre ADORE sieroivoh sod, eniclay ey, aiobaet WROBL si berg none tosod aid ci ssn, a nepanainl bane). apneepeltoR - or eun9%,. AAke Pa 3h nel onaaing ‘o anise warate: Bish, to: ssaisic | en gaow, raertoiq..2id lo, moidsingrggs..1i”) .paranwsdhys ail init it sedialg to, PaO ree pemomn, bert, (f aodatira eonatgina To ‘pacsabaaae ott sf t omee, sits Ae 19934, iat rR i fo oi sitio a iad anendons por ‘od soe, a Pee pe i sbodminaraas:% uiinorg, ox tee sono 18, hae eqamen") odt: Sane ennai ‘aes dear ac pt ot noits soon tre " we te. ei OR, sesotaill ipwia”s to, mines Ole atl, a tg ca ) sebbdatlon berms gi ry i a phities oti, acoitooa nao, anol ath “tattle dk, ot 40) wemet leivoqaal asia At. bela ain ardoks aonie qidetedaroan maibiroggarton. bein. 2dy iglt bog alamah to Arn , 2 tobaod. te yIaioer Isorgoloos elt ie - Neiihaatierntesk add to wolionos inonncetog, & oalg anv cuddles . po ons Nels ectiicneney ARE oly. io, voderont, B paoTAaO'), pais b ‘eisai to pr rion phe ae read ‘ bales EA ! ‘mi biod: deorgaeD eflitnarnc. amoknaahy asd. fs099e pai ‘bas , sestoinies ‘to pied nanos bad MO; OULRET) ail he at ni iM. Ladtodtn nd dsid ii hil nt vodonte he as ay ioe oa taMiotd sero be hieesq Aare pies euch jak AM te yal “tiod bp taabent acw. boos plotipstitent ot te isonet. & avid to moite evittiegzs as beard ossonig.g to, exo! od ide worroe bane eini-obay > ge be is ene no tanteeeat een, ang, pag fil has A GREAT CHEMIST: SIR WILLIAM RAMSAY. By CH. MoureEv. Although the progress of science is continuous, it is neither uni- form nor regular... From time to time this progress is suddenly accelerated, leaving strewn along the route the successive bounds, and, creating thus a sort of discontinuity in the continuity. These sudden forward leaps are the work of a small number of geniuses whose discoveries guide the countless efforts. of experimenters. When Dalton. conceived the atomic hypothesis, he opened up, and made fertile the entire domain of. chemistry... When Davy isolated. the alkaline metals he revealed to astonished chemists a whole new world. The idea, of chemical. function, the law of substitution, the law of the homology, the atomic theory, are fundamental additions to knowledge derived from the works of Dumas, Laurent, and Gerhardt, who have) transformed, and rejuvenated chemistry, opening to it wider horizons...In opening, synthesis..as a channel for organic chemistry, Berthelot rolled back its frontiers immeasurably.’ .It is in the ranks of these great chemists, worthy followers of Lavoisier and of Priestley, that belongs the brilliant investigator, the fertile in- ventor, the hardy pioneer whose work, so deeply original, and whose powerful personality, the counselor. of. the: Chemical Society has given me the flattering mission of reviewing before you. The name of Sir William Ramsay calls to mind at once, with all their meaning, two capital discoveries, to. some extent: paradoxical : On the one hand, the existence in the atmospheric air of a series of gaseous elements, which their chemical inertness relegates:to the very borderland of chemistry; on the other hand, the production of one of these gases, helium, by the spontaneous disintegration of the radium atom, two classes of facts essentially new and of fundamental importance, whose discovery was possible only to an investigator of the highest. rank, capable through exceptional ability, natural or acquired, of bringing light into the darkness of the unknown. Of Scotch origin—he was born, in. Glasgow in 1852—Ramsay’s hereditary influences were most favorable, In his family were chem- ists and doctors of note, and one of his uncles, Sir Andrew Ramsay, was a well-known geologist. Thus, as he himself liked to recall, Ram- 1 Translated by permission from Reyue Scientifique, October, 1919. 531 532 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. say was descended from ancestors well above the average intellectu- ally and in scientific pursuits, and he was well aware that he owed to them his calling and his ability as a chemist. Having begun his studies in his native city, Ramsay went to com- plete them in Germany, at first at Heidelberg, with Bunsen, and afterwards in Tubingen in the Fittig laboratory, where after some researches on the ammonia compounds of platinum, he studied the toluic acids. Organic chemistry attracted him by the flexibility of its combinations and the ingeniousness of its structural theories. On his return to Glasgow, where he secured a post as assistant, he stud- ied specially the pyridic group, doubtless attracted by the problem of the synthesis of the cinchona alkaloids. Let us recall the synthe- sis of pyridine itself by the direct union of cyanhydriec acid with acetylene, the production of the different pyridinic acids by the oxida- tion of the bases of Anderson, the production of the same acids (in collaboration with Dolbie) from quinine, from cinchonine, etc., an important observation which directly related these alkaloids to pyridine. In 1880, at the age of 28, given the title of professor of chemistry at the University of Bristol, Ramsay began, in collaboration with his assistant, S. Young, a series of works on physicochemistry which were not slow in being noticed. They had for an object the revision of the physicochemical properties of a certain number of liquid types, water, alcohols, ethers, hydrocarbons, etc., with a view especially of determining exactly the relation of these properties to the atomic or molecular weights. A vast field was thus explored: the densities of steam, the tensions of steam, thermic constants, dissociation, critical points were studied and many new and interesting observations were made. For the execution of so many delicate researches, all kinds of new apparatus had to be designed and constructed, with the re- sult, extremely fortunate for the following of his career, that Ram- say became a very adroit blower of glass. Many of these contrivances are to-day in every-day use in laboratories. — It was in 1887 that Ramsay was called to the University College at London, to succeed Williamson in that chair of chemistry already renowned, which he was by his efforts to make shine with a great light. For 30 years in fact, Ramsay was to display in this post of honor the most fertile and brilliant activity. His peculiar qualities as an experimenter and his originality stood out in striking relief in a work which he published in 1893 in collaboration with Shields. Following a remarkable series of researches on surface tensions and densities at different temperatures, Ramsay gave to science the first experimental method of determining the molecular weights of sub- stances in a liquid state. SIR WILLIAM RAMSAY—MOUREU. 533 We will leave here various other works, of a special nature, in or- der to come without more delay to those researches which were to immortalize the name of Ramsay. In 1894 Ramsay was 42 years of age. His work was already con- siderable in amount and his reputation solidly established, but he could not yet be called a celebrity. In possession of scientific knowl- edge as profound as it was extensive and varied, a penetrating mind with broad vision, a philosopher mindful of the general movement of the sciences, and eager to solve the mysteries of nature, free from all dogmatism and with mind open to even the most daring concep- tions, an experimenter of finished technique, an enthusiastic spirit, Ramsay was ready for epoch-making discoveries. Given a favorable occasion, his genius would be fully equal to the task. Here is the occasion. As often happens in scientific research, a chance observation may lead to the most unexpected results. Lord Rayleigh, who for sev- eral years had pursued with meticulous care the determination of the density of the principal simple gases (hydrogen, oxygen, nitro- gen), noticed that the density of the nitrogen extracted from the air through absorption by other known gases was always greater than that of chemical nitrogen, coming from different sources— oxides of nitrogen, ammonia, urea, etc. The difference affected the third decimal and did not exceed one-half per cent, but it was cer- tainly more than experimental error. Three hypotheses could explain this irregularity. The atmospheric nitrogen might be constituted in part of complex molecules of nitro- gen comparable to the oxygen compound called ozone. Conversely, in the chemical nitrogen a certain proportion of the molecules might be dissociated into free atoms. But the density of neither of the gases, after being kept for eight months, underwent any change, and the permanent existence of condensed nitrogen or of dissociated nitrogen (atomic nitrogen) would scarcely be likely. Lord Ray- leigh, who had at first accepted these explanations, rejected them to adopt the third hypothesis, according to which the amospheric nitro- gen is constituted of a chemical nitrogen mixed with an unknown gas of greater density. Being consulted by Lord Rayleigh, Ramsay was of the same opinion, and the two scholars at once united their efforts to isolate the mysterious gas whose existence was thus revealed. It is interesting to recall here that in the fundamental experiments in which Cavendish, a century before, had established the formation of nitric acid by the prolonged action of electric sparks on a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen in moisture, the celebrated English chemist . had noted that even after a very long time there always remained after absorption of the oxygen in excess a small gaseous residue rep- 12573°—21——35 584 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. resenting about one one-hundred-and-twentieth of the volume of nitrogen. But the observation had passed unnoticed, and until the researches of Lord Rayleigh, the nitrogen in the air had been con- sidered as a simple gas, identical with “chemical nitrogen.” While Lord Rayleigh, taking up again the experiments of Caven- dish, verified the fact that atmospheric nitrogen does indeed leave, after the action of the oxygen and the spark, a residue which could not be overlooked, Ramsay attacked the problem by a purely chemical method, that of absorbing the nitrogen by magnesium at red heat. The repeated action of this metal increased the density of the gas. From 14, its weight in relation to hydrogen, the density increased little by little to become fixed in the neighborhood of 20. What re- mained was a new gas, absolutely distinct from nitrogen, character- ized, aside from its density, by a peculiar spectrum very rich in lines in all regions and, a fact without precedent, by absolutely no ability to combine with any other substance whatsoever. At the British Association meeting at Oxford in 1894, at the memorable session of August 13, Lord Rayleigh and Ramsay an- nounced in turn that the nitrogen of the air is not pure nitrogen, and that it contains a small proportion of a gas more dense and much more inert, to which they gave, on account of its chemical inertness, the name of argon (« priv.; epyoo, energy). This communication caused a great sensation among the audience, and the daily press took up the matter at length. But chemists are generally conservative, and although the discovery was affirmed by two scholars so well qualified, many remained in- credulous. It was not certain that argon was a simple substance. The molecular weight, according to the density, being 40, it might be a form of nitrogen cyanide CN,; it was noticed also that a triatomic molecule of nitrogen N, would have a weight of 42, a figure not far from the one given above. A few months sufficed for Ramsay to clear up the question and dissipate all doubts. The comparison of the specific heats at a con- stant volume and at constant pressure shows an equally unexpected fact—that the molecule is monatomic, and consequently the new gas can only be an element. . There is never anything fundamentally new except that which could not be foreseen; that which is foreseen is implicitly contained, like the corollaries of a theorem, in that which is already within the domain of knowledge. To find in the air a new gas, and, in addition, one of absolute chemical inertness, is indeed a truly great discovery. It brought at once to the authors a deservedly great renown. Ramsay was not slow in adding to it through other re- searches not less surprising. And it was here again that a fortunate ; 4 4 4 q 4 SIR WILLIAM RAMSAY—MOUREU. 535 opportunity presented itself to him; he exploited it with admirable and masterful decision. Early in 1895 Ramsay learned, through a letter from Sir Henry Miers, that Hillebrand, chemist in the United States Geological Sur- vey, had observed, while treating a uraniferous mineral, cleveite, with boiling sulphuric acid, the giving off of a gas which appeared to him to be nitrogen. The effect produced on Ramsay by this news was entirely characteristic of his scientific temperament. Many chemists, while finding the observation interesting, would have put off the study of the subject until later, when they might have more leisure. Ramsay, on receipt of the letter from Sir Henry Miers, called the laboratory aid and dispatched him immediately to the shops of the mineral merchants of London to buy all the cleveite that he could find. The cleveite arrived toward noon; before night it had been treated and the gas collected. During the two following days the known gases, except argon, which it had been expected would be found, were eliminated and the residue introduced into a spectrum tube. The spectrum of argon was not observed. There were few lines; one of these—yellow—was very brilliant. It was thought at first to be the line of sodium, present, perhaps, in the cor- roded electrodes. But Ramsay laughed at the idea; he was not in the habit of using dirty spectrum tubes, and, besides, he had made the tube himself. A comparison spectrum of sodium was observed simultaneously. The two lines were distinct and in no way super- posed. It was then beyond doubt that it was a new gas, and the hypothesis was advanced that it might be helium. Helium was that element, still unknown on the earth, whose ex- istence in the sun was known through a spectroscopic observation carried out by the French astronomer Janssen at the time of the solar eclipse of the year 1868, and the subsequent suggestions of the En- glish physicists Frankland and Lockyer. Was this new gas of Ram- say’s helium, or was it not? The answer was not long in coming. The spectrum tube was sent to Sir William Crookes, who measured with great care the wave length of the yellow line and found it identical with’ that of the solar line of helium. Scarcely a week had passed since Ramsay had received the letter from Sir Henry Miers. At the general reunion of the Chemical Society in March, 1895, the discovery of terrestrial helium in the gases from cleveite was an- nounced. Its molecular weight was 4, and a study of the specific heat indicated that the molecule was monatomic, like that of argon, which it also resembled through its complete chemical inertness. During the two following years Ramsay hunted carefully for other sources of argon and helium. Argon and helium were found in certain mineral waters, those of Cauterets among others; to-day 536 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. we know that they exist in all subterranean waters and gases. Fur- thermore, helium can be derived from a series of rare minerals; this observation was of great interest in what followed, after it was dis- covered that the same gas was given off in the disintegration of radium, as we shall see later on. Their resistance to any combination assigned to argon and helium a place apart among the elements, and they did not fit in any of the groups of Mendeleeff’s table. Ramsay boldly suggested that they con- stituted the first two known terms of a new group, characterized by a valence of zero. Secure in observed analogies in the other groups of the periodic system, Ramsay, in a communication to the meeting of the British Association in Toronto in 1897 with the suggestive title, “An Undiscovered Gas,” predicted the existence of at least one other inert element, situated between helium and argon, near fluorine and having an atomic weight not far from 20. Before another year had passed, not only had Ramsay’s prediction been realized, but more, in collaboration with Morris Travers, two other elementary inert gases had been discovered, whose places he also fixed in the periodic system, near bromine and iodine, with the neighboring atomic weights of 82 and 130. Ramsay submitted to a close examination different thermal waters, such as those of minerals and of meteorites, without being able to discover any of the gases which he sought. Their presence in all the subterranean gases was to be demonstrated later,’ thanks to the use of a method of fractionating by means of cooled charcoal inaugurated by Sir James Dewar.* But if the three gases to be discovered really existed, ought they not to be found in considerable proportion in the atmospheric nitro- gen along with argon? One hundred cubic centimeters of liquid air having been reduced through spontaneous evaporation to several cubic centimeters, Ram- say vaporized them in a gasometer, then eliminated from it the oxygen and nitrogen by appropriate means. The gaseous residue thus prepared furnished the spectrum of argon with, in addition, a yellow line and a very brilliant green line. Besides, the density was a little greater than that of pure argon; the residue examined was then argon mixed with a certain proportion of a heavier gas. In order to isolate this gas, Ramsay aided by Travers, prepared 15 liters of argon, a task requiring several months, and liquified it by 2 Charles Moureu, ‘“‘ Recherches sur les gaz rares des sources thermales; leurs enseigne- ments concernant la radioactivité et la physique du globe,” Journal de Chimie physique, t. 11, no. 1, p. 63-152, 1918. Charles Moureu and Adolph Lepape, ‘‘ Les gaz rares des Grisous,” Annales de Chimie, 9° s., t. 4 et 5, 1915-1916. 8 Charles Moureu and Adolphe Lepape, loc. cit. 4Separation directe, sans liquefaction, des gaz les plus volatils de lair (Ann, Chim, Phys. 8° serie, t. 3, p. 12; 1904. sfearg SIR WILLIAM RAMSAY—MOUREU. 537 cooling with liquid air. The clear liquid obtained was submitted to a fractional evaporation very skillfully conducted, with the purpose of separating the gases more or less volatile than argon. The success was complete. The first breaking up furnished a light gas, about ten times more dense than hydrogen, and characterized by a magnificent spectrum with brilliant lines in the red and the yellow. Ramsay called it neon. It is moreover accompanied by a certain proportion of helium, pres- ent also in the air, and from which it can be separated by the use of liquid hydrogen (—253°), which solidifies the neon and leaves the helium in a gaseous state. The end products of the distillation of liquified argon retained the two other new gases, which could however be separated by liquifac- tion and fractionating. Ramsay called them crypton and xenon; their densities in relation to hydrogen were 41 and 65. For the three new gases, neon, crypton, and xenon, the study of the specific heats led, as for helium and argon, to a monatomic mole- cule. They are likewise chemically inert.. Their atomic weights 20, 82, and 130 were found to occupy exactly the places indicated by the classification of Mendeleeff. Thus, in the atmospheric air, which during more than a century had been believed to be perfectly known, Ramsay had succeeded in the four years from 1894 to 1898, in isolating a complete natural group of simple gases. Indeed a splendid achievement. Striking proof of the fundamental truth comprehended in the periodic law. Witness, just as noteworthy, of the scientific faith and the ability in experimentation of this master. Nearly all the apparatus had to be invented, and Ramsay also had to construct most of it himself. Only those who have handled small quantities of gas and have prepared absolutely pure gases, giving spectra entirely free from foreign lines, are able to understand all the technical difficulties of such a work. A little before the discovery of crypton, Ramsay thought he had isolated another element in the atmospheric argon; it had the same density as argon, but its spectrum was entirely different; he called it metargon and described several principal lines. Metargon was not, however, a new element; it was recognized that the lines indi- cated were due to traces of carbonic oxide, which occurs as an im- purity in argon. Other chemists were working on the same problem, and Ramsay, too much hurried, had insufficiently purified his argon. I will cite Ramsay himself in this connection: Should we under such circumstances regret the publication of an error? It seems to me that an occasional error should be excusable. No one can be infallible; and besides, in these conjectures one has always a large number of good friends who promptly correct the inaccuracy. 538 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. It is certain that anyone may be deceived; but it is not anyone indeed who would have been capable of discovering crypton and xenon in the air, which contains in volume 1 in 20,000,000 of the first and 1 in 170,000,000 of the second. This research on the rare gases of the atmosphere will remain a perfect model of original research. And if there was anything to be admired more than the ability in experimentation and the scientific penetration displayed, it was the energy and persevering ardor, qualities doubtless less brilliant, but which in this kind of work were absolutely indispensable. Another question, in this connection, could not fail to present itself to Ramsay’s mind. Are there not in the same group of inert gases, noble gases, as he liked to call them, other elements, heavier than xenon as predicted by the periodic system, or lighter than helium, such as nebulium, whose presence is probable in the nebule, and coronium, which appears to exist in the solar corona ? We will recall in passing that beside the inert gases, Armand Gautier recognized in the atmospheric air an appreciable proportion of a gas lighter than helium and which was not other than hydrogen, whose production proposed a most suggestive geochemical problem. Ramsay busied himself then in the search for new rare gases. With Watson he examined the lightest gases in the atmosphere in the hope of obtaining a gas less dense than helium, but without success. He was not more fortunate in the systematic study, undertaken with Richard Moore, of the distillation products of an enormous mass of liquid air (120 tons), put at his disposal by George Claude. Ramsay arrived at the conclusion that if the air contains gases heavier than xenon, the proportion of them is extremely small and does not exceed one twenty-fifth of one-billionth. The discovery of the rare gases had excited universal enthusiasm. Physicists and chemists far and near wished to study these new ele- ments; and it is interesting, for the glory of Ramsay, to indicate briefly the principal results that have issued from this study. Some, interested especially in the problem of affinity, sought, but in vain, to arouse chemical activity which they supposed to be dor- mant in the rare gases. Others, on the other hand, sought for them in natural media. Following a systematic study of a great number of subterranean gases (gas from thermo-mineral sources, volcanic gas; fire-damp), some simple conclusions have been formulated :* (1) All the natural gaseous compounds contain the five rare gases, and certain of them contain appreciable quantities of helium, some as much as 6 per cent (thermal gas of Maiziéres, Cote-d’Or), and even 10 5 Troost and Ouvrard; C. R., t. 121, p. 394; 1895. Berthelot, C. R., t. 120, pp. 581-660 and 316, 1895; t. 124, p. 113, 1897. 6 Charles Moureu and Adolphe Lepape, loc. cit. SIR WILLIAM RAMSAY—MOUREU. 539 per cent (thermal gas of Santenay, Céte-d’Or). (2) The quantitative relation crypton-argon has practically the same value in all natural mixtures, the atmospheric air included; the relation crypton-xenon, different from the preceding, is likewise constant, as is also the rela- tion xenon-argon, and as also appear the relations of these three gases with neon; it is possible to explain the constancy of the rela- tions by the chemical inertness and the analogous properties of these gases, which have thus been able, since the time of the original nebulae, to come through free and mixed together and without their quantitative relations being sensibly changed, all the cataclysms of astronomy and geology. (8) Helium, it is true, accompanies the other members of the group on all their voyages, but it escapes all proportionality; and it could not be otherwise, inasmuch as only helium is produced continually from radioactive substances, and these are unequally divided in the different strata. You see, gentlemen, what unexpected and weighty problems have been brought up by Ramsay’s discovery. What an exceptional des- tiny is that of these five gases, whose chemical inertness has assured to them, since the beginning of time, an eternal inviolability, and has thus made of them, like the demigods, immortal witnesses of all the physical phenomena of the earth and of the evolution of the spheres! For what practical applications are the new elements destined? Lighting tests in neon have proved very encouraging. Argon is used in incandescent lamps. And above all—Ramsay himself made the proposition—balloons have been inflated with helium, and by this means made noninflammable.’ What a prospect for aeronautics! How far we are from the famous solar spectrum line of Janssen, found again by Ramsay in the gas from cleveite!) Other uses will follow for helium as well as for the related gases; their career is still only at the beginning. New example, among a thousand, of the value of purely speculative re- search! All scientific discoveries, however exclusively contemplative their concern at first might appear, can not fail to lead sooner or later to practical applications. Would that the directors of our affairs could realize this fact which carries with it so much benefit and so much hope, and which also holds for them duties and responsibilities in the eyes of the country which has put its future in their hands. Could they but understand that science is power, that science is wealth! Let them encourage, with all their power, scientific re- search. Let them understand that learned men can not live differ- ently from other men, and that-they also have the right to a normal and honorable existence. Let them generously endow laboratories. Let them grant means for specially interesting studies which may be 7 Cottrell, ‘‘ Fabrication industrielle de l’helium,’”’ Chimie et Industrie, 1919. 540 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. indicated to them. Let them take under their protection the young men of talent whose gifts should belong to the Nation, and whose development would bring to it glory and prosperity. Let them be able, in a word, to see in the budget for science a productive expendi- ture, a veritable investment with large returns. Then will they assure to research workers the means for their study, to learned men the possibility of giving their lives to science. We now come to the year 1902. Pierre Curie and Mme. Curie had just obtained radium, the magnificent completion of an admir- able work begun by Mme. Curie in 1897,.a little after the discovery of radioactivity by Henri Becquerel in 1896. It was a logical out- come that Ramsay was attracted toward these most interesting re- searches. The new domain thus opened to science had as yet been explored only by physicists; it seemed to him immediately that chem- istry also could and ought to enter on the scene. He entered boldly on the subject; he was to make conquests in it of vast importance. Frederick Soddy had come from Montreal, where he had been as- sisting Sir Ernest Rutherford in his beautiful work on thorium. The curious fact had been discovered that a material substance was con- tinually given off from thorium; it was given the name of emanation. Actinium and radium also ‘gave off an emanation. These new sub- stances were evidently of a gaseous nature; and, with all the skill already acquired in the manipulation of small quantities of a gas, Ramsay found himself very well fitted to make a study’of them. In collaboration with Soddy he tried to obtain the spectrum of the eman- ation of radium. As the amount of emanation which comes from even a relatively large quantity of radium is extremely small it was necessary to devise a special spectrum tube. It consisted of a thermo- metric capillary tube with an electrode made of a platinum wire soldered at the end, the second electrode being mercury, which was put in in advance with the very small ‘quantity of emanation with the aid of a pump. Traces of impurities prevented seeing the spectrum of the emanation which it was not expected to see until later; but what was the surprise of Ramsay and Soddy when, after the passage of sparks through the gas for some time, they saw appear, little by little, the lines of helium! Helium! Still helium, a kind of Zezt motiv in the scientific life of Ramsay. And an element produced by another element! The magni- tude of the discovery immediately appeared. For the first time was beheld the transmutation of one element to another! It was entirely revolutionary. Is it necessary to add that the scientific public did not at first believe and that it would continue to doubt for a long time? The helium had come from anywhere except from the emana- tion: From the glass, from the mercury, from the platinum, from the walls of the pump. Was not the indestructibility of atoms the dogma th ( : a r § , ® “ ¥ f At sighs ae Sic Oia wen alin SIR WILLIAM RAMSAY—MOUREU. 54] of dogmas? Since the time of the alchemists no one has believed in transmutation. Transmutation was the most extravagant of utopias. And yet to-day, but a few years later, who doubts that the atom has contradicted its etymology and disowned its name? Who doubts that the atom of radium disintegrates spontaneously and that the emanation and helium are the products of this disintegration? Who doubts that there is a complete genealogy of radium, going from uranium to lead, and that the differences in mass are due definitely to the expulsion of particles of helium gas thrown out like ballast in order to lighten the atoms for the beginning of a new existence? Who doubts finally, since the beautiful work of Sir J. J. Thomson, Sir E. Rutherford, and some other physicists, that the atom with its electrons and other constituent elements, is a very complicated organism, in fact, an entire world? It is no use for people to erect barriers between the known and the unknown; they will fall some day under the continuous pressure of original research; and happily there are many that have already thus been overturned on the paths of science. The discovery of Ramsay and Soddy was not slow in being taken up; the formation of helium was demonstrated as coming from acti- nium by Debierne, from thorium and uranium by Soddy, from polo- nium by Mme. Curie and Debierne, and from ionium by Boltwood. It is fitting to recall, before leaving this subject, that Rutherford had previously expressed the idea that the particles “ given off by the radioactive elements ought to be made up of atoms of helium.” This destruction of radioactive atoms, in which Ramsay was the first to see born helium atoms, had the effect of liberating an enormous quantity of energy, capable of effecting immediately varied chemical reactions—the breaking up of water, of carbonic gas, of hydrochloric acid gas, of ammonia gas, of the substance of glass, etc. The emana- tion from radium, in its disintegration, gives off for each cubic centi- meter a quantity of heat equal to that furnished by the explosion of 34 cubic meters of the explosive mixture of oxygen and hydrogen gases. Ramsay supposed that if a sufficient amount of emanation of radium was put in actual contact with atoms, the energy liberated by the decomposition of the emanation would be able to break off some of them. In common with Cameron, he announced that he had thus obtained lithium, starting with copper, and carbon, starting with thorium and other elements of the same group. There has been and still is a great deal of skepticism regarding these transmutations. Mme. Curie and Mile. Gledisch having repeated the experiments with copper, the results were negative. On the other hand, Ramsay carried out experiments without the use of emanation and they gave no trace of lithium. Continued researches ought to settle the debate. 542 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. The experiments of Ramsay and Cameron had been carried out on aqueous solutions of metallic salts. In the case of copper, the gases derived from the liquid after the elimination of the oxygen and hydrogen coming from the decomposition of the water, gave the spectrum of argon, without any line of helium. On the other hand, in treating distilled water with the emanation, neon was obtained, with a trace of helium, but no argon. These results also were con- tested. Ramsay, being asked one day by Richard Moore if he would try the experiments again, made a typical response: “ No,” he said, “TI do not believe it worth while. I can only find again lithium and neon} and for me to obtain the same results again would not be a confirma- tion. I will leave to others the task of repeating the researches.” The extreme interest of the subject led him to expect that new studies would be undertaken by skilled experimenters having at their disposal sufficient quantities of radium. Another problem, in some degree the reciprocal of the preceding, naturally presented itself: If the disintegration of heavy elements can lead to light elements, would it not be possible, by an inverse method, to condense light atoms into heavy atoms and thus realize in all its fullness the dream of the alchemists? Ramsay was not afraid to take up the subject. Collie and Patterson, having sub- mitted the glass of an ordinary empty tube to cathodic bombardment, had announced the production of helium, which had been formed by the condensation of four atoms of hydrogen. Ramsay confirmed this result, and, going further, found that if the hydrogen is moist—that is, if it is accompanied by oxygen—there will be, moreover, forma- tion of neon, created by the addition of the atom of helium (4) to the atom of oxygen (16). It seemed to him, therefore, that under analo- gous conditions sulphur would lead to argon and selenium to crypton. Here, as well, the question should be taken up again. Its breadth, perhaps, surpasses that of all the others. Ramsay will have the honor of having opened up the new field, thanks to his incomparable talent in experimentation, as well as to his boldness and the independence of his scientific conceptions. These are, in fact, Ramsay’s most pronounced characteristics. They are shown again, and in a most brilliant manner, in another work on the radium emanation which he carried out in 1910 with the assist- ance of Whitlaw Gray. According to the theory of disintegration, the atom of emanation results from the loss of a helium atom by an atom of radium. If the atomic weight of radium is 226 and that of helium 4, the weight of an atom of emanation ought theoretically to be 222. Emanation, whose resistance to all combination had, more- over, been shown, came thus to occupy in the column of rare gases in SIR WILLIAM RAMSAY—MOUREU. 543 the periodic system the place predicted for a homolog of xenon. Ramsay wished to prove this by experiment. And what an experi- ment! The volume of emanation at his disposal at any one time never exceeded five one-thousandths of a cubic millimeter (much less than the smallest head of a pin), and to determine the atomic weight it was necessary to weigh this infinitesimal volume of gas. A modification of the microbalance of Steel and Grant was con- structed, whose sensitiveness attained several millionths of a milli- gram. The skill shown in preparing, purifying, and weighing the minute quantities of emanation was truly wonderful; and it was this work more than all the others which showed Ramsay’s marvelous ex- perimental talent. ‘The result justified the effort. The mean of five determinations gave the number 223 for the atomic weight of radium emanation. A full and complete verification of the theoretical pre- dictions, which Debierne also confirmed by an entirely different method (diffusion) The brilliance of his work had brought to Ramsay the highest dis- tinctions not only in his own country but all over the world. Academies and learned societies hastened to open their ranks to him. Our Academy of Sciences, which had elected him a correspondent in 1895, named him an associate in 1910. He was also an associate mem- ber of our Academy of Medicine. In the year 1904, the Academy of Stockholm awarded him the Nobel prize in chemistry. One of the characteristic traits of Ramsay’s personality was his enthusiasm, which he communicated to all those who worked under his direction, and the impression which he produced on his students, even during a very brief contact, remained ineffaceable. Friendly and patient with all, to “do well,” according to his own expression, was all that was necessary to become his friend. Ramsay was a remarkable teacher with an elegant and picturesque manner of expressing himself, impulsive, clear, concise, and with the great charm of simplicity. In his lessons he did not hesitate at times to use the most advanced teachings; he was the first in England to introduce the works of Raoult, Arrhenius, and Van’t Hoff. Everything which lives is in a progress of evolution. The real life of an experimental science like chemistry is in progress and discovery. On this subject, Ramsay was of the opinion that he wanted original research to occupy early as great a place as possible in the work of a student. He distrusted examinations such as are usually held to judge candidates, which were too often dependent on chance. He feared especially that they might result in. unjust and unfortunate eliminations capable of discouraging a student in his choice of a vocation. The professor who has followed the student during several years in the course and especially in the labor- 544. ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919. atory seemed to him to be better fitted than anyone to appreciate his true value. Ramsay always forcefully maintained these ideas and their logical consequences. The fact is, although, to be sure, other factors enter into it, that the future of science depends in a large part on the scientific aptitude of those who cultivate it. The choice of future scholars—and by this word we mean principally the future masters, the future leaders—takes on, then, a capital im- portance. Great then is the responsibility of those who have charge of making this necessary selection. They ought to realize the essen- tial fact that knowledge is good but power is better. Far be it from us indeed to deny the utility of much learning, of being well posted in every subject, as are the very learned; but this would be sterile and encumbering from the point of view of original research, sole source of progress, if there were lacking to exploit it a clear intellect, a sure judgment, and that ensemble of qualities which constitutes what is called “esprit de finesse.” The true scholar, the real origi- nator of scientific progress, is not the one who knows, it is the one who acts, who creates. “‘ Better,’ Montaigne has said, “a good brain than a full brain.” The former has that which is called potentiality, latent force, virtual power, productive, and creative energy, which allows it on occasions to accomplish original work; the latter, in the absence of these necessary gifts, would have access only to the domains already largely explored, where it would, however, still be able to do useful work. Both have their places to fill; but the gen- eral welfare as well as the interest of the specialist demands that each be in his place— the right man in the right place.” To keep this ideal in view ought to be the constant thought of those on whom has devolved the difficult réle of arbiters. . In our time of general reorganization, when all institutions and all methods are undergoing revision, it is to be regretted that the great voice of Ramsay is not more listened to in this important matter of teaching. Ramsay wrote but few didactic works. His little treatise on “Modern Chemistry,” which has been translated into French, is a brief but substantial account of the principles of chemical philos- ophy. The same qualities are found in the highest degree in all Ramsay’s writings. They are noted especially in several disserta- tions in which he developed his own ideas, and whose titles alone are enough to indicate their originality: “The Electron Considered as an Element,” “ Element and Energy,” “ Helium in Nature,” “ Prob- lems Presented by Inorganic Chemistry,” etc. Ramsay was a polyglot and spoke fluently French and German. At the International Congress of Applied Chemistry held in Rome in 1906 he gave in French a lecture on “The Purification of Drain ; : : b,, f u e > SIR WILLIAM RAMSAY—MOUREU. 545 Water,” a subject far enough away from the matters of pure science with which he was supposed to be entirely occupied. He came willingly into our country. He loved it and counted there many friends who have many charming letters from him full of a natural simplicity. We have also the remembrance of the excel- lent lectures which he gave here on his discoveries. Before the war he had also many connections in Germany and was there the object of many flattering attentions. During the cele- bration of the centenary of the University of Berlin in 1910 the delegates of the universities of the whole world were invited for the principal ceremony. Ramsay represented the University of London. When the Kaiser entered the room with his whole fol- lowing, having perceived Ramsay, he stopped the cortege and went out of his way to take his hand. “The soul of Ramsay,” our colleague, Paul Sabatier, wrote in a beautiful study which he has consecrated to him, “the soul of Ramsay could not be conquered by such homage, and in many cir- cumstances before the war where I have been able to see him from near by, I have been sure of his deep distrust of Germany and of its inordinate ambitions.” This testimony can be completed by the well-known fact that Ramsay was one of the most resolute partisans of the “ Entente Cordiale.” German science, which he had seen at first hand, had never im- pressed him, and he passed on it the severest judgment. In the fine response which he addressed in October, 1914, to the manifesto of 93 German scholars, these lines are found: “* * * Some Ger- man individuals have attained the highest summits and merit uni- versal admiration. But in spite of these brilliant exceptions, it can be said that originality has never been the characteristic of the Ger- man race; their special function has been to exploit inventions and to put to work the discoveries of others * * *;” and further, facing the necessary hypothesis of the complete destruction which the German power ought to suffer for the security of the world, he added: “* * * Would the progress of science be retarded? I do not think so. The greatest works in scientific thought are not due to representatives of the Germanic race; moreover, the early ap- plications of science do not come from them. As far as we are able to perceive, it seems that a restrictive measure on their activities would only have the effect of delivering the world from a deluge of mediocrities.” At the beginning of the war, during the tragic days of 1914, Ramsay was at Havre, where he attended with Lady Ramsay and his son the congress of the French Association for the Advancement of Science, presided over by M. Armand Gautier. He delivered a discourse at the opening session and was present at the 546 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1919, first session of the section of chemistry. But, visibly, his thought was absent. The news became each day more alarming. After Wednesday, the 29th, when he perceived war imminent, as fixed in the criminal plan of Germany, he was not seen again at the Congress. Ramsay saw immediately all the import and how much was at stake in the formidable conflict. Civilization, once more in a struggle with barbarity, had to repulse the most redoubtable assault she had ever withstood. It was necessary to conquer or submit to enslave- ment. From the beginning of hostilities, Ramsay, with his ardent patri- otism, threw himself into the conflict. He fought with all the means in his power, through research in the laboratory and through his original suggestions, by pen and word, which he made the auxiliaries of his most indisputable authority. Of him also could be employed the famous phrase, “ Je fais la guerre.” It was through his persever- ing efforts chiefly that cotton was, too late perhaps, declared contra- band of war. He died in full activity, 63 years old, while his genius was still so rich in promise for science and for humanity, brought down by an incurable disease that carried him off in a few months. Our unanimous regret is that the great joy was not given him of assisting in the complete victory of the Allies, a victory which he believed in implicitly, and also with all the ardor of his faith in the destinies of our immortal countries, and in the final triumph of morality over crime, of incontestible right over brute force. The premature death of Ramsay is for science an irreparable loss. In his loss a powerful beacon light is extinguished. This great in- vestigator explored chemistry as a conqueror, and the progress which it owes to him are the strides of a giant. Ramsay served and was an honor to humanity, and he has brought to his native land incom- parable renown. He was great not only in his genius and scientific enthusiasm, but also in the elevation of his soul, absorbed in the ideal, and in the greatness of his character. He will live in the memory of mankind, and posterity will keep aloft the name of Ramsay. INDEX. A. Page. Abbot, Dr. C. G., Assistant Secretary of the Institution..______________ xi, Xii, 2, 3, 12, 20, 63, 83, 84, 85, 88, 89, 111, 113, 114, 120 234 OUD OU Soh ECONO TRG U3 (ea ype et dean eS AAI A lpia EOS ee cub 20, 120 SSN ENOVDBAIS LEA TERS Nein cai a ge REN RN a NR 16, 31 Aboriginal Americans, On the race history and facial characteristics of SUS) UC Da) eg Ng A NA AC A I I a 427 cfs Jie TTELU Sy yh AY apt Lo apa et eR MAN SR Ao A Et ol nl xi, xii Administrative assistant to the Secretary______________ Xii, 15, 25, 87, 111, 113 ccc DD as ea i tA ee Neto a ee a rR a i 53 Aeronautics, National Advisory Committee for__________-_-___ 3 mouiean. EXPedition ——— ooo iT Te Lu a ps PRS i ey Nc ee =) Agriculture, Secretary of (member of the Institution)___________-_____ xi Paneta tee COU MCh ON, TMUnerh Ober (2 ko noun ce wns le Oh es 15, 28 SLE Va kGin id Bg gull kota apni tet em so eau to hae dora he eae nara N xii (The Division of Insects in the United States Na- GLO MA EUS UNIN ye ene ie es (ee Greed ed coe es Sag eae 367 A SITET oi vag Bo ae en pat ar diag ves att ei aa xii, 2, 20, 81, 82, 88, 119 AN (SSE GUS eed OU Op ca Na she ha har id Ue A PN A 0 EO 36 SMUG US GES OY Ses OY a OYA A 0 teh i BME Cale Sar UN NM A lp PRIME COI MEM STOICA Ty ASSOCIA LLOL rn ater mies ray NEAT Ste NE 23 Je) OO) a up ey aan eeu oe Rg 138, 105 American Indian, Museum of, Heye Foundation________________________ 31, 53 PME LIE MMSE) CONSTESS OF een non ero marie ee 13 AU AIS Of) The AStrOpiysical ODSerValorycs 2 eee ee re LSP L Anthropological collections, National Museum___________-_-_--_ 30 ATO OVOLOLical “works in ery and) BOlWias oo 22 ee eS 10 Archeological research in Palestine, The opportunity for American (Mont- GH GN EH GAY) ) is a AS iy, ol eb ae Mee IN Naa 433 Lae SEES TS ST OGLE SI a el a Se et aaa ae Mr AW) 31 SMASH EY STS edhe ML BUG A MY i th Se 0 re ye it ee ao apa 8, 120 SSIStALt SCChebaby, OF UMer MNSENL GION eee ta ema ta emer ene xi, xii, 2, 3, 12, 20, 63, 83, 84, 85, 88, 89, 111, 118, 114, 120 ASLrOpuysicnl ObServacory io. ee ee beg hleig baipiies Weasel bays ed LL ANTS Olas Ghee tte a ceaeeek a) Suh BE Tee Ae ES 13 Calama a Chilemstatrome 2 i vw ee Ee 20, 85 TIT Ore A di soe al a Ng a 93 Mount Wilson, California, station____________ 20, 82 ToC E4 KON | By Mle a eee UA SU aR SES Nia 79 South American expedition__________________ 82 WOK OE CAG SVC TL fi SU na a ile Oe Ne es 79 Attorney General (member of the Institution) _---____________________ xi PAN OTE A CONUS tite = ieee rete diy Pah Nh De oe ee a eae alae 111 548 INDEX. Page ASVOTYy: LUC ss Site 8 hee a ae a Td ee ey EN ee Se 4, 105 A VELY; ECOD ELE SS CUE OR case ak ES i 2 aa ee re pa cca On eee 5, 105 Aztec Spring. FUGUES Sake 22 SS PN ie Ee ee Sp ev Sneed eae na Ree 1% B. Bacon, Mrs. ‘Virginia. Purdy,) bequest-----=2 2. 4 ee 8,4 Bacon, Walter Rathpone, Scholarships: -- = 2. nae ee ee eo ee ee 4 BIT; | SPONGE Hee ee ee ae ee en ee es eNO A ee 22 MESSI E, AN: [yy ie ee al SS Su el ee ee ee en ie eee xii Baker: Hons Eve way Ly ee Ye EA A ia Ale gh RAH ON ge OM dag Pe 19, 65 Baker, Newton Diehl, Secretary of War (member of the Institution) ___ xi ‘Barnes: Jie se Russe oe ee se ne es Nine ia a oe ees ee 68 HPyeLTIIOSS,, Maven | CO Cr IM a ae agg ee at cs Se eae 35 d BST gl SCH a eal Dy gel are Wb ana Sra ER alee ea ahah Mehl Aco at eit Ny ile Ae, xii, 19, 65 Bassler, Dr, he Sale oe TS a ee Ae ee Kise Battle map, Gen Pershing icici. erring [ee ee Ee ae we i 15, 30 MCCS ONS, Das Whe Bibs ae ka) es eee Eh od Be a Le xii ‘Bell; Dr Alexander Graham) (regent) #..00 25 ee 2a ae xi, 2, 108, 109, 110 a BY SU KOY erste IRL DET OO AE SE NT NOSES A AE UE rN Aa MANILLA LPN a Rat ute xii Benjamin, Dr. Marcus, editor, National Museum________________________ xii (Richard Rathbun) 5! 22a. Sap eee ee es 523 TBO CUCSES 2 os Ae as Pci aa a See ata eer ey eh NOS hear Ue ania We 3; Biolosical eollections.wNa tional «Muse wry = ee eel 31 Bissell, C. A. (Progress in national land reclamation in the United States)_ 497 Board of regents of the Institution, annual meeting__._-_________________ 109 executive committee, report ________ 105 permanent committee, report_______ 111 Procecdines) OF fos sre. wean ee 105 MO8'S) ADI. PMTs Pk, Mca ah oe ON a Rte Eee i Le LR a ay xii, 46 Bondfield,.Margvaret 2.2505 oo a a ee 36 iRotanical ‘explorations in Wicuadore: 2 22s eke es ee ee 9 Brigham, Albert Perry (Geographic education in America) _-—-_-_________ 487 British Guiana, Fleral «aspects: of \(Hitcheack) 20 ss Sn ee 293 COCK Sht | WE aula ak RSS Se a ee ee ee ee eee xi, 94 ‘Brooke, Magy. ‘Gene Joly Reis Pe a Lae lo oe ah ad 31 Brookings, Robert: S.,:CRegent:) 6 ao as a ae ea a a pa TE TACO 414 AURIS © pls li eam ean RET Ta NRE Ug Pe ES ee Se SO Xii AEB y NA Gs Eig Se a area Se ee xii Burleson, Albert Sidney, Postmaster General (member of the Institution) x Bushnells David: Teg jis: se he ae a ee ee 49 C. Calama, Chile, Astrophysical observing station at-____________---______ 20, 85 Capital Audit Company=222— ee gains Lo lielh coop ree NS ee eR 105 Catalogue of scientific literature, international_____________ xii, 1, 5, 18, 21, 95 Chamberlain: tind: WrancesWeg2 22. ao tees oe ee 4, 15, 29, 32, 105 Chancellor Of the WM SErew tO ee ee ee re xi, 109 Chief: clerk of tHe USGS eee a ee eee ae sal Chief Justice of the United States (member of the Institution)_ xi, 1, 2, 109, 112 Choate, Charles Ey; Jr: (CREgent) ee a ea nee eee xi, 2, 109 Christian IBrothers, UY e eo 2S ea es 32 Spidey ewe INDEX. 549 i Page CCPL CEL Cay a Fe ud B09 £2 Hah Gre 2) 055) 6210) ee leap ee a lg UD wes TPE) ue 10 (CH IGT SELAH BLO NIG Fo Ui ea NIN eel ecg se ei PRR tee erm Menon Tg 14, 21, 23 TTS) O1 sh 5 (api Nl ee ap ko MRSS a ea ee I cats ALCON Ee 92 -p STIEELER SPD LAS | ace ate a it lel ie aetna femme ne OE ty ee xii Clayton, H. H_-_____- fh eh A Ud Sy a Ae CrP tHe HEIR age rar ea WN 82, 84 Seer hele). Wore i. S02) ae ee es ee ee a 32 Cliff houses, Two types of southwestern (Fewkes) -_______-__-__-_ 421 Cold in stimulating the growth of plants, The influence of (Coville)____ 281 Collinge, Walter (The necessity of State action for the protection of wild TUES AM eit se Sa i tae ee a SP 349 Collins-Garner French Congo Expedition___-_______________ se 8, 31 Commerce, Secretary of (member of the Institution)._-_._____________ xi Berar Fess OF) SISCNICAMI SES! oa a see 31 MAPA UD RON NE UD ASU UM GN ee Ny a ee ey 4,105 Cook, O. F. (Milpa agriculture, a primitive tropical system)_____________ 307 (EEL ALIAS COR GSTs aD IRS Se a A SN he Aca wi Oe NEY MT 12 OLS TTS OE EBT eS 6 (wh) Ub a RSS RETNA Mapes OSSD, BUN al oe tape A xii, 12 : (The influence of cold in stimulating the growth OF WV EAMtS)) ese EA a a a 281 TYE) 1 o's sao ALT d eine ya Geer MSRP Es DMs 1 gett OO Pea mn ue. Melero AS 30 SEY LEO gE FEN aR a OE NL ea ig VL NUNES OI (ep ee xii Pommeors of, she Mational, Museum... xii Curtis, Heber D. (Modern theories of the spiral nebulae)_______________ 123 Czechoslovak people, The origin and beginnings of the (Matiegka)______ 471 D. a Dro Wis deoeasredl Sy sree inom As bowrrt gel T eo es xii, 92 Daniels, Josephus, Secretary of the Navy (member of the Institution) ___ xii Daughters of the American Revolution, national society, report__________ 1038 Davidson, C.; Dyson, Sir F. W.; Eddington, Prof. A. S. (A determina- tion of the deflection of light by the sun’s gravitational field, from, ob- servations made at the total eclipse of May 29, 1919)__-.- - 138 “EDS TASP JES 20 IMDS UA So STE RUA NU IRR lice eae ce OS DY Alam ba ous 2 53 ayROnENY TIE AIT plane: Ce i yk ae Ne 15 Deflection of light by the sun’s gravitational field, A determination of, from observations made at the total eclipse of May 29, 1919. (Dyson, TE CERES) So ENTIG WEP NE VAG SOWR) es ee ee Nad do iol ee 133 Denmark, ; Ciibeve tt) allt gerne Lynponlogs Taal yer In picebi bie ero Xii EPBEES TAS 1M OYTO ene ARN CSS eek ate LI LE eg gas ee 2a 48 Desert bird life in the Great Basin, Glimpses of (Oberholser) __________ 355 Division of Insects in the United States National Museum, The (Aldrich)_ 867 Dorsey, Harry W., chief clerk of the Institution____________________ xi Dyson, Sir F. W.; Eddington, Prof. A. S.; Davidson, C. (A determination of the deflection of light by the sun’s gravitational field, from observa- tions made at the total eclipse of May 29, 1919)_-_-__-_--____-__ 133 BK. AEE NTRS VB eae LOO nase thr de MERA Als PAI TES gE EID: 83, 84 Eddington, Prof. A. S.; Dyson, Sir F. W.; Davidson, C. (A determination of the deflection of light by the sun’s gravitational field, from observa- tions made at the total eclipse of May 29, 1919)_-____________ 133 Hady /donation, “PherAy oR and “H. Msn2s 22408 nee Sen htt, SOM td 115 12573°—21——36 550 INDEX. Page. Bids: Die! Mary teorstoms ste see vemnre waren eee eee fotereenerasi i Editors of the Institution and branches_2_------+------------__-__ xi, xii, 103 Hiectron, Radium and the (Rutheriordye see sas ee eee 198 Mutomology and" the War (howard) ee poeta ee SEA lishmMenty MEE NS MTG HS Omir ny eas ee mes ieee re ee ee ee Daj iy Ethnology, Bureau of American -~ ===. 22-2222 xt, “1, 5; 18, 17, 119 collections____--_ ioe. 10. Bot! OWT BIRIO 52 Rivera ed 20 918.905 2OURUNELS. 8 52, 93 DEEN CALION SS 2 hls Soe enter “18,50, 102 PEPONG reer ene savieles netgear iiniees 38 Evans, William Pe Dens nanan MOitihodxe oa) slomor JomikOs 116 Hixchanges; International 00 VILE Inds on WONEIE) AG TERIOR, 5; 10, te report-nsssseescser teens RD. [ae es! Executive Committee of the Board of Regents —_=+--+-++--=_ == SORES Meee a pe 5 Teport 2 ULOMSB BOI) ES) AO MRP CUCL OTN 2 oe aR a er Pre rm tne er sinh han SNe OY RE See eneipereneerrs sleneee 8, 9, 120 Exploration of Manchuria, The (Sowerby) =---=------=---~- FINO Bye Eto AS Exploration Pamphlet, Smithsonian’) 00/0) 7) 6 Bexploratiionssvesear CHES ania Se Beaver ARO. SM oicuareleeis 2 eee 6 Extinction of the mammoth, On the (Neuville) -------==++--=--==--_-+_-’ 327 F, Fairbanks, Charles Warren (Regent) ~-~~-+) i222 2 2 dt .siqoog AsTolaogogyg Merris) RepresentaL ver Scove (RC Le Mb) Swe Mes ek, eee Wi) aN sean Ey aly 2 Fewkes, Dr. J. Walter, Chief, Bureau of American Ethnology__ xii, 12, 14, 17, 55 (Two types of southwestern cliff houses) _~__-—_-+ 421 Finances of the Institution + sorisiant Wappen mals Ta ae teria aaiin2ok -ei@tmnad Floral aspects of British Guiana’ (Hitchcock) 24-e ess eee 8 iy St 293 Food Administration, United. Statesseteciiin 20 1 ik goeutl 2 Sy noabigiga Foreign depositories of United States governmental documents ..2>_ sagaec Hol158 Horeign exchange agencies 27-208 “yall Ro sud itive: Teter ons L428 Sbe0 AMET E oA6t Blo wike, Gerais t Osos se Cece ge ep EP INES AOR grees dele ee 18,49, 53 HO Wile Leese Tate ba cheep 28 ES Pe a arsloviA . diel xii, 80 Frachtenberg, Dr. Leo J_L_--+--_ + wiofintiver. 2 ate oft owed tik to Gen 46 Freer; ;Gharles LA2e'-0¢ weNi So secilos lnjot set de abe SABITRTIORY » Bay 15 ®reer,GalleryeotvArt,£ Berner see ee oe eye 16, 185; 101 a5 Functions and ideals of a national geological survey, The (Ransome) _.--'' 261 Ga. Garner,..R. L_..-._~.-._--_.selaieal asl} ta _aaeih Sots ater ung General considerations, Secretary’s report —--~2 5) ue 24 wis ae i he § ete 2 Geographic education in America (Brigham): 2 2+_-U4+_22_ fraimsheh s¢ 487 Geographical distribution and migration,.A preliminary study of the rela- tion between, with special reference to the Palaearctic region (Mein- OT EZ TVA CTT) Se IRE EER RE nha UTS RAR PAN) CSS VE ers eae 339 Geological collections, National Museum__---_______ appr pe ate 32 Geological exploration in the Canadian Rockies_..---- -4____1-+1_-.-+ inhib Geological work in the Middle Atlantic States_L_.-_-+--_ +__+- 4 My ta Georgetown \ University 222. pahan Ue eee) Gade Ae a ee 36 Gilbert, Chester (Gi 4 2 2 ea angi ge gee go a Oe gai xii Gill, De Lancey = xi, SL (RAY Ge oS SSS Se eee INDEX. 551 Page eTEIGUO Mian etree Ue de ae, Se Oe ea xii Glass: and some of its problems ‘(dacksom) 20" 20S Set! PISGseit TE iORoRG Glass, Carter, Secretary of the Treasury (member of the Institution) -- xi SVC CHGETT gs 0 DAS 5 ile & Mes lek pla enaade nnee tenner takennelet rete i IM Me hS Ls Gx DIAC RS oa 5 0 YS ep pt yf eae ee ad sete etwteceeiecs ee SN Nk ee xii fepeLVES: HOR OT CO Ae ce ET ea ee os eit ir te le 79, 88 5 EUAN SCS 01 A 6 RRR pele enlaces tea thet een secede het alas rN LO! 9,32, troy sudee Georse (Regent) xi, 2, 108, 109, 110, 111 Greene, Representative Frank L. (Regent)... xi, 2, 109, 110 Growth of plants, The influence of cold in stimulating the (Coville)-_-_ © 281 Seen enna ee ee SN Oe, eee H. . (SJE, 7000 ema edaphic ei ie ed dt iceman ce 8 Ae INO0 4 LET) B.C (LN sil eae a apie lt edi ded ch lar a ceecnendns os REALE See a 46 PE MPRTUNUMREE UNC ere yee ac NE ee a Os i ie a 4 igEriman. Alaska, xpedition,, Teports Ob. 2. 22500 i ee eae 13 Eee On, VOUM yr ee Ae epg aL bat hy >: xii, 17, 45 tenet ine me Mer Ca MCN cence a ee en Rieeemet OR ee e e ay) Oe ne al iia “HD+,” the. -— BOT Bs TORE ae 32 Military supplies, natural resources in their relation to (Little)________ 211 HUME T ee GLEN. Sag! foe et SE TR os ON Bade SURE Milpa agriculture, a primitive tropical system (Cook) _~__________-_ 307 Mineral technology, collections, National Museum____--________-________ 34 Modern theories of the spiral nebulae (Curtis) --_________________ 123 Montgomery, James A. (The opportunity for American archeological re- SECM Eee ESUITIC yt eee nee ee eer er Soe ot Nees tA et Re eae eae 433 REMPIOUAU VIE re weet ete A ence be Te ee ee xii, 40 TO sPVD TEE aN TENS Sa ph GS GIR NS ga pl EM 20, 83, 86, 88, 120 © LDPE LIES OH IRULE CSG 0.01) SR | RS a nO aU Ro aS 14, 37, 91. Mount Wilson astrophysical observing station______-____-_-___ 20 Moureu, Ch. (A great chemist: Sir William Ramsey) _---_ 5 531 RUPEE el AO 0g GAM eae aga cll ol mad ig epee eta i A ysl Ee 53 gh PBS DS USS ara ot aang loa el te arc 51 re ne Ges ey eat ee 32 Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation__-__+___-_________- 31 [494 ENS ESTEE URES eh nd tre ea i a heh 9 RE 67 N. Namondl Acudemy Of Desifn, council” of sos a eee eee 30 National Academy: OF SClenCes. on. 2 ni as SS et ee SSS ere ae eee ee 3 National advisory committee for aeronautics____________-_____________ 3 MunonaiGallery Of Att... 2 ee 11, 15, 16,29,’ 35, 445 CULALOE™ Ol, 22 ae Me ns Bipetnieninee MReN i yc a xii National geological survey, The functions and ideals of a (Ransome)--_ = 261 mien Meludriitis TOUmiGns CO. CS 31, 32 National land reclamation in the United States, Progress in (Bissell)_.___ 497 nora MISC tNia saa ates wee eer mn Le ES xii, 1, 5, 18, 14, 114 CECIY YS YEI IW RE DNS et et ep pet ea nla ina tsetse Hh 29 (ELUTE HO TS ye OE eta ela eli ale erga Melinda Ss Biel gh Xii TUONO HYSYS IN SS es8s a ELEY 6 US ath en len ch lb phe at a eo 2 28 TOT iy ee eal a Le ee 9, 37 DELO) SCAN COTO AS} es ia Pig PRA TAT 13, 36, 101 TREY OVOVEAE seek TRS rs on a ea Na a Ba CoN SEP a EA 25 use by. Government departments_________--___-_-_--- 36 visitors ____ ad hs at ei acon het in ina ME gg N.S) 36 ELIS ACU LOer oeak c ae eeee e 26 NWanonal Patk Service... oS s=— passin dbs ce pp he a al 17, 40 Hire yetox Cha ANC ESCA TZ ING CO CURE De ee 8, 33 Men TONal AO OotGHl (Parice: scan. ee UR eee ee Ka, 1) 5h; do, a9 EYE SIS 0S ep epee opi pr css hn 64 Animals in the Colection@—2 232.4 a 69 FEET QYOVE RSW ON wpes OV 21850 (Smita en ere a a Ws) TPEY CAC ON YSIS CVE) GS eee ee ek 75 TD LAL oe eee 93 MT TUNO VL ea a a rn ns er 68 SIS} OY ean mapara uo Weblog ee a ae a ee ae Se 64 BARS) 0) tp ppaeeee entre ae alasatinilseioens sed cpaiaesa Uh yT S ME Da 74 564 INDEX. Page Navy, Secretary of the (member of the Institution),.-...-~4-__s_ 4 _-e xi IO gy a a er 21 Neuville, H.°(On ‘the extinction of the mammoth) 22 oe eth ee et RE PxG New Lork’ Botanical (Garden ee moo le eens De en ae ee gy page may 9, 32 Nutting, William Washburn (The ‘“ HD-4.” A 70-miler with remarkable possibilities developed at Dr. Graham Bell’s laboratories on the Bras PEGE hgh Dizi: SS) jae au gamete Sees Meu ign ROMP TRNSSPUN RAD TRUE ASIII SUG ASE TCE YIN 205 Oberholser, Harry C. (Glimpses of desert bird life in the Great Basin). 355 iP: Padgett, Representative Lemuel P. (Regent)__--_____________ __. xi, 2, 109, 110 Palmer, A. Mitchell, Attorney General.,(member of the Institution) —____ xi BOAT EG, PTOL, hy), Wyle ees os gel A i 40 112.721) am 5) 21 eee 5 a) See tle Pa Rl EAH UR ANON SS PS UD STN a YAN 35 Permanent committee, Board of Regents of the Institution, report______ 111 PT Sie Dahle a a ae ao a se a eR ee a 15, 30 PN VSICA. Wales, "maa SOW LS cs ve uO cat 7 aga ac oc a 21, 80 Pierce, Assistant Sibeeom, Gemellol ERM) SLT Tee cae tae 36 GGL OT ADIs Bis Ee 8 PD NAN II Ne SL ee ee 32 PERO UNO OS CTO EO ge so pL eh hp aha oh lee age =e re xii BEATE ECAR ae SO ATE La le 111 Roore: Lung; Mawey, Ws same’ GeO res VV ee es 4, 5, 105, 106 Povulerascieutiic lectures 0 8 cos Ns a 5 ee Postmaster General (member of the Institution) -________________-_ xi President of the United, States (member of the Instituion) —_~_ xi, 1, Ba 2G Presiding officer ex officio of the Institution__________________________ xi Printing and publication, Smithsonian advisory committee on________ 13, 103 Proceedings of the Board. of \Regvents. 302 jo se ee ee 109 RET GSSET, UT Ge ee Lee UU RE LVN Mee UNERER UNE NO SA AC ge ne 35 Protection of wild birds, The necessity of State action for the (Collinge)_ 349 Publications of the Institution and branches________________ 1, 6, 18, 16, 18, 36 PEPORC Gee Ul See ell eee 98 R. Racial types, The differentiation of mankind into (Keith)______________. 443 Radium andthe electron '((Ruthertord) 2222 eens eee eee ea ee eee 193 AEE TATTE: Vy MA LLU ees ta SOUND ch ana dk INOS SY a Tee ge A eee Ramsey, Sir William: A great chemist (Moureu)________ givin Cee th te a 581 Paneertundy Een y “Wards 2 eee TOK TE NS 2 eee ee ne ea 15, 30 FEEDING CL SLD SRM MD eS eo Hass Sele er tn ea aa ak re athe NTO A Lc 36 Ransome, F. L. (The functions and ideals of a national geological sur- DIAS Pata eae TEAM ace Sete EU AE SI a ILS me a a pe a 261 2 OMED RE OU OOO.) BY aN 2) eh Yel lesa apse ee eu a erga an jy eed ea a 92 Rathbun, Dr Richa ra se = von wes bine es) Been pe la ae 14 21, 22 25ST ozs Rathbun, Richard “CB ews amy) yew eth pers ea erate ea sev ee oleae et ae 523 AE a VT SET Cine elcid e NA ler t PRO eN N 9, 31, 120 Rayenel, W. deC., administrative assistant to the Secretary___________- xii, 15, 25, 37, 111, 113 ne OD inc thet pn, egg oe aN INDEX. 555 Page, Reclamation, Progress in National land, in the United States (Bissell)___ 497 PSECOUIICSS UM, COUN U ee ere I ewrretyoer tne alh Teaee eae a: Redfield, William Cox, Secretary of Commerce (member of the Institution) xi Berents OF the Mstitution, boird of Ce eee 5a aa La PLOCCC CITES eh re ee mean wrhin en Seine ye 109 report of executive committee__._____/______ 105 report of permanent committee_______________ 1411 4B BURG 80) a a a co SA A A A PA Oh as eS aa 67 ECUORIITCHAUISOTL: VLMys eine tis shod Crook ar relea ne ete eeu Ole MEN oa Mace eon nS A 4,105 Meme IME ONE PLC VL ASM oe et cen Sunes aa tin ic eee em Eeate AN be Mere ana ere Sg 115 Teport of the Secretary or the Institution. 22 oe BEN ee a 2 EES BRUNE) oy (COioue OS wre CIOS Leama ae ae em er pa niente dren ce cls cas maa made ior ira apes Mehet NN se. 5 12 ReSeaLC nes aid: CXPOlOEHELONS fe aan Se nein te Wnts eee 6 SES Gilles Cyr) Dili bei myles anon eapnmeen th alle ella el i cd A cae, i TDS) eT 0 den ciel sae ra ole pon de apg Nal dela at SUN oy cn ae gol 4,105 Richimond, Ore Charles W222 ors rie ae wast lm i eos pe) deh 8 dbp ge Xie TTL FET ype 9) 0123 pl org lle gl een oe dian dN ah od, ee ah LPT EAEAS ae BSCE alec cago eae tarda ur man a tae algal este aki ciara vat ania ee.) 48 Roberts, Representative Ernest W. (Regent)_-___-_-_-- 110 PODER ES VELSS) ERG) Gta lets unkebeuemna ee eben fe ee eee Reece et 46 5 SCOYEZ ET SS honda Lav a Ge) a cnn Ui ne de nk St era i tac aa pa Nr eek ee gl ie, 30 EROOSEV ENE TMG ITO Tei cM a a as LL ee ada 2 oat 11 OOSeVCli. Mh COD ORC ae twee ae aa Pe ke a a hs 3, 9, 14.12 CAD YSTE od Ds rated JRE Te OVO eR HA en MR eR, OO cs SS xii, 9, 10, 32 PROVE SOCIO by ie Weal Oe ee hee ee eee a 21 Rutherford, Sir Ernest (Radium and the electron) _-~__0 2 ee 1938 S. Br PireOnG gutin AG eOEoe Kes 6 Sac 8 se oD 4, 105 apis, (Or Mdward 2 ee ere Ded Ae iia) OG 46 Bneent, ELOMen Hy oes hy ee oy Se a Agen cee 46 SVG DS SEN 7a 6 aN LR Reape PLP Ua ON eA OO NE 32 SHG ICUISE, NUE V0 Sd SA el Naf) CR eee ee oes nS Ee ratte AN ee eee 92 SSCL UGS RMD PNB) 2M eae NUE a De ah OB SULA) NAP SE poe I Oe xii St EHEI REA GATE Si CES 0) Ser OY 25 01 ERS ATE PE RS La a a 3 NSS) SUSIE USRSE s SHIE TE a0 V2 1 a ISS LeU ro ee oR ce te A xii, 50 SEES HOE VO UIE LIS LGU tol OMe etre ee eerie ee MEE ee xa xii, 1, 12, 31, 32, 37, 53, 63, 78, 89, 92, 94, 97, 108, 109, 112, 114 Seventeen-year locust, The (Snodgrass) __~ 12-2 eee 381 RSOETER TubZ im UO) Teo ReMi enemas Na eee A LAR esa a 2h UAE SIS a a 9 SUING eS gTeE EEN Ops ONY Glas cS AS SHE i ee ON ey RR yd xii Slaughter, N. H. (Wireless, telephony) 3.-==ssoewe2 sob ae 177 Sinshsomtund: 1.25 6p 40 yo po os ye we | BP eae Sc koe 4, 105 SmMbhson. Tames pa ey hee ge ee 1 Smithsonian African expedition___—_— crews beet ts ee at te 3,9 mimnithsonian gnnyal reports. ee ee 13, 99 Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge_.__--.----------++~-------=+--+ 13, 98 Smithsonian Gestablishment—— ey ey Mic: Smithsonian Exploration Pamphlet -:-— a Pa a el cng Ns a ee 6 PS SUVTE EUS COUNT ATM, VU ROTS ED Tey eg DAs Nae ll 1, 3, 14 Veponte Ft ha nee yrs eee 90 556 INDEX. Page. Sritthsonian: Physical Tables t= 2.25 Ser es tae eee 2 ernie tees eet ner eae tee Snodgrass, R. H. (The seventeen-year locust) ________-___-_-_ 381 Solar Constant measurements, Calama, Chile_~_.- = 85 Mount? Wilsons Calitesarmn ene ert riven 82 Sowerby, Arthur de C. (The exploration of Manchuria) _____________ 455 Spiral nebulae, Modern theories of the (Curtis)_________________ 123 SpDUrleOn, HIMES) RODS ce 2S Lite cme, Semler Se eee eee St oe tee SE ea 69 Sesh ry Cll coy) UD = Gas 1p ST ay sg 48 State, Secretary of (member of the Institution) ______________________ xi States Relations Service, Department of Agriculture__________________ 16, 34 Stewneser, DF. eons es Ue oe Pres ae ec OME re ate a etal xii, 14 SFeVEDSOnMsHIVITS: AME © 22a 0 eae gh a el Sp 45 Stone, Senator William Joel (Regent) --_________________ 109, 110, 112, 113 ETO D;. METS, Ae OV GING aie 5h Ah io ay aad catia CL, eel ee a ad Ines a 19, 65 Superintendent, National Zoological, Park 25 5s ee ee 78 Surgeon General, War Department, office of_____-_____________________ 16, 33 ASHE Cer SPAR SRE (AEB leg ts Se eer ae IGM rt ne aL oC URh RMON Rai ERA teye IL Dal ye 5, 29, 92 NS AEE UCE Sis 11 0 6 RES mS Se UD A PA UNF ager UE ok CL papier APN SS ha 29 CSAs OHO 0 BBA Dy Ag (Cu) 00S) 8 DNase st NAL BA eda leaf xii, 17, 40 Syracuse MUSUD) pf JArE so es 9 ets Meee ey ROR imsacy Oe oe ee 30 T. PBR et SPIT RRAES TUCO Ses ee elas Spe 8 eS ha ee es ee 36 TCE S08 Wc fo pa NO an Hohe) ey oto 46 Textile collection, National Museum-_ —_-_ 2-22 28) 33 Thomas: Senator Charles: S.. CRegent))s = os eee xi, 2) 110; tS Treasury sDeparbment sanz hele ot Fon Cape ad te Be ee ee 26, 27 Treasury, Secretary of the (member of the Institution) __-______________ xi De re RW ts eh ie oe ea Es it bere eee a eng EY Rae 3 True, W....PB::.(editor:of the; Institution) t+ tone a eo eee aT xi, 14, 103 MriixtoninCapt. 2Dnomacyd 1 Wl alan ees Oe a perenne ee 31 U. Wniversal rilm Manutacrurine Comets. 2 = saat a eee ee 9 V. Vail Week, Jaen yp be) 0 Pe Sa eas SRP Fe ee ee 40 Vice President of the United States (member of the Institution) ~-____ xi, 1, 109 W. Walcott, Dr. Charles D., Secretary of the Institution__._--__________-. Ria 1, 12, 31, 32, 37, 58, 63, 78, 89, 92, 94, 97, 108, 109, 112, 114 ‘Waleott,~Lieut:- Benjamin Stuart... 16, 30 War activities of the National Museum___-~-_--+__ 26 War. Departmentan nee a 27 War relics, collection of, National Museum. 02s 15527 War Risk Insurance, Bureau-of. 2+ 15, 26, 32, 36, 112 War, Secretary of (member of the Institution) ~~~ ~~ 4+ ee xi Whites, Dorr, - Amie wees ee a 110 White, Edward Douglass, Chief Justice of the United States (member of the Tustitution) 2222s. a SOOO BOS RUoey xi, 1, 2, 109,112 INDEX. 557 Page pve, Etonvy. (tecent oes sara se be eee Ky 2, Dy dels SSPE CIR MEP P ea OS 00 SI Be I a a a EC LY 85 Wilson, William Bauchop, Secretary of Labor (member of the Institu- (ALAS) | eI SS SS cn pCR aE xi Wilson, Woodrow, President of the United States (member of the Insti- Rs TM Bah Co Tae a eae ta a sree as eet aL AANA SNR Ee Pll Bg tisay mASu ILI Wind pressure upon projectiles, experiments on, at Fort Monroe________ 2 SE ESICSSeLeLeLHOMye (NS LAT LeI) a ee ee a alr BOCA CHET TTT ey EMC Vy CO LAS TD ieee re aE Ni gS ol 199 epi Wa Pe re wie See ee ee 15, 27 De EESER BS IUGR I Be IR CUI DA OC A oO eo 36 Z. OULOS GAL Parkes NAGI On li cy 2 Ces Lae aa ee xii; 15) 2; 13, 195419 EEC CESS HO WIS ob ee aire Moe a0 Ben eae Noe 64 animals in the collectione 222040 we ee 69 ENP OE GA UN TTT CC Sos i aE 76 G04 1) OKI Ss CaS) OM) Sf saiee te Nu RE ER i A se 63) HURL GPE yt eg ed aR EL SA se me oes 93 SE) CONE CSHB eS NOPE SAY | SOCORRO Pep a a 68 EPO OTS Ea ee LU ae Paice Saal a eke SOCAN at Te 64 si SS0 1G Oy ish cere pS NMC My Pap ES 74 : ‘od PhO te omens Siclaamnieas rs? | Pini neak Sep tolaceharoTP GANG MATE ea a Mowery Cimried Of roe AES 88 Pets atom Shr ae: S12 inabh Ve 10 a9 sinsetbeoqzs etitoatort me TPN Oh theta ial snaltnadachaaett le ple) reste Seuvblary of fhamaber: of the Snaritutln,. 2209 stall: Wan Relailone Serica, Hmunthnenk of, Aglaia 3 San tawmen, 19. Finite isabel ad aN aie CT ae a PROSTAR Oo ails hin hh in cg ei ESO Hg eK jue, Seana Willie Joe (Seghntt. Snare aU a TED a PREPA i NOUR, elck icine op wats eer 5 hile Em oa Att ae A Ah hy ms opp ert hl gm IP i te coinage Matlanat Doohiptent Bark. SY. Shar PSO eae: RS my Aa > War Depatmeut, OEY Of oye a ee ee or ae ae Heined } erin: eee ~ nnn BOLBBGOOR x : ‘ ita rae is a ae OI ITTOS oy a BER See ah emt Py RRR eit ae arn aa reintectens nie AONE J jrigttogeat teri Roe duile ddtct asada etn es A EO ORE RE. erin tt ens ak bli at ba ns a a sina oi ON FO neither ak tn i is pte pe lS ee i Breen Bifocal tess enome an a aloe nea otnes LF ROGER “4 PPh LOA ce SSSA ee OEY nw Bier ite: METEOR OR. feat SIE + Reet SSG, wa: Baseheeh tae. x HRelig’y. ife Prem Biy LOI PAR sau ae nc ‘ik feuony: Secretar at! the Comber ot the Thats alo sisi hind ad ; KS NE Sap B82, «A | a MeN ERR SRN UR NVC ae NVR een Se Sia, PE Be eee ct ieee Rte iy ttor cis Truxioa, Capt. Laos he EDEL Cae eae * ; ‘gta uw Seaplane niverat Fike Manntactaiag ¢ Lo amd vate ee ar We lo ne Pe ie > ui Sele ee itacr cL ae ee Sr ae pe 5 Spi ineathiicey xscsuiad WwW, TEV Anes aaa pear et ae ‘Teh tetion. PR REHM S Saag A.) 1, 12, Bh, BD; RSS RCT, Ge, B24 97, 109) 28 : vsti. Teak. Aho eaetiee os ah Baa civ ob ep he ml ap acter iiion. ok Bhsetia tied ed eee é LGR PROM wet lieu ee heey HACE ISSR OaD WaT,