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YEAR VENDING. JUNE. 30 1924 ( Publication 2795 ) WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1925 Lo Ww ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C, AT $1.75 PER COPY (CLOTHD bes ad Nad A at 39 SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, SUBMITTING THE ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1924 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, Washington, November 21, 1924. To the Congress of the United States: In accordance with section 5593 of the Revised Statutes of the United States, I have the honor, in behalf of the Board of Regents, {o submit to Congress the annual report of the operations, expendi- tures, and condition of the Smithsonian Institution for the year ending June 30, 1924. I have the honor to be, Very respectfully, your obedient servant, C. D. Watcort, Secretary. a : . TIt ao ebmscn to aixno aun ere Bea CONTENTS Nast rot sOnicials 0 ere eee ee Tee eee see ee Hew NMithsonial snstitwaON] == oa ae a ee eee ‘Theestaplishin OM. ss os eee eee Ne ee eee THE wR OAT Ole BROS OTIC ae en meee es re ch a es ema ee General CONSIGETA TONS 2 ee se ee ee ee acs LNT HANES YE Re a le i ay pe peeaeeD re aire lee eae ade ee cee eee Researches, Ang Tex Olah ONG == = ee ee eas Geological explorations in the Canadian Rockies_____-------~-- Expedition to the Dinosaur National Monument, Utah_______-_~_ Biological explorations in the Yang-tze Valley, China_______-__ Botanical exploration in Panama and Central America_______~- Studiesion early.man in: Wurope-=-=- =e eee Smithsonianmsseriesyor Tadiostalks=——-—_ <2 ae Assistance to Japanese libraries destroyed during the recent earth- OUULRIKG erence eo a ee ee es Bee ee Cooperation with associations meeting in Washington__-___________ PuplicatlOns se sees a eae eee See ean eee ee meee UO eee eo Nationa leNiuseume === 4 2 ee ee ee a ee es NationAle Gallery Of Att. = 25.2 nase ee es ee ee a ee MrecraGallery, Of Art. =!- 2 ae oi Se See es bs IBurespMor. American, Hithnology 2 ae SS es a ees, imnpennanonal vexchanveseme = — 2= i 2 St ee ee ANSSU EL ChE SUN Met 710 SRT a ED Ye at Ree ASTropbysicaly Observyatory.o 32s. 7S ae ae a Se ee International Catalogue of Scientific Literature__________________-----~- INTE CTO EO ye le cn ee ee ee Le Ce ed Appendix 1. Report on the United States National Museum___-_-__~-~_-. 22 Report onsthe National Gallery of Art2-2 "= --.--_- es. Soekeport onsthe Nreer Gallery Of Art=- >see 4. Report on the Bureau of American Ethnology__-------~-~--. 5. Report on the International Exchanges___________-____--_-. 6. Report on the National Zoological Park______-__-_--___~_~-.- 7. Report on the Astrophysical Observatory____------------~--. 8. Report on the International Catalogue of Scientific Litera- Ne) MReCNOnEBONMmthe. library. cs... os eet es ee eee TOs CDOrtaOMenDU DILGATIONS S= = 222 oe Sle ee ee GENERAL APPENDIX. Thevoricingol wie; solar system. Dy. Js 1d. ceCans eas ee ee The electrical structure of matter, by Prof. Sir Ernest Rutherford_____~- The physicist’s present conception of an atom, by R. S. Millikan________ fot tet cot ft mon wo W bl i Te) tS pw Wh bh te a] cl RP RR CO NM © a6 of lo Nw Well to sa 4 Oo fe VI CONTENTS The vacuum—there's something in it, by W. R. Whitney_______________. The use of radium in medicine, by Antoine Béclére_____________________. Clear fused quartz made in the electric furnace, by Edward R. Berry__- The drifting of the continents, by Pierre Termier_____-____-~__________ The probable solution of the climatic problem in geology, by William RANTS: co Ae es ie ee ee eee A modern managerie; more about the National Zoological Park, by N. 15 TUL TS] 2 aS So RAO PCER EBS CaS tay BO Ans ere Se bet Re een tii case os Nests and nesting habits of the American eagle, by Francis H. Herrick__ The breeding places of the eel, by Johs. Schmidt_______________________ A botanical trip to Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia, by A. S. Hitcheock______ Orchid collecting in Central America, by Paul C. Standley______________ Sketches from the notebook of a naturalist-traveler in Oceania during EheSyeaTrAl923, DY Oasey,. A WOO. se ee a a ee na Historical tradition and oriental research, by James Henry Breasted___ Shamanism of the natives of Siberia, by I. M. Casanowiez______-________ Egypt as a field for anthropological research, by Prof. P. E. Newberry__ North American Indian dwellings, by T. T. Waterman_________________ The nature. Of language. DY, aR. Wasa dOnCk2 = ts oe ee eer ue John Mix Stanley, artist-explorer, by David I. Bushnell________________ Herlutawinge, bys lh:. Mortensena2 2 = = ee ee ee eee LIST OF PLATES Origin of Solar System (Jeans) : ae Plates 1-5___---------------+------------------------------------- 146 Vacuum (Whitney) : Tei ed ee ee ee ee 202 Clear Fused Quartz (Berry) : Jel h (esp dS 218 National Zoelogical Park (Hollister) : PONS DSSS 262 American Eagle (Herrick) : OIE HaS ie eee 278 3reeding Places of the Hel (Schmidt) : TSS ee 282 TeV Wey Gia pt ag ee ee 286 VEIN he) Se ee ee 300 TEI > Rone ee ee 308 TENG wie: Ge ee 316 Botanical Trip (Hitchcock) : TEV ASA es Ie ee ee ee eae ee 352 Orchid Collecting (Standiey) : TEV STS TU a 378 Shamanism (Casanowicz) : BPintes ly 22522 es 2 eee 424 Indian Dwellings (Waterman) : TESS IES Gee et ne ee ee ee 486 Stanley (Bushnell) : JOVEN Ye det ane Oe ae Se ee 507 Teas a eee eS a ee eee 512 Winge (Mortensen) : JOE al cn we ES ie NS Dn emt fo een ee eee 513 ou hee ee ~S Pe -e : . ia aT HS. tee ak me mae . = tesa wee ; a 4 1 ra Gs wes, 7 | sie » ame ciumaaead ‘eat? 7" pS lpntacet ean, y, : " a~« - - - - oe ARS *' tat “ft : . , te 40 A sal Peis Naty ~ , 7 ee mato ane .) wt me : goss r . en 4 a ae 7 ad ra Po #% : ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1924, SUBJECTS 1. Annual report of the secretary, giving an account of the opera- tions and condition of the Institution for the year ending June 30, 1924, with statistics of exchanges, etc. 2. Report of the executive committee of the Board of Regents, exhibiting the financial affairs of the Institution, including a state- ment of the Smithsonian fund, and receipts and expenditures for the year ending June 30, 1924. : 3. Proceedings of the Board of Regents for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1924. 4. General appendix, comprising a selection of miscellaneous me- moirs of interest to collaborators and correspondents of the Insti- tution, teachers, and others engaged in the promotion of knowledge. These memoirs relate chiefly to the calendar year 1924. 20397—25——2 IX bp br Ph Ho TET. “07 UY BRAY BUY 104 MOTT wo. AUPiiieete Atl rs e a 1% . lay setanl 5d) ta eine fata ‘ an -. al . vietia vs ATS naira 1 | ies ae ‘ ,/ 5 Weiaiemhe 2 Hse, 4 oft. eee & : ° a : : y al a < vt’) PLE BIOs! Ttn2! oo Os ts a ry es « ay ar af Deweion-erad in hae o etnlsand 420 budhea wut) ae stalerwet LED ATION. os ‘ ig eel THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION June 30, 1924 Presiding officer ex officio— CALVIN COOLIDGE, President of the United States. Chancellor.—WittiAM Howarp Tarr, Chief Justice of the United States. Members of the Institution: CALVIN CooLipcGE, President of the United States. Witt1AM Howarp Tart, Chief Justice of the United States. CHARLES Evans Huaues, Secretary of State. ANDREW W. MELLOon, Secretary of the Treasury. JoHN WINGATE WEEKS, Secretary of War. Haran F. Sroner, Attorney General. Harry S. New, Postmaster General. Curtis D. Witsur, Secretary of the Navy. ra Huperr Work, Secretary of the Interior. Henry CANTWELL WALLACE, Secretary of Agriculture. HersBert CLARK Hoover, Secretary of Commerce. JAMES JOHN Davis, Secretary of Labor. Regents of the Institution: Wittram Howarp Tart, Chief Justice of the United States. Henry Casor Lopce, Member of the Senate. A. OwstEY STANLEY, Member of the Senate. Mepitt McCormick, Member of the Senate. ALBERT JOHNSON, Member of the House of Representatives. R. Watton Moore, Member of the House of Representatives. Watrer H. Newton, Member of the House of Representatives. GEoRGE GRAY, Citizen of Delaware. CHARLES F. CuyoateE, Jr., citizen of Massachusetts. Henry WHiITtE, citizen of Washington, D. C. Roserr S. BRrooKInes, citizen of Missouri. Irwin B. LAUGHLIN, citizen of Pennsylvania. FRrEpertc A. DELANO, citizen of Washington, D. C. Executive committee—Grorce Gray, Henry WuHrrr, FReperIc A. DELANO. Secretary of the Institution —CHARLES D. WALCcoTT. Assistant Secretary.—C. G. ABBOT. Chief clerk.—Harry W. DorsEY. Accounting and disbursing agent.—N. W. Dorsey. Editor.—W. P. TRUE. Assistant librarian.—PAUL BROCKETT. Appointment clerk.—JAMES G. TRAYLOR. Property clerk.—J. H. Hit. THE NATIONAL MUSEUM Keeper ex officio—CuHaArtes D. Watcort, Secretary of the Smithsonian In- stitution. Administrative assistant to the Secretary, in charge.—W. DE C. RAVENEL. Head curators.—Watter HoucH, LEONHARD STEJNEGER, G. P. MERRILL. xI XII ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 Curators——PAvL BartscnH, R. S. BAsster, T. T. BELoTE, AUSTIN H. CLARK, F. W. Criarke, F. V. Covittr, W. H. DALL, WALTER HoueH, L. O. HowArp, ALES HepiiéKa, Nem M. Jupp, FREDERICK L. LEWTON, GEORGE P. MERRILL, GERRIT S. MILLER, JR., CARL W. MirMAN, Rogpert Ripgway, Warpo L. Scomirt, LEONHARD STEJNEGER. Associate curators.—J. M. AtpricH, C. W. Ginmore, W. R. Maxon, CHARLES W. RicHMonp, J. N. Rose, Davip WHITE. Chief of correspondence and documents.—H. S. Bryant. Disbursing agent.—N. W. Dorsey. Superintendent of buildings and labor.—J. S. GotpsMITH. Editor—Maxrcus BENJAMIN. Assistant librarian.—N. P. ScuppER. Photographer.—ArtTHvuR J. OLMSTED. Property clerk.—W. A. KNOWLES. Engineer.—C, R. DENMARK. Shipper.—L. E. PrErry. NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART Director.—WItiIaAM H. HoLMEs. FREER GALLERY OF ART Curator.—JOHN ELLERTON LODGE. Associate curator.—CarL WHITING BISHOP. Assistant curator.—GRacE DUNHAM GUEST. Associate.-—KATHARINE NASH RHOADES. Superintendent.—JoHN BUNDY. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY Chief.—J. WALTER FEWKES. Ethnologists—JoHN P. Harrineton, J. N. B. Hewrrt, Francis LA FLESCHE, TRUMAN MICHELSON, JOHN R. SWANTON. Editor.—StTantry SEARLES. Librarian.—ELia LEARY, Illustrator.—Dr LANcEY GILL. INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES Chief Clerk.—C. W. SHOEMAKER. NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK Superintendent.—Nep HOottister. Assistant Superintendent.—A. B. BAKER. ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY Director.—C. G. ABsor. Aid.—F., E. Fow te, Jr. Assistant.—L. B. ALDRICH. REGIONAL BUREAU FOR THE UNITED STATES, INTERNATIONAL CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE Assistant in charge.—LEonarp C. GUNNELL. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION CuarLes D. WatcotTtT FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1924 To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution: GENTLEMEN: I have the honor to submit herewith the customary annual report showing the activities and conditions of the Smith- sonian Institution and its branches during the fiscal year ending June 380, 1924. The first 26 pages of the report contain an ac- count of the affairs of the Institution proper, with brief abstracts of the work carried on by the various branches of the Institution, while appendixes 1 to 10 present somewhat more detailed summaries of the operations of the United States National Museum, the Na- tional Gallery of Art, the Freer Gallery of Art, the Bureau of Ameri- can Ethnology, the International Exchanges, the National Zoologi- cal Park, the Astrophysical Observatory, the United States Regional Bureau of the International Catalogue of Scientific Literature, the Smithsonian Library, and of the publications of the Institution and its branches. . THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION THE ESTABLISHMENT The Smithsonian Institution was created by act of Congress in 1846, according to the terms of the will of James Smithson, of Eng- land, who in 1826 bequeathed his property to the United States of America “to found at Washington, under the name of the Smith- sonian Institution, an establishment for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men.” In receiving the property and accepting the trust Congress determined that the Federal Government was without authority to administer the trust directly, and therefore constituted an “establishment ” whose statutory members are “ the President, the Vice President, the Chief Justice, and the heads of the executive departments.” I 2 _ ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 3 THE BOARD OF REGENTS The affairs of the Institution are administered by a Board of Regents whose membership consists of “the Vice President, the Chief Justice, three Members of the Senate, and three Members of the House of Representatives, together with six other persons other than Members of Congress, two of whom shall be resident in the City of Washington and the other four shall be inhabitants of some State, but no two of them of the same State.” One of the Regents is elected chancellor by the board; in the past the selection has fallen upon the Vice President or the Chief Justice; and a suit- able person is chosen by them as secretary of the Institution, who is also secretary of the Board of Regents and the executive officer directly in charge of the Institution’s activities. In regard to the personnel of the board, the following changes occurred during the year: Through his succession to the Presidency on August 2, 1923, owing to the death of President Harding, the Hon. Calvin Coolidge automatically ceased to be a Regent, thus terminating his office as chancellor of the Institution, and to fill the vacancy thus created, the Hon. William H. Taft was elected chancellor of the board on December 13, 1923. Walter H. Newton, Member of the House of Representatives from Minnesota, was ap- pointed a Regent by the Speaker of the House to fill the vacancy caused by the election to the Senate of Frank L. Greene. The roll of Regents at the close of the fiscal year was as follows: William H. Taft, Chief Justice of the United States, chancellor; Henry Cabot Lodge, Member of the Senate; Medill McCormick, Member of the Senate; A. Owsley Stanley, Member of the Senate; Albert Johnson, Member of the House of Representatives; R. Wal- ton Moore, Member of the House of Representatives; Walter H. Newton, Member of the House of Representatives; George Gray, citizen of Delaware; Charles F. Choate, jr., citizen of Massachu- setts; Henry White, citizen of Washington, D. C.; Robert S. Brook- ings, citizen of Missouri; Irwin B. Laughlin, citizen of Pennsyl- vania; and Frederic A. Delano, citizen of Washington, D. C. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS In spite of the increasing difficulty in holding its own experienced by the Institution in late years on account of its meager resources and the increasing costs of maintenance, one of its primary functions, the “diffusion of knowledge among men,” is carried out with ever- increasing scope, and its contacts with various groups of people are continually growing in number. Of its 11 distinct series of publi- cations, chiefly technical contributions to scientific knowledge though including some more popular papers appealing to the general reader REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 3 interested in the progress of science, there are issued every year about 100 volumes and pamphlets, of which there are sent out nearly 150,000 copies. A large proportion of this number go to libraries throughout the world, where they are readily available to the public, and many of its publications are now standard works in various branches of science. Besides this steady flow of publications, the Institution, through the public exhibits of the National Museum, the National Gallery of Art, and the National Zoological Park, imparts an incalculable amount of knowledge on natural history, anthropology, art, and history to the hundreds of thousands of visi- tors from all parts of the country who come to the Nation’s Capital every year. In late years also the value of the arts and industries department of the Museum is becoming more and more appreciated by the public and by industrial organizations, and the exhibits por- traying the scope of entire industries are being augmented at an increasing rate by the cooperation of trade associations who assemble these comprehensive exhibits from a number of manufacturers. The auditorium of the National Museum is used every year by a large number of local and national scientific and other societies for the dissemination of useful knowledge through conferences and lectures, and the scientific staffs of the Museum, the Bureau of American Ethnology, and other branches of the Institution contribute their share in the program of the diffusion of knowledge through scientific and semipopular lectures, both officially and unofficially. The archeo- logical excavations conducted in Florida during the past winter by the Chief of the Bureau of American Ethnology were known throughout Florida as the “ Smithsonian excavations” and attracted thousands of visitors, to whom Doctor Fewkes lectured several times each week on the prehistoric Indian inhabitants of the region. The latest addition to the Institution’s program in the diffusion of know]l- edge was the inauguration during the year of a series of radio talks on scientific subjects presented in popular form, and the response to these was so widespread that the series will be continued with in- creased scope during the coming year. This program of dissemina- tion of knowledge in scientific matters is carried on, as stated at the beginning, with the greatest difficulty because of the very limited endowment of the Institution, and were more means at its disposal, the Institution would be enabled to greatly expand its work along these lines, as well as in its other fundamental purpose, the increase of knowledge through scientific research and exploration. Perhaps the most important development of the year in the In- stitution’s affairs is the promising outlook for a building to house the growing National Gallery of Art. As noted in last year’s re- port, Congress has provided a site in the Smithsonian Park for such 4 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 a building and funds were obtained privately for the preparation of plans. Mr. Charles A. Platt was selected as the architect and at the close of the year the plans were well under way. In addition to this, Senator Lodge during the year offered an amendment to the deficiency appropriations bill which would have provided funds for beginning the erection of a building, but the amendment was not accepted. However, these developments indicate an awakening to the realization that America should no longer be practically the only civilized nation on earth without a National Art Gallery, and it is hoped that in the near future funds will be provided for a suitable home for the valuable art collections belonging to the Nation. FINANCES The permanent investments of the Institution consist of the following: Deposited in the Treasury of the United States_______________ $1, 000, 000. 00 CONSOLIDATED FUND Miscellaneous securities, etc., either purchased or acquired by Pitt? cost or value“at date acquired= 2222) 194, 826. 50 Charles D. and Mary Vaux Walcott research fund, stock (gift) Wale 5 foe Se pe Eek easiest eee 11, 520. 00 The sums invested for each specific fund, or securities, etc., acquired by gift are described as follows: | | United F Walcott | Consoli- | Fund States research Total | ‘Treasury dated fund and | e sees SES Ss J Se en lets Ses Stes Avery fuligs 1222 b bss 8 Fo ates Te A $14, 000. 00 $20. 557 00| ee ee A 2 | $43, 557. 52 Mirzinia eardy Bacon fund: <9 e cace ee een | ea eae DO GO2SO45| ten eee 50, 362. 34 aoy Heard find certs. sachets poe Sele | ee ee a eye eee eke ee 1, 349. 58 Hamper isin tin Gs = ses sect ce See eee ae OF; Db2527, |Ss2 = eee | 34, 952. 27 EPROM SINGS. =i a eee So ge 500.00) [2-22 5s 22225|. esos | 500. 00 PAR EUGGI ING Sten fen sree ete seen ee ee 2, 500. 00 000.00) |2 ee seen 2 | 3, 000. 00 CarolinesHonry dundee eet pe a Se re ee 10744004) eee. 2 Te | 1, 074. 00 Hodgkins general fund 116, 000. 00 RY Ap 78170 | ea ae 153, 226. 57 Hodgkins specific fund 100, 000. 00 100, 000. 00 Briice-Hnghds ton seen ae eo ee ne eee ae 12, 013. 62 Morrisalopb iftndie 2-2 See Se ace Te aes Pee 7, 390. 00 Lucy T. and George W. Poore fund 26, 670. 00 39,908. 86 Muldison.MeReid find. < :os...4.2.45 233 11, 000. 00 15, 919,00 FOHGOS Mind cee Merete oes Se ure ee 590. 00 858. 00 George.H. Sanford fund! 22.3... <2... Se 1, 100. 00 1, 606. 00 Smithsonfond-- = 2222? . 2 SS eee 727, 640. 00 729, 108. 74 Charles D. and Mary Vaux Walcott research PONG pence eee ca ee et ee [eee ae ees eee | | $11, 520. 00 11, 520. 00 Total=e =. eee eg Se Om hg 1, 000, 000. 00 194, 826. 50 11, 520.00 | 1, 206, 346. 50 | | Dr. William L. Abbott has continued his contributions during the year for researches in natural history and collection of specimens in China. Further generous contributions have been made by Mr. John A. Roebling for researches in astrophysics, providing for aiding the REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 5 solar observing stations in Chile and the United States, for publica- tion of scientific papers, for purchase of instruments, and for making meteorological investigations elsewhere. Mr. Washington A. Roebling has made a generous donation for the purchase of minerals. The National Academy of Sciences has given the sum of $1,500 for researches in paleontology. The Institution is also indebted to the Research Corporation for $1,250 for research work. Freer Gallery of Art——In compliance with the instructions of the Board of Regents, a sinking fund for the investment of surplus in- come from the Freer bequest has been created. The amount paid into this fund during the year was $138,688.75. The invested funds of the Freer bequest are classified as follows: AOL Soh UT ee ee ee ee ee eS ee eee $278, 825. 50 Couriiann eLOunas tung se: see 278, 825. 50 Court and grounds, maintenance fund___----_-----__--__--___-- 69, 683. 75 TRASH UG HOES Pay ESPEN Ca ee ee 2, 676, 232. 75 Sinking fund ~----_------------------------------------------- 138, 688. 75 Gian See al se a ee ee ee 3, 442, 256. 25 The practice of depositing on time, in local trust companies and banks, such revenues as may be spared temporarily has been con- tinued during the pasti year, and interest on these deposits has amounted to $1,014.59. The income during the year for current ex- penses, consisting of interest on permanent investments and other miscellaneous sources, including cash balance at the beginning of the year, amounted to $72,558.59. Revenues and principal of funds for specific purposes, except the Freer bequest, amounted to $91,919.99. Revenues on account of Freer bequest amounted to $234,446.50. Cash recalled from the time deposits, $34,000; aggregating a total of $432,925.08. The disbursements, described more fully in the annual report of the executive committee, were classed as follows: General objects of the Institution, $64,960.03; for specific purposes (except the Freer bequest), $58,501.72; temporary advances for field expenses, etc., in excess of repayments, $4,130.12; expenditures pertaining to the Charles L. Freer bequest, $291,768.05; and cash balance on hand June 30, 1924, $13,565.16. The following appropriations were intrusted by Congress to the care of the Smithsonian Institution for the fiscal year 1924: International) exchances see === ae eee eee $43, 000 (Armerican ethnolog yas. a= i= Se 44, 000 International Catalogue of Scientific Literature______---------_-_-___- 7, 500 6 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 National Museum: Furmitere ‘and fixtures*2 202 tae ee a ee eee ee $20, 000 Heating and lghting.-.- > ae ee 70, 000 Preservation .of collections2 222 == -=_ = ==-- == 312, 500 Bulging Tepes ee 10, 000 Books2-=- 5. a ee a a ee 2, 000 Postave 222 = ls ae ee eee 500 ——_415, 000 National Gallery of Art-_-_------__-___--~-------------------------- 16, 000 National ‘Zoological "ark=.285.. 22 2 ee Se 125, 000 THCREASE, OL COMP OM SEE Ol ee 112, 704 Printing and bintine. ne ee ee eee 77, 400 Totale’ a erat A eat he Soke. ae od Pe 856, 104 ° RESEARCHES AND EXPLORATIONS Every year the Institution engages, so far as its limited means will permit, in explorations and field work, and a few of these ex- peditions will be mentioned here briefly to indicate the nature of the work accomplished. A number of other expeditions and researches in various fields of science are described in the appendixes on the National Museum, the Bureau of American Ethnology, the Astro- physical Observatory, and the Freer Gallery of Art. In a few cases, the entire expedition is financed and managed by the Institution, but the small amount of income remaining each year, after the ad- ministrative costs of carrying on the work of the Institution are met, is soon exhausted, and thereafter it is only possible to cooperate in various ways in expeditions financed by other scientific institutions. GEOLOGICAL EXPLORATIONS IN THE CANADIAN ROCKIES During the summer and early fall of 1923, your Secretary con- tinued his geological field work in the Canadian Rockies of Al- berta and British Columbia. His main objective was to secure data on the pre-Devonian strata from the Clearwater River southeast to the Bow Valley and along the eastern side of the Columbia River Valley. It was found that the Mons formation which was discovered on the headwaters of the Saskatchewan River at Glacier Lake, extended southwesterly on the western side of the. Continental Divide in Brit- ish Columbia to the southern end of the Stanford Range between the Kootenay River and Columbia Lake, which is at the head of the Great Columbia River, which here flows northwesterly in what is known as the Rocky Mountain Trench. The valley of this latter river was found to be largely underlain by the limestones and shales of the Mons formation of the Ozarkian system, and the strata have been upturned, faulted, and folded prior to the great pre-Glacial ee ia ant nel tie REPORT OF THE SECRETARY t period of erosion that cut out the Rocky Mountain Trench. On the eastern side of this valley, the Mons formation is more than 3,800 feet in thickness in the Beaverfoot-Brisco-Stanford Range, and con- tains four well-developed fossil faunas which show it to lie between the Upper Cambrian and the Ordovician systems of this and other parts of the continent. Near the head of the Sinclair Canyon there was discovered a great development of the Lower Ordovician, and at several localities cliffs of massive Upper Cambrian limestones were recognized beneath the Mons formation. This whole region is ideal for geological field work, as the numer- ous canyons and ridges expose many of the formations from base to summit. On the whole, the season was a successful one for its geo- logical results. EXPEDITION TO DINOSAUR NATIONAL MONUMENT, UTAH In May, 1923, Mr. C. W. Gilmore, curator of vertebrate paleon- tology, National Museum, was detailed to take charge of an expedi- tion to the Dinosaur National Monument in northeastern Utah for the purpose of securing for exhibition in the Museum a mountable skeleton of the large sauropodous dinosaur, Diplodocus. 'The fossil deposit in this region was discovered in 1909 by Mr. Earl Douglass, and has been worked continuously since that time by the Carnegie Museum of Pittsburgh. By 1922, the Carnegie Museum had secured sufficient material for their purposes, and the Institution was notified of their intention to cease operations, leaving uncovered two partially articulated specimens of Diplodocus, a mountable skeleton of which has long been desired by the National Museum. Mr. Gilmore ar- rived at the fossil quarry on May 15,and a preliminary survey showed that one of the two skeletons would form the basis of a mountable specimen while the preserved parts of the other would serve ad- mirably to replace the missing bones of the first. Regular work in the quarry began on May 24 and continued until August 8. ‘Mr. Gilmore employed three men with experience in this field, and was assisted after June 5 by Mr. Norman H. Boss, of the Museum’s paleontological force. Regarding the difficulties involved, Mr. Gil- more says: , The work of quarrying these often fragile bones from the ledge of rock without doing irreparable damage is a slow and tedious operation, involving the skill of both the stone cutter andthe miner. Further difficulty is encountered in handling by primitive methods the immense blocks of rock inclosing the bones, with the subsequent arduous work of boxing and transportation. The largest block quarried, containing the sacrum with attached hip bones, weighed nearly 6,000 pounds when ready for shipment. The transportation of the boxes to the railroad involved a haul by teams of 150 miles across country and over a range of mountains 9,100 feet above sea level. However, 34 large boxes hav- ing a combined weight of over 25 tons were safely transported. 8 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 As a result of this expedition, enough material was secured for a good skeletal mount of Diplodocus which, it is estimated, will exceed 80 feet in length with a height at the hips of 14 feet. BIOLOGICAL EXPLORATIONS IN THE YANG-TZE VALLEY, CHINA Through the continued generosity of Dr. W. L. Abbott, Mr. Charles M. Hoy sailed for China toward the close of 1922 to collect verte- brates for the Institution in the Yang-Tze Valley region. His first collecting was done in the Yochow district, where he obtained a total of 169 mammals and 84 birds. At the beginning of the fiscal year just past, Hoy left for a trip through Hunan and Kiangsi, in the course of which many interesting specimens were obtained. From Kuling, Kiangsi, a letter was received from Hoy, describing a series of misfortunes, as follows: The day after writing my last letter to you, from Iningchow [never received], I had a bad fall and badly wrenched my back. For about a week I was searcely able to crawl about. Just when my back was getting so I could straighten up I had another accident and shot myself through the left leg with the Colt 45 automatic. The accident was due to a “hang fire.’ The gun did not go off when the hammer struck and so I lowered the gun to eject the shell when the shell exploded. The bullet struck me on the inside of the leg 4 inches above the ankle bone. * * * The wound is healing nicely, but the doctor says that it may be several months before I get full use of my foot and that I will most likely have a slight permanent limp. However, I am hoping that it won’t interfere with my collecting, but even if I won’t be able to do much walking myself I have one man who is a crack shot with the shotgun and another that is fair with the rifle, so I ought to be able.to get specimens anyhow. My trip down from Iningchow was rather uneventful except for the above accidents. We were under military guard all the way from there to Kuikiang. The country, it seems, is full of disbanded Northern soldiers who have driven out the natives and occupied their farms. Consequently it is dangerous for even natives to travel through that region. The final explana- tion given me, as to the reason of the escort, was that it was feared that my guns and ammunition might fall into their hands. We were fired on once, in the night, but aside from a lot of shouting and that one shot, nothing hap- pened. We could never learn who fired the shot, but the way things turned out I am convinced that we were mistaken for bandits and the shot was fired to scare us off. Owing to the accidents, I have not been able to secure any speci- mens since the writing of my last letter. My outfit has not yet arrived owing to the heavy rains, but as soon as it gets here I plan to send my men out collect- ing so I will be able to get specimens notwithstanding the fact that I am con- fined to the house. The gunshot wound was apparently healing, but while Hoy was still confined to the house he developed a severe case of appendicitis, necessitating an immediate operation, from which he never recovered. BOTANICAL EXPLORATION IN PANAMA AND CENTRAL AMERICA Dr. William R. Maxon, associate curator of plants in the National Museum, was detailed in May, 1923, to accompany an expedition REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 9 from the Department of Agriculture to Panama and Central America. Unfortunately rains interfered seriously with field work in both Panama and Nicaragua, but in spite of this handicap, a gen- eral botanical collection of about 4,500 specimens was made, about equally divided among Panama, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. In his report on the expedition, Doctor Maxon says: Aside from two days given to collecting in the interesting Juan Diaz region, east of Panama City, work in Panama was mostly confined to the Canal Zone, being conducted chiefly from headquarters on the Pacific side, at Balboa, with the courteous assistance of the Panama Canal authorities. Of particular in- terest were trips to Barro Colorado, a large wooded island in Gatun Lake opposite Frijoles, recently set aside as a wild reserve upon representation of the Institute for Research in Tropical America; the virgin forest region at the headwaters of the Rio Chinilla, above Monte Lirio; and the Fort Sherman Military Reservation, which includes the famous old Spanish stronghold, Fort San Lorenzo, at the mouth of the Chagres. All these localities are forested and are rich in palms, and special attention was directed to obtaining material in this difficult group. With the steady clearing of leased land for planting bananas the original forest in the Canal Zone is rapidly disappearing, and with it its characteristic palm associations. * * * About three weeks were spent in Nicaragua, wholly in the region west of Lake - Nicaragua and mainly working from Managua, the capital, which lies pic- turesquely at a new elevation 90 miles inland from the Pacific coast, flanked by numerous voleanoes. Except for the volcanoes and the low range called the Sierra, given over to coffee production, western Nicaragua is low and almost entirely cleared of forest. Cane and grazing are the main industries. The soil is largely a rich black loam of volcanic origin, and supports a luxuriant growth of tall grasses, the arborescent vegetation being mainly confined to roadsides and abandoned “ potrero.” The most interesting trips were to the region of Casa Colorado in the Sierra, and to Mombacho and Santiago vol- canoes. The material collected indicates a rich flora for the higher mountain slopes, one that would amply repay extended exploration. From Corinto Doctor Maxon proceeded by steamer to Puntarenas, the Pa- cific port of Costa Rica. The ascent by rail from this port in the semiarid coastal plain to the capital, San José, lying at an altitude of 1,140 meters in the cool meseta central, is through a region remarkably diverse as to physiog- raphy. From San José three principal trips were made: First, to La Palma, a classical botanical locality on the cloud-drenched southwestern slopes of IrazG voleano; next to Santa Clara in the mountains a few leagues south of Cartago; then to Vara Blanca lying high up in an almost unexplored region between the voleanoes Pots and Barba. Special attention was here given to ferns and orchids, both groups being extremely abundant both as to species and individuals, and many new and interesting species in these and other groups were collected. STUDIES ON EARLY MAN IN EUROPE During the summer and early fall of 1923, Dr. AleS Hrdlicka, curator of physical anthropology, National Museum, revisited the important sites of early man in western and central Europe, as well as the institutions in which are preserved the skeletal remains of 10 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 ancient man and the fossil European apes. During the trip Doctor Hrdlitka acted as director of the American School in France for Prehistoric Studies, and was accompanied by a number of American graduate students. One of the principal objects of the trip was to secure accurate measurements of the teeth, particularly the lower molars, of the larger fossil apes and early man by one observer, by a strictly defined method, and with accurate instruments. Another object was to take photographs of the various sites of early man of which good photographs were not available. The trip included visits to various regions in England, Holland, Belgium, France, Germany, Bohemia, Austria, and Croatia. In these countries practically all of the important sites were visited and as far as possible the skeletal remains of early man and the fossil apes in museums along the route were examined and measured. In many cases assistance was given by prominent anthropologists connected with these institutions in giving first-hand reviews of the knowledge concerning the specimens and sites, and sometimes in per- sonal conduct to the sites themselves. In Holland Doctor Hrdli¢ka had the unique privilege of visiting Prof. Eugene Dubois, of Haar- lem, and seeing the famous remains of the Pithecanthropus as well as the other Java remains in his possession. Regarding the Pithe- canthropus remains, Doctor Hrdlicka says: The remains of, or those attributed to, the Pithecanthropus consist of the now thoroughly cleansed skull-cap, a femur and three teeth, two molars and one premolar. Besides these there is from another locality a piece of a strange primitive lower jaw, and also two skulls with many parts of the skeletons of a later, though yet rather primitive, type of man from consolidated calcareous deposits in still another part of the island. The examination of the originals belonging to the Pithecanthropus find was in many respects a revelation. It was seen that none of the casts now in various institutions are accurate, and that the same is true of the so far published illustrations, above all those of the teeth and femur. The originals are even more important than held hitherto. The new brain cast shows an organ very close to human. The femur is without question human. When the detailed study of all these specimens is published, which Doctor Dubois expects to occur before the end of the winter, the specimens, though all controversial points may not be settled, will assume even a weightier place in science than they have had up to the present. The trip resulted in an overwhelming sense of the greatness and scientific importance of the field of early man in western and central Europe and in a keen appreciation of the opportunities for cooperation in this field by American students. SMITHSONIAN SERIES OF RADIO TALKS Beginning on October 19, 1923, arrangements were made with radio station WRC, of the Radio Corporation of America, to broad- cast a series of talks on the Institution and its branches. These REPORT OF THE SECRETARY it were continued until November 16, with such success that in the spring the conclusion was reached that there would be mutual ad- vantage to the Institution and to station WRC in giving a series of talks on scientific subjects. Accordingly there was established a regular Smithsonian period every Wednesday at 6.15 p. m., and the series was opened on April 9 by a talk on “ The giants of the animal world,” by Mr. Austin H. Clark. This was followed by 10 others, the last one being given on June 18, when the program was discon- tinued for the summer months. This new means of carrying out the Institution’s function of the diffusion of knowledge appears to be highly effective, as indicated by the number of responses to the talks received at the Institution and at the broadcasting station. The direction of the entire pro- gram was placed under Mr. Austin H. Clark, of the National Mu- seum, who secured the cooperation not only of the members of the staff of the Institution and its branches but also of the Carnegie Institution of Washington and of the various scientific bureaus of the Government whose work is complementary to that of the Insti- tution. Altogether there were given during the year 18 talks in the Smithsonian series, as follows: The Smithsonian Institution, by Austin H. Clark. The Work of the Smithsonian Observatory, by C. G. Abbot. The Bureau of Ethnology: What It Is and What It Does, by J. Walter Fewkes. Department of Arts and Industries of the United States National Museum, by Carl W. Mitman. The Historical Collections of the Smithsonian Institution, United States National Museum, by Theodore T. Belote. The National Gallery of Art, by W. H. Holmes. The National Herbarium, by F. V. Coville. The Giants of the Animal World, by Austin H. Clark. Little Folks in Greenland, by Elisabeth Deichmann. The National Zoological Park, under the direction of the Smithsonian Insti- tution, by N. Hollister. Useful Plants from America, by F. L. Lewton. Shooting Stars and What They Are, by George P. Merrill. Animal Terrors of Past Ages—Dinosaurs, by Charles W. Gilmore. Surveying the Ocean with the Non-Magnetic Yacht Carnegie, by J. P. Ault, of the Carnegie Institution. Program of native Indian music arranged by Miss Frances Densmore. Large Game Animals of North America, by E. W. Nelson, Chief of the Bureau _ of Biological Survey. Flying Animals, by Austin H. Clark. Atmospheric Electricity, by D. J. Mauchly, of the Carnegie Institution. The interest shown in these informative radio talks on scientific matters and the vast audience which it is possible to reach through the microphone make it apparent that this is destined to become a 12 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 most important phase of the Institution’s work in diffusing knowl- edge, and it is intended to renew the series with increased scope in the fall. ASSISTANCE TO JAPANESE LIBRARIES DESTROYED DURING THE RECENT EARTHQUAKE The recent disastrous earthquake in Japan destroyed large collec- tions of books in many of the Japanese libraries, including the entire collection of 700,000 volumes in the library of the Imperial Univer- sity of Tokyo. During the year an appeal was received in this country from the Japanese Association of the League of Nations for books to replenish these unfortunate libraries, especially those of universities and colleges. The Institution made up as nearly as pos- sible complete sets of its own publications and forwarded them to a number of the Japanese libraries, the volumes and pamphlets thus sent totaling several hundred. In addition, the International Ex- change Service of the Institution served as a central forwarding agency for the other American institutions desiring to contribute their publications, and during the year several large consignments containing many thousands of publications were transmitted to Japan. COOPERATION WITH ORGANIZATIONS MEETING IN WASHINGTON There has been during the year an unusually large number of meetings in Washington of scientific or other organizations whose work has been in some way related to that of the Smithsonian. In providing an auditorium in the Museum for these meetings, and through the assistance given in various ways by the scientific and administrative staff, the Institution has been able to render a real service in promoting scientific work and discussion. To illustrate the appreciation of this service by organizations taking advantage of these facilities, there may be mentioned three important meetings held during the year. The American Association of Museums held its nineteenth annual meeting in Washington “May 10-13, most of the sessions being held at the National Museum. After the meeting the secretary of the association wrote to the Institution in part as follows: The success of the nineteenth annual meeting of the American Association of Museums was due in considerable part to the hospitality of the Smithsonian Institution and the friendly help of many individuals on its staff. At the close of the first National Conference on Outdoor Recrea- tion, held in Washington in June, the following resolutions were passed : REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 13 Whereas the success of this first National Conference on Outdoor Recreation is due in large measure to the very fine services and facilities made available by the officers of the Smithsonian Institution and the National Museum, who have been untiring in their efforts to promote the comfort and convenience of the delegates to the conference: Therefore be it Resolved, That the conference hereby expresses its sincere appreciation of the spirit of cordial hospitality displayed by the officers and employees of these great scientific and educational agencies and requests its executive chairman to so advise Dr. Charles D. Walcott, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, and his official associates. The annual meeting of the National Academy of Sciences, which has for many years been held in the National Museum, was held this year for the first time in the academy’s new building. The follow- ing resolution passed during the sessions expresses appreciation of the services which the Institution has been able to render to the academy in the past: Resolved, That on the occasion of the removal of its offices from the Smith- sonian Institution to its new building, the National Academy of Sciences gratefully expresses its obligations to the Secretary and the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution for the courtesies extended for over half a century through the housing and care of the academy records and library, through its cooperation in the conduct of academy business, and through its effective aid in promoting the objects of the academy ; And that the academy expressly acknowledges its high esteem and thanks to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Charles Doolittle Walcott, for his personal interest in the welfare of the academy, his unfailing interest in and attention to the work of the academy in the advancement of science, and his distinguished services as treasurer, vice president, acting president, president, and member of the council and committees, both official and un- official, in its behalf. PUBLICATIONS There were issued during the year by the Institution and its branches a total of 70 volumes and pamphlets, of which 142,385 copies were distributed, including 407 volumes and separates of the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, 25,987 volumes and sepa- rates of the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, 19,085 volumes and separates of the Smithsonian Annual Reports, 3,748 Smithsonian special publications, 78,734 volumes and separates of the various series of the National Museum publications, 13,974 publications of the Bureau of American Ethnology, 78 publications of the National Gallery of Art, 65 volumes of the Annals of the Astrophysical Ob- servatory, 35 reports on the Harriman Alaska Expedition, and 1,275 reports of the American Historical Association. The publications of the Institution, now issued in 11 distinct series, are its principal means of carrying out a part of its stated purpose, “the diffusion of knowledge.” There is a widespread and growing demand for its publications, not only from specialists for 14 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 the more technical series, but also from the general public, among whom the importance of scientific matters is coming to be more and more realized. This popular demand is chiefly for the Smith- sonian Annual Reports, which contain a general appendix consisting of series of specially selected articles presenting in readable form progress and interesting developments in all branches of science. Unfortunately, owing to the rush of work at the Government Print- ing Office both during the war and since, these volumes have fallen behind date, until now they are issued over two years late. How- ever, for the coming fiscal year, Congress has allotted an additional amount to enable the Institution to catch up with these reports by issuing two in one year, and it is hoped that within a year or two they will again appear more nearly on time. ; The various publications of the National Museum and of the Bureau of American Ethnology are given in detail in the report on publications appended hereto. In the series of Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 13 papers were issued during the year, among which may be mentioned two papers by your secretary on the results of his geological field work in the Canadian Rockies; an illustrated pamphlet on the History of Electric Light, by Henry Schroeder, of the General Electric Co.; a paper on the Telescoping of the Cetacean Skull, by Gerrit S. Miller, jr., of the National Museum; and a second paper by Dr. J. Walter Fewkes describing and figuring the beautiful designs on prehistoric Indian pottery from the Mimbres Valley, N. Mex. Allotments for printing—The congressional allotments for the printing of the Smithsonian reports and the various publications of the branches of the Institution were practically used up at the close of the year. The appropriation for the Institution and its branches for the coming year ending June 30, 1925, totals $90,000, allotted as follows: Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. $22, 600 Nearronal: Muse 82 TE = See Be a ee ee ee 37, 500 Buresu of - American Hthnology. ee re ee eee 21, 000 Natonal*Gallery-Of (Art 22 3200588 WN ta Sas Eee ee ee ee 1, 000 International Exchanges tit. bs) sh ee A EE 200 International Catalogue of Scientific Literature_____________________ 100 National Zoological: Parke oo <= 3a ee eee ee ee 300 ASiLPODDYSical ‘ODSCIALOIY 2s ee LN se 300 Annual Report of the American Historical Association_______________ 7, 000 Committee on printing and publication—The Smithsonian ad- visory committee on printing and publication considers all manu- scripts offered for publication by the Institution and its branches and makes recommendations thereon to your secretary. It also considers matters of publication policy and means of effecting econ- REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 15 omies in the Institution’s printing and binding. During the year nine meetings were held and 100 manuscripts acted upon. The membership of the committee is as follows: Dr. Leonhard Stejneger, head curator of biology, National Museum, chairman; Dr. George P. Merrill, head curator of geology, National Museum; Dr. J. Walter Fewkes, chief, Bureau of American Ethnology; Mr. N. Hollister, superintendent, National Zoological Park; and Mr. W. P. True, editor of the Smithsonian Institution, secretary. Toward the close of the year there were added to the membership of the committee Dr. Marcus Benjamin, editor of the National Museum, and Mr. Stanley Searles, editor of the Bureau of American Ethnology. LIBRARY The service of the libraries administered under the Smithsonian Institution has been continued, although with increasing difficulty owing to the need for more assistants. Mr. Paul Brockett resigned as assistant librarian, after 37 years with the Smithsonian Institu- tion, in order to assume charge of the new building of the National Academy of Sciences as assistant secretary and librarian. The additions to the libraries reached a total of 12,249, as com- pared with 10,938 the past year. The number of loans was 13,826, as compared with 12,076 the past year, exclusive of books lent from the Smithsonian deposit in the Library of Congress. Efforts to secure missing parts for including in incomplete sets resulted in the receipt of 1,786. Owing to the lack of sufficient clerical help, it has not been possible to have typed for the general library catalogue the catalogue cards of special collections that have been prepared during the year. Consequently the number of volumes catalogued for the general catalogue dropped from 6,341 to 5,348. Probably the most important addition of the year was the Edgar E. Teller collection presented by Mrs. Teller to the library of the United States National Museum. The catalogue of the European Historical Series of the Watts de Peyster collection is approaching completion. NATIONAL MUSEUM Since 1916 the collections in the care of the Museum have been increased by two and one-fourth million specimens, and its exhibi- tion space has been enlarged by the addition of the Aircraft Build- ing. Unfortunately, however, the appropriations have not kept pace with this rapid development, and it is now only with the greatest care and economy that the actual work of the safe-keeping of the collections and their classification and exhibition is carried on. There is practically nothing left to care for the normal expansion 16 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 of the Museum’s work ‘and for increasing its usefulness to the people of the country. The Museum, with its vast collections, serves the public not as it would and could but as its limited financial resources permit. One forward step has been made, however, in the reclassi- fication of salaries which becomes effective on July 1, 1924, and as a whole the scientific force of the Museum is at last to receive ade- quate compensation. The outstanding feature of the year was the gift to the Nation for exhibition in the National Museum of a complete American colonial room, presented by Mrs. Gertrude D. Ritter, of Washington, D. C. This notable gift includes wall paneling from the old Bliss homestead at Springfield, Mass., and a remarkable collection of fur- niture, china, glassware, pewter, pictures, and textiles belonging to the same period of early American history. The room is set up and arranged in one of the Museum rooms exactly as it would have appeared in ‘a colonial home of the period of about 1750. A program of intensive work on the development of the Loeb col- lection of chemical types was made possible this year through the accrued interest on the Loeb fund. A curator of the collection was appointed and the advisory committee reorganized, and it is ex- pected that in a year or two the value of such a type series of chem- icals will be amply shown. The Museum received during the year 362,942 specimens, a notable increase over last year in numbers and also in scientific value. Over 8,000 duplicate specimens classified and labeled were dis- tributed for educational purposes to schools and colleges. A some- what detailed account of the accessions in the various departments of the Museum is given in the report of the administrative assistant in charge, and only a few of the more notable acquisitions will be men- tioned here. In anthropology a noteworthy collection of ethnological material from the Philippines, made by the late Capt. E. Y. Miller, was presented by Mrs. Florence G. Miller, and a number of speci- mens representing several Indian tribes of South America was the gift of Dr. D. S. Bullock. A valuable series of unique ancient earthenware bowls from the Mimbres Valley, N. Mex., was presented by the Bureau of American Ethnology. A series of prehistoric antiquities from ancient sites in France, Belgium, and Germany was added by Dr. AleS Hrdlitka as the result of his recent trip to Europe. The collections received in biology greatly surpass those of recent years both numerically and in scientific importance, the latter point being emphasized by the addition of a large number of species and genera new to the Museum, many gaps in the collections having been filled. The outstanding accession of the year is the gift by Dr. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 17 J. M. Aldrich, associate curator of insects, of his collection of 45,000 specimens of dipterous flies, the result of his life’s collecting and study. Considerable collections were received from Rev. D. C. Graham, made during his explorations in the Province of Szechwan, China. Dr. W. L. Abbott secured a large number of plants, reptiles, and amphibians during an expedition to Santo Domingo. The National Herbarium was greatly enriched by three expeditions to tropical America, that of Dr. A. S. Hitchcock to Panama, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia; of Paul C. Standley to the Canal Zone and Costa Rica; and of Dr. William R. Maxon to Panama, Costa Rica, and Nica- ragua. The research work of the staff of the department of biology has been continued whenever time could be spared from the neces- sary work of caring for the increasing collections, but the divisions are greatly undermanned and much more scientific work would be accomplished if more assistants were available. The department of geology received a large amount of material of unusual value for both exhibition and study purposes, the most noteworthy accessions being the large sauropodous dinosaur from the Dinosaur National Monument, Utah, and the Edgar E. Teller and George M. Austin collections of fossils, which together comprise at least 125,000 specimens. The economic collections have been in- creased by the addition of a number of ores and by a series of diamond-bearing rocks from Arkansas. Meteoric irons from New Mexico, Kansas, Chile, Spain, and Australia added new material to the meteorite collection. The mineral collections received a number of specimens chiefly through the generosity of Col. Washington A. Roebling, and several cut gems were added to the Isaac Lea collec- tion. Expansion of the study series and research work occupied much of the time of the curators and their assistants. The divisions of mineral and mechanical technology received many interesting additions, including two automobiles presented by the Cadillac Motor Co., one made in 1903 and the other in 1923, the latter being cut away in cross section to show the working parts. Another valuable accession was a complete working unit of a Strowger automatic telephone system equipped with three telephones which can be operated by the visitor, thus enabling him to observe the functioning of the apparatus. The division of textiles, includ- ing also wood technology, organic chemistry, foods, and medicine, received over 3,300 specimens during the year, including large series of industrial specimens illustrating every branch of rubber manufacture, the manufacture of leather and shoes, and the prepara- tion and dyeing of seal, muskrat, and rabbit skins. There were also accessioned many chemical materials used in various industries, a number of interesting textiles, and material of value to be added 18 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 to the exhibitions in the division of medicine. The division of graphic arts received numerous additions pertaining to the history and development of the printing art and held a number of suc- cessful exhibitions of prints, etchings, lithographs, and photographs. In the division of history the most notable addition was the Ameri- can colonial room presented by Mrs. Gertrude D. Ritter, mentioned previously in thissummary. The division also received a gown worn by Mrs. Warren G. Harding and another worn by Mrs. Benjamin Harrison to be added to the collection of costumes of ladies of the White House in which so much popular interest is shown. The Museum participated in a number of field expeditions which have resulted in greatly increasing the collections in the various - departments. These are described in the report on the Museum ap- pended hereto. The auditorium was used by a large number of scientific and other societies and organizations for lectures and meetings. Visitors to the Natural History Building during the year totaled 540,776; to the Arts and Industries Building, 290,012; to the Aircraft Building, 43,534; and to the Museum exhibits in the Smithsonian Building, 104,601. Eight volumes and 44 separates were published by the Museum during the year, and of these 78,734 copies were distributed. NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART The year has witnessed substantial advance in the work of the gallery, and a number of important art works were received notwith- standing the fact that there is no longer suitable space available for the display of additional exhibits. Constant effort has been made during the year to impress upon the country the urgent need of a National Gallery Building, and gratifying assurance of the awakening of public interest in national art is given by the intro- duction in the Senate by Senator Lodge of an amendment to the deficiency appropriations bill to provide for commencing the erec- tion of a suitable building for the gallery. Although this amend- ment did not pass at the last session of Congress, it is hoped that favorable action will soon be taken. It will be recalled from last year’s report that Congress has provided a site in the Smithsonian grounds for such a building and that funds were raised privately for the preparation of plans. At the close of the year Mr. Charles A. Platt, the architect selected, had the plans well under way. The annual meeting of the National Gallery Commission was held on December 11 and a number of important topics were considered, including the problem of securing a National Gallery Building, a recommendation that a division of historical architecture be included in the National Gallery of Art, and the selection of an architect for REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 19 the proposed building. Mr. Gari Melchers was selected to succeed Mr. Daniel C. French, who had resigned as chairman of the commission. Permanent accessions to the gallery for the year were limited to about 10 paintings, but Mrs. Ralph Cross Johnson deposited a collection of 11 early Christian paintings by Italian, Dutch, Flem- ish, and Spanish masters, and has indicated her intention of making the “deposit ” a permanent addition to the gallery. A number of loans were accepted during the year, and the gallery in turn loaned a number of paintings to accredited art institutions. Three special exhibitions were held in the gallery during the year, and the World War portrait collection was installed in an improvised gallery on the second floor of the Natural History Building of the National Museum, which proved to be quite satisfactory for their exhibition. FREER GALLERY OF ART Work completed during the year includes the examination, classi- fication, and cataloguing of Chinese and Japanese stone sculptures and paintings, and much additional work has been accomplished in the preservation, framing, lettering, and mounting of paintings. etchings, and lithographs. Identification photographs have been made of many objects in the collection to provide ready reference and to save handling of the collections. A special exhibition of Whistler etchings, dry points, and lithographs was held in four of the galleries during January and February. Fourteen hundred gal- lery books describing the objects on exhibition have been prepared, and there have also been issued a Synopsis of History for the use of students and a third printing of the pamphlet giving general infor- mation about the gallery and collections. Additions to the collections by purchase included Chinese bronzes, Indian paintings, Persian paintings, and Chinese sculptures, and the library was increased by the addition of a number of books and pamphlets in various Asiatic and European languages. Several cases, picture frames, and other necessary articles of equipment were constructed in the gallery workshop. The total attendance for the year was 111,942, including 482 visi- tors who came to work in the study rooms or to examine objects not on exhibition. The auditorium of the gallery was used in February by the Library of Congress for the presentation of three recitals of chamber music, and in April, Prof. Paul Pelliot, of the Collége de France, gave an illustrated lecture on “Chinese bronzes, jades, and sculptures.” The archeological expedition to China under the joint auspices of the gallery and the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, has carried on 20 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 fruitful investigations in various localities in China, latterly at Yii-ho Chén, in Honan, where some burials of the Han dynasty have been thoroughly investigated with gratifying results. Even more important is the cooperative agreement with regard to archeological investigation established between the gallery and the Chinese au- thorities. which was confirmed by the unsolicited appointment of Mr. Bishop as Honorary Adviser in Archeology to the Historical De- partment of the Chinese Government. This is the first definite effort of the kind to bring Chinese archeologists and officials together in a beneficial relationship with western archeologists and museums, which it is hoped will provide a basis for more enlightened scholar- ship and gradually supplant the ruthless and unscientific collecting of Chinese antiquities on a commercial scale as hitherto allowed. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY The aim of the Bureau of American Ethnology is to discover and disseminate correct ideas of the Indian as a race, that our people may better understand and appreciate his history, language, soci- ology, music, religion, and various arts and industries. The sources of this information are from year to year becoming fewer and fewer as the customs indigenous to America are lost in the settlement of the former homes of the Indians by the white race. It is therefore imperative that intensive work be carried on by the staff of the bureau to record accurately as much as possible of this material from the Indians themselves before it is too late. The greatly increased number of visitors to the national parks and Indian reservations of the Western States, due to the present popu- larity of automobile touring, has led to a desire on the part of the general public for more information on the history and customs of the Indians, and urgent calls from universities and other institutions for advice and assistance in local problems relating to the Indians have been more numerous than ever before. The bureau’s most effec- tive means of supplying this information and answering these calls is its unique series of publications on every phase of Indian 'ife and culture. With the greatly increased cost of printing and the very limited funds for the purpose placed at the disposal of the bureau, there has resulted a very unfortunate congestion of manuscripts awaiting publication. It is usually two or three years after a report is handed in by a member of the staff before it can even be sent to the printer, which not only results in difficulty in supplying the requests of the public but is very discouraging to the scientific staff who are carrying on this work. A large proportion of the time of the chief of the bureau is de- voted to administrative work, but opportunity was found to carry on REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 21 an archeological expedition to southwestern Florida, where but little work of this character has previously been done. With the aid of Mr. E. M. Elliott and his associates, of St. Petersburg, Doctor Fewkes began the excavation of certain large shell mounds on Weeden Island near St. Petersburg. One of the largest mounds proved to be a ceme- tery, and from November until March about one-half of it was ex- eavated. A large collection of aboriginal objects and skeletons was made, which gives evidence of two distinct cultures, one above the other. The lower contained crude pottery and a few implements mostly of shell bearing considerable likeness to the so-called Archaic Antillean culture of Cuba. The upper layer gave very fine specimens of decorated pottery and other objects which show close relationship to the Indian culture of Georgia, indicating a southward extension of population possibly allied to the Muskhogean into the Florida Pen- insula. This field work of the bureau in Florida inaugurates a plan of cooperation of members of the staff and others to determine the boundaries and extension of the great Muskhogean culture of the Gulf States, the object being to obtain information on the relation- ship of the mounds of our southern States to those of the Huastecs on the Gulf coast of Mexico. Dr. John R. Swanton completed the translation of stories from his Koasati, Alabama, Hitchiti, and Creek texts; edited a manuscript on Indian trails by the late W. IX. Myer; and began the preparation of a card index of all words in the Timucua language in the religious works of the Franciscan missionaries Pareja and Movilla, nearly all that is left to us of this old Florida tongue. Dr. Truman Michelson carried on ethnological studies among the Indians of Labrador. From his work it appears that the language of the Nascopi and Davis Inlet Indians is the same, and merely a Montagnais dialect rather than a distinct language. It may be noted that the folklore of the Indians of Labrador contains more elements occurring among Cen- tral Algonquians than has been suspected. At the close of this work, he continued his researches of former years among the Fox Indians at Tama, Iowa, devoting especial attention to the ceremonial runners of these Indians. Mr. J. P. Harrington took charge of the exploration of the Burton Mound at Santa Barbara, Calif., under a joint arrangement with the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation. Many facts of interest for the prehistory of the Santa Barbara Indians and the early culture of the Pacific coast in general were recorded, and a great number of skeletons, utensils, weapons, and trinkets were secured. Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt was engaged during the greater part of the year in working up the material gathered in former years relating to the League or Confederation of the Five Iroquois Tribes or Nations. In 20397—25——3 22 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 June he visited the Six Nations of Iroquois near Brantford, Ontario, Canada, and the Onondaga, Tonowanda, and Tuscarora in New York State for the purpose of securing certain data regarding the Condolence and Installation Council. Mr. Francis La Flesche devoted his time to the assembly of his notes on the child-naming rites and ceremonies of the Osage Indians. Mr. La Flesche has succeeded in securing two of the remaining ver- sions of these rites which are now practically obsolete, and these will form the two parts of a publication on the subject, now nearing com- pletion. Mr. W. E. Myer on his return from field work in Tennessee began preparation of a report on the remains of the great prehistoric Indian settlement known as Great Mound Group in Cheatham County, Tenn. The great central mound of this ancient town was protected by earthen breastworks surmounted at intervals by circu- lar wooden towers, and completed by earthen bastions projecting 150 yards beyond the main walls. In addition to this fortified mound, there were four other eminences with tops leveled into plazas, which showed evidences of earth lodges and former buildings. Miss Frances Densmore recorded songs of the Makah Indians at Neah Bay, Wash., in order to compare the music of Indians living beside the ocean with that of tribes living on the mountains, plains, and desert. It was found, as a general observation, that the music of the Makah resembles that of the Ute, Papago, and Yuma more than that of the Chippewa, Sioux, and Pawnee. The Makah songs recorded included songs of the whale legends and whaling expedi- tions, songs of the potlatch and various social dances, songs con- nected with contests of physical strength, “gratitude songs,” lul- labies, courting songs, and songs of wedding festivities. The publications of the bureau issued during the year consisted of three bulletins, and a number of other bulletins and reports were in press at the close of the year. There were distributed during the year 13,974 copies of the publications of the bureau. INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES The total number of packages handled by the exchange service during the year was 460,658, weighing 567,107 pounds, an increase over last year of 82,832 packages and 74,291 pounds in weight. This increase was due for the most part to the large number of publica- tions received in this country for transmission to universities and colleges in Japan that lost their libraries during the recent earth- quake. The Institution was notified during the year that the Government of Hungary had established the Hungarian Libraries Board at Budapest to act as the Hungarian exchange agency, and that the REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 23 Governments of the Dominican Republic, Latvia, and the Free City of Danzig had adhered to the two exchange conventions concluded at Brussels, March 15, 1886. The number of full and partial sets of United States official docu- ments sent through the exchange service to depositories abroad is now 97, there having been added during the year to receive full sets the Ministry of Finance, Government of Northern Ireland, Belfast; State Library, Reval, Esthonia; and the Library of the League of Nations, Geneva, Switzerland. In addition, there is an immediate exchange of the official journal between the United States and 41 foreign governments. During the year, this immediate exchange of the official journal has been entered into with Haiti, Latvia, and Norway. NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK The year has veen one of the most successful in the history of the park, both as to care and maintenance of the animal collections, buildings, and grounds, and in service to the public. All previous attendance records were broken by the total of 2,442,880 visitors re- corded for the year. Among the 221 animals presented to the park during the year were many rare and unusual species, including a fine young Baird’s tapir presented by Mr. M. G. Henery, of Honduras. This species of tapir has always been one of the rarest animals in zoological collections. Through the continued interest in the park of Mr. Victor J. Evans, of Washington, D. C., 55 animals were added to the collections including several very rare and valuable species. A most interesting collection from Brazil was brought to the park by Dr. W. L. Schurz, commercial attaché, United States Embassy, Rio de Janeiro, which included a fine South American bush dog, the first of its kind to be shown in the park. There were 1,645 animals in the collection on June 30, 1924, including 458 mammals of 177 species, 1,059 birds of 276 species, and 128 reptiles of 41 species. The number of animals added during the year was 491, while 614 were lost through exchange, death, and return of ‘animals on deposit. Forty-two mammals were born and 27 birds hatched in the park during the year, while the death rate was held at a normally low mark. The 11 new yards for hoofed animals mentioned last year were completed during the year and occupied by animals in the fall. The superior arrangement of these paddocks for the care and exhibition of the animals has been favorably commented on by officials of other zoological gardens and by visitors. A new restaurant building, needed for many years, was completed during the year, which adds greatly to the appearance of the park and is much appreciated by 24 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 visitors. The most urgent present needs of the Park are a new exhibition building for birds, the present one being in very bad condition and much too small for the large crowds which visit it, and a fund for the purchase of rare and unusual animals. This fund might be increased by gift or bequest and by depositing in it certain miscellaneous revenues of the park which are now turned into the general fund of the Treasury, if this were authorized by an act of Congress. ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY During the year arrangements were made, through the generosity of Mr. John A. Roebling, to have sent to the Institution daily tele- graphic reports of the solar constant value from the two solar radia- tion stations at Montezuma, Chile, and Mount Harqua Hala, Ariz. Experimental temperature forecasts for New York City, based on these daily reports of solar changes, have been regularly submitted by Mr. H. H. Clayton for certain periods of time, namely, for 3, 4, 5, and 27 days in advance and also general forecasts as to the ex- pected departure from mean normal temperatures for the coming months and weeks. These forecasts show undoubted prevision of the temperature even up to 5 days after the solar observations. The 27-day detailed forecasts have hitherto shown no correlation with New York City temperature, but the broader forecasts for coming weeks and months have been fairly verified. The results are promising enough to warrant further trial, and through Mr. Roebling’s generous support these experimental forecasts will be continued until June 30, 1925. Three projects were undertaken at the Mount Wilson station, which the director occupied from July to October, 1923: First, to begin observations on the variations of atmospheric ozone; second, to test new improvements on the solar cooker; and, third, to measure the spectra of the brighter stars, using the 100-inch telescope and special apparatus prepared for the work. In the first project ap- paratus was made ready, but circumstances prevented the actual beginning of the determinations of atmospheric ozone; in the sec- ond, experiments with the solar cooker resulted in some advance- ment and pointed the way to further progress; and in the third highly interesting results on stellar spectrum distribution and on star diameters were obtained. INTERNATIONAL CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC LITER- ATURE The condition of the International Catalogue of Scientific Litera- ture remains practically the same as it was last year. It will be REPORT OF THE SECRETARY : 25 recalled that publication of the catalogue was suspended in 1921, owing to the fact that such abnormal conditions in international exchange and publishing costs had been brought about by the war that: many of the cooperating nations were unable to pay the conse- quent increased prices of their subscriptions. However, the need of this classified index to the ever-increasing literature of science is greater now than ever before, for no publication or combination of publications has even attempted to fill its place, and it is to be regretted that so much effort is being independently expended to meet special requirements when it is evident that, should these separate undertakings be either merged or at least brought into cooperation all would be benefited and the long-felt needs of special- ists and librarians thus be fully met. The International Catalogue is in a position, through its officialiy recognized bureaus, to prepare index data to all of the scientific publications of the world, this being a feature which no new organi- zation can even hope to duplicate. The local bureaus, being officially recognized and in a position of close contact with both publishers and authors of scientific papers, have unique facilities for providing the data necessary for abstracts and special indexes, and as such data is needed by all agencies supplying notices of scientific publications in whatever form, it is felt that this organization should be the foundation on which to build a cooperative service to meet the needs of all interested in scientific activities. NECROLOGY JOHN L. BAER Mr. John L. Baer, employed by the National Museum for several years past as temporary assistant in the department of anthropology, died in Panama on May 28, 1924. Mr. Baer was sent to represent the Smithsonian Institution on the Marsh Darien Expedition and his death occurred in Panama just before the return of this expedition. J. J. DOLAN Mr. J. J. Dolan, employed by the National Museum in various capacities for 82 years, died on November 22, 1923. Mr. Dolan entered the service of the Museum as watchman and passed through the various grades until he reached the position of captain of the watch in 1903. This position he held until April 15, 1923, when he was transferred to the office of shipper, which position he held at the time of his death. 26 . ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 ELIZABETH D. TABLER Miss Elizabeth D. Tabler, who had served in various offices in the National Museum for nearly 41 years, died on July 19, 1923. Miss Tabler came to the Museum in October, 1882, and served in the office of Mr. S. C. Brown, registrar, until his death in 1919, when she was transferred to the division of correspondence and documents, where she was employed at the time of her death. Respectfully submitted. Cuartes D. Watcort, Secretary. APPENDIX 1 REPORT ON THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM Str: I have the honor to submit the following report on the con- dition and operation of the United States National Museum for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1924. The maintenance of the National Museum for the year was pro- vided for by a Government appropriation of $452,500 in the execu- tive and independent offices act approved February 18, 1923, with an added item of $79,896 for increase of compensation to care for the bonus of the employees. In 1916 the appropriation to the Museum for all purposes was $426,000. Since 1916 the Museum has increased its exhibition space by the acquisition of the Aircraft Building; has materially enlarged the scope of its collections in arts and indus- tries and in history, and has received over two and one-fourth mil- lion additional specimens, besides assuming certain definite responsi- bilities for the guarding and upkeep of the Freer Building. As can be readily seen, the difference in the appropriations of 1916 and 1924 hardly covers the added cost of maintaining the buildings and guarding the collections, leaving little or nothing to provide expert assistance needed in carrying out the fundamental requirement of the classification of the added collections. The growth of the Museum in all directions continues to be increasingly conditioned by its limited finances. Economies of all kinds are resorted to in mak- ing the appropriation provide first for the safe-keeping of the collec- tions and then for their classification and exhibition. The Museum with its vast collections serves the public not as it would and could but as its limited financial resources permit. During the year the scientific staff of the Museum was held intact with very few exceptions, doubtless due to the approaching read- justment under the classification act of 1923, which becomes effective July 1, 1924. As reported last year, tentative allocations of all posi- tions in the Government bureaus under the Smithsonian Institution were submitted to the Personnel Classification Board by the writer as liaison officer of the Institution. The board this year reviewed, revised, and approved, with few exceptions, the allocations of the Museum employees. The few positions still awaiting the board’s final approval will, it is expected, be settled within a few days. The results of the classification act are far-reaching. The scientific force 27 28 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 of the Museum is at last to receive adequate compensation, as a whole. There is, however, still one lot of scientific workers whose gradings must be revised to put them on an equality with similar employees elsewhere, but this will doubtless soon be satisfactorily adjusted. The outstanding feature of this year was the addition to the Museum exhibition halls of an American colonial room, the gift of Mrs. Gertrude D. Ritter, as mentioned elsewhere in the report. This is the first period room to be permanently installed in the Museum. One of the foyer rooms in the Natural History Building has been entirely transformed and now preserves the home atmosphere of the early settlers of our country. The time has come, with the continual stream of additions to the collections, when new objects can usually be displayed only by with- drawing from exhibition other objects, often of equal interest. The installation of the colonial room necessitated the condensation of the District of Columbia faunal exhibit. The Museum was able by curtailing its archeological exhibition to materially assist the National Gallery of Art. The pressing needs of the gallery for additional hanging space led to the construction of a gallery 40 feet square in the west end of the east north range, second floor of the Natural History Building, to accommodate the nucleus of the National Portrait Gallery. This collection consists of the series of paintings especially made by American artists of persons prominently associated in the Versailles peace treaty—the group picture of the various delegates around the council table, and 22 individual portraits of the distinguished leaders of America and the allied nations. Designed especially for this collection, the gal- lery admirably fills its purpose. A program of greater development for the Loeb collection of chemical types was made possible this year through the accrued in- terest on the Loeb fund, and includes the employment of a chemist to devote his entire time to its furtherance. The advisory committee on this collection was reorganized about the middle of the year to provide representation of the varied governmental agencies in Wash- ington interested in chemistry. The committee is now constituted as follows: Dr. J. E. Zanetti, chairman of the division of chemistry and chemi- cal technology, National Research Council, ex officio; Dr. C. A. Browne, Chief of the Bureau of Chemistry, United States Depart- ment of Agriculture, ex officio; Dr. S. C. Lind, chief chemist of the Bureau of Mines, United States Department of the Interior, ex officio; Dr. W. F. Hillebrand, Chief of the Division of Chemistry, Bureau of Standards, United States Department of Commerce, ex officio; James K. Senior, representative of the committee in the REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 29 Middle West; Dr. C. L. Alsberg, representative of the committee on the Pacific coast; and F. L. Lewton, representative from the United States National Museum. On the recommendation of the committee, O. IE. Roberts, jr., was appointed curator of the Loeb collection of chemical types on April 1, 1924. Twenty-seven specimens were added to the collection during the year and several hundred are being prepared for presentation. It is expected that the intensive work of the next year or two will demonstrate the value of a type series of this kind. The collections of the National Museum in the field of the arts and industries are more and more becoming recognized as a vast refer- ence book of authentic information. Various governmental agencies rely upon the Museum’s specimens for the identification and com- parison of new material. Manufacturers are beginning to realize that the deposition of their products in the collections of the Museum acts as an additional protection against suits for infringement, and those who may have been accidentally granted a patent on an art that is not new. Several examples of the value of this protection have recently been brought to the attention of the Museum by patent examiners and attorneys for patentees. In one case a suit for in- fringement involving large damages was settled out of court upon the evidence of a Museum specimen. In two other. cases the denial by the Patent Office of a patent on a product constructed upon what were claimed to be entirely new principles was found warranted after examinations of specimens in the National Museum. The old adage, “There is nothing new under the sun,” is often shown to be true when an examination is made of the Museum’s collections. That feature of the American patent system which denies a patent to an art or invention that has been shown to the public for two years or more increases the importance of a great collection illustrating industrial processes and products and makes it an important refer- ence book to the United States Patent Office as well as to manu- facturers, inventors, and the investing public. With the continued cooperation of American industries these collections will grow in importance and scope, enabling the National Museum to render more efficient service along these lines. The Museum served also in the diffusion of knowledge by assist- ing the parent institution in its broadcasting program under Austin H. Clark, of the Museum staff, in whose charge the subject was placed by the secretary. Arrangements were made for broadcast- ing from Station WRC, Radio Corporation of America, a talk on the Smithsonian proper, historical in nature, and a series of sup- plementary talks on the various major divisions. Seven 15-minute talks were accordingly given by staff members, the first on October 19 and the last on November 16, 1923. 20397—25——_4 30 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 The conclusion was reached in the spring, as a result of careful study of radio programs, that the Institution and Station WRC could to their mutual advantage give a series of informative talks on special scientific topics. This led to the establishment of a regu- lar Smithsonian period every Wednesday at 6.15 p.m. The Car- negie Institution of Washington and the various scientific bureaus of the Government whose work is more or less complementary to that of the Smithsonian cooperated in making possible so ambitious a project. The series was inaugurated on April 9 by a talk by Mr. Clark on “ The giants of the animal world.” This was followed by 10 others, equally instructive, the last on “Atmospheric electricity,” by Dr. S. J. Mauchly, of the Carnegie Institution, given in coopera- tion with the Smithsonian on June 18, 1924. Altogether 18 items were broadcast by the Smithsonian Institution during the year, 18 different individuals participating, of whom 7 appeared under the auspices of or in cooperation with the Smithsonian and the remaining 11 as members of the staff, 7 being from the Museum. Those who participated in this program are few in number, how- ever, as compared with those who contributed toward making it a success by furnishing information, suggestions, and encouragement. The series will, it is expected, be resumed in the early autumn. Lack of spacé makes it necessary at times to refuse objects ten- dered for the collections, often where the Museum would like to encourage the intended donor to bring to the Museum not only his treasures but his problems also, for the Museum renders service in many ways. By its exhibition collections it conveys a message to those citizens from all parts of the land who visit their Capital; by its reserve series it affords assistance to workers in all lines here represented; by its system of distribution of duplicate specimens for educational purposes it aids the coming generation all over the land; by its correspondence it conveys desired information in response to specific inquiries in many lines; by its publications it extends the boundaries of learning; and now, by the radio its service in diffusing knowledge has been extended immeasurably. COLLECTIONS The total number of specimens received«by the Museum during the year was 362,942, exceeding numerically the receipts of the previous year by over 70 per cent. Not only in numbers is this year’s increase notable, but in scientific value as well. The incre- ment is particularly rich in type specimens and in other specially desired material, filling gaps and otherwise strengthening the col- lections in many lines. Additional material to the extent of 1,187 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 81 lots, chiefly geological, was received for special examination and report. The distribution of duplicates for educational purposes, mainly to higher schools and colleges, aggregated 8,528 specimens, duly classified and labeled. Nearly 20,000 specimens and over 90 pounds of bulk material for blowpipe analyses were sent out, in exchange for which the Museum has received or will later receive desired material in many lines. Nearly 17,000 specimens and some 24 pounds of bulk material were lent to specialists elsewhere for ex- amination and study. A résumé of the principal acquisitions of the year follows. Anthropology.—The department of anthropology reports a favor- able year, marked by substantial increases in its collections. In ethnology noteworthy accessions were received from the Philip- pines, collected by the late Capt. E. Y. Miller, consisting of rattan fire tongs, bamboo strike-a-lights, decorated gongs, and other ar- ticles, presented by Mrs. Florence G. Miller; and a considerable number of specimens from the Araucanian, Aymara, Lengua, and Chamacoco Indians of South America, gift of D. S. Bullock. In American archeology is noted an especially valuable collection of 95 unique ancient earthenware bowls with figures of men and animals and of group compositions from Mimbres Valley, N. Mex., received from the Bureau of American Ethnology. The possibili- ties of these vessels in the application of decorative art by schools and manufacturers are great. The collection is also indebted to Victor J. Evans for the loan of 88 pieces of excellent Casas Grandes ancient pottery. In Old World archeology there was added a series of prehistoric antiquities from ancient sites in France, Bel- gium, and Germany, collected by Dr. AleS Hrdlitka during his recent trip to Europe. In physical anthropology the most notable receipt was a large number of skeletal remains from early historic Arikara Indian village sites near Mobridge, S. Dak., collected by M. W. Stirling. The collection of musical instruments received important additions given by Hugo Worch. The work of the department in installing, rearranging, and pre- serving specimens was actively carried out. Miss Frances Densmore prepared a handbook on the collection of musical instruments and aided in rearranging the exhibit. Among the numerous contacts of the department with individuals seeking information the talks given to classes and groups are most valuable and interesting. Many such talks were given by members of the staff. Biology.—The collections received by the department of biology during the year greatly surpass those of the years immediately preceding, not only numerically but equally so in scientific im- 32 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 192% portance. The latter point is emphasized by the addition of a large number of species and genera new to the Museum, many gaps having been filled and deficiencies supplied. This is particularly noticeable in the division of birds, where the generosity of Bradshaw H. Swales has made possible the acquisition of many forms hitherto unrepre- sented in its collections. The most outstanding accession of the year is the donation by Dr. J. M. Aldrich, associate curator of insects, of his private collec- tion of nearly 45,000 specimens of dipterous flies, representing 4,145 named species and many unnamed, with type material in 534 species, the fruit of a busy life of collecting and study of these insects by ene of the leading specialists in this important order. The activities so auspiciously begun in China, as noted in my previous report, were continued with gratifying results during the present year. I have to record with extreme regret the tragic death of Charles M. Hoy on September 6, 1923, at Kuling, China. It will be recollected that he was sent to China by Dr. W. L. Abbott for the purpose of making collections for the National Museum, and it was during the first trip that the Museum suffered the loss of this intrepid field naturalist. Rev. D. C. Graham continued his explora- tions in the western part of the Province of Szechwan. During the summer of 1923 he made an expedition to Mount Omei and Tat- sienlu. The collections received contained a large number of topo- tvnes of species previously described, in addition to many new ones, some of them from very high altitudes near the Tibetan border. The National Geographic Society’s expedition under F. R. Wulsin during 1923 reached the famous Tibetan Lake Kokonor, but the collections, which are of considerable magnitude, have not been received as yet. Dr. W. L. Abbott during his expedition to the island of Santo Domingo during the early winter, though paying attention chiefly to the Samana region, secured a large number of plants, reptiles, and amphibians, but the great prize was a series of skins, skeletons, and embryos representing a genus of rodents which has not been found alive for nearly 100 years. Dr. Hugh M. Smith’s activities in Siam, Dr. Casey A. Wood’s visit to the Fiji Islands, Dr. T. D. A. Cockerell’s expedition to eastern Siberia, and Secretary Charles D. Walcott’s Canadian expedition also added materialiy to our collections. Dr. Paul Bartsch and Gerrit S. Miller, jr., brought back extensive collections from the Bahamas and the Lesser Antilles, respectively. The National Herbarium was greatly enriched by three major expeditions to tropical America, namely, Dr. A. S. Hitchcock’s to Panama, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia; Paul C. Standley’s to the Canal Zone and Costa Rica; and Dr. William R. Maxon’s to Panama, Costa Rica, and Nicaragua. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 33 The principal work of the taxidermists during the year has been the dismantling of one of the largest and oldest of the biologicat groups in the North American mammal hall, namely, that of the Rocky Mountain goats. The mounting of the animals for the new group, which have been collected for a number of seasons by Doctor and Mrs. Walcott during their explorations in the Canadian Rockies, has been practically finished and a fair beginning made on the rock work and other accessories. The arrangement, cataloguing, and in- stallation of the large material received from collectors in the field has cost much time and labor, but good progress has been made and the condition of the study collections is considered very good. As usual the Museum is under great obligations to a great number of scientific men connected with universities, museums, and other institutions all over the country and abroad, for working up such parts of the collections as are not represented by specialists on the staff of the National Museum. The research work of the members of the scientific staff has continued during such time as could be spared from the routine work, and some important memoirs have been concluded and published during the year, but the divisions are greatly undermanned, and more scientific work of a high order could be accomplished were more assistants available. With the in- crease in the number of accessions, the opportunity for research work becomes less. Naturalists visiting Washington for the purpose of examining the collections have been given the widest and most liberal assistance in pursuing their studies, and loans of specimens to scientific institu- tions and individual investigators in this country and abroad have been made freely as heretofore. Zoological and botanical duplicates distributed to high schools, colleges, institutions, etc., aggregated 4,194 specimens, of which 2,086 consisted of mollusks in 14 prepared sets, and 800 fishes in 9 sets. Exchanges to the number of 14,526 were sent out, of which 2,737 were zoological. The total number of specimens of animals and plants now in the collections is estimated at 7,206,816, of which 1,183,700 are plants. Geology.—The year 1923-24 is notable chiefly on account of the unusual amount and value for both exhibition and study of the material received, a total of 227 geological accessions, aggregating 159,921 specimens, being recorded. The paleontological collections were the chief beneficiaries, the most noteworthy of the accessions being the large sauropodous dinosaur from the Dinosaur National Monument, Utah, and the Edgar E. Teller and George M. Austin collections of fossils, the last two named comprising at least 125,000: of the total number of specimens received. The economic collections have been increased by Canadian nickel and silver ores acquired mainly through the interest of Honorary 84 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 Curator Frank L. Hess, although an instructive series of copper- nickel-silver ores was donated by the Royal Ontario Museum of Mineralogy. An unusual meteoric iron from San Juan County, N. Mex., formed the most interesting accession to the meteorite collection, although an iron from Chile, stone from Kansas, and small quantities of other individuals from Spain and Australia added new falls and finds. These were all acquired by exchanges. The chief contributor to the mineral collections was Col. Wash- ington A. Roebling, who supplied funds for the purchase of new minerals and made other gifts. Radium-bearing minerals from the Belgian Congo and a number of rare species new to the collections, received as gifts and exchanges, may also be noted. The mineral collection is reported as now 80 per cent complete in species. A number of cut gems were added to the Isaac Lea collection through the Frances Lea Chamberlain fund. A petrographic reference series of rocks, numbering some 2,000 specimens, and thought to be without doubt the most important col- lection, from a scientific standpoint, now in existence, was trans- ferred by the United States Geological Survey. In addition to the paleontological material mentioned above, col- lections of Cambrian, Ordovician and Silurian invertebrates were made by Secretary Walcott and members of the staff of the depart- ment, and a quantity of foreign material was acquired through gifts and exchanges. A slab of fossil footprints from the Triassic shales of Virginia, received through the courtesy of F. C. Littleton, was added to the exhibits. Satisfactory progress was made in the care of the collections, though a few changes are to be noted in the exhibits, the installation of mastodon and bison skeletons, a large slab of rhinoceros bones, and the slab showing footprints of a dinosaur being the most im- portant. Expansion of the study series has occupied much of the time of the curators and their assistants. Research work, however, has progressed to the usual extent and has been greatly facilitated by the acquisition of a binocular microscope which was presented to the department by John A. Roebling. Mineral technology and mechanical technology.—These divisions are concerned with engineering developments generally and their industrial application. The collections endeavor to visualize by REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 85 models and original objects the progress made in the mechanical and electrical fields, in mineral resource industries, and in transportation industries on land, water, and in the air. For some unexplained reason in past years these collections have been augmented spas- modically, all accessions recorded in any one year being concerned with a single one or two of the divisions’ activities. This year, how- ever, the accessions recorded, while but a little higher numerically, enhance the collections of every one of the branches in the divisions. Thus in mineral technology the glass industry exhibit was brought considerably closer to completion through the generosity of the Corn- ing Glass Works. Two models of the most recent types of melting furnaces were presented as well as typical examples of chemical, industrial, and household oven glassware. The Cadillac Motor Co. presented one of the first automobiles made by that company in 1903 and also one of its cars made in 1923, the latter being sectioned, making visible car parts normally hidden from view. The Automatic Electric Co. donated a complete working unit of the Strowger automatic telephone system. In this instance the ex- hibition case is equipped with three telephones which the visitor may operate and at the same time observe the functioning of the various parts. To the section of aeronautics there were added the Fokker T-2 monoplane, which flew in May, 1923, from New York to San Francisco in a nonstop flight of less than 27 hours, and a helicopter type of airplane with which Emile Berliner and his son made suc- cessful flights at College Park, Md., in 1923. The water-craft col- lections were increased first by the addition of a model of the steamship Leviathan, transferred from the Alien Property Cus- todian, and second through the courtesy of the Canadian Pacific Railway Co., Montreal, Canada, in lending a model of the steam- ship Xmpress of Russia, one of the vessels of this company plying between Vancouver and the Orient. As far as cooperative educational work is concerned, the lecture work of S. S. Wyer, associate in mineral technology, was of greatest importance. During the year he delivered 89 lectures on the subjects of fuel and power resources before many of the schools, normal schools, and colleges in Pennsylvania and before several educational groups outside of that State. Textiles, wood technology, organic chemistry, foods, and medi- cine.—The collections under the supervision of the curator of tex- tiles, which, besides textiles, embrace wood technology, foods, organic chemistry, and medicine, were increased by many gifts and by trans- fer of property from other Government bureaus, amounting to over 3,200 objects. The most important of these may be mentioned briefly. Several large series of industrial specimens illustrating every branch of rubber manufacture, the manufacture of leather and 36 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 shoes, and the preparation and dyeing of seal, muskrat, and rabbit skins, were added to the collections, through cooperation with na- tional trade associations. Exhibits were presented which show the manufacture and use of new materials from the field of industrial chemistry and include synthetic plastics and hot-molded and cold- molded compositions having high dielectric properties. These ma- terials are used in the manufacture of electric equipment, auto- mobile parts, musical instruments, etc. Other chemical exhibits received during the year include glues, coal-tar dyes, and artificial silk. The textile collections were increased by the gift of fibers, silk and cotton dress and drapery fabric, and a large series of hand- woven textiles; also hand looms and a commercial braiding machine. To the collections arranged to show the importance of wood and the industries based thereon were added products of the hardwood dis- tillation industry, veneered doors, sporting goods made of wood, and paper-pulp products. The collections in the division of medicine were enlarged by 25 models showing advances in sanitary science, specimens of materia medica, and objects associated with the history of medicine in America. Graphic arts—The division of graphic arts held throughout the year successful temporary exhibitions of artistic prints, etchings, lithographs, and photographs, which were well attended and favor- ably mentioned in the press both here and abroad. The two traveling exhibits of graphic arts were continually in demand, being displayed in 13 cities in 9 different States, and the fall and winter are already well dated up. No entirely new and complete exhibit for the permanent collec- tions was received, but important additions were made, especially to that of letterpress printing and to etching, the latter subject having been entirely rearranged with numerous additions, the most important of which was Miss Beatrice S. Levy’s gift of three aquatint plates for her color print, White House by the Sea. This method is new to the technical series. The division now has all the regular methods of printing etchings in color. Probably the most important accession received by the section of photography was the motion-picture camera invented by Wallace Goold Levison in 1887. This machine could expose 12 plates in rapid succession from one point. This is probably the first motion- picture camera ever made. Edward Muybridge did not have a motion-picture camera but had a row of separate cameras, each ex- posed as the person or animal passed in front, by the breaking of a string. History.—The most notable addition to the historical collection was a number of objects comprising the interior furnishings of an REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 37 American colonial room, presented to the Museum by Mrs. Gertrude D. Ritter, of Washington, D.C. This collection includes wall panel- ing, furniture, chinawure, glassware, pewter ware, pictures, textiles. and miscellaneous objects. The wall paneling, made of American pine carved with plain designs and fastened with pegs, was taken intact from the old Bliss homestead located at Springfield, Mass., and includes a corner cupboard of three shelves with original glass doors and hinges and latches of wrought iron. In the cupboard and on the tables are shown the china, glass, and pewter ware belonging to the exhibit. The china includes an exceptionally beautiful bowl of Chinese Lowestoft and a child’s tea set of the same ware, a helmet pitcher, and a number of pieces of luster ware of more than usual interest. The glassware includes several pieces of Stiegel ware, a number of plain glass mugs of antique design, a glass pitcher, and a number of glass bottles of rare types. The collection of pewter in- cludes plates, mugs, coffee pots, pepper and salt shakers, dishes, sirup mug, and basin. This collection is unique in character and its presentation marks an epoch in the development of the collections of this type in the National Museum. It is the donor’s intention to add to this collection until the furnishings of an entire colonial home have thus been assembled. These will be exhibited as a unit in a house of colonial style to be erected for the purpose in proximity to the present group of museum buildings. To the collection of costumes of the ladies of the White House, which has for a number of years attracted so much public attention, were added two costumes of great interest. One of these is a white satin evening gown worn by Mrs. Warren G. Harding during the administration of her husband, President Warren G. Harding, 1921- 1923, the gift of Mrs. Harding. The other is a gray sillx dress worn by Mrs. Benjamin Harrison at the inaugural ball in 1889 on the occasion of the inauguration of her husband, President Benjamin Harrison, and donated by Mrs. James R. McKee, of New York City. Both these costumes were acquired by the Museum through the gen- erous cooperation of Mrs. Rose G. Hoes. The biographical collections were increased by the gift of a pair of silver-mounted flintlock pistols with leather holsters which were owned during the War of the Revolution by Maj. Gen. Charles Lee, of the Continental Army; a sword, a pair of pistols, and a pair of epaulets owned during the same period by Maj. Jacob Morris, and a number of other relics of less importance. These were presented to the Museum by Victor Morris through the Wisconsin Society of the Colonial Dames of America. Three silver camp cups owned during the Revolution by Brig. Gen. Anthony Wayne were lent by Mrs. M. W. Stroud. A gold locket containing a lock of the hair 88 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 of Napoleon I was presented by H. deB. Parsons, Miss Katharine deB. Parsons, and Livingston Parsons, of New York City. A very handsome gold snuffbox, the lid of which is set with diamonds, which was presented about 1836 to Col. René E. De Russy, United States Army, by the Prince de Joinville, was donated to the Museum by Mrs. Laura R. De Russy, of New York City. A silver tureen and platter presented to the Hon. James R. Mann, Republican leader, by Members of the United States House of Representatives, Sixty-fifth Congress, March 3, 1919, were donated by Mrs. Mann. EXPLORATIONS AND FIELD WORK The Museum draws its increment in large measure from explora- tions and expeditions undertaken chiefly by other Government agen- cies and by private institutions and individuals. This year the Museum benefited from an unusual number of such enterprises. Biological and botanical explorations in North America, Central America, South America, Asia, and various islands added to the collections representing the fauna and flora of various countries, while geological field work was carried on within the borders of our own continent. During the summer and early fall of 1923 Secretary Walcott, ac- companied and aided by Mrs. Walcott, was engaged on geological exploration in the Canadian Rockies in continuation of the work of previous years. Special studies were made of the Mons forma- tion of the Ozarkian system, 3,800 feet in thickness, which on the eastern side of the Columbia River Valley was found to contain four well-developed fossil faunas, indicating its position between the Upper Cambrian and Ordovician systems of the geologic time scale. Collections of fossils illustrating new horizons in the Ozark- ian system were made in this area, also in the Upper Cambrian and Silurian limestone of this region, together with small lots of desir- able biological and botanical material. Biological explorations in China included the expedition of the National Geographic Society under Mr. Wulsin along the ‘Yellow River to Lake Kokonor in Thibet and the field work of Mr. Graham in the Province of Szechwan, and of Mr. Hoy in Hunan, all before mentioned. Mr. Graham in his trip to Tatsienlu practically dupli- cated the route of A. E. Pratt, going by way of Mount Omei, secur- ing topotype material of species based on Pratt’s and Potanin’s ex- peditions as well as undescribed material which had escaped his predecessors. Arthur de C. Sowerby continued his collecting in China for the Museum, under the auspices of Col. Robert Sterling Clark, but on account of the disturbed conditions in that country he was unable REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 39 to go far afield from his headquarters in Shanghai. The resulting valuable additions furnish serial material for comparison with col- lections from more remote regions. An expedition to Japan and eastern Siberia undertaken by Prof. T. D. A. Cockerell at his own expense, primarily for the purpose of collecting and studying insects, was productive of large collections in that class with smaller lots in other natural history classes. In Siam, Dr. Hugh M. Smith, who is engaged in fisheries investi- gations for the Government of Siam, collected in a number of local- ities birds, reptiles, amphibians, and invertebrates, important as link- ing up collections already in the Museum from the Malay Archi- pelago and Peninsula with those of the countries farther north. In the Fiji Islands Dr. Casey A. Wood, a valued collaborator of the division of birds, enlisted the cooperation of several native col- lectors during a three months’ visit, making very important addi- tions of birds from that region, including many species hitherto un- represented, a notable addition to the Fijian material from the United States exploring expedition under Captain Wilkes. Doctor Wood arranged with his local assistants to continue the work in localities he himself was unable to visit. Under the auspices of the Bureau of Biological Survey, Depart- ment of Agriculture, in conjunction with the Navy Department, Dr. Alexander Wetmore visited Laysan, Midway, Johnson, Wake, and other islands in the Pacific and made large collections, part of which have already been transferred to the Museum. Islands in the Atlantic were also visited. Dr. W. L. Abbott’s expedition to Santo Domingo has already been mentioned, with its prized specimens of the long-lost rodent. In the Virgin Islands of the United States and the Lesser Antilles, Gerrit S. Miller, jr., cura- tor of mammals, made extensive collections of animals and plants for the Museum at his own expense. Explorations in the Bahamas, Cuba, and the Florida Keys in August, 1923, and June, 1924, in connection with experiments in heredity which Dr. Paul Bartsch of the Museum staff is conducting under the joint auspices of the Carnegie Institution of Washington and the Smithsonian Institu- tion, added to the Museum series of mollusks, birds and other natural history specimens from these regions. The United States Navy and the United States Army cooperated by furnishing trans- portation for the workers. The expedition of A. H. Fisher to the lower Amazon River, Bra- zil, on which the Museum was represented by C. R. Aschemeier as mentioned in the last report, was completed early in the year. The collections made in this region included a few species of mammals and birds new to the Museum. 40 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 Under an arrangement with R. O. Marsh, John L. Baer repre- sented the Museum on the Marsh Darien expedition undertaken in the early part of 1924, for collecting anthropological material in a region poorly represented in the anthropological collections. As mentioned elsewhere, Mr. Baer died while on this trip and the collections have not as yet reached the Museum. Botanical explorations in northern South America conducted under the auspices of the United States Department of Agriculture, the Gray Herbarium, and the New York Botanical Garden benefited the National Herbarium. Dr. A. S. Hitchcock, custodian of grasses, on this exploration spent four months in Ecuador, two months in Peru, six weeks in Bolivia, and a few days in Panama. Large col- lections were obtained, of which a set of approximately 1,700 speci- mens, exclusive of grasses, was deposited in the National Herbarium. Two expeditions undertaken for the Bureau of Entomology of the United States Department of Agriculture by Dr. William M. Mann, assistant custodian of Hymenoptera in the Museum, resulted in collections of insects and also specimens in other classes. The first three months of the fiscal year were spent in Mexico collecting miscellaneous insects and four months in the spring of 1924 in Panama, Colombia, Guatemala, Costa Rica, and Honduras, collect- ing insects, especially ants. Another very considerable miscellaneous collection from Guate- mala, of which birds formed the conspicuous part, was obtained by Harry Malleis, who visited the Province of Petén for the Bureau of Biological Survey, primarily to obtain living specimens of the ocellated turkey for introduction into this country. During the spring of 1923 Dr. H. G. Dyar, custodian of Lepidop- tera, made a trip to Panama, financed by himself, in company with R. C. Shannon, of the Bureau of Entomology of the United States Department of Agriculture, whose expenses were paid by that bu- reau, resulting in many thousand insects, including extensive collec- tions of mosquitoes, in which Doctor Dyar was specially interested. Dr. T. E. Snyder, of the Bureau of Entomology, also visited Pan- ama, securing large collections of termites which will be added to the National material. An expedition from the Department of Agriculture to Panama and Central America was accompanied by Dr. William R. Maxon, associate curator of plants, the field work in Panama, western Nica- ragua, and Costa Rica resulting in 4,500 botanical specimens. The Nicaraguan material will be especially useful in the preparation of the proposed flora of Central America. The Panama Canal Zone and Costa Rica were visited also by Paul C. Standley, associate curator of plants, the expense of the explora- REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 41 tions being borne in part by the Department of Agriculture and by Oakes Ames, who is especially interested in the orchids of Central America. During two months in the Canal Zone there were ob- tained about 7,000 numbers of plants particularly desired in prepar- ing a popular flora of the zone, and 8,000 numbers, including a large percentage of orchids, were collected during 10 weeks in Costa Rica for use in preparing the flora of all Central America. An expedition to the west coast of the United States under pr. H. G. Dyar was in the field at the close of the year, studying larve of mosquitoes. This was financed by Doctor Dyar. Dr. J. M. Al- drich, associate curator of insects, was likewise at the close of the year collecting Diptera throughout the high altitudes of the West and on the west coast of the United States and Canada. All of this material will eventually find its way into the National collections. During the summer of 1923 the National Geographic Society con- tinued archeological explorations at the prehistoric Pueblo Bonito in New Mexico under Neil M. Judd of the Museum staff. The ma- terial results have not as yet been officially turned over to the Mu- seum. This was the third season of explorations which are planned to extend over a period of five summers. Mr. Judd had just started the fourth season’s work at the close of the fiscal year. A second expedition under the same auspices, also directed by Mr. Judd, penetrated a previously unexplored section of southeastern Utah, bringing back objects from basket-maker and cliff-dweller habitations. The expedition to the Dinosaur National Monument, Utah, under- taken by C. W. Gilmore, assisted by N. H. Boss, as mentioned in last year’s report, was completed in the middle of the summer of 1923. This had for its object the procuring of one of the large dinosaurs for the exhibition collections. As noted under the chapter on acces- sions, sufficient material was acquired for a good skeletal mount of Diplodocus, exceeding in exhibition value anything acquired in the department of geology in recent years, together with a considerable quantity of miscellaneous fossils representative of the Morrison fauna. The Great Basin ranges of Nevada and Utah were the subject of stratigraphic and paleontologic work by Dr. Charles E. Resser in furtherance of Doctor Walcott’s monographic studies. Of the fos- sils collected many were from entirely new localities. Field work by Dr. R. S. Bassler, curator of stratigraphic paleon- tology, during the year included four separate projects: (1) Field work in the Central Basin of Tennessee, in cooperation with the State Geological Survey, which resulted in completing the :map- ping of the geology of the Hollow Springs quadrangle and in 42 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 securing fossils from that area; (2) in southern Kentucky, at the instance of Dr. Frank Springer, in search of crinoids; (3) in the Niagaran Plain and neighboring area in Ohio, obtaining information as to the region from which the Austin collection was secured; and (4) in northern Tennessee, again under the geological survey of that State, mapping the geology and securing data toward a report on the stratigraphy of the State. The Upper Cambrian and Ozarkian systems, particularly in Wis-" consin, were the subject of the field work in the summer of 1923 of Dr. E. O. Ulrich, associate in paleontology. The reported discovery of fossil footprints on excavations in the red Triassic shale near Aldie, Va., were investigated by C. W. Gil- more, and numerous dinosaurian footprints were observed at several distinct horizons. 4 American badger (Tawidea tarus)__- Florida otter (Lutra canadensis VEG) 22> eee Black-footed ferret (Mustela nig- TIPeS) oo se es? eee eee Palm _ civet (Paradorurus herma- nhroditus) = =. 2a eee Aard-wolf (Proteles cristatus)---~--~- Spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta)—-_- Striped hyena (Hyena hyena) —~------ African cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) —- Lion "(Felts tee) 2S ee Bengal tiger (Felis tigris) ___-_------ Manchurian tiger (Felis tigris longi- Pilis) 2222 = oe ae 2 ee Leopard (Felts _pardus) -———---______ Javuar (Melis! onea) io. 22 eee Brazilian ocelot (Felis pardalis brasil- Snow leopard (Felis uncia)--_~-~---- Mexican puma (felis azteca)_-----_- Mountain lion (Felis hippolestes) ____ Canada lynx (Lyng canadensis) _____ Northern wild cat (Lynz uinta)_____ Bay lynx (Lyn@ rufus) _.-__-_______ Clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa) __ PINNIPEDIA California sea lion (Zalophus cali- formiunis)) = === 5. = eee San Geronimo harbor seal (Phoca richardii geronimensis) _________-~ RODENTIA Woodchuck (Marmota monaz)__-----~ Dusky marmot (Marmota flaviventris ODSCURM) = aon aoe = See eee Franklin’s spermophile (TanKUnt) <8 JS a Chipmunk (Hutamias neglectus)—~__~ Honduras squirrel (Sciurus boothie)_ Albino squirrel (Sciurus carolinen- batleyt)) ie 2S ee ae _ A few skins of cage birds were saved for the reference oo me bo OM) mT eee oo BOR ee PH PO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY RODENTIA— continued American beaver (Castor canadensis) — Grasshopper mouse (Onychomys leuco- African porcupine (Hystriv africe- GUSLTOLIS) | oe ee re eee Malay porcupine (Acanthion brachy- PRL Oe ES ee a Tree porcupine (Coendou prehensilis) — Mexican tree porcupine (Coendou mezi- CUMIN ree oe ee ee ee ee Coypu (Myocastor coypus)—---------- Central American paca (Cuniculus DELCO UT OUULS) Sooty agouti (Dasyprocta fuliginosa) — Speckled agouti (Dasyprocta punec- HOR HTD) yt Se ha ROA Ae Te ee Panama agouti (Dasyprocta punctata ATL AOD) este aia ehh ESE aE ah EAS | Azara’s agouti (Dasyprocta azare)__— Trinidad agouti (Dasyprocta rubrata) _ Yellow-rumped agouti (Dasyprocta LCierN COUMCNNE) ha Guinea pig (Cavia porcellus) ____----- Capybara (Hydrocherus hydrocheris) — LAGOMORPHA Domestic rabbit (Oryctolagus cunicu- LG) ee ae ee ee el a eae ees EDENTATA Nine-banded armadillo (Dasypus no- DEMCINCIUS) aa ee ee ee PRIMATES Gray spider monkey (Ateles geoffroyi)— Mexican spider monkey (Ateles neg- GEC TES) ee ee eee he eS SES White-throated eapuchin COpUuciiius yaaa eae eee BRL Weeping capuchin (Cebus apella)_--- Brown capuchin (Cebus fatuelius) —_- Gelada baboon (Theropithecus ob- SCIUNMS) ne ae Se ee Chacma (Papio porcarius) _______----~ Anubis baboon (Papio cynocephalus) — East African baboon (Papio ibeanus) — Mandrill (Papio sphinx) ~~ -__-__~--~ Drill (Papio leucopheus) ~-_---.---- Moor macaque (Cynopithecus maurus) -~ Barbary ape (Simia sylvanus)—--__- Japanese macaque (Macaca fuscata)_ Pig-tailed monkey (Macaca nemes- PANO a ee Faas Burmese macaque (Macaca andama- nensts )iasihss55-55 opuste © 2 Dee ee Rhesus monkey (Macaca rhesus) —---~- Crab-eating macaque (Macdea irus) —_ Javan macaque (Macaca mordaz) __~ Black mangabey (Cercocebus ater- PUTA BV eee eee ee Sooty mangabey (Cercocebus fuligi- MOSES) ia ae Ee ae Rh oO DYE ee Hee ee = PRIMATES—continued Hagenbeck’s mangabey (Oercocebus ha- Jenbecia) 22252 Cee ae White-collared mangabey (Oercocebus TOTCUATUS) ee ee ee Patas monkey (Hrythrocebus patas) __ Green guenon (Lasiopyga callitrichus) — Vervet guenon (Lasiopyga pygerythra) — Mona (Lasiopyga mona) _—-_--_------_ Roloway guenon (Lasiopyga roloway) — Chimpanzee (Pan satyrus)_-_---_--~~ ARTIODACTYLA Wild-iboar: (Sus. scrofa) = ae Wart hog (Phacocherus ethiopicus) __ Collared peceary (Pecari angulatus) __ Hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphi- CIES uae PE, RS ee ee Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus) — Arabian camel (Camelus dromedarius) — Guanaco (Lama guanicoe) —_--_----__- lama (Lams glam) Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) ____-~_~ Fallow deer (Dama dama) __---__---_-_ Axis deer Cams gris)\——- == Hog deer (Hyelaphus porcinus) _____~ Sambar’ (Rusa unicotor)——— = = Barasingha (Rucervus duvaucelii) ____ Burmese deer (Rucervus eldii)_______ Japanese deer (Sika nippon) _________ Red deer (Cervus elaphus)_—-_-______ Kashmir deer (Cervus hanglw)_______ Bedford deer (Cervus xranthopygus) ~~ American elk (Cervus canadensis) ____ Virginia deer (Odocoileus virginianus) _ Panama deer (Odocoileus chiriquensis) — Black-tailed deer (Odocoileus columbi- QYTUB Ee Pie i ee eee eee eed Blesbok (Damaliscus albifrons) ~~ ____ White-tailed gnu (Connochetes gnou) - Brindled gnu (Connochetes taurinus) - Lechwe (Onotragus leche) _.--_---- Sable antelope (Hgocerus niger)—~-- Indian antelope (Antilope cervica- DTG) eee ee el ee Nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus) __~ East African eland (Taurotragus oryz livingston) Ss See a eee Mountain goat (Oreamnos americanus) VTahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus) ~----- Alpine ibex (Capra iben) ---_--__---- Goatin(Cepra oN b> 0 et ee ~] 96 PERISSODACTYLA Black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis)_——~ Malay tapir (Vapirus indicus) ___--~ Brazilian tapir (Tapirus terrestris) —- Baird's tapir (Tapirella bairdii) ______ Grant's zebra (Hquus quagga granti)_— Grevy’s zebra (Hquus grevyi) __---__- Zebra-horse hybrid (Yquus grevyi ca- OGUUS) e530 a Be ee eee RATIT AD South African ostrich (Struthio aus- TS CELLS) a oc a ee we Somaliland ostrich (Struthio molybdo- MITE CLTECS) ne at ee ee ee er eee eee Nubian ostrich (Struthio camelus) ____ Rhea (Rhea americana) _—___________ Sclater’s cassowary (Casucrius phi- Emu (Dromiceius novehollandiav)—___ Kiwi (Apteryx manteili) —_________~ CICONIIFOR MES American white pelican (Pelecanus erythrorhynchos)e sees ee eat Furopean white pelican (Pelecanus eno- CTOTALNR) 22 PAS YS Be eee eS Roseate pelican (Pelecanus roseus)——~ Australian pelican (Pelecanus con- spicillatus)i Lecce? 2200 es ee Brown pelican (Pelecanus occiden- taligya PE es SO Fee es Florida cormorant (Phalacrocorax dau- Vitua. floridanus) i= Gannet: (Sila *bassana) oes 22 Great white heron (Ardea occiden- Great blue heron (Ardea herodias) __ Goliath heron (Ardea goliath) ______ American egret (Casmerodius egretta) _— Black-crowned night heron (Nyetico- raz. nycticorar nevius)———._—__-~- White stork (Ciconia ciconia)—--~--__ Black stork (Ciconia nigra)——-_-____ TIkesser adjutant (Leptoptilus javani- Wood ibis (Mycteria americana) ~~~ Straw-necked ibis (Carphibis spint- Collis). 22a Bees See ae is eh Sacred ibis (Threskiornis @thiopicus) ~ Black-headed ibis (Threskiornis melano- Cenhalus)* 22)3_ 220s) a ea eae Australian ibis (Threskiornis stricti- DONTAG) esis amo Ce * White’ ibis (Guare atta)! eos eee Scarlet ibis (Guara rubra) ~________ European flamingo (Phenicopterus VOSCUS) eer pe ANSERIFORMES Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) ~~~ Black duck (Anas rubripes) —-__--_-_ tt roe ol me tO Now bo ho oe bo eR bo 49 ee we ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 PERISSODACTYLA—continued Zebra-ass Gybrid (Equus grevyi- a8inus). == es) t= be eee PROBOSCIDRA Abyssinian elephant (Lozxodonta afri- CONG OCU OLS a= = 2. 2 ee ee Sumatran elephant (Hlephas sumatra- ANSERIFORMES—continued Australian black duck (Anas super- CHi0 8d) os ea eee Gadwall (Cheulelasmus streperus)—-~ Faleated duck (Hunetta falcata) ___-~ European widgeon (Iareca penelope) — Baldpate (J/areca americana) -___---~ Green-winged teal (Nettion caroli- NeCNSE)) es a a European teal (Nettien crecca) —----~- Baikal teal (Nettion formosum)_--_-- Blue-winged teal (Querquedula dis- COT8) 3 eee 9 stg af Garganey (Querqucdula querquedula) — Shoveller (Spatula clypeata)-------- Pintail (Dalia, acute) Wood duck (Aig sponsa)_—__-____-___ Mandarin duck (Dendronessa galeri- CULata) 2 oe ee Canvasback (Marila valisineria) --_-- European pochard (Marila ferina)_-- Redhead (Marila americana) _—~-----~ Ring-necked duck (Marila collaris) —-- Tufted duck (Marila fuliguia)_-----__ Lesser scaup duck (Marila affinis)---~- Greater scaup duck (Marila marila) —_ Rosy-billed pochard (Ifetopiana pepo- $000) 2s 2. =) = Ae ee Se Egyptian goose (Chenaloper egyp- tideus) <2 2 hee SRA 8 itn pe oe es Cpiand goose (Chloéphaga lteucoptera) _ Hawaiian goose (Nesochen sandvicen- Snow goose (Chen hyperboreus)__--_- jreater snow goose (Chen hyperboreus IVETE eso a EE ea as ae Blue goose (Chen caerulescens) —~~---~ White-fronted goose (Anser albifrons) — American white-fronted goose (Anser albifrons ‘gambel) 222255. 2o2 es Bean goose (Anser fabalis)_-_----_- Pink-footed goose (Anser brachy- rhynchus) Par-headed goose (Hulabeia indica) __ Canada goose (Branta canadensis) __- Hutchins’s goose (Branta canadensis hutchinattyrer 2S se a ee White-cheeked goose (Branta canadensis occidentalis) — i s222-. See Cackling goose (Branta canadensis TRB) aoe = 2 eee Brant (Branta bernicla glaucogastra) — Barnacle goose (Branta letcopsis) ~~~ i) a - Oo REPORT OF ANSERIFORMES—continued Spur-winged goose (Plectropterus gam- DCVUSDR)) eee Stee ee a eh Muscovy duck (Cairina moschata)_-~-~- Pied goose (Anseranas semipalmata)_— Black-bellied tree duck (Dendrocygna GULTALOVIGLIAS) oe ee oe ae Eyton’s tree duck (BORIC ek Sa TS les ETN ESE dN Mute swan (Cygnus gibbus) --_--_--~ Trumpeter swan (Olor buccinator)___ Whistling swan (Olor columbianus ) __ Black swan (Chenopsis atrata)--_--~ FALCONIFORMES California condor (Gymnogyps cali- OLE KOTO ES) RNS SEO NS EO Se Turkey vulture (Cathartes awra)—-_-- Black vulture (Coragyps uruiu)_—__-_ King vulture (Sarcoramphus pupa) —-_— Secretary bird (Sagittarius serpenta- Griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus) ----____ African black vulture (T'orgos tra- CIVEUEOULS) aes ee eee ee et eee ee Cinereous -vulture (Aegypius mona- CURES) ee eee ore eee ee aes ere Caracara (Polyborus cheriway)—~ ~~~ Wedge-tailed eagle (Uroaétus audar)_ Golden eagle (Aquila chrysaétos) __~___ White-bellied sea eagle (Cuncuma LOUCOGASTEN) 2 ee Ye Bald eagle (Helieetus leucecephalus) — Alaskan bald eagle (Healiwetus leuco- COBRIMIS) GASCONUS ) — See eae Broad-wirged hawk (Buteo platypte- Red-tailed hawk (8utceo borealis) _—___ Jamaiea redtail (Buteo borealis jamai- CE TERE N)) eee re Bee a a eS Sparrow hawk (Falco sparverius)—-__ GALLIFORMES Curassow (Crar daubentoni)________ Razor-billed curassow (Mitu mitw)_-_ . Penelope (Penelope boliviana)__-_-~_~ Guan (Ortalis albiventris)_._________ Chachalaca (Ortalis vetula)--_______ Vulturine guinea fowl (Acryllium vul- EUTARACUD a eee ee PLA TES SEES Peafow!l> (Pavo cristatus) 22 -_- = Peacock pheasant (Poiyplectron bical- GOOGLE) ee ao es ee Silver pheasant (@enneus nyctheme- PAs Sie See Shas a ee. Lady Amherst’s pheasant (Chrysolo- MiLUSs BIRETRUG so = Ak ee Ring-necked pheasant (Phasianus tor- WUATUS)\ = 2a ee Ea 2, Bobwhite (Colinus virginianus)_ -___ Gambel's quail (Lophortyg gambelii) Valley quail (Lophortyz californica PO CLUILC OLD) ye 2 = ones ae a Scaled quail (Callipepla squamata)__ Massera quail (Cyrtonyz monte- RUIN CE) eee re es THE SECRETARY Nore PR Noe to me OO 09 feek feek = Clb & bo Ct bo GRUIPORMES East Indian gallinule (Porphyrio cal- DUS) Tees. DL ea dos SI Pukeko (Porphyrio stanleyi)_.-__--~ Black-tailed moor hen (Microtribonyar DOTNET OS) Weare eng at a LEG American coot (Fulica americana) __ South Island weka rail (Ocydromus QUSETONS )) AOE aa ae) Short-winged weka (Ocydromus brac- hypterus)i Dito HN es sk) Rae Earl’s weka (Ocydromus earli)__~___~ Little brown crane (Grus canadensis) _ White-necked crane (Grus leucauchen) Indian white crane (Grus leucoger- Lilford’s crane (Grus lilferdi)_______ Australian crane (Grus rubicunda)__ Demoiselle crane (Anthropoides virgo) Crowned crane (Balearica pavonina) — Kagu (Rhynochetos jubatus)__---___ CHARADRIIFORMES Lapwing (Venellus vanellus)__ _____ Yellow-wattled lapwing (Lobivanellus ANGiCUS) 2 SS LORS bye tele ecu Pacific gull (@abianus pacificus)____ Great black-backed gull (Larus mari- Herring gull (Larus argentatus)_____ Silver gull (Larus novehollandie) —__ Laughing gull (Larus atricilla)__-___ Crowned pigeon (Goura coronata)__ Victoria crowned pigeon (Goura vic- toria) Australian crested pigeon (Ocyphaps LOD NOLES a es eee ee eee Bronze-wing pigeon (Phaps chalcop- CONG) ie ee Se na CONS) sare ake ee prc RS Pope COL Cee earn een A eh Se eh ere Wood pigeon (Columba palumbus) ——- Mourning dove (Zenaidura macroura) White-fronted dove (Leptotila fulvi- ventris brachyptera)_____________ Neckiaced dove (Spilopelia tigrina)—~ Zebra dove (Geopelia striata) _______ Bar-shouldered dove (Geopelia hume- OOLTLS)) atria Teer ng te Inca dove (Scardafella inca) _________ Cuban ground dove (Chemepelia pas- SCningialavidd) —-e- 2 eee Green-winged dove (Chalcophaps in- UAC) ie ER EE a ed (ee Ringed turtledove (Streptopelia ri- SON ED) tes ear a re ee Fruit pigeon (Lamprotreron superba) — PSITTACIFORMES sen” (Nestor noLavilis)\———_ Musk lorikeet (Glossopsitta concinna) - 9 -1 98 PSITTACIFORMES—continued Cockateel (Calopsitta novehollandia@) — Roseate cockatoo (Kakatoe roseica- pili@) 22> os Soe re ee ee Bare-eyed cockatoo (Kakatoe gym- nopis) = o> 2 as ee eee Leadbeater’s cockatoo (Kakatoe lead- beatert) 22 ses ee ee Philippine cockatoo (Kakatoe hema- turopygiad) saa os. ae Sete White cockatoo (Kakatoe alba)__-_-~ Sulphur-crested cockatoo (Kakatoe ga- lertta) |= A= 22. Sey es Pe ee Great red-crested cockatoo (Kakatoe PUOLUCCEN SIR) a ae ee wr As eee Cassin’s macaw (Ara auricollis) __--- Mexican green macaw (Ara megicana) Severe macaw (Ara severa)__-----__ Blue-and-yellow macaw (Ara _ ara- FOUNG) 222 aoe ate See ee Red-and-blue-and-yellow macaw (Ara ULE TY) i Se ee eee ee ee Hahn’s macaw (Diopsittaca hahni) --- White-eyed paroquet (Aratinga leuco- FRIST UT Dd fo) ) = ee ee Petz’s paroquet (Eupsittula canicu- aris) ee ee SS ewan Golden-crowned paroquet (Hupsittula CQULE0) ao a eee ae Weddell’s paroquet (Hupsittula wed- Geli) eee ee ee ee ee ee Blue-winged parrotlet (Psittacula pas- Bering) 22S LE ee ee Golden paroquet (Brotogeris chryso- BONG) Las oo ee Sas ee eee Tovi paroquet (Brotogeris jugularis)-— Orange-winged paroquet (Brotogeris CTUTATE eS re ee Yellow-naped parrot (Amazona auro- DOING) ae oo eee eee Mealy parrot (Amazona farinosa) -__- Orange-winged parrot (Amazona ama- LOGIC) ae ee ee ae Blue-fronted parrot (Amazona estiva) Red-crowned parrot (Amazona viridi- Genalis) 222 Pe ns Boas ee Double yellow-head parrot (Amazona oratrig) a2 SS ea 2 os te ee Yellow-headed parrot (Amazona ochro- Cepnale) see eee ees, Festive parrot (Amazona festiva) -__~ Lesser white-fronted parrot (Amazona Qlbotifrons manag) oie 222 Sa ee Santo Domingo parrot (Amazona ventralis) en enon aaa Cuban parrot (Amazona _ leuco- cepihaia) 2222225 2-32 Maximilian’s parrot (Pionus mawzi- ALON) So eee Dusky parrot (Pionus fuscus)_-----~_~ Blue-headed parrot (Pionus men- GL IACS er re ae re Amazonian caique (Pionitee wantho- MeTIG) — = So aaa owes ee eee eee Lesser vasa parrot (Coracopsis nigra) _— 2 15 clk ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 PSITTACIFORMES—continued Greater vasa parrot (Coracopsis UA) SR ee ee Pennant’s paroquet (Platycercus elegans) Beet see_* sate ae Rosella paroquet (Platycercus ezi- Mis) See ee ea Black-tailed paroquet (Polytelis mel- GUO) hase ee Sa King paroquet (Aprosmictus cyanopy- (tts), feeble orth i _ eons 8 ae Crimson-winged paroquet (Aprosmictus erychroptents) 2. Shes eee Ring-necked paroquet (Conurus torqua- $8) Soo ase ee eee S48) yoo ee Philippine green parrot (Tanygnathus lucionensis) S25 fe eee Th Sees 2 Grass paroquet (Melopsittacus undula- tus pie pele ees). 2S eee CORACIIFORMES Giant kingfisher (Dacelo gigas)_----- Yellow-billed hornbill (Lophoceros leu- COMeIgS) 222 = es eee Morepork owl (Spiloglauz novaseel- NOT) a SO a ae ee ee Barred owl (Striv varia) ———_-—-+_-_— Snowy owl (Nyctea nyctea) ~-__--__-_- Screech owl (Otus asio)_—____—______— Great horned owl (Bubo virginianus) — Eagle owl (Bubo bubo)—--------_---_- American barn owl (Tyto perlata pra- tincola)'\ 22223 Ss ee Ariel toucan (Ramphastos ariel) —----~ PASSERIFORMES Cock of the rock (Rupicola rupicola) __ Silver-eared hill-tit (Mesia argentau- Red-billed hill-tit (Liothria luteus) __~ Black-gorgeted laughing thrush (Gar- rulagw pectoralis) __-.----_-~__--___ White-eared bulbul (Otocompsa leuco- C16) Se So SS ee ee Red-eared Lulbul (Otocompsa jocosa) — European blackbird (Turdus merula)-— Piping crow shrike (G@ymnorhina tibi- Cen) ;2 223 ee eS eee Satin bower bird (Ptilonorhynchus vio- laceus) 22s. et 2 eee European raven (Corvus corav)__---- Australian crow (Corvus coronoides) — American crow (Corvus brachyrhyn- Magpie (Pica pica hudsonica) ~------ Yucatan jay (Cissilopha yucatanica) —- Blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata)_---__ Green jay (Xanthoura luruosa) ____~-- Australian gray jumper (Struthidea cinerea) BEE See ees See Starling (Sturnus vulgaris) _-__----- 19 wwe nde Om REPORT OF THE SECRETARY PASSERIFORMES—continued Shining starling (Lamprocoraw metal- MOUS) pee ee en a ees Laysan finch (Telespyza cantans) __- Crimson tanager (Ramphocelus dimi- GUbU8) ee ee ee Blue tanager (Thraupis cana) ----~--- Paradise whydah (Steganura para- Shaft-tailed whydah (Tetrenura re- iG) ee ee ee oe Napolean weaver (Pyromelana afra)-— Red-billed weaver (Quelea quelea)__-__- Madagascar weaver (Foudia madagas- Cariensis..)\ a. eee ee St. Helena waxbill (Hstrilda astrilda) — Rosy-rumped waxbill (Hstrilda rhodo- OAD RD)) ee Se ee ES Nutmeg finch (Munia punctulata)_—-_- White-headed nun (Munia maja)_---- Black-headed nun (Munia atricapilla) — Chestnut-breasted finch (Munia casta- MOVELOTUD) eee ole ee le Java finch (Munia oryzivora) _-----_~_ White Java finch (Munia oryzivora) _- Masked grassfinch (Poéphila persona- UCD) ee eee Black-faced Gouldian finch (Poéphila OULU) es ee ee Se Se Red-faced Gouldian finch (Poéphila ICI OVLLR)) seer ee Se a Diamond finch EU eee et Zebra finch (Teniopygia castanotis) —_ Alligator (Alligator mississipiensis) —- Water dragon (Physignathus lesueurii) — Horned toad (Phrynosoma cornutum) — Glass snake (Ophisaurus ventralis) ~~~ Gila monster (Heloderma suspectum) — Gould’s monitor (Varanus gouldii) _--- Blue-tongued lizard (Tiliqua _ scin- CONES) Be ee ee Rock python (Python molurus)_—~-~-~ Regal python (Python reticulatus) --- Anaconda (Hunectes murinus) ~~--~-~ Boa constrictor (Constrictor constric- LAA? Gj Ae ee ee ea ee Black snake (Coluber constrictor) ___~ * Blue racer (Coluber constrictor flavi- CTRL IIR) pet me ke Se ne Coachwhip snake (Coluber flagellum) _ Chicken snake (Hlaphe quadrivittata) _ Corn snake (Hlaphe guttata)________ Pilot blacksnake (Hlaphe obsoleta)___~ Pine snake ( Pituophis melanoleucus) — Bull snake (Pituophis sayi)____-___-- Western bull snake (Pituophis cateni- CTs) ee ae ay re SN See Pe RE Water snake (Natriz sipedon)_______ Western water snake (Natrixz sipedon aS CiAt@)) Hos Seek tee ee Garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis) __ Western diamond rattlesnake (Crotalus CRED | OS ene ee 2 ee ee ee ee PASSERIFORMES— continued Cutthroat finch (Amadina fasciata) __ 5 | Red-headed finch (Amadina erythroce- t DONO) ae oe ee ee ae Hooded oriole (Icterus cucullatus)—~ 1 | Yellow-tailed oriole (Icterus mesome- 1 LIVES Vp Reem le ties Ne Dees See LAE A peed eet tS Oh Purple grackle (Quiscalus quiscula) —~ 3 | Greenfinch (Chloris chloris) --------- European goldfinch (Carduelis cardu- 2 Clis) pak ee ee eee 1 | Bramble finch (Fringilla montifrin- 1 Willa aa e se Boe e oo ee ee Yellowhammer (Hmberiza citrinella) —- 1 | House finch (Carpodacus mezicanus 3 (fontalis)e— 22. — ee ee San Lucas house finch (Carpodacus 1 mexicanus ruberrimus) —~----------- 8 | Canary (Serinus canarius) —-----=---~- 21 Gray singing finch (Serinus leucopy- 13 Gis) SE Stes as hak ls Se aes Slate-colored junco (Junco hyemalis) — 4 | White-throated sparrow (Zonotrichia 14 CLUDICOUULS) pe es ee eee ee 1 | San Diego song sparrow (Melospiza MElLOOLG:- COOPEMt) a= ee 6 | Saffron finch (Sicalis flaveola) _-___-_-_- Seed eater (Sporophila gutturalis) ___- 1 |) Nonpareil’ (Passerina ciris))=—===—— === Leclancher’s nonpareil (Passerina le- 1 ClONCREN1) 22 Se oe eee Cardinal (Cardinalis cardinalis) _-_-~-~ g | Red-crested cardinal (Paroaria cucul- 17 FOTO) ee See ees ees REPTILES 43 | Snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina) _ 3 | Rossignon’s snapping turtle (Chelydra 1 POSHONONM) 22. 2s Ue Le Say 1 | Musk turtle (Kinosternon odoratum) —_ 6 | Mexican musk turtle (Kinosternon so- 3 NMOTICNSE) Se en ee ee eee South American musk turtle (Kino- 1 SLEPNON SCOT D10tdes) se ‘i Pennsylvania musk turtle (Kinosternon 2 Suorubrum) Pe a ee 1, 106, 800 | OD oN Se eee 2, 393, 428 I aS a eee Be 8 RUSE ETE le Be SE S218 BOOS ALO | FROZE EEL 2 “ge ees sd 2, 442, 880 IMPROVEMENTS Work on the new paddocks for hoofed animals near the Connecti- cut Avenue entrance, described fully in the last report, was finished early in the year, and the 11 yards thus provided were all occupied by animals in the fail. The superior arrangement of these paddocks for the care and exhibition of the animals has been very favorably commented upon by officials from other zoological gardens, and the pleasing sight of herds of animals in such large inclosures is greatly admired by visitors. In late winter the birds were all removed from the North Ameri- can waterfow! lake and early in the spring the lake was thoroughly cleaned of silt. The work was completed so that the waterfowl were returned before the season for nesting. The sewer from the office and stables was extended to connect with the Rock Creek intercept- ing sewer. A new sidewalk on the east side of the road opposite the restaurant building was completed, and roads, walks, and bridle paths throughout the park were repaired. Two old boilers in the central heating plant were replaced with new boilers of improved pattern, thus considerably increasing the heating capacity of the plant. The usual repairs to roofs, gutters and downspouts, fences, and cages were made and much of the ironwork was painted. The old metal awning frames over the walk around the bear cages were removed, since these unsightly frames were no longer needed, the trees now providing ample shade. Work was begun on the ware- house for new or surplus animals, approved in the last plan of opera- tions. This long-needed structure will be completed in the present year. The most important improvement of the year has been the com- plete reconstruction of the central refreshment building. The old restaurant was found to be in such bad condition that very little of the material in it could be used, and in order to provide the new structure with suitable foundations it was almost entirely wrecked. The new restaurant is built chiefly of chestnut timbers salvaged 102 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 from the dead trees in the reservation, and adds greatly to the ap- pearance of the park. It was leased to a competent restaurant man, who opened it to the public in April. IMPORTANT NEEDS Exhibition building for birds—The outstanding need of the: park is a new building for exhibition of birds. As pointed out in previous reports, the old bird house was built as a temporary structure many years ago, and is now not only in bad condition and virtually beyond repair but is so small that only a part of the valuable collection of birds can be exhibited at one time. The public space is, furthermore, entirely too restricted for present-day crowds of visitors. The col- lection of birds is growing in importance and value year by year, as rare and unusual specimens from all parts of the world are pre- sented to the Government zoological gardens. Public interest in the bird collection is very great, as attested by the throngs of visitors that fill the old bird house, and it is greatly to be hoped that a new building may soon be provided for the proper care and exhibition of the birds and for the accommodation of the constantly increasing _ number of visitors who wish to see them to advantage. Funds for purchase of animals.——Although the National Zoo- logical Park receives numerous animals each year as gifts or in exchange for surplus stock reared in the park, sufficient funds have never been available for the purchase of rare and unusual species offered for sale from time to time. A representative or well-balanced collection of the living animals of the world can be built up and maintained only by the purchase of certain types of animals not otherwise obtainable, and opportunities to secure these desiderata must be taken up promptly if the animals are to be obtained. Animals greatly needed to fill definite gaps in the col- lection are offered for sale from time to time, but the park is most often unable to purchase them for lack of funds. In addition to increased appropriations to cover cost and transportation of ani- mals, it is suggested that a fund, to be deposited with the Smith- sonian Institution and held for the purchase of animals for the National Zoological Park, be inaugurated. This fund might be increased by gift or bequest, and could be regularly maintained by an act of Congress authorizing deposit in it of certain miscellaneous revenues of the park now turned into the general fund of the Treasury, these including rent of refreshment stands, restaurant, and other similar concessions. Respectfully submitted. N. Hotutster, Superintendent. Dr. Cuartes D. Watcort, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. APPENDIX 7 REPORT ON THE ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY Sir: The Astrophysical Observatory was conducted under the fol- lowing passage of the independent offices appropriation act approved February 13, 1923: Astrophysical Observatory: For maintenance of the Astrophysical Observa- tory, under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, including assistants, purchase of necessary books and periodicals, apparatus, making necessary observations in high altitudes, repairs and alterations of buildings, and miscel- laneous expenses, $15,500. The observatory occupies a number of frame structures within an inclosure of about 16,000 square feet south of the Smithsonian ad- ministration building at Washington, and also a cement observing station and frame cottage for observers on a plot of 10,000 square feet leased from the Carnegie Solar Observatory on Mount Wilson, Calif. A new solar observing station on Mount Harqua Hala, Ariz., was erected in July, 1920, at the expense of funds donated for the pur- pose by Mr. John A. Roebling, of Bernardsville, N. J., and this sta- tion has been occupied as a solar radiation observing station by the Astrophysical Observatory since October, 1920. The present value of the buildings and equipment for the Astro- physical Observatory owned by the Government is estimated at $50,000. This estimate contemplates the cost required to replace the outiit for the purposes of the investigation. WORK OF THE YEAR There have been several features of particular interest, including the installation of daily telegraphic reports from the Arizona and Chile solar-radiation stations, certain experimental forecasts based on these reports, and the measurement of the energy distribution in the spectra of 10 of the brighter stars. Work at Washington.—As in previous years, the variation of the sun has been the main concern. The generosity of Mr. John A. Roebling enabled arrangements to be made for daily telegrams from our two solar radiation stations. This service was begun September 13, 1923. The results obtained in Chile are cabled in code, so that the weighted mean solar-constant value, the date and hour of observa- : 103 104 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 tion, and its grade are all included in two words. Messages arrive at Washington from both stations within 24 hours of the actual measurements, and generally represent mean results of five inde- pendent determinations at each station. Arrangements have been made (also owing to Mr. Roebling’s interest and generosity) to test the value of the solar measurements for forecasting according to the methods of Mr. H. H. Clayton. For this purpose Mr. Clayton has had a small office and one assistant near his home in Canton, Mass., where he receives before noon daily from the Smithsonian Institu- tion the weighted mean of the solar-constant values observed in Arizona and Chile on the preceding day. He makes his forecasts for 3, 4, 5, and 27 days in advance, and mails them to the Institution on the same afternoon. Thus we receive the forecasts sufficiently long before their maturity to make a very real and searching test of their validity. These forecasts for definite days relate to the mean temperature of New York City, and are later on compared with the observed tem- peratures and analyzed by several purely mathematical methods quite independently of any bias of the computer. The official weather services of the various countries do not, of course, make predictions parallel to these, except in Argentina, where such fore- casts are made by similar methods to Clayton’s. Hence it is impos- sible to know at present how much gain, if any, Mr. Clayton’s solar forecasts show over the present official methods. That they do show some prevision of the event, even to five days after the solar observa- tions, is certain. Hitherto, however, the 27-day detailed forecasts have shown no correlation with the New York temperatures. This is not at all surprising. Indeed, all such forecasts have to contend against great odds. For we recall that the march of temperature often goes quickly from crest to trough, so that even if a true forecast could be made, and it should be no more than 12 or 24 hours off in point of time, there would be large divergences between the prediction and the event. With the unyielding mathematical methods of verifica- tion this would greatly diminish the correlation found. A fairer test for very long-range forecasts is found in general statements as to the expected departure from mean normal tem- peratures for coming months. These Mr. Clayton has furnished from 15 to 30 days before the beginning of each month from De- cember, 1923, to the present time. He also furnishes similar pre- dictions about the approaching weeks furnished three days before the beginning of the week in question. With few exceptions, these broader prognostications have been fairly verified. 1 Thanks are due to the Canton Historical Society for use of these quarters. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 105 On the whole, therefore, although the results are as yet far from being entirely satisfying, these experimental forecasts of Mr. Clay- ton’s are promising enough to warrant further trial. New methods are continually being devised and tried in making them. Mr. Roe- bling has generously arranged to continue them until June 30, 1925. As the work is purely experimental no detailed publication of it will be made at present. Naturally, if the forecasts made by Mr. Clayton really represent solar changes, he can not succeed unless good solar measurements are supplied. As soon as we began to receive daily telegrams from both stations occasional fairly wide disagreements of individual days commanded attention. We felt it necessary, in studying the causes of such disagreements, to revise again entirely the systems of little corrections to solar-constant values which have to be made to allow for the haziness and humidity of our atmosphere. This revision could be made with more advantage because much additional data had meanwhile accumulated. Mr. Fowle and Mrs. Bond have worked over this matter during practically their entire time, which, however, owing to furlough, was only about three months in Mrs. Bond’s case. A new method of determining these corrections has been devised by the director and Mr. Fowle, which eliminates satisfactorily the influence of the solar changes which have occurred. Hitherto this matter of solar change superposed upon the small terrestrial sources of error which we de- sire to eliminate has been very embarrassing. Of course, if one could wait many years before proceeding to evaluate the terrestrial effects, the solar changes, being independent or but loosely connected with local terrestrial ones, would be eliminated in the mean of a mass of observations. We can, indeed, after several years more of observ- ing, finally proceed in this way. But wishing to make immediate use of our results a new method of procedure has fortunately oc- curred to us which permits us to avoid the interference of solar changes altogether. The details will-be published soon. As both to us and to the Chief of the Weather Bureau it seemed unwise to publish preliminary values of the solar constant which later on would have to be corrected, we have discontinued the fre- quent publications of them in the Monthly Weather Review which we have been accustomed to make for several years past. After we come to a fully satisfactory basis of systematic atmospheric correc- tions, these publications may be resumed. Of the two solar-radiation stations, Montezuma, Chile, has proved far more suitable to the purpose than Harqua Hala, Ariz. It seems probable that a place somewhat farther west and decidedly higher would be preferable to Mount Harqua Hala. Violent storms occur there in various months of the year, and the summer months in par- 106 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 ticular have proved very unsatisfactory. If financial means were available it would be highly desirable to remove the station to another site, and, indeed, a better one is already selected which would present many advantages. The cost of removal would be about $7,000. The systematic revision of results in the hands of Mr. Fowle and Mrs. Bond has led to much improvement, as shown by the close accord of daily solar-constant values at the two stations. For the period September, 1922, to March, 1924, the average daily difference is less than 0.5 per cent. In the month of October, 1923, when the weather was fine at both stations almost every day, it ran as low as 0.2 per cent. The solar-constant values have continued almost without excep- tion below normal. From March, 1922, until June, 1924, the mean result for every single month was below the normal value, which is 1.938 calories per square centimeter per minute. This long-continucd defect of solar radiation may well have produced interesting climatic effects. It is interesting to report in this connection a letter from M. Antoniadi, of France, stating that the polar cap of Mars is larger than it has been under parallel conditions for 70 years, and asking if the solar-radiation measurements showed anything unusual. Nat- urally decreased solar radiation would tend to produce that effect. A letter from the eminent meteorologist, Doctor Bjerknes, of Norway, to Doctor Hale, of the Mount Wilson Observatory, has been referred to us, and with permission of the author is here copied in part as an indication of expert appreciation of our work: 'I have been greatly interested in the establishment of a complete “ cir- cumpolar ” weather service, as this only will give the full view of the changing states of the atmosphere. This circumpolar service is now beginning to become a reality. The charts may soon more or less cover the entire northern hemisphere. But then another idea arises by itself, namely, to bring these more and more complete pictures of the varying states of our atmosphere into connection with their ultimate cause, the solar activity. * * * I am aware that the solar constant is determined every day at Mount Wilson Solar Observatory, and at the Calama Observatory of the Smithsonian Insti- tution. * * * JI think it would now be of high importance to every day have the most recent value of the solar constant incorporated in the daily meteorological issue. If this should be practicable, the value of the data which are every day at the disposal of the meteorologist would increase enormously. It is, of course, dangerous to prophesy. But a new era may perhaps begin for meteorology from the moment when the meteorologist has at his disposal every day com- plete data both for the sun’s activity and for the state of the atmosphere over an entire hemisphere of the earth. Work at the two solar-radiation stations—The results just dis- cussed are, of course, the fruit of the zealous work of our observers in REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 107 Arizona and Chile. Mount Harqua Hala continues under the direc- tion of Mr. A. F. Moore, who was assisted until March 1, 1924, by Mr. P. E. Greeley. After Mr. Greeley’s resignation, Mr. A. H. Wor- thing assisted from May 20 to June 30, but then resigned. At Montezuma, Chile, the station continued in charge of Mr. L. B. Aldrich, assisted by Mr. F. A. Greeley. Many comforts and observing improvements have been added at both stations at small expense owing to the ingenuity and hard manual labor of the observers. At both stations all possible days for solar-constant work have been utilized, and with very high accuracy of observation. About 75 per cent of all days were observed in Arizona and above 80 per cent. in Chile. The months of July, August, and September, however, were very unfavorable at Harqua Hala, because of unusual cloudiness which prevailed all over that section of the United States. This abnormal state of the sky was indeed made specially prominent by the almost complete failure of all the California observations of the total solar eclipse of Sep- tember 10, 1928. Many observations of these months must be rejected on account of unfavorable sky. Mr. W. H. Hoover assisted Mr. Moore for a few weeks in May, 1923. While Mr. and Mrs. Moore were away in Australia setting up near Sydney a solar-radiation outfit ordered -by Rev. E. F. Pigot, of Riverview College, for a committee of interested Aus- tralians, Mr. and Mrs. Hoover relieved them at Harqua Hala from July until September. Mr. Hoover was thus prepared by actual field experience to be director of the Argentine Government’s new solar-radiation station at La Quiaca. The outfit for this station was prepared at the Smithsonian In- stitution after designs of the writer, and the finer parts, such as those of the bolometer and galvanometer, were constructed by Mr. Hoover. Shipment was made in January, 1924, and the station at La Quiaca made ready for solar observing in June, 1924. Thus the Argentine Government is the first agency outside the Smithsonian Institution to undertake regular determinations of the variation of the sun. Their official weather service still receives daily telegraphic reports from our station at Montezuma, Chile, and it will supple- ment these by its own solar-radiation measurements at La Quiaca. Field work at Mount Wilson.—The director and Mrs. Abbot occu- pied this station from July to October, 1923. Three objects were in view—First, to set up apparatus and begin observations on the varia- tions of atmospheric ozone after the ingenious spectroscopic method of Fabry and Buisson. M. Fabry was so kind as to supervise the ordering in Paris of all the special quartz and fluorite optical parts needed. Owing to the detached service of the Smithsonian instru- 108 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 ment maker, Mr. Kramer, who was engaged in making the Aus- tralian and Argentine solar radiation outfits, no work had been done toward mounting the optical parts for ozone studies or, indeed, to- ward preparing for other experiments of the expedition. So it hap- pened that the director spent several weeks on Mount Wilson at instrument making and was not quite ready to begin the ozone ob- servations in 1923. The second object was to test new improvements on the solar cooker. By the lively interest of Director Stratton, the Bureau of Standards had constructed by their skillful glass blower, Mr. Sperl- ing, a long, pyrex-glass, double-walled vacuum tube to inclose the heater tube of the Mount Wilson solar cooker. As stated in Volume IV of the Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory, nearly nine- tenths of the loss of heat had hitherto occurred from the heater tube within the great mirror. It was to check this loss that the new device was planned. : Unfortunately, the aluminum of the mirror was found much de- teriorated and could not be fully restored by polishing. Hence the mirror was very inefficient in 1923. Nevertheless, the vacuum tube showed its efficiency by the fact of the heating of the oven to 175° C., or fully 25° C. above the usual maximum temperatures of 1920. But new troubles arose. The oil circulation became leaky at the new high temperature, spontaneous combustion of the cotton heat insu- lation occurred, and the experiments had to be stopped after long- continued vain attempts to close the leaks by soldering. Also the vacuum tube, which was really made too long for safety, soon broke under the unequal heating strains. After this breakage occurred the maximum temperatures attained were but 120° C., showing that over 50° C. of advantage came from the employment of the vacuum device. The experiments seemed so promising that a continuation of them was arranged for 1924, and new and improved instrumental constructions were prepared by Mr. Kramer during the winter months The third piece of work attempted was with the 100-inch tele- scope on the energy spectrum of the brighter stars. Messrs. Abbot and Aldrich had, indeed, done this with moderate success in 1922, employing the vacuum bolometer and galvanometer. But great trouble had been found in the use of those instruments at extreme sensibility. Fortunately, the late Dr. FE. F. Nichols had offered to have prepared a radiometer of improved design for the work. This instrument, constructed by Dr. J. D. Tear, proved equally as sensitive as the bolometer used in 1922, and practically as easy to use as a meter stick. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 109 ~ With it and with a new optical arrangement designed by the writer, and largely constructed by him, very interesting results were obtained. The spectra of 10 stars, including the sun, as cast by a 60° flint-glass prism, were measured successfully. As the sun’s energy spectrum is well known, it was possible to eliminate by comparison with it all of the chief instrumental and atmospheric losses. Thus the results appear as stellar energy curves outside our atmosphere, expressed on the normal or wave-length scale. As the deflections observed were fairly large, no less than 50 millimeters at maximum in the spectrum of Betelgeuse, for example, the curves are of very fair accuracy over most of their extent. It was possible to improve them in the shorter wave-length region where they were inaccurate by employing visual and photographic results of German observers. Thus the whole of the intense part of the spectrum of the yellow and red stars and a large part of that of the white and blue ones were well delineated. From these results good estimates could be made of the star temperatures on the “ black-body ” basis. Further- more, estimates of the diameters necessary in “ black bodies” to pro- duce at those temperatures the observed amounts of energy were made. It is gratifying to find these results on stellar diameters as accordant as could be expected with those of Pease made by means of Michelson’s method of the interferometer. A summary follows: Stellar temperatures, radiation, and diameters Diameter ©=1? Absolute N! Terie es wae Star tempera-| Unit= ine | ture C. 19-11 Radiom- | Interfer- Russell eter ometer Sie vs | me Degrees | 17 | DUBE ees a tase Sites cena casuetassees GNOOOW Se eeeee owen Sees ee oes S| Ae Ss Ue | Se PLO RIGHIse twee eee Bee es 16, 000 3. 20 0. 007 DO Wg Pose ee 2.8 Sg Spgs RS ES ES A a OR 14, 000 6. 10 . 130 2 id Sa ae 3 eae artiste iel Onis eae serene ene ae ne ene 11, 060 6. 60 . 370 1.2 2 \eeremeaee 7 (Ofraytsh IY Whol) gt ee eS EEE 8, 000 1. 24 - 315 yd een eea cece 1.6 BaP ALLL C10 ene a ee ee ne 5, 800 2. 20 . 071 3) flbs ces see 9 a Tauri. ed ee aie aes in ye ae 3, 000 2. 54 . 053 70 Be ee BeRerasies Bs. My sio2 18 See aera 2, 850 1.11 . 026 94 BP) |e Sace See (23) (COELTG ANTS 5” ee eS a ep a ad ee 2, 600 7.90 017 510 2B0leeeewe sees F Ean | . 007 900 =|} PREV CLOU lise eae ease om eS ee 2, 500 | 3.60 i “013 430 } Doesnt s | 230. ! N=ratio of stellar to solar radiation outside earth’s atmosphere. 2 To express in kilometers, multiply by 1.42 X 108. To express in miles, multiply by 0.865 X 10°. SUMMARY The year has been notable for the establishment of daily tele- graphic solar-constant intelligence from Montezuma, Chile, and Harqua Hala, Ariz., through the interest and generosity of Mr. John A. Roebling. Also, due to the same support, experimental tempera- ture forecasts for New York City, based on these daily reports of 110 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 solar changes, have been regularly submitted by Mr. H. H. Cayton for certain periods of time in advance. Revision of the solar radia- tion results of the two stations shows average daily accord to less than 0.5 per cent in their solar-constant determinations. Observa- tions have been received from one or both solar-radiation stations on about 90 per cent of all days. Further experiments with the solar cooker have resulted in some advancement and have pointed the way to further progress. Apparatus has been made ready for determina- tions of atmospheric ozone after the method of Fabry and Buisson. Highly interesting results on stellar energy spectrum distribution and on star diameters have been obtained with a Nichols radiometer in co- operation with the Mount Wilson Observatory of the Carnegie Insti- tution. Respectfully submitted. C. G. Assot, Director. Dr. CHartes D. Watcort, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. APPENDIX 8 REPORT ON THE INTERNATIONAL CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the opera- tions of the United States Regional Bureau of the International Catalogue of Scientific Literature for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1924. As has been stated in several previous annual reports, political and financial conditions in Europe, caused by the late war, forced a suspension of the printing and publishing of the International Cata- logue after the fourteenth annual issue had been completed in July, 1921. aim wane REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR ENDED JUNE 30, 1924 To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution: Your executive committee respectfully submits the following report in relation to the funds, receipts, and disbursements of the Institu- tion and a statement of the appropriations by Congress for the National Museum, the International Exchanges, the Bureau of Amer- ican Ethnology, the National Zoological Park, the Astrophysical Observatory, the International Catalogue of Scientific Literature, and the National Gallery of Art for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1924. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Condition of the fund July 1, 1924 The sum of $1,000,000 deposited in the Treasury of the United States under act of Congress is a permanent fund, having been ac- cumulated by the deposit of savings and bequests from time to time. Subsequent bequests and gifts and the income therefrom, when so required, are invested in approved securities. The several specific funds so invested are now constituted and classed as follows: Consolidated fund AVILA EEE 03 So ne eed) 8 OT $29, 557. 52 Mincintaecurgy, Savon fund sc. eos ee er ns = San 50, 362. 34 LO CELES LB Ce 1 SEIN a beg 0 00 nec eee at rae ance eR ge peed Minha Rapa Ma 1, 349. 58 CASE Tal OTE TAG 1g FH OK be Ea ae Be ees Saga cae 0 Pik ys Reese en Colon 34, 952. 27 LSU PANDY, "oy LOG (ea a ca a ee PP ag Seg a acl me an er Sig 500. 00 SEDI tt OPEL OTN Va kthiy eer oe ere ene ae tart Ve ere rt ane ee 1, 074. 00 ETC AR RET SS TLE M SNe tN 10 Clee ees ee eT ener ct eee epee 37, 226. 57 PASSAU ECE EHUD Sc CSS We eU LEA CP ees ee ce ete eee ee ee ee 12, 0138. 62 BV ECDTS EUS HAs COE Lacks ELD Ch ees gra ee ee NO ee ere eee 7, 390. 00 eyo andsGeorge Ww. Eoore tung. = eee 13, 238. 86 PACTS OTe a ECCLG, fi ULTt Cle eeeene ene eeet een are ee eee 4, 919. 00 JESLAVEYEIS) SEU ENG be ee ke at 6 a ma eg ye Rr ae pe pln) Pa a 268. 00 ESRD HE TES ASE Tay Ups 7010 ees cr pc ae ep gdh ce act a el i ily pai ey 506. 00 SHENG LS OT WsG ED AV lee ae Nt a Roy gk ak ager been npn Peni Bea hex aes MS 1, 468. 74 Matcal consolidated: fumes ac ete ees tes ere SS ae ee 9 al 194, 826. 50 Charles D. and Mary Vaux Walcott research fund__-------------- 11, 520. 00 123 124 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 The total amount of dividends and interest received by the Institu- tion from the Freer estate during the year for all purposes. was $234,446.50. The itemized report of the auditor is filed in the office of the secretary. Detailed survey of financial operations Ordinary receipts: Cash‘ balance on-hand sully? 1661023 ee ee $11, 531. 63 Income from miscellaneous sources available for general pur- DOS@S ES NEES Me en pe ks Teh Sa ee iS ee 8 vw 3 eee eA 55, 874. 72 International exchanges, repayments to the Institution for SPeCifiC PURPOSES =. 22 = ees Sa ee ee ee 5, 152. 24 Total resources for ordinary purposes___--__----_-_----__- 72, 558. 59 Ordinary expenditures: Caretvand>repair of buildings! 2. 2 eee ee ee 7, 667.19 Hurniture- and! fixtiresS 23s 2 2 ee ee ee ee 1, 299. 07 General “administration 43.2 32 2. es ee See 26, 697. 91 DTT Ve a ee a a SD a ee ee 2, 987. 02 Publications (comprising preparation, printing, and distribu- tiON) 2 oS APE rene te eS ao er 15, 178. 73 hesearches; and: explorations:=—2 === eee 6, 507. 20 International ;@RCHANLES ese ee eee ae eee ee ee 4, 627. 91 Total ordinary expenditures 2 =— Se ee 64, 960. 03 Advances and repayments for field expenses and other temporary transactions during the year: AGVAanCeS 2 ness s. siceie et eh es ees See bend 15, 938. 75 TROD AFBI ES co ee Se ee a ee 11, 808. 63 Differenee S228. eee ee ee aye er Wea ee Gaeaeee ' 4,130.12 RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURES FOR SPECIFIC OBJECTS Receipts: Ay ey Tua a2 ees a Me $2, 418. 88 Virginia Purdysbacon, funds 252 = cs see ee ee ee ee 2, 607. 76 Juley, Baird! fund =-2 2222 ee es fee Soe ee ee 67. 64 Prances: lea Chamberlain fund... 2) 22-2 ee 1, 891. 07 Caroline ;Henryx fund: 2222s oe ee ee eee 61. 94 Bruce-Mughes: Teno 2 oh eee 659. 56 Draw: Lis Abbott-resea reli frim Cs eee 245. 29 Hamilton, fund: = == se ee eee ee ee 178. 39 Harriman trust fund S222 2 a ee ee ee 12, 500. 00 Hogekins: Sun: fe a eb Rin 2 see ae is 6, 000. 00 Morris Loeb. and) 22222 =< Se he ec el Aa ee ee 1, 689. 65 Marsh-Darienexpedition: fii see == ee 1, 000. 00 National Gallery of Art building plans fund_________________ 11, 000. 00 North American Wild Flowers publication fund_____________ 18, 050. 00 Gucy'T'..and George W..Poore, fund. 2222 = = Ree eee 3, 660. 59 Addison: TL... Reid. fund. 235! aie are eee 929. 36 Rhees;; fund 22 See 2 es 49, 59 REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE Receipts—Continued. 2) Research corporation,-research funds tess ose sess SB elda W..A. Roebling, mineralogical funds. 3293 4-208528_ soe8s sus wWegree he SaslOrd tN Goes sed se ee eS Charles D,-and Mary Vaux Walcott fund... ees John A. Roebling solar research, etc., fund_.-______-_-------_- scleral Tend O wane nbn Gea es wees or ee eee RESCATChHeS INGEN ACON LOLOL Yast aes oe ee ee ee Expenditures: Dr. W. L. Abbott research fund, for field expenses, ete________ PAVGrnyaeitill Onte LAV GS COG sees. BEE eS Dee ee eet ee Virginia Purdy Bacon fund, invested and expended_____-_--__ WueCyer yaar shund wimVvested so=2 622 a= ee eee Chamberlain’ fund, for speciienss.. 31285 wits cel os ek Harriman trust fund, for researches and specimens____-_--__ Garoline, Henry fund, mvested =) oe ee Hodrkinsotund- stor, researches as es ka ea Se ee BriucesHuchesshund, in vesteg. 2o22 es eee ee eee Marsh-Darien expedition fund, expended____________________ Morris Loeb fund, invested and expended___________.___ North American Wild Flowers publication fund, for expenses_ Lucy T. and George W. Poore fund, invested and expended____ AGOISON HE eLO.tiNG,, INVESLEGs. —= = ao Se ne a Research Corporation, rocket investigation___________________ EANCCSeEUIN Ger lNVGSTO Gs seers oe een eo hee eg Se John A. Roebling solar research, etc., fund, expended________ W. A. Roebling mineralogical fund, expended_______________ George; Ketsantord fund. invested ati tse ae ee NIV eSNG COT SPCCIMeN S221 se me eee Wt ee OO 125 $1, 250. 00 1, 140. 00 95. 48 2, 340. 00 1, 457. 97 935. 00 1, 000. 00 6, 096. 29 10. 50 3, 297. 78 500. 00 1, 000. 00 30. 00 24, 150. 07 58, 501. 72 RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURES PERTAINING TO THE CHARLES L. FREER BEQUEST Receipts: Interest, dividends, and miscellaneous receipts, including in- stallments on Great Lakes Engineering Works, in liquidation. $234, 446. 50 Expenditures: Purchase of art objects, payment of salaries, and other operat- ing expenses of the gallery, including reinvestment of funds. 151, 690. 11 Investments in sinking fund, including interest______________ 140, 077. 94 PROTA expen GIiPURes’ seco es sae ee ee et 291, 768. 05 SUMMARY Receipts: Ordinary income for general objects, including cash balance UCAS ETI TE MU Seed oe ee ee ee i ee Revenue and principal of funds conveyed for specific purposes, CxXCep i LHeWh reer | DEQUCSES sek er 5 ee ee ee ee HReECrS WCCIeS teed aes Se Sek oe a gt Casherecalledstrom time eposits= = = = Ss see eas ee 20397—25——_10 $72, 558. 59 91, 919. 99 234, 446. 50 34, 000. 00 432, 925. 08 126 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 Expenditures: General objects of the Institution-__---____________________- $64, 960. 08 Specific purposes, except Freer bequest____-____-_-___-__------ 58, 501. 72 Advances for field expenses,. ete == ee ee 4, 130. 12 Wreer bequest——..22 322-24. es ae ee eee ee 291, 768. 05 @ash: balance. June.30, 192422) - ss) See eS 138, 565. 16 Total =a. 2 a ee ee iusto iadast peppers 432, 925. 08 All payments are made by check, signed by the Secretary of the Institution, on the Treasurer of the United States, and all revenues are deposited to the credit of the same account, except in some in- stances small deposits are placed in bank for convenience of collec- tion and later are withdrawn in round amounts and deposited in the Treasury. The practice of investing temporarily idle funds in time deposits has proven satisfactory. During the year the interest derived from this source, together with other similar items, has resulted in a total of $1,014.59. The following appropriations were intrusted by Congress to the care of the Smithsonian Institution for the fiscal year 1924: Bureau: Appropriation International’ Wxehanges= 2... = een eee eee $43, 000 PATING@TU CANA HIE ENING OO Yi es ae ce me eee en 44, 000 International Catalogue of Scientific Literature_-________________ 7, 500 Astrophysical ODSenvatory oo 2 ee ae ee eee 15, 500 National Museum— OUTPUT e sam ct OS ee $20, 000 Heating, and lishting=—2 eo a ee 70, 000 Preservation: of collections=__--——- = ee 312, 500 Building: repairs a SN ee ee eee ee 10, 000 BOOKS = 2 eon eet ie oe le ee ee 2, 000 Postage: 22225022 2s ee ee ee 500 415, 000 National Galicey ar Ate 0 Saree eee ns ee eee 16, 000 National) ZOOlO ete iT Re ee ee ee ee 125, 000 Increase /Of (COMMENSA tions se eee 112, 704 Printing andi binding. 4... ee 77, 400 WSN T eA Min Ose ee ae a ee ee 856, 104 Respectfully submitted. Gero. GRAY, Henry WHITE, Frepertc A. DELANO, HLuecutive Committee. PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITH- SONIAN INSTITUTION FOR THE FISCAL YEAR ENDED JUNE 30, 1924 ANNUAL MEETING, DECEMBER 13, 1923 Present: The Hon. William H. Taft, Chief Justice of the United States; Senator Henry Cabot Lodge; Representative Albert John- son; Representative R. Walton Moore; the Hon. George Gray; the Hon. Henry White; Mr. Robert S. Brookings; Mr. Irwin Laughlin; Mr. Frederic A. Delano; and the secretary, Dr. Charles D. Walcott. Judge Gray, as temporary chairman, called the meeting to order. ELECTION OF A CHANCELLOR The secretary said that the office of chancellor, to which Mr. Cool- idge was elected by the board during his incumbency as Vice Presi- dent, had been vacated by his elevation to the Presidency. Under the law organizing the Institution (sec. 5582), “ The regents shall meet in the city of Washington, and elect one of their number as chancellor, who shall be the presiding officer of the Board of Regents. and called the chancellor of the Smithsonian Institution.” Senator Lodge offered the following resolution, which was adopted : Resolved, That Chief Justice Taft be elected chancellor of the Smithsonian Institution. APPOINTMENT OF REGENT The secretary announced the reappointment of Senator Henry Cabot Lodge as a Regent. RESOLUTION RELATIVE TO INCOME AND EXPENDITURE Judge Gray, chairman of the executive committee, presented the following resolution, which on motion was adopted: Resolved, That the income of the Institution for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1925, be appropriated for the service of the Institution, to be expended by the secretary with the advice of the executive committee, with full discretion on the part of the secretary as to items. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE The secretary submitted in printed form the annual report of the executive committee, giving a statement of the financial condition of the Institution for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1923. : 127 128 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE PERMANENT COMMITTEE The secretary, on behalf of the permanent committee, read the report, as follows: Hodgkins and Roebling funds.—Work is continuing steadily in the solar radiation researches being conducted on the Montezuma Mountain, Chile, un- der an annual grant of $5,000 from the Hodgkins fund. Mr. John A. Roebling has added generously to his contributions to aid the work at this station, and also at the one on Mount Harqua Hala, Ariz. These researches are being car- ried on under the direction of Dr. Charles G. Abbot, assistant secretary of the Institution and director of the Astrophysical Observatory. Freer bequest.—The balance of the loan of $200,000 made to settle this estate was paid during the year. In view of the fact that the Freer Foundation is invested entirely in Parke, Davis & Co.’s stock, the permanent committee took up the matter of safeguard- ing its principal and income; and, after careful consideration, decided upon what may be termed a sinking fund, by which that part of the income in ex- cess of 6 per cent on the value of the foundation at the time of Mr. Freer’s death is to be reinvested in high-class securities and real-estate mortgages until an amount equal to the original foundation is reached. Poore bequest.—Negotiations are now pending for the sale of several of the lots in Lowell, Mass., received under this bequest, which will net the Institu- tion about $1,500. The remaining lots will be disposed of as opportunity offers. Since the last meeting of the board the city of Lowell has agreed to abate the taxes on this property. : All the other funds previously detailed are in sound condition and are slowly but steadily increasing in volume through the addition of their earnings to the principal. _ The consolidated fund, which comprises bequests and gifts to the Institu- tion in addition to the $1,000,000 deposited in the United States Treasury in accordance with the organic act, now amounts to $196,570.28. SECRETARY’S ANNUAL REPORT In submitting his annual report of the operations of the Institu- tion for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1923, the secretary stated that the publications of the Institution are its chief means of carry- ing out one of its primary functions, the “diffusion of knowledge among men.” Since the last annual meeting of this board, in Decem- ber 1922, the Institution and its branches have issued a total of 98 publications, both volumes and pamphlets. Of this number, 49 were published by the Institution proper, 44 by the National Museum, 4 by the Bureau of American Ethnology, and 1 by the National Gallery of Art. A large part of the edition of each of these publications is distributed free to libraries, educational institutions, and specialists throughout the world. The nation-wide popularity of the Smith- sonian Annual Report is attested by the fact that a cataloguer in the office of the Superintendent of Documents has placed it first among all public documents in number of requests from libraries to receive it. In connection with the publications, the secretary called atten- tion to the inadequacy of the funds available for printing. PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS 129 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART COMMISSION The third annual meeting of the National Gallery of Art Commis- sion was held December 11, 1923. The resignation of Mr. Daniel Chester French as chairman of the commission was received and ac- cepted with regret, and Mr. Gari Melchers was elected chairman. The report of the secretary of the commission and director of the gallery presented a review of the activities of the gallery for the year, and reports of the standing and special committees followed. In response to the resolution submitted by the Regents, February 8, 1923, requesting the commission’s consideration of the suggestion that a museum of architecture be founded in connection with the Institution, the following resolution was adopted: Resolved, That the National Gallery of Art Commission recommend to the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution the inclusion of a division of his- torical architecture in the National Gallery of Art. The division should seek to establish standards in architecture, furniture, and landscape architecture for the benefit of students and others interested in the preservation of the historic buildings of America. The important problem of a national gallery building was con- sidered and assurance given that the building plans would be pro- vided for in the near future. A resolution was passed recommending to the Board of Regents the election of Mr. James E. Fraser and Mr. Joseph Breck to fill vacancies caused by the resignation of Mr. Daniel Chester French and the declination of Mr. Denman W. Ross. The commission also voted to recommend to the Board of Regents the election for the full term of four years of Messrs. Edwin H. Blashfield, Joseph H. Gest, and Frank Jewett Mather, jr., their two-year terms having expired. After discussion, the following resolutions were adopted: Resolved, That the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution approves in principle the recommendation of the National Gallery of Art Commission that a division of historical architecture be established in connection with the National Gallery of Art. Resolved, That the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution hereby elects Mr. James E. Fraser and Mr. Joseph Breck as members of the commis- sion, to fill the vacancies caused by the resignation of Mr. Daniel Chester French and the declination of Mr. Denman W. Ross, respectively. Resolved, That the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution hereby elects Messrs. Edwin H. Blashfield, Joseph H. Gest, and Frank Jewett Mather, jr., as members of the National Gallery of Art Commission for the full terin of four years, their present two-year terms having expired. MEMORIAL TO ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL On behalf of the executive committee, the secretary submitted the following report: DECEMBER 13, 1923. GENTLEMEN: The executive committee, designated by the Board of Regents: at its annual meeting on December 14, 1922, to prepare for the records of the- 130 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 board a brief memorial commemorating the life and work of Doctor Bell, a former Regent of the Institution, begs to submit the following: “Alexander Graham Bell, doctor of philosophy, doctor of science, a member of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, was born March 38, 1847, at Edinburgh, Scotland. “Doctor Bell was appointed a Regent on January 24, 1898, and served until February 20, 1922. During this entire period of 24 years he was a member of the executive and permanent committees of the board, where his sound judg- ment and ripe experience were of great assistance to his associates. * “YPoetor Bell’s interest in the work of the Smithsonian Institution began many years before his appointment as Regent, his studies in acoustics par- ticularly having been the subject of many consultations with Secretary Henry. Later, in 1887, when Samuel P. Langley was elected secretary, he resumed his intimate though unofficial relations, as evidenced by his gift of $5,000 in 1891 in connection with the development of the Astrophysical Observatory, and his helpful interest in the aerodynamical researches of Secretary Langley. It was Doctor Bell who made the only successful photograph of the Langley model in its first flight, May 6, 1896, though at this time he was independently conducting exhaustive experiments in this new science. “After he became a Regent, Doctor Bell was likewise active in forwarding the work of the Institution in many directions. Among the notable matters that particularly engaged his personal attention were: “His voluntary service in transferring the remains of James Smithson, founder of the Institution, from the English cemetery at Genoa, Italy, to their final resting place in the Smithsonian Building “His suggestion that resulted in the establishment of the Langley medal in connection with the development of aviation ; “ His labors as a member of the committee on award of this medal; and “His historical address upon Secretary Langley’s discovery of the principles of aviation, delivered February 10, 1910, at the presentation of the Langley medal to its first recipients, the Wright brothers. “Doctor Bell had reached a high eminence in the scientific world iene before his connection with the Institution. The history of his achievements is too well known to be repeated here; but it is proper to mention his invention of the telephone; his great work in the physiology of human speech that made it possible for him to teach the deaf to speak; and his invention of the tele- phone probe for detecting the presence of bullets in the human body. He was a believer in geographic research and was one of the founders of the National Geographic Society. He was a member of the National Academy of Sci- ences, and of other national and international learned organizations, and was the recipient of many medals, degrees, and other honors as a man of great scientific achievement. “ Doctor Bell had a strong physique, but the strain of many years of intense endeavor made itself felt, and he found it necessary to give up much of his work in the last year or two of his life. His weakness increased until the end came on August 2, 1922, at his summer home near Baddeck, Nova Scotia. “ Alexander Graham Bell was one of the outstanding men of his time, and his death brought a highly useful career to a close.” Respectfully submitted. GEORGE GRAY, Henry WHITE, FREDERIC A. DELANO, Eeecutive Committee. On motion, the memorial was approved ‘and ordered to be spread upon the records of the board. PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS 181 RADIO CELEBRATION OF JOSEPH HENRY’S BIRTHDAY The secretary called attention to the birthday of Henry, first sec- retary of the Smithsonian Institution, which is to be celebrated by radio on December 17. The occasion will be observed by appropri- ate addresses broadcast from the stations at Troy and Schenectady, N. Y. Joseph Henry was born at Albany on December 17, 1799. His first studies in electricity began in 1827, while he was a teacher in the Albany Academy, and in the course of his researches he trans- formed an inefficient piece of electrical apparatus into the powerful electromagnet, and laid the foundation for the most important dis- coveries of the century. He made two distinct forms of magnets; one capable of excitation at a distance, called the “ intensity magnet,” and the other having possibilities of infinite development of strength, which he named the “ quantity magnet.” Before Henry, the strongest form of electromagnet known could lift only 9 pounds, but after a few months of experiment he pro- duced one which sustained 39 pounds. This was successively fol- lowed by others which could support 750, 2,300, and 3,500 pounds. The intensity magnet was the forerunner of the modern telegraph, and in 1831 Henry transmitted a current through a considerable length of wire and succeeded in ringing a bell. On December 1%, 92 years later, this identical bell will be rung during the ceremonies, and the sound will be heard by listeners throughout the United States and probably across the Atlantic. The bell is now a treasured relic in the New York State Museum at Albany. When the Smithsonian Institution was founded, Joseph Henry was selected as its first secretary, and his plan of organization for the new Institution was carried out. His broad-minded policies en- abled the Institution to become firmly established, and through its stated purpose, “the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men,” to attain a world-wide reputation as a center of scientific ac- tivity in America. During Henry’s term as secretary (1846-1878) he inaugurated the system of daily meteorological observations and re- ports which developed into the present United States Weather Bureau. EXPEDITIONS Archeological expedition to China.—The archeological expedition sent to China last February under the joint auspices of the Freer Gallery of Art and the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, and under the immediate direction of Mr. Carl W. Bishop, associate curator of the Freer Gallery, seems already to have paved the way for a far better approach to the problems of Chinese archeology than has ever ex- isted before. Mr. Bishop’s first duties have been to make clear to 132 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 interested Chinese the spirit and purpose of the expedition, to estab- lish among them a feeling of confidence in its integrity and ability, and to organize a self-sustaining archeological society of native scholars which should have the official sanction and support of the Chinese Government in all its undertakings. These delicate and difficult tasks Mr. Bishop has prosecuted with an extraordinary degree of skill and success. The archeological society, with head- quarters in Peking and a membership composed of the most influen- tial scholars and Government officials, has already made arrange- ments with the authorities for the expedition to undertake the exca- vation of two highly important sites, on the understanding that while the records and reports of the operations shall be at its disposal the material “finds” shall be equally divided between the Chinese Government and the expedition. Mr. Bishop also has been fortunate enough to acquire for the expedition several fine examples of Chinese art, but it is his success in establishing for the first time a truly cooperative relationship between Chinese and American archeologists which must be thought to justify the expedition, even had it accomplished nothing else. Biological expedition to China—Through the continued generos- ity of Dr. William L. Abbott, of Philadelphia, an expedition to the Yangtze Valley, in China, was arranged for the purpose of obtain- ing specimens of vertebrates peculiar to that locality, and Mr. Charles M. Hoy, who had previously explored in the central China region, left the United States for this purpose in December, 1922. I greatly regret to report that in September, 1923, Mr. Hoy was seized with an acute attack of appendicitis and that his death oc- curred on the 6th of that month. This is a serious loss to the Mu- seum, but, thanks to Doctor Abbott, arrangements have been made to turn Mr. Hoy’s collecting and field outfit over to the Rev. D. C. Graham, of Suifu, from whom several valuable sendings have been received, and who is contemplating extensive excursions into the more interesting and little known parts of Szechwan. Doctor Abbott’s generosity has been frequently called to the atten- tion of the board, large contributions having been made by him for the expeditions to Borneo, Celibes, Australia, and the present ones in China, in addition to which he has given largely from the results of his personal efforts in Haiti and elsewhere. Alberta and British Columbia—During the summer and fall of 1923, the secretary of the Institution carried on geological field work in the Canadian Rockies in this region. This work was in continua- tion of the operations of the previous year in the main range and the western minor ranges that form the great eastern wall of the Colum- bia River Valley from Golden southward to Kootenay River. The season was favorable for geological work, and a large supply of material was secured which will he studied later. PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS 1338 REORGANIZATION OF GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS The secretary spoke of the proposed reorganization of Government Departments, under which it was proposed to include the Smith- sonian Institution in a Department of Education. The following considerations were mentioned among others: 1. A large part of the success which the Institution has had in carrying on and aiding research work has been due to the fact that varying political fortunes have no effect on its direction. Its secre- tary is selected by the Board of Regents provided for in the act creating the Institution. It is thus enabled to pursue a definite and continuous policy which is unaffected by political changes. 2. During the 77 years of its existence as an independent establish- ment the Smithsonian Institution has acquired a reputation and standing throughout the civilized world as a center of scientific endeavor in America. To place it in the position of a subordinate member of an educational department would impair its standing and so relegate it to an unimportant position far from the intention of its founder, of the act of Congress establishing the Institution, and of those who have since made large gifts to it, principally because it was independent of political and sectarian domination. 3. Freedom of action, one of its chief assets in various scientific activities and in international undertakings, would be entirely lost if the Institution were placed under the administration of a political unit of the Government. There was a very general expression of disapproval of the proposed plan. NEED OF AN ADDITIONAL ASSISTANT SECRETARY The secretary stated that there was urgent need for the provision for an assistant secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, to be charged, under the direction of the secretary, with the administra- tion of the National Museum, Art Galleries, Zoological Park, and the Bureau of American Ethnology, and with such other duties as may from time to time be assigned to him by the secretary. The care and development of these four branches involve the employ- ment of highly trained specialists and their assistants, and the coordi- nation of the activities of each group with those of the other groups and also with those of research and technical workers in the great Government bureaus, such as those of the Agriculture, Interior, ancl Commerce Departments, and the great research institutions and uni- versity laboratories throughout our country and in foreign lands. Such coordination requires the initiative, guidance, and constant supervision of an able, well-trained, and experienced broadly cul- 134 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 tured scientific man who must also have considerable administrative ability. After full discussion, on motion, the following resolution was adopted : Resolved, That the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution declare the need of an additional assistant secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, whose salary shall be provided for by congressional appropriation; the said assistant secretary to be charged with the administration, under the direction of the secretary, of the National Museum, Art Galleries, Zoological Park, and Bureau of American Ethnology, and with such other duties as may from time to time be assigned to him by the secretary. FINANCIAL OUTLOOK The secretary spoke of the urgent need of a larger endowment for the institution; that work of the most important character was being held back for lack of funds to carry it on. The secretary presented a supplemental statement giving a brief résumé of the activities of the various branches of the Institution during the past fiscal year. These will be described more fully in the annual report for 1924. REGULAR MEETING, FEBRUARY 14, 1924 Present: Senator A. Owsley Stanley; Representative R. Walton Moore; Representative Walter H. Newton; Mr. Charles F. Choate, jr-; Mr. Robert S. Brookings; Mr. Irwin B. Laughlin; and the sec- retary, Dr. Charles D. Walcott. Mr. Choate presided. APPOINTMENT OF REGENTS The secretary announced that the Speaker of the House had reap- pointed Messrs. Albert Johnson and R. Walton Moore as Regents and had filled the vacancy caused by Mr. Greene’s election to the Senate by the appointment of Mr. Walter H. Newton, of Minnesota. BUILDING FOR ART AND HISTORY The secretary spoke of the proposed building for the National Gallery of Art and History, displaying sketch plans of its general outline and its location, stating that it comprehended a building somewhat over 500 feet long by 300 feet deep, with an elevation of about 80 feet. He quoted the act granting the use of the site on B Street NW., between Seventh and Ninth Streets. ARCHITECT FOR ART AND HISTORY BUILDING At the annual meeting of the board, on December 13, 1923, the National Gallery of Art Commission reported that provision would PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS 135 be made in the near future for the preparation of building plans for the proposed new building. The commission met recently and re- ported that funds for the employment of an architect had been pro- vided by private contributions from 13 persons to the amount of $11,000. The commission, having canvassed the names of a number of American architects who had been suggested as qualified to pre- pare the plans, recommended the selection of Mr. Charles A. Platt, whose selection was approved by the Board of Regents. After discussion, a motion was adopted appointing Messrs. White and Delano, of the Board of Regents; Messrs. Adams, Melchers, and Gest, of the commission; and the secretary of the Institution as a committee to collaborate Sapp the aeeliseet) in the preparation of the plans for the new building. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The secretary read a letter from Mr. Gilbert H. Grosvenor express- ing the appreciation of the family of the late Dr. A. Graham Bell for the memorial adopted by the board at the annual meeting on December 13 last. SPECIAL MEETING, JUNE 38, 1924 Present: Senator Henry Cabot Lodge; Representative Albert Johnson; Representative Walter H. Newton; the Hon. George Gray; Mr. Henry White; and the secretary, Dr. Charles D. Walcott. Senator Lodge presided. AUTHORITY FOR CALLING SPECIAL MEETINGS The secretary explained that the fundamental act provides for calling special meetings at the request of three Regents, and that this meeting had been called by the executive committee and ap- proved by the chancellor. ADDITIONAL ASSISTANT SECRETARY The secretary brought up the matter of an additional assistant secretary, explaining that at the annual meeting on December 13, 1923, the Board of Regents adopted a resolution declaring the need of such an officer, which had been communicated to the President. With the President’s approval, the Director of the Budget sub- mitted the request to Congress, after the Personnel Classification Board had put the position in class 6. The Appropriations Com- mittee fixed the annual salary at $6,000, and the item was now included in the independent offices bill under “Smithsonian Insti- tution.” 136 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 ESTIMATES FOR NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK The secretary stated that— Estimates are at present submitted by the Smithsonian Institution to the District Commissioners (a copy is forwarded direct to the Bureau of the Budget) for inclusion in the District of Columbia estimates. The commissioners forward these to the Bureau of the Budget with all other estimates int@nded for the District of Columbia appropriation bill. The Director of the Budget returns the complete estimates to the District Commissioners with a state- ment as to the maximum figures that will be allowed the District for the whole bill. It is the duty of the commissioners to reduce the estimates to this figure and return to the Bureau of the Budget. The District Commissioners have their own troubles and urgent require- ments, and, since the allotment made is far under their own estimates, it is only natural that they should give first consideration to items for which they are directly responsible—streets, sewers, fire and police protection, schools, ete. In the three years since the Zoological Park has been included in the District bill, no hearings of any kind have been given the Institution on the Zoo estimates by the District Commissioners. For two years the estimates were simply reduced to the figures for the previous year and re- turned to the Budget without the Institution even knowing the amount thus approved by the commissioners. The commissioners even changed all figures in the detailed statement accompanying the estimates to agree exactly with those of the preceding year, thus presenting to the Budget and later to Con- gress useless and misleading figures in explanation of the proposed ex- penditures. I do not think that the District Commissioners should be given the arbi- trary power to control the finances of the National Zoological Park, which is placed by law under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution. It should be practicable to include the estimate for the Zoological Park in the independent offices bill along with the other estimates for Government bureaus administered under the direction of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. The latter are held responsible for the care and administration of the park and there should be no divided responsibility in natters bearing upon its administration. After discussion, on motion of Mr. Newton, the following resolu- tion was adopted: Resolved, That it is the sense of this meeting of the Board of Regents that the appropriation for the National Zoological Park should be carried in the independent offices bill, as are the items for the other Government bureaus administered under the direction of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Tustitution. GENERAL APPENDIX TO THE SMITHSONIAN REPORT FOR 1924 137 ADVERTISEMENT The object of the Grnrrat Appenprx to the Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution is to furnish brief accounts of scientific dis- covery in particular directions; reports of investigations made by collaborators of the Institution; and memoirs of a general character or on special topics that are of interest or value to the numerous correspondents of the Institution. It has been a prominent object of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution from a very early date to enrich the annual report required of them by law with memoirs illustrating the more remarkable and important developments in physical and biological discovery, as well as showing the general character of the operations of the Institution; and, during the greater part of its history, this purpose has been carried out largely by the publication of such papers as would possess an interest to all attracted by scientific progress. In 1880, induced in part by the discontinuance of an annual sum- mary of progress which for 30 years previously had been issued by well-known private publishing firms, the secretary had a series of abstracts prepared by competent collaborators, showing concisely the prominent features of recent scientific progress in astronomy, geol- ogy, meteorology, physics, chemistry, mineralogy, botany, zoology, and anthropology. This latter plan was continued, though not alto- gether satisfactorily, down to and including the year 1888. In the report for 1889 a return was made to the earlier method of presenting a miscellaneous selection of papers (some of them orig- inal) embracing a considerable range of scientific investigation and discussion. This method has been continued in the present report for 1924. 188 THE ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM? By J. H. JEANS Secretary, Royal Society of London [With 5 plates] The astronomer of to-day has at his disposal telescopes which range in aperture from his naked eye, of aperture about one-fifth of an inch, up to the giant Mount Wilson telescope of more than 100 inches. If we lived in the midst of a uniform infinite field of stars, or in a field which was uniform as far as our telescopes could reach, the numbers of stars visible in different telescopes would be proportional to the cubes of their apertures. In actual fact our naked eyes reveal about 5,000 stars; with a one- inch telescope this number is increased to about 100,000, with a 10-inch to 5,000,000, and with the 100-inch telescope to perhaps 100,000,000. These numbers increase much less rapidly than the cubes of the apertures. We conclude that we are not surrounded by an infinite uniform field of stars. We live in a finite universe, which thins out quite perceptibly within distances reached by telescopes of very moderate size. It is estimated that the whole universe con- sists of some 1,500 million stars, our sun being not very far from the center of the system. Imagine the various celestial objects in this universe arranged according to their distance from us. Disregarding altogether bodies which are much smaller than our earth, we must give first place to the planets Venus and Mars, which approach to within 26 and 35 millions of miles, respectively. Next comes Mercury with a closest approach of 47 million miles, and the sun at 93 million miles. The remainder of the planets follow at distances ranging up to 2,800 million miles, the radius of the orbit of Neptune. But now comes a great gap. The first objects beyond this gap are the faint star Proxima Centauri at a distance of 24 million million miles, or more than 8,000 times the distance of Neptune, and, close to it, a Centauri at 25 million million miles. Next in order come the faint red star Munich 15,040 at 36 million million Discourse delivered at the Royal Institution of Feb. 15. Reprinted by permission from the supplement to Nature, Mar. 1, 1924. ! 139 140 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 miles, and another faint star Lalande 21,185 at about 47 million million miles. Thus our nearest neighbors among the stars are at almost exactly a million times the distances of our nearest neighbors among the planets. After these comes Sirius, the brightest star in the sky, at 50 million million miles. From here on there is a steady succession of objects until we reach distances of more than 20,000 times that of Sirius; but long before these distances are reached other objects, spiral and spheroidal nebule, and ultimately star clusters, are found to be mingled with the stars. The furthest object the distance of which is known with any accuracy is the star cluster N. G. C. 7006, which Shapley estimates to be 25,000 times as distant as Sirius. This cluster is so remote that its light takes 200,000 years to reach us; even for light to cross the cluster takes hundreds of years. To all appearances the star cloud N. G. C. 6822 is still more remote. According to Shapley, its distance is about 6 million million million miles, a distance which lhght takes a million years to traverse. So far as is known at present, this brings us to the end of our universe, or perhaps I ought to say it brings us back to the beginning. It is no easy matter to get all these different distances clearly into focus simultaneously, but let us try. The earth speeds round the sun at about twenty miles a second; in a year it describes an orbit of nearly 600 million miles circumference. If we represent the earth’s orbit by a pinhead or a full stop of radius one-hundredth of an inch, the sun will be an invisible speck of dust, and the earth an ultramicroscopic particle one-millionth of an inch in diameter. Neptune’s orbit, which incloses the whole of the solar system, will be represented by a circle the size of a threepenny piece, while the distance to the nearest star, Proxima Centauri, will be about 75 yards and that to Sirius about 160 yards. On this same scale the distance to the remote star cluster N. G. C. 7006 is 2,400 miles and that to the star cloud N. G. C. 6822 about 12,000 miles, so that roughly speaking the whole universe may be represented by our earth. It thus appears that we are on this occasion to discuss the origin and past history of a system which bears the same relation to the universe as a whole as does a threepenny piece to our earth. Why are we so interested in this particular threepenny piece? Primarily because, although a poor thing, it is our own, or at least one particle of it, one-millionth of an inch in diameter, is our own. But there is a historical reason of a less sentimental kind. We have already noticed the immensity of the gap between our system and its nearest neighbors. As regards astronomical knowledge this gap has taken a great deal of crossing. Well on into last century, human knowl- ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM—JEANS 141 edge of the further side of this gap was infinitesimal; the stars were scarcely more than points of light, described as “fixed stars.” In those days the problem of cosmogony reduced perforce to the prob- lem of the origin of our own system. Recent research has changed all this, and the modern astronomer has a very extensive knowledge of the nature, structure, and move- ments of the various bodies outside our system. The cosmogonist of a century ago could assert that the solar system had evolved in such and such a way, and need have no fear of his theories being upset by comparison with other systems. But if I put before you now a theory of the origin of our system, you will at once inquire as to the behavior of the 1,500 million or so of systems beyond the great gap. Are they following the same evolutionary course as our own system, and, if not, why not? It may be well to consider thes other systems first. Among these 1,500 million or so of objects there are certain com- paratively small classes the nature and interpretation of which are still enigmatical—the planetary nebule, the Cepheid variables, the long-period variables such as Mira Ceti, and a few others. Apart from these, practically all known bodies can be arranged in one single continuous sequence. The sequence is approximately one of increas- ing density; it begins with nebule of almost incredible tenuity and ends with solid stars as dense as iron. There is but little doubt that the sequence is an evolutionary one, for the laws of physics require that as a body radiates heat its density should increase, at least until it can increase no further. Let us begin our survey at the furthest point back to which we can attain on this evolutionary chain—the - nebule. After the enigmatical “ planetary ” nebule have been excluded, the remaining nebule fall into two fairly sharply defined classes, which may be briefly described as regularly and irregularly shaped nebule. The irregularly shaped nebule comprise such objects as the great nebula in Orion, and the nebulosity surrounding the Pleiades. Until quite recently these irregular nebule were supposed to be of great evolutionary importance. It was noticed that they were usually associated with the very hottest stars; whence arose a beautifully simple cosmogony asserting that these very hot stars were the immediate products of condensation of the nebulz, and that their after life consisted merely of a gradual cooling until they got quite cold. This cosmogony was too simple to live for long—it was buried some ten years ago by the researches of Russell, Hertzsprung, and others. Thanks to these researches, we now know that the very hot stars associated with irregular nebule, so far from being newly born, are standing at the summit of their lives awaiting their decline into old age. 142 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 A mass of hot gas isolated in space radiates heat, and this causes it to contract. If the mass radiated without contracting, it would, of course, get cooler; on the other hand, if it contracted without radiating, it would get hotter. But when radiation and contraction are proceeding together it is not obvious without mathematical in- vestigation which of the two tendencies will take command. In 1870 Homer Lane showed that a mass of gas of density low enough for the ordinary gas laws to be approximately obeyed, will in actual fact get hotter as it radiates heat away. Cooling does not set in until a density is reached at which the gas laws are already beginning to fail—that is to say when liquefaction and solidification are already within measurable distance. Thus we see that maximum temper- ature is associated with middle age in a star, the age at which the star may no longer be regarded as a perfect gas. At this period of middle age the surface temperature of the star may be anything up to about 25,000° C., while the temperature at its center will amount to millions of degrees. Its average density will probably be some- thing like one-tenth of that of water. It is still not known why stars at this special maximum temperature are so commonly asso- ciated with irregular nebule. Possibly it may be that only stars at the very highest temperatures are capable of lighting up surrounding nebulosity which would otherwise remain invisible. Be this as it may, it is fairly clear that these irregular nebular masses are not an essential part of the evolutionary chain. They are probably mere by-products, and as such may be dismissed from further con- sideration. We turn to the nebule of regular shape. A great number of these appear as circles or ellipses, some as ellipses drawn out at the ends of their major-axes, sometimes almost to sharp points. An example of this last type of figure is shown in Plate 1, Figure 1 (Nebula N. G. C. 3115). A number of these regular-shaped nebule have been examined spectroscopically, and in every case have been found to be rotating with high velocities about an axis which appears in the sky as the shortest diameter of the nebula. The mathematician can calculate what configurations will be assumed by masses of tenuous gas in rotation. If rotation were entirely absent the mass would, of ‘course, assume a spherical shape. With slow rotation its shape would be an oblate spheroid of low ellipticity—an orange-shaped figure like our earth. At higher rotations the spheroidal shape is departed from, the equator bulging out more and more until finally, for quite rapid rotation, the shape is approximately that of a double convex lens having a sharp circular edge for its equator, the shape, in fact, exhibited by the nebula shown in Plate 1, Figure 1. The whole ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM—JEANS 1438 succession of figures, if looked at along all possible lines of sight, will exhibit precisely the series of shapes which are found to be exhibited by the regular nebule under discussion. There are, then, good grounds for conjecturing that these nebule are rotating masses of gas; but we can test this conjecture further before finally ac- cepting it. As a mass of gas radiates its energy away it must shrink. If it is in rotation, its angular momentum will remain constant, and the shrunken mass can only carry its original dose of angular momentum by rotating more rapidly than before. This conception, which formed the corner-stone of the cosmogonies of Kant and Laplace, is still of fundamental importance to the cosmogonist of to-day. Thus every nebula, as it grows older, will rotate ever more and more rapidly and, barring accidents, will in due course reach the configura- tion shown in Plate 1, Figure 1. This configuration marks a verita- ble landmark in the evolutionary path of a nebula. Until this con- figuration is reached the effect of shrinkage can be adjusted, and is adjusted, by a mere change of shape; the mass carries the same angular momentum as before, in spite of its reduced size, by the simple expedient of rotating more rapidly, and restores equilibrium by bulging out its equator. But mathematical analysis shows that this is no longer possible when once this landmark has been passed. Further shrinkage now involves an actual break-up of the nebula, the excess of the angular momentum beyond that which can be carried by the shrunken mass being thrown off into space by the ejection of matter from the equator of the nebula. We have so far spoken of the nebular equator as being of circular shape, as it undoubtedly would be if the nebula were alone by itself in space. But an actual nebula must have neighbors, and these neighbors will raise tides on its surface, just as the sun and moon raise tides on the surface of the rotating earth. Whatever the neigh- bors are, there will always be two points of high tide antipodally opposite to one another, and two points of low tide intermediate be- tween the two points of high tide. Thus the equator, instead of being strictly circular, will be slightly elliptical. If the equator of the nebula had been a perfect circle, and if the nebula had been in all respects symmetrical about its axis of rota- tion, the ejection of matter would have started from all points of the equator simultaneously. Indeed, there could be no conceivable reason why it should start at one point rather than at any other point. But in nature we do not expect to find perfect balances of this kind; if the main factors are of exactly equal weight some quite minor factor invariably intervenes to turn the balance in one direction or another. In the present problem there could be no 144 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 choice as between one point of the equator and another if the various minor factors were absent, but when these minor factors come into play, a discrimination at once takes place. Assuming, as seems likely, that the tidal irregularities are the minor factors which de- termine the choice of points for the ejection of matter, mathematical investigation shows that the ejection of matter will take place from the two antipodal points on the equator at which the tide is highest. The equator being slightly elliptical, these points are of course the ends of its major-axis. After the nebula has passed its critical land- mark, shown in Plate 1, Figure 1, its shape ought to be similar to the lenticular figure which formed the landmark, but with the additional feature of matter streaming out from two antipodal points on its equator. This describes exactly what is observed in the spiral nebule. Plate 1, Figure 2 (N. G. C. 5866) shows a nebula in which the ejection of matter is just beginning; we notice the bulge along the equator and the dark band which we may assume represents ejected matter which is already cooling. Plate 2, Figure 1 (N. G. C. 4594) exhibits a more advanced state of development; and Plate 2, Figure 2 (N. G. C. 891), a still later one in which the ejected matter already dwarfs the central nucleus in size, although probably not in total mass. In all these figures we are looking at the nebule very approxi- mately edge-on. Plate 3, Figure 1 (M. 51) shows the well-known “ whirlpool” in Canes Venatici, a nebula which may be very similar physically to that shown in Plate 2, Figure 2, but we see it face on; we are looking along its axis of rotation. Again the central nucleus occupies only a small part of the picture. Plate 3, Figure 2 (M. 101) and Plate 4, Figure 1 (M. 81) shows two nebule, the evolution of which has proceeded still further, so much so that in the last of these there is very little nucleus left, and by far the greater part of what we see is what we believe to be ejected matter. In both of these last two nebule it will be seen that the arms of ejected matter proceed from two antipodal points, exactly as re- quired by dynamical theory. So far we have spoken of the matter in these arms as ejected matter because theory has suggested this interpretation, but we need not be satisfied with theory; there is very direct observational evidence on the point. Various astrono- mers, especially Van Maanen, have detected motion in the arms of many nebule, including the three shown in Plate 3, Figures 1 and 2, and Plate 4, Figure 1. Their observations show that the arms are in truth jets of matter coming out of the nucleus. Plate 4, Figure 2 shows the motion found by Van Maanen for about 100 points in the nebula M. 81, the arrows showing the motion in a period of 1,300 ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM—JEANS 145 years,” and the measures on the various other nebule show sub- stantially similar results; you will see that there is little room for _ doubting that the arms consist of matter flowing out of the nucleus. On measuring the actual velocities of flow it is found that in nebula M. 51 (pl. 3, fig. 1) a particle of the jet makes a complete revolution around the nucleus in about 45,000 years; in M. 81 (pl. 4, fig. 1) the corresponding figure is about 58,000 years, and in M. 101 (pl. 8, fig. 2) about 85,000 years. From these figures it is possible to estimate the density of the matter in the nucleus. It is found that the densities must be of the order of 10-?° gm. per cubic centimeter, a figure representing a vacuum more perfect than any obtainable in the laboratory. The small amount of gas in an ordi- nary electric light bulb, if spread out through St. Paul’s Cathedral, would still be something like 10,000 times as dense as the nucleus of a spiral nebula. The nebula shown in Plate 2, Figure 2 exhibits a lumpy or granu- lated appearance in its arms. In M. 51 (pl. 3, fig. 1) this takes the form of pronounced condensations, and in the outer regions of M. 101 (pl. 3, fig. 2) and M. 81 (pl. 4, fig. 1) these condensations have further developed into detached and almost star-like points of light. When gas is set free out of an ordinary nozzle into a vacuum it immediately spreads into the whole of the space accessible to it. Why then does not the jet of gas shot off from the equator of the nebula do the same? The explanation is to be found in the gigantic scale on which this latter process takes place. As we increase the scale of the phenomenon the mutual gravitational attraction of the particles of gas becomes of ever greater importance until finally, by the time nebular dimensions are reached, gravitation overcomes the expansive influence of gas pressure and is able to hold the jet to- gether as a compact stream. But, as soon as this happens, dynamical theory predicts that a further phenomenon ought to appear. As regards the distribution of density along the filament, the influence of gas-pressure is in the direction of keeping the density spread out uniformly, while that of gravitation is toward making the stream condense with compact globules. When nebular dimensions are reached the latter tendency prevails, and the issuing jet of gas breaks up into drops much as a jet of water issuing from a nozzle does, although for a very different physical reason. In the photographs reproduced in Plate 2, Figure 2; Plate 3, Figures 1 and 2; and Plate 4, Figure 1, we can trace this process going on. Dynamical theory not only predicts that these globules of gas must form, but also enables us to calculate their size, mass, and The points surrounded by small circles are stars which are believed to have no physi- cal connection with the nebula. 146 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 distance apart. A comparison between their distance apart, as cal culated in kilometers, and their angular distance apart, as observed in the sky, leads at once to an estimate of the distance of the nebula to which they belong. It is gratifying to find that estimates of nebular distances made in this way are in good agreement with estimates made in other ways. The calculation of the masses of these condensations leads to a still more interesting and significant result. In every nebula for which the calculation can be made, the calculated mass of a single condensation proves to be approximately equal to the mass of the average star. ‘This gives, I believe, the key to the evolutionary process we have been considering—we have been watching the creation of the stars. In Plate 1, Figure 1 we saw the raw material—a gaseous mass of ex- treme tenuity, already moulded, as a result of shrinkage and conse- quent increase of rotation, to the stage at which disintegration is ubout to commence. Further shrinkage takes place, and in Plate 1, Figure 2, and Plate 2, Figure 1 we see the ejection of jets of gas from which the future stars will in due course be made. In Plate 2, Figure 2, and Plate 3, Figure 1 individual stars are beginning to form, although at present only as vague condensations in what is still a continuous nebular mass. Finally, the outermost parts of Plate 3, Figure 2, and Plate 4, Figure 1 show us the finished prod- uct—separate masses, although still far more tenuous than ordinary stars, starting off on their independent existences. Each of these masses will go through the changes we have already briefly described. It will contract, getting hotter in doing so, until it reaches a maxi- mum temperature just as the gas laws are beginning to fail, after which it cools and contracts into a dead dark mass. The family of stars born out of a single nebula may be millions in number. They may either mingle with the general mass of the stars or, if the original nebula was sufficiently remote from the main universe of stars, may form a separate colony by themselves. In illustration of the former alternative, numbers of groups of stars are known—e. g. the Pleiades, the stars of the Great Bear—in which all the members have a common velocity and, generally speaking, similar physical constitutions also. All the stars of any such group are voyaging through space together, and have obviously done so since they first came into being. The alternative possibility of a family of stars forming a detached colony by themselves is perhaps exemplified in the so-called “globular” star-clusters, such as the well-known cluster in Hercules (pl. 5). These are globular only in name, for Shapley has found that they are of an elliptical structure, showing symmetry about a plane precisely as might be expected if they were the final product of a rotating nebula. Smithsonian Report, 1924.—Jeans |. REGULAR SHAPED NEBULA (N. G. C. 3115) 2. REGULAR SHAPED NEBULA (N. G. C. 5866) WITH BAND OF DARK MATTER ON EQUATOR Smithsonian Report, 1924.—Jeans |. REGULAR SHAPED NEBULA (N. G. C. 4594) wITH RING OF DARK MATTER SURROUNDING EQUATOR . SPIRAL NEBULA (N. G. C. 891) SEEN EDGE ON 1924,.—Jeans PLATE 3 |. SPIRAL NEBULA IN CANES VENATICI (M. 51) 2. SPIRAL NEBULA IN URSA MAuor (M. 101) (18 "W) VINSAN WWuldS S3HL SO SWYHY AHL NI.NOILOIW °S (18 ‘W) YOrVIA, YSYN NI VINEAN DvuyldS *} b 3LV1d suvef~—'pz6| ‘Wodey ueluosy ws PLATE 5 iS) HERCULE IN ) oD é Je Ans STAR CLUSTER (M Report, 1924, Smithsonian ——— a ae -— eS _ <->. e A=? = - oe a ‘0 = » =— Be i ae - ; ; =i ce at it ry = ‘nmip = i” » *i-¢ : a id Ze ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM—JEANS 147 Probably we ought not to regard the two possibilities just men- tioned as sharply cut alternatives. It is more likely that they repre- sent the two extreme ends of a continuous chain of possible histories for the family of stars born out of a single nebula. It seems quite possible that what we describe as “the main mass of the stars” may be nothing more than a collection of clusters of stars, each cluster having originated out of a single nebula. The clusters are by now so intermingled that it is difficult to look on them as distinct groups of stars, although we can still find some evidence that this may be the proper way of regarding them. In 1905 Kapteyn showed that the stars in the neighborhood of the sun formed what he described as two “star streams,” each stream moving with its own velocity in space. Except that it begs the question as to the extent of these streams in space, it would have been equally accurate to describe them as forming two intermingled moving clusters. Shortly after, Eddington and Halm, independently, found a third stream or moy- ing cluster, constituted of the very hot stars which the astronomer classifies as stars of types B and O. In this case we know the extent of the cluster in space and also its approximate shape. According to Charlier, it is shaped like a round biscuit lying parallel te the Milky Way, its diameter being about 2.8 times its thickness. Any cluster of stars having a common origin, whatever shape it may as- sume at first, will be rapidly knocked out of shape when it begins to intermingle with other stars. Dynamical theory shows that after it has been knocked about ad infinitum in our universe of stars, such a cluster ought to assume the shape of a round biscuit parallel to the Milky Way, the ratio of its diameter to its thickness being about 2.5. ‘This agrees sufficiently well with what is observed to suggest that all the stars in this stream have a common origin, and the same is true of many of the smaller known moving clusters, such as the Ursa Major cluster already mentioned. Thus, although we can not claim that anything is definitely proved, there is every justification for thinking of the main mass of the stars as a jumble of inter- mingled moving clusters, each cluster owing its existence to a sepa- rate nebula. This possibility has no very direct bearing on the ques- tion of the origin of our solar system; it has been mentioned merely as rounding off our knowledge of what appears to be the main evolu- tionary process of the stars. In all its essentials except one, this evolutionary process is similar to, and in its earlier stages almost identical with, that which Laplace, in his famous nebular hypothesis, imagined as the origin of the solar system. We have seen before our eyes the rotating and shrink- ing nebula finally shedding matter from its equator; we have watched the condensation of this matter into separate masses, and 148 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 have finally witnessed the start of these detached masses on their voyages into space, all precisely as pictured by Laplace. The one essential difference is that of size. The evolutionary process we have been watching occurs on a scale such as Laplace never dreamed of. His primeval nebula was supposed to be of about the size of Neptune’s orbit, a size represented on the scale I used at the beginning of this lecture by a threepenny-bit. On this same scale the nucleus alone of a good-sized spiral nebula, such as those shown in Plate 3, Figure 2, and Plate 4, Figure 1, would be — about the size of the Albert Hall, while the arms would sprawl over — the whole of Hyde Park and Kensington. The pictures of these © nebule that you have before you would have to be enlarged to the size of a whole country, or even possibly of a whole continent, before a body the size of our earth became visible in them at all. Although the parent nebulz we have been considering are all in- comparably greater than Laplace’s imaginary nebula, yet each tiny condensation, as it starts off into space, is a gaseous nebula the mass of which is just about equal to that imagined by Laplace and the size of which is not perhaps very greatly different. If, then, this younger generation of nebule meet with the same experiences in life as their giant parents before them, we should not have to look far for an explanation of the origin of the planets, and if the third gen- eration again repeated the experience of their ancestors, the satellites of the planets are also accounted for. But mathematical research and observation agree in disposing of so simple an explanation of the origin of the solar system. As we have seen, it is only because the filaments in the spiral nebule are of such huge size that gravita- tion is able to cause condensation in opposition to the expansive tendency of gas pressure. A nebula of mass comparable to our sun might go through the same life history as the bigger nebula until matter began to be thrown off from its equator, but after this the dif- ference of scale would begin to tell, and the subsequent course of events would be widely different. The ejected matter could not condense into filaments, still less into detached globules; it would merely constitute a diffuse atmosphere surrounding the parent nebula. As such a system shrank by the emission of radiation, the constancy of angular momentum would, at first, merely demand that more and more gas should be transferred from the center to the atmosphere. But mathematical investigation shows that in time, after the cen-— tral star had shrunk to a certain critical density, perhaps somewhere about one-tenth of that of water, a cataclysmic period would ensue, from which the mass would emerge as a binary star—two stars of © comparable masses revolving about one another nearly in contact © and in approximately circular orbits. This is a formation with — : ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM—JEANS 149 which the practical astronomer is very familiar. He finds that a very large proportion—perhaps about one-half—of the stars in the sky are binary, and he can detect an evolutionary sequence in these binary stars. The sequence starts with the formation just described in which the two constituent stars are almost in contact. As it progresses the stars move ever farther and farther apart, while the eccentricity of their orbits increases. Theory indicates that the process of fission which has broken up the original star into two constituents may repeat itself in either or both of these constituents, so that the final product may be a “ multiple” star of either three or four constituents. Prof. H. N. Russell, investigating this question theoretically, found that certain numerical relations must hold be- tween the relative distances of the various constituents of a mul- tiple star; he also showed that the predictions of theory are con- firmed eae by observation. So far, then, theory and observation have gone hand in hand. We have enced the evolution of astronomical matter through stages of ever-increasing density, from the most tenuous of nebule to the densest of multiple stars, and at almost every stage observation has confirmed the predictions of theory. Not all astronomical matter will traverse the whole length of this evolutionary course. The driving force on this course is increase of rotation consequent on the shrinkage produced by emission of radiation. When the shrinkage has proceeded a certain length solidification sets in; the rotation can increase now no further, and evolution, in the physical sense, stops. The distance along the course to which any particular system pro- ceeds depends in effect on the amount of rotation with which it was originally endowed. Let a nebula begin its career with absolutely no rotation and it will remain sperical in shape throughout its whole career, ending merely as a cold non-radiating, but always spherical, mass. Such a nebula never even gets away from the starting-post. It is true that this is not a likely event, but for aught we know many a nebula may freeze and die before reaching the critical configura- tion (pl. 1, fig. 1) at which the birth of stars first commences. Similarly many of the stars may become cold and so cease to develop without ever attaining the stage at which binary systems are formed. In the same way many binary systems must fail to develop into multiple systems. Here again observation is with us; there are ten times as many purely binary systems known as there are multiple systems which have proceeded beyond the binary stage. Theory has traced out for us the whole length of the evolutionary course, but theory and observation agree that not many systems stay out the whole course. 20397—25——_11 150 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 We now come to the crux of the whole question. Nowhere on this course have we found our solar system or anything in the least degree resembling it. If our sun had been unattended by planets we should have had no difficulty in guessing its origin. It might reasonably be supposed to have been born out of a nebula in the normal way, but to have emerged with insufficient rotation to have carried it on to the later stages of fission into a binary or a multiple system. It might, in fact, be supposed to have had the same evolutionary career as half of the stars in the sky. In support of the conjecture that our sun had been born out of a nebula in the ordinary way, we could note that its mass is about equal to what we calculate ought to be the mass of a star born out of a nebula, and that it is, apart from its planets, similar in every way to millions of other stars to which we may ascribe a nebular origin. In support of the conjecture that it had stopped short on its evolutionary course from want of adequate rotation to carry it on further, we should merely have to note the slowness of its present rotation. A simple calculation shows that the sun has only a small fraction of the amount of angular mo- mentum requisite for fission. Even if we add the angular mo- mentum of all the planets, as we ought if we suppose that these at one time formed part of the sun, the result is the same—the whole system can never have had more than a fraction of the angular mo- mentum necessary for a rotational break-up into a binary star. Thus the sun is a quite intelligible structure. The difficulty of our problem is not the origin of the sun but the origin of the planets and of their satellites. Certain special types of astronomical structure have already been mentioned as not falling into place on the main line of evolutionary development. The particular examples chosen were the planetary nebule, the Cepheid variables, and the long-period variables. The question now arises as to whether we must add the solar system to the list. The circumstance that certain structures do not find a place in the evolutionary main line suggests that off this main line may be branch lines on to which the development of a system may in cer- tain circumstances be turned. This, indeed, is only what might be anticipated. We should no more expect two stars to have precisely the same experiences in their careers than we should expect it of two humans. Our normal star has been supposed to develop in a uni- verse of its own, where its angular momentum remained constant and where it was in every way unmolested by its neighbors. The mathematician finds it convenient to allot a whole infinite universe to each star, but nature does not. Nevertheless, the conditions postu- lated by the mathematician are nearer to the truth than is often the case in his idealized problems. On the scale we have already used, on which the sun was represented by a microscopic particle y5}55 inch . ae ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM—JEANS 151 in diameter, the most gigantic of known giant stars may be repre- sented by a pin head one-thirtieth of an inch in diameter. The pres- ent spacing of the stars is such that on this scale there is less than one star to a volume equal to the interior of St. Paul’s Cathedral. Space then can not be said to be overcrowded, and although it is possible that the stars may disturb one another as they move in their courses, it is clear that any serious disturbance of one star by another must be a rather exceptional event. Obviously we have been right in regarding the evolution of a star entirely undisturbed by its neighbors as the normal course of evolution, and we can now see why the vast majority of stars follow this normal course. To all appearances, the stars which have been sidetracked off this normal course are extraordinarily few in number. The total number of stars in the sky is about equal to the total pepulation of the earth; the number of known exceptional systems would at most populate one small town, although, of course, we can scarcely even conjecture how many exceptional systems there may be which are still un- known to us. There is no reason for supposing that the sidetracking influence has in every case been a neighboring star, but the systems known to be exceptional are sufficiently few to suggest that this may have been the cause in a large proportion of cases. The immediate question before us, however, is not that of the exceptional systems in general, but of our own solar system. Was it a neighboring star that threw it off the main line of evolutionary development? Here, for the first time, observational astronomy denies us any help. Not a single system is known outside our solar system which resembles it in the least degree. The reason is not that no such system exists, but that we could not see it if it did. An astronomer on a distant star observing our system would see Jupiter as the brightest object after our sun, but the ratio of their luminosities would be as 300,000,000 to 1. Seen from our nearest known neighbor in space, Proxima Centauri, the sun would appear as a first magnitude star, and Jupiter as a star of magnitude 22.2, the distance between them being at most four seconds of arc. A star of magnitude 22.2 is still well beyond the range of our largest telesecpes, and would be doubly invisible if it had a first magnitude star only four seconds away. We must wait for a very great in- crease in the power of our telescopes before there will be any hope of seeing systems similar to our own in the sky, even if they exist no further away from us than Proxima Centauri. Thus it is clear that our discussion has now left the regions in which observation can be called upon to make suggestions or to check our conclusions: henceforth we have theory alcne to guide us. Let us start on our quest by noticing that our solar system has quite clearly marked characteristics. It is no mere jumble of bodies 152 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 looking as though they had fallen together by accident—had it presented this appearance the problem of its origin might reason- ably be dismissed as hopeless. Not only has the principal system of the sun and its planets got clearly marked characteristics, but also these same characteristics reappear in the smaller systems formed by Jupiter and Saturn, each with its family of satellites. Each of these small systems is, to all intents and purposes, a replica in minia- ture of the solar system, so much so that no suggested origin for one system can be regarded as satisfactory unless at the same time it explains the origin of the other two. The principal features com- mon to the three systems are, that the orbits in all three systems are with few exceptions, all in or close to one plane, that these orbits are all described in the same direction, and that the masses of the secondaries, whether planets or satellites, are all small in compari- son with those of the primaries around which they revolve. Thus the sun has a mass equal to 1,047 times that of his greatest planet, Jupiter, while Jupiter’s mass is about 11,000 times that of his most massive satellite. The smallest disparity in mass is found in our own Earth-Moon system with a mass ratio of 81 to 1. In systems possessing many satellites (those of the Sun, Jupiter, and Saturn) there is a general tendency for the masses to increase up to a maxi- mum as we pass outward through the system, and then to decrease to a minimum. Thus in the main system there is a regular progres- sion through Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars to the maximum mass of Jupiter, broken only by the anomalous position of Mars, while on the descending side the progression through Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune fails in regularity only through Neptune being some few per cent more massive than Uranus. | The main line of evolutionary progress has been supposed to be that of a mass of shrinking, rotating matter—first gaseous, then liq- uid, then solid—left to itself in space. Such a system must show one very marked characteristic throughout its whole career, namely, a plane of symmetry. In its earliest stage of all, when the system is a mere chaos of independent molecules, the plane will coincide with what mathematicians describe as the “invariable plane” of the system. Later, when the mass has assumed the regular shape of a rotating nebula, the plane is the equatorial plane of the nebula, the plane in which the arms subsequently appear and in which the stellar condensations start off in their orbits. The symmetry of spiral nebulz about their equatorial planes would of itself suggest strongly that they have developed to their present formations as rotating bodies practically undisturbed by external influences. If our solar system had developed out of an undisturbed rotat- ing mass, it, too, ought to exhibit a plane of symmetry. The orbits of nearly all the planets and their satellites do, in actual fact, lie ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM—JEANS 153 very nearly in one plane, which, to this extent, is, of course, a plane of symmetry. But the sun’s axis of rotation is not perpendicular to this plane; the sun has its own plane of symmetry in its equator, and this is inclined at an angle of 7° to the plane of orbits. The existence of these two distinct planes is enough in itself to suggest that our system has not developed simply out of an undis- turbed rotating mass. Thus, in tracing our system back to its origin, we naturally look at the effects to be expected from rotation plus some external influence. To a first rough approximation, it is natural to suppose that the plane of the sun’s equator records the plane of rotation of the original system, while the plane of the plan- etary orbits was in some way determined by the extraneous disturb- ance. Of all the interactions between two separate astronomical bodies, gravitational attraction is likely to be by far the most potent. The moon has been accused of exerting all kinds of influences on our earth, as, for example, on its weather, on the destinies, the emotions, and even on the sanity of its inhabitants; but the only influence which survives scientific examination is gravitational attraction as evidenced by the semidiurnal tides. It is true that a head-on colli- sion between two astronomical bodies would produce more imme- diately dramatic results than a mere tidal pull; but we shall not consider such an event here. Head-on collisions must of necessity be exceedingly rare; systems that experience them would undoubt- edly be deflected from the main line of evolutionary progress on to a branch line; but it does not seem likely that this branch line con- tains systems like our own. As time does not permit the explora- tion of all conceivable branch lines, let us turn at once to that which seems most likely to reveal the origin of our system—the branch line that diverges from the main line at the occurrence of a violent tidal encounter. On the earth, our moon raises tides the average height of which at high tide is only a few feet. This height of high tide is only about a ten-millionth part of the earth’s radius, a fraction which we may designate as the tidal fraction. If the moon were ten times as massive, the tidal fraction would be increased tenfold; if it were brought to half its present distance, the tidal fraction would be in- creased eightfold. If we agree to measure masses in terms of the body on which the tide is raised as unity and to measure lengths in terms of the radius of the same body, then the tidal fraction is equal to the mass of the tide-generating body divided by the cube of its distance, say M/R*. Using this formula, we find that our nearest neighbor, Proxima Centauri, raises on the sun a tide of quite infinitesimal magnitude; the tidal fraction is about 10-*, and the actual height of tide is of the order of 10-°% em., or, say, one- 154 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 fiftieth of the radius of an electron. This single illustration will show, and with some margin to spare, that under normal ccnditions the tidal influence between neighboring stars is utterly insignificant. For tidal forces to become important to cosmogony, conditions must be abnormal. Our sun happens at the present moment to have no especially near neighbor; but it is fairly certain that at some time, in its wander- ings through the stars, it must have passed stars within a much less distance than that which now separates it from Proxima Cen- tauri. The most trustworthy lines of evidence as to the earth’s age, namely, those from geology and radioactivity, indicate an age of from 800 to 1,100 million years. For precision, let us think of the sun’s age as 1,000 million years. Let us imagine for the moment, what is no doubt very far from the truth, that throughout all this thousand million years the sun and all the stars have moved just as they are moving now, with the same average velocities as now, and keeping at the same average distance apart. Throughout this thou- sand million years the distance of our sun from its nearest neighbor will have been continually changing, and one star after another will, of course, have taken up the réle of nearest neighbor. But there must have been some one instant in this thousand million years at which cur sun was nearer than at any other instant to its nearest neighbor. A calculation based on the theory of probability indicates that this nearest distance is likely to have been of the order of 7X10" em., a distance which, although only a six-hundredth of that which now separates us from Proxima Centauri, is still equal to fifteen times the radius of Neptune’s orbit. Even if the sun had filled the whole of Neptune’s orbit, the tidal fraction at this closest encounter, on the supposition that the nearest star had a mass equal to the sun, would only be equal to 1/(15)* or 1/3375, giving a height of tide which is quite unimportant from the point of view of cos- mogony. So long as things have been as they now are, tidal actions between separate stars must have been quite devoid of cosmogonic interest, except possibly in very special cases of quite exceptionally close approaches. It is, of course, possible that our sun was the victim of one of those exceptionally close encounters. Nothing can be brought against the supposition of such an event, except its a pricri improbability. The result of such a close encounter might, as we shall see, be the creation of a system in many ways resembling our solar system. Our calculations of probabilities and improbabilities have, how- ever, rested upon the admittedly errcneous assumption that stellar conditions have been similar to the present ones for a period of — a thousand million years. On looking back through the past history of the universe, we come to a time when conditions must have been ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM—JEANS 155 very different from what they are now. We come to a time, which we have already considered, when our sun had not yet assumed its present stellar characteristics. It was a condensation in the arm of a spiral nebula moving with thousands of similar condensations towards a free career in space. Its density was enormously lower than it now is, and its size correspondingly greater. It was also much nearer to its neighbors than, in all probability, it has ever been since. In this early stage of its existence, the tidal effects of its neighbors may well have been enormous; we shall pass to exact figures in a moment. In general, the passage of one star past another merely raises a tide which subsides as the tide-raising body recedes. Even when the approach is so close that the height of the tide raised is greater than the original radius of the star, the recession of the disturbing star may result in the disturbed star relapsing merely to its original spherical form. But there is a limit which must not be passed, and if the disturbing body passes this limit, all hope of the star resuming its original shape is lost. The distance of the limit depends pri- marily on the mass of the disturber; to a lesser degree it depends on the rotation, shape, and density-distribution of the primary star; and to some extent it depends on the velocity of the two stars rela- tive to one another. We shall get a tolerable idea of the march of events if we suppose the primary star to be surrounded by an imag- inary sphere the radius of which depends solely on the mass of the disturbing star. If this mass is equal to the mass of the primary, the radius of this imaginary sphere will be about 214 times the radius of the primary; if the disturbing star has 8 times the mass of the pri- mary, the radius of the imaginary sphere will be 414 times that of the primary, and so on. So long as the center of the visiting star remains outside the sphere, a tide is raised which recedes as the visit- ing star disappears, but the moment the visiting star invades this sphere an entirely new phenomenon appears. As the approach of the disturber raises the tide to higher and higher levels, the highest points of the tide move ever farther away from the star’s center into regions where the gravitational attraction of the star gets weaker and weaker. At the same time, of course, the gravitational pull of the visiting star gets stronger and stronger. Finally, just as the visiting star crosses the critical sphere, its gravi- tational pull just balances that of the primary—it is this condition that defines the critical sphere. If the visiting star further invades this critical sphere, the particles at high tide are shot away from the primary star, the resultant gravitational force on them now being definitely toward the visiting star; they are, of course, immediately replaced by others, which are shot off in turn, and so on. The total effect is that a filament or jet of gas is shot out from the point of 156 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 high tide. Each particle of this jet moves under the combined forces of the primary and of the visiting star, and the problem of determin- ing its orbit is a special case of the problem of three bodies, which unfortunately is not soluble. But the general result is that the jet undergoes various contortions while moving all the time in the plane which contains the orbit of the visiting star. Tf such a jet had been thrown off the sun simply by an increase of rotation consequent on shrinkage, its gravitational attraction would, as we have seen, be inadequate to resist the expansive effect of its own gas pressure, and it would have been rapidly dissipated away into space. In the present situation conditions are very different, the essential difference being that, while shrinkage from loss of radiation is a very slow process, tidal disruption may be a very rapid process. The rate of a star’s rotation will alter but slightly in a thousand years, whereas 10 years may suffice for a tide-raising body to come, do its work, and go away again. The filament of gas set free by increase of rotation would be of extreme tenuity; a filament set free by a tidal cataclysm might easily be of sufficient substance for its own gravitation to hold it together as a compact whole. If gravitation is potent enough to do this, it will also be potent enough to break up the filament into condensations, just as the fila- ments of spiral nebule are broken up into condensations. But here again an essential difference must be taken into account. The shrink- age of a spiral nebula is a slow secular process. Year after year and century after century the filament will be ejected without change of character—the process may be compared to the paying out of a coil of rope. But the tidal disruption of a star is a rapid, even cataclys- mic event; within a few years the emission of the filament starts, reaches a maximum, declines, and ends. There is no steady paying out here; the process ought rather to be compared to the discharge of a torpedo, or other body which is thickest in the middle and tapers off at the two ends. When a filament of this shape breaks up into condensations it will form no long chain of similar masses, but a small number of unequal masses. It is natural to conjecture a priori that large masses are likely to form out of the central portions where matter is most plentiful, and smaller masses at the ends where matter is scarce. Such a question can not, of course, be finally settled by a priori conjectures, but in the present case an exact discussion of the problem indicates that the a priori view is the right one, and suggests that the comparative abundance of matter in the central part of the filament may provide an explanation of the appearance of the more massive planets, Jupiter and Saturn, near the center of the sequence of planets. Obviously, if a tidal cataclysm can explain the existence of the planets, it can also, in general terms at least, explain the existence of ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM—JEANS 157 the satellites of these planets. For immediately after the birth of any planet, say Jupiter, the original situation repeats itself in minia- ture. Jupiter now plays the part originally assigned to the sun, while either the wandering star or the sun itself, or possibly the com- bination of the two, acts the part of the tide-raising disturber. Again we get the emitted filament, again the formation of condensations, and again, as the ultimate result, a sequence of detached bodies with the most massive in the middle. Since Jupiter, the sun, and the dis- turbing star all move in the same plane—namely, the plane of Jupi- ter’s orbit—it follows that Jupiter’s satellites, when formed, ought also to move in this plane, as in actual fact they are observed to do. So long as we merely discuss the matter in general terms it looks as though the process might go on for generation after generation, each member of a family of satellites producing minor satellites to circle round itself, and so on ad infinitum. Common sense suggests that this can not go on forever; there must be a limit somewhere. Exact calculation confirms the view of common-sense, with the dis- concerting addition, that we are in danger of overstepping the limit if we attempt to account for the whole of the satellites in the solar system in the way just suggested. I have already mentioned a mathematical formula which enables us to calculate the masses of the bodies formed out of the condensa- tions in the arms of spiral nebule. The same formula puts us in a position to calculate the’ masses of the planets which ought to be formed from the filament drawn out of the sun. Let us suppose that when the tidal cataclysm took place the sun had a radius equal to that of Neptune’s orbit, and therefore a mean density of 5.510-¥. Let us suppose that at the middle parts of the ejected filament the mean density was one-tenth of this, or 5.510%. Let us further suppose that the temperature of the ejected matter corresponded to a molecular velocity 410, this being about the molecular velocity of hydrogen or oxygen at their ordinary boiling points. Then our formula indicates that the masses of the planets formed out of the middle parts of the filament ought to be about 10°° gm., a mass inter- mediate between those of Jupiter and Saturn. This is satisfactory as showing that there is no numerical difficulty in supposing Jupiter and Saturn to have come into being in the way we have imagined. If we like to accept the tidal theory of their birth, we can reverse our calculation and can calculate from their present known masses what must have been the density of the matter from which they were formed. Naturally an inverted calculation of this kind is not applicable only to Jupiter and Saturn; if the tidal hypothesis is correct it must be applicable to all the planets and to all their satellites. For ex- ample, the first five satellites of Saturn all have masses of about 20397—25——_12 158 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 5><10*° gm.; our calculation shows that if these satellites came into being as gaseous condensations in a filament, the gas in this filament must have been anything from one to a million times as dense as lead. Such a conclusion is, of course, preposterous. The only proper conclusion is that these satellites can not have originated as gaseous condensations. This conclusion is not surprising, or even unexpected. Even now these satellites, on account of the smallness of their mass, are in- capable of retaining a gaseous atmosphere, whence it follows that they can never have existed in the gaseous state. They must have been born either liquid or solid. In this way we come upon the practical limitation to the possibil- ity of endless generations of satellites being born. Primarily it is that after a time the satellites would be too small for their gravita- tion to hold them together. A brief reprieve from the operation of this law is afforded by the possibility of the matter liquefying or even solidifying before it scatters into space, and it is probably owing to the operation of this reprieve that all the satellites of the planets, and probably also the smaller planets themselves, owe their existence. What of our earth, which interests us above all other planets? Its present mass is rather too small to have been born out of a purely gaseous filament, but we must remember that if it were born gaseous a large part of its mass might be immediately dissipated away into space, the present earth representing only a remnant of a once much more massive planet. This line of investigation leads nowhere. A more promising line of attack is through a consideration of our satel- lite, the moon. The more liquid a planet was at its birth the less likely was it to be broken up tidally by the still gaseous sun, but, in the event of this breaking up taking place, the ratio of mass between satellite and primary would be much nearer to unity than in the case of a wholly gaseous planet. Thus, as we pass from planets which were wholly gaseous at birth to planets which were wholly liquid, we ought to start from planets with large numbers of relatively small satellites, and after passing through the boundary cases of planets with a small number of relatively large satellites reach planets hav- ing no satellites at all. This is precisely what we find in the solar system. Leaving Jupiter and Saturn, each with their nine relatively small satellites, we pass through Mars, with its two satellites, to the earth, with one relatively very large satellite, and after this come to Venus and Mercury, with no satellites at all. Proceeding in the other direction from Jupiter and Saturn, we pass through Uranus, with four small satellites, to Neptune, with one comparatively big satellite. Looked at from this point of view, the earth-moon system figures as the obvious boundary case between the planets which were ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM—JEANS 159 originally liquid and those which were originally gaseous, the cor- responding boundary case on the other half of the chain being Nep- tune. Thus we can conjecture that Mercury and Venus were born liquid or solid, that the earth and Neptune were born partly liquid and partly gaseous, and that Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus were born gaseous. We have already noticed that Mars and Uranus both have masses which are too small for their positions in the sequence of planets. If the planets were born out of a filament of continuously varying density, the mass of Mars at birth ought to have been intermediate between that of the earth and that of Jupiter, and similarly the mass of Uranus at birth ought to have been intermediate between that of Neptune and that of Saturn. We have, however, just seen reasons for conjecturing that the two anomalous planets, Mars and Uranus, were the two smallest planets to be born in the gaseous state; they would, therefore, be likely to lose more mass by dissipation of their outer layers than any of the other planets. Let us introduce the sup- position that Mars, and to a lesser degree Uranus, lost large parts of their mass by dissipation into space; let us suppose that they are mere fragments of what were originally much more massive planets, then all anomalies disappear, and the pieces of the puzzle begin to fit together in a very gratifying manner. Nevertheless, and in spite of the high promise which the tidal theory seems to hold out, it is far too early to claim that it can finally explain the origin of our system. Its claim to consideration at pres- ent is rather that, so far as I know, it provides the only theory of that origin which is not open to obvious and insuperable objections. — re ae Ss ‘Aah Masi os aha ere avei E pilez cinta my ya Rad “thie ooh EYEE i gf Bey, ° y ’ OR PERE RAINE NESS feces hig a uaiaies ie rate Sb Wine ee eaeete eid ee =. OPS AE Dy: ye hE Sid -pnite rita setah Sanit jopitoer pr apres fy aes ane core Allah anne’ SOT date, Pee Sats eendh quer atari ae ec Ae gat ene: } = ° 7 “ hes 4 a AAS “ ‘ hoe ame vale , ~ ® “ ‘ at . © ve | a 2 1,4 Wik ay ; (a je : ri 4, “AS c yo ti re fee: ior we Seta oe pelea ge a” pe ie a ee a pres ot j so ey % : 639 ers Hole ey: chine. : Same - ee en pene as a eae ees 2 Pad ae ving PLATE | Smithsonian Report, 1924.—Hitchcock 1. A PART OF THE TOWN OF HUIGRA, ECUADOR, ALTITUDE 4,000 FEET. Most oF THE HousES ARE MADE OF BAMBOO BOARDS. BAMBOO STEMS ARE SLIT CLOSELY ON ALL SIDES AND FINALLY SPLIT DOWN ONE SIDE AND FLATTENED OUT TO FORM A BOARD. THIS IS A COMMON BUILDING MATERIAL IN THE COASTAL PLAIN 2. A CLOSE VIEW OF BAMBOO BOARDS Smithsonian Report, 1924.—Hitchcock PLATE 2 |. A NATIVE PLow, CONSISTING OF A HEAVY POINTED STICK THAT IS DRAWN FORWARD THROUGH THE SOIL. NEAR LOJA, ECUADOR 2 THE MAIN ROAD BETWEEN QUITO AND TULCAN. MUCH ERODED FROM HEAVY TRAFFIC WITH PACK ANIMALS AND NEVER REPAIRED Smithsonian Report, 1924.—Hitchcock PLATE 3 |. THE HEADQUARTERS OF THE ATOCSAICO RANCH, NEAR JUNIN, PERU, DEVOTED TO SHEEP RAISING. ON A HIGH PLAIN, ABOVE TREE LIMIT, Asout 13,000 FEET ALTITUDE 2. A DROVE OF LLAMAS NEAR CERRO DE PASCO, PERU. THIS IS THE CAR- RYING ANIMAL OF THE INDIANS. THEY GO IN DROVES, FREE, GRAZING AS THEY GO, TRAVELING ABouT IO MILES A DAY, EACH CARRYING ABOUT 75 POUNDS Smithsonian Report, 1924.—Hitchcock PLATE 4 8 7 ar Se I sae DANY & |. A PORTION OF INCA RUINS NEAR Cuzco. THESE WALLS OF AN ANCIENT FORTRESS ARE IN GOOD STATE OF PRESERVATION. SOME OF THE STONES ARE VERY LARGE, WEIGHING MANY TONS 2. A CLOSER VIEW OF A WALL SHOWING THE PERFECTION OF THE WORK- MANSHIP. No MORTAR WAS USED, YET THE STONES FIT ACCURATELY Smithsonian Report, 1924.—Hitchcock PLATE 5 |. EXPERIMENT STATION, CHUQUIBAMBILLA, NORTH OF JULIACA, ALTITUDE 13,000 FeeT. HERE IS A NEARLY LEVEL PLATEAU OVER WHICH ONE RIDES FOR Hours GOING FROM LAKE TITICACA TO CUZCO 2. A WOOLLY CACTUS (OPUNTIA FLOCCOSA) ON THE PLATEAU AT CHUQUI- BAMBILLA, ALTITUDE ABOUT 13,000 FEET Smithsonian Report, 1924.—Hitchcock PLATE 6 |. SHEEP GRAZING AT 13,000 FEET ALTITUDE, CHUQUIBAMBILLA. THE BUNCH GRAss Is ICHU 2. A PEASANT’S HUT BUILT OF SOD, THE THATCHED ROOF (ICHU GRASS) ROPED DOWN. THERE IS A SMALL Door, BUT NO WINDOWS. CHU- QUIBAMBILLA Smithsonian Report, 1924—Hitchcock PLATE 7 !. INCA RUINS AT OLLANTAYTAMBO, PERU. THE STONES ARE ACCURATELY FITTED AS AT CUZCO (SEE PLATE 4) 2. AN OLD INCA ROAD, Cuzco, LEADING UP TO THE FORTRESS (SEE PLATE 4) Smithsonian Report, 1924.—Hitchcock PLATE 8 I. HOTEL AT OLLANTAYTAMBO. LLAMAS IN THE PLAZA OF THE VILLAGE 2. VICUNA, A SMALL ANIMAL ALLIED TO THE LLAMA. THE INDIAN WOMAN Is SAID TO BE OvER 100 YEARS OLD Smithsonian Report, 1924.—Hitchcock PLATE 9 I. YARETA, MUCH USED FOR FUEL. SIERRA OF PERU. A TUSSOCK PLANT (AZORELLA MONANTHOS) GROWING NEAR SNOW LINE 2. BRUSH AND Roots USED FOR FUEL. ABOVE TREE LINE COAL AND WOOD ARE EXPENSIVE. BRUSH, ROOTS, AND YARETA ARE USED LINVINWILS V SV SNVIGN] SHL Ad SAHSW HLIM GAMAHOD 3YY SSAVA7 VIOO “adO1S AHL YSAO GSaYeSLLVOS AYW SLYOS YAHLO 4O SSSYL ZVd V1 WOUS SATII OF “SSAHOLIGQ GS9VEd4S | AHL NI SMOY NI 3YVY SESNYHS SHL ‘INVWITT] LNNO|] NO L354 0009] LY YSIOVIDH VW ‘*S NOILVINVId VO9O0O VW ‘J ‘VWIAIIOG ‘SVONNA AHL NI Ol ALVId yYOOOYSIH—' p76 ‘Wodey ueBluOCsSYyyIWS Smithsonian Report, 1924.—Hitchcock PLATE II |. A HEAVY CART USED FOR HAULING ORE IN SOUTHERN BOLIVIA 2. A LIMEKILN NEAR UYUNI, BOLIVIA. THE LIME ROCK IS IN A LAYER AT THE SURFACE OF THE GROUND; THE FUEL CONSISTS OF FAGOTS OF A DESERT SHRUB NEAR BY Smithsonian Report, 1924.—Hitchcock PLATE 12 |. ALL AVAILABLE MATERIAL IS UTILIZED FOR BUILDINGS. A HUuT AT UYUNI MADE IN PART FROM OLD STANDARD OIL CANS 2. A DESERT VALLEY IN SOUTHERN BOLIVIA. THE RIVER BED IS DRY MOST OF THE YEAR, BUT IS OCCASIONALLY SUBJECT TO VIOLENT FLOOD, DANGEROUS TO TRAVELERS WHO USE THE ROAD OVER THE DRY RIVER BED Smithsonian Report, 1924.—Hitchcock PLATE I3 |. CHIMBORAZO, THE HIGHEST MOUNTAIN IN ECUADOR, ALTITUDE ABOUT 20,500 FEET 2. PARTIALLY WOVEN PANAMA HATS AT CUENCA, ECUADOR, ONE OF THE CENTERS OF THE HAT INDUSTRY Smithsonian Report, 1924.—Hitchcock PLATE 14 |. A MARKET WOMAN AT LA PAZ, BOLIVIA. THE STIFF WHITE HAT Is CHARACTERISTIC HERE 2. ALPACAS, ANIMALS ALLIED TO THE LLAMA, USED CHIEFLY FOR THE WOOL RATHER THAN FOR CARRYING BURDENS AS SHOWN HERE Smithsonian Report, 1924.—Hitchcock PLATE I5 |. REED BOAT USED BY THE INDIANS ON LAKE TITICACA. THE STEMS OF A NATIVE BULLRUSH ARE TIED IN SMALL BUNCHES AND THEN FASTENED TOGETHER TO FORM THE BOAT 2. A SMALL VALLEY NEAR OLLANTAYTAMBO, SHOWING TERRACES IN BACKGROUND. THE TREES ARE EUCALYPTUS eh ORCHID COLLECTING IN CENTRAL AMERICA By PAu C. STANDLEY [With 26 Plates] INTRODUCTION Central America is a paradise for the orchid hunter. According to a recent estimate there have been reported from the whole globe 15,000 species of these curious and fascinating plants, and nearly 1,000 have been recorded from a single Central American country, Costa Rica. From the other republics—Panama, Nicaragua, Sal- vador, Honduras, and Guatemala—about the same number of addi- tional species have been listed, and Mexico is known to possess at least 500 more. | It has been the writer’s privilege to spend two recent winters in Central America for the purpose of making botanical collections, and during this period particular attention has been devoted to orchids. Although many of the localities visited have been found deficient in these plants, others, and above all the mountains of Costa Rica, have furnished a rich harvest. Central America was one of the first regions from which tropical orchids were introduced into the hothouses of Europe. Some of the more striking Mexican: species had been described and figured in the celebrated 7'hesaurus published by Hernandez in 1651, the first work treating of the natural history of tropical North America, but nothing was made known concerning the flora of Central America until a much later date. Probably the first botanical collector to visit Central America was Luis Née, a Frenchman by birth, botanist of the celebrated Spanish voyage around the world under the navigator Malaspina during the years 1789 to 1794. Née visited Panama, and is known to have collected plants upon Ancon Hill, the landmark of the Pacific end of the Canal. Several of the most common tropical American plants were first described from speci- mens obtained by him at this locality. Tt was not until after the first quarter of the nineteenth century that any botanical work of importance was carried on in Central ‘America, or any progress made toward a knowledge of the orchids. 353 354 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 George Ure Skinner, an Englishman who resided for many years in Guatemala, beginning in 1831, is said to have introduced into culti- vation in England nearly 100 species of orchids, a large number for that day, when orchid culture in Europe was still in its infancy. The famous Danish collector and botanist, Oersted, was the first to visit (1846-1848) Costa Rica, where he collected some of the most beautiful of all our American orchids. An extended visit to many parts of Central America, including the rich regions of Guatemala, Costa Rica, and Veraguas, was begun in 1846 by Warscewicz, who traveled in search of orchids and hummingbirds, certainly a choice of interests in which he was to be envied. Warscewicz discovered many of the showy Central American representatives of this group. Other botanists who took an important part in the early exploration of Central America were Berthold Seemann, of the Herald expedi- tion, who first made extensive collections in Panama; Tate in Nica- ragua; Fendler (famous as the first to make a collection of any im- portance in the State of New Mexico) in Panama; Hoffmann and Wendland in Costa Rica; and Hayes and Wagner in Panama. In addition, Central America was visited by commercial collectors sent from Europe in search of orchids, palms, cacti, and other plants of horticultural value, and at times the export of living orchid plants to Europe by native collectors was a thriving industry. Thus, many dozens of persons whose names have not been preserved aided in ac- cumulating our present knowledge of the orchid flora. It is during the past thirty years, however, that the most im- portant botanical work has been carried on in Central America. In Costa Rica large collections of orchids have been made by Tonduz, Pittier, Werckle, Brenes, Jiménez, the Brade brothers, and others. The orchid flora of Panama has been well explored by Powell, and in Guatemala extensive collections have been made by von Tuerck- heim, especially in Verapaz. Several collectors from the United States have visited Central America, and have accumulated large quantities of plants, although few have devoted special attention to orchids. During the past fifteen years hundreds of new species of Central American orchids have been described, mostly from Pana- ma, Costa Rica, and Guatemala. These three Republics and Sal- vador are those whose floras are best known. Of Honduras and Nic- aragua, both of which doubtless will furnish a large number of or- chid species, we still know very little, for scant exploration has been conducted there, owing largely to difficulties of transportation. In view of the great amount of botanical exploration that has been carried on in Central America it might be questioned whether it is necessary to make further visits to a region of such comparatively small area. There is no doubt, however, that our knowledge of the ORCHID COLLECTING—STANDLEY BH0 Central American flora is still very imperfect, and that many years more of intensive exploration are necessary. At present it is pos- sible to obtain new plants even in the localities most often visited, and it frequently results that conspicuous and important plants, well known locally, are unknown to science. In the case of orchids, because of their peculiar distribution and mode of growth, the need for additional exploration is greater than in the case of most other groups of plants, and it is certain that the number of orchids known to exist in Central America will be greatly increased, perhaps even doubled, in future years. ORCHIDS OF NORTHERN CENTRAL AMERICA The portion of Central America with which the writer is most familiar, aside from the Canal Zone, is the Republic of Salvador, where five months were spent in 1921-22. Salvador unfortunately has few orchids, and only about 50 species are known there, most of these having been collected by Dr. Salvador Calderon and the writer. Salvador undoubtedly has a smaller orchid flora than any other Central American country, because its climate is comparatively dry and the country lies wholly upon the Pacific slope, the Atlantic slope being richer in these plants. Future exploration in small areas of forest remaining upon the higher volcanoes will doubtless reveal a good many additions to the list now known. Of the Salvadorean orchids the handsomest is Cattleya skinneri, widely distributed in Central America, a showy species (pl. 20), known here as San Sebastian. During the dry season, when the trees upon which they grow are nearly or quite devoid of leaves, the huge plants covered with flowers are conspicuous masses of color. Bunches of the flowers are brought frequently to the markets for sale. Some fine plants of another striking orchid, H'pidendrwm aurantiacum, notable for its clusters of orange blossoms, were seen in the mountains about Ahuachapan. In the same mountain range vanilla grows in some abundance, and doubtless occurs in other regions as well. In late spring of 1922 several weeks were spent upon the north coast of Guatemala, near the famous Maya city of Quirigua. This area belongs to the wet coastal belt, and has an altitude of only a few hundred feet above sea level. Because of this slight elevation, comparatively few orchids occur here, and at this season of the year still fewer were in flower. Still, here and there upon the trees, especially in deep swamps, which are filled with giant trees and tangled thickets of native bamboo, there were found a few orchids worth collecting, certainly more than it would be possible to find in any single locality in Salvador. 356 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 Next to Costa Rica, Guatemala is the Central American country which has yielded most orchids, about 340 species being reported. Of all the Central American States, Guatemala has the greatest diversity of topography, elevation, and climate, and consequently the most varied flora, although the actual number of species may not be so high as in Costa Rica. For orchids, the most productive por- tions are the humid valleys of the departments of Alta and Baja Verapaz. Many of the mountain ranges have a temperate climate, too cold for the best development of these plants, and there are many miles of pine forest, where few orchids may be expected. There are also wide cactus deserts, closely resembling those of northern Mexico, where very few orchids grow. Guatemala counts among its orchid species many that are noted for their beauty. Most remarkable is a Cattleya (C. aurantiaca) with orange-red fiowers, which grows upon rocks and bald-cypress trees (T'axodium mucronatum) at high altitudes. Of the orchids of Honduras and Nicaragua, as already stated, little is known. From Nicaragua 65 species have been reported, and from Honduras about the same number. Both countries have moun- tain ranges and humid forests, in which many orchids must await the discoverer. The scant information available concerning the Nicara- guan flora reveals so many plants of exceptional interest, that it is certain the country will later yield many other things equally remarkable. The most inviting and tantalizing view, botanically, that I have ever seen in Central America is that obtained in Salvador of the blue mountain wall that lies to the north along the Honduran frontier, near at hand yet almost inaccessible. Nothing is known of its flora, but it must harbor a host of strange plants. Along the Atlantic coast of Honduras a large collection of orchids was made recently by Mr. Oakes Ames, but no account of it has yet been pub- lished. ORCHID COLLECTING IN PANAMA In Panama the writer is acquainted only with the Canal Zone and its immediate vicinity, a region typical of the lowland or terra caliente of both the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of Central America. Although only 40 miles in breadth, the Isthmus at its narrowest point exhibits an unexpected diversity of physical and floral char- acters, because there is a strongly marked difference between the climates of the two coasts. It is thus possible to study in the closest proximity areas of vegetation typical of the humid Atlantic coast and of the comparatively arid Pacific littoral, the latter with its well-defined wet and dry seasons. In the Canal Zone the highest hills have an elevation of about 500 feet. Toward both the west and east in the Republic the hills ORCHID COLLECTING—STANDLEY 357 rise rapidly until high mountains are soon reached, but unfortu- nately none of these are easily accessible from the Zone. Near the Canal most of the land has been deforested and the original vegeta- tion greatly modified, but even within the Zone there remain some areas of nearly or quite virgin forest, within which it is possible to study the primeval vegetation. In the dense and humid forests, composed of lofty trees with but scant undergrowth, careful search will disclose a fair number of orchids. After the Canal had been completed and water was turned into the Gatun Lake Basin, as the water rose large stretches of forest were inundated and the trees soon died. Great expanses of the lake waters are still covered with protruding dead tree tops, which give a decidedly dreary and unattractive aspect to the landscape. After the trees died the epiphytic plants continued to grow, and were much more conspicuous than before. Among the dead branches there was an abundance of orchids, and it was easy to collect them from a boat. Practically all the orchid plants have now been re- moved, however, and little of interest is to be found in these areas. The lowland forests of the Canal Zone are typical of many other regions throughout Central America. Such forests are not the most favorable localities in which to search for orchids, since these plants attain their best development at much higher altitudes. On the Atlantic slope the lack of elevation is somewhat compensated for by the excessive moisture, a plentiful supply of water being one of the chief requirements for luxuriant orchid growth. When during early construction days Americans began to arrive in the Canal Zone, the great majority of them unfamiliar with trop- ical conditions, even the least interested could scarcely fail to take notice of the more conspicuous plants, which were quite unlike any- thing known to one reared in the temperate zone. Orchids, being as universally associated with conventional conceptions of tropical regions as parrots and monkeys, naturally drew their share of atten- tion, and many temporary residents in the Zone made small collec- tions of them. Without helpful literature upon the subject, and without any person able to furnish information concerning the plants, it was impossible to do more than assemble these amateur collections in the most haphazard way, and little or nothing was added to the recorded scientific information regarding the orchid flora of Panama. When their owners returned to the States, the col- lections were usually left behind and the plants died for lack of care. The most notable of these local collections of construction days were those assembled by Mrs. D. D. Gaillard and Mrs. H. H. Rousseau, _both of which were of considerable size and included many interest- ‘ing plants. When Mr. Henry Pittier visited the Canal Zone in 358 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 1910-11 he obtained from these two collections specimens which were found to represent species previously unknown to science. At the present time, passing along the streets of the Canal Zone towns, one notices upon porches or hanging in baskets from near-by trees many orchid plants that are kept for their oddity or their hand- some flowers. They belong to a small number of well-known species, the botanically more interesting but inconspicuous plants being nat- urally without interest for the amateur. It may be noted here that in horticultural circles in England and elsewhere a more or less sharp line is drawn between “ orchids ”—that is, those with showy or odd flowers, worthy of cultivation—and “botanical orchids,” which are of interest only to the technical botanist. To Warscewicz we owe the greater part of the earlier data re- garding Panama orchids. He devoted a good deal of time to the ex- ploration of Chiriquf, the region richest in these plants, and probably the most interesting part of Panama for the botanist. In the Canal Zone plants have been gathered by many collectors. Seemann, in 1852, published the first list of Panama orchids, enumerating 104 species. During the progress of the Smithsonian Biological Survey of the Canal Zone in 1910-11, a large collection of the group was ob- tained by Pittier and Maxon, not only near the Canal but in Chiriqui and in other parts of Panama not visited previously by collectors. THE POWELL ORCHID GARDEN IN PANAMA. The major part of our knowledge of the orchids of the Republic of Panama is due to the interest of one man, the result of whose labor is a striking illustration of what may be accomplished by one who has a hobby and follows it intelligently. Mr. C. W. Powell has lived in the Canal Zone since earliest construction days. A man of exceptional breadth of interests, he has always taken a keen interest in general matters relating to natural history, and even in the earli- est days he took more than casual notice of the orchids seen in trips through the jungles. From time to time he formed small collections of living plants, some of which he presented to friends, while others were lost by accident. He often laments the fact that he was not then interested in technical classification of the plants, since in the early days, before the forests had been scoured by other collectors and before the virgin forest had been cut, there were doubtless many species that are now extinct and will never be known to science. About 10 years ago Mr. Powell became seriously interested in orchids, and determined to assemble a complete collection of Panama species. Unfamiliar with the literature and without relations with specialists upon the group, his work was attended by difficulties, but ORCHID COLLECTING—-STANDLEY 859 he assembled living plants in his garden and formed a good library of publications upon orchids. Study of this literature indicated that he had many plants not described in current works. Finally correspondence was established with the English orchidologist, Rolfe, and there was prepared for his study a series of herbarium specimens of the plants as they bloomed; but Rolfe died soon after- ward, without having had an opportunity to study the collection. Still later another herbarium collection was prepared, and entrusted for determination to the well-known orchidologist, Schlechter, of Berlin, who published in 1922 a pamphlet of 95 pages enumerating the Powell orchids, which consisted of 184 species, no less than 75 of which were described as new to science. In more recent years Mr. Powell has forwarded his collection for identification to Mr. Oakes Ames, the most eminent American authority upon this difficult group, and the number of species has increased, until now it amounts to 341. There can scarcely be for any tropical country a record of one person who has contributed so much to the knowledge of the orchid flora, or who has assembled so complete a representation of the group. The quality of the herbarium specimens prepared by Mr. Powell deserves more than passing mention. Years of experience, through which the best methods have been discovered, combined with at- tention to details such as other collectors rarely attain, have enabled him to make specimens which are unsurpassed. The color of the flowers is kept perfectly in most cases, and the whole plant pre- serves its natural aspect. Such results are the more remarkable with a group in which it is extremely difficult to make satisfactory specimens, the plants often having fleshy parts that yield up their moisture only after stubborn resistance. It is very largely because of the difficulty of preparing good specimens that so comparatively small a number of orchids have been collected in explored portions of Central America, a neglect that has extended to many other groups of monocotyledonous plants of a similar nature. It is only by the use of artificial heat that good herbarium specimens of orchids and other fleshy plants can be prepared in tropical regions. The Powell orchid garden at Balboa is one of the most interest- ing sights of the Canal Zone, and botanically by far the most re- markable thing to be seen there. It is something unique in tropical America, if not in the whole world. The garden, situated on the lower slopes of Ancon Hill, is sur- rounded by a wire-netting fence 8 feet high, covered with vines, and the same netting with its curtain of vines continues overhead. Various climbing plants are used for covering the netting, and by _pruning them from time to time the optimum amount of shade or sunlight is obtained. 360 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 There are now growing in the garden over 7,000 orchid plants, representing about 400 species. Among these are many that have never flowered, and will, when they blossom, furnish other species records for Panama. Nearly all the plants are from Panama, the only exceptions being some from other parts of tropical America and a few from the Old World, which are grown for their handsome flowers. The garden is a show place in Balboa, visited by many tourists. Most orchids bloom for only a short period, but there are always some in flower at any season of the year. Here in Panama, as in all tropical regions, the great majority of orchids, contrary to ill-informed popular belief, are plants with incon- spicuous flowers, without interest to the casual observer. It is true that most of these small flowers, even the tiniest, are strikingly hand- some when viewed under a lens. Visitors about to inspect an orchid garden generally anticipate lavish displays of brilliant color, and are sometimes disappointed when faced with actualities, since even in so large an assemblage of orchid plants, and at the most favor- able season, the percentage of plants with showy flowers is surpris- ingly small. For this reason it is desirable to cultivate some exotic plants which can be depended upon to furnish quantities of showy flowers, and thus satisfy those visitors who are interested more in the superficial aspects of the collection than in its true scientific value. In order to accommodate the large variety of orchids occurring naturally in Panama it is necessary to supply varied conditions for their growth. Tropical orchids are divided into two classes, terres- trial and epiphytic. The former grow in the ground, and in the Tropics these are far less numerous than the epiphytic species. Of terrestrial orchids there are two classes—those with green leaves and stems, which behave lke most other plants, and those which are saprophytic, living wholly upon decaying plant matter. Saprophy- tic orchids, which are not numerous anywhere, are easily recognized by their lack of green coloration. By far the greater number of tropical orchids are epiphytic, growing upon trunks or limbs of trees, and deriving nutriment chiefly from decaying organic material that lodges about their roots. They are often spoken of as parasites, but no orchids are parasites, our only common representatives of that group being the mistletoes. Epiphytic orchids are sometimes apparently terrestrial, growing upon the ground in beds of mosses and other plants. In temperate regions all orchids are terrestrial. In the United States epiphytic species are found only in Florida, except for a few that extend farther west close to the Gulf coast. Florida has a rather large number of epiphytic species, belonging to groups that are represented also in Central America. It is worthy of record here that in an orchid list published recently by Ames, about ORCHID COLLECTING—STANDLEY 361 150 species of orchids are reported for the United States and Can- ada. Contrary to popular belief, orchids of temperate regions prob- ably average quite as showy as those of the tropics. Few of the latter are more attractive than some of our northern species of Cypripedium or lady’s-slipper. It must not be assumed that all epiphytic plants are orchids, as is sometimes carelessly done by residents in the Tropics, just as in cac- tus regions all plants with spines are likely to be known popularly as cactuses. In warm countries a great number of plants of many widely separated groups assume the epiphytic habit. In tropical America the most noteworthy of these, and those most frequently referred to erroneously as orchids, are bromeliads, or plants of the pineapple family, many of which have exceptionally showy flowers, quite as ornamental as most orchids. In the Powell garden most of the plants, naturally, are epiphytes. These are grown in baskets filled with sphagnum or upon blocks of wood, suspended from overhead. There is also at one end of the garden a large mango tree upon which a great variety of species have taken root, affording a picture of natural conditions. In the more sunny portion beds are provided for the terrestrial species, which are represented in large numbers. Many epiphytic species, too, prefer a good deal of sunshine, especially the larger, coarser plants. For very small and delicate plants which come originally from wet forests deep shade must be provided. Climatic conditions are favorable in the Canal Zone for orchid cultivation, at least for those species which occur naturally at low elevations. During the summer or rainy season there is a plentiful supply of moisture, too much at times. During the winter months, which constitute the dry season, it is necessary to water the plants daily. Even at so low an altitude, sea level, it has been found practicable to grow most of the montane species brought from the forests of Chiriqui, provided good care is taken of them. There are, of course, insect enemies to be fought—cockroaches, which eat the tender flower buds, and other similar pests that visit the garden, especially at night, and some- times ruin the blossoms of the most cherished plants whose flowers have been awaited for years. Birds sometimes cause equal harm. Almost all the orchids known to occur in the whole Republic of Panama may be seen and studicd in this garden under the most favorable conditions. For the past ten years Mr. Powell, very often in company, with Mr. A. A. Hunter, has conducted systematic ex- ploration in many parts of the country, visiting distant localities, especially the high mountains of Chiriqui. Sometimes the plants are found in full flower in the field, but more often they are not. The living plants are then brought to the garden, where they are care- fully tended until they flower, when specimens can be made for study °e 362 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 by specialists. It is only the continued cultivation of the plants in the garden that has made it possible to establish such a record as to the number of Panama species. Aside from the material gathered upon these expeditions. one or more native collectors have been employed for much of the time. One of these men, a West Indian, himself has become almost an expert upon the native orchids, having made many journeys into the jungle after them and having cared for them in the garden. Collecting orchids in Panama is not the easy task that it is in Costa Rica, where conditions are more favorable in every respect. Except in the immediate vicinity of the Canal, transportation is difficult. Even here it is usually necessary for the collector to make his way over trails that are negotiable only on foot, or more fre- quently through regions where there are no trails at all, and it is no easy matter to force one’s way through a lowland tropical jungle. Moreover, in the present lowland forests orchids are not plentiful as to either individuals or species. It may be that extended collec- tion has made them scarcer about the Zone, but it seems doubtful that, with the exception of such specially favorable localities as the original Gatun basin, the plants ever were much more plentiful than now. One can travel a long time through the forests along the Canal without seeing any orchids at all, and when some are found they are likely to be perched high on the branches of some giant tree, whence they can be obtained only by felling the tree, which often requires the services of a couple of men for a whole day or more. Even when the tree is felled, the orchids so laboriously obtained may prove worthless. The smaller and more interesting plants can not be seen from the ground, for they grow mostly upon the upper side of the branches and are hidden among other vegeta- tion. Even when a tree can be climbed, usually it is so infested with biting ants or other insects that only by submitting to torture, if even then, is it possible to remain aloft long enough to secure speci- mens. In Costa Rica one can collect in a single afternoon more orchids than in a whole month in the lowlands of Panama. COMMON ORCHIDS OF PANAMA The Panama orchid flora includes a host of showy and interesting species. It is curious that one Old World species seems to have be- come naturalized. Some years ago Mr. Powell purchased a plant, new to him, from a collector who claimed to have found it in a swamp in the Zone. Upon flowering it was determined as Phaius tancarvilleae, a Chinese species. The same plant has become thor- oughly naturalized in Jamaica. It is sometimes cultivated for ornament, and probably had escaped from previous cultivation in Panama as in Jamaica. ORCHID COLLECTING—STANDLEY 363 Most celebrated among Panama orchids is doubtless the /'spiritu Santo, Holy Ghost or dove orchid (Peristeria elata), that often figures upon local illustrated post cards. This plant, which occurs also in Costa Rica, is terrestrial and inhabits the lowland forests. It has been collected so much as now to be rather rare about the Zone. From a cluster of green bulbs rise a few narrow leaves, and a flower stalk 3 or 4 feet high which bears a raceme of fragrant waxy-white flowers about 2 inches broad. The organs in the center of the flower show a striking resemblance to a miniature dove with spread tail and outstretched wings, the head and bill also being perfectly reproduced. It may be imagined in what veneration and esteem such a flower is held by the native people. In Cattleyas Panama is not fortunate, for only one has been col- lected, Cattleya deckeri (pl. 3, fig. 1), a species related to C. skinneri discussed elsewhere, and apparently rare. Mr. Powell, however, has in cultivation some handsome exotic Cattleyas, particularly fine plants of Cattleya trianaei, a Colombian species, and one of those most frequently seen in cultivation in the United States. A peculiarly characteristic Panama plant is Brassavola nodosa (pl. 4), which is found nevertheless in many other parts of Central America, northern South America, and even in Jamaica. It grows upon both trees and rocks. The curious thick, stiff leaves are nearly round, but are channeled along the upper side. The delightfully fragrant flowers, 2 to 3 inches long, have greenish sepals and petals and a pure white lip. This is common in the lowlands of Panama, and is one of the few orchids that is plentiful on Taboga Island. A laudable but unsuccessful campaign was once conducted. with the purpose of establishing it as the national flower of Panama. Among the most showy of the local orchids are the species of Oncidium, commonly known as butterfly orchids, a fitting name, since the numerous widespread blossoms, golden yellow and often mottled with brown and red, suggest a cloud of butterflies hovering over the plant. The one here illustrated (pl. 5), Onetdium powellii, is known only from Panama, and is one of the host of Panama orchids that appropriately bear the name of the man who has done most toward making them known. The Oncidiums constitute one of the largest orchid groups, about 530 species having been described, all American. They are frequently cultivated in the north and are excellent as cut flowers. In Panama there are numerous species occurring at all elevations. They are abundant locally about the Zone, and someone told me of having seen a year or two ago a swamp near the Atlantic coast where the plants in full blossom abounded to such an extent that their golden color dominated the landscape. In certain species of Oncidium the flower sprays in age reach a length of 10 to 15 feet. 364 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 Somewhat suggestive of the Brassavolas is Brassia longissima (pl. 6, fig. 1), another lowland species. The flowers are greenish with a yellowish tinge, the lip dotted with purple. The plant is curious because of the unusual elongation of the sepals, these often attaining a length of 7 to 8 inches. Chondrorrhyncha lipscombiae (pl. 26, fig. 1) is an attractive plant, suggesting the Trichopilias that are so common in Costa Rica. It is a species known only from Gatun Lake. The flowers are white, with a lavender band around the edge of the lip. Plates 7, 8, and 9 show several Panama species of Epidendrum. This is the largest genus of American orchids, and is confined to the Western Hemisphere. About 750 species have been described, some of them ranging as far north as Florida. There are many species in Panama, and they exhibit great diversity in the form and color of their flowers. Epidendrum atropurpureum (pl. 7, fig. 1) is a coarse plant with rather few but large and showy flowers, the sepals and petals being dark purplish and the lip white, with purplish lines in the center. It is plentiful on the dry Pacific slope of Costa Rica, and blossoms during the dry season. I have seen handsome color vari- eties of it also in Salvador. Several species of Mormodes are found in Panama. The ones illustrated (pl. 10, pl. 11, fig. 1) have brown flowers of thick texture and striking appearance, remarkable more for their oddity than their beauty. These plants are noteworthy for the fact that they shed their leaves during the dry season, at which time the flowers are produced. The same habit prevails in a related genus, Catasetum (pl. 11, fig. 2, pl. 12). The species illustrated is a rather attractive plant, with ereenish white, fragrant flowers. In this group there are two kinds of flowers, staminate and pistillate (sometimes termed male and female), of quite different appearance. In Cycnoches (pls. 13, 14), too, flowers of two sexes, unlike in appearance, are produced. The sepals commonly are green or greenish, and the lip white. These plants, like those of related genera, are frequently or usually devoid of leaves at time of flowering. In the case of many of these orchids that have large bulbs (pseudobulbs), organs for storage of moisture, and are leafless when the flowers are unfolded, the bulbs are hollow, at least with age, and inhabited by colonies of characteristic ants that bite severely when the plant is molested. For this reason it is far from pleasant to collect them. The function of the ants is not well under- stood. Certainly they are not necessary to the growth of the plant, for Mr. Powell states that when preparfng plants for the garden, the ants are always removed, notwithstanding which the plants con- tinue to grow luxuriantly. ORCHID COLLECTING—STANDLEY 365 A similar case of symbiosis occurs in the case of the species of Coryanthes (pl. 6, fig. 2), which are sometimes called bucket orchids, because of the curious form of their flowers. The species figured, which grows on the hills back of Panama City, has clear yellow flowers, which exhibit most remarkable modifications during the process of fertilization. In Coryanthes the huge masses of roots are inhabited by innumerable small ants that are among the fiercest of those found in Panama. So disagreeable is the process of collec- tion that it is almost impossible to obtain the plants, it being stated that the only practical method is to pull the masses from the tree with a rope, then drag them by the rope to a stream, where they may be immersed until the ants have departed. Many similar cases of symbiosis between ants and orchids exist in Central America. The same conditions occur also in numerous other groups of unrelated tropical plants, some of which have special organs for the accom- modation of their inhabitants. Among the vines that cover the trellises in the Powell garden are various plants of Vanilla, of which there are two common species in Panama, V. planifolia (pls. 16, 17) with narrow leaves and JV’. pompona with wide leaves. There are several other species of Vanilla in Central America. All are vines which climb high in the trees by means of aerial rootlets, but also root in the ground. The plants are usually plentiful in the lowland forests, and are found almost everywhere about the Canal Zone. Vanilla is the only orchid with any important economic appli- cation. Although so common wild in Central America, it is not grown upon a commercial scale, unless it be in Guatemala, but it is often planted in gardens as a curiosity. The commercial article is obtained chiefly from Mexico, Tahiti, and the East Indies, but some of the vanilla upon the market is an artificial synthetic preparation. The flowers of Vanilla are rather showy. The natural commercial substance is obtained from the seed pods. When these are dried the vanillin, the aromatic principle, crystallizes on the outside of the pod. One of the most remarkable of Panama orchids is Selenipedium chica, discovered in the mountains many years ago by Duchassaing, who reported that the seed pods yielded a flavoring substance similar to vanilla. It was only a few years ago that this species was rediscovered, by Mr. Ellsworth P. Killip, upon Ancon Hill, where, however, it is no longer to be found. The plant reaches a height of 15 feet, and is said by Ames to be the tallest orchid known. The flowers are not very conspicuous, but somewhat resemble those of the lady’s-slipper of the United States. Among the finest of the orchids cultivated by Mr. Powell are sev- eral species of Sobralia (pl. 2, fig. 2). They are terrestrial plants, usually forming dense clumps containing numerous stems. The large 366 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 flowers are mostly rose or purple, but in some species white, and all are very showy. Some of the species flower almost throughout the year, but the habit of flowering is peculiar. All over a large clump of plants the flowers open, one on each stalk, on a certain morning. They remain open for only a few hours, then close, and fall from the plant unless they have been fertilized. After several days there is another crop of blossoms, but meanwhile not a single flower will have been seen upon the colony. Worthy of mention because of their oddity are the species of Ornithocephalus, which are not uncommon in both Panama and Costa Rica (pl. 18). The flowers are minute, greenish yellow, and in form bear some resemblance to a bird’s head, hence the generic name. The plant is fan-shaped, the leaves being flat and all in one plane, resembling in this respect iris leaves. This fan-shaped ar- rangement of leaves is found in various other Panama orchids, nota- bly in a diminutive Oncidium that is abundant upon cacao branches at Las Cascadas Plantation. In this the leaves are often not more than half an inch in length, while the flowers, of which there is sometimes only one, are frequently much larger than the plant proper. This is unusual among orchids, since ordinarily small plants have the smallest flowers. To list all the orchids of Panama or only the more important ones would far exceed the limits of this paper, and would serve no useful purpose, since it would merely furnish a list of uninteresting Latin names. In fact, very few orchids have distinctive English names, and even among gardeners it is the custom to refer to the plants by their generic names, which after all is the only means by which accuracy in plant names may be attained. Photographs give little idea of the modifications exhibited by the flowers, but exami- nation of the plants themselves when in flower is a different matter, for then almost anyone is interested in observing the unbelievable variety presented, a variation in form and coloration not equaled in any other family of plants. In spite of the great diversity exhibited by orchid flowers, it must be stated that this results only from the modification of organs which are common to other groups of plants. The flower consists of three sepals and three petals, one of the latter being normally very dif- ferent from the other two and called the lip or labellum. The three stamens, of which one or two are abortive, are united with the pistil to form a column, which also is often specially modified. ORCHID COLLECTING IN COSTA RICA Really to see orchids one must go to Costa Rica, where they almost fill the réle of weeds. After becoming familiar with the profusion of orchids, as to both individuals and species, that exists ORCHID COLLECTING—STANDLEY 367 here in localities easily accessible, it seems a waste of time to go elsewhere when looking for orchids. Costa Rica possesses many attractive features that make botanical work agreeable, and the expenditure of but little labor yields rich results. The country is easy of access and transportation facilities are comparatively adequate, although not so good as in Salvador; the climate in general is delightful, in many regions temperate rather than tropi- cal; and the people, as the writer can testify from personal ex- perience, pleasant and hospitable to the highest degree. It is a remarkable testimonial to the physical features, government, people, and social conditions of Costa Rica, that whenever an inhabitant of any other Central American state is asked what is the best part of Central America, the answer is almost always if not universally Costa Rica, even in the case of people who have never seen the country. Such is the reputation which Costa Rica enjoys among its neighbors who, after all, are the most competent judges. Costa Rica has approximately the area of the State of West Virginia, and like that State is preeminently mountainous. To prove the botanical richness of Costa Rica, it is necessary only to state that its known flora includes about 6,000 species of flowering plants and ferns. This number will be greatly increased, for in spite of the vast amount of collecting that has been done, over a long period of years, there are whole mountain ranges of whose vegetation practically nothing has been ascertained. When it is remembered that in the United States and Canada there are only about 16,000 species of plants, and that the United States has 130 times the area of Costa Rica, some idea of the richness of the Costa Rican flora may be formed. There is probably no other part of all North America of equal extent that can approach Costa Rica in wealth of species, and there is certainly no other region of the continent where so many orchids grow. Scarcely any orchids have been collected thus far in the Cordillera of Talamanca, the most extensive mountain chain and the one containing the loftiest peaks. This area is difficult of access and has hardly been touched by the botanist, although it is likely to prove the most remunerative part of the Republic. The writer’s experiences with orchids in Costa Rica were confined to a few localities that it was possible to visit in two months. These included typical regions of the Atlantic coastal plain, about La Colombiana and Guapiles; numerous localities in the northern Cordillera and in the highlands about San José, the capital; and a single visit to the comparatively dry Pacific coast. At all these places orchids were found in greater or less profusion. Some were in- flower, but many more had neither flowers nor seed pods. Al- though the visit was made during the dry winter months, it seems 368 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 unlikely that at any other time of year it would be possible to find a greater proportion of the plants in blossom. At any season some orchids are in bloom, but each species probably has a more or less well defined flowering period, and in order to obtain the complete orchid flora of a locality it would be necessary to visit it every month in the year. Some remain in flower only a few days, while with others the blooming period is greatly prolonged. PACIFIC SLOPE So little time was spent upon the Pacific coast, near Orotina, that it is impossible to make any generalizations of value. It may be stated definitely, however, that the whole flora here is far less varied than elsewhere in Costa Rica, and that in a day’s collecting one can find only a fraction of the number of plants to be obtained in other parts of Costa Rica in the same length of time. Moreover, the plants are less interesting and consist chiefly of species having a wide distribution in tropical America. Most of the land is now un- forested. Where forests do occur they are moderately dense and consist of a limited number of species, many of which lose their leaves in the dry season. In the heavier forest the undergrowth is little varied and lacks many of the conspicuous plants of the Atlantic coast. Ferns are very few, and the species mostly uninteresting. These conditions must be understood as prevailing only at lower altitudes, on the hills and in the plains near the coast. Upon the mountains of the Pacific coastal region conditions are more favor- able. About Orotina orchids were rather plentiful as to individuals, but appeared to represent only a few species. Not many were in flower during the dry season. Most conspicuous was /'pidendrum atropurpureum (pl. 7, fig. 1). In the forests the orchids are confined mostly to the upper branches of the trees, where it is difficult or impossible to collect them. On some of the small trees scattered about the fields and pastures the case is different. It is a well attested fact that certain species of trees are preferred by orchids, and that there are others upon which they never grow. The favorite tree of all is probably the calabash (Crescentia cujete), which is seldom without its quota of orchid epiphytes and often is almost completely covered with them. The mango, strangely enough, is another favorite tree for certain species. About the Canal Zone, where mangoes have run wild through the forests, there is almost always a goodly number of orchid plants upon them. Wild figs, on the other hand, are usually almost or quite free of epiphytes. In general, it seems that smooth-barked trees are little frequented by orchids, although the smoothness of the bark scarcely seems an ade- ORCHID COLLECTING—STANDLEY 369 quate explanation for this condition, since even the smoothest bark has irregularities sufficient for the lodgment of orchid and other seeds. ATLANTIC COAST Over on the Atlantic coast of Costa Rica climatic conditions are very different from those prevailing along the Pacific watershed. Here, although there is some differentiation into dry and wet sea- sons, there is a copious supply of moisture throughout the year. Even in what may be termed the dry season there are frequent heavy rains, so that at all times of the year the atmosphere is satur- ated. Such a condition, associated with a high temperature, affords ideal conditions for the development of truly tropical vegetation, which attains a luxuriance unknown in temperate lands. The lowlands of the Atlantic coast are characterized by heavy forests, naturally more or less like those of near-by Panama, but here there remain vast stretches still untouched by man. The only breaks in the dense forests that cover this part of Costa Rica are the extensive banana plantations, for which the region is famous, and small patches cleared for cultivation of other fruits and of vegetables. Such forests as these satisfy to the fullest extent one’s precon- ceived notions of what a tropical forest ought to be. The covering of the tree tops is so dense that no sunshine reaches the ground. Even the rain can not fall directly, and during a heavy shower one may walk for miles without becoming wet. Very large trees, with trunks six feet or more in diameter, are frequent, some of them with fantastically buttressed or otherwise supported trunks. Certain trees, notably the Cecropias, which have always seemed to the writer the most characteristically tropical of all Central American trees, are supported by prop-roots, similar in form to those developing in maize. Large, woody vines are characteristic of these forests, and coarse epiphytes, especially aroids and bromeliads. The ground also is well covered nearly everywhere, mostly with large herbs, among which ferns are usually conspicuous, as well as numerous sorts of palms. Some of these plants have showy flowers, but more often the blossoms are small and inconspicuous. In the heavy lowland forest one may look in every direction and see no sign of color other than the dull, dark, monotonous green that is characteristic of tropical American forests, and quite different from the lighter and livelier green of the forests of the United States. There are a good many orchids in this part of Costa Rica, and there must be many undescribed ones, for the region has been little visited by botanists, chiefly because of a wholesome fear of malaria, which is all too prevalent at,such elevations. In the case of other groups 370 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 of plants it is certain that the flora is of the highest interest. Col- lecting orchids here is attended with much the same difficulties as upon the Pacific coast, for the plants perch upon the highest branches where they can scarcely be reached. When one is so fortunate as to find an area. recently cleared, where the fallen trees have not yet been burned, a large collection may be gathered in a short time. Some of the orchids grow low upon the tree trunks, and can be reached from the ground. It is not uncommon to find orchids normally terrestrial that have here taken to growing upon tree trunks. HIGHLANDS OF CENTRAL COSTA RICA It is to the mountains one must travel if large quantities of orchids are to be seen, and there not even the least energetic collector can fail to find them. Of all Costa Rica, the central uplands are the most attractive part. The climate in many localities is ideal, and the landscape sufficiently varied and pleasing to satisfy the most fastidious visitor. All or nearly all the usual tropical insect and other pests are left behind, and one may wander about with less dis- comfort than in most parts of the United States. There are so many beautiful places that it is impossible to determine which should head the list. What can be lovelier than the Valley of Orosi, south of Cartago; or Cartago itself, lying at the foot of the Volcano of Trazi? Central America is rich in cities with beautiful sites, but none of them can surpass the Costa Rican capital, San José. This portion of Costa Rica has a temperate rather than a tropical climate. Freezing temperatures are unknown, but upon the tops of the high volcanoes frosts occur. In this temperate belt and just below its lower limits, or even in the colder upper belts of the moun- tains, orchids attain their greatest profusion. All this region was once covered by dense humid forest, no doubt, but now large areas, in fact the greater portion, have been cleared to make way for the coffee fincas which furnish the chief wealth of the country. At still higher altitudes the forest has been replaced by meadows over which eraze the herds of cattle that are the basis of a substantial industry in milk, cheese, and butter, such as has been developed nowhere else in Central America. The abundance of material here available for study under such exceptional physical conditions must arouse the enthusiasm of any botanist. The variety of plants is so great that at first one is over- whelmed, and can only wander about bewildered and unable to fix attention upon any particular plant. Only a few hours’ ride from San José over a good road brings one to La Palma (pl. 19), a classic locality for Costa Rican plants, vis- ited by almost every botanist who has worked in Costa Rica, yet-of ORCHID COLLECTING—STANDLEY 371 such wealth that it is still far from exhausted. One rides at first through comparatively level country, planted with coffee and groves of fruit trees, then through fields of corn, until finally one reaches a rather definite line at which there is evidence of a moister climate. Beyond this point there are few cultivated fields, but instead pas- tures full of cattle. Ia Palma lies in a gap between the volcanoes of Barba and Irazt. The pass between these peaks has an altitude of about 5,700 feet. Through this opening clouds pour from the plains of Santa Clara, which stretch toward the Atlantic coast; they lodge here and shed their rain. It is said that it is always raining at La Palma. No matter how clear the day at San José, looking to- ward La Palma one always sees low-hanging clouds. Riding along the road one comes suddenly into this cloud zone, out of the sunshine into a penetrating fog, with cold drizzling rain, and often an ac- companiment of wind. At night this combination is dismal and un- comfortable beyond description, and even in the day the effect is dreary enough; yet the sun does shine sometimes at La Palma, and then the scene is beautiful. The temperature is so low that one is never comfortably warm. The meadows, mostly of imported grasses, clovers, and other European plants, dotted with dandelicns, butter- cups, and violets, are green throughout the year. The continuous rainfall has saturated the meadows so that they are like sponges soaked in icy water, into which one sinks at each step. There are small rills on every side. About the meadows are banked dark masses of trees, that also fill the uncleared ravines. Clearing does not seem to have injured the flora; rather it has probably improved it. Many plants, including some of the most showy ones, do not reach their best development in deep forest, but require a greater amount of light than is available there. These have found a favorable environment at the forest edge. Many orchids belong to this class; indeed, orchids generally, except some of the smallest and most delicate, do not seem to thrive in heavy forest, and in general orchid collecting gives better results at the forest edge and on the isolated trees that dot the meadows. Take any one of these trees or one of the old stumps, and examine it at leisure. It will be found that each tree is a veritable flower garden. Each has a flora different from that of its neighbor. The best method of collecting is to take a small area and “ comb ” the trees, one by one. ‘There is no need to cover a large area; ability to climb trees is the most important requirement. The trees are small and gnarled, resembling old apple trees. They are of many species, but often it is difficult to determine what the tree itself really is, so nearly concealed is it under a burden of alien vegetation. There are some true parasites here, mistletoes with masses of yellow or red flowers, but most of the covering con- 372 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 sists of epiphytes, loose cushions and pendants of mosses and hepa- tics, gray lichens, and masses of herbs and shrubs of the most heterogeneous family relationship. Some of the invading shrubs are nearly as large as the host itself. Many are noteworthy for their gorgeous flowers, and if this were a tropical forest it really would satisfy popular pictures of the Tropics. Usually yellow fiowers predominate in any locality, but such is not the case here. Although yellows are not absent, they are not so conspicuous, at least in winter, as the reds supplied by innumerable plants of the heath family. These furnish such an abundance of red as one expects never to find in nature. Some of the lobelias are equally showy, and there are also other plants with red blossoms. Blues are as scarce as elsewhere, but there are many plants with attractive white flowers. On all these moss-covered trees there is an abundant supply of ferns and, last but not least, of orchids. The profusion of orchids is truly bewildering. Occasionally there is one with showy flowers, but more often they are small plants, often only 1 or 2 inches high, with miniature blossoms. Every branch bears a copious supply of them, and the variety is infinite. If one spends the whole day hunting them, at evening one will still be finding new forms. Some species are plentiful and quickly recognized, but others are so rare that one may search all day without finding a second plant. When one realizes that in Costa Rica there are many hundreds of. square miles of equally rich orchid territory, it will be under- stood why it is that every new collector finds many novelties. Well within the forest, which is always dripping wet, there are many orchids and other plants upon the trees. The individual plants are so entangled that there is difficulty in separating them. Their roots are bedded in masses of decaying vegetable matter, and when a clump is pulled down from above, a shower of débris falls into one’s eyes. Some terrestrial orchids occur, but the species are unimportant in comparison with the epiphytic ones. All around La Palma there are many other favorable localities, several of which were visited by the writer. At La Hondura, over the pass from San José and on the Atlantic slope, the flora is almost unbelievably varied and rich, and years of collecting will be in- sufficient to exhaust it. The elevation at La Hondura is less than at La Palma, but the precipitation is as great, and there can be no better place in which to look for orchids. It is interesting to see how remarkably the plants change from one locality to another, even at a distance of only a few miles. Plants that are abundant in one place may not be found at all at a near-by locality, and this is frequently the case even with trees and other large and important species. With orchids elevation seems to ORCHID COLLECTING—STANDLEY 373 be a matter of great importance. There is apparently an optimum elevation at which they reach their best development. For the La Palma region this must be at about 6,000 feet. At another locality only a very few miles away, but of slightly greater elevation, orchids were found to be far less plentiful, although the other vegetation was luxuriant and attractively varied. At higher elevations the scarcity of orchids is still more pro- nounced. Upon the upper slopes of the Volcano of Pods, one of the most remarkable natural monuments of Central America, al- though there are humid forests, and trees loaded with epiphytic vegetation, orchids are few in both species and individuals. Toward the summit of the Volcano of Turrialba their absence is even more striking, and not over half a dozen species were found. This is the more remarkable since the wet forests of Turrialba are richer in ferns than any locality seen by the writer in Costa Rica, and other epiphytes are present in quite as great abundance as at La Palma. It must be that the altitude is too great and the temperature too low for the needs of orchid growth. It seems certain, therefore, that the expectations of those who have stated that a whole new orchid flora would be found on the higher slopes of the Central American mountains are doomed to disappointment. There are many other localities in central Costa Rica that furnish a wealth of orchids. In the wet mountains south of Cartago their variety is perhaps as great as at La Palma, although individuals are hardly as numerous. It may be noted, too, that most of the species found in the latter region are different from those of La Palma. Even in the immediate vicinity of San José and Cartago, especially about the latter city, orchids grow upon nearly all the roadside trees, and even upon fence posts. At La Palma one could make a fine collection without ever leaving the wagon road. Costa Rican conditions are extremely favorable for forming a living collection of orchid plants, yet little has been done in this direction. Some years ago Dona Amparo Zeledén assembled in San José an extensive collection of the more showy species, the plants having been collected principally by Werckle. Specimens from plants of this collection have been made the types of new species by Schlechter. At the present time, because of the absence of its owner, this collection has unfortunately deteriorated, and compara- tively few plants remain. Frequently about San José and Cartago one sees small collections of orchids about the houses, most of the plants those which produce conspicuous flowers. One of the finest local collections is that of Father Benavides, in Heredia. This consists of a very large number of plants and includes a wonderful display of Cattleyas and other 20397—25——25 374 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 large-flowered local orchids. Father Benavides’ plants are all grown upon pieces of tree-fern trunks, which are said to furnish the best medium for the growth of epiphytic species. The most enthusiastic local student is Mr. C. H. Lankester, of Cartago, an Englishman who has spent many years in Costa Rica. A naturalist in the best and widest sense of that word, he has de- voted much time to the study and collection not only of orchids but of birds and butterflies, in all of which he has made notable discov- eries. His present collection of living plants contains a host of beautiful and interesting forms. Besides local species, he has fine exotic plants, including some of the most handsome Cattleyas. He has carried on experiments in hybridization, and has planted upon trees about his finca hybrids and exotic species, in an attempt to naturalize them. Mr. Lankester has forwarded many living orchids to the Kew Gardens, and from his collections there have been described numerous Costa Rican novelties, including the new genus Lankesterella. SOME SHOWY COSTA RICAN ORCHIDS Costa Rican orchids are famed for their variety and for the beauty of some of the species. They include all or most of the groups already mentioned from Panama, besides many that do not occur in Panama. Most showy of all are the Cattleyas, which are unusually abundant in Costa Rica. To these. flowers there is given locally the name guaria, an in- digenous term. The most plentiful is the guarta morada or purple Cattleya, CO. skinneri (pl. 20), a species which has already been men- tioned as occurring in Salvador. In Costa Rica it is still more abundant, growing commonly all over the Pacific slope. The plant is a great favorite locally, and for this reason is seldom seen wild in the more thickly populated districts. At Escazti, a small village near the capital, I have seen a greater profusion than anywhere else, and a show of great beauty in March and April, when the flowering season is at its height. There is scarcely a home that does not own at least a few plants, fastened upon trees in the dooryards, growing up- on the tile roofs, or forming dense masses along the tops of the adobe walls that inclose the gardens. One of the striking features of San José is the great number of florists who have gardens or jardinerias where flowers are grown for sale. All over Central America the production of cut flowers is an industry of considerable importance, and in San José more so than anywhere else, for the gardens here seem almost without number. Most of the flowers grown for sale are of common sorts, such as roses, carnations, and lilies, and they are planted in great abundance. The ORCHID COLLECTING—STANDLEY 875 cultivation of Cattleyas and other orchids for the sale of their flowers is common, and in some of the commercial gardens there are magnificent displays. The fine clump of Catéleya skinner illus- trated in Plate 20 is from such a garden, owned by an Amer- ican citizen of Danish origin. In this Milflor garden there is a long avenue, lined on each side with trees whose trunks are completely covered with this Cattleya, affording during the flowering season a gorgeous show of color. In other gardens the display is almost equally fine. Some of the plants are as large as a washtub and pro- duce hundreds of blossoms. These last for weeks and are of delicate shades of rose purple. The genus Cattleya consists of 30 to 40 species, all of which are * American, extending from Mexico into South America. They are the favorite orchids for cultivation in the United States and Europe because of their handsome flowers and even more, perhaps, because of their easy culture. They are favorites with the hybridizer, and numerous fine artificial forms have been produced by hybridization. Many living Cattleya plants are exported from tropical America for growth in northern countries. Their flowers are the orchids most commonly sold in flower shops in the United States, and those gen- erally associated in the popular mind with the word orchid. The most prized locally of the Costa Rican orchids is the guaria blanca or white Cattleya. It is only a color variant of Cattleya skinneri, but a very distinct one, for the flowers are pure white. It is a strikingly beautiful plant, and occurs in the wild state, although it is so much sought after that it is now hard to find. Even in Costa Rica the plants are held at dear prices, and I was informed of one fine clump for which $150 had been paid. The third Costa Rican Cattleya is probably the finest Central American orchid, and is commonly considered the most gorgeous of all the Cattleyas. It is the guaria Turrialba or simply Turrialba, the Turrialba Cattleya, C. dowiana (pl. 21). It takes its name from the fact that it grows chiefly about the lower slopes of the Vol- cano of Turrialba, on the Atlantic side of Costa Rica. The writer was fortunate enough to find a vigorous plant, with buds, in the forest near Guapiles. This Cattleya also has been so much hunted by commercial collectors that it is now considered rare. Its sepals and petals are nankeen yellow, and the ruffled lip is of a rich deep crimson purple, veined with gold. In color it is quite unlike any of its relatives, and none of them is so richly decorated. When first described in Europe by its discoverer, Oersted, botanists were skeptical as to the accuracy of his description. Although the Turrialba Cattleya is confined to Costa Rica, several varieties of it have been reported and introduced into cultivation from Colombia, one of them with pure yellow flowers. 376 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 Next to the Cattleyas, the plants most esteemed for cultivation in ~ Costa Rica are the Trichopilias. Of these the most common is — Trichopilia suavis (pl. 22), a species occurring also in Panama. — It is rather frequent in Costa Rican forests at lower altitudes, and it is possible to find wild plants quite as fine as those of gardens. The flowers have white or creamy sepals and petals; the lip has a yellow throat, with rose markings upon a white ground. Tricho- pilias are well known locally, and even in remote country districts small children know them by their Latin name. Other showy species are found among the Odontoglossums, one of the most popular groups in cultivation of all American orchids. Odontoglossum schlieperianum (pl. 23, fig. 1) has yellow flowers, the segments cross-barred with deep purple. The Stanhopeas are noted as including many fine plants that are favorites in cultivation. The one illustrated (pl. 24, fig. 1) has flowers about 4 inches broad, in which the sepals and petals are pure white, with purple dots, and the lip white with yellow base and purple mottlings. Many other Costa Rican orchids deserve mention, but without illustrations they would be no more than mere names. The Miltonias are almost as beautiful as the Cattleyas, and there are other litle known plants that are noteworthy because of their exceptionally handsome blossoms. /'pidendrum endresii, a dwarf plant with! clusters of pure white flowers, handsomely spotted with purple, is one of the most delicately beautiful of all. The most common and striking orchid of the Meseta Central of Costa Rica is L'pidendrum radicans, which is found nearly everywhere at certain elevations. It is a terrestrial plant, its slender, erect or climbing stems, with their numerous thick aerial roots and broad thick leaves, topped with a cluster of orange-scarlet flowers. In many localities it al- most assumes the character of a weed, and grows in the greatest abundance. The writer was shown an unusually interesting and large colony by Mr. Lankester in a curious habitat upon his finca at Las Céncavas. Here it occurred in great profusion in a marsh along with a Habenaria and, strangely enough, the common royal fern, just as we find the last in the eastern United States. Such a habitat is quite unusual, for ordinarily the scarlet H'pidendrum in- habits rather well drained banks and meadows. Another fine Epidendrum is FZ. lindleyanum (pl. 28, fig. 2), a plant sometimes referred to the genus Barkeria. 'The specimens illustrated were obtained at Orosi by Don Anastasio Alfaro, direc- tor of the Costa Rican National Museum, an enthusiastic orchid col- lector. In this plant the flowers are rose purple, and the petals and sepals well over an inch in length. Epidendrum ciliare (pl. 24, fig. 2) is a widely distributed plant in tropical America, and one of the ORCHID COLLECTING—STANDLEY B17 most attractive of its group. The sepals and petals (about 3 inches long) are greenish yellow, and the pure white lip is divided into many long threadlike lobes. The species of Acineta illustrated (pl. 25) is a relative of the Gon- goras (pl. 15) that are so common in Panama. The Pleurothallis (pl. 26, fig. 2) is a representative of one of the largest genera of of American orchids. This one, however, is scarcely typical of the genus, since it is a plant several feet high, while the other species seldom attain a height of more than 2 or 38 inches. The species of Pleurothallis, although highly interesting to the botanist, are of no value for cultivation. In view of the large collections of orchids that have been made in recent years in Costa Rica and elsewhere in Central America, it is sometimes asked by persons unfamiliar with the region whether there may not be danger of their extinction. It may be stated that there is no danger of this, so far as the operations of collectors for study purposes are concerned. Commercial collectors hunt only the showy plants, and even these are probably in no immediate danger of extermination. In the case of herbarium collections, only a few specimens of a given species are taken, and there is no possibility of exhaustion from this source. The greatest menace is the clearing of the forests for agricultural purposes, which in Salvador has pro- ceeded so far as almost to eliminate the primeval vegetation; but the rapid extension of the agricultural areas in Central America is far more important and desirable, it is needless to remark, than the pres- ervation of orchid species. In favorable localities in Costa Rica it would be possible to gather in a short time many tons of orchid plants without exhausting the supply. When we remember the in- credible number of seeds produced by orchids, we wonder only that they do not dominate vegetation everywhere in the Tropics. Smithsonian Report, 1924.—Standley PLATE | |. VIEW OF EXTERIOR OF THE POWELL ORCHID GARDEN, BALBOA, CANAL ZONE. THE VINE-COVERED TRELLISES, SEEN FROM A DISTANCE, SUG- GEST A VINEYARD 2. VIEW IN THE POWELL ORCHID GARDEN. OVER 7,000 PLANTS ARE GROWING HERE, REPRESENTING NEARLY ALL THE ORCHIDS KNOWN TO OCCUR IN PANAMA pate te 5X 6 ALV1d Ga0NGSYH ATLHDINIS “LVOYNHL AZNOUG HLIM ALIHMA SYSMO14 ‘SNOZ IVNVD ‘SHV NALVYD “1I77SMOd VITWYEEOS *% Ce BES Oe”: ~~ ANOZ IVNVO ‘vOodal1vg lV N3GYvV5) GIHOYHO SIH NI 114aM0d Aa|pueiS—'h76 | ‘M 'O CYW C1 Syoday} uBlucsyyIWS Smithsonian Report, 1924.—Standley PLATE 3 |. CATTLEYA DECKERI. PANAMA. FLOWERS ROSE-PURPLE. MUCH REDUCED 2. TRICHOPILIA MARGINATA. PANAMA. FLOWERS WHITE, WITH DEEP RED THROAT. ABOUT ONE-THIRD NATURAL SIZE (Photographs from Mr. C. W. Powell) Smithsonian Report, 1924.—Standley PLATE 4 BRASSAVOLA NODOSA. PANAMA. LIP PURE WHITE. MUCH! REDUCED (Photograph from Mr. C. W. Powell) Smithsonian Report, 1924.—Standley PLATE 5 ONCIDIUM POWELLI!. PANAMA. ONE OF THE BUTTERFLY ORCHIDS. FLOWERS BROWN AND YELLOW. ABOUT HALF NATURAL SIZE (Photograph from Mr. ©. W Powell) Smithsonian Report, 1924.—Standley PLATE 6 1. BRASSIA LONGISSIMA. PANAMA. FLOWERS YELLOWISH GREEN, THE LiP MARKED WITH PURPLE. MUCH REDUCED = we « ee “ Fo Fj ‘. 2. CORYANTHES HUNTERIANUM. BUCKET ORCHID. PANAMA. FLOWERS YELLOW. MUCH REDUCED (Photographs from Mr. C. W . Powell) Smithsonian Report, '344.——olangaiey |. EPIDENDRUM ATROPURPUREUM. A COMMON 9. EPIDENDRUM STAMFORDIANUM. PANAMA. FLOWERS SPECIES OF PANAMA AND COSTA RICA. SEPALS WHITE AND ROoOSE-BROWN. NATURAL SIZE AND PETALS PURPLISH BROWN; LIP WHITE, WITH ROSE LINES. NATURAL SIZE (Photographs from Mr. C, W. Powell) Smithsonian Report, 1924.—Standley PLATE 8 EPIDENDRUM PACHYCARPUM. FRIJOLES, CANAL ZONE. FLOWERS WHITE, THE LIP VEINED WITH PURPLE. NATURAL SIZE Smithsonian Report, 1924.—Standley EPIDENDRUM VARIEGATUM. CANAL ZONE. FLOWERS GREENISH WHITE, WITH DARK PURPLE MARKINGS. NATURAL SIZE (Photograph by Mr. H. Pittier Smithsonian Report, 1924.—Standley PLATE 10 MORMODES BUCCINATOR. CANAL ZONE. A PORTION OF THE PENDENT INFLORESCENCE. FLOWERS i\VARYING .FROM BRIGHT YELLOW TO DARK BROWN. NATURAL SIZE (Photograph by Mr. H. Pittier) Smithsonian Report, 1924.—Standley PLATE II 1. MORMODES IGNEUM. PANAMA. FLOWERS BROWN. 2. CATASETUM WARSCEWICZII. PANAMA. FLOWERS ABOUT HALF NATURAL SIZE GREENISH WHITE. ABOUT HALF NATURAL SIZE (Photographs from Mr. C. W. Powell) Smithsonian Report, 1924.—Standley PLATE 12 CATASETUM VIRIDIFLORUM. CANAL ZONE. FLOWERS GREENISH YELLOW. NATURAL SIZE Smithsonian Report, 1924—Standley PLATE I3 1. CYCNOCHES WARSCEWICZII. PANAMA. STAMINATE 2. CYCNOCHES GUTTULATUM. PANAMA. PISTILLATE FLOWERS. LIP WHITE; SEPALS AND PETALS YELLOw. FLOWERS. NATURAL SIZE ABOUT TWO-THIRDS NATURAL SIZE (Photographs from Mr. C. W. Powell) Standley Smithsonian Report, 1924. FLOWERS GREENISH YELLOW Ww z ©) N = < z < O CYCHNOCHES VENTRICOSUM. Smithsonian Report, 1924.—Standley 15 GONGORA QUINQUENERVIS. CANAL ZONE. FLOWERS GREENISH YELLOW WITH PURPLE-BROWN Spots. NATURAL SIZE (ae raph by Mr. H. Pit : Smithsonian Report, 1924.—Standley PLATE VANILLA (VANILLA PLANIFOLIA). GUATEMALA. THE FLOWERS ARE GREENISH WHITE. ABOUT HALF NATURAL SIZE (Photograph from U. S. Department of Agriculture) 16 —— _— —————— a a Smithsonian Report, 1924.—Standley PLATE [7 VANILLA (VANILLA PLANIFOLIA). CANAL ZONE. NATURAL SIZE (Photograph from U. S. Department of Agriculture) Smithsonian Report, 1924.—Standley PLATE 18 ORNITHOCEPHALUS ELEPHAS. CANAL ZONE. FLOWERS GREENISH YELLOW. NATURAL SIZE 1924.— Standley PLATE 19 VIEW AT LA PALMA, COSTA RICA, ONE OF THE BEST ORCHID REGIONS OF CENTRAL AMERICA. ALL THE TREES ARE LOADED WITH ORCHIDS AND OTHER EPIPHYTES (Photograph from U.S. Department of Agriculture) Smithsonian Report, 1924.—Standley PLATE 20 CATTLEYA SKINNERI. SAN JOSE, COSTA RICA. FLOWERS ROSE-PURPLE (Photograph by M. G6mez Miralles) Smithsonian Report, 1924.—Standley PLATE 21 CATTLEYA DOWIANA. COSTA RICA. SEPALS AND PETALS NANKEEN YELLOW; LIP CRIMSON-PURPLE, VEINED WITH GOLD. MUCH REDUCED (Photograph by M. GOmez Miralles) (SoT/R4AIW ZOU H “ww AQ Ydeis0j0yq ) 3ZIS IWYNLVYN GYIHL ANO LNOSV "SONIMYVIA, SSOYN HLIM ALIHAA SYSMO14 ‘“WAVYNVd GNV WOIY VLSOD ‘SIAVNS VWITIdOHOIYL GOs 5LV1d Aa|pueis—'yz6l ‘J4odey uBluosyyws [V Olse{svuy uod WoO sydevis0j04 4) 3ZIS WHNnt 3ZIS IWHYNLVYN SHLslsa-OML LNOSY -VN GHYIHL S3NO LNOSY ‘“A1IdYNd-3SOH SYAMO14 "SONIMYVIA, 31dyNd d33q HLIM ‘MOTTISA SYSAMO14 "YOIN WLSOD ‘ISOHO “WONVASTIGONIT WNYaNaGdldy ‘3G "VOIN = VLSODO ‘WANVIYSdSITHOS WNSSOISOLNOGO ‘| Ka|pueiSs—'bZ6l ‘Hoday uvluosyzWs Smithsonian Report, 1924.—Standley PLATE 24 |. STANHOPEA ECORNUTA. SARAPIQUI, COSTA RICA. FLOWERS WHITE, WITH PURPLE Dots. ABOUT HALF NATURAL SIZE 2. EPIDENDRUM CILIARE. CACHI, COSTA RICA. SEPALS AND PETALS GREENISH YELLOW, THE LIP WHITE. MUCH REDUCED (Photographs from Mr; C. H. Lankester) Smithsonian Report, 1924.—Standley PLATE 25 A SPECIES OF ACINETA. COSTA RICA. FLOWERS YELLOW AND BROWNISH RED, FLESHY. REDUCED (Photograph by M. Gomez Miralles) a ee (loJSeyue'yT “FTO “Ap wos ydessojogd) (TOMOd "M ‘OA Woy ydeis0j0yq) HDIH SAHON| € OL GZ ‘SLNV1Id TIVWS 3YY SITIVHLOYNATd AO SAIOAdS g3a0ngauy HONW LSOIN) “NMOY¥G-31ddNd SYSMO14 :HOIH La454 € LNOSV “YSONSAV7] HLIM G39G9j d!Iq AHL ‘ALIHA\) SHSMO14 INVId ‘VOIH VLSOD ‘IHOVD ‘SIGNVHD SITIVHLOYNATd °G ‘“ANOZ IVNVOD ‘AVIEWOOSdIT VWHONAHYYOYUGNOHD °| se te bee 96 ALV1d Aa|pueis—'pZ6l ‘WWoday uBvluOosYy}IwsS SKETCHES FROM THE NOTEBOOK OF A NATURALIST- TRAVELER IN OCEANIA DURING THE YEAR 1923 By Casry A. Woop Since every visitor to Polynesia and Australasia must perforce say something about Captain Cook, the mutineers of the Bounty, and the Southern Cross, I need not apologize for beginning my obser- vations with a few notes on these attractive subjects. Imprimis, I discovered that my recollections of the three voyages of Cook and of his remarkable scientific career were not as fresh as they ought to be for one who proposed to travel over that quarter of the globe he described so clearly over a hundred years ago. In- deed, after reading the account given in his “ Voyages,” one feels that very little of importance has since been published touching the early history of the South Seas, many of whose islands he placed on the map. Certainly, since the publication of his reports we have not learned much more concerning the customs and lives of the natives. James Cook, son of a common agricultural laborer, was born in Yorkshire, October 27, 1728. His parents tried to fashion him into a haberdasher, but the lure of the ocean was too much for him and them and—an old, familiar British boy’s tale—he quit the trade and went to sea as a common sailor. After various adventures along the British coast and in the Baltic he volunteered as an able seaman in the royal navy, assisted at the capture of Quebec, charted the lower St. Lawrence and the shores of Newfoundland and succeeded in proving to his superiors that he was no idler in his chosen profes- sion but aspired to the highest command possible to a self-taught mariner. When, in the year 1768, the Government, at the suggestion of the Royal Society, decided to send an expedition to the South Seas for the purpose of observing the transit of Venus over the sun’s disk, Lieutenant Cook, then 40 years of age and in the full posses- sion of his powers, was placed in command. From that date the Pacific and its wonderful islands became his special domain and his accounts of his three voyages of observation and discovery make fascinating reading. It must be remembered that at least two of the adventures were undertaken in the company of well-trained natural- 379 380 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 ists, students of Linnaeus, who probably “checked up”, most of the reports on animal life with which his pages are crowded. On June 25, 1776, Captain Cook sailed on his last voyage—an expedition fit- ted out by the British Government for the chief purpose of discover- ing a northwest passage from the Pacific side — to do from the west- ward what Franklin and others were later to attempt from the east. On Valentine’s Day, 1779, he was clubbed to death by the natives of Hawaii, with whom his men had an altercation—a most tragic end for a man who had uniformly treated the aborigines of the lands he visited with humanity and tact and with such a just regard for their peculiar viewpoints. His accounts abound with references to the abundant faunal, especially the avian, life of Polynesia. Listen, for example, to this extract from his “First Voyage”: “ Northward from Botany Bay * * * we have for some days past seen the sea birds, called boob- ies, which from half an hour before sunrising to half an hour after were continually passing the ship in large flights, from which it was conjectured that there was a river or inlet of shallow water to the southward, where they went to feed in the day, returning in the evening to some islands to the northward.” Of course these were not Sula bassana, that exclusive Atlantic bird, but the Booby gan- net—Sulu leucogastra—seen on both sides of the American Conti- nents. I am morally certain that it was some descendants of these same boobies that we saw as we sailed the same waters. For his second voyage the Government employed H. M. Barque Endeavour, 370 tons, complement 84. With this equipment the transit was successfully witnessed (on Tahiti) and duly reported, in the Philosophical Transactions for the year 1771. Several designations remain to mark this adventure: Two of these are, the group name, Society Islands, from the Royal Society; and Point Venus, about ten miles from Papeete, where the transit was observed. The British were so well pleased with Cook’s part in this undertaking that they placed him in command of a second expedi- tion to complete the discovery of another continent that most geog- raphers believed existed in the Southern Hemisphere. Two ships were this time commissioned for the purpose, the Resolution, 462 tons, and the Adventure, 336 tons. They were well equipped and liberally provided with scientific apparatus and stores. As with the reports of the first voyage so is the second replete with clear descrip- tions of the fauna of the islands visited. As they sailed south from New Zealand, for instance, they fell in with several large islands and, at last, with a quantity of loose ice. Here they saw “gray albatrosses, blue peterels, pintadoes, and fulmers.” Still later they got two of the Antarctic petrels. “These are about the size of a large pigeon; the feathers of the head, back, and part of the upper OCEANIA—WooD 381 side of the wings are of a light brown, the belly and underside of the wings white; the tail feathers are also white, but tipped with brown. These birds are fuller of feathers than any we had hitherto seen ; such care has nature taken to clothe them suitable to the climate in which they live.” And the foregoing description has not since the days of Cook been much improved upon. Probably Captain Cook’s “blue peterels” were of the genus Prion—the small dove petrels, whose upper surface is ashy blue, with white below. They are only about 12 inches long, with a jet- black, pyramidal band stretching from one leg to the other across the rump, which shows very plainly during flight. The “Antartic peterel” may be that allied species, Prion desol- atus. ‘They do not attend ships, being suspicious of man and all his works, but follow the whale and feed upon not the crumbs but the more substantial fragments that fall from his ample maw. Hence their vulgar name of whale bird. I have never seen this spe- cies alive, but they are said to be nocturnal in their habits. The “pintado” is more certainly the pretty little cape petrel—Daption capensis, or cape pigeon, so called from its superficial resemblance to a pigeon, with head spotted with black and a pure white belly. This small petrel, well known to travelers in the South Pacific, eagerly feeds on scraps thrown from vessels, and even dives after them, like a duck. If caught, Daption, like others of his kind, tries to defend himself by ejecting an offensive fluid at and over his captor. Although essentially an Antarctic bird, it is occasionally seen as far north as Ceylon and California. Although Captain Cook did not find a northwest passage, even with the aid of his good ships esolution, of 462 tons, and Discovery, 300 tons, yet he made for his Government many other discoveries that were, perhaps, of greater value. It may with truth be claimed that the traveler who first saw and described the famous constellation, the Southern Cross, was an American. When Americo Vespucci, on his first voyage, saw the constellation, he wrote in triumph that he had beheld the Cross— and Dante’s “four stars.” A friend has drawn my attention to the poet’s description : To the right I turned and fixed my mind On the other pole attentive, where I saw Four stars ne’er seen before save by the ken Of our first parents. Heaven of their ray seemed joyous. O, thou northern site, bereft Indeed, and widowed, since of these deprived.” _ This quotation is from Canto I, of the “Purgatorio,” in Cary’s translation. 20397-—25———_26 3882 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 The Cross lies directly south of the constellation Crater, and about 30° of the pole. The precession of the equinoxes is carrying the Cross steadily southward, and it is said to be a fact that the constellation was last seen on the horizon in the latitude of Judea about the time of Christ’s crucifixion. I remember that at the season of the year we were at Assouan the four stars (perhaps only two of them, really) were barely visible on the horizon for a short time in the early evening. I do not agree with Pigafetta that it is such a Croce maravigliosa, but then I was more gradually intro- duced to it than he, and I didn’t see it with his deeply religious and fervent eyes. It must not be forgotten that Job saw the Cross as a familiar heavenly series in his northern skies, as did many another ancient and reliable astronomer, and yet they were not much impressed by this kite-like group. Let me add that of the four stars that outline the Cross the third largest (Gamma, at the top of the Cross) is orange-colored; the others are white. The Breadfruit tree, as I have seen it in the West Indies, South America, and on these islands, is a very handsome ornament of the landscape. The common variety (Artocarpus incisa) may grow to a height of 50 feet and, with its long, dark, glossy leaves, at once attracts attention. The fruit is round-oval, is about the size of a child’s head, and is covered with lozenge-shaped elevations. The unripe fruit is green; yellow when mature. For cooking, it should be gathered before it is fully ripe. The fruit is then baked and served with the rind, after the manner of our squash. Stones are heated in the usual Polynesian fashion (or a more up-to-date oven is used), the breadfruit is cut in three or four slices, and then alternate layers of hot stones, leaves, and cut fruit are well covered with leaves and earth and left to cook in their own juices. Pre- pared in this fashion the pulpy interior is a faintly sweet, starchy substance suggesting the crumb of a wheaten loaf. I can not say that I regard it as more than a poor substitute for our white bread. Alfred R. Wallace, in his Malay Archipelago, rates its food value very high, and says that with meat and gravy it seemed to him superior to any starchy products in any temperate or tropical country. He also draws attention to the delicious puddings that can be made from it, especially if one adds plenty of sugar, milk, and butter! Perhaps the most important consideration, as Wallace also points out, is that a fair quality of flour can be manufactured from the dried fruit, available for a decent variety of bread and biscuits. I suppose there is no harm in adding that the bark, trunk, and gum of this tree is (or was) used by the natives of Polynesia for making all sorts of things—canoes, baskets, etc. OCEANIA—WOOD 383 For me the chief attraction of this subject lies in the fact that we have sailed relatively near the scene of the greatest breadfruit story in all history. In 1772 William Bligh, then only 18 years of age, accompanied Captain Cook on his second expedition to the South Seas (1772-1774) as sailing master of the Resolution. The young man was greatly interested in the New World that was in this way opened up to him, and made a particular study of the Polynesian flora and fauna. When the expedition reached Otaheite (Tahiti) Bligh became acquainted with the wonderful breadfruit, and talked and wrote so much about it that his fellow officers nick- named him “Breadfruit Bligh.” At the end of 1787 he was sent to Polynesia in command of H. M. 8. Bounty to gather breadfruit and other plants for cultivation in the West Indies. The expedition gained Otaheite in the spring of 1788. What happened shortly afterwards is told by Lieutenant Bligh in a small volume entitled “The Mutiny on Board Bounty.” “We sailed from Otaheite April 4, 1788, having on board 1,015 fine breadfruit plants, besides many other valuable fruits of that country which we had been collecting for three and twenty weeks, and which were in the highest state of perfection.” Two weeks later he was seized in his cabin by the ship’s master of arms and two others of the crew, pinioned and threatened with death if he made resistance. The crew also seized most of the other officers and gained control of the ship. The captain and 17 others were forced into the ship’s longboat, 25 mutineers remaining on board. Lieutenant Bligh and the 17, touching at several islands by the way, finally reached Batavia and eventually England. The mutineers sailed the Bounty to Tahiti, where most of them elected to remain. Six of these were later ap- prehended, taken to England, placed on trial and three were exe- cuted. Meantime, in 1790, Fletcher Christian, the leader of the mutiny, 8 other Englishmen, 6 Polynesian men, and 12 Poly- nesian women embarked on board the Bounty and, after cruising about the Paumotus, took possession of Pitcairn, on the out- skirts of that archipelago. This island is a mountainous, volcanic uplift area about 2 square miles, with several fertile valleys. Here this curious colony, having burned the Bounty, seems to have dis- appeared from the sight and knowledge of man. By the year 1800 all but one Englishman—Alexander Smith, who assumed the name of John Adams—had died. He appears to have been one of the few colonists to preserve a sense of responsibility, as he gained the respect of the natives and induced them to bring up their children in at least a semicivilized fashion. It was not until 1808 that the lost colony was discovered by an American vessel, the Topaze. Later other ships touched at Pitcairn and brought news of the 384 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 mutineers’ descendants to the outside world. John Adams lived until 1829, and was succeeded by George Nobbs as chief magistrate. Through fear of drought, the whole colony were returned to Tahiti in 1830 on a British man-of-war, but they disliked the change, pined for their beloved Pitcairn, and were sent back in 1831. The Pitcairners thereafter had an up-and-down career for another 25 years, when, in 1856, 60 married and 134 youngsters were again removed, this time to Norfolk Island. As time passed a number (40) returned to Pitcairn, so that in 1895 the population was about 170 souls. The Pitcairn people continue to speak the patois, mostly composed of the Tahitian of the original Polynesian women, that arose out of the mixed races that migrated in the days of the Bounty, and, although they show some of the signs of inbreeding consequent on their century of complete isolation, are, as a rule, intelligent and, for Polynesian half-breeds, an active and virile race. The romantic story of the Bounty excited much interest all over the world, and attracted the attention of Lord Byron, then ap- proaching the end of his tragic career. He further immortalized the mutineers in a poem—the last long one from his pen—entitled “The Island.” It is due to the memory of William Bligh, who rose to distinction and became an admiral in the British Navy, that the mutiny on his ship was no fault of his rule, but was the outcome of relations estab- lished between members of the crew and the women of the enchanted isle of Otaheite, an attraction that seems to have retained much of its force since the day that Cook sailed into the lagoon-harbor of Papeete. Several friends have asked me whether the descriptions of tropical scenery and of tropical life—humay, floral, and feral—that one reads as part of the voluminous literature of Polynesia, are not largely figments of the literary imagination. To this I answer: “Gen- erally speaking, no; but not infrequently, yes.” After all, the ver- dict depends upon the individual. Some there are who see only the beauty and the romance that is Oceania, while others, following an identical itinerary, see little that is satisfactory and learn only that Polynesian man in vile. Some are convinced that on these tropical islands “every prospect pleases” and that only the human element is objectionable; contrariwise, there are those who find all jungles and all atolls alike and that only the aboriginal or the “introduced” beach-comber is of interest. In all probability the truth lies midway. In any event I feel certain that the unprejudiced observer will always discover a continued charm in a country that is wholly new, remark- ably varied as one travels from one island group to another, and full of natural history wonders. Possibly the following descriptions, OCEANIA—W0OOD 385 that I jotted down in my notebook from time to time, may appear to be sentimental exaggerations and worthy of being classed with the productions of South Sea “fakirs”, but they were, at the time of ob- servation at least, genuine impressions: One evening, half an hour before sunset, when E. and I were on the deck of our steamer then lying in the Papeete lagoon, she drew my attention to the fact that the two large islands, Tahiti and Moorea, the latter 20 miles distant, are admirably situated for displaying the wondrous magnificence of a tropical sunset. And so it proved on that occasion. Between the islands, in the roadstead, is a toy islet, with its quota of palms and other trees, that does duty as a quarantine station. Some time after the mountain peaks of Moorea obscured the setting sun, the weird and loftier crags of Tahiti were brilliantly lighted by solar streamers that seem to stretch across from the sister island. As the sun sank below the true horizon and the shades of tropical evening deepened into night all our surroundings—ocean, sky, mountains and islet— became the scene of fairy-like kaleidoscopic, color transformations that changed every minute, punctuated by the distant but regular roar of the breakers on the barrier reef and the cool “whifis” of the delicious land breeze one may with confidence look for at nightfall in most of the southern Tropics. We agreed that we had seen as lovely sunsets elsewhere, but none with such a remarkable environment. Here is another note: Last August (at the end of the southern win- ter) I wished to study (in their wild state) the beautiful fruit pigeons of Fiji, and for that purpose took a native cutter bound for Kandavu, a mountainous, volcanic island, the most southerly of the Viti group and in the fifties an American whaling station of sorts. Kandavu is about 27 miles long, four wide, and lies 60 miles from Viti Levu. This charming volcanic uplift is practically shut off from the world. On it are only four or five white planters who have no telephones or telegraph stations, no roads and no post offices worth talking about. There is no communication with the other islands except by occasional—very occasional—Fijian craft. Now and then a native journeys from one village to another over ill- kept jungle trails, almost impassable to Europeans. My artist com- panion—a dextrous painter of animal life—and I put up at the hospitable home of Mr. and Mrs. M., educated English people and the only Europeans on the western end of the island. Their house was built on an eminence, itself surrounded by verdure-clad hills, except toward the northwest, where an opening in the hilly amphi- theater furnished a view of a beautiful bay. In its turn the bay was protected and cut off from the ocean by a coral reef that continuously threw up a succession of many-sounding breakers whose outlines were plainly visible by contrast with the blue waters of the bay. Trees of every tropical variety, both wild and cultivated, covered the bowl 386 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 of this ancient crater, while birds of many kinds—parrots, para- keets, sun birds, Fiji “robins,” honeyeaters, fantails, pigeons, doves, hawks—gave additional color to the landscape and lent musical notes to the loud babbling of a brook that ran past the house on its way to the ocean. As if to perfect this Fijian paradise, the white blossoms of several frangipane trees blew their strong fragrance through our rooms day and night. Unless I was too fatigued from tramping over hill and dale through the rather difficult jungle, I rose an hour before daybreak that I might refresh myself by drinking in the glories of the star- light sky, much of which I had seen in 1928 for the first time. Stand- ing well within the bowl of the long-inactive crater, the oncoming dawn was an entirely new experience. ‘As the eastern heavens lightened, the shadows of the valley beneath appeared to deepen, but at last the honeyeaters began their earliest notes, and with these matin songs the outlines of cocoa palms, breadfruit trees, mangoes, bananas, and other plants assumed individuality until over the edges of the green-rimmed hills streamed the first rays of the morning sun. They fell upon the opposite slopes, bringing with them a perfumed atmosphere redolent of the ever-flowering trees, shrubs, and vines that clothed the green hillsides to their very tops. Of course, the wonders of rosy-fingered dawn have been celebrated in song, verse, and prose many times these thousand years, but my contention is that when dark night rolls back into the ocean around wild Kandavu it does so in a fashion all its own. Other sunrises may be as im- pressive and as beautiful, but when viewed from the Korolevu crater they have charms inherent in their environment—charms due to just those every-day surroundings that are tropical life. What is true of the scenery, the flora, the fauna, and the meteor- ology of Polynesia is also true of its human element. I am quite sure that while writers of Oceanic fiction often draw upon their boundless stories of pasteboard heroes and heroines for tales that are largely products of an excited imagination, there are many lives at this moment being lived on the islands of the South Seas that prop- erly belong either to a century in advance or several hundred years behind our own times. I wish I had the space and the permission to relate the intimate histories of some waifs and strays as well as of some idealists whose acquaintance I made during my sojourn in central Polynesia. The objection of publishing the recitals would be the raising of doubts as to their reality, whether such individuals live within the realms of fact or fiction. So, I would say, nothing any South Sea romancer may write is likely to transcend the limits of the possible so long as he deals with human beings. OCEANIA—WOOD 887 Of course we were much interested in and always on the watch for a sight of an albatross. The Pacific coast is occasionally the resort of four humble members of the family, but not of “the bird that made the wind to blow.” He, the wandering albatross (Diomedea exulans), is almost pure white, the back showing narrow, transverse, wavy dark lines, the quills of the wing feathers being black. Some writers probably exaggerate this bird’s spread of wing; Ridgway says that it is about 11 feet (from 125 to 130 inches). The bill is yellow, becoming orange at the base. Many are the descriptions of the wonderful powers of flight shown by this denizen of the southern ocean. For instance, Greenbie is moved to use the following language: “ But chill and melancholy as was that southern sea, there hovered over it a creature whose call upon one’s interest was more than compensating. Swooping with giant wings in careless ease, the albatrosses follow us day in and day out. Always on the wing, awake or asleep, in sunshine or in storm, the air his home as water is to fish, and earth to mammal. Even the ship was no lure to him by way of support. He followed it, accepted whatever was thrown him from it, but as for dependence upon it— no such weakness. Swift, huge, glorious, unconsciously majestic, he is indeed a bird of good omen. How he floats with never a sign of effort! How he glides atop the waves, skims them, yet is never reached by their flame-like leapings; simulates their motion with- out the exhaustion into which they sink incessantly. He does not gorge himself as does the sea gull, nor is he ever heard to screech that selfish, hungry, insatiable screech. Silent, sadly voiceless, rhythmic, symbolic without being restrained by pride of art, he ex- emplifies right living. He is our link between shores, the one dream of reality on an ocean of opiate loveliness wherein there is little of earth’s confusion and pain.” Major Le Souef reports (#'mu, p. 58, 1922) that during a recent trip to England from Sydney Diomedea exulans was much in evi- dence, and was a faithful follower of the ship.. As soon, however, as the outside temperature rose above 70 degrees F. at 4 o’clock p. m. the wandering albatross invariably left the track of the ship and flew southward in search of cooler weather. In other words, Le Souef thinks that temperature is an important factor in de- termining the range of this bird. He calculated the flight of these albatrosses at from 20 to 40 miles an hour. He also noticed that the Atlantic adults have more brown in their plumage than those he saw in the Indian Ocean, the latter presenting beautiful, pure white wings whose silvery tones are heightened by their black tips. I have also noticed the effect of temperature on range (and have reported it in the same journal) relative to the New Zealand 888 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 albatross (Diomedea regia), that I regard as the most beautiful, although it is not the largest of the albatrosses. Another bird I saw in the South Seas was Phaethon rubricaudus, the red-tailed Tropic bird, largest of the genus. He derives his name from the bright crimson-red of his elongated and very at- tenuated rectrices. His mandibles are also red, and, when full. grown, his white plumage is tinted a deep roseate hue—altogether a beautiful bird. I wrote from South America of my experiences with the yellow-billed Tropic bird (P. flavirostris) (called “long- tails” in Bermuda), and I was on tiptoe to see his relative flying about the southern ocean. Moreover, I hoped to see a young bird, with the black, arrow-head markings on its back. I also wondered whether those barbarians who shoot this lovely creature for the bright red feathers of his tail (let us not forget those participites criminis who wear them) are still at their nefarious work. Stevenson, one of the most: careful observers, several times speaks of the southern Tropic bird. In one instance he makes, however, a mistake which is quite pardonable, and which has been made by others, in supposing that there is but one, and not two, long feathers in the bird’s tail—an error due to the fact that in molting the feathers are renewed irregularly and, in consequence, one feather frequently projects much beyond its fellow and gives the appearance of a single plume. The paragraph referred to is from “The Ebb Tide,” page 130:“* * * around and about the schooner a Tropic bird, white as a snowflake, hung and circled, and displayed, as it turned, the long vermilion feather in its tail.” While climbing the long but beautifully shaded trail that zigzags the slopes of Mount Vaea on a pilgrimage to Stevenson’s tomb we saw, sailing up and down the valley beneath us, a splendid red tail, flying directly over Vailima. Perhaps he was a descendant of one of the poet’s birds. Mr. D. McDonald, chief officer of the steamship 7ahiti, who for years has studied the oceanic life of Phaethon rubricaudus, tells me that these birds come on board practically always at night; and when they do so it is not (or rarely) because of exhaustion or be- cause they are blown aboard, but because they are attracted by one or other of the ship’s lights. They generally fly directly at the lan- tern, and are often stunned by the impact. They then fall onto the deck and, owing partly to the confusion produced by the blow, are unable to fly off again. Mr. McDonald does not think that the in- jury is alone responsible for their helplessness (that generally leads to their capture) ; in addition, they seem unable to get a grip on the smooth, often slippery, deck without which they can not acquire the headway necessary for upward flight. Nor does he believe that, as OCEANIA—WO0OOD 389 may obtain in the case of insects, they are lured by the illuminated lantern as such, for no sea bird would deliberately smash into an object, especially one so visible as a night light, unless he were de- ceived as to its solidarity. No; the fact is the bird thinks, so avers Mr. McDonald, that the lighted area of the lantern and its imme- diate surroundings constitutes an exit into daylight beyond. We all know that a bird in a darkened barn or other inclosure easily dis- covers and flies through a hole or other opening that gives on the daylight. It is not that he is attracted by the light area of the exit, but he visualizes and seeks, by means of the opening, the free air of heaven beyond. Thus it is with certain birds at sea; they expect to fly through the light and not at it. The dark or dimly-lighted canopy of the night represents to them a sort of antechamber of the day; the light at the masthead is one of, it may be, many openings through which the great, diurnal outdoors may be reached. Pensiert vané for the bird, you may say, but not more vain, is it, than the beliefs about the causes of daylight and darkness that were devoutly held by educated and polished races of mankind not so many years ago. I can not recollect that Gaetke or any other observer of light- house tragedies has explained them in this fashion, but the chief officer’s theory sounds feasible to me. At any rate I give it for what it may be worth. Then there is that other question in comparative psychology to answer: Is there, in this search for light, evidence of a superior or of an inferior avian intelligence? Because we know that there are sea birds that follow or fly about ships who are not attracted by lights in this manner—gulls and albatrosses, for example—probably because these are not nocturnal wanderers, except on moonlight nights. Among the many Australasian avifauna that I was set upon see- ing in their native surroundings if possible, was the lyre bird— familiar to everyone who has read about the curiosities of the “Lonely Continent.” It is only the full-grown male that has the wonderful tail—composed of 16 feathers, the two outer curved to form that remarkable lyre-shaped ornament that distinguishes it from any other species. The best known and the most highly ornamented species (Menura superba) is a native of New South Wales and southern Queensland. It is about as large as a small turkey. The possession of this beautiful and wondrous tail is not, however, the only unusual quality that distinguishes this peculiar bird; he is a fine singer and peerless mimic. Just how he came to be included in the Pseudoscines, or false song birds, is difficult to understand, considering that his musical ability has been known ‘and recognized from early Australian days. Another accomplish- 390 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 ment is his well-developed powers of mimicry. This additional at- tainment was especially insisted upon by an Australian ornithologist, guest of the British Ornithologists’ Club, when I was in London last summer. He claimed that the male Menura is unequaled in this respect; and we know that many other observers have recorded instances of this curious trait. One gentleman had a lyre bird as a pet around his farm in Australia for a great many years. “There was nothing he could not imitate. The following are a few of his mimicries: The noise of a horse and dray moving slowly, with the play of the wheels in the axle boxes, chains rattling, etc.; an occasional ‘ Gee up, Bess’; the sound of a violin, piano, cornet, cross- cut saw, and so on. All the more frequent noises heard about the farm the bird learned to perfection, such as a pig being killed, a dog howling, child crying, cries of a flock of parrots, jackass laughing, and many calls of small birds.” It was a rare privilege for me to see in company with Doctor Le Souef, director of the Sydney Zoo, and a number of other dis- tinguished ornithologists, three of these remarkable birds in the Na- tional Park, exhibiting the best of their mimetic and other stunts. You can imagine how lucky I was when Gould relates that he was a year in Australia without seeing one, although he heard many. I never see the name Norfolk Island (past which we sailed) with- out recalling the image of a transplanted, but perfect example of its so-called pine—the beautiful Araucaria excelsa—60 feet high, deli- cate green, and straight as a die, that one may at any time see near the Hotel del Coronado. This symmetrical beauty performs the use- ful function each holiday season of a live, outdoor Christmas tree. Bedight with colored electric lights from its spreading base to its conical top, it is easily the observed of all observers, and both day and night is a most attractive object. As if further to fit the pur- pose for which it is borrowed, the extreme apex of the tree termi- nates in a sort of Maltese cross, and forms a convenient and appro- priate anchorage for the traditional Star of Bethlehem. It was Captain Cook who discovered and christened the island—after the ducal family of the same name. He says of the tree: “The chief produce is a sort of spruce pine, which grows in abundance and to a great size, many of the trees being as thick, breast high, as two men could fathom, and exceeding straight and tall. It resembles the Quebec pine”—and we must not forget that for several years the captain cultivated the acquaintance of Lower Canadian timber. There is, or rather was, a beautiful Norfolk Island parrot (Vestor norfolcensis) of which only one bird skin remains, and a single draw- ing to perpetuate its memory. Thus vanishing is many another species and race of Polynesian fauna. OCEANIA—WO0OD 391 It was reminiscent of home to find the Pacific godwit (Limosa lapponica baueri) in north New Zealand. I am also reminded that there is at least one compensation in visiting Australasia during the “off” season for birds; one sees some old friends in the shape of migrants who for reasons of their own fly across thousands of miles of ocean to spend the winter in that delectable land. It might be supposed that all birds that insist on breeding in countries with a snowy season would, after a dozen or two generations of experience, seek the nearest warm or moderate winter climate furnishing suf- ficient food. However, as every budding ornithologist knows, some do not, and perhaps not even the most erudite and experienced stu- dent of bird behavior knows always why. In any event, the at- tempted solution of this problem has added much literature to dis- tributional ornithology, and it is still coming in. Speaking again of godwit migration, at the northern extremity of North Island, New Zealand, is the Bay of Spirits—so called from the Maori belief that the souls of the dead take their flight into the other world from this locality. It is an uninhabited lonely coast, the last stepping-off place, as it were, and would appear to be appropriate for the purpose as- signed to it by a barbaric but imaginative race. There is, however, another reason, probably the reason, for this tradition: also at the northern tip of long and narrow New Zealand is the rocky plateau where the godwits assemble in thousands for their annual return to Siberia. It must be a wonderful and awe-inspiring sight. Even the matter-of-fact Buller (Manual, p. 56) is moved to these words: “Rising from the beach in a long line and much clamor, they form into a broad semicircle and, mounting high in the air, generally take a course due north; sometimes they rise in a confused manner; and, after circling about at a considerable height, return to the beach to reform, as it were, their ranks, and then make a fresh start on their distant journey. The departure from any fixed locality usually begins on almost the exact date year after year; and for a week or 10 days after the migration has commenced fresh parties are con- stantly on the wing, the flight generally taking place about sunset, and sometimes after dark.” Does it not seem likely that a people of our own Aryan stock might easily translate this truly wonder- working episode into the belief, so firmly held by most aboriginals, of a happy hunting ground to which journey the spirits of the dead when this fitful fever called life has run its course? Not only is the parson bird (Prosthemadera novae-zealandiae) or tui, as he is called by the Maoris, one of the most striking but he is also among the most interesting of the New Zealand avifauna. Imagine a bird about the size and general appearance of our common ‘crow, generally of a metallic bluish or greenish black, the upper 392 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 part of his neck wearing a collar of gray, threadlike plumes with an outward curve. There is also a prominent white spot near each shoulder, and from the throat of the adult bird hang two tufts of white, curly feathers that look for all the world like the white bands of an ecclesiastic. Moreover this prominent “choker” can readily be seen as the bird flies about from tree to tree; and it is impossible to mistake him for any other species. In the Auckland district he is most likely to be found in the “ranges,” so, one fine day, accom- panied by Mr. R. A. Falla, (R. A. O. U.) of Devonport, we made a field trip to these hills, where we saw a number of tuis, beautiful pied fantails (Rhipidura flabellijera), silver eyes (Zosterops caeru- lescens), and many another beauty in the tree ferns, shrubs and other foliage; while, flying high in the air, was a hawk (probably V esierax australis), a colony of parrots—very likely of the introduced Rosella parakeet—and a number of others. We took our luncheon on the slope of a gulley whose sides and bottom were covered with a won- derful array of tree ferns, while our tablecloth was spread on a bed of New Zealand bracken of sufficient thickness to raise it well above the level of our feet. Here, while we discussed our simple meal with an outdoor appetite, Falla, an experienced ornithologist, gave the tui call and before long there was an answer from the depths of the forest. Then two birds came within plain sight, and after looking us over approached so that with our glasses we could study them in every detail, even to the whitish line that separates the nuchal feathers and the white spots on the wings. Greenbie (The Pacific Triangle—1921) says of the parson bird: “ No sound of bird in any of the many countries I have been to has ever filled me with greater rapture than did this. There are thous- ands of skylarks in New Zealand, brought from England, but had Shelley heard the tui he might have written an ode more beautiful even than that to the “blithe spirit.” he has immortalized.” Buller (Manual, p. 10) remarks that “Owing to its excellent powers of mimicry, and the facility of rearing it in confinement, it is a favorite cage bird, both with the natives and with the colonists. Although of very delicate constitution, it has been known to live in confinement for upward of ten years. More frequently, however, it becomes the subject, after the first year, to convulsive fits, under which it ultimately succumbs. Cleanliness, a well-regulated diet, and protection from extremes of temperature are the proper safe- ouards. Naturally of a sprightly disposition, it is cheerful and playful in captivity, incessantly flitting about in its cage and mimick- ing every sound within hearing. It will learn to articulate sentences of several words with clearness and to imitate the barking of a dog to perfection. The Maoris appreciated the mocking powers of this bird and devoted much time and patience to its instruction.” OCEANIA—WO0OOD 393 Mr. Louis Griffin, of the Auckland Museum, tells me that he once possessed a tui, of whom he became very fond. This interesting animal not only reproduced many of the sounds he heard but re- peated a number of short sentences appropriate to various occasions. He took a bath twice a day and on these occasions invariably dipped his head and white choker in the water as a first ablution. He then carefully preened himself, drying and arranging his ecclesiastic insignia, afterwards taking a plunge that involved his whole body. Then, when the bath was fully concluded, he would fly to his master’s hand, perch himself on it, and repeat a portion of his conversational repertoire. Twice he escaped from the house and once he returned. On the second occasion, although he remained about the premises for a day or two and answered Mr. Griffin’s call, it was the “time of the spring running,” and he never came back. The pied fantail must attract the pleased attention of every visitor to New Zealand, as it is to be seen almost everywhere on both islands. It and its Australian cousin are among the most attractive of the small flycatchers. They seem to be constantly on the wing, performing (with tail widespread) the most varied and fantastic evolutions in their pursuit of flies and gnats invisible to our dull eyes; in fact, they hold the blue ribbon for artistic gymnastics. The New Zealand bird is facile princeps flycatcher of the world series. There are many reasons why the word “ gull,” used as a synonym of “dupe” or “ fool,” is a misnomer. It is difficult to understand how this misapplication came about. I have made a study of gulls for many years, and rank them high among the intelligent orders. In fact I regard them not only as types of avian grace and beauty, but as examples of advanced intelligence; and, in that respect I agree cordially with the views of the Finleys, who, within the past year, have written a paper (see The Atlantic Monthly) on this self- same subject. In my opinion and experience, gulls are by no means “ oullible.” Last summer we were staying for a short time at the Atlantic Hotel at Newquay, England; and, while at breakfast, we noticed a full-grown herring gull fly from the seashore, a few hundreds yards away, and light on the terrace close by the dining room. He was followed shortly by others and by still others until there were, perhaps fifty waiting about. My wonder at this strange phenomenon was soon satisfied; they, too, had come for breakfast. In a few minutes one of the hotel people arrived with a can of “leftovers,” and it certainly was a sight to watch the array of heads, wings, feet, and bodies that forthwith hid, as by a dense cloud, the scattered piles of food. It was especially interesting to watch the late arrivals, fearful of being excluded from the feast. ‘They literally threw themselves, screaming, into the struggling mass of white, grey, and black feathers. As the birds were perfectly 394 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 tame and unafraid, there was a fair field for all, and I was sure no gull flew away without some scrap to satisfy appetite. I was informed that the bird feeding was held every morning at the same hour, and that the hotel guests regarded the ceremony as one of the attractions of the place. More recently, in California, I began a similar practice, and soon had an expectant colony to feed on the sandy shore near our hotel. Quite a respectable collection of western and other gulls gathered about 9.30 each morning, and when I appeared with a bag of “ seconds,” some twenty or thirty birds rose to meet me and circled about my head until I arrived at the feeding ground. Then we had a sort of athletic “ meet.” One of the first contests was staged by throwing into their midst a large, hard, breakfast roll. This edible was forthwith seized by a gull, who, unable to swallow it, at once made off, followed by half a dozen others in search of a place of safety. The pursued and the pursuers flew a fine aerial course; the bird, with its mouth full of bread, often rising high in air, swooped, dodged, and doubled. Finally, he broke away in a much wider circle than usual, intent on tiring out his pursuers. However, all these maneuvers ended the same way, in the dropping of the roll, to be caught up by a second gull and the continuation of the flight and pursuit. Eventually some experienced bird would grasp the breakfast dainty and fly down the caast for half a mile or so until his pursuers abandoned the chase. But I noticed on these occasions that the successful bird did not return; his time for the subsequent half hour was occupied in soaking the hard bread preparatory to tearing it in pieces small enough for deglutition. Occasionally we substituted for the roll a hard-boiled egg. This much-prized article was immediately caught up and passed from one gull to another by vigorous action until it was either smashed by falling on a rock or until some bird with an abnormally wide gullet managed to swallow it. To accomplish this latter feat while being chased at full speed seemed no easy task; it is possible that it was sometimes accomplished only by crushing the egg between the mandibles of a particularly powerful gull. After a time we came to recognize individuals of the flock. One fat old bird we christened “Squawker.” As soon as one of us ap- peared in sight this gull opened his mouth wide, emitted a series of loud, hoarse cries, and darting at the other gulls in his immediate vicinity proceeded to run amuck through the whole flock. This strategem, intended, one may suppose, to intimidate the other feeders, he repeated every two or three minutes while the feast lasted. He rarely got anything to eat, however, unless food were thrown directly to him; he was so busily engaged in squawking, air- OCEANIA—WO0O0D 395 ing his importance, and in assaulting the neighbors that the other culls, meantime, had all the advantage and ate all the provender. Of the fifty or more species of gulls found all over the world, at least thirty inhabit the Americas. It is difficult to explain their complete absence from the immense ocean area between the South American Continent and Australasia. It seemed as if we had missed something when, after the crowds of gulls in San Francisco Harbor and along the Pacific coast, we failed to see a single one during the long journey to New Zealand. I presume little of the food the birds crave is available in the lagoons and atolls of Polynesia. Although I have studied these birds in many lands, I have never seen any of them catch fish after the manner of their cousins, the terns. On one occasion I thought I saw a western gull light on the water and pull out a fish, but of this I am by no means certain; the bird gave me little opportunity for investigation, as he swallowed his catch at once, without taking wing. Moreover, the prey may have been a dead fish floating on or near the surface. I was, of course, fairly well acquainted with the hawking habit of our laugh- ing gull (Larus atricilla), as well as the Franklin and other species, and have seen individuals of several of these hunting and catching insects and even field mice, swooping after them almost with the agility of sparrow hawks. In view of this lack of opportunity, I was much interested in the account furnished by a writer in the con- tributor’s column of a recent Atlantic of “gulls” (probably species of booby) in South America that, unlike their northern relatives, dive to a considerable depth for fish: “ These birds are very similar to their cousins of the north; they are, though, less well groomed, and do not look as sleek and nice as their northern neighbors. The only noticeable difference is in the shape of the wing, which has a decided break, and not the even beautiful curve of the wing that the northern sea gull has. From my home in Valparaiso I have watched these birds dive, and sometimes from a height of a hundred feet. It is a peculiar thing that they do this in flocks rather than singly. A most remarkable sight it is to watch—to see a hundred or more birds turn, as if by one accord, close their wings and dive in after the fish. A beautiful sight it is, too, to see a flock of sea gulls serenely circling above the waters dive, to catch for a moment the flash of the white feathers of their upturned wings in the sunlight, to see them strike the water, and again to see them bob up one by one. Of note is it that almost never did I see one return unrewarded.” Did you ever notice a colony of gulls sitting quietly in the open? If there is little or no wind, and the day is bright, they stand or lie, either in a long line or in closer formation, facing the sun. And, by the way, what a pretty sight—these smooth, well-groomed, statuesque, 396 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 half-white bodies, bathed in sunshine and artistically posed, as if for our pleasure and admiration. If there is little sun and no wind, they face in various directions; there is no uniformity in their ranks. If there is a high wind, however, they turn toward the quarter whence it blows, probably to prevent ruffling of their feathers and cooling of the skin surface. . There must be a considerable difference between the acuity of vision in gulls. I am not prepared at the moment to discuss this matter, but I have never been able to repeat an experiment I made some years ago on the species—L. ridibundus, I think—that is abundant on the Lake of Geneva. During excursions to Ouchy and other resorts along the lake shore it was my habit to carry with me a bag of grapes with which to feed the gulls. Parenthetically, all the gulls whose acquaintance I have made are very fond of grapes. I soon found that they would hawk the fruit when thrown one by one into the air. I then tried to find how small an object could be seen and caught in midair by these birds—to discover that the smallest grape in my collection when tossed into the air was re- trieved before it reached the water. I have not been able to repeat that little experiment with any of our western or California gulls. Referring once more to the black-headed gulls whose acquaintance I cultivated at Ouchy nearly 20 years ago, they must not be mis- taken for our black-headed or laughing gull (L. atricilla). Both are quite common birds within their respective ranges, but the Swiss species is much smaller and its plumage more charged with black than the American variety. Perhaps I was among the first of those to whom my former teacher in the London Hospital, Sir Frederick Treves, refers in his charming book, “The Lake of Geneva,” as visitors “who have so persistently fed these (black-headed) gulls that they are demoralized, and will shortly become, like the pigeons of Venice, a company of tourist-supported idlers.” As every mother knows, the color of her infant’s eyes undergoes changes, more or less marked, during the first year or two after birth; but these alterations are negligible when compared with the eyes of some birds. For example, the very pretty, and often very tame, little red-billed gull (in New Zealand, the mackerel gull) or Larus scopulinus, is born with dark-brown, almost black eyes, and yet by the time it is a year old they have changed almost to a pure white. A similar alteration is noticeable in the iridic coloration of the larger but equally beautiful southern black-backed gull (Larus dominicanus), that ranges the whole Southern Hemisphere. Both these birds are easily domesticated; they act as valuable scavengers, and are devourers of caterpillars and other insect pests. It is inter- esting to see them about Australasian harbors and fields, doing their useful work, unafraid of man. OCEANIA—WO0OD 397 The vulgar name “bell bird” is given to many quite different species in various parts of the world, but in every instance it is applied because of the resemblance of the bird’s call note to the toll- ing of a bell. I have already spoken about the representative of these remarkable animals found in the northern parts of South America and { was naturally on the look out for their Australasian congeners. The New Zealand bird is a honey sucker—A nthornis melanura—alas, fast becoming extinct. It was this remarkable bird that attracted the attention of Captain Cook. On his second voyage while his ship was lying in Queen Charloite’s Sound, the crew heard bird notes “like small bells most exquisitely tuned.” On the Austra- lian Continent two species, one also a honey sucker, Manorhina melanophrys, and another, a shrike-like bird, are called bell birds. Of the former Buller says, “Its notes, though simple, are varied and sweetly chimed, and as the bird is of social habits, the morning anthem, in which scores of the sylvan choristers perform together, is a concert of eccentric parts, producing a wild but pleasing melody. When alarmed or excited they utter a strain of notes which I can compare only to the sound produced by a policeman’s rattle quickly revolved. This cry, or the bird catcher’s imitation of it, never fails to attract to the spot all the bell birds within hearing.” One clear day I visited Quarantine Island, Auckland Harbor, as the guest of the chief engineer of the harbor board, Mr. W. H. Hamer, himself a keen and well-informed naturalist. We found there many birds that I had no expectation of seeing, among them many bell birds. The ordinary song of the New Zealand species re- sembles that of the parson bird, and while we sat listening to what seemed to me to be a sustained song a discussion took place among ' the ornithologists present as to whether the avian music we were hearing was that of a tui or not. A portion of the song certainly recalls the notes of a bell, and it has a metallic ring about it that serves to distinguish the call notes of the New Zealand bell bird from the sustained and softer song of the tui, but neither of them in any respect suggests the solemn tolling of the South American bird, with his single though prolonged note. The Australian chorus of performers reminds one of a chime, or of several mingled chimes, of small, silver-tongued bells, while the New Zealand performers make one think of the rendering of a musical number by minor brass instruments. Anthornis melanura is smaller than our robin (male, length, 7.5 inches; female, 6.4 inches), color generally hght yellowish green in the case of the male bird, but this must be modified by stating that the head is.steel-colored, while the tail is brownish black. The female is browner and less conspicuous, but both sexes are equally good singers. 398 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 To distinguish the two Australian varieties, Manorhina melano- phrys is called bell minor. Unlike the nearly pure white Guiana bell bird, Chasmorynchus niveus (of a different family), it is of a beautiful golden green plumage, except the wings and tail, which are dark brown. The eyes are dark brown, the legs and feet a light orange. In the case of this bird the notes seemed to me a faint tin- kle, like the sound of distant sheep bells. I heard a flock of 50 of these remarkable birds give a charming concert about a little lake 20 miles from Melbourne. Mr. H. RB. Haeusler (Emu, vol. 22, January, 1923) has had unusual oppportunities to study the kiwi (Apteryw mantell), and finds his vision, during the daytime at least, to be very poor. Chopped meat, worms, etc., placed in front of these wingless, nocturnal, New Zea- land birds were apparently not perceived at all until they had been “felt” by the supersensitive terminals of their long mandibles. Both these articles of food, as well as the entrances to worm holes, were located by “tapping” about with their closed bills. Mr. Haeus- ler is convinced that in gathering food and for most other purposes involving localization, neither sight nor smell is to any extent relied upon; the bird locates objects mainly, and in many instances en- tirely, by touch. Having found the entrance to « worm hole, the kiwi enlarges it to a funnel-shaped cavity and, after grasping the prey, pulls steadily upon the worm until the latter is tired out, looses its hold, and is drawn to the surface. If alarmed, the Ap- teryx “plays possum,” and with bill stuck into the ground keeps as still as death, its peculiar coloring making it difficult to see the bird as long as it does not move—the old story of protective coloration. From my own observations of this remarkable species I am con- vinced that its night vision is much better than its diurnal, as indi- » cated by its liveliness at night and its pronounced orange-red fundus, which closely resembles that of the owls and other noc- turnal species. I had several opportunities of observing these birds and of examining their eyes in the London Zoo. : Many writers tell us all about the Polynesian hermit crab, and some of them speak as if he were peculiar to Oceania. As is well known, this comic and attractive animal is widely distributed over the earth’s surface under the forbidding family names of Paguridae and Parapaguridae ; indeed, more than one (small) species is rather com- mon along the Atlantic coast. The following is what one of our most reliable authors tells us about this creature: “The hermit crab is the best bait for fishing in the waters of the South Sea islands. There must be several varieties. I have counted three already: The ordinary, small brown one called kakara, the huge red one found in deep water, and the black, hairy kind, whose pounded-up body is mixed with grated coconut to extract the oil. This latter is called umn 0 OCEANIA—WOOD 399 Unga; in the old days the lowest class of Rarotonga society was known by the same name, meaning, i. e., that all their property could be carried on their backs. The common variety is a good deal like the robber crab in habits; the natives go so far as to say that it is the same animal. The size of the kakara can be judged by the size of his shell, which may be as small as a thimble or as large as an orange. His soft and muscular body curls into the spiral of the shell and is securely anchored by a twist of the tail. The interior end reminds one of a tiny lobster; the same stalk eyes, same legs, and strong claws. Maugre his name, he is gregarious.” One day I was patiently and vainly waiting to catch a glimpse of an exasperating lot of wild jungle fowl (near relatives of the ancestors of our farmyard rooster and hen) that I had heard cack- ling and crowing in the mountain forest of Bega (or Mbenga, as the Admiralty charts prefer to spell it, so the stranger may correctly pronounce the name of this geographically important island) and had come to rest on a trail about a thousand feet above and over- looking the ocean. Beneath me a little native village, whose chief was our host, lay scattered along a coral beach for half a mile. Barely visible over the edge of the cliff was the chief’s guest house and a small weir in which was imprisonea a huge turtle for his chiefly table; turtle is taboo for any Fijian below the rank of Bult. Until the chief had, a few days previously, sent four as a present to the quadrennial conference of chiefs, the watery inclosure was pretty well filled with these ugly but toothsome chelonians. Beyond lay the bay, and basking in the sunshine on three native boats sprawled a dozen or more sailors, among them two or three Solomon Islanders assisting the Fijians in a task in which the latter special- ized, the South Seas form of the dolce far niente. The day was so beautiful that I forgot all about the “wild barnyard” I had come so far to see, and gave myself up to imitating and sympathiz- ing with the Polynesians in and on the water below me. I happened to look at the partially covered path a few yards ahead of me and became aware dimly that the square of earth was moving ever so slowly down hill. A clearer view of this spot revealed a well-packed array of shellfish of all sizes, big, little, and smallest, the last less than half an inch, the first 4 or 5 inches across. Evidently a num- ber of gastropod families were on the move and headed down the trail. This guess proved correct so far as the exterior shell was con- cerned, but the live interior turned out to be an equal number of crustaceans—a large colony of hermit crabs on the march. With a stick I touched several heads to see them withdrawn within the concha, and marveled at the excellent choice these creatures had made of properly sized shells, how well they fitted, how nicely concealed was each interloping crab in his armored retreat, secure from outside 400 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 enemies. It is probable that, in some instances at least, the crab first attacks and then eats the mollusk whose shell he afterwards appropriates. Engaged in these investigations, I did not notice, partly concealed as he was by the pathside vegetation, a figure that made me laugh and continue to laugh. As this, the largest of the crabs, crawled out of the herbage into the cleared trail I saw that he was not garbed in appropriate dress. Instead of the outworn shell affected by ali his companions, he was girt about by a segment of coconut that covered only part of his body, much as the conventional, unclothed tramp is pictured as veiling his nakedness by means of a flour barrel. Indeed, the old crab looked like a disreputable “drunk” as he staggered along in his ancient, broken, and weather-beaten nut shell. It was, of course, no fault of his that the sea gastropods on Bega did not grow large enough to furnish shelter and to meet the exigencies of adult fashion in dress. However, he kept step with the moving ranks, the ill-clad hermit forming the rear guard, staggering along until he was the only crab in sight. Then with a final wave of his antenne, as if in jaunty adieu, he rolled his shabby old shell into the leafy débris of the forest and disappeared from my sight. In the harbor of Apia lay H. M. S. Zaburnum of the New Zealand Navy, and just before we sailed for Tonga there was transferred to us from her a more or less tame, immature, female Fregata aquila. The bird was destined to the Auckland Zoo, and the story ran that some officer on the warship had bought it, a captive of some months standing, from a native of Hull Island in the Phoenix group. He, or rather, if my guess should turn out to be correct, she, soon became an object of considerable interest to the passengers. From her com- paratively lofty perch on the gunwale of the lifeboat that was set apart as her living room she gazed with unconcern at the admiring crowd below. Many times a day she scrambled from the depths of the lifeboat to preen herself, especially after a shower, and to dry and air her immense wings in the tropical sunshine. The ignomini- ous part of the performance was that it was necessary to tie the bird by one leg to the thwarts, and the restraining rope embarrassed her efforts to perch and spread her wings, owing to her weak legs and her immense wings; and it certainly was a beautiful sight to see her magnificent wing spread of not less than 6 feet. The officer who had the new arrival in charge certainly did all he could to make Fregata comfortable, provided her with a box into which she retired whenever she wished, gave her all the fish she could eat and all the water she could drink. In deference to the positive statements of a passenger, who proclaimed himself an authority on man-of-war birds, she was provided daily with a can of sea water, that being the proper drink for this ocean-going fowl. As this dictum sounded OCEANIA—WOOD 401 much like the ancient belief that parrots should never be given water to drink—an obsession that has caused so much misery in the psittacine world—I determined to investigate it. And sooner than 1 expected the opportunity arrived, because shortly we had a tropi- cal downpour that thoroughly drenched the bird and her surround- ings. It was good to watch the Fregata for the half hour the storm lasted. She certainly enjoyed her bath, spreading wide her long, pointed pinions to allow the cool douche to reach the hot skin of her sides and underparts. Now and then she would flap her wings to shake off superfluous water, but she did not retire to her box or make any other effort to avoid a full bath. But the way in which that bird drank rain water! For at least 10 minutes she did nothing else—opening wide a capacious mouth to catch the drops that not only fell directly into the orifice but that ran down the sides of the mandibles. First she opened her beak, then pointed it aloft, as if trying to drink in as much of the falling water as possible, and when she had secured all her throat would hold made evident swallowing movements. There could be no doubt that for this bird at least soft water was a desirable beverage; and I can readily believe that in the upper air, where her folks spend most of their time, this perform- ance may go on without the necessity of resting on the waves or of roosting on dry land. I never saw the man-o’-war preen herself in the sense that so many other birds are wont to do. I have an idea that the very large birds do not, as a rule, indulge in that method of feather cleansing. I have noticed the large birds of prey, herons anhingas, etc., proceed, as our Fregata did, that is, shake their wings and body and then sit in the sun and dry themselves after a torren- tial shower bath or plunge. After this thorough wetting Fregata seemed content to hold her wings semiextended, to flap them now and then, and to shake herself, dog-like, every two or three minutes, and then to let the warm sun do the rest. Every day I climbed to the bird’s retreat invariably to find that she appeared to have made herself entirely at home and was not at all alarmed by the approach of strangers. The most hostile act she was guilty of was to make a sort of grunting noise and open her beak at the intruder. As she was taken from the nest (probably, that is) and tamed by association with a native family, the chances of becoming reconciled to captivity in a public zoo are good; yet these birds make very poor cage birds, generally dying of home- sickness, or the infections induced thereby, within a short time. The feathered animal whose home is the illimitable blue sky soon sickens even of the largest flight aviary and, though he may be only a robber and live by piracy, yet he prefers death to loss of -freedom. 402 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 There are few or no monkeys (or for that matter few other mammals) in eastern Polynesia. Perhaps the earlier voyagers from the mainland had not learned to carry them as pets, like many other native tribes, on their long sea excursions, or they did not survive the exposure incident to canoe life. In any event, it is not until one reaches islands relatively near the Asiatic coast— Borneo, New Guinea, Java, the Celebes—that simian life becomes abundant. It is quite otherwise with the West Indies, where even to the present day monkeys are to be seen in some of the islands. As every ichthyologist knows, not all the so-called flying fishes belong to the same genus or even to the same family. In one or other of their many forms they are found all over the oceanic world. The true flying fish—perhaps we say true because it is the commonest Atlantic variety—is E'wocoetus volitans. Following the flag (1 sup- pose), it is also to be seen volplaning in Hawaiian waters. In this species the pectoral fins are as long as its body. To round cut the collection of American fliers, we have the largest of all the species, Ewocoetus californicus (vel Cypselurus californicus)—the great flying fish, 18 inches long—inhabiting the coastal tides of California. It is also appropriate that the zoologist who knows most about these piscian wonders should be David Starr Jordan, of Stanford Uni- versity. The flight mechanism and methods studied by him and his former assistants, Professors Gilbert and Evermann, are briefly as follows: “'The flying fish of the open sea live in schools, and ‘ fly’ a distance of a few rods to an eighth of a mile, rarely rising more than 3 or 4 feet out of the water. Their movements in the water are very rapid, and from this alone do they gain the force that impels them through the air. The apparent vibration of the pectorals in the air does not to any appreciable extent aid their progress over the water. On rising from the surface the movements of the tail are continued until the whole body is out of the water. The vibra- tion of the pectorals is not a truly flying movement, but is due to the resistance of the air itself. In the water both ventrals are folded; when in air both pectorals and ventrals are spread to act as parachutes or wings to hold the body in air. When the fish begins to fall, and its tail touches the water, the tail again begins to move, enabling it once more to resume flight. In full flight the fish takes advantage of the wind, turning about to fly with the favoring breeze.” Although I have rather carefully watched flying fish on several oceans and tidal rivers I have never been fortunate enough to see them “fly,” i. e., use their lateral fins as a means of progression through the air. Once I saw a school of freshwater flying fish 100 miles up a tropical river, but they belonged to a different genus, and perhaps order, than “'xocoetus. During this journey into the OCEANIA—Wo0OoD 403 interior of South America my four companions and I watched and discussed the movements of these small, sunfish-shaped skimmers of the river surface. They.did not “ fly ” in the air so much as they skipped over the calm water of Use Potaro in a perfectly straight line for from 5 to 20 yards by a sculling motion of the tail. The fore part of the rounded abdomen also rested on the surface and seemed to furnish some support «s the fish scudded along. Doctor Gifford, who watched many of these fish very critically, feels certain that he never saw one, on that journey, rise free of the water and actually “fly ” through the air, like Hwocoetus. On the other hand, he believes he has seen Cypselurus californicus use his pectorals, like a huge dragon fly, as an actual propeller. He has not seen them fly more than 100 yards and then not more than 2 or 3 feet above the waves. I have discussed this matter with many observers, in particular with an old sea captain interested in natural history who had for hours at a time watched flying fish all over the world. He placed the limit of flight in any species he had seen at 200 yards, and the highest point of their trajectory at 4 feet. Auit (Geographic Maga- zine, Dec. 1922, p. 642) agrees with Gifford in believing that some of these fish are able to continue flight, changing direction and going much farther than momentum alone could carry them. He claims that the vibrations of the wing fins have been seen frequently by several observers. ; Another authority, Doctor Hankin, is of opinion (Nature, Aug. 18, 1921) that although at the beginning of their glide they may flap their large triangular pectorals a few times and though they vary the position and planes of part or the whole of their transport fins, as the soaring hawk curls and arranges his wings to take advantage of a favoring wind or air current, yet it is the propulsion out of the water and the succeeding glide that constitute the so-called flight of the flying fish; they do not fly as birds do. The mechanism of this locomotion has, as every naturalist knows, been discussed innumer- able times in literature like its analogous process, the soaring of the hawk or vulture. In Barbados I had an opportunity of seeing the fisher boys catch the variety that abounds on that island coast. They are a dark- backed, trout-like species about 10 inches in length, their pectorals attached to the bodies like the gossamer wings of huge dragon flies. They also gave one the impression of a folded fan with little rudder- like accessories. I saw how these fish are caught in that particular part of the island. They are first attracted by pieces of meat—often distinctly odorous—inclosed in a wicker container which is “jiggled” up, and down in the water from the stern of the fisherman’s boat. The fish thus enticed are landed by means of a dip or other net. 404 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 Capt. John Bollons, master of the Government steamship 7'utanaki and a naturalist of local repute, told me that during his thirty years of service in the South Pacific he had made a considerable study of flying fishes, and that he had often seen the large flying fish (Cypse- lurus melanocercus) rise as much as 6 feet clear of the water and without again touching it volplane (the captain would not say “fly”) a quarter of a mile. On many occasions he had observed them “bank” and vary their direction as often as three times on each occasion and as much as 30°-40° during the night. An officer of the mercantile marine, whose powers of observation I regard as worthy of consideration, tells me that he has often caught one of the Pacific flying fishes on board his ship, and that they can fly to a deck even to 10 feet from the water level. They usually “fly” on board at night, and he thinks they are attracted by the lights of the vessel. In proof of the latter statement he points to the method of catching them in Polynesia, by means of the flare on a canoe and a dip net. But why does the light attract the fish? Quien sabe? Having quoted some recent literature on this apparently obscure subject, suppose we listen to what Adriaan van Beckel has to say about it. He sailed to South America from Holland nearly 250 years ago, and in his “American Voyages” tells many interesting stories about the flora and fauna he studied in his travels. Recently, my friend, Dr. Walter Roth, of Christianburg, British Guiana, an author well known to students of Indian folklore, translated this charming Dutch work, and the following quotation is from his origi- nal manuscript, which he was good enough to present to the writer. “As regards the flying fish, we saw various shoals raise themselves in flight to the height of about 8 or 10 feet, and cover 50 or 60 paces be- fore they fell again into the water to moisten their wings, and acquire renewed strength against the bonitos (implacable cannibal fish that are always chasing the flying fish and driving them to seek refuge in aerial flights), who sometimes catch them as they fall or spring out of the water and grab them as they fly. Besides bonitos, the flying fish have yet another enemy, being a certain kind of bird, which shoots down on them as they fly out of the water to save themselves from the bonitos. Our constable brought me the first flying fish which, followed by one of the said birds near by, happened to fall into our ship. It was of the shape, color, and size of a herring, the back a little bit thicker, and the extreme front of the head roundish, like a sea bream, with the wings above the belly—very like a bat’s.” For the naturalist the chief attraction that Niuafoou in the Ton- gan group holds is its “ Malau,” one of the several species of Mega- podes that have preserved their reptilian habits to the extent of laying their eggs in the sand of the sea shore and allowing the hot sun to do the hatching.’ When I was in Nukualofa, the capital of OCEANIA—WO0OD 405 Tonga, Dr. C. M. Dawson, chief of the medical service and all- around scientist, gave me one of the eggs of this curious bird. This specimen is of a purple-brown color, an egg twice as large as the average hen’s egg, the bird that laid it being smaller than the average hen. The Malau resembles closely the Celebes species (Alegacepha- lon maleo) described by Alfred Wallace in his “ Malay Archipelago.” “Tt is,” says he, “in loose, hot, black sand that the maleos deposit their eggs. In the months of August and September, when there is little or no rain, they come down in pairs from the interior to certain favorite spots and scratch holes 3 or 4 feet deep, just above high-water mark, where the female deposits a single large egg, which she covers with about a foot of sand, and then returns to the forest. At the end of 10 or 12 days she comes again to the same spot to lay another egg, and each female is supposed to lay 6 or § eggs during the season. The male assists in making the hole, coming down and returning with her. The appearance of the bird when walking on the beach is very handsome. The glossy black and rosy white of the plumage, the helmeted head, and elevated tail, ike that of the common fowl, gives a striking character. * * * The eggs are so large that it is not possible for the body of the bird to contain more than one fully developed egg at a time. After the eggs are deposited in the sand they are no further cared for by the mother. The young birds on breaking the shell work their way up through the sand and run off at once to the forest.” Knowlton adds to the foregoing (Birds of the World, p. 270): “That the nesting habits of these Megapodes are admirably adapted to the structure and pres- ent life of the birds is beyond question; but how these habits could have originated in the first place is difficult to understand. Under present conditions, if the birds were required to incubate their eggs, serious difficulties would arise. With an interval of 10 or 12 days between the laying of each egg, a period of some two or three months would elapse between the first and the last egg. If the eggs were left until the last was laid, the first ones would be subject to climatic injuries as well as destruction by predatory animals; while if the female began incubation with the laying of the first egg, it would require her to remain sitting for three months, which would be impossible. It has been suggested that these nesting habits may be the survival of a habit enjoyed by a remote reptilian ancestor, but this is too improbable. Others think that it arose from the birds covering ‘up and concealing their eggs, which seems not unreason- able; yet if this is true, it is difficult to see how they could have become developed to the point where the young can fly from the time of exit from the shell.” ~ — 20897—25 27 406 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 The parrots of Fiji are renowned among ornithologists and they have often been described in the literature of natural history, even if they are not quite as popular among colonial planters because of their love of such forbidden fruits as bananas, coconuts, and paw- paws. Surely, however, something can be forgiven such lovely creatures. Perhaps the most elaborately decorated of them all is the Yellow-breasted Parrot (Pyrrhulopsis personatus), 22 inches in length. He is probably much rarer than he was twenty years ago. I was unable to locate a single caged specimen among the hundreds of pet parrots to be found on the various islands, although I inserted a request in the Fiji Times and Herald asking owners of the yellowbreast to allow me to see their pets. In several in- stances I discovered that this fine bird had been caught and tamed but had died after a caged or confined life varying from five to fifteen years. Their places were not filled because no young parrots were on the market. It is quite different with the crimson-breasted species from Kandavu. Here the beautiful Pyrrhulopsis splendens, although unprotected by law (on account of his fruit-eating propen- sities), easily holds his own in spite of the large numbers captured and sold by the natives to tourists and others. Although not as elaborately decorated as the yellowbreast, P. splendens is a very attractive species, whose length is 18 to 20 inches, with the head and all the upper surface crimson; across the nape a wide, deep-blue band; back, rump, upper-tail coverts, and wings bright green; primaries and their coverts, as well as the outer secondary feathers, blue; lastly, as a striking contrast, the eyes are deep orange. It is a question whether this species was not at one time confined to Kandavu and whether the individuals found on Viti Levu, for example, were not introduced from the former island. Be that as it may, wild examples are rare outside Kandavu. This one of the four Pyrrhulopses is the favorite cage bird in the colony, not only because of the abundant supply of young birds but because of its talking powers, display of affection, and intelligence, and because it practically never screams nor makes other disagree- able noises when in captivity. Although their rather shrill mono- tone is a common sound in the Kandavan forest, these birds seem to abandon loud notes when in captivity. They are fair talkers and whistlers, but in exhibiting these accomplishments do not make themselves a nuisance to the neighborhood, as do some of the other . large parrots. Some years ago the Samoans were in the habit of making ex- cursions to Fiji to shoot “kakas” and other birds of bright plum- age, that they might weave the feathers into their mats. It is also said that they were not averse to trapping or buying live birds OCEANIA—WOOD 407 that they might pluck regular crops of feathers from the unfor- tunate parrots. This cruel practice continued until the arrival in the colony, as governor, of that sympathetic and well-known naturalist, Sir Everard im Thurn, who put an end to the scandal. The large Fijian parrots built their nests in hollow trees, and gen- erally 20 or 30 feet from the ground. I discovered one nest in a decayed stump less than 5 feet high. The central hole was 8 inches across and the nest was a very primitive affair, consisting only of the débris that had accumulated in the bottom of the excavation. There were three, nearly round, dirty-brown eggs which, when cleansed, became uniformly white. They measured 1,°; by 1% inches. The other species of this interesting genus are peculiar to (or the types hail from) Taviuni, Vanua Levu, and Koro, respectively. They differ from the Kandavan variety mainly in the amount of blue on the nape of the neck, it being entirely absent in the first mentioned and seen only as an inconspicuous streak in the other two. In about 1 per cent of the long-tailed Fijian parrots cases of heterochrosis occur; that is, the red, green, and blue feathers in the birds’ plumage to_a greater or less extent change to yellow and white. Although this color alteration is abnormal it frequently is seen in perfectly healthy subjects of great intelligence and vivacity. Moreover, the alternations often result in color combinations far surpassing in attractiveness the plumage tints of the normal parrot. The chief glory of Fiji’s avifauna undoubtedly lies in her wild fruit pigeons and doves, several of which are found only on the islands of the group. The nutmeg pigeon, so called from its favorite diet, is Globicera pacifica, with an iridescent, wine-colored plumage and a remarkable stomach lined with horny spines to grind off and pulpify the arillus or “mace” from the wild nutmegs on which he chiefly subsists. The equally beautiful Chili piegon, or ruve, Janthoenas vitiensis, flourishes on red-hot capsicums. Of the wonderfully feathered little fruit doves much has been written ; indeed it is quite impossible to describe their gorgeous color- ing; they must be seen to be appreciated. Male and female are quite differently feathered in all the species, the male golden dove (Chrysaena luteovirens) having an olive-yellow cap fringed with yellowish, the remainder of the body being mostly clothed in a covering of lovely, separated, glossy, lanceolated, golden feathers. He has a yellow-green tail; while the female is greenish through- out; indeed, goes under the popular name of the green dove. Then, there is the crimson-capped dove (Péilinopus perousez) that looks white as it flies, but is really a remarkable study in dark purple, bronze-green and white, the first and last colors predominat- ing. This beautiful dove sports a crimson cape over his shoulders 408 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 and the white feathers of his breast are split at their ends, the re- sulting points being tipped with red. The female is less elaborately adorned but is yet extremely attractive. Still more wonderful in its truly flamboyant attire is the far- famed, through rare, flame-colored or orange dove (Chrysaena victor), whose flight through the forest has been aptly likened to “the passage of a rocket on a dark night.” The male bird has a velvety, olive-colored cap with a bright yellow border, the rest of the body-covering, both above and below, being composed of closely applied, hair-like feathers of a brilliant, glossy orange-red; “ flame- colored” describes it more accurately. The entire plumage of the female is rich green; yellowish-green on the head and throat. I have never seen a more impressive study in feathered monochrome than is presented by this beautiful little dove. Finally, one of the most attractive of these Columbiformes is the Fijian ground dove (Gallicolumba stairi vitiensis), intermediate in size and, perhaps, beauty between the smaller doves and the larger pigeons. The gen- eral coloration of this species is dark brown with bronze and purple reflections. He has a genuine “coo” as his call note, and is still to be found in those localties that are free of the mongoose. In Viti Levu some individuals still survive. They have learned to avoid ground feeding as much as possible, and to build on the small branches of high trees to which the enemy can not climb. A notice- able character of some of these Fijian birds is their “barking” notes—those of the golden dove in particular. In the deep jungle one is often startled .by a succession of clear or hoarse dog-like sounds, so familiar that if one does not know their origin they are readily attributed to a dog that has strayed from home. = HISTORICAL TRADITION AND ORIENTAL RESEARCH * By JAMES Henry BREASTED University of Chicago It has often been remarked that the outstanding trait of the untrained mind is credulity. The rationalization of man’s views of the world has been a very slow process and it is still very far from a completed process. It has commonly been thought to have begun with the Greeks, but its origin must be sought in the Orient in a period long before Greek civilization had arisen. The Edwin Smith Medical Papyrus, acquired in 1906 by the New York His- torical Society, discloses the inductive process of scientific investiga- tion already in operation in the seventeenth century before Christ. For example, this document contains the earliest occurrence of the word “brain” anywhere appearing in surviving records of the past. The word is unknown in Old Testament Hebrew, in Babylonian, Assyrian,,or any of the ancient languages of Western Asia. The organ itself, therefore, was evidently discovered and the recogni- tion of its various functions was begun forthe first time by these physicians of early Egypt in the thousand years preceding the seven- teenth century B. C. The observations recorded in the Edwin Smith Medical Papyrus show that its author had already observed that control of the members and limbs of the body was localized in different sides of the brain; and the recognition of localization of functions in the brain, mostly the work of modern surgeons within a generation or two, had already begun in the seventeenth century B. C., at a time when all Europe still lay in savagery or barbarism. I hold in my hand part of an original transit instrument, made as stated by the inscription upon it, by no less a king than Tutenkh- amon, in the fourteenth century B. C. It did not come from the tomb of Tutenkhamon, but was apparently made by him for the tomb of his (or his wife’s) great-grandfather, Thutmose IV (fif- teenth century B. C.). This and another such piece now at Berlin, are the oldest scientific instruments of any kind now known to be 1 Reprinted by permission from the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol..10, No. 7, July 15, 1924. 409 410 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 surviving. It was used for determining meridian time, especially at night, in order that the observer might then set his water clock, with its 24-hour divisions—a division of the day which thence passed over into Europe in Hellenistic times, whence it was transmitted to us. Now Herodotus reports a tradition current in his day (fifth cen- tury B. C.), that the Greeks were greatly indebted to Egyptian knowledge. This tradition has in recent times been universally re- jected; but the documents submitted here to-day may serve at least to illustrate the fact that there was much truth in the tradition trans- mitted to us by Herodotus, and that its complete rejection by classical prejudice is unjustifiable. The fact that the early Egyptian scientist employed an inductive method as far back as the seventeenth century B. C. does not, how- ever, mean that he had completely banished from his mind all belief in magic or in supernatural forces. This truth has been well demonstrated for later ages by Prof. Lynn Thorndyke in his monu- mental two volumes on the History of Magic and Experimental Science—a work of which America may well be proud. Undoubt- edly the Greek took the longest step in freeing his mind from in- herited religious and traditional prepossessions. Using astronomical observations undoubtedly drawn from Babylonia, Thales predicted a solar eclipse in 585 B. C. Astonishing as it seemed to the Greeks, there is little probability that this feat was an unprecedented achievement. What was unprecedented, however, was the revolu- tionary generalization which Thales based upon his ability to make such a prediction. For he banished the erratic whims of the gods from the skies and discerned the sway of natural law throughout the celestial world. To tear away and fearlessly to trample underfoot beliefs and superstitions which had been sanctified by age-long re- ligious veneration demanded dauntless loyalty to his own intelli- gence. This first supreme enthronement of the human mind was probably the greatest achievement in the career of man. We can pay no greater tribute to such Greek thinkers than to recognize that, although they put credulity to rout, they could not banish it altogether. It has survived with extraordinary persist- ence down to the present day, even appearing in the person of a dis- tinguished statesman who once occupied high office in this city. * * * In modern times it was of course the tremendous significance of the discoveries of Galileo which most impressively reproclaimed the supremacy of natural law and the sovereignty of the human mind in discerning that law. In this new home of science * which we are now dedicating, there is nothing which more nobly illustrates its ——<——— * The National Academy of Sciences Building. ORIENTAL RESEARCH—BREASTED 411 high mission than the dramatic power with which Lawrie’s immortal bronze discloses the simple and dauntless figure of Galileo confront- ing theological dogma with the majestic facts of the universe. From Galileo’s struggle with the church to Huxley’s debate with Gladstone, the heavy guns of natural science have dealt tradition one destructive blow after another. It has been under this destruc- tive attack at the hands of natural science that historical criticism has grown up in modern times since Niebuhr. Indeed it has been no accident that in our own country the first serious discussion of the Old Testament narratives in Genesis and Exodus was written by Thomas Cooper, who was the associate of Priestley in the discovery of oxygen. Cooper was Thomas Jefferson’s appointee as first presi- dent of the new University of Virginia; but in the Virginia of that period the social feeling against Cooper for having assailed the literalistic interpretation of the Old Testament was so strong that Jefferson was unable to secure his induction into office. Jefferson’s influence, however, secured Cooper’s appointment as president of the University of South Carolina, where public opinion was at first not so strong against him as in Virginia. It is interesting to note that before the end of the twenties, that is less than a century ago, con- servative sentiment was strong enough to bring about Cooper’s dis- missal from the university, although his personal popularity was such that he was promptly appointed to codify the laws of the State, and the first legal code of the State of South Carolina was edited by this gifted representative of natural science and historical criticism. The merciless critical scalpel which had not spared Hebrew tra- dition was equally unsparing in its treatment of the cherished clas- sical heritage from Greece and Rome. The tales of Romulus and Re- mus, the Trojan War and the entire cycle of legends which were linked with it, were shorn away. A critical attitude of universal negation arose. It included the whole Mediterranean and oriental world: Rome, Greece, Hebrews, Babylonians, Assyrians, and Egyptians. Historical criticism would not allow that early man at the beginning of the age of writing had ever heard and transmitted an echo from earlier ages, which, because they possessed no writing, could only send on their story in the form of oral traditions. This attitude of the historical critic may be compared with that of an observer who stands on a mountain peak, and looking off across a distant land- scape to a dim horizon shrouded in mists and cloud, insists that the intermittent glimpses of mountain profiles which vaguely emerge on the far-away skyline can not correspond to any reality. In short, without ever having been himself on the ground to investigate, he denies the existence of the phantom mountains on the horizon. 412 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 The orientalist, if he be something more than a philologist, may be compared with the explorer who pushes out to that distant hori- zon, and is able to determine on the ground whether the phantom mountains really exist. Such investigation is, however, relatively recent and the historical critic could hardly anticipate that it was coming. He seemed to be quite safe in sweeping away all early human tradition. It dealt with a world of gods, demi-gods and heroes; it was dominated by the whims and caprices of angry or jealous divinities, and it was filled with impossible wonders and prodigies. How could a soundly critical historian accept narratives which seemed so manifestly impossible? We must grant that under the circumstances rejection complete and unqualified seemed the only safe course. Such critical negation was supreme when 50 years ago arche- ology began to reveal with startling vividness the facts and the daily equipment of human life in the very ages with which the rejected traditions dealt. In the seventies of last century the excavations of an untrained observer from the outside disclosed an astonishing vision of pre-Greek civilization at Tiryns, Mycenae, and Troy. The incredulity with which these discoveries of Heinrich Schliemann were greeted by the classicists was highly characteristic. His exca- vations recovered and exhibited to the incredulous eyes of the de- structive critics the whole material equipment of daily life from the very age of the Trojan war (or wars), and from the very city in and around which that war was waged. Similar revelations, involving far earlier periods of time, rapidly disclosed the successive stages of the human career from a remote antiquity, reaching well back of the beginnings of the world as dated by an alleged “ Biblical” chronology. In dealing with the traditions of these earlier ages, the orientalists soon developed a similar school of negative criticism. Such traditional accounts were promptly thrown into the discard. Maspero’s bulky history of the oriental peoples, still a standard work on most modern library shelves, tells us that Menes, the first king of the First Dynasty of Egypt, was a purely mythical or legendary figure. Nevertheless we now possess his tomb, and in our collections at the University of Chicago we have a piece of his personal ornaments, a gold bar bearing his name in hieroglyphic—the oldest piece of inscribed jewelry in existence. Since 1894 thousands of prehistoric graves have been excavated along the margin of the Nile Valley, revealing to us the successive stages of human advance for many centuries before the once legend- ary Menes. Much the same process is going on in the investigation of Baby- lonian history. Even the mythical hero Gilgamesh, the original of ORIENTAL RESEARCH—BREASTED 413 the European Hercules, bids fair to emerge at last as a remote city king of early Babylonia, who gained a reputation for his prowess in war till he became the typical and proverbial strong man of all ages. The crowning disclosure in this unprecedented series of un- expected revelations has just come from Asia Minor. Nearly 20 years ago the German Assyriologist, Hugo Winckler, visited the mounds of Boghaz (or Boghaz Kéi— Boghaz village”) in central Asia Minor. As he walked over the ruins he kicked up with his boot heel several cuneiform tablets, lying practically on the surface. Below were piled the clay tablet archives of the Hittite Foreign Office, the earliest of which had been lying here at the capital of the Hittite Empire since the middle of the second thousand years before Christ. The result has been the decipherment of ancient Hittite or rather a whole group of Hittite dialects. The Great War has inter- vened and since Winckler’s death the progress of examining this enormous body of archives has unavoidably been very slow. We owe a great debt especially to Hrozny and Forrer for the invaluable disclosures which they have wrung from these documents. One of these tablets reports a war of Atreus, King of Achaia against the king of Caria at about the middle of the thirteenth cen- tury, that is about 1250 B. C. There can be no doubt that in this tablet we have a contemporary reference to the cycle of Trojan wars—a reference which must be regarded as an irreproachable historical source, as old as the events which it records. Thus out of the lost oriental background of Greek history in Asia Minor comes a written document confirming a Greek tradition, born in an age when the Greeks themselves still lacked writing. Because writing reaches further back in the orient by nearly three thousand years than it does in Greece, we are therefore able to confirm Greek tra- dition out of contemporary written sources. It has long been recognized that in the early development of Greek civilization the cities of Asia Minor took the lead. Thales, who lived in one of these cities, was an example of this early stage of Greek culture in Asia Minor. It is‘also evident that the inland background of oriental culture contributed much to this early de- velopment of Greek civilization on the western fringes of Asia. It is out of this newly recovered oriental background that we are slowly regaining the earlier forerunners of Greek civilization. This contemporary reference to the Trojan war is an epoch-mak- ing revelation, which must react powerfully upon our treatment of early human traditions. It at once demonstrates that such tradi- tions must not be thrown to the scrap heap, but rather carefully di- vested of gods and goddesses, prodigies and wonders, and then ex- amined for the nucleus of sober fact upon which the legendary tale has been built up. 20397T—25——_28 414 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 As we look back upon our earliest historical horizon, we now know that the men who stood there in the gray dawn of the age of writing, were able to hear echoes of a remoter past, transmitted in the form of oral tradition of which some portion was then committed to writing and thus survived. In our modern effort to recover and reconstruct the story of man’s past career, we have thus rehabilitated a new body of sources, however cautious it behooves us to be in making use of them. Not credulity, but historical method demands that we now recognize these traditions, or the nucleus of fact to be drawn from them, as a body of sources now to be restored to their proper chronological position in the succession of surviving evidences which reveal to us the past career of man on earth. We are the first generation of men able to survey that career without a serious break. As we marshal the evidence for its suc- cessive stages, we humanists stand shoulder to shoulder with the natural scientists; for as we look backward it is the materials and the methods of the geologist which confront us first. The geologist is succeeded by the paleontologist, the anthropologist, the anthro- pogeographer and the archeologist. It is at this point, on the border land between the investigations of the natural scientist and those of the humanist that we must insert these long discarded echoes from an age able to transmit only oral tradition, the true value of which oriental research has now interpreted to us. The Homeric songs of the Trojan War can no longer be regarded as ex- clusively noble literature, of purely legendary content, and in the presence of these earliest surviving monuments of science the Greek tradition of substantial Egyptian contributions to knowledge must not be rejected as baseless. There is every possibility that the tombs of Egypt may yield us further scientific treatises like this great Edwin Smith Medical Papyrus, and we still cherish the hope that the thirty-five or forty chests, boxes, and caskets still lying in the innermost chamber of the tomb of Tutenkhamon with their seals unbroken, may contain written documents. SHAMANISM OF THE NATIVES OF SIBERIA By I. M. Casanowicz, Assistant Curator, Division of Old World Archeology, United States National Museum [With 2 plates] Shamanism is the name loosely given to certain religiomagic beliefs and practices found generally in primitive communities in which the officiating priest or functionary is a shaman. It does not designate a specific religion, but a certain religious attitude based on the animistic view of nature, the view that the world is pervaded by spiritual forces—gods and spirits—which affect for good or ill human life, and that certain persons can enter into close relations with these powers and control them, and thus be mediators between man and the spirit world. In fact, that men, or at least some men, can enter into communication with the spiritual powers and use them for benevolent or maleficent ends is a universal belief, the common presupposition of magic as well as of religion. But more specifically the term Shamanism is at present applied to those semi- religious and semimagical procedures of the ecstatic wizards among the native tribes of Siberia. The Shamanism of these peoples— commonly called the Ural-Altaic tribes—may be considered as a specialized and highly elaborated form of the universal practice. It is there associated with a full and varied religion, polytheism or polydaemonism, generally with a supreme god over all, of which it is an essential and central part and connected with sacrifices, liturgical prayers, chants, and formulae. AREA OF THE SHAMANISTIC CULT All the peoples of northern Asia, especially of the eastern part of it, the Ugro-Finns, the Tunguse, the Mongolian, and Turkish tribes, were formerly adherents of Shamanism. But Buddhism, Mohammedanism, and, since the Russian conquest in the seventeenth century, Christianity (in its orthodox version), have largely en- croached upon it, so that it is now in a moribund condition and rapidly disappearing. It is at present best represented by the 415 416 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 Tunguse who, with the exception of the Manchus, are all Shaman- ists. It is also to some extent in vogue among the Buryats living west of Lake Baikal (those living on the east and south of that lake having adopted Buddhism in its Lamaistic form), a few Tartar tribes living among the Sajan and Altai Mountains (the so-called Mountain Kalmuks, the Blackforest Tartars, and Shores), and among some Samoyed tribes. On the other hand, Shamanism, in turn, reacted on the new faiths. The Islam of the Siberian Tartars and the Lamaism of the Buryats is greatly mixed up with Shamanistic practices, while the Russian orthodoxy, forced upon the Yakuts and other native tribes of northern Siberia, forms only avery thin veneer over a full-blooded Shamanism. Indeed, old Rusian settlers in those far-off regions have to a high degree become “ Shamanized.” ? COSMOGONY AND WORLD VIEW OF SHAMANISM?” Shamanism has its root in a cosmogony and world view, which is substantially common to all Shamanists. According to these the world consists of three spiritual realms—an upper one, a lower, and a middle one. The upper world is composed of seventeen strata or heavens, and constitutes the realm of light, the dwelling of the gods and good spirits who protect and preserve the weak race of man; the lower, composed of seven or nine strata or hells, is the realm of darkness, the abode of fiends, demons, and the damned. Between heaven and the netherworld is the surface of the earth, the habita- tion of the human race, so that this middle realm is under the influ- ence of both the realms named above.* The cause of such a world order was the fall of man as related in the legends of creation: In the beginning all was water, neither earth nor heaven nor sun and moon existed. Then Kaira Kan, the highest god, created first a be- ing which was like himself and called it man (kisht). Kaira Kan and the man were quietly floating over the water like two black geese. But man was not contented with this blissful state, he wanted 1“ Shamanism seems to be such a natural product of the continental climate with its extremes of cold and heat, of the violent burgas and burans (wind- and snow-storms), of the hunger and fear which attend the long winters, that not only the Palaeo-Siberians and the more highly cultivated Neo-Siberians, but even Europeans haye sometimes fallen under the influence of certain Shamanistic superstitions. Such is the case with tha Russian peasants and officials who settle in Siberia and with the Russian Creoles.” M. A. Czaplicka, Aboriginal Siberia. A study in social anthropology. Oxford, 1914, p. 168. * Mainly abridged from Wilhelm Radloff, Aus Sibirien, Leipzig, 1884, Vol. II, pp. 1 ff. * Radloff, op. cit., p. 3, would derive the conception of a world composed of strata from the layers of the mountains, which the dwellers in the mountainous regions have ob- served. But this, as in fact the whole rather lofty and elaborate cosmogony of the Siberians, may be due in part to the influence of Mohammedanism with its seven heavens and seven hells (comp. Holmes anniversary volume, Washington, 1916, p. 49), and of Buddhism with its still more numerous heavens and hells. SHAMANISM—CASANOWICZ 417 to rise higher than Kaira Kan. In consequence of this presumption he lost his ethereal nature and sank into the bottomless water. Kaira Kan out of compassion made man raise himself out of the depth, at the same time bidding him to bring up the earth out of the water as habitation for man since he could no more fly. But man, still rebellious, in bringing up the earth put part of it into his mouth in order to secretly create a land for himself. But when he came up the earth swelled in his mouth so that he could not breathe and would have choked if he had not spit it out at the command of Kaira Kan. The land which Kaira Kan created was even and smooth, but the earth which came out from the mouth of man sprawled in all directions and covered whole land areas with swamp hills. Kaira Kan named the man Erlik and banished him into darkness where he became lord (Kan) of hell. Then Kaira Kan caused to grow from the earth a tree with nine branches and under each branch created a man. These nine men became the ancestors of the nine tribes of mankind who people the earth. Erlik by corrupting men got them into his power. Kaira Kan in his anger over the wickedness and folly of mankind withdrew to the uppermost of the seventeen heavens and banished Erlik to the third stratum of the subterranean realm of darkness. Erlik, persisting in his impiety, built with the evil spirits a heaven for themselves in imitation of Kaira Kan’s heaven. But Kaira Kan shattered it. The fragments of Erlik’s heaven falling upon earth, which till then was even and smooth, caused the high mountains and deep valleys. This time Erlik was thrust down to live forever in the lowest world of darkness. From Kaira Kan came as emanations the other high gods: Bai Ulgan, highest after Kaira, who lives in the sixteenth heaven, Ky Sagan, in the ninth heaven, and Mergen, in the seventh heaven, where is also mother sun, while father moon lives in the fifth heaven, where is also the demijurge creator. Bai Ulgan’s two sons are in the third heaven. In this third heaven are also located the “sea of milk,” or the spring of all life, the mountains of the gods, and the paradise to which go the souls of the just and the blessed. The latter are mediators between the gods of heaven and their _offspring on earth, helping them when they are in distress. Beneath this realm is that of Jersu, earth, conceived as a com- munity of spirits, as an animate whole, at whose navel lives Jo Kan, whose power is almost equal to that of Kaira Kan. Besides him there are high lords (Hans), seventeen in number, corresponding to the seventeen mountains and the seventeen seas. Where the seventeen seas unite lives the Ocean Kan. There is also an Altai Kan, the national or folk god. All these gods and demigods are, like the heavenly lords, helpers of man and creative powers, but only 418 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 4 the Jersu (earth) lords can be approached directly by ordinary men, who offer them gifts or revere them by casting a stone on a pile, or sing them hymns of praise. Contrary to these are the dwellers in the nine strata of the nether- world, the evil spirits with their King Erlik Kan, enemies of man who endeavor to harm him. From Erlik issue all misfortunes, from poverty to death. He also seduces men to sin. From birth to death there is a struggle between the good spirits and the evil ones about man. At the birth of a human being a good spirit is sent down by Bai Ulgan to supply it with life from the “sea of milk,” and ever after to remain at his right shoulder, guiding him aright. But simul- taneously Erlik sends up a devil from below to stand at the left shoulder and mislead him. At death the soul goes to Erlik to be judged by him, and both spirits give a record of his deeds. If the good deeds predominate, the soul is delivered by the good spirit from the realm of darkness and carried to the third heaven; if evil is greater than good, it is dragged to hell and cast into a gigantic caldron filled with boiling tar. Erlik is nevertheless called “ Father ” Erlik, “because all men belong to him, and at the end he takes the lives of all.” # Now, only the earth lords can be approached directly by ordinary men without an intermediary priest. Far different is it with the great lords of the upper and the under world. They must be ap- proached through the mediation of the spirits of the dead—in case of the good gods through the Somo, the nine guardian ancestors of men. But the power to control the ancestral and other spirits is in- herent only in certain families. This power manifests itself when a member of such a family is seized with an ecstasy and becomes inspired and in this state is able to act in the capacity of an inter- mediary between man and the spirits. To sum up the above delineation of the world view of Shamanism, it may be said its philosophy is the personification of the forces of nature, the view of the world as pervaded by spiritual agencies. Man stands under the influence of two opposite powers, the power of light and the power of darkness. The first, obviously, dwells in 4Prlik is in many of his aspects a counterpart in Shamanistic mythology of Abhriman (Angromainyus) in Zoroastrian theology. The conception of two spirits, one good and one evil, accompanying man through life and recording his deeds after death, has some analogy in Jewish and Mohammedan lore. ‘‘ Two angels—one good and one evil—accom- pany man as he returns from the synagogue to his home on Sabbath,” Talmud, Shabbath, 119.» “The two angels who accompany man testify as to his behavior,” Talmud, Hagi- gah 16%. Mohammedan sources also assign two angels to accompany each person through life, the one at his right recording his good deeds, the one at his left his evil doings. Compare Koran, Sura xiii, 12: ‘‘ Mach man has a succession of angels before and behind him, they watch him by the command of God’; and Sura L, 16: “ When the two angels deputed to take account of a man’s behavior take an account thereof, one sitting on the right hand and the other on the left: he uttereth not a word”; that is, in the hour of death the two angels write down the actions of man, the one on the right the good ones, the one on the left the bad, and man can not produce an excuse for the latter. SHAMANISM—CASANOWICZ 419 heaven, whence comes every good gift; the second power dwells in the source of darkness, in the bosom of the cold, dead earth. Be- tween these two mighty powers lies the surface of the earth, which is kin to man and is teeming with life apprehensible by him, the Jersu with its mountains and seas, which supply him with all the necessaries for the maintenance of his physical existence. But the nature of the earth is variable and changeable, offering him no protection against mishaps, losses, and pains. Therefore, man offers his highest reverence to the unknown powers of light and darkness, who control his own destiny as also the earth and its phenomena. But these beings are so mighty and their workings so incompre- hensible to him that he dares not enter into direct intercourse with them. For these he needs those specially gifted persons who have an understanding of the divine powers and the authority to control them for the securing of good and averting of evil. Although the spirits of light are believed to be more powerful than those of darkness, the former need little attention because they are good and kind, while the evil spirits, if not appeased, would constantly do injury. It is also in human nature to accept the good without much reflection, while the evil which man experiences and the misfortunes which befall him stand out clearly in his conscious- ness. In consequence, the Shamanistic cult consists for the most. part in placating and controlling of evil spirits. But Shaman- ism is not on that account to be termed a devil worship, but a cult of spirits, or a ghost worship. The shaman is not possessed by a devil, but by an ancestral spirit. When thus possessed he ascends to heaven or descends to hell and influences the powers by the spirit in him. THE SHAMAN—NAME The word “Shaman” is considered by some to be a corruption of the Sanskrit Shramana, Pali, samana, an ascetic, which, indi- cating a disciple of Buddha, became among the Mongolians synony- mous with the magician. But the most acceptable explanation of the word is that derived from the Manchu saman, pronounced shaman, the fundamental meaning of which is “ one who is excited, moved, raised,” thus answering to the principal characteristics of the shaman. The name shaman is only found among the Tunguse, Buryats, and Yakuts, but it is only among the Tunguse that it is the native name, the Buryats and the Mongols calling their shaman 60 or boe, and the female shaman odegon or utygan. Among the Yakuts the shaman is called oywm, a female shaman, wdagan, among the Ostyaks, senin, female, sentém. The Samoyeds call their shaman .tadebei, and the Altaians use the term kam, and call the shaman’s dealings with the spirits kamlanie, 1. e., kam-ing. 420 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 THE SHAMAN—CALL TO OFFICE In some tribes the office of a shaman is hereditary; in others a predisposition to it suffices. Among the Tunguse of Trans-Baikalia a would-be shaman declares that a departed shaman has appeared to him in a dream commanding him to take his office. Among the Buryats and Lapps the office is usually hereditary, although anyone may become a shaman or be chosen by the gods. The inhabitants of the Altai district in northern central Asia consider that the vocation of a shaman is spontaneously transmitted by in- heritance from parents to children, like a kind of incubation. Among the Ostyaks the shaman chooses one of his sons, according to his fitness, to be his successor. The Yakuts believe that Sha- manism seizes involuntarily upon the chosen individual. “It is in general no rare occurrence that men who have been struck by lightning are looked upon as chosen by the gods and are therefore admitted to priestly honors. * * * Among the Buryats, if any- body is killed by lightning, it is held to betoken the will of the gods, who have thereby conferred a certain distinction upon the family of the dead man; he is considered a shaman, and his nearest relative enjoys the right of shamanhood.”* The Tunguse con- sider children who bleed at the nose or mouth to be destined by the gods to the profession of a shaman. But in any case, whether succeeding to the office of shaman by heredity or chosen by the spirits or self-chosen, the candidate usually exhibits psychopathic traits. He is shy, distrait and moody, given to. hallucinations and trances, or he is subject to epileptic fits. He is fond of solitude and takes to the woods, jumps into fire or water, hurts himself with weapons, and in general betrays the symptoms of an abnormal person. Such abnormality is, however, by no means universal. When once called to the office of a shaman the candidate is not free to accept or to decline the call. “The power of the ancestors having passed into him, he must needs shamanize. If he resists the will of his ancestors he exposes himself to terrible tortures, end- ing either in the entire loss of his mental power, becoming an im- becile, or in stark madness, which ends in suicide or death in a paroxism.”* In general, “the vocation of the shaman is attended with considerable danger. The slightest lack of harmony between the acts of the shamans and the mysterious call of their ‘spirits’ 5 Gunnar Landtman, The Origin of Priesthood, Ekernaes, Finland, 1905, p. 98. Com- pare John R. Swanton in Handbook of the American Indians, II, p. 522. ® Radloff, op. cit., p. 16 f. With regard to the shamans or medicine men of the Ameri- can Indians, comp. A. J. Dixon, “‘ Some aspects of the American shaman,’ American Jour- nal of Folklore, vol. XXI, No. LXXX, p. 2. Similarly compelling is the call to the office of a Mutang among the Koreans, comp. I. M. Casanowicz, Paraphernalia of a Korean sorceress in the U. S. National Museum, Proc. vol. 51, 1916, p. 593. SHAMANISM—CASANOWICZ 421 brings their life to an end. * * * This is particularly so when the shaman is slow to carry out those orders which are intended to single him out from other people. * * * ‘There exist traditions about shamans who were carried away still living from the earth to the sky, about others killed by the spirits or struck down at their first meeting with the powers whom they dared to call upon.” ? THE SHAMAN—INITIATION As a rule candidates for the profession of a shaman have to un- dergo preparatory instruction which is imparted by some expert practitioner. During the time of preparation the novice has to pass through both a mental and a physical training. He is usually seg- regated and goes either to the forests and hills or else he remains in the inner room the whole time. His imagination is worked upon by solitude, the contemplation of the gloomy aspect of surrounding nature, long vigils and fasts with the use of narcotics, until he be- comes persuaded that he, too, has seen the apparitions which he has heard of from his boyhood. The shaman spirits usually appear in the form of animals or birds. The most common guardian spirits of the shaman are the wolf, the bear, the raven, the sea gull, and the eagle. The Yakuts believe that every one of their Oyums has his emekhet, or guardian spirits, and his bestial image, ze-kyle, sent down from above. The emekhet, generally a dead shaman, occasion- ally a secondary deity, always stays near the man it protects. The novice has also to learn singing, dancing, ventriloquism, and how to beat the drum. But it is not always that a preparatory in- struction is necessary. ‘There are shamans who have obtained the requisite powers and qualifications direct from the gods without be- ing previously instructed in the profession. THE SHAMAN—CONSECRATION The consecration of the candidate to his office is among some tribes accompanied by certain ceremonies. The candidate on this occasion takes certain vows upon himself and becomes the property of the spirits. Among the Yakuts, an old shaman takes him to a hill or an open field, clothes him in shaman’s dress, invests him with tambourine and drumstick, and placing him between nine chaste youths on his right and nine chaste maidens on his left, makes him promise that he will be faithful to the spirit who will fulfill his prayers. Then he tells him where the various spirits dwell, what diseases each causes, and how they may be appeased. Finally the — 7 Czaplicka, op. cit., p. 175 f. 422 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 new shaman kills the animal destined for sacrifice, his dress is sprin- kled with the blood, and the flesh is eaten by the spectators.® Among the Buryats the consecration of a shaman is very elaborate and expensive, including purifications and ablutions, the sacrificing of many animals, and a numerous personnel of assistants and par- ticipants. He is addressed on this occasion: “ When thou art called to a poor man, ask little in return for thy trouble and take what is given. Take care of the poor, help them and pray to the gods to de- fend them against the power of the evil spirits. If thou art called by a rich man, go to him riding on a bullock and do not ask much for your trouble. If thou art called at the same time by a poor and by a rich man, go first to the poor.” The candidate repeats these precepts after his mentor and promises to observe them.® MALE AND FEMALE SHAMANS Most commonly the shaman is a man. The natives about the Altai mountains in northern central Asia allow only men to take part in their sacrificial feasts so that consequently the shamans must be men. Female shamans are found among the Tunguse, Ostyaks, Buryats, and Yakuts, and though with the last they are regarded as inferior to the male shaman, yet are preferred for the cure of mental troubles. The Golds, on the Amur River, also have female shamans, and among the Kamchadales, on the peninsula of Kam- chatka, every old woman is looked upon as a witch and interpreter of dreams.” WHITE AND BLACK SHAMANS The Buryats distinguish between white shamans, who serve the good spirits (tengris) of the west, and the black shamans, who serve the evil spirits of the east. The former are honored as those who through their influence with the beneficent powers help and protect men; the latter are feared because through the evil spirits they often work harm to men. For one who has such power over spirits as to drive them out from bodies must be able also to send them into people and make them ill or mad. They may also steal the souls of their 8Comp. V. M. Mikhailovski, Oliver Wardrop, “‘Shamanism in Siberia and European Russia,’ Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, vol. XXIV (1895), p. 86. ® Czaplicka, op. cit., p. 187. 1° Landtman, op. cit., p. 194 ff. In America, according to Dixon (l. «, p. 2), the shamans are predominantly male, though women are by no means entirely excluded. * Among the tribes of Patagonia there was a curious custom which prescribed the wear- ing of female clothing by male shamans.’”’” An analogous custom is found, according to Sieroshevski-Sumner, ‘“ The Yakuts,” in the Journa] of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, vol. 31 (1901), p. 103 f., among the Yakuts of the Kolmyck district, where the shamans ‘‘for want of any special dress, put on women’s dress. They wear their hair long and comb and braid as women do. According to popular belief, any shaman of more than ordinary power can bear children like a woman. They even gave birth to various animals and birds.” SHAMANISM—CASANOWICZ 493 victims. The Buryats also believe that the white and black shamans fight with each other, hurling axes at one another from distances of hundreds of miles. The black shamans are sometimes killed for their evil deeds. Landtman™ adds: “Facts go to prove, how- ever, that the distinction between good and evil disposed classes of the priesthood is often arbitrarily drawn, with little or no regard to the means, whether religious or magicial, which they make use of in their practices.” SHAMANS INCARNATED IN ANIMALS It was stated above (p. 421) that the Yakuts believe that every one of their shamans (oywms) has his emekhet, or guardian spirit, and his bestial image ze-kyle, sent down from above. This incarna- tion of the shaman in form of a beast is carefully concealed. Only once a year, when the snow melts and the earth becomes black, do the ze-kyles appear among the dwellings of men. The incarnate souls of shamans in animal form are visible only to the eyes of shamans, but they wander everywhere, unseen by all others.. They often fight, and then the shaman whose ze-kyle is beaten falls ill or dies. The weakest and most cowardly shamans are those of the canine variety; the most powerful wizards are those whose ze-kyle is a stallion, an elk, a black bear, an eagle, or the huge bull boar. The Samoyeds of the Turukhinsk region hold that every shaman has a familar spirit in the shape of a boar, which he leads about by a magic belt. On the death of the boar, the shaman himself dies, and stories are told of battles between wizards, who send their spirits to fight before they encounter each other in person.” DEAD SHAMANS The souls of the departed are generally believed by primitives to be more or less hostile and dangerous to the living. This the more so in case of the ghosts of wizards who were already powerful in life. Hence “the Turanian tribes of northern Asia fear their sha- mans even more when dead than when alive, for they become then a special class of spirits who are the most hurtful of all.”1* Among the Yakuts the shamans are thought to be transferred after death into evil spirits. The dead shamans are buried with great haste by night or at evening in a remote nook in a grove or in a forest open- ing, and the place is always afterwards carefully avoided. On the 41 Op: cit:, p: 179. #2 Mikhailovskii, 1. c., p. 133 f. Among the American shamans, according to Swanton, op. cit., p. 522, “two shamans among hostile people would fight euch other through the air by means of their spirits.’ * 38 Rafael Karsten, The Origin of Worship. A Study of Primitive Religion. Washing- ton, 1905, p. 110. 424 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 other hand, among the Ostyaks when a shaman dies the ordinary custom of offering divine honors to the dead changes in his favor into a complete and decided canonization..* Among the Buryats soon after a shaman dies one of his friends falls in a trance—struck by invisible thunderbolt, launched by gods—and when he recovers announces that the dead shaman’s spirit has confided to him the spot in which he wishes to rest. The body is cremated and the ashes are placed in a hole cut in one of the largest trees in the appointed part of the forest. The spot then becomes sacred. The grave of a black shaman is usually shaded with aspens, and the body is fastened to the earth with a stake taken from that tree. THE SHAMAN—APPEARANCE AND OUTFIT “In general,” says Sieroshevski (1. ¢., p. 102), “there is in the appearance of a shaman something peculiar, which enabled the author after some practice to distinguish him with great certainty in the midst of a number cf persons. He is distinguished by a cer- tain energy and mobility of the muscles of the face, which generally among the Yakuts are immobile. There is also in his movements a noticeable spryness.” Add to this that the shaman is sometimes mentally abnormal, an epileptic or afflicted with some milder neu- rosis, Which is aggravated by the practice of his calling and further reinforced when, as is the case among some tribes, the office is hereditary or runs in families, and that primitives everywhere re- gard the physically, and more so the mentally, abnormal as due to spirit possession. Besides these peculiar personal physical and psychical traits, the shaman as mediator in dealings with the spirit world bears during his functions outward signs to inspire the people with feelings of mystery and awe, and to betoken his separateness from the rest of the population. So the shaman at his ceremonies dons a special dress—a coat (kaftan) made of cloth or bearskins, hung with pieces of iron—rattles, rings, and representations of animals, or twisted handkerchiefs representing snakes. All these have a definite mean- ing and purpose and often a mystic character. The Yakut shamans adorn their coats with a representation of the sun with holes in it, and half moon, indicating the twilight that reigns in the spirit land. The mythical animals on the dress signify the monsters in the spirit world which the shaman has to combat, while the iron plates are to protect him against the blows of malevolent spirits. The great 144 Landtman, op. cit., p. 46. . 1% Bassett Digby, ‘‘ Forefathers of the Red Indian,’’ Nineteenth Century and After, Iebruary, 1923, p. 251. 16 Czaplicka, op. cit., p. 201. For the description of the elaborate funeral of a Buryat shaman, see Mikhailovskii, ]. ¢., p. 134 f. Smithsonian Report, 1924.—Casanowicz PLATE | SHAMAN. OF KAMCHATKA Smithsonian Report, 1924.—Casanowicz MONGOL SHAMANESS PLATE 2 —_—_— —- ee SHAMANISM—CASANOWICZ 425 shamans are also distinquished by the amagyat on their breast, a metal plate, usually copper, adorned with the figure of a man. It represents the shaman’s spirit protector or ancestor spirit. It is a particular badge of the shaman’s vocation which is given by the old shaman to the new. But the most important accessory of the shaman’s outfit is the tambourine (tungur or tur) with the drumstick, without which his conjurations have no force and his soothsaying is without validity. The mighty sounds of the magic drum penetrate into the world of spirits, causing them to submit to his will. Besides its power to call up and gather into it the spirits, it serves the shaman as a vehicle in his flight to heaven or in descending into the dark realm of Erlik. The form of the tambourine varies with different tribes. With some it is circular; with others it is oval, with its longest diameter of about 24 inches. Inside the drum, on the long side of the hoop, is a handle in form of a stave. This handle is usually in the crude form of a man, broadening at the upper end to represent a head and forming at the lower end a fork resembling legs. This handle is called the “host” (tungur ast) of the drum. Along the arms of the “host ’are fastened iron rattles and bells, the number of which is greater or less, according to the rank of the shaman, and corresponding with the number of spirits subject to him. On the outside the skin of the drum is decorated with figures of a symbolic kind, intimately connected with shamanistic beliefs and mysteries (see pls. 1 and 2). Among the Buryats the novice is not permitted to acquire the drum until after the third year from his consecration. To the paraphernalia of a Buryat shaman belong also two horse staves, cut from a live birch tree in such a manner that the tree should not die. They represent the horses on which the shaman flies to heaven. THE SHAMAN—HIS FUNCTIONS The ideal shaman unites in his person the offices of priest, healer, and prophet. As a priest he officiates at communal as well as private sacrifices and ceremonials. But the shaman’s priestly functions are of secondary importance to and emanate from his other functions. There are many sacrifices and ceremonies at which his participation is not essential. His connection with sacrifice is mainly the fact that as one who knows the will of the gods or spirits and what sacrifices will be pleasing to them on any occasion he determines their nature and the method of offering them. Sickness is according to the belief not only of primitive peoples but was also of some highly advanced in civilization, as the Baby- lonians and Assyrians, due to a malevolent spirit that has got into a 426 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 man and must be expelled. But only the shaman, who is himself possessed by spirits, is fitted to deal with the demon in such a man- ner as to bring about the recovery of the patient. The procedure frequently takes the form of a duel between the shaman, or rather the spirit he has conjured into himself, and the spirit that has in- vaded the patient, in which the latter is vanquished and expelled. This is perhaps the most primitive form of exorcism. The expulsion of disease demons is often accompanied by the use of herbs, purga- tions, fumigations, and manipulations, which sometimes have remedial effects, so that the shaman is in a measure a forerunner of the physician. Diseases are also caused by the soul of a man having been frightened out of his body and fled away. The shaman pursues it wherever it has gone, even to the prison of Erlik, and re- stores it to the owner. - But it is the gift of prophecy, or the art of divination, that makes the shaman powerful and is the basis of his other functions. He has direct intercourse with the spirits and actual access to the spirit world, and so obtains knowledge superior to that of ordinary men. By virtue of this knowledge he can give directions about worship and sacrifice, and overcome or drive out hostile spirits. He can foretell the future, find out what is going on in distant places, dis- cover secrets, detect thieves, and answer all manner of questions for which men resort to a soothsayer or prophet. Divination by the shaman may be practiced by the shoulder blade of a sheep or the flight of arrows. But the characteristic method of Shamanistic divination is the seance, or what is locally known as kamlanie. In this the shaman by smoking, the use of other narcotics, singing, shouting, dancing, beating of the tambourine, and so on, produces a state of trance or alternate personality. While in this state the spirits take possession of him and reveal their will to him or give him the desired information.*® THE SIBERIAN SHAMAN CONTRASTED WITH THE AMERICAN MEDICINE MAN The main aspects of the Siberian shaman’s procedure, as well as the idea of possession by spirits, are found to be well-nigh of uni- versal occurrence in connection with healing, discovering the will of spirits or gods, or soothsaying. One may occur without the others, 17 Mikhailovskii, J. ¢., p. 99, quotes the following Buryat tradition about this bone: “A written law was given by God to the chief tribal ancestor of the Buryats. On his way home to his own people he fell asleep under a haystack. A ewe came to the stack and ate up the law with the hay, but the law became engraved on the ewe’s shoulder blade.”’ 18'The answers of the shaman, or rather of the spirit he conjures into himself, te questions about all sorts of things which there is no natural means of knowing, is per- haps the oldest form of natural divination and the origin of the idea of revelation.” George Foot Moore, The Birth and Growth of Religion, 1923, p. 88. 4 y SHAMANISM—CASANOWICZ 427 or, again, all are found as parts of the practice of a sorcerer, or wonder-worker. Again, the methods of the medicine man are also found everywhere and largely enter into the shaman’s practices. But while the shaman’s methods are connected with the cult of spirits and are not fundamentally magical, but rather mysticism of a primitive kind, seeking intimate communion with the spirit world, those of the medicine man are partly magical, partly em- pirical with the use of naturalistic methods of healing, and are not necessarily connected with the spirit world. The shaman’s procedure is mainly based on the fact that he is en rapport with spirits and can control them, while the medicine man generally acts by methods in which the aid of spirits is not essential.*® SHAMANISM CONTRASTED WITH FETISHISM Fetishism, the belief that material objects can become, by appro- priate rites and incantations, habitations of mysterious or magical powers, has some kinship to Shamanism. It also springs from ani- mism, being the expression of the notion that the world is pervaded by mysterious spiritual powers. But while in Fetishism the magical power is believed to reside in the instrument or in particular sub- stances, or that the fetish itself is something supernatural, a quasi- personified power or potency, having volition, in Shamanism the will-effect of the shaman is the efficient factor in compelling ghosts or spirits or gods to do his will. In Fetishism the emphasis is laid on the thing, although rites and incantations may be employed in making the fetish; in Shamanism the prime factor is the personality and will of the shaman, although he may employ like means. THE SHAMAN IN ACTION” The activity of the shaman as a priest or sacrificer, a conjurer up of spirits, and as a prophet is most impressively illustrated by the ceremonies attending the sacrifice to Bai Ulgan, who dwells in the sixteenth heaven, and is next in rank to Kaira Kan, the highest god. It is something like a mystery play or religious drama in which the shaman as conjurer of the spirits is the actor. The procedure of this sacrifice and the ceremonies, conjurations, and incantations accom- panying it are very elaborate and are distributed over three evenings. On the first evening the shaman selects a spot in a birch thicket and there places a new ornamented yurta (tent). In the yurta a young birch tree with the lower branches lopped is set up; on one of the * Comp. also Dixon, 1. c., p. 12: “As compared with their representatives in other parts of the world, the shamans in America seem to show, both in their making and in their whole character, less reliance on the dead, the ancestral spirits, than do those of other regions * * * deriving his power from animals and natural phenomena.” * Mainly abridged from Radloff, op. cit., p. 51 f.. and Mikhailovskii, 1. ¢., pp. 74-78. 428 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 upper branches a flag is hung. At the bottom of the tree nine steps (tapty) are cut with an ax. Round the yurta a penfold is made. Opposite the door of the yurta is the entrance from the courtyard and near this entrance a birch pole with a noose of horsehair is set up. Then a horse agreeable to the deity is chosen, which is held by a person chosen from those present and who is called “holder of the head”—bashi-tukan kiski. 'The shaman waves a birch twig over the horse’s back, thus driving its soul to Ulgan, accompanied by the hold- er’s soul, invoking the spirits to come and assist in the action of the sacrificing. The assembling of the spirits in the tambourine takes place with great solemnity. The shaman summons each spirit sep- arately, who answers: “ Here I am Kam,” at the same time moving the tambourine as if taking the spirit into it. When he has assembled these spirit assistants, the shaman goes outside the yurta, sits down on a scarecrow in form of a goose stuffed with hay and covered with cloth, and moving both arms rapidly like wings, sings in a loud voice: Below the white sky, Above the white cloud, Below the blue sky, Above the blue cloud— Mount a bird to the sky! The goose replies by quacking: “ Ungai gak gak, ungai gak, kaigai gak, kaigai gak.” The shaman himself, of course, does this imitation of the goose’s quacking, as he also answers for the spirits. On this feathered steed the shaman pursues the soul (pura) of the horse, imitating the horse’s neighing. Finally, with the aid of the specta- tors, he drives the horse to the birch pole with the noose which repre- sents the guardian of the animal’s soul. After much straining and drawing, to represent the breaking away and the recapturing of the pura, the shaman incenses the animal with juniper, blesses it, and, with the aid of some of the bystanders kills it in a most barbarous and cruel manner. The dead animal is skinned and cut up in a very elaborate manner so that bones are not broken or damaged in any way. The flesh is cooked in caldrons and then laid out ‘on birch branches. The shaman first takes part of it in a wooden dish and offers it to the ancestral and the protecting spirits of the yurta. Part of this offering the shaman distributes among the members of the family and their relatives. The best part is presented to the shaman; the remainder is distributed among the guests. The bones are preserved as consecrated to the gods. The most important part of the performance takes place on the second evening, when the shaman’s journey to Bai Ulgan in heaven is enacted. The shaman invokes with rhythmical chants the various spirits, the lords of the tambourine, the mother of the fire, the seven- SHAMANISM—CASANOWICZ 429 teen lords of the jersu, and Merkyut, the bird of heaven, and offers them a libation. Then he incenses with juniper nine garments hung on a rope and offers them with a song on behalf of the head of the house to Bai Ulgan. As the spirits are gathered the shaman beats the tambourine more loudly. He circles several times the birch tree in the yurta, then he kneels in front of the door and asks the imagi- nary porter spirit to grant him a guide. By touching the members of the family with the drum on their chests and with the drumstick their backs—the seat of the soul—he purifies and liberates them from all evil, and by putting the tambourine close to the host’s ears and striking it he drives into him the spirit and power of his protecting ancestors. At last begins the ascent to heaven. Jumping, shouting with symbolical movements, accompanied by wild gestures, the sha- man passes into ecstasy. Then he suddenly places himself on the first step cut out in the trunk of the birch tree, raising the tambourine and thumping it with all his might. He is rising to the sky. From heaven to heaven he passes, riding on the goose, accompanying the ascent by songs and incantations and beating of the drum in vari- ous tempos and scales, modulating and changing his voice in imita- tion of the supposed answerers. At each stage he tells the audience what he has seen and heard. And finally having reached the ninth or even the twelfth heaven, he addresses a humble prayer to Bai Ulgan and learns whether the sacrifice is accepted and receives in- formation concerning the coming weather, the harvest, sickness or other misfortunes, as well as the sacrifices which will be required in the near future. After this interview with Ulgan the ecstasy or delirium of the shaman reaches its climax, he collapses and lies motionless. After a while he gradually rouses himself, rubs his eyes and greets those present as if after a long absence. The third night is spent in libations and feasting, during which enormous quantities of koumiss and strong drinks are consumed. THE PURIFICATION OF A YURTA® _ The highest art of the shaman is brought into play in the so- called purification of a yurta. This takes place on the fortieth day after the death of a member of the family. Only few shamans are competent to carry out this conjuration in a successful manner; rich people, therefore, call on a widely famous shaman for the performance of this service, who is then richly rewarded. The purification is usually performed with the aid of Yaryik Kan, to whom the sacrifice is made for this assistance. According to the belief of the Altaians (shared by many other peoples) the soul of the dead remains for some time in the yurta and is reluctant to 21 Radloff, op. cit., pp. 52 ff. 430 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 depart to the realm of the dead unless in company of other members of the household, or at least of some cattle. Yaryik, being the Jersu prince of the seas, is best able, by driving waterfloods, to force the return of the abducted souls and to drive the soul of the departed to the netherworld. The belief of the noxious influence of the soul of the dead has its basis in the close family relationship between the dead and the surviving members, which may be considered as the basis of the shamanistic theory and practice. Another cause of this belief is the frequency of epidemics, which, with the lack of sanitary pre- cautions and medical help among the Altaic peoples, are often frightfully devastating and which the people charge to the hostility of the ghosts. Doctor Radloff had the opportunity to attend such a purifi- cation in July, 1860, on the Kengi Lake. In the yurta after sunset were about twenty persons, relatives and neighbors, assembled. It was to be a purification after the death of the housewife. The guests present were quite unconcerned, chatting and smoking. When dusk descended there was heard from a distance the dull sounds of the shaman’s drum. By and by the shaman entered the yurta, his chant and beating of the drum gradually softened, pass- ing into a sort of whining and whispering. He held a dialogue with the soul of the deceased, who piteously implored him to let her stay in the yurta with her children. But the shaman merci- lessly presses the soul by the power of the drum, which is filled with mighty spirits, until at last he catches it between the drum and the drumstick and presses it to earth. By changing the modu- lation of his song and of beating the drum he indicates that he has brought the soul to the netherworld. There a dialogue is started with the preceding relatives to whom he has brought the soul of the lately deceased. They decline to accept her. The shaman regales them with vodka, which puts them into a hilarious humor. They sing and are merry, and thus the shaman succeeds in smuggling in the new soul. When the shaman calls in the aid of Yaryik the merry scene in the netherworld is suddenly interrupted through the inrushing of the flood. The souls cry for help, whine and lament, and the cattle and souls of relatives, which the deceased took along, are driven back home. The shaman imitates the rushing of the waves and roaring of the pressing water. Sometimes the shaman does not succeed in smuggling in the new soul, or the soul escapes and returns to the yurta. Then the scene begins anew. Returning from Sheol to the upper world, the shaman fell into a frenzy, singing and dancing wildly until he collapsed. SHAMANISM—CASANOWICZ 431 Radloff describes the mighty impression which this wild scene produced on him and the other guests who were all shaken and dumbstruck. Radloff adds: “The offering of the sacrifice and purification of the yurta are the proper priestly functions of the shaman. In them he has to develop his entire art, and he is the right shaman who understands how to arouse the fear and confidence of his audience, so that they believe that his predictions are true oracles by which the gods try to console and uplight them. Other actions of the shaman are without importance. Pronouncing blessings and thanks- giving other mortals can do, as also the performing of libations to the jersu. Weather making and soothsaying are likewise not exclusive prerogatives of the shaman. At birth, marriage, and funerals the shaman has no share, unless these events are accom- panied by unfavorable omens, when he is called to avert them by conjuration and exorcism.” THE SHAMAN—HIS INFLUENCE The shaman as mediator between men and spirits, uniting in himself the many functions described above, enjoys great respect among the people. But he is more feared than loved. His peculiar dress, his wild and convulsive antics, the sound of the tambourine— all lead to powerfully affect the nerves of an unsophisticated people and to strike terror into their hearts. There is also a general craving in man for the mysterious and for spiritual assistance in the adversities and misfortunes of human life which the shaman is believed to satisfy. There is a certain artistry in the shamanistic practice. “ Observation justifies the division of shamans into great, middling, and petty. Some of them dispose of light and darkness in such a masterly manner, also of silence and incantation; the modulation of the voice is so flexible, the gestures so peculiar and expressive, the blows of the drum and the tone of them correspond so well to the moment, and all is intertwined with such an original series of unexpected words, witty observations, artistic and often elegant metaphors, that involuntarily you give yourself up to the charm of watching this wild and free evocation of a wild and free spirit.’ /57 The shaman is often a man of unusual intelligence and mental re- sources; he has a profound knowledge of the simple life of his neighbors and gradually acquires the habit of solving their per- plexities by a logic of his own peculiar talent, and in many cases the rite performed is to bring about a result which, like rain or sun- - Sieroshevski, 1. c. p. 105. 432 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 shine, is about to happen, sooner or later anyway, and by shrewd turning to account of accidents he manages to assert and maintain his ascendency. Obviously, it can not be otherwise that many of the divinations and predictions of the shaman are belied by the results, but with childlike credulous peoples one successful instance causes them to ignore or forget all previous failures and deceptions. Still the shamans could hardly, for any length of time, keep up the belief in their superiority without convincing the people by “miracles *—that is, by executing feats which exceed the power of the laity to perform or to understand—of their supernatural endow- ments. And, as a matter of fact, according to the testimony of travelers and explorers, some shamans are past masters in the arts of ventriloquism and sleight-of-hand tricks. Thus Bogoras says: “Shamans could, with credit to themselves, carry on a contest with the best practioners of similar arts in civilized countries. The voices are successful imitations of different sounds; human, superhuman, animal, even of tempests and winds, or of an echo, and come from all sides of the room, from without, from above, and from under- ground. The whole of nature may sometimes be represented in the small inner room of the Chukchee.” 7% “The shamans of the Ostiaks,” says Landtman, “strengthen their reputation not infrequently by delusive demonstrations of their in- vulnerability, stabbing themselves with knives in different parts of the body. For the same purpose the shamans of certain Tartar tribes throw themselves into the fire and seize live coals with their hands.” *4 “On another occasion,” relates Jochelson, “the shaman took his knife, which was sharp and looked like a dagger, and thrust it into his breast up to the hilt, while emitting a rattling sound from his throat. I noticed, however, that after cutting his jacket he turned the knife downward. He drew out the knife with the same rattling in his throat and resumed beating the drum * * * and returning the knife to him showed through the hole in his coat the blood on his body. Of course, these spots had been made before.” Jochelson adds: “ However, this can not be looked upon as mere deception. Things visible and imaginary are confounded to such an extent in primitive consciousness that the shaman himself may have thought that there was, invisible to others, a real gash in his body as has been demanded by the spirits.”?> Czaplicka remarks (p. 283): “The practice of stabbing oneself through the stomach with a knife is universal in Shamanistic performances * * *. It 23 Quoted in Czaplicka, op. cit., p. 231; comp. also W. Jochelson, The Koryak, p. 49, and J. Stadling, ‘‘ Shamanism ”’ in The Contemporary Review, January, 1901, p. 96, for graphic descriptions of the mimic talent of shamans and their adeptness in ventrilo- quism. * Landtman, op. cit., p. 141 f. % W. Jochelson, The Koryak, p. 52, quoted by Czaplicka, p. 229 f. SHAMANISM—CASANOWICZ 433 would be difficult to describe all the tricks performed by shamans: Some of the commonest are the swallowing of burning coals, setting oneself free from a cord by which one is bound, etc.” There is also nothing new about the pranks of the spirits in our spiritualistic seances: “Sometimes the spirits are mischievous. In the movable tents of the reindeer people an invisible hand will sometimes turn everything upside down and throw different objects about, such as snow, pieces of ice * * *,. The audience is strictly forbidden to make any attempts whatever to touch the ‘ spirits ’.” 7° THE SHAMAN—HIS MENTAL ATTITUDE The question is: Is the shaman himself convinced of the power of his*conjurations or is he a play actor, playing a comedy before the superstitious people? In general and a priori it may be said that the rise of so complex a phenomenon as shamanism can not be explained by mere trickery and deception. Only a profound belief in their calling could create the conviction in the people of the miraculous power of the shamans and endow them with the enor- mous influence which they enjoy among the Siberian tribes. “ You can not fool all the people all the time,” has its application also in this case. The fact that the shaman employs external devices and artifices to impress or even to deceive the spectators does not ex- clude the possibility of his earnest belief that he has intercourse with the spirits, is inspired by thesn and possesses mysterious power. It is the unanimous opinion of investigators and observers of the practices and psychology of wizards everywhere that truth and fiction are closely combined and inseparably blended into one wheole in this phenomenon. Just the intense conviction that the spirits speak and work through him may prompt the wizard to use external accessories and to change in good faith the tones of his voice to assist the work of the spirit and to suit its utterance. “ Nothing is more superficial,” says Reville, “than the opinion of those who see in the sorcerer of the uncivilized peoples only a charletan and a juggler. Without doubt he is strongly driven to the proneness in which charlatanism is not long in becoming in some manner fatal. But in reality, not only do all others around him believe in his superior powers, but he himself believes in them, because the states of hallucination, of ecstasies and mental overexcitement, which are not simulated, have for him as fer others the only explanation in the assumption of his intimate intercourse with the invisible spirit.” 2” Among the Yakuts, Sieroshevski says, “Some shamans are as pas- sionately devoted to their calline as drunkards to drink. One of "26 W, Bogoras, The Chuckchee, p. 438, quoted by Czaplicka, p. 232. *7 A. Reville, Histoire des Religions, II, 238. 434 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 them had severeal times been condemned (by the Russian authorities) to punishment, his professional drum and dress had been burned, his hair had been cut off, and }e had been compelled to make a number of obeisances and to fast. He remarked: ‘We do not carry on this calling without paying for it. Our masters (the spirits) keep a zealous watch over us, and woe betide us afterwards if we do not satisfy them; but we can not quit it; we can not cease to prac- tice shaman rites. Yet we do no evil.’”* On the whole,.it may be said that shamanism includes a truly religious element inasmuch as it confirms the thought that man de- pends on spiritual forces, and one may agree with Radloff that it “certainly promotes and sustains certain ethical endeavors.” And if it was not once “the common cuit of all the Turanian peoples” or even the “very earliest religion of the world,” as some are inclined to think, it seems certain to be a phenomenon of great antiquity and of relative primitiveness. 28 Sieroshevski-Sumner, 1. ¢., p. 102. EGYPT AS A FIELD FOR ANTHROPOLOGICAL RE- SEARCH? By Proressor P. E. NEWBERRY, M.A., O.B.E. When I received the honor of an invitation to preside at the An- thropological Section of the British Association my thoughts nat- urally turned to the subject of the presidential address, which, if I accepted the invitation, it would be my duty to prepare. On looking back over the addresses of past presidents of this section since its institution in 1884 I found that no one had dealt with Egypt as a field for anthropological research. It was because of this that I decided to accept the council’s invitation, and I am here to-day to bring before your notice some facts regarding the civiliza- tion of the country with which I have long been associated, and in which I have spent many years of my life. In 1897, when the British Association last met in this great city on the Mersey-side, Sir Arthur Evans occupied the presidential chair of this section, and the subject of his address was “The Eastern Question in Anthropology.” Surveying the early history of civilization as far as it was then known, he insisted that the ade- quate recognition of the Eastern background was essential to the right understanding of the Augean. He laid stress on the part which Crete had played in the first emancipation of the European genius, and pointed out that in Crete, far earlier than elsewhere, can be traced the vestiges of primeval intercourse with the Nile Valley. Nineteen years later, years that were extraordinarily pro- lifie in archeological discovery in every part of the Near East, Sir Arthur occupied the presidential chair of the British Association at Newcastle. He then addressed us on “ New archeological lights on the origins of civilization in Europe.” Referring to his epoch- making discoveries in Crete he said, “It is interesting to note that the first quickening impulse came to Crete from the Egyptian and not from the Oriental side; the Eastern factor in it is of compara- tively late appearance.” By that time Sir Arthur’s researches had 1 Address by the president of the Anthropological Section of the British Association for the Advancement of Science at the annual meeting in Liverpool, 1923. Reprinted by per- mission from the Proceedings of the Association. 435 436 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 led him to the “definite conclusion that cultural influences were already reaching Crete from beyond the Libyan Sea, before the be- ginning of the Egyptian Dynasties.” He further said “the impres- sion of a very active agency indeed is so strong that the possibility of some actual immigration into the island of the older Egyptian element due to the conquests of the first Pharaohs, can not be excluded.” I propose to-day to deal with some of the questions relating to the origins of the Egyptian civilization, and incidentally shall touch upon this Cretan problem. At the end of my address I shall very briefly refer to the much neglected modern Egyptians, and to the need there is to study them. Much has been written during the last 20 years about the origins of the Egyptian civilization, but there are some facts which I think have either escaped notice or have not been duly considered, and there are others upon which, in my opinion, insufficient stress has been laid. I am not going to deal with the physical characteristics of the people, for that is not my province. I shall confine myself to certain inferences that I believe can be drawn from the monuments of predynastic and dynastic times. It is generally agreed that the habits, modes of life, and occupa- tions of all communities are immediately dependent upon the fea- tures and products of the land in which they dwell. Any inquiry into Egyptian origins ought, therefore, to begin with the question, What were the physical conditions that prevailed in the Lower Nile Valley immediately preceding and during the rise of its civiliza- tion? Until this question is answered I do not think that we are in a position to deal with such important problems as, e. g., agriculture, architecture, shipbuilding, tool-making, or weaving. The first thing that we ought to know is what were the kinds of trees, plants, and animals that were to be found in Egypt in the wild state, and what was the economic value of the indigenous flora and fauna. We ought, in fact, to know what the country was like in pre-agricultural days. If there was no timber in the country, then it may, I think, be confidently said that the art of the carpenter did not originate in Egypt; that the architectural styles founded on wood construc- tion could not have arisen there; that the art of shipbuilding (at all events of building ships of wood) did not originate there. Simi- larly, if there were no incense-bearing trees or shrubs in the country, it is difficult to imagine that the ceremonial use of incense arose there. Again, the art of weaving presupposes the presence of sheep or goats for wool, or of flax for linen thread. All these kinds of problems depend upon the natural products of a country, or they did so depend in the early days of civilization. We are accustomed to regard Egypt as a paradise, as the most fertile country in the world, where, if we but scratch the soil and EGYPT—NEWBERRY 437 seatter seed, we have only to await and gather the harvest. The Greeks spoke of Egypt as the most fit place for the first generations of men, for there, they said, food was always ready at hand, and it took no labor to secure an abundant supply. But there can be no doubt that the Egypt of to-day is a very different place from the Egypt of pre-agricultural times. There has been a great but gradual change in the physical condition of the whole country. In the mortuary chapels of tombs of the Old and Middle Kingdoms, as well as in many of the Empire, are scenes of papyrus swamps and reed marshes; in these swamps and marshes are figured the animals and birds that then frequented them. Among the animals are the hippopotamus and the wild boar, the crocodile, the ibis, and a great variety of water fowl. These animals, and some of the birds, have now disappeared from the region north of the First Cataract. Only very recently has the crocodile become extinct north of Aswan. It was still occasionally seen in the Delta as late as the middle of the eighteenth century, and it was fairly plentiful in Upper Egypt up to the middle ef the nineteenth century, but it is now rarely, if ever, seen north of Wadi Halfa. It is the same with the hippopotamus. In the twelfth century this mammal still frequented the Damietta branch of the Nile, and two specimens were actually killed near Damietta by an Italian surgeon in the year 1600.2. In the Dongola Province of Nubia it was very common at the beginning of last cen- tury, and Burckhardt states that is was then a terrible plague there on account of its voracity. In 1812 several hippopotami passed the Second Catarac; and made their appearance at Wadi Halfa and Derr, while one was actually seen at Darfwi, a day’s march north of Aswan.* The wild boar is apparently now extinct in Egypt, but specimens were shot in the Delta and in the region of the Wadi Natriin during last century. The ibis has gradually disappeared from the Lower Nile Valley, where it was once so common. ‘The last specimen of this bird recorded in Egypt was shot in 1877 in Lake Menzaleh. It is sometimes seen in Lower Nubia, but has now en- tirely disappeared from Egypt proper. Much is known about the ancient fauna of the desert wadies from the paintings and sculptured scenes in the tombs of the Old and Middle Kingdoms and of the Empire. On the walls of many of these tombs are depicted hunting scenes, and among the wild animals figured in them are the lion, leopard, Barbary sheep, wild ass, wild ox, hartebeest, oryx, ibex, addax, dorcas gazelle, fallow deer, giraffe, 2 Buffon’s Hist. Nat., Vol. XII, 1764, p. 24. 8 Burckhardt, Travels in Nubia, 1819, p. 67. 4For a characteristic hunting scene of the Pyramid Age see Borchardt, Grabdenkmal, des Kénigs Sahure; for one of the Middle Kingdom, Newberry, El Bersheh I, Plate VII. 20397—253——29 438 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 and ostrich. As several of these animals are not now known in Egypt it has been argued that the scenes do not faithfully represent the ancient fauna of the country. But I can see no reason to doubt that the scenes depict actual hunts that took place in the Arabian and Libyan Deserts not far from the localities in which the tombs figuring them are found. There is some corroborative evidence in the references in the ancient literature to the hunting of the wild animals that frequented Egypt. Thutmose IV., for example, hunted the lion and ibex in the desert plateau near Memphis: * Amenhotep III. killed 102 fierce lions during the first ten years of his reign,® and in his second regnal year he hunted wild cattle in the desert near Keneh;* he saw there a herd of 170, and of these he and his hunts- men captured 96. The desert to the east of Kift was a famous hunting-ground at the time of the Eighteenth Dynasty. At the present day all but one of the animals represented in these ancient hunting scenes are found in the Nubian Deserts to the south of Egypt. ‘The exception is important; it is the fallow deer which be- longs to the Holarctic, not to the Ethiopian, zoological zone. A1- though most of the animals that were hunted by the dynastic Egyp- tians have now disappeared from their northern home, many have been recorded in recent years as occurring in the Arabian and Libyan Deserts. We can, in fact, follow them gradually receding south- wards. The dorcas gazelle is still common in both deserts, and the addax sometimes occurs in the region of the Wadi Natriin. The ibex is occasionally seen on the mountains northeast of Keneh. The Barbary sheep (Ammotragus tragelaphus) was observed by Dr. Schweinfurth in 1878 in the Wadi Shietun which opens on the Nile below Ekhmim.”?' The wild ass was recorded by James Burton in 1823 in the desert northeast of Keneh; he remarks that then the Arabs of this part of the desert let their female donkeys loose to be served by the wild males. Later, in 1828, Linant de Bellefonds saw many wild asses in the region between Darawi and Berber; they were, he says, often trapped by the Bisharin, who used the flesh as food. During the first half of the eighteenth century the ostrich frequented the desert near Suez.? A hundred years later it was re- ported to be numerous in the Arabian Desert opposite Esneh, and there is a wadi, some distance southeast of Aswan, that is called by the Arabs Wadi Naam, “the Wadi of Ostriches.” In the Libyan Desert the bird was fairly common in the eighteenth century. W. G. Browne, who traveled along the coast west of Alexandria in 1792, ’ The Sphinx Stela, 1, 5. ® Newberry Scarabs, Plates XXXIII-IV. 7 Gironale l’Esploratore, anno II, fase. 4. ® Brit. Mus., Add. MS., 25666. ® Burckhardt, Travels in Syria, 1822, p. 461. EGYPT—-N EWBERRY 439 states that tracks of the ostrich were frequently seen, and he noted also that the bird sometimes appeared in the neighborhood of the Wadi Natriin.” Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire in 1799 reported that it was then common in the mountains southwest of Alexandria."* In 1837 Lord Lindsay saw the ostrich near Esneh,”” but the northern limit of the bird is now very much further south. The lion is mentioned by Sonnini at the end of the eighteenth century as one of the larger carnivora which then approached the confines of Egypt, but did not long remain in the country. Now the appearance of all these animals in Egypt, and in its bordering deserts in dynastic times presupposes that the vegetation of the wadies was much more abundant then than now, and this again presupposes a greater rainfall than we find at present. The dis- appearance of the dynastic fauna is not, however, entirely due to the change in climatic conditions. The Arabs have a saying that it was the camel that drove the lion out of Egypt, and this is doubtless true. The lion depends mainly on the antelope tribe for its food supply. The antelopes, on the other hand, depend for their sus- tenance on herbage and grass, and this has been consumed to a great extent by the camels, which, since Arab times, have been bred in great numbers in the Arabian and Nubian Deserts. It is certain that the advent of the camel was a factor in driving southward many of the wild animals that were at one time so common in Egypt, but are now characteristic of the Ethiopian region. The characteristic wild trees of the dynastic flora of Egypt, as we know from the remains of them that have been found in the ancient tombs, were the heglik (Balanites wgytiaca), the seyal (Acacia seyal), the sint (Acacia nilotica), the tamarisk (Z’amarix nilotica), the nebak (Zizyphus spina-Christi), the sycamore-fig (Ficus syco- morus): and the moringa (Moringa aptera). 'The dom palm (y- phene thebaica) and the Dellach palm (7. argun) were also com- mon. The heglik does not now grow wild north of Aswan, and of the other trees, only the saint and the tamarisk are really common in the Lower Nile Valley. All these trees, however, now grow in abundance in the region north of the Atbara, and it is here, in what is called the Taka country, that we find also the fauna that was once so abundant in more northerly regions. But if the fauna and flora of the Arabian and Libyan Deserts in dynastic times approached more closely to that now seen in the Taka country, we have to go further south again for the earliest pre- dynastic fauna and flora of the Lower Nile Valley. This predynastic fauna is particularly interesting, because, in addition to several of 2° W. G. Browne, Travels in Africa, &c. 1 Mém. sur l’Egypte, Vol. I, p. 79. % Letters on Egypt, &e., ed. 1866, p. 107. 440 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 the animals already mentioned as occurring in dynastic times, we meet with others, such as the elephant,“ the kudu (Strepiceros kudu),\* the gerenuk gazelle (Lithocranius walleri), a species of Sus ?° (which is certainly not the wild boar, i. e., Sus scrofa), and the marabou stork (Leptoptilus crumenifer).° From the nature and habits of these mammals and birds it is evident that there must have been a considerable rainfall in the Valley of the Nile north of Aswan when they frequented Egypt. This evidence sanctions the conclu- sion that a material change in the character of the climate of North- eastern Africa, so far as its rainfall is concerned, has taken place since predynastic days. The flora of the valley of the Lower Nile also points to the same conclusion. Doctor Schweinfurth’ has drawn attention to the fact that many plants, now known in Egypt only under cultivation, are found in the primeval swamps and forests of the White Nile. He not unreasonably draws the inference that in ages long ago the entire Nile Valley exhibited a vegetation harmoniz- ing in its character throughout much more than at present. The papyrus swamps and reed marshes that lined the Lower Nile Valley in pre-agricultural days have been changed into peaceful fields, in which now grow the cereal grains, wheat and barley, and the other crops that have made Egypt famous as an agricultural country. It was the canalization of the valley, carried out by man, and the con- sequent draining of the swamps and marshes that displaced the an- cient flora from its northern seat, and made it, as at the present day, only to be found hundreds of miles higher up the river. The land of Egypt has, in fact, been drained by man; each foot of ground has been won by the sweat of his brow with difficulty from the swamp, until at last the wild plants and animals which once possessed it have been completely exterminated in it. The agricultural Egypt of modern times is as much a gift of man as it is of the Nile. I have dwelt at some length on the ancient fauna and flora because 1 want to bring out as clearly as I can two facts concerning the Kgypt of pre-agricultural days—the Egypt of the time before man began to win the alluvial soil for the purposes of agriculture. (1) The aspect of the Lower Nile must have been very different from what it is now; it was a continuous line of papyrus swamps and marshes inhabited by hippopotami, wild boars, crocodiles, and im- mense flocks of wild fowl of all kinds; it was singularly destitute of trees or plants that could be put to any useful purpose, and timber trees were non-existent; its physical conditions resembled 18 Journal of Egyptian Archeology, Vol. V, p. 234, Pilate XXXIII. 44 Petrie, Abydos I, Plate L. 15 Lydekker, Brit. Mus., Guide to the Great Game Animals, 1913, Plate 39, and Figures mili aes #6 Journal of Egyptian Archeology, Vol. V, Piate XXXIII, p. 227. 4 Schweinfurth, Heart of Africa, Vol. I. p. 69. EGYPT—NEWBERRY 441 those prevailing on the banks of the White Nile to-day. (2) The deserts bordering the Lower Nile Valley on both sides were much more fertile, and their fauna and flora resembled that of the Taka country in Upper Nubia. Of the animals that frequented the wadies only the ass and the wild ox were capable of domestication. If man inhabited Egypt in pre-agricultural times—and there is no valid reason to suppose that he did not—he probably lived a wan- dering life, partly hunter, partly herdsman, in the fertile wadies that bordered the valley, only going down to the river to fish or to fowl or to hunt the hippopotamus. In the valley itself there was certainly no pasture land for supporting herds of large or small cattle. It was probably also in these wadies that agri- culture was first practiced in Egypt. Even at the present day a considerable number of Ababdeh roam the wadies of the Arabian Desert between Keneh and the Red Sea, where, at certain seasons of the year, there is fair pasturage for small flocks of sheep and goats. I have myself seen many of these people in the course of several journeys that I have undertaken to the Red Sea coast. Some of these nomads sow a little barley and millet after a rain- storm, and then pitch their tents for a while till the grain grows, ripens, and can be gathered. They then move on again with their little flocks. What the Ababdeh do on a very small scale, the Hadendoa of the Taka country do on a much greater one. If we turn to the Taka country we see there people living under much the same physical conditions as those which must have pre vailed in the Arabian and Libyan deserts in early times. The inhabitants of the Taka country are Hamite, and, as Professor Seligman has pointed out,!* the least modified of these people are physically identical with the predynastic Egyptians of Upper Egypt. I would suggest that they, like the fauna and flora of ancient Egypt, receded southward under the pressure of the advance of civilization, and that the physical conditions of the country have preserved them to a great extent in their primitive life and pursuits. The picture of the Taka as Burckhardt draws it would, I believe, describe almost equally well the earliest predynastic Egyptians. This coun- try, called £1 Gash by its inhabitants, has been described by Burck- bardt.1® In his day the people there were in the transition stage between the pastoral nomad and the agriculturist. It was a fertile and populous region. About the end of June large torrents coming from the south and southwest pour over the country, and in the space of a fortnight or so cover the whole surface with a sheet of water, varying in depth from 2 to 3 feet. These torrents were said to lose themselves in the eastern plain after inundating the 18 ¢, G. Seligman, Journal of the Anthropological Institute, Vol. XUIII, p. 595. * Burckhardt, Travels in Nubia, p. 387, et sea. 449 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 country, but the waters remained upward of a month in Taka, and on subsiding left a thick slime or mud upon the surface. Imme- diately after the inundation was imbibed the Bedawin sowed their seed upon the mud, without any previous preparation whatever. The inundation was usually accompanied by heavy rains, which set in a short time before the inundation, and became most copious dur- ing its height. The rains lasted some weeks longer than the inun- dation; they were not incessant, but fell in heavy showers at short intervals. Inthe winter and spring the people of Taka obtained their water from deep wells, extremely copious, dispersed all over the coun- try, but at a considerable distance from each other. The people ap- peared to be ignorant of tillage; they had no regular fields, and the millet, their only grain, was sown among thorny trees. After the harvest was gathered the peasants returned to their pastoral occupa- tions. When Burckhardt visited this region in the hottest part of the year, just before the period of the rains, the ground was quite parched up, and he saw but few cattle; the herds were sent to the Eastern Desert, where they fed in the mountains and fertile valleys, and where springs of water were found. After the inundation they were brought back to the plain. The quantity of cattle, Burckhardt be- lieved, would have been greater than it was had it not been for the wild beasts which inhabited the district and destroyed great num- bers of them. The most common of these wild animals were the lion and the leopard. The flocks of the encampment were driven in the evening into the area within the circle of tents, which were them- selves surrounded by a thorny inclosure. Great numbers of asses were kept by all these Bedawin. ‘They also possessed many camels. The trees are described as being full of pigeons. The Hadendoa were the only inhabitants of Taka seen by Burckhardt. Each tribe had a couple of large villages built in the desert on the border of the cultivable soil, where some inhabitants were always to be found, and to which the population, excepting those who tended the cattle in the interior of the desert, repaired during the rainy season. After the waters had subsided they spread over the whole district, pitching their camps in those places where they hoped for the best pasturage, and moved about from month tc month, until the sun parched up the herbage. The settlers in the villages meantime sowed the ground adjoining the neighboring desert. The camps consisted of huts formed of mats; there were also a few huts with walls, resembling those in the countries of the Nile, but smaller. Even the settlers, however, preferred living in the open under sheds to inhabiting these close dwellings. It has often been stated that civilization in Egypt spread from the south, and considerable stress has been laid upon the fact that so many predynastic and early dynastic remains have been found in EGYPT—NEWBERRY 443 Upper Egypt in the region between Edfu and Thinis, especially at Hierakonpolis and Naqada, and north of Naqada, in the neighbor- hood of Abydos. Opposite Edfu is a desert route leading to the Red Sea; at Kiaft, opposite Naqada, is the beginning of the road leading to Kosér, the port on the Red Sea. It has been thought that the people who brought culture to Egypt reached the Nile Valley by one or by both these routes from a “God’s Land” situated somewhere down the Red Sea coast. But throughout the whole history of Egypt culture has always come from the north and spread south- ward. From a study of the monuments of the First Dynasty that had been found at Abydos and elsewhere in Upper Egypt I ventured, nearly twenty years ago,” to suggest the existence in predynastic times of a Delta civilization which, in culture, was far advanced be- yond that of Upper Egypt, and I pointed out that it was probably to a Delta civilization that the dynastic Egyptians owed their system of writing. I was led to this conclusion by the following facts. Although many predynastic cemeteries had been thoroughly explored in Upper Egypt, no grave had yielded a single fragment of hiero- glyphic writing. The only inference that can be drawn from this is that hieroglyphic writing was unknown, or at all events unpracticed, by the inhabitants of Upper Egypt before dynastic times. On the other hand, the discoveries at Naqada, Hierakonpolis, and Abydor had shown us that all the essential features of the Egyptian systen of writing were fully developed at the beginning of the First Dynasty. Hieroglyphic signs were already in full use as simple phonograms, and their employment as phonetic complements was well established. Determinative signs are found beginning to ap pear in these early writings, but, as Erman and Griffith have noticed. even as late as the Fifth Dynasty, their use was very restricted in the monumental inscriptions, although they were common in the cursive and freely written texts of the Pyramids. At the very beginning of the First Dynasty the numerical system was complete up to millions, and the Egyptians had already worked out a solar year of 365 days. This was indeed a remarkable achievement. These facts are of great significance, for it is clear that the hiero- glyphic system of writing, as we find it at the beginning of the First Dynasty, must have been the growth of many antecedent ages, and yet no trace of the early stages of its evolution has been found on Upper Egyptian soil. There is no clear evidence, he wever, that the system was borrowed from any country outside Egypt; the fauna and ficra of its characters give it every appearance. of being indigenous. It is apparent, therefore, that we must seek the cradle of the Egyp- 22 Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archeology, February, 1906, p. 69. 444 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 tian system of hieroglypric writing elsewhere than in Upper Egypt, and as the fauna and flora of its characters are distinctly Egyptian the presumption is that it must be located to the Delta. An import- ant indication as to the original home of Egyptian writing is given by the signs which, in historic times, were used to designate the peints of the compass. The sign for “east” was a drop-shaped ingot of metal upon a sacred perch, and this was the cult object of a clan living in predynastic times in the Eastern Delta. The sign for “west” was an ostrich feather placed in a semicircular stand, and this was the cult object of the people of the Western Delta. The sign for “south” was a scirpus reed; this was the cult object of a clan which dwelt on the east bank of the Nile a little above the mcdern village of Sharona, in Middle Egypt. The country south of the apex of the Delta was known as 7a Shema, “Reed Land.” It must, therefore, have been at some point north of the apex of the Delta that the scirpus reed was first used to designate the south. It must also have been somewhere in the Central Delta that the cult objects of the peoples of the Eastern and Western Delta were first used to designate “east” and “west.” For the Delta being the early home of writing another fact has to be taken into consideration. Thoth, the Ibis god, was to the Egyp- tians the god of writing, and it was to him that they attributed its invention. The principal seat of his worship in historic times was Hermopolis, in Middle Egypt. But Thoth’s original habitat was situated in the northeast corner of the Delta, where, in pre- dynastic times, had resided an Ibis clan. The tradition that named Thoth as the god and inventor of writing would, therefore, point Deltawards. This tradition is significant also in another way. Although we can not doubt that the Egyptian system of writing was evolved in the Delta, the germs of writing may have come into Egypt from Western Asia via this northeast corner of the country. In this connection it may be pointed out that the hieroglyphic signs for “right” and “left” were the same as those for “west” and “east”; the Egyptians who evolved the hieroglyphic system of writing orientated themselves facing south. It is remarkable that so little is known about the early history of the Delta. But few excavations have been carried out there, and noth- ing of predynastic, or early dynastic, times, has, so far, been brought to light from the country north of Cairo. We do know, however, that before the arrival of the Falcon kings from Hierakonpolis in the south, Middle and Lower Egypt had been, probably for many centuries, united under one scepter, and that before these two parts of the country were united there had been a Delta Kingdom which had had its capital at Sais. The names of some of these early kings are preserved on the Palermo fragment of the famous Annals Tablet, EGYPT—-NEWBERRY 445 and the list there given would alone be enough to prove how ancient the Delta civilization must have been. There was certainly nothing comparable with it in Upper Egypt in those far-off days. What were the physical conditions prevailing in the Delta and in the regions to the east and west of it immediately preceding Menes’ arrival in Lower Egypt? For the eastern side the evidence is ex- ceedingly scanty, but there is one fact which is significant. The chief god of the eastern nomes of the Delta in the Pyramid Age was Anzety, a pastoral deity who was the prototype of Osiris. He is represented as a man holding in one hand the shepherd’s crook, and in the other the goatherd’s ladanisterion. There can be little doubt, therefore, that in the eastern Delta there lived a pastoral people who possessed flocks of sheep and goats, and this is evidence of a certain amount of grassland. In the Central Delta at the same period there lived a series of clans, among which a Bull Clan was predominant. In historic times in Egypt the ox is often figured roaming in papyrus and reed marshes, and it may be that the Cen- tral Delta marshes supported herds of domesticated cattle. Much more is known about the western side of the Delta at the time of Menes. It formed, I believe, part of what was called Tehenu-land, at all events this name was given to the region immediately to the west of the Canopic branch of the Nile. There can be no doubt that this part of the country was a very fertile and prosperous region in the period immediately preceding the First Dynasty. Its name signifies “ Olive-land,” and we actually see these trees figured, with the name of the country beside them, on a predynastic Slate Palette; on this Palette, above the trees, are shown oxen, asses, and sheep of the type later known as ser-sheep. It was Menes,” the Falcon King of Upper Egypt, who conquered the people of Tehenu- land. This conquest is recorded on a small ivory cylinder that was found at Hierakonpolis. Another record of the Southerner’s triumph over these people is preserved on his famous Slate Palette; here the Upper Egyptian King is depicted smiting their chieftain, while on the verso of the same Palette is the scene of a festival at the Great Port, which was perhaps situated near the Canopic branch of the Nile. The mace head of Menes, which is now in the Ash- molean Museum at Oxford, has a scene carved upon it which shows the king assuming the red crown of Sais, and the inscription accom- panying it records that he had captured 120,000 prisoners, 400,000 oxen, and 1,422,000 goats. This immense number of oxen and goats is clear evidence that the northwestern Delta and the region to the west of it (Tehenu-land) must have included within its boundaries 2 That Narmer was Menes is proved by a sealing published by Petrie in Royal Tombs of the Earliest Dynasties, Plate XIII, 93. His conquest of Tehenu-land is recorded on an ivory cylinder published by Quibell, Hierakonpolis I, Plate XV, 7. 20397T—25 30 446 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 very extensive grasslands. Several centuries after Menes, Sahure, a king of the Fifth Dynasty, captured in Tehenu-land 123,440 oxen, 233,400 asses, 232,413 goats, and 243,688 sheep. Senusret I. also captured in the same region “cattle of all kinds without number.” This again shows how fertile the country must have been at the beginning of the Middle Kingdom. ‘The history of this part of the Delta is most obscure. During the period that elapsed from the end of the Third Dynasty to the beginning of the Twenty-third, when Tefnakht appears upon the scene, we have hardly any in- formation about it. What was happening at Sais and other great cities in the northwest of Egypt during the period from 2900 to 720 B. C.? There is an extraordinary lacuna in our knowledge of this part of the country. The people living there were certainly of Libyan descent, for even as late as the time of Herodotus the inhabitants deemed themselves Libyans, not Egyptians; and the Greek historian says that they did not even speak the Egyptian language. The predynastic people who inhabited the greater part of the Lower Nile Valley were apparently of the same stock as these Libyans. There is a certain class of decorated pottery which has been found in predynastic graves from Gizeh in the north to Kostamneh in the south. On this decorated pottery are figured boats with cult-objects raised on poles. Altogether some 170’ vases of this type are known, and on them are 300 figures of boats with cult-signs. Of these, 124 give the “Harpoon” ensign; 78 the “Mountain” ensign; and 20 the “Crossed Arrows” ensign. These cult-objects all survived into historic times; the “ Harpoon” was the cult-object of the people of the Mareotis Lake region; the “ Mountain” and “ Crossed Arrows” were the cult-objects of the people dwelling on the right bank of the Canopic branch of the Nile. Thus it will be seen that out of 300 boats figured on vases found in graves in the Lower Nile Valley south of Cairo, 222 belong to cults which can be located in the northwestern corner of the Delta. Twenty-two boats bear the “Tree” ensign, which was the early cult object of the people of Herakleopolis, a city just south of the Faytm. Ten bear the “Thunderbolt” ensign of Ekhmim. The “Falcon” on a curved perch appears on three boats, and this ensign undoubtedly represents the Falcon deity of Hierakonpolis. At the beginning of the historic period the cult objects of the people of the northwestern Delta included (1) the “ Harpoon,” (2) the figure- of-eight “Shield with Crossed Arrows,” (3) the “Mountain,” and probably (4) the “ Double Axe,” 7? and (5) a “ Dove or Swallow.” 22 With the exception of the “ Harpoon” all these cult objects are also found in Crete, a fact which is significant in view of Sir Arthur The Cults of the Double Axe and of the Dove or Swallow are found on monuments of the Pyramid Age. EGYPT—-NEWBERRY 447 Evans’s remark, quoted at the beginning of my address, to the effect that he considers the possibility of some actual immigration into the island of the older Egyptian element due to the first Pharaohs. The “Harpoon,” it should be noted, is the prototype of the bident, and later, of the trident of the Libyan god Poseidon. Upon the mace-head of Menes, the king is represented assuming the crown of Neith of Sais. This is the earliest representation of the famous Sed festival which is generally held to be a survival, in a much weakened form, of the ceremonial killing of the king, its essen- tial feature being regarded as the identification of the king with the god Osiris. The festival was, I believe, of Libyan origin, and, at all events in its origin, it was not connected in any way with Osiris. On this mace-head the Upper Egyptian conqueror is shown seated under a canopy upon a dais raised high above the ground. He is clad in a long, close-fitting garment; upon his head is the red crown of Sais, and in one of his hands is the so-called flail. Behind him is a group of officials, and upon either side of the dais are two fan bearers. In front of the king is a princess seated in a palanquin, and behind her are three men figured in the act of running. This is the earliest of a long series of representations of the festival, and we can not doubt that the particular ceremony here depicted was the central one around which, in later times, the other ceremonies that we know were con- nected with it were grouped. There is no indication here of any ceremonial killing of the king, and the red crown which Menes wears is not characteristic of Osiris but of the goddess Neith of Sais. In the Mortuary Temple of Neuserre at Abusir, in the Temple of Amenhotep III, at Soleb in Nubia, and in the Temple of Osorkon III, at Bubastis, the Sed festival is represented in far greater detail, but still there is no indication of the ceremonial killing of the king, or of his identification with Osiris. These later scenes show that the festival was a great national one that was attended by all the great dignitaries of state, and by the priests of the gods from al! the prin- cipal cities of Egypt. In these later representations the king’s daughters and the running men play an important part. Inscrip- tions accompanying the scenes at Soleb** and Bubastis state that the king at this festival assumed the protection of Egypt and of the sacred women of the Temple of Amon. The Queen at these periods of Egyptian history was the High Priestess of Amon and the Head of the Harim of the god. An important reference to the festival is found in the inscription of Piankhy. This Ethiopian king, in his triumphant march from Thebes toward the Delta, had captured Hermopolis, the capital of a petty king named Namlot (a Libyan Dynast), and when Piankhy made his entry into the city he was 231 owe my knowledge of the greater part of the Soleb scenes to Prof. Breasted, who kindly showed me unpublished drawings of them when I visited him in Chicago in 1921. 448 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 acclaimed by the people, who prayed that he would celebrate there a Sed festival. “His Majesty proceeded to the palace of Namlot, and entered every chamber. He caused that there be brought to him the king’s wives and the king’s daughters. They saluted His Majesty in the fashion of women,” but the Ethiopian says that he would not turn his face to them, and he did not celebrate a Sed festival. The most important point in connection with the festival is that at it the king assumed the protection of the land of Egypt. It was a kind of coronation festival. On Menes’s mace head the king is shown assuming the red crown, while before him is the princess of the country that he had conquered, and below her is a statement of the number of prisoners and cattle captured by him in her country. | Now what were the rules that regulated the succession to the king- ship in Ancient Egypt? It is often assumed that the kingship was hereditary in the male line, and that the son regularly succeeded his father on the throne. But we know that many Egyptian kings were not the sons of their predecessors. We also know that at some pe- riods, at all events, the sovereign based his claim to the kingship upon the fact that he had married the hereditary princess. Harmhab, at the beginning of the Nineteenth Dynasty, tells us that he proceeded to the palace at Thebes, and there, in the Great House (pr-wr), married the hereditary princess. Then the gods, “the lords of the House of Flame (pr-nsrt), were in exultation because of his corona- tion, and they prayed Amon that he would grant to Harmhab the Sed festivals of Re.” It was after his marriage to the princess that Harmhab’s titulary was fixed. The reference to the House of Flame is interesting because the kindling of fire was an important ceremony at the Sed festival; it is figured at Soleb, and there a priestess called “the Divine Mother of Suit” plays an important role. This priestess may be compared with Vesta, who always bore the official title of “Mother,” never that of “ Virgin.” It is unnecessary for me to speak of the King’s fire and the vestal virgins whose duty it was to keep the perpetual fire burning; the material has been col- lected by Sir James Frazer. This ceremony of kindling fire suggests that the festival may have been a marriage festival, and the running men figured on the mace head of Menes, and in later representa- tions, also points to this interpretation of it. There can be little doubt that it was a Libyan festival; at all events it is first found when Menes assumed the red crown of Neith of Sais. When Menes had conquered the northwestern Delta, he married the hereditary princess of the country. She was probably the eldest daughter, or perhaps the widow, of the Lower Egyptian king whose country he had seized. Marriage with the king’s widow or eldest daughter car- ried the throne with it as a matter of right, and Menes’s marriage, EGYPT—-NEWBERRY 449 we can well believe, was a marriage of policy in order to clinch by a legal measure his claim to that crown which he had already won for himself in battle. Sir James Frazer has noted that sometimes apparently the right to the hand of the princess and to the throne has been determined by a race. The Libyan king Antzus placed his daughter Barce at the end of a race course; her noble suitors, both Libyans and foreigners, ran to her as the goal, and the one who touched her first gained her in marriage. The Alitemnian Libyans awarded the kingdom to the fleetest runner. According to tradition, the earliest games at Olympia were held by Endymion, who set his sons to run a race for the kingdom. In all the ceremonies connected with the Sed festival I can see no feature that suggests the Osirifi- cation of the king. When he wears the red crown he assumes con- trol of Lower Egypt; when he wears the white crown he assumes control of Upper Egypt. There is one further point connected with the western side of the Delta that must be noted. Glazeware (and glass) in Egyptian is called tehent,; this was one of the chief articles of export of Tehenu-land. Just as we use the word “china” for a kind of porcelain which first came to us from China, so the Egyp- tians called glass ¢hn.t after the country of the northwestern Delta from which they derived it. Here in this western side of Lower Egypt is an almost wholly unexplored field for the anthropologist. I have already referred to the pastoral deity Anzety, who, in the Pyramid Age, was chief of the nomes of the Eastern Delta. Among all the nome gods he is the only one that is figured in human form; he stands erect holding in his right hand the shepherd’s crook and in his left the goatherd’s ladanisterion. On his head is a bi- cornate object that is connected with goats, and on his chin is a false beard curled at the tip. He was not an ox herd, but a shepherd and goatherd. In later times, the figure of this deity, in hieroglyphic writing, is regularly used as the determinative sign of the word ity, “ruling prince,” “sovereign,” a term that is only applied to the living king. In the Pyramid texts, Anzety is entitled “Head of the Eastern nomes,” and these included the ancient one of the Oxyrrhynchus fish, where, later, the ram or goat was the chief cult animal. Neither the domesticated sheep nor the goat can be reckoned as Egyptian in origin; they both came into Egypt from Western Asia. We have, therefore, in this pastoral deity Anzety evidence of immigration from the west. The only wild sheep inhabiting the continent of Africa is the Barbary sheep, and this animal was not the ancestor of any domesticated breed. Both the sheep and the goat are essentially mountain animals, though sheep in the wild state do not as a rule frequent such rugged and precipitous ground as their near relatives the goats, but prefer more open country. Sheep browse in short grass; goats feed upon the 450 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 young shoots of shrubs and trees. The domesticated goat is gen- erally recognized as descended from the wild goat (Capra hircus aegagrus) of Syria, Asia Minor, Persia, and the Mediterranean Isles. Two breeds of domesticated sheep were known to the Egyptians. The sheep of the earliest historical period down to the Middle Kingdom was a long-legged variety (Ovis longipes), with horns projecting transversely and twisted. This breed was the only one known in the earlier periods of Egyptian history; it was the predominant breed in the Middle Kingdom, but soon after the be- ginning of the Empire it appears to have become rare or extinct in Egypt, and was superseded by a variety with horns curving for- wards in a subcircular coil. Both varieties of domesticated sheep, according to Lydekker, were introduced into Egypt through Syria. Among the cult-objects of the cities over which the god Anzety presided were two, which, I believe, can definitely be referred to trees that were not indigenous to the soil of Egypt but to Syria. One of these cult objects is the so-called “Ded column.” This was one of the holiest symbols of the Egyptian religion. It has four crossbars at the top like superposed capitals. Sometimes a pair of human eyes are shown upon it, and the pillar is draped; sometimes a human form is given to it by carving a grotesque face on it, rob- ing the lower part, crowning the top with ram’s horns, and adding two arms, the hands holding the crook and ladanisterion. Frazer has suggested that this object might very well be a conventional representation of a tree stripped of its leaves. That it was, in fact, a lopped tree is, I believe, certain: In the Pyramid texts it is said of Osiris, “'Thou receivest thy two oars, the one of juniper (wan), the other of sd-wood, and thou ferriest over the Great Green Sea.” The determinative sign of the word sd is a tree of precisely the same form as the Ded column that is figured on early Egyptian monuments, i. e., it has a long, thin stem. This tree-name only occurs in inscriptions of the Pyramid Age, and it is mentioned as a wood that was used for making chairs, tables, boxes, and various other articles of furniture. In the passage quoted from the Pyramid texts it is mentioned together with juniper, and the latter was em- ployed in cabinet-making, etc., at all periods of Egyptian history. There is no evidence that juniper ever grew in Egypt, but we have numerous records of the wood being imported from the Lebanon region. The sd-tree, as we see from the determinative sign of the name, had horizontally spreading branches, and was evidently some species of conifer. No conifers, however, are known from Egypt; the sd-wood must, therefore, have been of foreign importa- tion. As it is mentioned with juniper, which we know came to Egypt from Syria, it is possible that it came from the same region. Among the trees of the Lebanon there are four that have hori- — EGYPT—-NEWBERRY 451 zontally spreading branches. These are the cedar (Cedrus libant), the Cilician fir, the Pinus laricio, and the horizontal-branched cypress (Cupressus sempervirens var. horizontales). Much mis- ‘conception at present exists with regard to the Lebanon cedar, be- cause the name “cedar” is applied to a large number of woods which are quite distinct from it, and the wood which we generally call cedar (e. g., the cedar of our “cedar” pencils) is not true cedar at all, but Virginian juniper. The wood of Cedrus libani is light and spongy, of a reddish-white color, very apt to shrink and warp badly, by no means durable, and in no sense is it valuable. Sir Joseph Hooker, who visited the Lebanon in 1860, notes that the lower slopes of that mountain region bordering the sea were covered with magnificient forests of pine, juniper, and cypress, “so that there was little inducement for the timber hewers of ancient times to ascend 6,000 feet through 20 miles of a rocky mountain valley to obtain cedar wood which had no particular quality to recom- mend it. The cypress, pine, and tall, fragrant juniper of the Lebanon, with its fine red heartwood, would have been far more prized on every account than the cedar.” The sd-tree was, I believe, the horizontal-branched cypress which is common in the wild state. In the Middle Ages this tree was believed to be the male tree, while the tapering conical-shaped cypress was considered to be the female. This is an interesting fact, because there is some evidence to show that the tapering variety was the symbol of Hathor-Isis, while the horizontal-branched one was the symbol of Osiris. In the Pyramid Age there are several records of the priests of the Ded column. They were called “priests of the venerable Ded column.” The seat of the cult was Dedu, or, as it was sometimes called, Pr-Wsr, “the House of Osiris,” the Greek Busiris in the Central Delta. At this city was celebrated annually a great festival in honor of Osiris. It lasted many days, and the culmination of a long series of ceremonies was the raising of the Ded column into an erect position. Osiris is intimately connected with this column; the Egyptians called it his backbone. In the myth of Osiris, as recorded by Plutarch, a pillar played an important part. Plutarch says that the coffer containing the body of Osiris was washed up by the sea at Byblos, the port of the Lebanon, and that a tree grew up and concealed the coffin within itself. This sacred tree was cut down by Isis and presented to the people of Byblos wrapped in a linen cloth, and anointed with myrrh like a corpse. It therefore represented the dead god, and this dead god was Osiris. Not far from Dedu, the city of Osiris in the Delta, was Hebyt, the modern Behbeyt el Hagar. Its sacred name was Neter. The Romans called it Iseum, or Isidis oppidum. It was the ancient seat of Isis worship in Egypt, and the ruins of its temple to that goddess 452 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 still cover several acres of ground in the neighborhood. On the analogy of other sacred names of cities the primitive cult-object here was the ntr-pole. This was not an axe as has so often been sup- posed, but a pole that was wrapped around with a band of colored cloth, tied with cord halfway up the stem, with the upper part of the band projecting asa flap at top. Dr. Griffith conjectured that it was a fetish, e. g.,a bone carefully wound round with cloth, but he noted that “this idea is not as yet supported by any ascertained facts.” As a hieroglyph this wrapped-up pole expresses ntr, “ god,” “ divine,” in which sense it is very common from the earliest times; gradually it became determinative of divinity and of the divine names and ideographic of divinity. Another common ideograph of “god” in the Old Kingdom was the Falcon (Horus) upon a perch, and this sign was also employed as a determinative of divinity and of the names of individual gods; it even sometimes occurs as a determinative sign of the nér-pole, e. g. Pyramid Texts, 482. This use of the Fal- con indicates that in the early dynasties the influence of the Upper Egyptian Falcon god (Horus) was paramount. But there is reason for believing that the ntv-pole cult had at an earlier period been the predominant one among the writing people of the Delta; this, I think, is shown by the invariable use of the n¢fr-pole sign in the words for priest (Am-nir, “god’s servant”), and temple (Aé-ntr, “god’s house”). Now, on a label of King Aha of the First Dynasty there is a representation of the temple of Neith of Sais. Here two poles with triangular flags at top are shown on either side of the entrance. Later figures of the same temple show these poles with the rectangular flags precisely as we find in the nér-sign. A figure of the temple of Hershef on the Palermo Stone shows two poles with triangular flags, while a Fourth Dynasty drawing of the same temple shows the same poles with rectangular flags. We see, therefore, that the triangular-flagged pole equals the rectangular-flagged one, and that the nétr is really a pole or mast with flag. Poles of this kind were probably planted before the entrances to most early Egyptian temples, and the great flag masts set up before the pylons of the great temples of the Eighteenth and later dynasties are obviously sur- vivals of the earlier poles. The height and straightness of these poles prove that they can not have been produced by any native Egyptian tree; in the Empire flag staves were regularly imported from Syria; it is probable therefore that in the earlier times they were introduced from the same source. A well-known name for Syria and the east coast of the Red Sea, as well as of Punt, was Ta-ntr, “the land of the ntr-pole.” This was the region in which the primitive Semitic goddess Astarte was worshipped. In Canaan there was a goddess Ashera whose idol or symbol was the ashera pole. The names of Baal and Ashera are sometimes coupled pre- EGYPT—NEWBERRY 453 cisely as those of Baal and Astarte, and many scholars have inferred that Ashera was only another name of the great Semitic goddess Astarte. The ashera pole was an object of worship, for the prophets put it on the same line with the sacred symbols, such as Baal pillars; the ashera was, therefore, a sacred symbol, the seat of a deity, the mark of a divine presence. In late times these asherim did not ex- clusively belong to any one deity; they were erected to Baal as well as to Yahw. They were signposts set up to mark sacred places, and they were, moreover, draped. They correspond exactly to the ntr- poles of Egyptian historic times. I have noted that these nér-poles were tall and straight. What tree produced them? In Egyptian inscriptions there is often mentioned a tree named ¢r.t. It was oc- casionally planted in ancient Egyptian gardens, and specimens of it were to be seen in the Temple garden at Heliopolis. The seeds and sawdust were employed in medicine, and its resin. was one of the ingredients of the Kyphi-incense. Chaplets were made of its twigs and leaves. The tree was sacred to Hathor; branches of it were offered by the Egyptian kings to that goddess. In a Saite text it is mentioned with three other trees—pine, yew, and juniper; these are all found in Northern Syria, where they grow together with the cypress; the ¢r.¢ tree may therefore be the cypress. Evidence has been brought forward to show that the sd-tree is the horizontal- branched cypress, which was believed to be a male tree, while the tapering, flame-shaped cypress was believed to be the female tree. The Ded column was the symbol of Osiris, and at Busiris was cele- brated a festival of raising this column. The ¢r.¢ tree was sacred to Hathor, who is often identified with Isis, and there was a festival of raising the ¢r.t tree that was celebrated on the nineteenth day of the | first month of the winter season. It is not known where this festival was celebrated, but it may well have been at Neter, the seat of the Isis cult near Dedu-Busiris. The two tree-cults point to Northern Syria as the country of their origin. In the architecture of ancient Egypt two distinct styles can be recognized. One is founded on wattle-and-daub, the other on wood construction. Wattle-and-daub is the natural building material of the Nile Valley and Delta, and the architectural forms derived from it are certainly indigenous. Those styles derived from wood con- struction, on the other hand, could not have originated in Egypt, but must have arisen in a country where the necessary timber was ready at hand. Egypt produces no coniferous trees and no timber that is at all suitable for building purposes, or indeed for carpenter’s work of any description. The wood of the sycamore fig is very coarse- grained, and no straight planks can be cut from it. The siint-acacia is so hard that it requires to be sawn while it is green; it is very 454 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 irregular in texture, and on account of the numerous branches of the trunk it is impossible to cut it into boards more than a couple of feet in length. The palaces of the early kings of the Delta were built of coniferous wood hung with tapestry-woven mats. The tomb of | Menes’ queen, Neith-hotep, at Naqada, was built of brick in imitation of one of these timber-constructed palaces, and smaller tombs of the same kind are known from the Second and Third Dynasties, but not later. As early as the reign of King Den (First Dynasty) the palaces of this type were beginning to be built of the native wattle- and-daub in combination with wood, and by the end of the Pyramid Age the style disappears entirely, though the memory of it was preserved in the false doors of the tombs and stele. Brick buildings similar to those of the “ palace” style of Egypt are also known from early Babylonia, and they were at one time regarded as peculiarly characteristic of Sumerian architecture. These, obviously, must have been copied, like the Egyptian, from earlier timber forms. In Babylonia, as in Egypt, timber was scarce, and there are records that it was sometimes obtained from the coast of Syria. This was the region from which the Egyptians throughout historic times ob- tained their main supplies of wood, so it is not improbable that they, as well as the Sumerians, derived this particular style of architecture from Northern Syria. I may observe in passing that in this “palace” style we have the transition form between the nomad’ tent and the permanent building of a settled people. The lack of native timber in Egypt is significant in another direction. Boats of considerable size are figured on many predynastic monuments. They are long and narrow, and in the middle there is usually figured a reed or wicker-work cabin. In my view these boats were built, like many of those of later periods in Egypt, of bundles of papyrus reeds bound together with cord; they were, in fact, great canoes, and, of course, were only for river traffic. They were not sailing boats, but were propelled by means of oars. No mast is ever figured with them, but they generally have a short pole amidships which is surmounted by a cult-object. On one predynastic vase there is a figure of a sailing ship, but this is totally different in build from the canoes, and it has a very high bow and stern with its mast set far forward in the hull. Similar vessels are figured on the ivory knife handle of predynastic date from Gebel el Araq, but these vessels appear to be in port and the sails are evidently lowered. I have already referred to the Great Port mentioned on the Palette of Menes. A port implies shipping and trade relations with people dwelling along the coast or across the sea. It may be that the people of the northwestern Delta built wooden ships, but if they did they must have procured their timber from some foreign source. Coniferous wood was already being im- ported into the Nile Valley at the beginning of the First Dynasty 2° pane MR see | : ; { : ¢ | | EGYPT—-NEWBERRY 455 from the Lebanon region, and it must be remembered that the Egyptian. name for a seagoing ship, was kbnyt, from eben, “ Byblos,” the port of the Lebanon, where these ships must have been built and from whence they sailed. The sacred barks of the princi- pal gods of Egypt in historic times were invariably built of conif- erous wood from the Lebanon. ‘Transport ships on the Nile were sometimes built of the native sint wood, and Herodotus describes them as made of planks about 2 cubits long which were put together “brick fashion.” No masts or sail-yards, however, could possibly be cut from any native Egyptian tree. In the Sudan at the present day masts are sometimes made by splicing together a number of small pieces of stint and binding them with oxhide, but such masts are extremely liable to start in any gale, and they would be useless for seagoing ships. It may be doubted whether the art of building seagoing ships originated in Egypt. It may be doubted also whether the custom of burying the dead in wooden coffins originated in Egypt. In countries where a tree is a rarity a plank for a coffin is generally unknown. In the Admonitions of an Egyptian Sage, written some time before 2000 B. C., at a period when there was internal strife in Egypt, the sage laments that “Men do not sail northward to [Byb]-los 24 to-day. What shall we do for coniferous trees * for our mummies, with the produce of which priests are buried, and with the oil of which [chiefs] are embalmed as far as Keftiu? They come no more.” This ancient sage raises another anthropological question when he refers to the oil used for embalming. The only oils pro- duced by native trees or shrubs in Egypt were olive oil, ben oil from the moringa, and castor oil from the castor-oil plant. The resins and oils used for embalming were principally those derived from pines and other coniferous trees. Egypt produced no kinds of in- cense trees or shrubs. The common incenses were pine resin, lada- num, and myrrh, and all these were imported. It is difficult to be- lieve that the ceremonial use of incense arose in Egypt. These are a few of the questions raised by a study of the material relating to the origins of the ancient civilization of Egypt. There are numbers of others that are waiting to be dealt with. Egypt is extraordinarily rich in material for the anthropologist. It is a storehouse full of the remains of man’s industry from pre-agricul- tural times right down to the present day. Almost every foot of ground hides some relic of bygone man. The climatic conditions prevailing there are exceptional, and it is largely owing to the absence of rain that so full a record of man and his works has been % This place ends -ny; the restoration [Kp-]ny is due to Sethe and “suits the ‘traces, the space, and context quite admirably.”—A. H. Gardiner, The Admonitions of an ‘Egyptian Sage, Leipzig, 1909, p. 33. % The word is as, as generic one for pines, fir, etc. 456 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 preserved. Jor more than a century excavators have been busy in many parts of the country, but there is yet no sign that the soil is becoming exhausted ; it is, in fact, almost daily yielding up its buried treasures. The past two or three decades have been prolific in sur- prises. Mines of hidden wealth have been unearthed where but a few years ago we only saw the sands and rocky defiles of the desert. Since we met at Hull last year, the most sensational archeological discovery of modern times has been made in a place that had been abandoned by many excavators as exhausted. This discovery, due to the untiring persistence of an Englishman, promises to yield re- sults of extraordinary interest, but it will take years before they can be adequately published. Other discoveries have been made in Egypt during recent years which have opened out a vista of human history that we little dreamt of a quarter of a century ago. Three decades ago not a single monument was known that could be ascribed with certainty to the period before the Third Egyptian Dynasty. To-day Wwe possess a continuous series of written documents which carry us back to Menes, the founder of the Monarchy, some 3,400 years or more before our era. These written documents, moreover, show clearly that Menes himself must have come at the end of a very long period of development. Egypt had already had a long history when the upper and lower countries were first united under a single sceptre. From Upper Egypt we possess a continuous series of un- inscribed monuments which take us back far into prehistoric times. An immense vista has been opened out before our eyes by the dis- coveries of the last thirty years, and now, in Egypt better than in any other country in the world, we can see man passing from the primitive hunter to the pastoral nomad, from the pastoral nomad to the agriculturalist, and then on to the civilized life which begins with the art of writing. We can see in the Delta and in the Lower Nile Valley tribes becoming permanently settled in fixed abodes around primitive cult centers, and then uniting with others into one community. We can trace the fusion of several communities into single States, and then, later, the uniting of States under a supreme sovereign. What other country in the world preserves such a record of its early history? I have but little time left to speak of the modern Egyptians, but to the anthropologist few people are more interesting. In almost every circumstance of daily life we see the old in the new. Most of the ceremonies from birth to burial are not Muslim, or Christian, or Roman, or Greek; they are ancient Egyptian. In the transition of a people from one religion to another the important institutions of the older doctrine are generally completely abolished; many ceremonies and much unessential detail, however, survive, and in the Delta and a nlm ek EGYPT—-NEWBERRY 457 Lower Nile Valley survivals are extraordinarily numerous. It was Lady Duff Gordon who said that Egypt is a palimpsest in which the Bible is written over Herodotus, and the Koran over that; the ancient writing is still legible through all. There is a passage in one of her letters which describes her visit to some Nubian women. Their dress and ornaments were the same as those represented in the ancient tomb paintings. Their hair was arranged in little plaits, finished off with lumps of yellow clay burnished like golden tags. In their house Lady Duff Gordon sat on a couch of ancient Egyptian design, with a semicircular headrest. They brought her dates in a basket such as you may see in the British Mu- seum. So closely did they and their surroundings resemble the scenes of the ancient tombs that she says she felt inclined to ask them how many thousand years old they were! The modern worship of the people is full of the ancient; many of the sacred animals and trees have taken service with Muslim saints. Up to a few years ago cats were still fed by the “Servant of Cats” in the Kadi’s court in Cairo. Cobras are still held in great reverence in the city of the Khalifs. Some time ago the director of the Zoological Gardens in Cairo told me that it was most difficult to procure cobras for the gardens. It was not because they were scarce, but because the demand for them was so great that the price asked was far more than the Government would pay. Many cobras, I was told, were kept in the upper rooms of houses in the native quarters of the city. The funeral customs of the people throughout the country are much the same as those which prevailed in ancient times. It is not only among the merchant and agricultural classes that we find the Old in the New. Mrs. Poole, the sister of the Arabic scholar Edward Lane, writ- ing from Cairo in 1846, describes the scenes in one of Mohammed Ali’s palaces on the death of a princess of the royal family. Immedia- ately the royal lady breathed her last, her relations and slaves broke up all the beautiful china and glass which had been her property. “The destruction after a death,” Mrs. Poole remarks, “is gener- ally proportioned to the possessions of the deceased; therefore, in this case, it was very extensive.” Many, perhaps most, of the festi- vals of the country are of ancient origin. In the Delta towns and villages there are several which are similar to those that were held there in ancient days. It is the same in Upper Egypt. Thebes still possesses its sacred boat, and on the festival commemorating the birthday of Luxor’s patron saint, Abu’l Haggag, this lineal descend- ant of the sacred bark of Amon decorated with flags and gaily col- ored bits of cloth, is drawn around the town in procession, amid the acclamations of the people. Modern Egypt has hardly been touched by the anthropologist. The Government official usually holds him- 458 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 self far too aloof to ever really get into intimate contact with the native. Edward Lane did much to record the manners and cus- toms of the Cairene Egyptian, but he never lived among the fellahin, and his book contains little about the modern dweller on the banks of the Nile outside Cairo. A rich harvest awaits any student who, knowing the language, will settle and live throughout the year among the peasants in any village or town in the Lower Nile Valley. or Delta. It is only in this way that a real knowledge of the people can be obtained. Far less is known about them than about many a tribe in Central Africa. Thucydides, in the preface to his “ History,” proposed to record past facts as a basis of rational provision in regard to the future, but he was not the first to whom this great thought had occurred. A thousand years before the Greek historian was born an old vizier of Egypt said of himself that he was “skilled in the ways of the past,” and that “the things of yesterday ” caused him “to know to- morrow.” Anthropology, the science of man and civilization, aims ~ at discovering the general laws which have governed human history in the past and may be expected to regulate it in the future. The Egyptian vizier had, at most, a couple of thousand years of recorded history before him. Since his time the area of history has been ever widening, and we ourselves can look back over nearly six thousand years of human endeavor. We know considerably more of the past than did our forefathers, and though those who hold the reins of government do not usually learn by experience, the anthropologist ought to be able to predict a little better than the politician about the future. For thousands of years Egypt has been under foreign rule. It has been under the yoke of Ethiopian and Persian kings, under the Greek and Roman, Arab and Ottoman conquerors. Its people suffered three thousand years of oppression. For the last forty years it has had English justice. Egypt has this year been handed back to the Egyptians. It is an Oriental country. What will be the immediate future of its people? It is not difficult to predict. Seventy years ago, when Egypt was under the sway of Said Pasha, there was current among the fellahin of Thebes a little parable, and with this I will conclude. I quote it as it was taken down by Rhind in the fifties of last century, but the story was still remembered when I lived among the natives of Upper Egypt twenty- eight years ago. It runs thus: “Tt happened once that a sultan captured a lion, which it pleased lim to keep for his royal pleasure. An officer was appointed especially to have in charge the well-being of the beast, for whose sustenance the command of His Highness allotted the daily allow- ance of 6 pounds of meat. It instantly occurred to the keeper that EGYPT—NEWBERRY 459 no one would be a bit the wiser if he were to feed his dumb ward with 4 pounds and dispose of the remaining two for his own benefit. This he did, until the lion gradually lost his sleekness and vigor, so as to attract the attention of his royal master. ‘There must be something wrong,’ said he; ‘I shall appoint a superior officer to make sure that the former faithfully does his duty.’ No sooner was the plan adopted than the first goes to his new overseer, and convincing him very readily that if the proceeds of 2 pounds be conveyed to their pockets, the meat would be far better employed than in feed- ing the lion, they agreed to keep their own counsel and share the profit between them. But the thirst of the newcomer soon becomes pleasantly excited by the sweets of peculation. He talks the matter over with his subordinate, and they have no difficulty in discovering that the lion might very well be reduced to 3 pounds a day. Droop- ing and emaciated, the poor beast pines in his cage, and the sultan is more perplexed than before. ‘A third official shall be ordered,’ he declares, ‘to inspect the other two’; and so it was. But they only wait for his first visit to demonstrate to him the folly of throwing away the whole 6 pounds of meat upon the lion, when with so little trouble they could retain 3, 1 apiece, for themselves. In turn his appetite is quickened and he sees no reason why 4 pounds should not be abstracted from his ward’s allowance. The brute, he states to his colleagues, can do very well on 2, and if not, he can speak to nobody in complaint, so why need they lose the gain? And thus the lion, reduced to starvation point, languishes on, robbed and preyed upon by the overseers set to care for him, whose multiplication has but added to his miseries.” : NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN DWELLINGS? By T. T. WATERMAN Museo Nacional, Guatemala [With 11 plates] The Indians of North America occupied an enormous area, in which they encountered almost every known variety of climate and scenery. In the various regions accordingly there were evolved different ways of living and, especially, different forms of dwellings. The forms of Indian habitations were affected by climate and were modified according to materials available and house types of dif- ferent regions accordingly offer marked contrasts. Some were simple; so simple that nothing could be more startlingly primitive (see the Paiute village shown below, pl. 11, fig. 2). Some were very complex, and hundreds of feet in length. Some were made of tre- mendous beams in a cyclopean style of carpentry, while in at least one area stone masonry was developed, and the ruins of the ancient stone structures are imposing even to-day (see, for example, Pueblo Bonito, pl. 7). Some Indian dwellings are picturesque, some are odd, and all are interesting. The way in which geographic forces operated in shaping or modifying the habitations of the Indian tribes is an interesting matter for investigation. The subject may well be introduced by glancing at two habitation types, both im- portant and characteristic but very different, the wigwam and the tipi. THE WIGWAM The word “ wigwam,” in the language of the Algonkian-speaking peoples of the Atlantic side of the continent, means simply a dwell- ing. The term was applied by Europeans to the types of structures they encountered among the tribes of the middle Atlantic states. These habitations were essentially permanent structures and were grouped into regular towns, with squares and public buildings, which were fortified, and in many cases defended with earthworks. Mov- 1Reprinted by permission from The Geographical Review, Vol. XIV, No. i, Janu- ary, 1924. 461 462 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 able tents were not in use in this region; and the wigwam is not by any means a tent. It was not essentially a conical lodge, like those used farther west, but it had in most cases an arched-over roof or was hemispherical. The simpler forms were shaped like half an orange, but the vast majority were elongate. The Sac and Fox Indians, to mention no others, live in this type of dwelling even to-day. The wigwam in many cases had room enough to accommo- date a large number of families and would contain, in addition to benches and sleeping platforms, space for a year’s supply of food. The eastern Indians who used this form of dwelling were by no means nomadic savages as often pictured, living by plunder and the chase. They were peaceable farmers, when circumstances allowed them to be, living on products quite familiar on our own tables, corn bread, squashes, plums, wild grapes, berries, maple sugar, and meat when obtainable. The settler on the Atlantic sea- board got his food plants, his maple sugar, and his custom of hold- ing “ husking bees,” directly from the Indian. This settled, agricultural mode of life together with the wigwam was distributed over a large part of eastern North America. Briefly, it went wherever the rainfall and the temperature permitted cul- tivation of maize. This plant grows naturally only where the hot growing season is accompanied by rains. Everyone who has crossed the continent has been struck by the change in the face of nature in the region of the one hundredth meridian, the longitude of central Kansas. Westward lies the region of dry as contrasted with rainy summers. Corn can be grown in the drier west only with artificial irrigation. Wigwams and the easy cultivation of maize go together and are characteristic of eastern North America. The aborigines in this eastern area being sedentary in the same sense as the present population is, it follows that their houses would be permanent, not movable. The house structure consisted of a framework of poles, planted solidly in the ground and bent over to form arches, covered in with some light material. The con- struction was practically determined in advance by the nature of the forest, for the trees consisted in large part of hard woods, which could not readily be worked up by primitive implements. The material used to cover the house was of considerable variety. In the Atlantic region the most popular covering was bark, which was readily available, both in large quantities and in large pieces, from a variety of trees, among them birch, elm, hickory, and ash. In areas where large sheets of bark could not readily be obtained, other materials were substituted. Thus, beyond the westward margin of the forested area, on the plains of Arkansas, houses of a similar framework of poles were thatched over with grass, as among the Wichita (see pl. INDIAN DWELLINGS—WATERMAN 463 4, fig. 1). Among the Ojibwa and Menominee, in the lake region of Minnesota, matting made of rushes was employed as covering material, being more readily available there than bark. It is note- worthy in a general way that as we go farther north Indian houses become simpler and simpler, until in the far north, among the Cree or the Salteaux, the structure is » simple framework of light poles in the shape of a flat cone, covered over in some fashion with sheets of bark matting, or what not. The original population in this eastern area was dense as com- pared with that farther west, because of the greater productivity based in turn on the occurrence of summer rains. There were people enough, for instance, to build numerous and quite substantial earth- works. These included burial mounds, ceremonial mounds, and fortifications. The mounds were so widely scattered and some at least of the fortifications so tremendous and impressive, that we have come to refer to these peoples as “mound builders.” The idea that the mound builders were different in any respect from other Indians is quite without foundation. Some of the mounds were built, in fact, after the coming of the whites, as is proved by the presence in them of European objects—medals, scissors, porcelain, pewter, metal buttons, and iron knives. Yet all the Indians living in the Ohio Valley at the moment when the settlers came into that region were not numerous enough to man the ramparts of the old Indian earthwork known as “Fort Ancient.” This decline may be attributed to a sudden movement of the erstwhile stationary popu- lation from the area, owing probably to the introduction into Amer- ica of the horse. The Indians were originally without horses and, in North America and Mexico, without burden animals of any description except the dog. In fact, American Indian society, speak- ing generally, developed a civilization without draft animals or vehicles. The introduction of the horse by the Spaniards led to a great economic transformation, a general drift of the population to the Plains, where pursuit of the buffalo was suddenly made very easy and sensationally successful. Here a peculiar way of living developed, apparently after the Spanish conquest of Mexico but long before the inroad of English-speaking people from the Atlantic side. Let us turn to the habitations of the “horseback” Indians of the Plains. DWELLING OF THE PLAINS INDIANS: THE TIPI The history of the Plains region of North America does not go back very far. When our historical knowledge begins, the tribes were already in possession of horses, and a novel mode of existence had already developed. What conditions had been before that time 464 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 we can only surmise from a few survivals and from archeological evidence obtained in the old sites. Some very quaint and curious in- formation has recently been brought to light in the latter way. What we consider the typical mode of existence of the Plains Indians is therefore only the latest phase of their mode of life and a very novel and highly modified phase at that. Moreover, as we have al- ready remarked, this highly modified mcode of existence has com- monly come to be considered as the mode of life typical not only of the Plains Indians but of all Indians. The appearance, dwellings, and even costume of the modern Indian of the Plains is what comes to mind when anyone says “Indian.” Physically the Plains Indians were, and are, a very fine people, possessing the gift of wearing costume strikingly. This trait is shared by men and women. The war bonnet of eagle feathers, worn by the men and never by women (the Indian woman on the old- style United States copper penny to the contrary notwithstanding), is the most picturesque headgear worn by any tribe of people any- where. When the Treasury Department in improving the style of art exhibited on our coinage wished to select a fine-looking Indian as model for the head on the five-cent piece, they turned to a member of one of these Plains tribes. The dwelling of these Indians was the tipi, or teepee. That this structure should ever be confused with the wigwam is surprising, for the two are very unlike. The tipi is a movable tent, covered with skins, conical in form, with the poles of the framework jutting out of the top. It forms a very tidy, serviceable, and picturesque habi- tation and, furthermore, one that is quite distinctive. Tribes like the Yakuts of Siberia have tents that are hemispherical, not conical, and covered with felt, not skin. Tents of the Lapps and Samoyeds likewise differ from the tipis for the tipi cover is cut, or “tailored,” in a pattern that is perfectly distinctive. I do not know of any habitation in any part of the world that is really comparable to the tipl. The tipi, exclusive of the furnishings within it, consisted of two parts, a set of poles for the framework and a cover of dressed buffalo hides, the latter carefully tailored and stitched together. This was stretched over the poles and pegged down to the ground when the structure was set up. The poles, preferably of the so-called lodgepole pine, were long, slender, and elegant—long enough to pro- ject eight or ten feet above the top of the tent. In setting up the tipi two poles were put together in the form of a V and lashed at their intersection with the end of a rope, the rest of which was left dangling. A third pole was then fastened to the apex of the V, and the three were raised into the air to form a tripod. INDIAN DWELLINGS—WATERMAN 465 This was the foundation of the tent. Additional poles were care- fully laid in place, the woman—for this was women’s work—tossing a turn or hitch of the rope over each new pole and binding the whole firmly together. Certain tribes, like the Blackfeet, used four poles, not three, for the foundation of the tipi. In any case, the finished framework was a smooth conical structure of bare poles. The cover was next hoisted into place and stretched around the framework, being pegged down to the ground all around. Where the two edges of the cover met in front, a set of long slender wooden skewers were used to fasten them together. The cover was so shaped that at the top of the tent there was an opening left for the escape of the smoke, and flanking the smoke hole were two flaps known as “ears.” Into a pocket at the tip of each ear was inserted a long slender pole, and these poles leaned against the tent, the lower ends extending back of the structure and resting upon the ground. With the help of these two poles the “ears” were moved this way or that, according to the direction of the wind. [Aa ee & AIPRTICULATION ie Fie, 6.—Articulation—Loudness characteristic for speech frequencies are scarcely affected. Similarly high-pass filters can be made which suppress all frequencies up to a certain marginal region and pass those above it. Such filter structures are made by the proper combination of suitable inductance coils and condensers. Studies of interpretation further require an experimental method for measuring the ability of the ear to understand’ transmitted speech sounds with different conditions of loudness and distortion The method developed consists in pronouncing detached speech sounds into the transmitting end of the experimental system and in having observers at the receiving end write the sounds which they hear. Comparison of the observed sounds with those called shows NATURE OF LANGUAGE—JONES 501 the number and kind of errors made. The per cent of the total sounds spoken which are correctly received is called the articulation of the system. For these tests simple syllables are used constructed in a systematic manner from the 36 fundamental speech sounds and arranged in lists of 50 syllables each. A carefully worked out technique is observed in the testing. Articulation tests have been made upon the high quality experi- mental system without distortion, but with controls adjusted to give various intensities of output from the threshold of audibility to values considerably above the level of ordinary conversation. The results obtained are shown in Figure 6. The abscissas of the curve represent loudness and are expressed as the ratios by which the speech energy has been decreased from the initial intensity at exit from the mouth. When the volume is reduced to about one ten-billionth of the initial speech intensity, the articulation becomes zero. ‘This point corresponds to the value at which speech becomes inaudible. At about one-thousandth of the initial speech intensity, the articulation becomes a maximum. With louder speech than this perception is less accurate, probably due to overloading of the ear mechanism and subjective distortion. These results were obtained in a perfectly quiet room. When the observer is submerged in an atmosphere of noise the speech must be louder in order to get the best hearing conditions. The articulation data have been further analyzed in such a way as to show the errors made at various intensities for each of the fundamental sounds. The results for some typical sounds are shown in Figure 7. It is observed that in general diphthongs and vowels are more easily heard than consonants, and that of the latter the stop consonants are heard with fewer mistakes than are the fricative ones. If all the sounds are listed in order of average articulation the top quarter will contain no consonants and the lower half no vowels. When speech becomes weak, the errors of the con- sonants increase greatly, their articulation values falling off at higher intensities than is the case with the vowels. There are some exceptions to these general statements. At moderate volume the short vowel “e” is near the bottom of the list, but at very weak volume 22 sounds are harder to perceive. “L,” “r,” and “ng ” are all more readily heard than “e” at moderate volume, but when very weak they fall below it. “LL,” which ranks with the diphthong “i,” as one of the easiest sounds at moderate volume, is mistaken about two times out of three when very weak. The diphthongs “i,” “ou,” and the long vowels “6,” “6,” “a,” all ‘have average articulations better than 95 and even when very 20397—25 33 502 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 weak haye values of 84 or better. On the whole the sounds “th,” “f." “s” and “v” are hardest to hear correctly, and they account Se ee than half of all the errors of interpretation. In general, it is observed that the volume at which errors begin to be large is different for different sounds and is usually higher for the con- sonants than for the vowels. Within the precision of the data, coe eeeee Miter Leh Iho Ab late aE PELE PEACE Paha ecb habit ted fed Tedidl Velie] SD dichaleT aade at Lala PRERHERRERRE NAH SERRA NE LY ADSM RMMR MLS OE oii clbel ly ale -loe ERRBRERRAEER PL OL UC Ose Toy PEC EEE ahe| Mecdewiisleed leh. tlosll toy Shawn Ae seer lel hale ili ACEGERARER aol Aes lel Ashish Pale ARERR SEe SE iS wdlbie BES Me: Ti SURV ERRARES RHsh sab ied GE i P2nion. BRAY ARMANEE Shae Aer Re wae Can AR eRaRE Epo GR URED ES//URHaeeeae ot | in al ES is) LL SIC tis Sha aa YY WOHOI0LO WB SOHO LOIN ON MOXODA DW OL0HIV IW 0 0 WW LOVDMONDDHDW O 0 APROX LOUDNESS FAIP2LOX LOUDNESS APPROX LWONESS. | SE0n CEPR eey fate Fic. 7.—Articulation—Loudness curves for some typical speech sounds the intersections on the axis of abscissas all correspond with the threshold of hearing. The effect of frequency distortion has been investigated by insert- ing several systems of electric-wave filters in the high-quality ex- perimental circuit. Articulation results with low-pass and high- pass filters are shown in Figure 8. The ordinates show the per cent of syllables called which were correctly recorded at the re- NATURE OF LANGUAGE—JONES 503 ceiving end. The abscissas represent the marginal or cut-off fre- quency of the filter. Looking at the curve for the low-pass filter, marked “Articulation L,” the point (1000,40) indicates that an articu- lation of 40 per cent is obtained when the system transmits only fre- quencies up to 1,000 cycles. Looking at the curve for the high-pass filters, marked “ Articulation H,” the point (1000,86) indicates an articulation of 86 per cent for a system transmitting only fre- quencies above 1,000 cycles. The dotted curves show the per cent of the total energy in speech transmitted through filters of the two types having cut-off frequencies corresponding to the abscissas. Sixty per cent is lost if all the energy below 500 cycles is eliminated, but only 2 per cent of the articulation. The suppression of the Effect upon the Articulation and the Energy of Speech of Eliminating Certain Frequency Regions Frequency Fic. 8.—Articulation—Distortion characteristics for speech frequencies above 1,500 cycles reduces the articulation by 35 per cent but only 10 per cent of the energy lies in this region. The sup- pression of all frequencies below 1,000 cycles has no greater effect than the suppression of the frequencies above 3,000 cycles. This is quite contrary to the popular notion of the characteristics of speech. The mean frequency from the standpoint of articulation is about 1,550 cycles. An articulation of 65 per cent is obtained when either the frequencies below or those above that point are used. The speech quality sounds very different in the two cases, however, in the one being low and dull, and in the other high and shrill. It should be borne in mind that naturalness of reproduction, as well as articulation, is an important element of understandable and 504 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 satisfactory spoken communication. As has been pointed out above, although the fundamental cord tones and harmonics lying below 500 cycles carry most of the speech energy, they contribute little to the articulation. It has been observed that naturalness of reproduc- tion is greatly affected depending upon whether or not these low SS} Cut-off Frequency Zi 2000 Cut-off Frequency Ear Fa tye] fava: eee RT a3 Fel Fe re Pe at a! alters eet Cut-off Frequency O Iie. 9 Cut-off Frequency Uu Cut-off Frequency e. eh PZTICULE TIOM- DISTORTION CHARACTERISTICS Foe Save Tree. SPEECH Sows amie 00 20 4 “ P Fiiteed eg oS Hr seegh <4 J HH : 8 g 3 i Haig. S e o ase Hail = .< [rea 00) u— e trt I~ o 2 e . a5 g& ‘ ‘ 9 ~ ~ i] 8 é 5 90 on Pi 3-8) 285-2 Sack uorenoipsy vorpopnovjay wore) noijay frequency tones are preserved. While it might be concluded from the articulation data then, that frequencies in the lower part of the speech range are unimportant, a fuller consideration justly at- tributes an added measure of importance on account of naturalness. The naturalness of speech quality is a characteristic calling for considerable further investigation. NATURE OF LANGUAGE—JONES 505 The curves of Figure 9 show the articulation of some typical speech sounds when the frequency regions below or above the given point are suppressed. The ordinate gives the number of times the sound was correctly observed per 100 times called; the abscissa, the frequency of cut-off. In each figure the effect of suppressing the frequencies below the cut-off is shown by the curve at the left, the effect of suppressing those above it by the one at the right. The diphthong “i,” the long vowel “é,” and the semi-vowel “1” are each perceived with an error less than 3 per cent when either half of the frequency range is used. The intersections of the two curves, the cut-off frequency where the articulation is the same with either low-pass or high-pass filters, are at different points in each of the three cases, however. In the cases of the short vowels “u,” “o,” and “e,” the frequencies below 1,000 cycles are important to good articulation, but those above 2,000 may be suppressed with little effect. In the cases of the fricatives “s,” “z,” and “th” quite different effects are observed than with the former two classes. Some of the peculiar results shown have not yet been explained. Even if all frequencies up to 5,000 cycles are correctly transmitted, these sounds are noticeably impaired by the suppression of those above. The lower frequencies up to 1,500 cycles contribute practically noth- ing to the articulation of “s” and “z.” It has been observed, in the case of a system which suppresses all frequencies above 2,500 cycles, that about 82 per cent of the syllables were heard correctly in an articulation test, and that the errors were made up principally of failures in the three sounds “s,” “z,” and “th.” In conclusion then, we have seen that the ordinary ear is an exquisitely developed organ for sensing minute and rapidly re- peated variations in air pressure. It can perceive sound waves ranging in pressure amplitude from less than 0.001 dyne to over 1,000 dynes, and in frequency of vibration from about 20 cycles per sec- ond to about 20,000—a range of about 10 octaves. Human speech employs frequencies from a little below 100 cycles per second to about 6,000 cycles—a range of about 6 octaves. The intensities and frequencies used most in conversation are those located in the central part of the area of audition. The energy of speech is carried largely by frequencies below 1,000, but the characteristics, which make it intelligible, largely by frequencies above 1,000. Under quiet conditions good understanding is possible with undistorted speech having an intensity anywhere from one hundred times greater to a million times less than that at exit from the mouth. On the whole, the sounds “th,” “f,” “s,’ and “v” are hardest to hear correctly and they account for over half the mistakes made in 506 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 interpretation. Failure to perceive them correctly is principally due to their very weak energy although it is also to be noted that they have important components of very high frequency. These data are of fundamental importance in the art of elec- trical communication. But they have also a broader interest and utility. The information gleaned by physicists in the study of speech and hearing increases the understanding of phoneticians and physiologists. It will aid public speakers, linguists, and phy- sicians, and help to lighten the burdens of the deaf and dumb. Investigators who engage in the field of human acoustics have many interesting physical problems to solve. Furthermore, study of these senses, dealing as it does with two of the primary tools of the human race, is work of extraordinary appeal holding forth promise of direct service to mankind. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Analysis of the Energy Distribution in Speech. I. B. Crandall and D. MacKenzie—Phys. Rev. XIX, No. 3, p. 221. 2. The Nature of Speech and its Interpretation. H. Fletcher—Jour. Franklin Inst., June, 1922, p. 729. 3. The Frequency Sensitivity of Normal Ears. -H. Fletcher and R. L. Wegel—Phys. Rev. XIX, No. 6, p. 553. 4. The Physical Examination of Hearing and Binaural Aids for the Deaf. R. L. Wegel—Proc. Nat. Acad. of Sciences, Vol. 8, No. 7, p. 155. 5. The Sensibility of the Ear to Small Differences of Intensity and Frequency. VY. (O. Knudsen—Phys. Rey. XXI, No. 1, p. 84. 6. Physical Measurements of Audition and their Bearing on the Theory of Hearing. H. Fletcher—Jour. Franklin Inst., Aug., 1923. 7. The Auditory Masking of One Pure Tone by Another and its Probable Relation to the Dynamics of the Inner Har. | R. L. Wegel and C. E. Lane—Presented to the American Physical Society, April, 1923. (To be published in the Physical Review.) Smithsonian Report, 1924.—Bushnell PLATE |] JOHN MIX STANLEY, 1814-1872 (Photograph made about 1866) JOHN MIX STANLEY, ARTIST-EXPLORER By Davin I. BUSHNELL, JR. [With 7 plates] During the first half of the last century, when the region west- ward from the Mississippi was still claimed and occupied by many tribes, for the most part living in their primitive condition, little in- fluenced by contact with the whites, many persons, impelled by different impulses, traversed the country from the river to the moun- tains. Many, whose purpose was to explore the wilderness, left ac- counts of their journeys, but countless others failed to leave any records of their travels and experiences. Some, whose talents en- abled them to sketch the wild scenes, accompanied the various expedi- tions; others visited the country for the sole purpose of studying the native tribes in their natural environments, to obtain portraits of individuals and to portray the ways of life of the people with whom they came in contact. Necessarily the work of the different artists varied greatly in value and importance, but the sketches and paintings made by the subject of these notes, J. M. Stanley, were among the most interest- ing secured during that period. And as mentioned in the preface of the catalogue of his pictures, which he himself prepared and which was issued by the Smithsonian Institution in December, 1852, the collection included “accurate portraits painted from life of 43 different tribes of Indians, obtained at the cost, hazard, and inconvenience of a 10 years’ tour through the southwestern prairies, New Mexico, California, and Oregon.” Truly a remark- able collection, and were it in existence at this time would prove of inestimable interest and importance to the ethnologist as well as to the historian. Now before mentioning certain of the pictures in detail let us trace the movements of the artist during his “10 years’ tour,” during which time he visited the widely separated parts of the western country. The following account of his travels was pre- pared by his son, Mr. L. C. Stanley, to whom we are also indebted for the photograph of his father which is now reproduced as Plate 1. “ John Mix Stanley was born in Canandaigua, N. Y., 1814, and died in Detroit, Mich., April 10, 1872. At the age of 14 he became an 507 508 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1924 erphan and was apprenticed to a wagon maker in Naples, N. Y., and spent his boyhood there and in Buffalo. “In 1834 he removed to Detroit, and in 1835 began to paint por- traits and landscapes. In 1838 and 1839 he lived at Chicago and Galena. At this time he made pictures among the Indians near Fort Snelling. During the years 1839-1842 he resided and painted at New York, Troy, Philadelphia, and Baltimore. In 1842, accom- panied by Sumner Dickerman, of Troy, he visited the Indian country in Arkansas and New Mexico and made sketches and pictures of the Indians and Indian scenes. In June, 1848, accompanied P. M. Butler, Governor of Arkansas, to a council with the chiefs of many tribes to arrange a treaty of peace between those tribes and the State of Texas, then independent, Governor Butler having been deputed thereto by the Government of the United States, and having requested the company of Mr. Stanley. The council was attended by General Taylor, Captain Bliss, and agents of the Senecas and Delawares. 9h es a9 el ee ee ee eee 72 Ge ED ee ee oe wo a oe ae Me eS Dee ee a Se XII VATS ATC UOI YG oe one ree ne ee een ee ey ee 23, 31, 87, 88 Parchangesinterna oneal s0eet 2s ee ee xu, 5, 11, 22, 123, 126 foreign depositories of United States Governmental documents------ 80 foreign ‘exchange agencies. . "222.9 Use he eee ee ee 84 interparliamentary exchange of official journals__._-.-------------- 83 POMONA 25 a Bee ee nee aed eee ht nee See eee eee ee (ids Exhibitions held in the National Gallery of Art, special___-.------------ 65 Expedition to Dinosaur National Monument, Utah-_-_------------------ i) BieOdplONs. ee oS 2 oe pena Be OE a 131 Albertavand: British! Columbiaes2 oe 5 see ae a ee 132 Sreheologinal sto (Chinas a ee ee ee 131 bidlopieal. iG (nina eso ee ee ie ee oe eae eee 132 Exploration in Panama and Central America, Botanical_--------------- 8 Explorations and field work, National Museum. -_--------------------- 38 in the Canadian Rockies, Geological_-_......-.-------.---------- 6 Yang-tze Valley, China, Biological........-.----------------- 8 F Pabryg Ml oso cose 8 acess a oe ee ane 107 Fewkes, Dr. J. Walter, chief, Bureau of American Ethnology-.- xu, 3, 15, 21, 76 Field work, Freer Gallery of Art. 22 2-2 222692 s7 a= ee ee eee 60 Hnianges or the Institwtion — 20. ope ee ee ee 4 Pisher. "Ag eo ooo a oad ac ae ee ee ee 39 Fisheries, United States Bureat of... 2-2-0 22 22 ee ee 59 Foreign depositories of United States Governmental documents-_------- 80 INDEX 527 : Page DEAD Ac | ERR ae AO pe eS BET Pyne Ey a 42 TADS Sos | AER a RAS TS De Ra Se EO TS xu, 105, 106 RIMMEL HINOR CE on 2 oo oe oe ee eS ee ee 50, 129 Rinror bequest. Cnarles Wy. eco 2 ess ook aie a a 5 receipts and expenditures pertaining to_................-_._--- 125, 126 RitpGrORistie en oe et ee te oe ols kk eerie Rs Rapti 124 Gere Ory Ol ATG. ood a ARNE Nee bivetatan Aepaes ene 16 Suen ance = aereer = ae Ss asi el net haole Pee Bes OE SAE eine oe 19, 60 binldines and equipmeng. _- ou... csdnanauacsasouasncs eae 58 elasstfieation Of invested funds._- 2-2 ---s---- so seaked 5 edllection; (thes. abe eo. ap teh aen sn Bn tun ly te nice. NB, 57 CURT UO Tee oe eee as Pata eS a eee SR FS xi, 48, 50, 61 RUE W OT Ket on ere ee ag a ee eee 2h ties ip Nn De i mg 60 HerPONM Ole Ds... De Seen sees oe Stee See ee eee, 60 POE ona a ches See eel eat Ne ooh ee Se 57 Bitte ec et ee Rohe Os a El eit A Behn ie toad XII “DP TUS/E Ging 9 BEY 22S lO MRR fe Pe a NE ag a eA RR HDS les "Py 19, 49, 50, 129 G General considerations, Secretary’s report___...______.._-------_----- 2 Gcopraphic Hoard, United States._.o. 0. 020. celo oboe noon Se ee 70 Geological collections, National Museum____............__..--_----_- 33 Geological explorations in the Canadian Rockies_________..____-__--_- 6 ESCM GIST S70 108 We aa at Nt ll tal Wet ve eee gerd yr 48, 129, 135 Gill, De Lancey, illustrator, Bureau of American Ethnology_________-- xu, 74 PUN epnG Leer Lae aN Vieseey cen eke nt ay Be ar ete eed eats Kit, 7, 41, 42 Sri ME OECSP Gr ees secs re Pe eat ie ea hn a ye 55 | 1. Te at gp ate) al oo ae an rae eT MRAM PU ea 55 Peinaicicn, Vestaing Bergne too. Oy ogo en et ETE aS BO ee 50 SEmrawilson.jveiss irene Nie. io. fo oS eS Se ee 56 Goldsmith, J. 8., superintendent of buildings and labor, National Museum_ xu Se OTE = TF il tle earn i ap ea oie lata ae Pace ang te alg hea gt) 56 Government departments, reorganization in. _................--_-_-_- 133 | TS TEPER EVEN gl DIN ale a wre A el aed alae ce We Sata aCe al rat ae i ep alan ef ae, she Graphic Arts, collections in the division of, National Museum__________-_- 36 Grayson. George (regent). — 3. 3----.s-c FH tm 11172 H Pete TUR seats 2 wk Se ee a el eed es OR MOORE 4 aie. Drs George iis Te ORS tr. BOL EEL UD @a0 COTO Ae 106 PeMPREEMULC OTA UN, a. No en gr et Po UR SORE 4, 123, 124 ardine: President; Warren ‘Gir $0 on po WAlNRokS FAT COM utils 2, 45 iMac Warren: GA 5 <5 552 too oy. et ee tee bie a ee 37 Harkin, Hon. J. B., Commissioner of Dominion Parks_________________ 88 Parman Alaska expedition reports. 2-2 422252222-522298 Le 1016 COTE Co AE oS oe eg Baek ib ean MaRS Eg OS aaah Se aN 124, 125 528 INDEX ; Page armeton plik Pink. siest 2 Sap de Bae ee he eee X11, 21, 68, 69 HbyiG. Pro. acccsecee 264 es oe ee eee 115 LS UIOE Sp DTU O Gy fe eink see ee ec ae 64 eikes. Vietori@senn. oo0 2 ee eee Sash e e Se ee 34 Hénerys Mis Goocsees .nocecleang as Sh BOUL ear tethnnnre hae pees 23, 87 ennry aiid: Caroline 2: setae ete icine een ee ee 4, 123, 124, 125 Henry, Joseph, radio celebration of birthday... ..........02- 20-222 AL 131 Herrick, Francis H. (Nest and nesting habits of the American eagle)___ 2638 Hess, Hrank Js. 2+ Se ete eee ee ele ete = Oe Be eee 34 HoewithJaN., Bante et cd eS 2 xu, 21, 69, 70 Hill, J:.H., property.clerk.of. the institution... ..-L.2.24¢-55.5!2 Sere XI Leb eedie rr, WV sees 8 kat ee Rh i en a ee 28 Pinchinen eAngustvae Wh 2 2.2 Jes 2522-4 ssceeee aeons cate lsoeeeee 69 Miss: Stella tac. canis Bo. Se tea de eee ee ot 69 [Eiraiio, sMissiC hie.~sehee a take on oe OLS ee 5s ae ee 60 Historical.collections,-National: Mus@uitiiz.2 ses -0522-2-5 2225555850 36 Bincnedek Mr. Au sS 265 og hbo oe See a fee a 17, 32, 40 (A botanical trip to Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia) _----------------- 335 Hodekine aimed genetic toc he 2s Se ee 4, 123, 124, 125 SPGCHIG wens 2 YA reels a Ne Sn iL TOS: VETS IIROBG, Gere eee ee 37 HofteeMirs:ohntJacobe. 2 onc = ee rene ee te ea 50 Hollister, N., superintendent, National Zoological Park___--------- xu, 15, 102 (A modern menagerie: more about the National Zoological Park)_-. 249 Holmes, Dr. W. H., director, National Gallery of Art. xu, 48, 49, 50, 51, 56, 115 Hoover, Herbert Clark, Secretary of Commerce (member of the Institu- GLO) ee paper te eee ar ek pe OR gs ee a il TL OOWETS Weyl oe om ee ey ee ee eee 2 eee Rane ne en 107 ELGrAa: GSES, oo oes eae a oe oe A a ae ee a 46 Hornblower, Mrs; (@sreline Bi-000 2222 22 sea ee ee 53 Hough; Pir: Walter: 22 37 2 ae Wh bee Ee leet cg ea) weep eee ee ee ye Si Flawed cbr her eee ag OS ce XII Hoy @harlesMisn ass. cos od ee! Soa Dee es ee 8, 32, 38, 46, 1382 Hrdlickas ir Alesse a ee ree ee ae re x11, 9, 10, 16, 31, 115 Hughes hind es nieces aces La ess OF he eects Ae ae 4, 123, 124, 125 Hughes, Charles Evans, Secretary of State (member of the Institution) -- Da I Illustrations, Bureau of American Ethnology ------------------------- 74 Indian Dwellings, Nerth American (Waterman) -.---------------------- 461 Interior, Secretary of the (member of the Institution)-...-.------------ XI International Catalogue of Scientific Literature, Regional Bureau of the United Statess- oe ck ee ee ee xu, 1, 5, 24, 111, 123, 126 TOpOre oo ba ot Bn oe ee val international exchanges...) 26 52 ewe ne oe ee Xi1,.5, 11,22) 123,426 foreign depositories of United States Governmental documents-_--- -- 80 foreign exchange agencies: >.> <= ee 84 interparliamentary exchange of official journals__----------------- 83 FOPOEs os tee Sena ee 77 Interparliamentary exchange of official journals__--------------------- 83 INDEX 529 J Page Japanese Association of the League of Nations..._.._..-..-.------------- 12, 79 Japanese libraries destroyed during the recent earthquake, assistance to_- 12 Jeane. J. i.(The origin of the solar system) .-2.. 22-22. Be See et ee 139 Johnson, Representative Albert (regent)_.___------------- xi, 2, 127,134,185 asmicni aloli Orossso2 32 oss Ss lee eeeeeeees pote eee eee 46, 55 Warde ese eer ee eel nie tie gat Re we ee tt ae ere Se 19, 51, 56 dames rs. b. (The nature of language)jeste 2 2 Gooen tsetse Toes sce 487 Per CLL Vier Sern aed oe ee ee 8 a Se a ee Ae ees xu, 41 duien-James! Mrs: Cassie Mason Myers..----~--.5-.-=-----. 9 Ge ea 51 K em ae Vo Fe a i kee ol i pe i ee 115 Knowles, W. A., property clerk, National Museum____--_-.--_--------- XII Kensners As eo eco ee ck Se es See Re nie ae ae een hee 108 L Labor, Secretary of (member of the Institution)_--_------------------- XI TOPSITE PESS( aoa Oa 01 es nme ph ech ke de pln Eee RO ol SG xin 2 7 Partenorion Vrs Viarsnicll =e S=te nes teeter so es hen Se eee ees See 51 Hanwmiare wie mature (sONes ee ee ote ee oe Oe eee 487 Pare dawn ts; (regent) te. te ee reer eS ee diy Vin Ag Ma}! cam oulecnon ny tsaacs? 5 22 sae sae NMS S ee Se os Noe hes Re ee eee IW A: League of Nations, Japanese Association of the-._-_2/.--------------- 12, 79 Leary, Ella, librarian, Bureau of American Ethnology----------------- x11, 74 LecSAT RIA ES ofp] BY ots tol C61 Sp ho ie el bt tl eM cis hie elite gn AR aa hep ta S 36 [Lh SGP RetaDS GL OTE SG (Ee. Gy itl Oe else vd ee lea Pm oh ech clea eRe een Oye! x11, 29 TLV GDE CSE 1 ip Cs Dud S| let ei kai ea atid tenga Se 60, 75, 115 SIMS ONLAT CED USE MMe Sa 2ST Rete ese aoe eee Se POSE ae 15 imbrarics of phennstivubiom and branches= a= sane on] a2 ane ene eee ae se 5) ACCESSIONS) TECElpts,, HG SUMMAT Ye] See sae = eee = a ee ee 115 Antrophiysicnl’ Observatony brary 5Si25= 2-2 28>" =" eae ese 115 Hennolopy,.pureau-er American, library 052-2 oo eee eee 74 reer Gallery-or Arh diprary 2. So or Ve Ne ae Se oe ae ee 115 National Gallery-or Art library 22.2.2 onsen oe en eee ee oe 115 NeaMOnae Ise OtAny.: 2. = on Sets OT ee ee eee 46, 114 Neional Zoological Parklibrary =i 5os5so5252222%3 Nedistidhpnpiihct wine T De 115 Receipts and: accessions, summary Of . 2-2-5220 S25 ees eee 115 TRECs ye ae Na ne ee epee eae Ree pre ee EpS Veter: Bw Sees vas Fewer: 1138 Smipnsarianmamain library. 2.26 222-5222. 2- he bee = oe ee 113 GiiCe MOTAT Ye. usets 2 Stones ee eck he ee eee 113 nl Ars ag eee 8 oie ee ee ee eee 28 iieton: WeeGr i a a eee he 2 ee ee oe 34 Loans accepted by the National Gallery of Art____-_----------------- 51 bythe National Gallery of Art. 2.2222 s.c e202 2-5 5 See gente 53 Lodge, Senator Henry Cabot (regent) ---------------- XI, 2, 4, 18, 48, 127, 135 Lodge, John Ellerton, curator, Freer Gallery of Art__._-__------ xr, 48, 50, 61 ieeurcollection ofyéhemical types... 42s eles a a ee 16, 28 committee. .\S. 2.2.22 oe e eo. hee tk ee ee ee Baer SS 28 CUMStORS 2. Sele Je tee eh Se ee a ee ee 29 530 INDEX M Page Madsen Fon. D. Hs 2222. 3 as a ee ee ee 88 Malleis;- Henry. 222.2222 22 2 se See ae BEE ee oes oe 40 Mann, Mrs: James! R&e 2252 0a aS i _ SE OS Oe a ea ae 38, 53 Mann, Dr: ‘William: M2222 2.» 22 Se ne ie 40, 87 Marsh} ROU 2a eel edossce cosa See Pe ee ee ee 40 Marsh-Darien expedition fund 22-52. 2=222 2+ 322.2 esna25s2--==se eae ee Bee 5, 138, 15 National Art,Committee= == 4223 2 F25=0 2 een aw eet ee eee ee 55 National Conference on Outdoor Recreation, first. _....--------------- 12 National ‘Gallery-of, Attess5- 2-28-2226 32 ssen5ssecbesee 1, 3, 28, 123, 126, 128 art; works’ added: during ‘the years2-2=2222=.s<-2222-s2s2--2"--ee" 51 building es ce scott ees ete SE eee eee 3, 4, 18 plans fund 2222 2ss2e2sessecseu sete ee eee 124 Commission «2. 222 ee cos ak aoe ee ee 18, 42, 48 TepGrts . 2 ete ee ee eee 129 CITE CEOM S ox ssc ee ete ee eee eee ee x11, 48, 49, 50, 51, 56 loans accepted by the... 222 222-2sse225sess2eesscesRessessese 51 by thei se 2escech see cctcudasesseceeehoestenessnaeeseeose ee 53 publications...L4 Wi caceeshece sscuscescecseceascce meso pore eae 13, 116 TOPOMG ees i eee os i Te re ee 47 special exhibitions held in the_...-.------------------------------ 55 INDEX 531 Page Pimulonaiemlusemi. se od Mi Ga xI, x11, 1,.3, 6, 15, 123, 126 age peraweL BCI PIMeNt. 2 eae ek Se ee 42 CONC COONS: oe tee aie ale Sie a SME te ee pe eR ar ee ee ee ee et 2 30 EL Dea ete si Se ae Nee ee ey et a TY ete ea 46, 114 NCoHNES ANd TECOMUOUS.. aos Soci a te a eh seek See 44 DUDNeHtOler tN Oe ek GS at en Oe eee ee 13, 14, 18, 116, 119, 128 TREY ONO TE eps ale a espe Pape iy ne meee aE On pe te Se 27 SNS UO te ee a ees, ee oes cee Sy aoe RO re eee 18 Ppeceiceriey OT Great G ealerye te sd 8 ES an 28 Paons) moolorical Parke. 3 oo 5 eS 1, 3, 6, 23, 59, 128, 126 UE COS SIO INS extra a ea a care Nee er a Pd eo RD a RA ae, a 87 PRAIUETT AS) RO COL GRID en Se re ee 94 SGU S VES OL 16 ee oe el Oe tee ah as cea eS ag te ae Se ol he pS 136 MPT PORE G TIGER oS 0 ne ere econ ne aes SS ree Se Sehr sh ee geen 102 REE TO VOT CGS oa 2 eee ep eee ee ee eae er eam mele Fe ode Me aoe ee 101 FREY OXOY Seg ee pee tk chef ee oe Rare ge ae epee cen. Ses See 87 suericsmew. co tne collection. ~~ 220-2 eho a oe ee ee 91 SHPOMINOHUGNy G soe 4s aa ho ero eS fe eee ek eee xu, 15, 102 SV EES GOL Ss mene ee a ce ar ce eet a et a en ee a ee 100 National Zoological Park, More about the: a modern menagerie (Hol- STRESS Bie i EN RS ee Rp et MA ch in oy yee tiple KE ddd Le 249 mavyeeparimens, United States: 22) 0 2222 ss Se ee 39 Navy, Secretary of the (member of the Institution)_._.__._._.-----_---- xI SSC eee y rere re te 2 Ss As SSIS A attr eel oe od Cee ee 25, 56 New, Harry S., Postmaster General (member of the Institution) -_____-_- xI Newberry, P. E. (Egypt as a field for anthropological research) -_-------- 435 Newton, Representative Walter H. (regent) _--.-------------- x1, 2, 134, 136 ete MCs eres ee ae aan aS eae weet ee ees ULI Se he Se ee Se ee 108 madover Cant. George Cos 322-2 sige ees SS eee 69 North American Wild Flowers publication fund__--___-__--------_--- 124, 125 O Oceania, Sketches from the notebook of a naturalist-traveler in, during the STEERS (012 Bm app tag a yl alae See ea oe oa mre Bes 379 SAS EET Mig BOR B51 RR aga ge aE ee ae RR RIEU oP SUR rN 69 Olmsted, Arthur J., photographer, National Museum__----_----------- x11, 115 Orchid collecting in Central America (Standley).---.------------------ 353 Organizations meeting in Washington, Cooperation with________-----__- 12 iF Paleontology, researches in (fund for) 22022 Polo era ee 125 Panama and Central America, Botanical exploration in__-_------------ 8 RES EL VN s Ui eee eee conn eee cee gmt pn sd ee ee ee 50 PARENCIO’. JAWICN. bee ot Se oS AT Se eR gre Rename SE oe 48, 49, 50 MPrenOUE id SG Mes = 3s tS Ro een) ee SS NE ees 2 ee ee 38 Katherine seers 923 eee getter Me Cae beeen Sema Meee a eee tee eee 38 HG URES C Ons tees eth Poe a ee neces rete t VASE Oe ake eee 38 REC LPELOY, whorl Dy icenes = een ter 8S i et eee 46, 56 eee de ROLE AUIS Sree Pee eee, Pea ee wee he PENS Dee een 19, 60 PE LUrtrne RIO Me ON a = 0 0 ba Rae AE Kernel a oe Ns tr SL eee 56 ES Sel OE a ie eS aN NERC "sR OR et Beer ed eter aon ety hi hbo She MLSS XII LSE GIST PR i Oa ea A eS eS at ep a 4 i 43 LEAT Ses EON ps OP eae! EAMES os bbs SONS te ae ed ae Ae heehee es Ana AE Lead 107 532 INDEX Page Falter Poul vilitset 00% 2t% 6-23 - oes nan aha se ene ween eee 78 Platt, Charles A_ 2-22-22 420222250524 shee 6 ste SP 4, 18, 48, 47, 50, 135 Poore fued, Lucy. T.-and-George "We 272 7422 ~ soe seesaw 4, 123, 124, 125 Porters Mre.John -Biddle--+. 52 --lrhsrbhress 344s Se es e4 serra eee 53 Portraits; World ‘War, Installation: of the:t 22222252 a ee 55 Postmaster General (member of the Institution)__.._.._._.___-_________ XI Powell, Miata To W-ns canes saan sie nn oe new ede eae eee eee omen 62, 65 Paeitit, Atrhle oe: 4 at ed = Nas a hah et De nies oy sarees d 6 Sees ON eae eee 38 President of the United States (member of the Institution) ______ xy eae Printing and publication, Smithsonian advisory committee on_________- 14, 121 Publications of the Institution and its branches__________-_ 1, 2;°3, 13, 73; 128 Astrophypieal Opiseryatory, annals=2-25° "<2 2=--eeay eee 13, 116 Bureau of American Ethnology —---2+--22-2:222.: 13, 14, 73, 116, 120, 128 cistripation Of. 5 See sean ae eee + BN mere ee ee 74 editqniakwork andre tnt tetas St 5 ae een ene eee eae 73 National Galley of Art::*+ 72s 22 2"s2s so ee ee 13; 116 National Museums222 225523479 Ree 13, 14, 18, 116, 119, 128 Q Quartz, clear fused, made in the electric furnace (Berry)_____.-__-____-- 213 R Radia, Corporation of Ameri¢s 220 = 32S 3355 ers con Se Ser ee 10,29 Radio talks*Smithsontan seriessofes. ++ ee eee eee 10, 29, 30 Radium) in medicine, Che use of (béclere) 2252s eee ee ees 207 Ramsay, Wilhelm (The probable solution of the climate problem in CO] Opry et oN So Ne Ae A es a ol pg 237 Ranoeriund, Henry “Ward 2: ven ho = So en Shes ee 49, 54 Ravenel, W. de C., administrative assistant to the secretary____-_----- xI, 46 Reahelds MBdiwar ds W 2225.0 sy wana ye ce) tok aoe ae ee he ee 49 Regents of the Institution, board of 6) * Uso ee oe ee eee 2 annual meetin Oe. sa 8 oe hs Sk ote tag SU Dane ee ree eee 127 executive committee ________- RL RSE Mines Soh mat hoe EE x, 127 TEPOLGS oe oo Sa RAE EA eS ENE a Ra FIT Eo 123 permanent-commilblee, NOPOL bey a ee Sea = ee ere ee 128 PO CeOdin ws! as Sa Nee tere SA ee ae ee ae ee ee eee 127 TEMUIAT MECH Ges Sas Se NS rs ee eee ee ee es ee ee 13 special MGECtINE 2 ot ee ee eee le eee oe ieee 135 Reid tund vAddisonihs = == ae eee Sees pie ele 4, 1238, 124, 125 Reorganization of Government departments_-__-_-.---------+--------- 133 Fresearch Corporation. 25. ase oe ete 8 ek et 5 rocket. Investifauono. 222i S22 eo ee so ee 125 Researches and explorationse: - 22. 2-3-5. 2-222 oo oe ee 6 inipaleontology (fund for) 2222-2 ae ee ee ee ee 125 special, Bureau of American Ethnology -=-_--.-.--2---<--- 224288 72 Resser,. Dr. Charles B22 2c ce ne lee oe ee ee eer 41 Rheeswumde se a. Se se ee eee ee 4,123, 124, 125 Rhoades, Katherine Nash, associate, Freer Gallery of Art__------------ XII Righmond: Wr.s Charles. WW --.a25 oes en ee x11, 115 Ridgeway, Dr. Roberts. .£. 02. 90 selec oe ee bo eee UL Ritter: MirssGertrude Ds = 22. we Clee eee eat ae eee ae 16, 17, 28, 37 Roberts, O. E., jr., curator, Loeb collection of chemical types_--------- 29 INDEX 530 Page ockerellopsboundation: 3-55-5528 8 Se22 at Bue ae. Sa 55 Pee HIGHT too 500. Sok ate ee te ee 4, 24, 34, 103, 104, 109 SOlaTrescarchebung = 2° 22s See ise eee eee 125 SP VSAH IME DON Ae a ae ee er HR eS ae SE 5) 17 “uneralogien! fund... asain obec ee eels 125 PS INVER oR ea a i ek Se ee 115 Pine tiNa cs Soe bel et re eo ee oes is, ea eee XII Re RNMRG Ne 2) Oe ae ee a ees = Sees 50, 129 er a LRA le ea Se ete 66 Rutherford, Sir Ernest (The electrical structure of matter) __-..-------- 161 bs) mT Ord Ham COree Wh. 9a ee eh ee 4, 123, 125 Schmidt, Johs. (The breeding places of the eel)__ __------------------ 279 Rpmrmt alton ote oS. er a Se as eee XII eee er Adolph iso) tee se te So ee ee 93 easiiearn 2 rT la ans 2 oe Be See eee ee ee 23, 88 Scudder. N. Ps acting assistant librarian .-.-~_-~--.-------2-=--=—-==== xi, 115 Searles, Stanley, editor, Bureau of American Ethnology - - ------ a0 by 73}, 1A) pecerscary of tae Institution ~ + 2222 25=-2-=-2522642- 42 22 See ee TIT! XI, 26, 32, 33, 34, 38, 46, 48, 49, 50, 61, 76, 86, 102, 110, 112, 115, 120, 121, 127, 134, 135. | SNM PEROT 22. So eee ee eee SS ea 128 Piette Hee POE S AK 27a... on ee oe eros ee ead Em eee 28 Shamanism of the natives of Siberia (Casanowicz) --------------------- 415 SUH ee OE Oe Ee ee eee Re ee 42 BSP TAT NTS Aen Mo eed Slew 9 Sans ne eS SET IC Be Pees Se ad 40 Shoemaker, C. W., chief clerk, International Exchanges-_-_-------------- XII Siberia, Shamanism of the natives of (Casanowiez) - ------------------- 415 pmiart, 1. Hodgson... 22) ss ee ee SE ee alee 53 Srmth, 2or: Hugh (Mn ce re te re i Se 32, 39 Bimithsen?s James... =. 22/22 bes eB ks ete 1 LE DE Ee eee ee emma, Stir EOL ESS Ft ev tre aks: Weta) SEL Bene Sey < 4,123 Smithsonian advisory committee on printing and publication- --------- 14, 121 anneal TEPOTUS. 2.6. ee eons oe dee 13, 14, 116, 117, 128 COMET UCL Se UO Mr © wv: eC eer ee ee ee ee ree 13, 116 per yo oe a ee ee ee eee 1 TRIG Ci ee ee ee Re iad OUI ee ee ee eee aS ae 113 COSER E(B SU a ae aS enn oy ge ae ele ee ee ilif33 PR POR. ae ee EL hk SLE a a 113 miscellancous colloctionses. 20 9° UE sDa: aaa sesh eee eee 13, 14, 116 receipts and expenditures_-_--_-_------------------------------- 124 PericsiOlradiontal kaeees = eee ee een a ee 10, 29, 30 special publications_.-_-_...--~-2= -<--- +- -=-=-=------ <2 set 13 Snodgrass, R. E. (Cankerworms) ----------------------------------- 3 7/ Sayder, Or, ©. Be.-2-- 452 5-1-5 .8e8 oe 24 5es 282 Ge sit =-=-=-- 40 Solar system, the origin of the (Jeans) --------------------------~---+ 139 Sorin, Savely_._____-+-------+-+ -—--..----- -- eee Hs saa senee 5 55 Ssudbinine, Seraphin...-.-.-=---=--=---------=---+-t-basee Ee eee 55 Sowerby}: Aréhuridie G2) 2. e0 bo ek 2c Seeded see see eee 38 Species new to the collection, National Zoological Park_---..----------- 91 Byveriiog, 1. Oe a ee ee ee eae 108 Spier, George W._------------==-2-54 566 - ebb s Se eos ee eee 46 20397—25, 35 534 INDEX Page Springer, Dr. Prank.....-...=. +2 2 ee eee 42 PUsHee yy A ee ee ee ee ee 17, 32, 40 (Orchid collecting in Central America) ___.._...-- see - eee ee 353 Stanley, Senator A. Owsley (regent) .______._---------------.---.- xu, 2, 134 Stanley, John Mix, artist-explorer (Bushnell) ______._______.__---_---- 507 State Fish and Game Commission of Utab_. 2.2 222.5 2 = ee 88 State, Secretary of (member of the Institution) _____._________________- XI PLejnerer, Wor beonhard "72" kt a ae a Mi, XS Stirling. MOW os oo eee ee ee 31, 64 Stone, Harlan F., Attorney General (member of the Institution) ________ XI Story. George ee = Pe eee ie er eee ne ey 51 Stratton, Dr. S. W., director, Bureau of Standards________.__-_------- 108 Strouds Mrs: We. oer oe ee eee eS eee 37 Superintendent, National Zoological Park_____________------_---- xu, 15, 102 BS waless Bee eae are eh Ea Ee i Lee errr aed Be 32,115 PU ee ah ee en en 125 Swanton Dr John Resear =. ee ee XII, 67 AN Fabler.Miss: Julizabeth D bs 22222 oes 2a ee en ee ee 26, 46 Taft, William Howard, Chief Justice of the United States (member of the: Institution) 32 o-. =) 2 Se er ae eee >. al a A Lai PRCOT RSs A eS ee ee ee ee Spee eee 108 deller:sBid gare Wy 25 et hk 8 ia Ba ed Be eee er 33, 115 collection‘of, fossils. 2. 37 tee I fe ee ee 185} U7 Mingize et SiO tae esa ee es A a pe ep ee 15 @ermier, Pierre (Che drifting of theicontinents) === 222222525222 ae eee 219 Textiles, Collections in the division of (including wood technology, organic chemistry, foods, and medicines)a. 2.440) = a ee eee 35 Tokyo, Jnaperial Vniyersity. of. = 42020 -s25 o e e 79 rayior, James: Gis i.e Le a oe ee XI Treasury, Secretary of the (member of the Institution) -_-_--_---------- XI @rner WAP. editor of the: Institution: 28 ot 22 oe ees eee eee x5, 12 Tytus; Miss. Mildred (Masi'ssuz June gainers co eg bese eee bee Se 60 U Wirion, Dr. Oo 3 aa Ss ter ee ae re ee 42 V Vacuum, The, There’s something in it (Whitney) .___.__.___-._-_--_-_- 193 Vice President of the United States (member of the Institution) -______- 1,2 W Walcott, Charles D., secretary of the Institution._._._._.._..._..____-___- III, XI, 26, 32, 33, 34, 38, 46, 48, 49, 50, 61, 76, 86, 102, 110, 112, 115, 120, 121, 127, 134, 135. Mré;-(Mary-~Vaux) 2-32 ee oe ORR? Se ee eae At CoPeiae 33, 38 Walcott research fund, Charles D. and Mary Vaux__-------------- 4,123, 125 Walker, (Mrs. Robert:J 6. fn oe wire octet 53 Wallace, Henry Cantwell, Secretary of Agriculture (member of the Institution) =~ S220 2 0 SE 2 AE es OEE ee aan ae See XI PU, ee x ke pie spt se Rar a Le seit aera hc 9 60 War, Secretary of (member of the Institution)_..-.. ----------------- XI INDEX boo Page Waterman, T. T. (North American Indian dwellings) ------------------ 461 Weather Bureau, United States, chief of. ......-.-.------------------ 105 Weeks, John Wingate, Secretary of War (member of the Institution) ---- XI RUGlseE ISS UG Ale oS ee ace Boa aan eee eee 53 Pueumanre sr wlexander 25.252 soos. sca c enna eb ae eee ewe emeenee 39 RMbieC Ee MANIC 2.8 62 eco eek Soe Se ee eae Bee ee XII Witte oom. kenry (regent)... 2225-222 2k4 22s 5ce XI, 2; 126, 127, 180, 135 Whitney, Dr. W. R. (The vacuum—there’s something in it)-_---------- 193 Wilbur, Curtis D., Secretary of the Navy (member of the Institution) - -- XI age. PHorice(Monvensem)s 0202 cee en ee eee eee 513 Wotan aSe VIN! Cpe league ae ee ee es ee ae ee 32, 39 (Sketches from the notebook of a naturalist-traveler in Oceania enim the, year 1923 )\ou i! Sos en ee Oe eee 379 WGI BENNO) 2 2) 05 onde ee ee oe ee eee See ee 31 Work, Hubert, Secretary of the Interior (member of the Institution)._.__ - x1 World. war portrait collection= 22.2 2... 222-2 = 222-2- seseeses esse eeee 19 NPN CA MAC ts 3 ee a De ee ee ee eee ee ee 107 ACT SING es 1 S015 a RN ea el ea Ieee pact eae re Sy ene eres 32, 38 River Samuel or= 2220205. Sit SS eee ee ee Se eae 35, 46 ¥ Yang-tze Valley, China, Biological Exploration in the____._---.-------- 8 Z AP Fpa TNE ESO Ts col Ey on tere ae eae Be 2 ee eee 28 Moolopicgl park MNatOnal se 2 Pot o psoas lee 1, 3, 6, 23, 59) 123; 126 RG CESSIOTIS eee ete ete Bes eters pa BL A et See a aE le oe Se aa ees 87 AMIN al spimat he collection. tee ee eee as ae see ee eee 94 ESULINA LES OR =< San ee Bo hae se ae a ec cee See eee aes 136 AIM POLbATIbeN CCC Seas as ets woe ee es es eS ee eee 102 LITT PTO VMI SMtS ee ee ae a eet ane Se ee ee eee ee 101 RO POR pac a eer Be a re eee ee eA ete eee 87 species new. tothe: collection...{<..0 2425-2 See a oe ee 91 SUP CTMGbeN Ge Tbe Nr Se ee ree te ee MIT loos BVALSY Gi OTES Bien co ee Nae peect ee RN soe e NE figal BS By a ree eee 100 ) ea a iu OP eet cos hee We vr ; ie ve te yee A Ft ee, aa a , . oy age a) \ af v Fg Gig Bt els ae a anid was ie om CO HETE puts. wie? Tes " fut pee fen meh ey T3 aa es Noe Risearira ; i > es f : te, * ‘ c 4 EAS etl wo ‘Ae a ee calnastO fad ida pints) acariice A Wax sncnipioiy ad ed hal Pe Ais. che Sm hb eh poe gins Aoeaal bupe Oe ee add git : a ee : See le le CS ye see eat eed nerd ae i bn vaginas) iitaseh pad 3h {lacie hindi Hig $a papas meeting raestroc, 0B Jot : y : : meobh Be aye ial

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