¥ vaihnl erate MP the” , oot ; _ wer hn : or " Aree) a aoe a r] i he es ray, ra Eve b wp ap 4 WE A d ante h, ¥ . 4 2 \ : nm ¥ hee ast eu 4 ; be Ad abe P ; aN Fe Lal eyed: ia Dona ; Ld) PSS , y , : _ ‘ ~ » ' ; han ) q ‘ Al 4 ‘ . ’ Lb 4 f -- cd \ : A 4 A ' RUN hve % a | j ‘ Wi me ft ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION SHOWING THE OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND CONDITION OF THE INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR ENDED: JUNE 30 194] (Publication 3651) UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON : 1942 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D.C. - - - - - = Price $2.00 (cloth cover) Ce PrTeh Or TRANS MITTAL SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, Washington, December 3, 1941. To the Congress of the United States: In accordance with section 5593 of the Revised Statutes of the United States, I have the honor, in behalf of the Board of Regents, to submit to Congress the annual report of the operations, expendi- tures, and condition of the Smithsonian Institution for the year ended June 30, 1941. I have the honor to be, Very respectfully, your obedient servant, C. G. Axssor, Secretary. It CONTENTS Page PENNE RCTETICSELLA © eS et ee Nes a DERN tee Sw epee ey 50 IX BGAN OVCHLG SM Sac oe ee SL ace ek oe oe 2 aes 1 Summary of the year’s activities of the branches of the Institution_______ 2 MHETestabuannent. osc eee ee Me eae cree 8 Mae DORT i Ol mepmenty se Set es ale Ae a Ue a os ee ea 8 LEE TED a HP LOR Siac RNS ance ee ee Re nes Bea eS Al ie 9 Miavtets OL CCneralmntOROs lo. one o ka Meat et ek ee te ee ee soe 9 DBIMLBAOMath TACIO PLOPTAM a2 = 2252 0h 22255562228 le bas eke ee 9 Wialtersataoone Bacon scholarships. 2- 2222 2220222222022 2e Se 11 popiseniany main, Nall exhibit...-- 25-5202 5-255eso2e-c0 ono see 12 PiPiCumAniaNTeCiiTe 20065. > een kt en eek eed oe a 13 Dees URS er he Seer eee eres oe 8 ee ee a Ee 14 PelOveLiGnn ang Meld work: \ 72 os) Slee een bee es ele ee eee 15 J ETE] CU TEEEE rete 1 AY Bg gl an AA see nn Sets ye Se Rae ee gS 17 cP SIS ey CES pS ls Heres eR SLUR Rar 17 Appendix 1. Report on the United States National Museum___________- 19 2. Report on the National Gallery of Art__...-._...._-_.____- 34 3. Report on the National Collection of Fine Arts___________- 45 4. Report on the Freer Gallery of Art__........-.--_--_.---- 51 5. Report on the Bureau of American Ethnology_---..___-__- 56 6. Report on the International Exchange Service______.____-- 69 7. Report on the National Zoological Park_....-_------------ 78 8. Report on the Astrophysical Observatory _._..-.--..___--- 108 9. Report on the Division of Radiation and Organisms-__--____- 111 PO Cepory ON the LDPATY ceo ee eee ul eS 116 Ta LepOrt (OM PuvlicanGne. 22. 22 u eee CNet LT ee ee 123 Report of the executive committee of the Board of Regents____-._______- 130 GENERAL APPENDIX What lies between the stars? by Walter S. Adams_____________________ 141 Artificial converters of solar energy, by H. C. Hottel_---__.____-_-_---- 151 The new frontiers in the atom, by Ernest O. Lawrence_-_----- Rao ee Seen 163 Science shaping American culture, by Arthur H. Compton___-_________- 175 Mathematics and the sciences, by J. W. Lasley, Jr__.-.-.-_-.-___--__-- 183 The role of science in the electrical industry, by M. W. Smith___________ 199 The new synthetic textile fibers, by Herbert R. Mauersberger-_---_--_-_-- 211 PASS UICS MOV n CONG OD Vos KUTING ses eel Pe SE A She MN RSL ee Mee Ee 225 Vitamins and their occurrence in foods, by Hazel E. Munsell____-______- 239 Science and human prospects, by Eliot Blackwelder____---_---_-_-_---- 267 Iceland, land of frost and fire, by Vigfus Einarsson_.._._._-_-_--------- 285 The genes and the hope of mankind, by Bruce Bliven____--_-_----_--_--- 293 Care of captive animals, by Ernest P. Walker........-..-...-...---... 305 The influence of insects on the development of forest protection and forest Mise MeN he HY. (rs CPAIPNERG a. fie oe a SoD eg ee 367 Growth hormones in plants, by Kenneth V. Thimann_-_-____---_-------- 393 Weeful algae, by Florence Meier Chase... --=2/-.22.-2 =) 42... ene. 401 VI CONTENTS The excavations of Solomon’s seaport: Ezion-geber, by Nelson Glueck... 453 Decipherment of the linguistic portion of the Maya hieroglyphs, by Ben- Jamin’ bee Whort set snes CAL Le alee ey eens er, Seek eeas Utes 479 Contacts between Iroquois herbalism and colonial medicine, by William N. Penton. SoA ak eas i ee wel eee geen Mens Ut Ure ee AA 503 The study of Indian music, by Frances Densmore________.___________.. 527 Snake bites and the Hopi Snake Dance, by M. W. Stirling______________ 551 The: Eskimo ‘ehild;) by Ales (Hirdlic icq 6 spy) 8 rey ol Aylin 557 Wings for Transportation (Recent developments in air transportation equipment), by ‘Theodore PP’ Wright, (Di Se... 0. ee ee ee 563 LIST OF PLATES Page Secretary’s Report: DEAE ES TR Aa eS ES Sel Ade a pt La bat eae eee RA ween 4 SE 12 TET PS oes seg TR EAD aS OR pellets oe Ful UT Gm eae Oy game US BAU 52 DET sa frees ee pene esta RL a dae ys Se Daa pe We a A ae 78 What lies between the stars? (Adams): PERE es Led eee aa tae a ae aR ete ce eee foe ce ates ce Pe ae) eee Oy TRY a 150 The new frontiers in the atom (Lawrence): TESA eS Oe ee LAR a ee een ee ee ee es ees 174 The role of science in the electrical industry (Smith) SEA ye a i CA FES Od FS a Se aS I) Te ee eee ee ane Te 210 Plastics (Kline) cele eye ar ne he se ee sore ey tee ee a aes See ee 238 Iceland, land of frost and fire (Einarsson): RV erbes pe besl ices pia eh roe i ee cere ly St te 292 Care of captive animals (Walker): Pisces lees see nara ere ne, see eens alesse eo oe at 366 The influence of insects on the development of forest protection and forest management (Craighead): IB Laes eke pee: 2) insane an ea cake od EM Sey AL 2 ahd peel lew Speier 392 Growth hormones in plants (Thimann): ELSES GLIA aa ae ee aca De th lah a ae Ome ee) Se 400 Useful algae (Chase): PETS tres ie Cae Spi ea 2a ee Bed te ee kee ee = ee 452 The excavations of Solomon’s seaport: Ezion-geber (Glueck): Wels tesla 4 ert 2 Rey, eae eed cone ane ol fe Sas See a 478 Contacts between Iroquois herbalism and colonial medicine (Fenton): lates peters kr hee ee ree to NG e erat Shh 2S OR eee oo ae Se 526 The study of Indian music (Densmore): IP Ua bes l— Ge mires arias ack es pre Les ee OL ah a a a 550 Snake bites and the Hopi Snake Dance (Stirling): EE Ui i Fe age a le TIA AL Nl a et SE a wb» tg gee EN A I 556 The Eskimo child (Hrdli¢ka) : albcy es Vel Ca Ut ee ee El ae ee a Be Ne 5 it iden) a) err ee Spe ee 562 Wings for transportation (Wright): Plateset— 4a ee ie a he an ime 2 Ee ge ee ee alee 584 THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION June 30, 1941 Presiding officer ew officio——FRANKLIN D. RoosrvEtt, President of the United States. Chancellor—CHARLES EvANS Huaues, Chief Justice of the United States. Members of the Institution: FRANKLIN D. ROOSEVELT, President of the United States. Henry A. WALLACE, Vice President of the United States. CHARLES Evans HUGHES, Chief Justice of the United States. CoRDELL HULL, Secretary of State. Henry MoRGENTHAU, Jr., Secretary of the Treasury. Henry L. Stimson, Secretary of War. Rosert H. JAckson, Attorney General. FRANK C. WALKER, Postmaster General. FRANK Kwnox, Secretary of the Navy. Harrop L. Ickes, Secretary of the Interior. CLAUDE R. WicKARD, Secretary of Agriculture. JESSE H. JoNES, Secretary of Commerce. FRANCES PERKINS, Secretary of Labor. Regents of the Institution: CHARLES EVANS HUGHES, Chief Justice of the United States, Chancellor. Henry A. WALLACE, Vice President of the United States. CHARLES L. McNary, Member of the Senate. ALBEN W. BArKiEY, Member of the Senate. BENNETT CHAMP CLARK, Member of the Senate. CLARENCE CANNON, Member of the House of Representatives. Witrim P. Cots, Jr., Member of the House of Representatives. Foster STEARNS, Member of the House of Representatives. FREDERIc A. DELANO, citizen of Washington, D. C. Rouanp S. Morris, citizen of Pennsylvania. Harvey N. Davis, citizen of New Jersey. ARTHUR H. Compton, citizen of Illinois. VANNEVAR BusH, citizen of Washington, D. C. Ezecutwe committee.—FREDERIC A. DELANO, VANNEVAR BUSH. Secretary—CHARLES G. ABBOT. Assistant Secretary.—ALEXANDER WETMORE. Administrative assistant to the Secretary. HARRY W. DORSEY. Treasurer.—NICHOLAS W. DORSEY. Chief, editorial division —WEeEBSTER P. TRUE. Librarian.—WiiAm L. CorsBin. Personnel officer.—HELEN A. OLMSTED. Property clerk.—JAMES H. HILL. x ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM Keeper ex officio—CHARLES G. ABBOT. Assistant Secretary (in charge).—ALEXANDER WETMORE. Associate Director.—JOHN EB. GRAF. SCIENTIFIC STAFF DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY : Frank M. Setzler, head curator; A. J. Andrews, chief preparator. Division of Ethnology: H. W. Krieger, curator; J. E. Weckler, Jr., assistant curator; Arthur P. Rice, collaborator. Section of Ceramics: Samuel W. Woodhouse, collaborator. Division of Archeology: Neil M. Judd, curator; Waldo R. Wedel, assistant curator; R. G. Paine, senior scientific aid; J. Townsend Russell, honorary assistant curator of Old World archeology. Division of Physical Anthropology: AleS Hrdlitka, curator; T. Dale Stewart, associate curator. Collaborators in anthropology: George Grant MacCurdy; W. W. Taylor, Jr. \ DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY: Leonhard Stejneger, head curator; W. L. Brown, chief taxidermist; Aime M. Awl, illustrator. Division of Mammals: Remington Kellogg, curator; H. Harold Shamel, senior scientific aid; A. Brazier Howell, collaborator; Gerrit S. Miller, Jr., associate, Division of Birds: Herbert Friedmann, curator; J. H. Riley, associate cura- tor; H. G. Deignan, assistant curator; Alexander Wetmore, custodian of alcoholic and skeleton collections; Casey A. Wood, collaborator; Arthur C. Bent, collaborator. Division of Reptiles and Batrachians: Leonhard Stejneger, curator; Doris M. Cochran, assistant curator. Division of Fishes: Leonard P. Schultz, curator; BE. D. Reid, senior scientific aid. Dwwision of Insects: L. O. Howard, honorary curator; Edward A. Chapin, curator; R. H. Blackwelder, assistant curator; William Schaus, honorary assistant curator. Section of Hymenoptera: 8. A. Rohwer, custodian; W. M. Mann, assist- ant custodian; Robert A. Cushman, assistant custodian. Section of Myriapoda: O. F. Cook, custodian. Section of Diptera: Charles T. Greene, assistant custodian. Section of Coleoptera: L. L. Buchanan, specialist for Casey collection. Section of Lepidoptera: J. T. Barnes, collaborator. Section of Hemiptera: W. L. McAtee, acting custodian. Section of Forest Tree Beetles: A. D. Hopkins, custodian. Division of Marine Invertebrates: Waldo L. Schmitt, curator; C. R. Shoe- maker, assistant curator; James O. Maloney, aid; Mrs. Harriet Rich- ardson Searle, collaborator; Max M. Ellis, collaborator; J. Percy Moore, collaborator; Joseph A. Cushman, collaborator in Foraminifera; Charles Branch Wilson, collaborator in Copepoda. Division of Mollusks: Paul Bartsch, curator; Harald A. Rehder, assistant curator; Joseph P. BE. Morrison, senior scientific aid. Section of Helminthological Collections: Benjamin Schwartz, collab- orator. Division of Echinoderms: Austin H. Clark, curator. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY xI DEPARTMENT OF BioLocy—Continued. Division of Plants (National Herbarium): W. R. Maxon, curator; Ells- worth P. Killip, associate curator; Emery C. Leonard, assistant curator; Conrad V. Morton, assistant curator; Egbert H. Walker, aid; John A. Stevenson, custodian of C. G. Lloyd mycological collection. Section of Grasses; Agnes Chase, custodian. Section of Cryptogamic Collections; O. F. Cook, assistant curator. Section of Higher Algae: W. T. Swingle, custodian. Section of Lower Fungi: D. G. Fairchild, custodian. Section of Diatoms: Paul S. Conger, custodian. Associates in Zoology: C. Hart Merriam, Mary J. Rathbun, Theodore S. Palmer, William B. Marshall, A. G. Boving. Associate curator in Zoology: Hugh M. Smith. Associate in Marine Sediments: T. Wayland Vaughan. Collaborator in Zoology: Robert Sterling Clark. Collaborators in Biology: A. K. Fisher, David C. Graham. DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY: R. 8. Bassler, head curator; Jessie G. Beach, aid. Division of Physical and Chemical Geology (systematic and applied) : W. F. Foshag, curator; Edward P. Henderson, assistant curator; Bertel O. Reberholt, senior scientific aid. Division of Mineralogy and Petrology: W. F. Foshag, curator; Frank L. Hess, custodian of rare metals and rare earths. Division of Stratigraphic Paleontology: Charles E. Resser, curator; Gustav A. Cooper, assistant curator; Marion F. Willoughby, senior scientific aid. Section of Invertebrate Paleontology: T. W. Stanton, custodian of Mesozoic collection ; Paul Bartsch, curator of Cenozoic collection. Division of Vertebrate Paleontology: Charles W. Gilmore, curator; C. Lewis Gazin, assistant curator; Norman H. Boss, chief preparator. Associates in Mineralogy: W. T. Schaller, S. H. Perry. Associate in Paleontology: E. O. Ulrich. Associate in Petrology: Whitman Cross. DEPARTMENT OF ENGINEERING AND INDUSTRIES: Carl W. Mitman, head curator. Division of Engineering: Frank A. Taylor, curator. Section of Transportation and Civil Engineering: Frank A. ‘Taylor, in charge. Section of Aeronautics: Paul E. Garber, assistant curator. Section of Mechanical Engineering: Frank A. Taylor, in charge. Section of Electrical Engineering and Communications: Frank A. Taylor, in charge. Section of Mining and Metallurgical Engineering: Carl W. Mitman, in charge. Section of Physical Sciences and Measurement: Frank A. Taylor, in charge. Section of Tools: Frank A. Taylor, in charge. Division of Crafts and Industries: Frederick L. Lewton, curator; Bliza- beth W. Rosson, senior scientific aid. Section of Textiles: Frederick L. Lewton, in charge. Section of Woods and Wood Technology: William N. Watkins, assistant curator. Section of Chemical Industries: Wallace E. Duncan, assistant curator. Section of Agricultural Industries: Frederick L. Lewton, in charge. XII ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 DEPARTMENT OF ENGINEERING AND INDUSTRIES—Continued. Division of Medicine and Public Health: Charles Whitebread, associate curator. Division of Graphic Arts: R. P. Toiman, curator. Section of Photography: A. J. Olmsted, assistant curator. DIvIsioN oF History: T. T. Belote, curator; Charles Carey, assistant curator; Catherine L. Manning, philatelist. ADMINISTRATIVE STAFF Chief of correspondence and documents.—H. S. BRYANT. Assistant chief of correspondence and documents.—L. E. COMMERFORD. Superintendent of buildings and labor.—R. H. TRmMBLY. Assistant superintendent of buildings and labor.—CHaArLES C. SINCLAIR. Editor—PavuL H. OFHSER, Accountant and auditor.—N. W. DoRsEY. Photographer.—A, J. OLMSTED. Property clerk.—LAWRENCE L, OLIVER. Assistant librarian.—LEILA FE’, CLARK. NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART Trustees: THE CHIEF JUSTICE OF THE UNITED STATES. Tue SECRETARY OF STATE. THE SECRETARY OF THE TREASURY. Tue SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. Davin K. E. Bruce. DUNCAN PHILLIPS. FERDINAND LAMMOT BELIN. SAMUEL H. KRgESs. JOSEPH BE. WIDENER. President.—Davip K. BE. Bruce. Vice President.—FERDINAND LAMMOT BELIN. Secretary-Treasurer and General Counsel.—Donatp D. SHEPARD. Director.—Davm EK. FINLry. Assistant Director.—MacciLL JAMES. Administrator.—H, A. MCBRIDE. Chief Curator —JOHN WALKER. NATIONAL COLLECTION OF FINE ARTS Acting Director—RvuEt P. TOLMAN. FREER GALLERY OF ART Director—JoHN ELLERTON LODGE. Assistant Director.—GRACE DUNHAM GUEST. Associate in archeology.—CarL WHITING BISHOP. Associate in research.—ARCHIBALD G. WENLBEY. Superintendent.—W. N. RAWLEY. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY Chief —MAtTTHEW W. STIRLING. XIII Senior ethnologists—H. B. Cottins, Jr... Joun P. Harrineron, JoHn R. SWANTON. Senior archeologist—F RANK H. H. Roberts, Jr. Senior anthropologist.—JuLIAN H. STEWARD. Associate anthropologist.—W. N. Frenton. Editor.—M. HELEN PALMER. Librarian.—Mir1AM B. KETCHUM. Illustrator—EDWIN G. CASSEDY. INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGE SERVICE Secretary (in charge).—CHARLES G. ABBOT. Chief Clerk.—CoatEs W. SHOEMAKER, NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK Director.—WILLIAM M. MANN. Assistant Director.—ERNEST P. WALKER. ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY Director.—CHARLES G. ABBOT, Assistant Director.—LoyaL B. ALDRICH. Senior astrophysicist.—WILiIAM H. HOovEr. DIVISION OF RADIATION AND ORGANISMS Director.—CHARLES G. ABBOT. Assistant Director.—EHaAriL S. JOHNSTON. Senior physicist —Epwarp D. McALIsTER. Senior mechanical engineer.—LELAND B. CLARE. Associate plant physiologist—I'LORENCE M. CHASE. Junior biochemist.—RoBrert L. WEINTRAUB. i Re Ores! REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION C. G. ABBOT FOR THE YEAR ENDED JUNE 30, 1941 To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. GENTLEMEN: I have the honor to submit herewith my report show- ing the activities and condition of the Smithsonian Institution and the Government bureaus under its administrative charge during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1941. The first 18 pages contain a sum- mary account of the affairs of the Institution, and appendixes 1 to 11 give more detailed reports of the operations of the National Museum, the National Gallery of Art, the National Collection of Fine Arts, the Freer Gallery of Art, the Bureau of American Ethnology, the International Exchanges, the National Zoological Park, the Astro- physical Observatory, the Division of Radiation and Organisms, the Smithsonian library, and of the publications issued under the direc- tion of the Institution. On page 180 is the financial report of the executive committee of the Board of Regents. OUTSTANDING EVENTS Among the numerous bureaus and agencies in Washington, certain ones are listed as defense agencies, and the Smithsonian Institution was included during the year in this list. Its vast collections are of great usefulness in the identification and study of strategic ma- terials relating to national defense, such as rubber, tin, aluminum, mica, optical glass, abrasives, and many others. Its staff includes scientific experts and technicians with outstanding experience in connection with such materials, as well as laboratories and equipment for all sorts of delicate experimental work. The Smithsonian has already been assigned a number of defense problems and stands ready to devote all its resources to such work when called upon. The National Gallery of Art was completed and opened to the public in March 1941, bringing to fruition the late Andrew W. Mellon’s gift to the Nation of his priceless art collection and a mag- nificient building to house it. The great hall of the Smithsonian Building was completely re- decorated, and in it was installed a unique exhibit designed to a 2 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 illustrate concisely for visitors all the activities of the Institution and its branches. Opened in January 1941, after a preview by the Board of Regents, the new exhibit aroused widespread favorable comment. The Smithsonian radio program, “The World is Yours,” on June 14, 1941, put on the air an anniversary broadcast marking the com- pletion of 5 full years of the series. A tabulation of station-manager ratings of the program showed that its popularity throughout the country continued unabated. Among several bequests to the Institution announced during the year, the largest was that from Mrs. Mary Vaux Walcott, widow of the late Secretary Charles D. Walcott. Her bequest amounted to more than $400,000. New members on the Board of Regents were Vice President Henry A. Wallace, and Representative Foster Stearns, of New Hampshire. The revision of all solar-constant values collected by the Astro- physical Observatory from all Smithsonian observing stations from 1923 to the present proved to be an even more tremendous task than had been anticipated. It was nearing completion, however, at the close of the year, and publication is expected to begin by the first part of 1942. M. W. Stirling made further archeological discoveries in southern Mexico, working in cooperation with the National Geographic Society. Dr. Frank H. H. Roberts, Jr., conducted his sixth and final archeological expedition to the Lindenmeier site in northern Colorado, his work having added greatly to our knowledge of Folsom man and the whole subject of the early occupation of America. The work of the International Exchange Service was seriously hampered by world conditions, but the scientific and other publica- tions intended for foreign exchange that cannot now be sent are being stored at the Institution until the end of hostilities. SUMMARY OF THE YEAR’S ACTIVITIES OF THE BRANCHES OF THE INSTITUTION National Museum.—Appropriations for the maintenance and operation of the Museum during the fiscal year amounted to $818,305. Additional funds are needed annually for guards, curators, and im- provements, but in the press of defense needs the Congress has not found it expedient to grant them. Accessions for the year totaled 326,686 individual specimens, bringing the number of catalog entries in all departments of the Museum to nearly 17,500,000. Among the outstanding things received were the following: In anthropology, a collection of Paleolithic, Neolithic, and Bronze Age implements REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 3 and ornaments from Java, nearly 1,000 potsherds and shell imple- ments from Indian burial mounds near Belle Glade, Fla., skeletal remains from Peru, and a reconstruction of the newly found remains of the fourth Pithecanthropus; in biology, 74 mammals, 472 reptiles and amphibians, and nearly 2,000 fishes from Liberia, all resulting from the Smithsonian-Firestone Expedition to that country, the Nevermann collection of about 33,000 Costa Rican Coleoptera includ- ing much type material, and a large collection of marine inverte- brates resulting from the participation of Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt in the Fish and Wildlife Service’s investigations of the Alaska king erab; in geology, an 1,800-carat aquamarine crystal from Agua Preta, Brazil, the Sardis, Ga., meteorite, weighing 1,760 pounds. the fifth largest ever found in the United States, many thousands of Cambrian, post-Cambrian, and Devonian fossils collected in various parts of the United States by members of the Museum staff, and the greater part of a fossil skeleton of the primitive mammal Uintather- ium; in engineering and industries, an operating exhibit of the West- inghouse air brake, a fighter plane known as the Curtiss Sparrow- hawk, and a 93-dial display clock made by Louis Zimmer, of Lier, Belgium, which tells the time at many places around the world, the tides at various points, and many calendar and astronomical events; in history, busts, costumes, or mementos of famous Americans including Abraham Lincoln, William Jennings Bryan, and Brig. Gen. Caleb Cushing. As usual, many members of the scientific staff took part in field expeditions, financed for the most part by Smithsonian private funds or through cooperative arrangements with other organizations or individuals. Twenty-five publications were issued by the Museum, and 52,170 copies of its publications were distributed. Visitors for the year totaled 2,505,871. Fourteen special exhibits were held under the auspices of various educational, scientific, and other groups. Changes in staff included the retire- ment of Gerrit S. Miller, Jr., as curator of the division of mammals and the advancement of the assistant curator, Dr. Remington Kellogg, to succeed him, and the appointment of two new assistant curators, Dr. Joseph E. Weckler, Jr., in the division of ethnology, and Dr. Richard E. Blackwelder in the division of insects. National Gallery of Art—The completed building of the National Gallery of Art was formally accepted by the trustees of the Gallery on December 10, 1940, and on the evening of March 17, 1941, the opening ceremonies were held. Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes briefly described the purposes of the Gallery, Mr. Paul Mellon, son of the donor of the Gallery, presented the building and the Mellon Collection to the Nation, and Mr. Samuel H. Kress presented the Kress Collection to the Gallery. The President of the United States 430577—42-—2 4 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 then accepted the Gallery on behalf of the people of the Nation. The following day the building was opened to the public, and the attendance from that day to June 30 was 798,156, an average of 7,529 per day. Practically all the initial staff of the Gallery had been employed by March 1, 1941, the number of employees on June 30 being 229. The first catalog of the Gallery and a booklet of general information were ready for distribution at the time of the public opening, as were also a book of illustrations of all the art works in the collection, color reproductions, and postcards. A num- ber of important prints and four paintings were accepted as gifts during the year. Under the educational program of the Gallery, the docent staff has been organized so that there are at least two public gallery tours every day and two auditorium lectures every week. A memorial tablet to the late Andrew W. Mellon, donor of the Gallery, was installed in the lobby, and four marble panels were set aside for the names of important donors to the Gallery. The names at present carved on the panels are those of Mr. Mellon and Samuel H. Kress, and the names of future donors will be added as authorized by the Board of Trustees. National Collection of Fine Arts——The National Collection re- ceived two additions to its endowment funds during the year: $5,000 from the Cornelia Livingston Pell Estate of New York, and $10,000 from the Miss Julia D. Strong Estate, of Washington, D. C. Three paintings were accepted for the National Collection by the Smithsonian Art Commission in December 1940, and several other gifts of etchings, miniatures, and paintings were deposited during the year to be passed upon by the Commission at its next annual meeting. Three miniatures were purchased through the Catherine Walden Myer Fund. The following eight special exhibi- tions were held: 48 pastels, drawings, and lithographs by Lily E. Smulders; the Sixth Annual Metropolitan State Art Contest, 1940, comprising 289 art works by 158 artists; the work of William Baxter Closson (1848-1926), comprising 94 oils, 40 pastels, 21 water colors, 112 wood engravings, and other material; 111 pastels by 17 artists, exhibited by the National Society of Pastelists; 22 water colors and 21 pastels by Ethel H. Hagen; 42 paintings by Alejandro Pardinas under the patronage of the Cuban Ambassador; 39 caricatures by Antonio Sotomayor under the patronage of the Bolivian Minister ; and a memorial exhibition of 17 color prints and 50 black and white prints by Bertha E. Jaques (1863-1941). A new edition of the Catalog of American and European Paintings in the Gellatly Collec- tion was published. Freer Gallery of Art—Additions to the collections included Chinese bronze, Chinese jade, Arabic manuscripts, Indian and Per- REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 5 sian painting, Chinese porcelain, and Chinese and Persian pottery. The work of the curatorial staff was devoted to the study and record- ing of these new acquisitions and other art objects and manuscripts already in the collection. In addition 693 objects and 180 photo- graphs were brought or sent to the Director for information con- cerning them, and reports upon all these were made to the owners. Changes in exhibition involved 84 individual objects. Visitors to the Gallery totaled 111,784 for the year. Six illustrated lectures were given in the auditorium, six study groups were held in a study room and ten groups were given docent service in exhibition galler- ies. A. G. Wenley of the Gallery staff gave a 6 weeks’ lecture course in Chinese and Japanese art in the Far Eastern Institute at the 1940 Harvard University Summer School. William R. B. Acker, also of the staff, returned from Holland, having taken his Ph.D. ewm laude in Chinese at the University of Leyden. Bureau of American Ethnology.—The Chief of the Bureau, M. W. Stirling, continued his archeological excavations in southern Mexico in cooperation with the National Geographic Society. At Cerro de las Mesas 20 carved stone monuments were unearthed, and 2 initial series dates were deciphered. At Izapa, a link between the west coast of Guatemala and the isthmian region of southern Mexico, a large number of stelae were excavated. The collections made were brought to Mexico City, where they were studied by Dr. Philip Drucker, assistant archeologist of the expedition. Dr. J. R. Swan- ton brought to completion his extensive report on the Indians of the Southeast, comprising 1,500 typewritten pages, which the Bureau plans to publish shortly. Three other ethnological papers by Dr. Swanton were in process of publication. Dr. J. P. Harrington con- tinued his comparative study of the Navaho and Tlingit languages. His work on the Navaho was completed during the year, forming a manuscript of more than 1,200 pages. Dr. F. H. H. Roberts, Jr., brought to completion the sixth and final season of archeological in- vestigations at the Lindenmeier site in northern Colorado, wherein much new and valuable information on the subject of Folsom man and the early occupation of North America has been obtained. To- ward the close of the year he went to San Jon, N. Mex., to start excavations at a promising site suggestive of another phase of early man in North America, the so-called Yuma. Dr. J. H. Steward completed his researches on the Carrier Indians of British Columbia and investigated a burial site on an island off the coast of Alaska. He devoted the rest of the year to editorial and organizational work on the proposed Handbook of South American Indians. Dr. H. B. Collins, Jr., continued his study of collections from Eskimo sites in the vicinity of Bering Strait. Dr. W. N. Fenton conducted field 6 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 work among the Senecas of Allegany Reservation, N. Y., and carried forward a number of other investigations dealing with Iroquois problems. Miss Frances Densmore, a collaborator of the Bureau, continued her study of Indian music, collecting additional songs, transcribing these and songs previously recorded, and preparing ma- terial for publication. The Bureau published its annual report and three bulletins. The library accessioned 378 items and relabeled and reshelved over 5,000 books. International Exchange Service-—The Exchange Service acts as the official United States agency for the interchange of parliamentary, governmental, and scientific publications between this country and the rest of the world. During the past year the Service handled 576,282 packages of such publications, with a total weight of 388,649 pounds. Naturally, the last 2 years have shown a marked falling off in the number of packages passing through the Exchange Service because of war conditions in large parts of the world. The material that cannot now be shipped abroad will be stored at the Institution until the end of hostilities. Transmission of shipments to and from Great Britain and to Latin America has been practicaly uninter- rupted, and some material has been forwarded to Spain and Portugal, although irregularly. Five consignments of exchanges have been lost through war activities. National Zoological Park.—The W. P. A. project which has been of such great assistance to the Park in the past few years was termi- nated on August 6, 1940, so that few improvements could be under- taken during the year. The four new waterfowl ponds were com- pleted and birds transferred to them at the beginning of the year. The new restaurant constructed by the P. W. A. was completed in the fall of 1940 and was opened to the public in March 1941. Visi- tors for the year totaled 2,430,300, including 48,050 representing school or other groups from 20 States and the District of Columbia. The Smithsonian-Firestone Expedition to Liberia for the purpose of collecting live animals for the Zoo returned to this country in August 1940. The animals brought back numbered nearly 200, representing 61 species of mammals, birds, and other forms, several of them being new to the history of the collection. The usual large number of gifts was received during the year, and 70 mammals, 49 birds, and 14 reptiles were born or hatched in the Park. The total number of animals in the collection at the close of the year was 2,380, repre- senting 730 different species. The chief need of the Zoo is for three new buildings: one for antelope, deer, wild hogs, and kan- garoos; one for monkeys; and the third for carnivores. Astrophysical Observatory.—At Washington the work of the staff was devoted largely to completing for publication the immense table REPORT OF THE SECRETARY y / of daily solar-constant observations at the three field stations at Montezuma, Table Mountain, and Mount St. Katherine from 1923 to 1939. The rest of the text for volume 6 of the Annals of the Observatory was also nearly completed, and the whole is expected to be ready for the printer before January 1942. During preparation of a paper on “An Important Weather Element Hitherto Generally Disregarded,” Dr. Abbot noted that the solar variation is several times greater in percentage for blue-violet rays than for total radia- tion. This led him to consider whether the sun’s variation might not be more effectively followed by observations limited to the blue- violet region of the spectrum. He finally devised a method of thus restricting the observations, which was introduced near the close of the year at the three field observing stations. There is great hope that the new method will yield more reliable daily indications of the solar variations. Dr. H. Arctowski continued his meteoro- logical investigations relating to the effects of solar variation on atmospheric barometric pressure and temperature and completed a manuscript incorporating the results of this study which will be published during the coming year. Daily determinations of the solar constant of radiation were made at the three field stations whenever conditions permitted. A new concrete dwelling house for the observers was erected at the Montezuma station. Division of Radiation and Organisms.—The Division continued its program of research on the relation of radiation to various phases of plant growth. In continuing the project dealing with the genesis of chlorophyll and the beginning of photosynthesis, a large amount of information was obtained on the respiration of etiolated barley seed- lings. This material is important because of its bearing upon photo- synthesis as measured by the gaseous exchange method. It appears that conditions of carbon dioxide storage or depletion develop in the plant tissue depending upon the concentration of this gas sur- rounding the plants. In subsequent periods, when the respiration is measured there is an increase or decrease in the rate of CO, excre- tion (i. e., in the apparent rate of respiration) until a state of equilibrium with the new environment is attained. Considerable time was spent in improving the performance of the spectrograph used in measuring carbon dioxide for very short periods, and the new features developed have greatly improved the speed-sensitivity and stability of the apparatus. Further study was made of the spectral effectiveness of radiation for the growth inhibition of the oats mesocotyl, and a comparative study was undertaken of some other species of grasses. A paper resulting from experiments in the ultraviolet irradiation of algae showed that algae exposed four times 8 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 to stimulative amounts of certain wave lengths of the ultraviolet exhibited 4 to 4.8 times the growth rate (expressed as number of cells) of the control cultures. The influence of culture conditions on the photosynthetic behavior of the alga Chlorella pyrenoidosa was investigated. The growth cycle of this organism was studied in relation to light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration, and the composition of the nutrient solution. A number of papers were pre- sented by members of the staff before meetings of scientific bodies, and six publications resulting from the work of the Division were issued during the year. THE ESTABLISHMENT The Smithsonian Institution was created by act of Congress in 1846, according to the terms of the will of James Smithson, of England, who in 1826 bequeathed his property to the United States of America “to found at Washington, under the name of the Smith- sonian Institution, an establishment for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men.” In receiving the property and accepting the trust, Congress determined that the Federal Government was without authority to administer the trust directly, and, therefore, constituted an “establishment” whose statutory members are “the President, the Vice President, the Chief Justice, and the heads of the executive departments.” THE BOARD OF REGENTS Changes in the personnel of the Board of Regents during the fiscal year included the succession of Vice President Henry A. Wal- lace to the membership held by former Vice President John N. Garner, effective January 20, 1941, the Vice President being by law a regent ex officio, and the appointment by the Speaker of the House of Representatives on January 22, 1941, of Representative Foster Stearns, of New Hampshire, to succeed Representative Charles L. Gifford, who had resigned his membership as a regent. The roll of regents at the close of the fiscal year was as follows: Charles Evans Hughes, Chief Justice of the United States, Chancel- lor; Henry A. Wallace, Vice President of the United States; mem- bers from the Senate—Charles L. McNary, Alben W. Barkley, Bennett Champ Clark; members from the House of Representatives— Clarence Cannon, William P. Cole, Jr., Foster Stearns; citizen mem- bers—Frederic A. Delano, Washington, D. C.; Roland S. Morris, Pennsylvania; Harvey N. Davis, New Jersey; Arthur H. Compton, Illinois; and Vannevar Bush, Washington, D. C. Proceedings.—The annual meeting of the Board of Regents was held on January 17, 1941. The regents present were Chief Justice REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 9 Charles Evans Hughes, Chancellor; Senator Bennett Champ Clark; Representatives Charles L. Gifford and Clarence Cannon; citizen regents Frederic A. Delano, Roland S. Morris, Harvey N. Davis, and Vannevar Bush; and the Secretary, Dr. Charles G. Abbot. The meeting was held in the Smithsonian main hall, which had recently been newly decorated and equipped with illustrative exhibits giving a comprehensive view of all Smithsonian activities. The new exhibits were viewed with approval by the regents. The Board received and accepted the Secretary’s annual report covering the year’s activities of the parent institution and the several Government branches. The Board also received and accepted the report by Mr. Delano, of the executive committee, covering financial statistics of the Institution; and the annual report of the Smith- sonian Art Commission. The Secretary informed the regents of the death of Mrs. Mary Vaux Walcott on August 22, 1940, and of her designation of the Smithsonian Institution as residuary legatee, the bequest, when re- ceived, to be made a part of the Charles D. and Mary Vaux Walcott Research Fund set up by the former Secretary. Appropriate resolu- tions were adopted by the Board. In his usual special report the Secretary mentioned briefly the more important activities carried on by the Institution and its branches during the year. FINANCES A statement on finances will be found in the report of the Execu- tive Committee of the Board of Regents, page 130. MATTERS OF GENERAL INTEREST SMITHSONIAN RADIO PROGRAM The Smithsonian educational radio program, “The World is Yours,” celebrated its fifth anniversary on the air on June 14, 1941. On that date a specia] program was prepared wherein extracts from specially successful previous broadcasts were woven together into a composite story to illustrate the way in which the various sciences are handled in this series. “The World is Yours,” a series of weekly half-hour broadcasts in dramatized form on science, invention, his- tory, exploration, and art, is put on the air over a Nation-wide network through the cooperation of the United States Office of Education and the National Broadcasting Co. The program subjects are selected by the Smithsonian editorial division and the scripts are written by a professional script writer, employed by the Institution, from material furnished by Smithsonian experts in the various fields. 10 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 The programs are produced in Radio City, New York, as an N. B. C. public service feature and go out over the N. B. C. red network. That the popularity of the program has continued undiminished is shown by the fact that an official rating service has twice within the past 2 years placed “The World is Yours” at the top of all non- commercial programs on all networks. A recent rating of N. B. C. public service programs by percentage of station program directors selecting them placed “The World is Yours” sixth on the list, but most of the five rated above it were programs devoted to discussion of current events, which are naturally of greatest interest in these disturbed times. The list of subjects covered by “The World is Yours” during the past fiscal year is as follows:? 1940 Mexico; diind of Silver-2 21.20). BA Sey See eee ie): Fe ae July. af John Deere’ s SteelsBlowree Bee. lich SES USM) Che timate ok. ae July 14 Prim tien Va Bin ers 3 sock be Set sch ath a abe Seed eel eg Ree © We July 21 ig: RheresLite on Othemeianeten 155 see ee eee oe ee ee ee ee July 28 GRRAC Ie Tyg ist oe ee ee a he! Fn Age tg ME 0. 400, eR EO ee Eee Aug. 4 OurEsland "Universe: thes br Beil TID ohn ES A RAT NA Aug. 11 From;Liberian Jungleto Zool ss 2 oe ee a ae Aug. 18 Exploring Cliff ,Dwellingsiof the Weste 2.45. ese a ee Pe eee Aug. 25 Story olsheolver sercem. ti. a 2iy- 1 See es SOs ae ee Sept. 1 ‘Phe Wall: ofa Meteorites]. 2 Ss ey ee eee es ee Sept. 8 Natures Migranteees ie oe coe See ee Se ee ee ee eae Sept. 15 Reaching, the: Upper Airis 29) eaeesee eae onl ele Le eee ee Sept. 22 The World’s Most Important Chemical Reaction..______-___-_----_- Sept. 29 Prospecting for .BlackeiGold? «2h. 3 sah oe oie ate So Oct. 6 Discovering the Source of the Mississippi____-......_.------------_- Oct. 13 With the: Clipper Ships:to Chinal so.) a oe oe ee ee Oct. 20 An‘ indian Theague/or Wations 3222528 fla. Ce ke ee epee ee Nov. 3 Independence TEAM Ss ies ire Seek coe le See ee Oe) ees eens eke eee Nov. 10 New) Wonders of Cliemistry a! 220) ei 1 gE ee Nov. 17 (he: Band: Makes History: sso tsers oie te ce ee re ne et Nov. 30 500: Nears: of ‘Printing 3 cae oF Be eo ae oe eee nee Dec. 7 Pueblo indians'on: the Plains stoke he es eer pee ee Dec. 14 ‘TheiStoryof the Parachutes! a2 8h 2a es ee ee ie a Dec. 21 Benward: with Sciences Jeu ke a0s 2 ee ee a Cee Dec. 28 1941 The Dinosaur National Monument and Its Fossils____.__.__.-------- Jan. 4 Behind the Seenes, at the: Smithsonianss-) 222246 222.222 25 Se ee Jan A APG rat i Romo Bans it oa i ia a Ee kl a Ec a ea a Jan. 18 AG Mec urom: NUIGTORCODE.(s 2 oa 's ae ne eye ena castes Sie cee Jan. 25 The Army Medal of Honor’. a ee eee eee Feb. 1 ‘Dhe StoryrofeVitaminss Seer eno. ee AUS Ae eS a eee Feb. 8 Preaties: with the Wndianig. 20 0 ok es i ee a kp) er i. cok? Kebab Disseminating Knowledge Throughout the Harth__---_-------------- Feb. 22 1No broadcasts were given on October 27 and November 24, 1940, and April 26, 1941, because of important addresses or other commitments by N. B. C. for the usual period of “The World is Yours.” REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 11 1941 Ariiy AncmiNavy NU NLOMOR S28 ose. fl ae oe eee ek Mar. 1 Tine ahian Ss Wem ATiielery 8 he es ge es ce Mar. 8 PIR DTT SS Or LMCERESUEY: = 2s Ate 2 hee ee So ee Mar. 15 CL ETISIGVE, 4 SSCS EZ ep RR ASI EA A Sot ate ae Aigo = eel rat ae Mar. 22 RiFbyAC en iinice Orme ue. oe ee oe as oie sae eee Mar. 29 Sereripiain.in Now EmelanG ss. fo eet ele a ae eee Apr. 5 Smaneoman Hiei Wx pedilons. 22.42 Jos ete coke coe coe toe eee Apr. 12 errr at GOR OL Gaenise ioe eee oe ee te LSS 2 he ya Apr. 19 cs SUEPE DEO IY 2S 8s SR A A a ee SER PA LESS Ss RNA iG SP oe US ay May 3 Le TOCE LA TALE ERES 2) i a A ag a MES Ek OR LYS pete ph O egc en SN Sly hk May 10 Bate taed OL 4ne INOTSEMICN se. oie cee eee Se a oe ee May 17 Oliver Evans—Early American Engineer_.__-....._..-------------- May 24 IONE ARNO a a So eee ee oe See Chee Se eh Se ee May 31 dren TPNERTIIEeS seh nee wee eee ee A ele Sc Se a a Se June 7 Five Years of The World Is Yours (anniversary program) -_-__-------- June 14 LD RETEGE SSSR (6) GE) Lil cos RRR eR ag ee ON ke RT June 21 Pane eeT re ON ory ne Pet ese eee ahr Dee eg ee Oe eS eee June 28 The Institution was unable, because of lack of funds to employ additional personnel, to resume publication of the supplementary articles, or “listener-aids,” which up to June 30, 1940, contributed greatly to the educational value of “The World is Yours” programs. It is hoped that a way will be found to reestablish this part of the project during the coming year. WALTER RATHBONE BACON SCHOLARSHIP A bequest made to the Institution in 1919 in the will of Mrs. Vir- ginia Purdy Bacon, of New York, provided for the establishment of a traveling scholarship, to be known as the Walter Rathbone Bacon scholarship for the study of the fauna of countries other than the United States of America. For the past 2 years the Bacon scholarship has been held by Dr. Hobart M. Smith, whose purpose was the accumulation of specimens of reptiles and amphibians from Mexico, on the basis of which a herpetology of Mexico might be compiled and the biotic provinces of the country more accurately defined. During the year 1940-41, the some 20,500 specimens of reptiles and amphibians obtained during the 2 preceding years were sorted and a portion studied and entered in the permanent collections of the National Museum. The collection requires study that could not be completed within the year, and as a result certain groups must be reserved for study at a later date. A total of 1,421 specimens of snakes was obtained, representing 170 species and subspecies, of which 23 appear unnamed. These com- prise about half the species known from Mexico. Nineteen specimens 12 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 of three species of crocodilians, all that are known from Mexico, were obtained. The study of these groups has been completed. Not all the lizards have been studied yet. Completed genera num- ber 22, comprising 4,547 specimens of 116 species and subspecies. Eleven are unnamed. Six lizard genera remain to be studied. The amphibians are not completed. A preliminary sorting, how- ever, reveals some 5,173 frogs and toads, of about 110 species; 5,064 specimens of approximately 40 species of salamanders; and 6 speci- mens of one species of caecilian. Most of these are being studied by Dr. E. H. Taylor. The turtles have been turned over to Dr. Leonhard Stejneger for study. While most of the data pertaining to this collection are reserved for a future paper, descriptions of new species and surveys of certain genera have been prepared for preliminary publication. Seven such papers have been issued during the present year. SMITHSONIAN MAIN HALL EXHIBIT In my last two annual reports I have spoken of the project of installing in the main hall of the Smithsonian Building a new type of exhibit intended to serve as a visual index to all Smithsonian activ- ities. During the 95 years since the founding of the Institution, its activities have so expanded in scope and the buildings it occupies have so increased in number that it has been impossible for visitors to get an adequate idea of what the Smithsonian is and what it does. The project was brought to completion during the year, and the new exhibit was formally opened to the public on Monday, January 20, 1941. The Board of Regents of the Institution had a preview of the exhibit on January 17, when their annual meeting was held in the main hall. As stated previously, the entire project has been handled by a committee consisting of Messrs. C. W. Mitman, chairman, W. F. Foshag, Herbert Friedmann, F. M. Setzler, and W. P. True, all of the Institution’s staff. The great hall of the Smithsonian building, some 150 feet long by 50 feet wide, was first completely redecorated according to the committee’s recommendation. Then special back- grounds for the exhibits were designed and constructed to form eight separate alcoves and four quadrants, the central aisle being left clear for free circulation of visitors. The eight alcoves present graphi- cally the work of the Institution in astronomy, geology, biology, radiation and organisms, physical anthropology, cultural anthropol- ogy, engineering and industries, and art. The four quadrants, facing the central area of the hall, contain exhibits on the scope of the Institution’s work, the National Zoological Park, history, and the organization and branches of the Institution. Secretary's Report, 1941 Pateerrorec: Nak NTSUE OF ronan enn’ see. vcauve 1 ie: bs | F. “i, oe z i « JBB f es 3 NEW “INDEX EXHIBIT’’ AT THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. Upper, part of the astronomy exhibit. Center, part of the geology exhibit. Lower, part of the biology exhibit. Secretary's Report, 1941 INTEMSIVE TAVERTIONS cones sects see ncmnass comune sae ome NEW “INDEX EXHIBIT’’ AT THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. Upper, part of the radiation and organisms exhibit. Jenter, part of the cultural anthropology exhibit. Lower, part of the engineering and industries exhibit. re REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 13 The plan of each of the eight alcoves is the same (see pls. 1 and 2. The name of the subject treated is stated at the top, followed by a brief definition. Below this, a central theme consisting of a diorama, working model, or other device illustrates strikingly the significance of the particular subject. Flanking this on either side of the alcove are exhibits to show as simply as possible what the Smithsonian Institution does in each field. The number of objects shown is kept small, labels are made as short and simple as possible, and the whole attempt is to make the exhibits interesting and popular and at the same time instructive. A valuable adjunct of the new exhibit is a separate room opening off the main hall in which are exemplified the Institution’s methods of diffusing knowledge. One feature is a complete bound set of all Smithsonian publications from 1846 to the present. The books occupy 138 running feet of shelf space. Placards describe these publications, as well as the Institution’s educational radio programs, press releases, International Exchange Service, exhibits, lectures, correspondence, and library. An important feature of this room is an information desk where visitors may obtain accurate information on special phases of the Institution’s work or exhibits. Visitors to this new exhibit for the last 5 months of the fiscal year—from February 1 through June 30, 1941—totaled 191,699. Comparable figures for the preceding year are not available because the building was closed at that time in preparation for the new exhibit, but the total number of visitors for the corresponding months of 1939 was 144,372. The present year therefore shows an increase of 47,327 visitors, or 32 percent, over 1939. The committee in charge of the project has been kept in existence to supervise maintenance of the exhibits and to incorporate changes from time to time, for the intention is to keep the whole exhibit alive and up to date. Wide and favorable notice has been given the ex- hibit by journals and newspapers. TENTH ARTHUR LECTURE The late James Arthur, of New York, in 1931 bequeathed to the Smithsonian Institution a sum of money, part of the income from which should be used for an annual lecture on the sun. The tenth annual Arthur lecture was given by Brian O’Brien, professor of physiological optics at the University of Rochester, under the title “Biological Effects of Solar Radiation on Higher Animals and Man,” in the auditorium of the National Museum on the evening of February 25,1941. The lecture will be published in a forthcoming Smithsonian Report. 14 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 The nine previous Arthur lectures have been as follows: 1. The Composition of the Sun, by Henry Norris Russell, professor of astronomy at Princeton University. January 27, 1932. 2. Gravitation in the Solar System, by Ernest William Brown, professor of mathematics at Yale University. January 25, 1933. 8. How the Sun Warms the Earth, by Charles G. Abbott, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. February 26, 1934. 4. The Sun’s Place among the Stars, by Walter S. Adams, director of the Mount Wilson Observatory. December 18, 1934. 5. Sun Rays and Plant Life, by Earl S. Johnston, assistant director of the Division of Radiation and Organisms, Smithsonian Institution. February 25, 1936. 6. Discoveries from Eclipse Expeditions, by Samuel Alfred Mitchell, director of the Leander McCormick Observatory, University of Virginia. February 9, 1937. %. The Sun and the Atmosphere, by Harlan True Stetson, research associate, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. February 24, 1938. 8. Sun Worship, by Herbert J. Spinden, curator of American Indian Art and Primitive Cultures, Brooklyn Museums. February 21, 1939. 9. Solar Prominences in Motion, by Robert R. McMath, director of the McMath- Hulbert Observatory of the University of Michigan. January 16, 1940. BEQUESTS Mary Vaux Walcott bequest—Mary Vaux Walcott, widow of the late Charles D. Walcott, former Secretary of the Smithsonian Insti- tution, died August 22, 1940. Mrs. Walcott had for many years been deeply interested in the Institution and its work, and during the years 1925 to 1930 her beautiful water-color sketches of North American wild flowers were published in five sumptuous volumes under the auspices of the Institution. During her lifetime Mrs. Walcott mani- fested her interest by numerous valuable gifts, both in the form of specimens and of money for specific purposes connected with Smith- sonian researches. In her will she named the Institution residuary legatee, the relevant portions of that document reading in part as follows: I give, devise and bequeath all the rest, residue and remainder of my estate * * * to the Smithsonian Institution * * * in memory of my beloved husband, Charles D. Walcott, to be added to and form a part of the Charles D. and Mary Vaux Walcott Reasearch Fund, established by my husband in his lifetime, with the express stipulation, however, that the restriction as to the use of the income of said fund shall not apply to the income from this devise and bequest. At the annual meeting of the Board of Regents on January 17, 1941, the following resolutions were adopted : Resolved, That the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution learns with profound sorrow of the death on August 22, 1940, of Mrs. Mary Vaux Walcott, widow of its late Secretary. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 15 The noble character of Mrs. Walcott, her great skill and zeal in depicting wild flowers, her personal researches in glacial geology, her deep interest in the paleontologic researches of Dr. Walcott, and her many gifts, over a long period, to the Smithsonian Institution are highly appreciated. Resolved, That this Board learns with profound gratitude of Mrs. Walcott’s large bequest to the endowment of the Smithsonian Institution in memory of her late husband. Further resolved, That these resolutions be spread on the minutes of this meeting and that a copy of them be sent to Mrs. Walcott’s executors. The amount of Mrs. Walcott’s bequest was slightly over $400,000. At the close of the fiscal year, the estate had not been settled. Julia D. Strong bequest.—In the final accounting of the will of Julia D. Strong, of Washington, D. C., who died April 12, 1936, the National Collection of Fine Arts of the Smithsonian Institution, as alternate beneficiary, received the sum of $10,000. No stipulations as to the use of the fund were stated in the will. Florence Brevoort Eickemeyer bequest—The will of the late Florence Brevoort Eickemeyer, of Yonkers, N. Y., contained the following provision: I give and bequeath to the Smithsonian Institution * * * the sum of $10,000 * * * to use or apply the income thereof, or as much thereof as may be necessary, in or about the exhibition, preservation and care of my late husband Rudolf Eickemeyer Jr.’s photographic works and collection, the residue or surplus of such income, if any, to be applied to the uses and purposes of the Section of Photography established or maintained by said Institution. My late husband, Rudolf Eickemeyer, Jr., in and by his last will and testament and codicil thereto, intended to provide a fund for the exhibition and care of his photographie works and collection, bequeathed thereby to said Smithsonian Institution, and his estate being sufficient to provide such fund, I do hereby make the above bequest to carry out my late husband’s purpose in that regard. The money thus bequeathed had not been received at the close of the year. Alfred Mussinan bequest—The Smithsonian Institution is named as a residuary legatee of the estate of the late Alfred Mussinan, of Sumter County, Fla. His will divides his estate into two equal parts, and upon the death of certain legatees named in the will, the Insti— tution is to receive five-eighths of the principal sum of one-half of the estate, “the income therefrom to be used by said institution for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men.” The amount of Mr. Mussinan’s estate was estimated by the executor in May 1941 to be approximately $30,000, in addition to real estate, stocks, and bonds in Germany which it was impossible to evaluate. EXPLORATIONS AND FIELD WORK In the furtherance of its investigations in many branches of science, the Smithsonian sent out or cooperated in 19 expeditions, which 16 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 worked not only in many States in the United States, but also in a number of foreign lands as well. Paleontological work was carried on by Dr. Charles E. Resser in investigations of ancient Cambrian rocks; by Dr. C. Lewis Gazin in Utah and Woming, resulting in the discovery of an almost com- plete fossil skeleton of the primitive mammal] known as an uintathere; and by Dr. G. Arthur Cooper in Texas and Tennessee where an abundance of fossil material, much needed in the Museum’s study collection, was obtained. Dr. Willian M. Mann, Director of the National Zoological Park, and Mrs. Mann went to Liberia on an expedition financed by the Firestone Tire & Rubber Co., and brought back an assortment of live animals for the Zoo, including a 400-pound hippopotamus, and some 3,000 preserved specimens for the Museum. Dr. Alexander Wetmore spent a month in Costa Rica studying the birds of that region. W. L. Brown collected material in the Canadian Rockies for back- grounds for the Rocky Mountain goat and sheep groups exhibited in the Museum. Dr. Hobart M. Smith, holder of the Walter Rathbone Bacon scholarship, assisted by Mrs. Smith, continued his study of the reptiles and amphibians of Mexico. Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt par- ticipated in the biological investigations of the king crab of Alaska, initiated by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service. Capt. Robert A. Bartlett conducted another expedition to Greenland, and Mr. and Mrs. Russell Hawkins, Jr., visited the Gulf of California, both to collect marine material. Austin H. Clark carried on his observations of the butterflies of Virginia. Mrs. Agnes Chase made an extensive study of the grasses of Venezuela, bringing back large collections including 11 species previously unknown. Dr. T. D. Stewart spent several weeks at the historic Indian village site on Potomac Creek in Virginia known as Patawomeke, exam- ining an ossuary that was discovered during the previous field sea- son. Dr. Waldo R. Wedel conducted archeological investigations in central Kansas in an effort to locate Coronado’s “Province of Qui- vira.” David I. Bushnell, Jr., made several trips to the vicinity of the Peaks of Otter in search of tangible evidence of early man in Virginia. Dr. Frank H. H. Roberts, Jr., obtained further informa- tion on Folsom man, one of the earliest known inhabitants of Amer- ica, from excavations at the Lindenmeier site in Colorado. Dr. Julian H. Steward visited British Columbia to record culture changes among the Carrier Indians; Dr. John P. Harrington made a com- parative study of the northwestern Indians in Alaska and the south- western Indians in New Mexico; and Dr. William N. Fenton col- lected data among the Seneca in New York State on Iroquois masks and ritualism. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY Lf PUBLICATIONS The publications of the Smithsonian Institution constitute its chief means of carrying out one of its primary functions, the “diffu- sion of knowledge.” From its private funds, the Institution issues the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, a series containing all the scientific papers published by the Institution proper; from Gov- ernment funds are issued the Smithsonian Annual Report (with general appendix reviewing progress in science), the Bulletins and Proceedings of the National Museum, the Contributions from the National Herbarium, the Bulletins of the Bureau of American Eth- nology, the Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory, and Catalogs of the National Collection of Fine Arts. The Freer Gallery of Art pamphlets and the series, Oriental Studies, are supported by Freer Gallery funds. All publications of the Institution are issued through the editorial division, which comprises the central office where publications of the Institution proper are handled, the office of the editor of the National Museum, and that of the editor of the Bureau of American Ethnology. The editorial division also directs the Institution’s informational activities and its radio work. The year’s publications totaled 78, of which 48 were issued by the Institution proper, 25 by the National Museum, 3 by the Bureau of American Ethnology, 1 by the National Collection of Fine Arts, and 1 by the Freer Gallery of Art. Information as to titles, authors, and other details concerning these publications will be found in the report of the chief of the editorial division, appendix 11. The total number of publications distributed was 125,837. Among the outstanding publications of the year may be mentioned a paper by the Secretary entitled “An Important Weather Element Hitherto Generally Disregarded,’ wherein are summarized evi- dences of the dependence of our weather on the variations of solar radiation; a revised edition of Assistant Secretary Alexander Wet- more’s “A Systematic Classification for the Birds of the World”; another volume in the series of life histories of North American birds by Arthur Cleveland Bent entitled “Life Histories of North American Cuckoos, Goatsuckers, Hummingbirds, and Their Allies”; a paper dealing with the very interesting Chicora (Butler County, Pa.) meteorite, by F. W. Preston, E. P. Henderson, and James R. Randolph; and part 2 of the monograph entitled “Archeological Remains in the Whitewater District, Eastern Arizona,” by Frank H. H. Roberts, Jr. LIBRARY The year’s accessions to the Smithsonian library totaled 6,839 volumes, pamphlets, and charts, bringing the holdings at the end of 18 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 the year to 894,655 items. As usual, many gifts were received, among the largest of which were a collection of 942 scientific books and journals belonging to the late Frederick E. Fowle of the Smith- sonian staff and presented by his widow; 622 publications from the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution of Washington; and 612 publications from the American Association for the Ad- vancement of Science. Again during the past year the library’s exchange work was carried on with great difficulty because of war conditions abroad. Most of the publications that failed to come were European and Asiatic. Some of these are being held by the issuing agencies for transmission after the wars are over, others have delayed publication, but a few have been discontinued. The library staff cataloged 6,693 volumes, pamphlets, and charts; prepared and filed 40,238 catalog and shelf-list cards; made 22,311 periodical entries; loaned 10,990 publication to members of the Smithsonian staff; and conducted an interlibrary loan service with 45 lbraries outside the Smithsonian system. Other activities included work on the union catalog; a large amount of bibliographic assistance to members of the Smithsonian staff and others; and checking of the serial holdings in connection with the forthcoming second edition of the Union List of Serials. The funds allotted to the library per- mitted it to bind 958 volumes—only one-half of those completed for binding during the year. The most urgent need, therefore, is for more adequate funds for binding in order to prevent loss of parts of volumes that may be very difficult, if not impossible, to replace. Respectfully submitted. C. G. Ansor, Secretary. APPRENDI Xt REPORT ON THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the condi- tion and operation of the United States National Museum for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1941. Funds provided for the maintenance and operation of the National Museum for the year totaled $818,305, which was $6,580 more than for the previous year. The amount was reduced $6,500, however, by reason of a compulsory administrative reserve. COLLECTIONS Building up of the great collections of the Museum continued, and a total of 1,518 separate accessions, aggregating 326,686 indi- vidual specimens, was received during the year. Although this was about 400 fewer separate accessions than last year, the individual Specimens increased by 114,000. Distribution of these additions among the five departments was as follows: Anthropology, 4,064; biology, 262,521; geology, 55,818; engineering and industries, 2,688; and history, 1,595. For the most part these acquisitions were gifts from individuals or represented expeditions sponsored by the Smith- sonian Institution. All are listed in detail in the full report on the Museum, published as a separate document, but the more important are summarized below. The total number of catalog entries in all departments is now nearly 1714 million. Anthropology—tmportant archeological material included a col- lection of Paleolithic, Neolithic, and Bronze Age implements and ornaments from Java; over 700 stone artifacts from western New York; about 450 specimens from an Indian village site in Page County, Va.; and nearly 1,000 potsherds and shell implements from burial mounds near Belle Glade, Fla. In ethnology, many objects were received representing the cultures of the Navaho; Alaskan Indians and Eskimos; Plains, Pueblo, and Southwestern tribes; the Iroquois; and others. Collections from peoples outside the Americas included specimens from Malayan tribes of the Philippines, from the Grebo of Liberia, and from the natives of Bali. Twenty-nine ce- ramic specimens, 30 musical instruments, and 47 pieces of period art and textiles were added. In the division of physical anthropology, skeletal remains from Peru and from southeastern Alaska and a 19 430577—42——_3 20 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 reconstruction of the newly found remains of the fourth Pithecan- thropus were the principal acquisitions. Biology.—Biological specimens, many of great scientific value, totaled 262,521, a considerable increase over last year, although these came in fewer individual accessions. The most important mam- malian accession was a complete skull and both sets of baleen of an adult humpback whale (Megaptera novae-angliae) and a fetal whale- bone whale skull from the North Pacific. Other mammals received included 74 specimens from Liberia; 102 from South Carolina; 85 cavernicolous bats; other bats from Mexico, the Virgin Islands, and Puerto Rico; 2 fetuses of humpback whales; a baby walrus skeleton; and other specimens from Indo-China, Ecuador, Korea, Costa Rica, Bolivia, and Brazil. Of nearly 100 mammals received from the National Zoological Park, the most important was a gayal (Bos frontalis) . Large representations of birds came from Indo-China, Costa Rica, Brazil, Antarctica, Mexico, and Manchukuo. Field work of the Mu- seum in South Carolina yielded 1,205 bird skins for the study collec- tions. Incorporated in the collections during the year were 4,201 Mexican reptiles received from the Smithsonian Institution as the major part of the collections made by Dr. Hobart M. Smith, under the Walter Rathbone Bacon scholarship, among them being types of many new forms and representatives of species hitherto not contained in the Museum. The second installment of Dr. W. M. Mann’s reptilian and amphibian collections in Liberia consisted of 472 specimens, represent- ing several new forms and much valuable comparative material from territory hitherto little known. Nearly 2,000 Liberian fishes also resulted from the Smithsonian- Firestone Expedition headed by Dr. Mann, in addition to those acces- sioned last year. Among other ichthyological specimens received were 900 fishes from Texas and the Gulf of Mexico, 420 from Alaska, and 60 sharks from Florida and Texas. The most important accession in insects was the Nevermann collec- tion of Costa Rican Coleoptera, comprising about 33,000 specimens and including much type material. Other important entomological material came in many miscellaneous lots, the largest being 64,000 insect specimens transferred from the Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine. A collection of nearly 3,000 beetles from Panama was donated by Assistant Curator Richard E. Blackwelder, who col- lected them several years ago. About 500 marine invertebrates from the west coast of Greenland came as a result of the Bartlett Greenland Expedition of 1940. Through Curator Waldo L. Schmitt there was accessioned a large REPORT OF THE SECRETARY pai collection of marine invertebrates taken in the course of the Alaska king crab investigations of the Fish and Wildlife Service. From this same Service there was transferred a lot of nemertean worms collected by the Albatross and Fish Hawk. Outstanding also was a large col- lection of mollusks, echinoderms, crustaceans, miscellaneous inverte- brates, and 182 bottom samples obtained by Russell Hawkins, Jr., on 1989 and 1940 cruises along the west coast of Baja California and in the Gulf of California. Over 3,000 selected molluscan specimens were obtained by purchase through the Frances Lea Chamberlain Fund. A remarkably fine collection of over 3,000 Samoan shells was contributed, as well as 1,000 land and fresh-water shells from Texas. Séveral inter- esting lots of echinoderms were added, chiefly from the Antarctic region, from Greenland, and from the Abrolhos Islands, Western Australia. About 25,000 plants from many sources were added to the collections of the National Herbarium. Geology—Many choice minerals and gems were acquired through the Canfield, Roebling, and Chamberlain funds of the Smithsonian Institution. The finest mineral specimen is an 1,800-carat aqua- marine crystal from Agua Preta, Brazil, showing the rare berylloid form. The extensive Diaz collection of Mexican cassiterites and valuable sets of minerals from Bolivia also are noteworthy. Gems added included a brilliant cut purple enclase of 46 carats from Cey- lon, and a greenish-yellow 9-carat enclase from Brazil. Another important acquisition consisted of 620 Brazilian gem stones trans- ferred from the United States Treasury Department. ‘The out- standing addition to the meteorite series was the Sardis, Ga., speci- men, an altered iron, weighing 1,760 pounds, the fifth largest single meteorite ever found in the United States. Four meteoritic falls, all American, were represented in specimens presented by Dr. Stuart H. Perry, associate in mineralogy. A valuable series of tin ores resulted from Curator W. F. Foshag’s studies for defense purposes of the tin resources of Mexico. Field work by members of the staff yielded the bulk of the in- vertebrate fossils accessioned: About 8,000 Cambrian brachiopods and trilobites from the Rocky Mountain region, Missouri, and the Appalachian Valley; 20,000 post-Cambrian specimens from west Tennessee and Texas; and 15,000 Devonian fossils from the various counties in the geologically classic Lower Peninsula of Michigan. Much valuable type material was contained in other miscellaneous accessions, mostly gifts, including Upper Cambrian invertebrates from Texas and southeastern Missouri, Ordovician Bryozoa from Oklahoma, Upper Triassic ammonites from Nevada, and type fos- sils from the Kaibab formation of the Grand Canyon. Important 22 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 lots of Foraminifera came from such widely separated regions as Mexico, Peru, New Zealand, and Arabia. Casts of 256 type specimens of the fossil shell Z'urritella, from the Tertiary rocks of the Pacific coast, comprised an outstanding addition to the Cenozoic collections. As a result of paleontological field work in central Utah several articulated Upper Cretaceous lizard skeletons (Polyglyphanodon) and fragmentary mammalian jaws and teeth from the Paleocene were received, in addition to 149 lots of vertebrate fossils collected from the Bridger Eocene of southwestern Wyoming. Also worthy of special mention among the new vertebrate material are the greater part of the’skeleton of the primitive mammal Uintatheriwm, a partial skeleton of a Palaeosyops, and a perfect skull and jaws of the dog- like Thinocyon velox. Parts of several fossil whales and porpoises, from the Miocene Calvert formation of the Chesapeake Bay country, were acquired. Engineering and industries—To the section of transportation and civil engineering came an operating exhibit of the Westinghouse air brake, and three fine scale models, the Polish motorship Pélsudski, the Rolls Royce automobile Silver Ghost, and the diesel-engined trawler Storm. A unique accession in the section of aeronautics, received as a transfer from the Navy Department, was a fighter airplane known as the Curtiss Sparrowhawk, a type developed in 1931-85 as an auxiliary fighter to the dirigibles Akron and Macon. Several inter- esting airplane models were received: The original model of a steam- engined bombing helicopter designed in Civil War times and scale models of the Columbia monoplane (1910), the triplane bomber (1918), the U. S. Army pursuit type P-35, the U. S. Army trainer type BT-8, and the amphibian SEV-8N. In mechanical engineering the outstanding accession was an excep- tional operating model made by Howell M. Winslow of a Reynolds- Corliss steam engine of about 1900. The section of electrical engineering and communication received three original Plante stor- age battery plates and two replicas of the posted plate batteries made by T. A. Willard in 1881; also the tone arm of a modern photoelectric phonograph. One of the most spectacular acquisitions in recent years is the 93-dial display clock made by Louis Zimmer, of Lier, Belgium, for the Brussels World’s Fair in 1935. It is 14 feet high, tells the stand- ard time of many places around the world, the tides in various parts, and a great variety of calendar and astronomical events. The section of woods and wood technology received the first letter file made to handle correspondence unfolded and vertical. An important and generous gift to the division of graphic arts was a collection REPORT OF THE SECRETARY pe of 200 Currier and Ives prints from a donor, who in addition lent 183 others. There came also as a loan the original camera believed to have been used around 1836 by Dr. John W. Draper, the eminent American chemist and physiologist, while a member of the faculty of Hampden-Sydney College, Richmond, Va. History—Nearly 1,600 objects of historic and antiquarian interest were accessioned, including busts, costumes, or mementos of such outstanding Americans as Abraham Lincoln, Mrs. Andrew Jackson Donelson, Col. Samuel Simpson, William Jennings Bryan, Henry B. F. Macfarland, and Brig. Gen. Caleb Cushing. The numismatic collection was increased by 176 coins and medals, including a series of United States bronze, nickel, and silver coins struck at the Denver, Philadelphia, and San Francisco mints in 1914; and the philatelic collection by 1,310 stamps and other items. EXPLORATIONS AND FIELD WORK Field exploration by the Museum’s experienced staff and its col- laborators continues as one of the most important sources for addi- tions of new materials in the broad fields of anthropology, biology, and geology. As in previous years this work was financed in the main through funds provided by the Smithsonian Institution or through interested friends of the Institution. The specimens obtained have filled many gaps in the Museum’s series. Anthropology—During August and September, 1940, Dr. T. Dale Stewart, associate curator of physical anthropology, continued excavations at the historic Indian village site known as Patawomeke on Potomac Creek, in Stafford County, Va., completely exploring the ossuary discovered last year. The work this season yielded a number of facts that verify or supplement the meager historical records pertaining to the burial ceremonies of the Virginia tide- water Indians. Of the approximately 100 skeletons encountered in the ossuary, the majority had become disarticulated, or were dis- articulated before burial. A few, however—approximately a dozen adults—were observed to be fully articulated. These were found on the bottom or along the sides of the pit and hence may have been the first bodies received into the grave. Moreover, all these artic- ulated skeletons are possibly males and had their arms extended along their sides as do the bodies shown in John White’s picture of a death house, which was drawn during his visit to Roanoke Island in 1585. Also, all these skeletons had their lower legs flexed un- naturally forward, which would have been a practicable way for shortening an extended body resting on its back. There is evidence, on the other hand, that the disarticulated skeletons were exposed 24 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 for a considerable period before burial; in several cases mud dauber nests were found in the skull or among the bundled bones. This finding indicates that the period in which these bodies were exposed in an open death house included at least one warm season. On February 27, 1941, Dr. Stewart went to Peru in connection with the program sponsored by the State Department for cultural cooperation with other American republics. In Lima, through the kindness of Dr. Julio C. Tello, director of the Museum of Anthro- pology, Magdalena Vieja, he had the privilege of studying two docu- mented series of human skeletal remains, one from Paracas and the other from Malena. These two series are interesting for comparison because that from Paracas is very early, whereas that from Malena is late coastal Inca. The Paracas people, although relatively ancient, were far from being primitive in the cultural sense. Their textiles are famous and among the finest produced anywhere. While in Lima Dr. Stewart visited many of the nearby ruins and ancient Indian sites. From these trips Dr. Stewart brought back a small collection of the more interesting skeletal remains to supplement earlier collections. During the week of March 30 Dr. Stewart represented the Insti- tution and the National Geographic Society at the Third Assembly of the Pan American Institute of Geography and History meeting in Lima. Following the Assembly he visited the Museo Arqueolédgico “Rafael Larco Herrera” at Chiclin, where, through the kindness of Sr. Rafael Larco Hoyle, he was able to study a documented series of Mochica and Cupianique skeletons. These remains are from the oldest cultural periods of the northern coast. From Chiclin Dr. Stewart went south to Mollendo, and thence by way of Arequipa to Cuzco. Here, besides visiting some of the famous ruins, he saw the fine collection of mummies and trephined skulls at the University of Cuzco and the Instituto Arqueoldgico. Dr. Waldo R. Wedel, assistant curator in archeology. was in the field from June 1 to September 16, 1940, continuing the Institution’s archeological survey of Kansas, begun in 1937. The 1940 explora- tions were carried on at several locations in Rice and Cowley Counties. Preliminary excavations show that the sites investigated mark villages inhabited by semisedentary, partly horticultural In- dians who did not live in earth lodges. These people made pottery, wove basketry, had a wide variety of artifacts in stone, bone, horn, and shell, traded with the Pueblos on the Rio Grande for turquoise, pottery, and obsidian, and were in contact with white men. Frag- ments of glaze-paint pottery represent types made on the Rio Grande between 1525 and 1650, and bits of chain mail suggest a visit from some of the early Spanish explorers. It is tentatively REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 25 suggested that these remains, widespread in central and southern Kansas, may be of Wichita origin, and possibly represent some of the Quivira villages seen by Coronado, Humafia, Bonilla, and Ofate. During the period from December 5 to 12, 1940, and again in May 1941, Dr. Wedel made a brief reconnaissance in the Holston River drainage near Saltville, Va. A number of extremely promis- ‘ng prehistoric village sites and two apparently affiliated burial caves were visited, and a local collection was studied. No excavations were undertaken. The cultural materials indicate some relationships with Middle Mississippi remains in Tennessee and adjacent States, but pending more extended studies their exact position culturally remains uncertain, Walter W. Taylor, Jr., collaborator in anthropology, inaugurated archeological excavations in the state of Coahuila, Mexico. From January 1941 to the close of the fiscal year, Mr. Taylor surveyed a wide area in the various mountain valleys around Cuatro Ciénegas and excavated several small caves and one large cave. The principal purpose of this program was to determine the relationship between the prehistoric cave inhabitants in this northern section of Mexico and the inhabitants of similar sites in the Pecos River and Big Bend area of southwestern Texas. A superficial relationship seems evident from Mr. Taylor’s field reports, but final conclusions must await a careful comparison of material in the Museum. Biology.—During October and November Dr. Alexander Wetmore, Assistant Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, visited Costa Rica as part of the program sponsored by the State Department for cultural cooperation with the other American republics. He was received with every courtesy as the guest of the Costa Rican Gov- ernment, and in San José, the capital city, he worked at the National Museum and visited and conferred with officials in various branches as well as with scientists in other services. Following this, accom- panied by Dr. Juvenal Valerio Rodriguez, director of the National Museum, and Carlos Aguilar in charge of the zoological collections in the Museum, he crossed by air to Liberia, the principal city of Guanacaste, the northwestern province of Costa Rica. From this base collections of birds were made in the surrounding country. Dr. Valerio returned to San José, while Mr. Aguilar remained for train- ing in zoological field work. Guanacaste is devoted mainly to cattle raising, with small cultivation. Liberia lies on a slightly elevated plain east of the swampy lowlands bordering the Rio Tempisque. For more than 2 weeks Dr. Wetmore and Mr. Aguilar were located at a great hacienda on the southern slopes of the Volcan Rincén de la Vieja where there was access to heavy rain forest on the mountain. Collections were obtained for the National Museum in San José as 26 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 well as for our Institution. The several hundred birds that have come to Washington as a result of this work add measurably to our series, as our earlier investigations of the birds of Costa Rica did not cover Guanacaste. On his return north at the end of Novem- ber Dr. Wetmore had opportunity to spend a day in Habana, Cuba, where he was received by representatives of the Cuban Government and conferred with prominent scientists of the country. From March to May, 1941, Dr. Wetmore visited Colombia in con- tinuation of the program mentioned for closer personal contact and cooperation with scientists in our neighbor republics. In Bogota he was received at the National University, where he worked par- ticularly in the Instituto de Ciencias Naturales. He also conferred with scientists who had been in attendance at the Eighth American Scientific Congress in Washington the year previous, and visited scientific workers with whom the Smithsonian Institution has been in contact through correspondence for years. Following this, with M. A. Carriker, Jr., as assistant, and accompanied by Dr. F. Carlos Lehmann and his assistant from the Instituto de Ciencias Naturales and by Lt. Alejandro Rubiano as a representative of the Colombian Government, Dr. Wetmore set out from Santa Marta on a pro- longed expedition through the Guajira Peninsula. The party traveled by truck to Riohacha stopping en route for work in ex- tensive forest areas near the Rio Ariguani and its tributaries. Here in 8 days’ time specimens of 100 distinct species of birds were ob- tained, an indication of the richness of the fauna. In Riohacha the party obtained another truck and here entered the Guajira proper. The peninsula in the main is an arid, desert country with extensive open savannas and broad stony plains, grown in places with heavy stands of mesquite and cacti that form veritable forests. In the eastern section there are low mountains with trails along their bases passable for heavy trucks except during the period of rains. On the highest range where the trade winds build a cloud cap with con- sequent more or less regular precipitation in contrast to the desert below, there is an island of tropical rain forest with the species usual to such an environment, here isolated by long distances from other similar areas. Dr. Lehmann and Lieutenant Rubiano com- pleted their work with the party in April while the others continued to the forested region mentioned. On the return the middle of May it was necessary because of disrupted steamer schedules for Dr. Wetmore to cross by schooner from Puerto Estrella, in the Guajira, to the Island of Aruba. Here after a 2-day wait he obtained plane passage to Curacao, and from there sailed for New York. ne Se oe eens 4 UST U US ae ee ee Texas redicw oO lie 9 er USHELAD NUS iat no ETOPCAN TOs CCRT n ee ees ul Chaeropsis liberiensis__.____.__._----. Pigmy hippopotamus______________ 1 Cricetus cricetus subsp____----_-_- — = Golden hamster 2222 = eee 9 DOM OONN a ee ee allow deer: 2 oes 4 Wendrolagus: mustus. == = Tree Vkancaroos23 1 aie eee 1 Dolichotis magetlanica__._____----~-~-. BPatazonian Chyy2 22 eee 3 FU CLESEOTUC(Le mkt 23h Bt BRI eee ee Me pe ee eaten SER ht et Re LETT OTS AAG oS SEE Sees eee NU G22 a as ES a i A gS De PL al Leontocebus rosalia____-._-_-_...--_- — Lion-headed or golden marmoset_-_ 2 VINE CLOCHL ATE UCL UE te ae et ee eee Mhesus monkeys. sans eee 1 Macaca nemestrina__—_—---—--__---~ Pig-tailed macaque —______________ a MOCHSTON:: COUDU ao = Ae a =. (Coypulror nutriass o-oo e 3 Onciyelis: geofroyi = = Geotiroyis, eat =. 2 ose eee 1 CLLUIULS OT CUICEN S22 2 be a Lesser flying phalanger_____-_--_- 6 PEP OUOTULO LON arte ne eee NO ee Blak \TaACCOON == ee 5 VONER Hey Red t tore. 4.220 2 ee eee 2 BIRDS Branta. canadensis... —----_~-__._~. @anada)co0se-2 as 16 Guore altbaXG. rubra__-—-=—.--—__ = iy bridtibige =. ee ee eee il Limnocoraz flavirosira____—---___-_- APriCan blaclkaeral ee eee eee 4 Nycticorar nycticoraz naevius__-__-_- Black-crowned night heron___--___~- 16 ERUOUCTISIOUUS Se ee Bluevpestowle2=— AZ REPTILES Orotalus adamanteus= == Florida diamond-backed rattle- SNARK CG Ao SS 14 EXCHANGES There were not a great number of specimens received during the year through the medium of exchange. Ennio Arrigutti, Buenos Aires, Argentina, continued his shipments of desirable South Ameri- can animals. The New York Zoological Park sent a purple-crested plantain eater. A pair of green Japanese pheasants was received from the Miami Rare Bird Farm, Miami, Fla. Several shipments of reptiles have again been received from C. W. Kern, Tujunga, Calif. PURCHASES The more important specimens acquired by purchase were a harpy eagle and a pair of South American bush dogs, three naked-throated 88 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 bell birds, a pair of raccoon dogs, a pair of Chinese badgers and a pair of Peruvian viscachas. Also purchased during the year were a pair each of vicunas and llamas. This completed our exhibit of all the American representatives of the camel family. REMOVALS DEATHS A most serious loss during the year was the number of birds, mostly parrots, which died as the result of an epidemic of psittacosis in the bird house. A number of birds suspected of having the dis- ease were put to death. The entire building was closed, on advice of the Department of Health, District of Columbia, for about 3 months. The parrot room is still closed to the public. It is believed that the situation is now well on the way to being cleared. Other losses included several chevrotain, and an East African leopard, the jast of the lot received in 1926 from the Smithsonian-Chrysler expedi- tion. A brown hyena which had been in the collection since 1928 died during the year. Asin the past, all specimens of scientific value that died during the year were sent to the National Museum. SPECIES NEW TO THE HISTORY OF THE COLLECTION MAMMALS Scientific name Common name Cephatophusiniger== aaa ee eee Black duiker. Cephalophus nigrifrons2 =o. ee Black-fronted duiker. Euxerus erythropus lacustris.__ ----__._.------- African ground squirrel. Galerella mein. eee Dwarf civet. Genetiapoensisna ss 2 eS ea an Dark genet. TO GUAIN 01S COCCI ee Peruvian viscacha. Meles meles leptorhynchus______--------_-----. Chinese badger. ING OINOOTN OL ee ee African palm civet. BIRDS BAaUtCO POCCULOCHTOUL 8 ee ee Red-backed buzzard. Gallirexr porphyreolophus______--------_--_---. Purple-crested plantain eater. GYUponteren angolensisse= ee eee Fish-eating vulture. LOTUS) COMMTACOTLS ee ee ee aes Kelp gull. Macronectes giganteus--2 == eee Giant fulmar. Py goscelis papudaes2 = = eee Ae eee Gentoo penguin. REPTILES KAnigy serosa as ee ee ee West African back-hinged tortoise. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 89 Statement of accessions . Mam- Rep- | Amphib-| yp. Arach- How acquired aaa Birds tiles ians Fishes mids Total Prosentodee a2. sec met ee Ed Soa 80 207 165 10 10 3 475 Bormionphatched =e: 22 22s ss 70 49 bY EY | apt Ree Ee ie EY ere 133 Received in exchange__.........._______- 16 40 39 bY | [ge ae re | De ae ete ee 129 PPrrehinsc clear eae 2 Seal eet 13 57 16 2 BONES ee ee 138 COs eC LEy oa") | ee eel Ee ee ey 18 bY Sol PARR ae Retro e | (Be eee ae ae 52 Received from Smithsonian-Firestone Expedition to Liberia____...._._______- 41 31 23 x Ut) le ee oo a 110 Received from Antarctic Expedition_____|_______- 2 CTE i SPREE IRE Rae es erat, Wied Mise hee) 10 PL OGRE Se serra ee es ee ee ee 238 428 257 61 60 3 1, 047 Summary PATI AISVON) NAM Oc ULY Al nhl O40 sae tte eS eee 2, 550 PANCOSST OTL: CLUUTET Se GEN CO. VCE Rae BN te ss Ee 1, 047 Totalianimals in collection/during yeari 2222 2 oe eee 8, 597 Removal from collection by death, exchange, and return of animals on CDOS Geers Sacer aS he e ek e a Aly’ HUCONECtION Sune. SO.) OF se atin 2 cet ee Lo 2 ek 2, 380 Status of collection Class Species toad Class Species indies IMarimbis soo re See et 221 ZOU | eUTISeC tS tee = een te eee 1 26 lab tite Fes Sees ee re ee ee 327 O80: | eolliisks se Saat eee etl 1 5 Reptiles2 22 2228 222 222s te 124 439) )||) Crustaceans -_- 2---2s-2-- oe 1 3 Amphiblans! = 2:2-> 2.255 23 79 a ishes ero os sie San 8s 30 144 is Wo} 2 eee ep ee 730 2 380 ATaAchnigs seo 2s sees 2 3 A list of the animals in the collection follows: ANIMALS IN THE NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK, JUNE 30, 1941 MAMMALS MARSUPIALIA Didelphidae: Didelphis virginiana______--.-_____.. Opossum’! "2 ae eee 4 Dasyuridae: Sarcophilus ursinug_._.-.-__----___- Dasmanisn devils ee eee 1 Phalangeridae: Peraurus oreviceps2s. = ees Lesser flying phalanger____________ 9 Trichosurus vulpecula________-_-___- Vulpine opossumseese = sae 1 Macropodidae: Dendrolagus inustus___-_----_------ Treejkangeroo- ee. ee 3 Dendrolagus inustus finsechi__-_.____~ Finsches tree kangaroo________-___ 3 Dendrolagus ursinus X D. inustus_._._ Hybrid tree kangaroo_____________ i Phascolomyidae: MOMOGLULE UrstiG eae ee ees Flinders Island wombat___________ 2 90 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 CHIROPTERA Vespertilionidae: Pipiesicus Fuscus. 22 Se See eee large Drown Datotoeae= oe CARNIVORA Felidae: Acinony» jubatus___-_____---_-____. Ghoetat-t te. tie ee ce eee CUS CROUGH 2 A= Aa ea need heat ee Jungle (Cate a ee ee Felis concolor puma 2 222 Patagoniany pumaa = ses) ae Melis L6G set os eA 2 ea eee, 8 WY a 0 ep ete Aa hh ere ew aul ; Jap ua oe eee ee eae ee HWS ONE am analt Rese nae ea are fae (OU aT ee eae eee Weis, Panddhsss2 oes eee Ocelot see SoS see ae Be ae FCN pundit eee oe OT Ne ae leopard_------------------ Black Indian leopard22225)-2s22228 Fes tigrnind 2 teste es ee eee Ma tony ti ra ee ee RES NLUQT 4S a ae ak hh ees Slee Bengal tigers 22222 eee Felis tigris longipilis________-------- Siberianitigers220 Soe es ee Felis tigris sondaicus._____-------—-. Sumatran) ticers eee ee TAINO OCMEYt Se eee oe ee es Bailey's) sliynik 2 P ee TIE GU TUS Se 2s ee Bays ya Ke Ee ee EAST AUT a oe eo ed OD Cait Sa See ee ee NS a INCOTeCiS NeUULOSds= == eee @loudedWleopard=== Oncifelis gcofroy_ Geotiroy:s Cato a2 22 eee Profeisitemmincki== 22 eee Golden'catiartsa4 4 Sse Viverridae: Arctictis binturong_—_------------~--- IBINtUTOng: £25 Su re ee eee ee Cwetiictis civetia_ eee @ivete:- eso Se hs See ee Galerella melanura___-------------- Dwart icivet{_- 2. a eee Moschothera megaspila__--------~--- IBurmesencivetZt = 2-2) ees Nandinia binotata_________-__---_--- AE EICAM Palm nCiVye tae eee Paradorurus hermaphrodytius______-. Small-toothed palm civet______--_-- Hyaenidae: Crocuta crocuta germinans____------ Hast African spotted hyena__------ Canidae: Canigalatranst Sie ee ae eee Coyote sti. sale ALO ees eee Canis latrans X domestica___------- Coyote and dog hybrid___________ et Canis lupus lycaon__--_----------~-- Aim ber Wolk: Stan See Canis lupus nubilus________________- BWV, OLB Aa lee Soe Ee re CONAS HU [US ees a is LE Texas Tred) wolf 22-3 ese se 2 ee Chrysocyon jubata_________-___--___ Manned: wolit=.eo ti) soi See Cuon javanicus sumatrensis_________ Sumatran wild dog_____-___---___ DUSTY OSSD ae oe ee ee South American fox______________- Pusicyon 'Spis ease ee ee South American foxes eee Urocyon cinereoargenteus___________. Gray TOR oe ee eee Vielpessfulvas2 ee ee WRG T Ox 2 82 2 aks ee eee Procyonidae: INGSUGINGTIC( 220 Oo a Coatimund 12222. ee POLOS SUMO US LN he SE ae al IKinkajouie = oe a eee RACCOON A | sho ees PROCUONMLOLON een eae ee a Le Raccoon (albino)___-_---_---_-_.- Black) raccoon22222222- eee Bassariscidae : Bassariscus astutus_________------_- Ring-tail or cacomistle____________- REPORT OF THE SECRETARY Mustelidae: Anctonya: coltaris-.2 Sse eee Hogibadser see ee ee AAG NlUutOlse 3 See Sei Wiaterhcivetss ota stan ee ee Charronia flavigula henricii____-__-- Asiaticomarten 2272 =. 62 eee Galictis barbara barbara_______--~--~- White fayras® ee ae ee GUMS SD. 2 ae oe ee el ee ee Browntta yrs 2s ike en Ae Cris One Glan Gavat = Te is ate Boron. Lae ls ee Ae Grisonella huronag__.—-—--~_--=- ==. Giiison! te i eae GUOMLUSCUS oe soos eee ee Wolverine22). 2. 2 es eee ae eee Lutra canadensis vaga____-------~--~- Moridaotters] 222k ete os WICLER RI PICSE a eee ee) Ones spl Huropeanjbadger-- = eae Melliwora capensis.______=----~---~~. Ratela2= 22225. 2..2 le ee MMennsitis nigra= 22 2 {eee ee ee EE Skunkeee oo Sip alinaty dea Micraonya teptony@s.----2--_ 3-2 - Small-clawed. otter222222 2s Mustela eversmanni____------------. Merret 22332 oe ee ee Mustela noveboracensis____---------- Weasel]ia fhe Se eal Mustela vison vison_______-=—------- Minks 33k ee ee As Ursidae: Huarctos americanus_______-_-___-_- American black bear-—--—=-=—--== Euarctos emmonsti___________---~~-- Glacier: bear. 222-7 2 saree ae Helarctos malayanus______-_------~- Malayzor sun hear! 222 =n ee Thalarctos maritimus___—-—- +=. Polar Abeer) eS eee pe3 Thalarctos maritimus X Ursus midden- OT eh a a ee eee Hybrid! bear. 2-— 22 ae DT SUSU ON CLO SS a Has thes ed 2 pest dep AE European brown bear_____-_----- pss (GEES ot Se ae oe es Alaska Peninsula bear____-__---_-- Ursus middendorfit_.22°2625 2 ese. Kodiak brown bear..22-225) 2s UM SUS*SITKeNsis.. 22 Sitkaybrowny beat ee 23 Wsusntheveraniis: 2 ee Himalayane bear. eee PINNIPEDIA Otariidae: Zalophus californianus________-_--_- California season]. 22 Phocidae: IPROCGAMICRATOU= == Pacitiesharbor Seale = = ae PRIMATES Lemuridae: INUCLICEUUS: COUCONG == a. sen Slow: lois. 22s te el a PCr OUICUICUSEDOLLO= 2 es POttoO 22a se Ee ee Callitrichidae: COULTAD IACCRUS 2 OS ee Common) marmoset2=—— ee meontoceous rosalias =~ - = Lion-headed or golden marmoset___ MACOROnQCHtOb=— === 22 eo ee Black-tailed marmoset_—--------~-_ Oedipomidas oedipus__________-__--_- Pinche tamarin=2222 2223 2 eee Saimiridae: (SUC A Ee eee ee eee Nicaraguan titi monkey__---_---__ Cebidae: ALGTUS ETVUIT OG OUS n= Douroucouli or owl monkey__---_--~ LIERLES CLG ES ae ee es Brown capuchins== sae ees ICU SHCODUCIIIG 2 8S White-throated capuchin_________~-- UCU ET CTL CLUS 22 2 eas Weeping capuching==— = “OUAICES By a A en Pn ee eee Gray) capuchin= se eee Pathecus, monacha. = —) 2 Saki monkey 92 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 Cercopithecidae: Cercocebus fuliginosus__-__-_-------- Sooty. mangabey—. 232s 19 Cercopithecus aethiops aethiops_____- Grivet -monkey_=.2—--+2 sees 1 Cercopithecus aethiops sabaeus___--~ Green :cuenoneet eh eo eee 7 Cercopithecus diana__._—--_=-~-=_--—- Diana .monkey222255 425546 2s 1 Cercopithecus neglectus_____--------. De Brazza's guenon=—- aes of Cercopithecus petaurista_____------~ _. Lesser white-nosed guenon__-______ il Cercopithecus roloway___-_--------- Roloway monkey al Erythrocebus patas__.-_-_---_----_- Patas:;monkey=--3 25-32 See 2 Mactce fuscata. 2 = eee eee Japanese: monkeys. 2s ease 2 Macacatlastotisici22 ie ee ees Chineseimacaques=—- eee 2 MACdCG MOndagd ea oe Javan: molkey= eee 9 Macacoumulatig=2= 22 a a eee Rhesus), monkey2=-2— eee 4 Macaca nemestrina________---------. Pig-tailed macaque_--__-.._--____— 6 MaGCacaNstleniss eas 22a Wanderoo monkey—--~-_~-_~-__-__ 1 MQCOLG) Sinica se eee ee eee Toque or bonnet monkey___________ 3 MaAGUSIINCUTU Sia eS ee ee Moor: monkey 22222223 eee 5 Mandrillus leucophaeus_____-_------- Drill ee eh ee eee 1 Mandrillus spring. eee Mand rill. Se ee ee 3 IPODIOS COMAWUSE ae = ee ee Chacmazs 225 555° ae eee eee 1 IPAPONDap Obes ne oe ear Ares he West African baboon_--_-_-________ 1 ‘Paniolspa eee eS West African baboon_----___-__-__ 1 Presbytis senex nestor____-______-____. Western purple-faced monkey_-___-_ 2 Hylobatidae: Hylovalestagilis=aa eee Sumatran .cibbon=—-=—— ae 1 Hylobates tar piteatus2=— 22 Black-capped gibbon___..__-_____-_- 1 Symphalangus syndactylus_________-. Siamang, cibbon es pe a Pongidae: PANTSOLY GUS ee Bee eo nee Chimpanzee. .2 32 ee ee eee 4 POM SALUT US CCUG ee ee Western chimpanzee______________ 1 (PONgO (Gbeltt = soe ee Sumatran oraneutan==— ee 2 ONGOSDYGINACUS ae at eee Bornean orangutans s ese 1 RODENTIA Sciuridae: Ammospermophilus leucurus____-__-- Antelope: squirte]=2=2 ssa see aa Citellusemolis= = 20 es ee Soft-haired ground squirrel________ 4 Cynomys ludovicianus______-_______- Prairie: Gog: 2.2 eas 16 Glaucomys votans__-_ Biyingssquirreles2e eee 1 Marmota monag === ee Woodchuck or ground hog___-__-__ 3 Scturus jintaysont2 22 ee Lesser white squirrel_____________ Be SCiuinusnnige =e a ew Southern) fox squirrel] 2 aseee 3 Tamigsstriatug ie ee eee Hastern’ chipmunk ibe oie Tamiasciurus hudsonicus_________-_- Red! ‘squirreloe ces eee a Heteromyidae: Dipodomys deserti_______-_.--___--_ Desertikaneanoo ates eee 1 Dipodomys merriami________-_---_-_- Merriam kangaroo rat__--_-_-~-- Shen | Jaculidae: Jaculus jaculiss ts see ee Heyptiany jerboae oan. eee al Castoridae: Castonxcanadensiss ee Beaver 222 ees eee 1 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY Cricetidae: Cricetus-cricetus subsp___=—--—~-=——— Goldenshamsters2 33 eae Cricetomys gambianus______-__--__-- Gambia pouched rat-_--__-------~_- Neotoma floridana atiwateri______-_- Round-tailed wood rat---_-----~-- Ondatra abethica. = Black? muskrat: 2a ee Peromyscus californicus.____-___-__. hong-tailed.;mousel==2-= 2-5 Peromyscus leucopus..-_____-_ = White-footed ‘mouse! —_. = Peromyscus leucopus noveboracensis_. Northern white-footed mouse_----- Peromyscus maniculatus____-------- White-footed mouse____.-------__ Peromyscus maniculatus osgoodi____- Black-eared deer mouse_-----~~- aon Peromyscus polionotus polionotus_._.__ Old-field mouse_-------------_---- Muridae: Rattus norvegicus (albino) ~__----__- White rat: 2222.2 ee eee Hystricidae: Acanthion brachyurum___----------- Malay porcupine.—- 2 eee Atherurus africana_..-—-...-..-=~~. West African brush-tailed porcu- Pin@ e222 a ee eee i astrar G0leGt a. = Hh = Sens 9S East African porcupine_-___-__-~- RCCUTUS SUING C632 San A a See Brush-tailed porcupine___-_______- Erethizontidae: Coendow prehensilis-.- 2.5 +. Prehensile-tailed porcupine___----- Hrithizon dorsatwm_.——-==-—~--.— ~~~ Hastern “porcupine Erithizon epizvanthum___------------ Western porcupine__-----_____-___ Myocastoridae: MajOCOStOT COUDU = = ae ae INUOT ee e e Capromyidae: Capromys pilorides.._.=8 2-2 utigi es a ee eee ee Cuniculidae: Cuniculus paca virgatus__.____-___---_- Central American paca=—__..-____. Dasyproctidae: Dasyprocta croconota prymnolopha__. Agouti__-._--------___-_-___~_-~- ‘s Chinchillidae: Lagidium. viscaccia...___-__-—_ =. Peruvian. yiscacha==--——— Caviidae: Cavia porcellus________- _=_._.______.. Domestic guinea pig-_-____----_---_ COMGDOTCELII SS a = ae eee Domestic guinea pig (angora breed) 2-225 = ee ee awe? Dolichotis magellanica_____________- Patagonian Gayyoo aes se ee Pediolagus salinicola__________-_-~-. Dwar: Cavys-o..- ee eee LAGOMORPHA Leporidae: Oryctolagus cuniculus_____________-. Donestic rabbit eee ARTIODACTYLA Bovidae: Ammotragus lervia_._.= ==» AQUG AU 22 2s oe = een ee Anoad depressicornis_________~_.___=. O00 Cr) ee eee Semen ase eee a eee eed PESRU OSE CUTS oe ai ts Saeed De Gare 220 Cee ae eerie! fy ab thstie t whdkeadt saital an | f50) 1 ee ore SU wa au Al bing) PISO ee ee ree EO SEAT OAOULS eee ne ee ee he FDU ee SS eee A DL 94 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 Bovidae—Continued. Oephalophusinije==- Duaiker-2242 52 See Se eee ae Cephalophus nigrifrons_____-__----~-- Black-fronted duiker__-_-_--______ Conmnochaetés gnu_---—- 2-3 White-tailedtenu eee eee Hemitragus jemlahicus______-__----. ahr 28s 2 ot ea Bea Orye beisa annectens—__—.-—=~ === Tbean \beisaroryxee se eee Ovts europaeus Se eee Moufloni 4a ee, SE es Poephagus grunniens___------_-----. Veet: 2S aed ES ae fe A PSeudots nanhunase eet eee Bharal or blue sheep____----_--_-_ Syncerosscaujier-22 22 Se eee African? buftalo===s—=) eee TQUROLvaguear Ory Dee =2 2 eee sees Bland! 2-c4eee 2 eae es eee Cervidae: A CUS eB US RS A ee dy 2 EIT AXIS -.eePsee 2 387 Ab seers Sores Oervus canadensis2a- ee Wiapitics 22 2526s 2 eer Cervus duvaucelii- ae =e ee iBarasinghar deers2o-32 2 eee Cervusrelaphiss ae ee) Cee eee Huropean: red: deers 22 o22 2. _ sa ie ae ornate ence cin Tee | Browntallowideersss. == eae White fallow deer.2. === Muniiacus muntjak___._------------- Rib-faced or barking deer____--__-~ Mamitacus, simensis=—— 2-2 se ee: Chinese rib-faced deer_________--__ Odocoileus costaricensis___________~- CostasRican. decreas eee Odocoileus virginianus___--_-_-----~- Virginiadeer=.2 ae eee Sica nip DON es ES Japanese. deer. ae ee Tragulidae: Tragulus javanicus=2—— = 3 ee Javan mouse deer_____-_-__-_____- Giraffidae : Giraffa camelopardalis______________ Nubian: firatiena 2556 Sa ea Grafica Reticulated giraffe_.________== === Camelidae: Camelus bactrianus__--__ Bactrian’ (camels 222-2 eee TONES GUC ee Inlam aya See eee es ee ee LONG UOnGCUS= eee ae ae Sen Guanaco 2S eee EL OMNG DOCOSH = <2 DA OS SS Alpacas... eee eee VAGUGTORULCUGT Cae ee Vicunai2- se ee ee eo eee Tayassuidae: (P COON ONGULTTUS 2e ee Collared: ‘peceary====—== == es TOUASSIL DD CCONt === = es eee White-lipped peccary__-___-----_-- Suidae: Boorse curs ee Babirussa se 2 ses SN ee a ee Phacochoerus aethiopicus massaicus_. East African wart hog_----------- SUSESCTOi Use ae eee Huropean wilds boars =a Hippopotamidae: Choeropsis iberiensis._______ ---__-_- Pigmy hippopotamus____--__-_____- Hippopotamus amphibius____-_----~~- Enippopotamus2=s2=—.—=— ae PERISSODACTYLA Equidae: FIQUUMOT CD Yt eee Grevy's *zebrafee tee Hquus grevy7-asinus___ = Zepra-ass hyprid= 222220 Haquus grevyi-caballus.___________-__- Zebra-horse hybrid ee I QUUSTICLO 1 Ge ae nee ey ene oe Asiatie wild ass or kiang______-__-_ GUUS DT ZCIOGUSh ia ae Ee Mongolian wild horse_______------ Hquus quagga chapmani__-________-. Chapman's (zepr ase =) eee I QUUS ZED Te sae epee a ae oe Mountain zebras ees REPORT OF THE SECRETARY Tapiridae: AcrocodiaAndieas = 2 Asiatic: tapiteas=-—- 2 sas Tapiretla batrdwt_____+-__-=+--=4+_.. Central American tapir____-_------ ROUTE LEVY SUNS oe ee South American tapir__._____-_--- Rhinocerotidae: DCEO OLCOT NAS eae 2 he Re Black ‘rhinoceros === 2-2 2s Rhimoceros wnicornis_______-----~-~ Great Indian one-horned rhinoceros_ PROBOSCIDEA Elephantidae: Hlephas sumatranus______-__-------- Sumatran: elephants= 222" 222 2222——= Lozodonta africana oryotis_________ ‘African’ elephants 222 228 EDENTATA Choloepodidae: Choloepus didactylus_________-_~---- ‘Two-toed> slothi22 2-2. see Dasypodidae: Chaetophractus villosus______-_----- Hairy arma dillo==22 eae Dasypus novemcinctus_____--------- Nine-banded armadillo_______--__- BIRDS STRUTHIONIFORMES Struthionidae: UTULnAO COMeClUs == South African ostrich__-______--~- BHEIFORMES Rheidae: Fe a ee Se Common rhea or nandy] ae ee White rhea=*-. soe eae CASUARIIFORMES Casuariidae: Gasuarius: bennett = = =. Bennett's) cassowary—__ = OSLO AUS US = = oan ee CASSOWATY2 = 5 4 ee ee, Casuarius unappendiculatus_____---~ Single-wattled cassowary_--------- Dromiceiidae: Dromiceius novaehollandiae______-_-_ Common, (emus!) 2222 eee SPHENISCIFORMES Spheniscidae: ADLENOUYLES [OT stert__- = Himperor penguin]. se Se EV GOSCOUS DONUO e Gentoo! pene wines. a eee Spheniscous demersus__.—__________-- Jackass penouin= = 2 TINAMIFORMES Tinamidae: WOLONCZUS CLCOUNS = = aa eee Crested, tinamous2=)2 2222 ae Nothura maculosa__——.——---.---..-.- Spotted. tinamous= ee PELECANIFORMES Pelecanidae: Pelecanus californicus____._-______--. California brown pelican__-_--_-__ Pelecanus conspicillatus________-___- Australian) pelicanss2235 2222225 — Pelecanus erythrorhynchos__—--__---~ American white pelican___-____-___ 96 Pelecanidae—Continued. Pelecanus erythrorhynchosXP. occi- Pelecanus occidentalis___--____-__-= Pelecanus onocrotalus._____.-__----. Pelecanus:1o0seus #22) ee eee. Sulidae: MOTAUSTDOSSONUSE Se es Bee er ae Phalacrocracidae: Phalacrocoragz auritus albociliatus___ Phalacrocoragr auritus floridanus____ Anhingidae: ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 American white and brown pelican (hybrid) 2222-3. ee eee Brown pelicanl--222 les seen eee Huropeanspelicansa22 = sss ou Rose-colored pelican________-_--__ Ganne Hise eae ee ie eee Harallonicornmorant ss se eee Hlorida, cormorant= 2 CADUAILO Gi GOUTUUILG Ca = es ee Anhinga oo os 2a aoe 2 ee Fregatidae: Pregataiariel 22 aan. see eee = lesser’ frigate bird=--=2== ss CICONITFORMES Ardeidae: AT EG LCT OUND Sa ae e eeeerre e eae Great blue yherons 22a eee Ardeasoccidentalis) ae seem Great: white: heron]=) 2s Notophoyz novaehollandiae_________. White-faced heron__-..___-______- Nycticorag nycticoraxr naevius___-__- Black-crowned night heron___----- Cochleariidae: Cochlearius cochlearius______-__-_-_-. Boatbill heron22222 22222) ae Ciconiidae : DiSsOurd CpisCopus== ==. ae ee Woolly-necked stork_--..--------- EHphippiorhynchus senegalensis___-_-. Saddle-billed stork_____-______-___ TOAS CON EN EUS he 2 TNS IE Ee Malay istorke! 22 2 ee Leptoptilus crumeniferus__________~- Marabou 2s fats ase eee Hepioprus duos. 22 ee Indianiadittant== ss eee Leptoptilus javanicus_______________ esser adjutant: 22 eee Mycteria americana. Wood iDISs= ete ee ce ee Threskiornithidae: AFCA Os ee eo eee nee Ee Roseaterspoonbil meses eae GUO ae ee ee ene She Whitey bISe aan sae eee eee GuaravalaxXG. 70rd. Hybrid ibis (scarlet and white) --_ CUOMO ALOT Ceara ee Oa Searlet ibis_____ NUE varie ee ed ee Threskiornis aethiopica-_____-__-___ Sacrediibisne\=sse sere on eee Threskiornis melanocephala______-__ Black-headed: bisa ee ee Threskiornis spinicollis_____.________. Straw-necked|ibis2 2222 ees Phoenicopteridae: Phoenicopterus chilensis_____._-__-__. Chilean flaming oes =) 2e2n ese PROCELLARIIFORMES Procellaridae: Macronectes giganteus_________-____ Giant) folmart22o2 ee ee eee ANSERIFORMES Anhimidae: Chauna: cristata ee Crested: screamer!02 2 Anatidae: AIO ODORS a Oe ee Wood. ducks. et eee es REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 97 Anatidae—Continued. Alopochen aegyptiacus_______-__----- Ngyntinn. so0ses- oe 1 PANGS UFUSILONSIS == oe ee Brazihantteale 22. eee 2 ANGSidOmesticd == 22-22 Ree a Pekin. duck] 3242-2 eee eee 27 Anas platyrhynchos__.___--------~-- Mallard) duck. eS BS ANAS TUUTIDES ate ee Pe Black or dusty mallard__-__-_-_-__ 1 ANSON ALDA;V ONS. SB ese ee American white-fronted goose__-_-- 3 Anser cinereus domestica_____---~~-. Toulouse _g00se= == Se 1 Anserinas semipalmata______----_--. Australian pied goose_--_---------- 2 BranigWernicla. Se, ES Brant. 22-3. eee eee 1 Branta canadensis.__._____-____-__-- Canada) goose- ee eee 20 Branta canadensis minima___--~---~- Cackling: s00se-—= = 23) eee eee 10 Branta canadensis occidentalis_____- White-cheeked goose_------------- 15 Cairina moschata______----------~-- Muscovy duck. 222233 eee 8 Casarca, variegata 2222 ee ese Paradise. duckiti2352) seas i Cereopsis novaehollandiae______---~- Cereopsis or Cape Barren goose__--- il Ohenvatlanticass see ee hoe Snow. go0se.s_ 5 aS ee eee 7 Ohen._ caerulescens===2-. == +--=2--- Blue: goose. 22 oe ee 8 Ohenonis atrata22 2222) Sse eee Blacksswanz=2=-).. ee ees 4 Chloephaga leucoptera______--------. Magellan ‘goose. -= eee 1 Chloephaga poliocephala________----~ Ashy-headed upland goose_--_----- 2 Coscoroba coscoroba. 2) 2k: s-ss—s = Coscorobat.22 2 ae eee 2 Cygnopsis cygnoides_______--------- Chinese. goose... 22-2 ee 3 Cygnus columbianus._.--—=——---_-_- Whistling swan = ee 5 Cygnus melancoriphus___-----~-----~ Black-necked Swan=—-- = 2 CYONUSEOLOT ae Mutes swan.) 22 Ss eee 2 PD Ce TL Cie CURE 8 ea Oa ss iPintail= 6.2222 os eee 8 DOIG SPUNACWUOG = ee Chilean. ina) Ee 1 Dendrocygna arborea_____---------- Black-billed tree duck-----------~ 3 Dendrocygna autumnalis_____------- Black-bellied tree duck_----------- 2 Dendrocygna viduata______-------~-- White-faced tree duck_-___-------- 4 Mareca americana_._-—-------__---- ‘Baldpatecs ise ae ee 1 EERO NS a8 aoe es ae esser Scanp = eee 2 MOY ALG COMMIS Sates, es ee 2 Ring-necked: duck==2_ 2222 eee 1 Nettion carolinense_______------_--- Green-winged teal_.________----_- oe ENTE 1 A) NO Se eae 1 cae 2 Hybrid: duck= 2-2 te eee a Nyrocaoalisinerias 202 2 @anvasback duck) eee 2 Plectropterus gambensis_______------ Spur-winged goose____-_----------- 2 Querquedula discors___.______-----_-. Blue-winged”teal__- 13 FALCONIFORMES Cathartidae: Aegypius monachus______-__-------- Cinereous. vulcure==-—- il Oathariessaurgs. = ee Turkey -yulture. === ee 3 Cathartes auraXCoragyps atratus___. Black vulture and turkey vulture hybrid) ea See eee il Coragupssatratus. es eee 'Blacky vultures22-222 eee 1 Gymnogyps californianus______--_-_-.- California: condor.) = 2 Gypohierazr angolensis_________---~-. Wish-eating vultures i Gans rieppelli = cei, wee oles Ruppel’s volture= = 1 Kaupifalco monogrammicus___----~-~-. Northern lizard-buzzard_______---- il Sarcoramphus papa_.______---------- King vulture... 25. ee 1 orgossirochehotuss_ == ee African eared vulture_______------ 1 WUE OTY DIS = = as ee South American condor_----------- 3 98 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 Sagittariidae: Sagittarius serpentarius_____-___----- Secretary. bird 2.22208) 2") sees Accipitridae: Accipiter tachiro macroscelides_____- West African goshawk__-_.-__-_-- iButeo borealis cae eS ee eee Red-tailed hawk -co2s62 222522288 Buteo Wneatus sos ees See ase eee es Red-shouldered hawk_------------ Buteo melanoleucus______-_-_-------- South American buzzard eagle__-_-- Buteo poecilochrows__—__-__-____--_- Red-backed buzzard_--__-_---__---_ Buteo swainsoni______-__-__-----_--_- Swainson’s’ hawkis sss Haliaeetus leucocephalus______------ Bald. eagle: .2 5. Se ee eh Haltasturindus: ee eee Brahminy, kite= === ee Harpid) NOGDY C222 eee Harpy eaglesi2220 se eee See Hypomorphnus urubitinga___-------- Brazilians eagle: 22a ae eee Milwago chimango___---_----------- Chimango 2.2). Ses oes Milvus migrans parasitus_____----~_-. Wellow-billed: kite 2S ee Pandion haliaetus carolinensis____-_-~ Osprey. or fshi hawks] ee Parabuteo uwnicincius____..--- = 4 -. One-banded hawk =~ 222222222" 222 Stephanoaetus coronatus______--_---. Crowned hawk-eagle___----------_ Uroacius auder.- eee Wedge-tailed eagle______----__---- Falconidae: Cerchneis: sparveriuss2 Sparrow, hawkils= ee eee Cerchneis sparverius cinnamominus__ Chilean sparrow hawk__--_-------- Daptrius americanus_____-_---__--_- Carancho. 2.22 ea eee Polyborus cheriway__ == Audubon’s caracara__----—=—---=-— RPoWvorus plancus= 42. ee ee South American caracara___------~ GALLIFORMES Cracidae: Cranjasciolcta== =e ee Crested curassow--.---~---------- Crax rib re eee ee se Panama curassowe--)-——— Craccsciaten 2 ee Sclater’s curassow—-----_--------- Malini ee eee ee eee Razor-billed curassow__----------- Penelope Spree ees Guan tee oe ee eee Phasianidae: ALCCLOTIS "OT CECO Sees eee Chukar partridge Argusianus argus.o—-—--_ = Argus’ pheasant==— Chrysolophus amherstiae______------- Lady Amherst’s’pheasant__-----___ Chrysolophus pictus _____-__ = -_ Golden pheasants.2=-—. 24) 242-5223 Colinus virginianus_______---------- ‘Bobwhite! 202. ae ee Coturnia coturniz______-___---_____- Migratory) quails: eee Eexcalfactoria chinensis_________--__- Blue-breasted button quail_________ GGUS OCU Sa eae hs ee ee Jungle TOWles os ae Sy eae Galius lafayettt=22- eee eee Ceylonese jungle fowl_______-__--_ Gallus: spe 2 ee Bantam: fowls - = eee Gollustsp! jobs eek See ee Araucanian (fowlso=* =) eee eee Gallus sp.x Numida galeata____-----. Chicken and guinea fowl hybrid___ Gennaeus Wneatus_ oe Lineated pheasant._-_.-_---._-_--_ Gennaeus nycihemerus_____--------- Silver: pheasants=]22 812 eae Hierophasis swinhoti_--_-__------~--. Swinhoe’s pheasant____-_-----__-- Lophophorus impeyanus_____-------- Himalayan impeyan pheasant__-~---_ Lophortyx californica vallicola___-—-. Valley, quiai}sieeeser ied ee a eee Dophura rubrav. 2 ae Malayan fire-back pheasant____-__-_ Pavo cristatus--. = 22 ‘Peafowl22-222. ee REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 99 Phasianidae—Continued. Pave amnuticue sa 5 *~ Sees tee. Green peafowl-2-_ 28s22ee= coe se 1 3 Ring-necked pheasant_______--~--- 1 Phasianus torquatus———------------- oe ring-necked pheasant_______- 2 Phasianus torquatus formosanus____- Formosan ring-necked pheasant-____ 1 Phasianus torquatus (var.)---------- Melanistic mutant ring-necked pheasant.) = es eee ees 3 Phasianus versicolor__-__._-_.----.-- Green Japanese pheasant____-_---- 4 Polyplectron napoleonis___-_-------- Palawan peacock pheasant_-----~- a) Syrmaticus reevesi________-------- =. Reeves’ spheasantste2i > suieehee il Numididae: Acrylium vulturinum____----------- Vulturine guinea fowl___---------- 1 Nang asp a. === Nae i ee Guineatiowh22e seks sees 4 GRUIFORMES Gruidae: Anthropoides paradisea____--------_-. Paradise (cranes. = 2 = 22s sae 2 Anthropoides’ virgo =. Demoiselle'crane.=_— eee 7 Balearica pavonina_______---------— West African crowned crane__-_--~ 3 Balearica regulorum gibbericeps___-_-. Hast African crowned crane___---- 1 TUM COROMETICONG 222 2a8 sere Se American):coot.— 3 ese eee 10 Grus canadensis canadensis____-___-- itthlesbrown crane2—- nase 1 Gres vleucauchen== 22s sore pent White-naped crane___----__-_-__-- 1 CRUSTICUCOQETONUSE == ae ee Siberian .cranes2o. 22 eee 2 Rallidae: Gallinula chloropus cachinnans___-~~ Moridaycallinul essa eee 4 Gallinula chloropus orientalis____-_-_-.- Sumatran‘gallinules #22055" =-2355 2 LTimnocoraz flavirostra______-------- African black rales ee 10 Porphyrio poliocephalus_______----~- Gray-headed porphyrio_-_--------~- 2 Eurypygidae: HULU DUO O CUCU =k Serre ae tse Sunbitterm] 2 = tee eee al Cariamidae: Cariama cristata____.~-4-=-—---_-- Cariama or seriama——=s_ =. = -2 25s 2 CHARADRIIFORMES Haematopodidae: Haematopus ostralegus_------------- European oyster catcher__-_------- 2 Charadriidae: Belonopterus chilensis________----~-~-- Chilean lapwing==22-=) = 2 Scolopacidae: Philomachus pugnar____------------ Rutt SS ee ee eee 1 Laridae: OTUs OT Gentats. = — es ee Herring cull’ sie eo ee 1 NGO TUS @ELQADGT ON sts = = Ring-billed) cull eee 1 Larus dominicamus.__--- === -_-- Kelprcullzi 2283S 2 PHTeS QUMICESCONS 8 Glaucous-winged gull______----___- 1 Larus novaehollandiae______-__--__- Silver gull. - ese 16 COLUMBIFORMES Columbidae: Oalumbiaguinea—- 2s — = Triangular-spotted pigeon_____-_-- il Columba livia (domestic) -------_-~-. Archangel mizconssstees seen eee rf Columba livia (domestic) -----------_- Man-tailed: pigeons. 22ee 1 Columba maculosa____________--_-— Spot-winged pigeon_____-_-___---_ 1 430577—_42——_8 100 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 Columbidae—Continued. Columba palumbus______-___---_---. Wood) pigeons 228 os aaa at Ducilasaenea. See ae eee ee a Green imperial pigeon_____________ 1 Gouraoristaia2s2 see eh eee Sclater’s crowned pigeon________-__ al Goura ,oictoride 223 =e eee Victoria crowned pigeon___--______ 1 Lamprotreron jambu___------------- Pink-headed fruit pigeon__-_______ 1 Leptotila, riifacitlau ee ee Scaled'ipigeons 22 e202 wite eee it Muscadivores paulina-_—_---_------ Celebian imperial pigeon___________ al Streptopelia chinensis_______-___-_--- Asiatic collaredsdovyes=2222 2 3 Streptopelia chinensis ceylonensis___._ Lace-necked or aSh dove____-______ 6 Streptopelia semitorquata__________-. African red-eyed dove___--_______--_ il PUTT FAS OT US 2 Lee ear Turtledove! ss cesses eee: Lee q Tympanistria tympanistria fraseri_._.£.'Tambourine pigeon________-_______ 2 Zenda auriculatas——- == _. South American mourning dove_____ 11 Zenaidura macroura__________—-_-—— Mourning (0). ese= = ee 3 PSITTACIFORMES Psittacidae: Agapornis pullaria__________-___._ 2) Red-tacedulovebird222 ens eases 12 AT@ GTO GUNG sane ae ee a ae Yellow and blue macaw__-__--_---_ 3 ARC sCRIOVODCERG. 222 = aa we Ul any Red and blue macaw_____-_-__-___ alt ATE MNOCAG2 222s stlleesd eee EET Red, blue, and yellow macaw___-__ 2 Ara manilatac- neni ae eee Illiger's.macaw= 2222 if Ara militaria 2223 2 See Saeee Mexican green macaw__------_---- 1 Aa SOVER GE me Ae eae aN aa Severehmacawaste22 a2 22 ae 1 Aratingaieuops 6s ee ee eee G@uban‘conures.2% 2 eee 1 Calyptorhynchus magnificus________~ Bankstanicockatoos 22-22-22 ee 1 Coracopsis: nigra. 2 See eee Lesser vasa sparrots2 2 renee al Cyanopsiitacus spivi__-__-_- Spix’s) Macaw ss2fs 522 he eae 2 Domicella flavopalliata_______-__----_ Red Jory. 22.0) 2 ee) eee 3 HICLECIUS MECLOTALisa. = =e eae Helectus@ partotss2 =.= == aa 2 Holophus roseicapillus______________. Roseate) cockatoos22 2 ee 2 Hupsittula canicularis_____________-- Petz paroquet222 eee eee al EQUEGLO CR LUG Co ae tat eae Wihite:icockatoo 222 tas oa ees 2 Kakatoe galeria. aa eee Large sulphur-crested cockatoo____- 3 KGkaloe lead 0eatlent === ee Leadbeater’s cockatoo__-__-_--__--~ 1 Kakatoe moluccensis____________-__- Great red-crested cockatoo____--__- 1 TGKALOC SUD TUE oe ee Lesser sulphur-crested cockatoo______ 5 Kakatoe tenwirostris2 es ae _ Slender-billed cockatoo_______-_--- 1 Orisa OmiCellas= = eee Rayah* lory 22222 cet eee 2 LOMUUSROONTUNLS Soa ee ee nee ae REE TOT Ye ea ere are as Sone eee 2 Melopsittacus undulatus_______------ Grass parakeet: 22 2>ses2.2 eee 6 Microglossus aterrimus______-_----~- Great black cockatoo___._______-_-- al Myopsitta monachus___-----------~- Quaker*paroquet==s— ae i Nandayus: nandayss: 2222 ee Nanday -paroquét-2 2 =e 1 Neston notavilis= 2s ee eee Re ea eae bet rene ae ee eee eu ere 2 Nymphicas hollandicus___-_____--_-- Cockatielien2\)22 Semen iron ee i Pionites canthomena_2—- = Amazonian Chiquessss =e ee 2 Psittacwia eupatma—-- == Red-shouldered paroquet__-__----- 4 PStUTACULC ICT OIC aa ee eee Keramer'sparoquetses sess aa 4 Psitiacula longicauda_______________. Long-tailed paroquet_____-_------- 2 IPSULOCUS CTULNGCWS= 2 ee ee, ACI Can Sra ys PALO b= ee 2 Tanygnathus muelleri______-_------- Mueller parrot oe ee ee 1 Trichoglossus cyanogrammus___——-—- Green-naped, lory2.2=2 22222 ss see 1 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY CUCULIFORMES Cuculidae: Gentropus sinensigoaue. 22S ses e Sumatran coucals == eee ae Eudynamis scolopaceus___-_--------- Roeliss fru eat ode eka “sia! ek Gallirex porphyreolophus__---------- Purple-crested plantain eater_____- STRIGIFORMES Tytonidae: Tyto alta pratincola.22+-—-—-+- ==. American) barnjowless- 2 as ae Strigidae: BuUu00 Or Quvignuseis 2. Se es Great: horned) owl=2222-—- 2 > MGI G Kelupuan a. SoS Sees Malay fish owes 2 ase ee OUESTES10 aS Ses Be ee Screceh! owillsas kee Sou ee SiitD DONG) CONG es ee ee IBarredO wl. cee eee ee ade CAPRIMULGIFORMES Podargidae: Podargus strigoides=_— === a Dawny frogmouths =.) =e CORACIIFORMES Alcedinidae: DD} CCC} OMOVI GS ee eee Kookaburra] = sat Set ee eee Halcyon pyrrhopygius_____---------- Red-backed kingfisher__._._.___-__-____ FETIOYOM SONG ILS mea = ee ee ee Ssered® kinetisher=2222 22 eee Momotidae: MMOMOTUSN LESSON ee Mot 0 tt ee Bucerotidae: BUCETOS GRAINOCENOS ee Rhinoceros, hornbpilla a eee Bucorvus abyssinicus_______________. Abyssinian ground hornbill___---~-~- Ceratogymna elaitaz= = s2 Yellow-casqued hornbill___-_--__-_ Dichocercs Dicornisa—- == = 3 eS Concave casque hornbill__-____--_- PICIFORMES Ramphastidae: Ramphastos carinatus____.-___--_--. Sulphur-breasted toucan__-__------ Ramphastos piscivorus_________--___ Noco:toucan eS ee PASSERIFORMES Cotingidae: Procnias.nudicollisa2 208 oe Be ee. Naked-throated bell bird_________- Rianicola rupicola.— so == see eS Cock of: the rock. Se eee Corvidae: Calocitta formosa 822 22st sss Mexican magpie jay--------------- Otssarchinensigea-2 a ae ee Ghineseeissal 2 aes eee Conpisralois ees 2am Se et ~ White-breasted crow------------~-- Corvus brachyrhynchos__-__--------- AAMETICAN) CrOW = ee Coreussoonnig ss ee Eooded= crow. 22 eee eee Corousieoronoides.22_= 2 ATIStralian CLOW see ees Corvusieryplroleucisel Se ese White-necked raven_________--____ COppusHinsolens. == =o ee Ny et Indian Crowe eee Cee ees Ovanocitiareristate= = ees, Ble ay see ee ee hs Le BBY Cyanocorazr chrysops__.--.-~-------- Wer alti ay ea Cyanocorar cyanopogon___---------~ White-naped jay_i iS ee Cyanocoras mystacalis_____.___-_._--- Moustached jay_--_-_ 102 Corvidae—Continued. Gymmorhina hypoleuca______-___- _-_ Pi0a NuUliquii ss 2 eA eee PACH MCOANUGS ONIG2 a eee: Urocissa occipitalis_____.__________-~ Paradiseidae: Ailuroedus crassirostris_____________ Epimachus fastuosus___-_________. —- Ptilonorhynchus violaceus__________- Seleucides niger. ee ee Unranornsubr ds eee Pycnonotidae: Otocompsaijocosus22=2 == ee Pycnonotusianthis2.- ees Pycnonotus bindentatus__________-__ RULDI GUL SONS DO ae ee ee, Trachycomus zeylonicus_____________ Turdidae: MEesia Orgentqinise. = ee eee Mimocichla rubripes________________. LUG USOT OY Ue re ee ete ee ITE ROLTKS GO UTI en Laniidae: UG USEO OTS C11 Se Sturnidae: Cosmopsaris regiwts_—-—---—_ -—--__=- Creatophora cinerea________________. Galeopsar salwadorii______________--— Ch GTA TRANG OS Molothrus bonariensis______________- TAD LOLS te LULD Diane se ee ee Ploceidae: Coliuspasser ardens= 2-2 = Diatropura procne_=--—— Mania Mage aes Se ee ea ea Mauniainrovceg 22 a eS. MuniaOry2Zwvordga 2 2a eee Munia punctulatus____-_-_----_-___- Ploceus 000022222 ee ee ee Ploceus intermedius__._________--___-_- Ploceus rubiginosus.—-—--_ 5 Poephila acuticauda___________-___-. Quelea sanguinirostris intermedia___- Stegawura paradisea_______---___-_- Taeniopygia, castanotis_______------- Icteridae: Agelaius assimilis. = Gymnomystar mexicanus_______-___- Teterus icleruse = ee eae INOUODSOT CUTGCUS= = — ene eee Xanthocephalus canthocephalus_____. ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 White-backed piping crow_----___- Yellow-billed magpie________-___-_- American) magpie==S ae eee Red-billed blue magpie_--_-------- ZATIStralianm cat bind#s222—2 55 =s sea Sickle-billed bird of paradise__--_-- Satin bowerbird 2s See 12-wired bird of paradise______---~- Red: bird of paradise 222) 2o22 255 Red-eared bulbul== = eee Yellow-vented bulbul_______-----_- Orange-spotted bulbul_____________ Red-throated bulbul___.________-__- Yellow-crowned bulbul________---- Silver-eared mesia_.-____-__-----_ Western red-legged thrush__---_--~ Bonaparte/s thrush sss eee Argventinesropin se ae ee ee Splendidistariins=22.==== = Wattled | staring=__ Crested) (starling==s2aa ee Southern hill mynah_-_---_-______ Shiny; (cOwbDitds22 2 eas eee Military starling=22-)=2—-2=——=——= Red-necked whydah__-__-__-_--___ Giant whydah White-headed munia____-__--_-__-_ Black-throated munia—____________ Java eS DaltO We a= =a eee White Java sparrow_-----_------- Rice bird or nutmeg finch________--_ Baya, weaver. 2 ee eee Black-cheeked weaver__---------- Chestnut-breasted weaver_—-----~~ long-tailed! finche=2 25222 .s see Southern masked weaver finch_---_ Paradise: whydahs22 352s) ess Zebra’ finch2= 242222 2S ae ae Cuban red-winged blackbird_______-_ Giant oriole]. = <2 ae eee Troupial Chilean’ blackbird2==222=--=—= 2 Yellow-headed blackbird__—----~-- ye REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 103 Fringillidae: Amandawa amandava____----------- Strawberry finchssst2 ss 2 Se 27 Coryphospingus cucullatus_____----~-- Red-crested | finch 24 2s se se eee 2 Cyanocompsa argentina__----------~ Argentine blue grosbeak__-----_--- 2 SCE AU ee ee Diuca fineh=—=-- es ae 2 Lophospingus pusillus____.__-_------~- Black-crested finch____-___--__----- + WMetopyrrha nigra... 320 See Guban: bullfinch=—_ = ae il Paroaria cucullata_22—— =. ~-+--__- Brazilian’ cardinal! =a ee 5 IBCASCTINGTOMN Gre eS = = ee Painted bunting=——-—— ae i Pheuctious tibialis_—_ 2 et Yellow: ‘grosbeak-=== 3s ih Phrygilus fruticeti____ 222+ Mourning: finch... +7 ie" 4eeee 16 IPhrygilus: gayi. Bas Pe eet Gay’s gray-headed finch_--------~-- 7 Senwus canarius—.. 2 -— 5. angry *22 2 202 ee eae at Bicais fiiveolt= == 2a JA ee Mystorfinch= =.= == ae eee al IIOULESIMNINOT = se lesser-yellow finch= 2 6 SPINUSiPSQlirid 28 8s Arkansas! goldfinch==—==== === 1 Spinus uropygialis_______-___-_-_-_----. Chileans Siskin ss <2 hee oe 3 Sporophila aurita___-__._____-__----- Hick’s seed-eater= =... => 2 ee 2 Sporophila gutturalis________-------. Yellow-bellied seed-eater____----~- 2 Troms olivace@=222- 2s... Mexicany grassquita=—2s- = ee 1 Uroloncha leucogastroides______---_- Society) finch 22s a ae 1 Volatinia jacarini_________-_______-. Blue-black grassquit_______-----_- 1 Zonotrichia capensis__________-~--- = I@HIN O10 2283 8 oo a 2 A 3 REPTILES Crocodylidae: LORICATA Alligator mississipiensis______.______- Alligator 2-22 Ae ee ee 388 TAU GQ OUOT SEN CTUSU aa an Chinese alligator: => = 3 Caaman tatirostris_—-= se Broad-snouted caiman _____-_____- 1 COSTE SCLET ONS fa Be Spectacled ecaiman-—_..--_-_--_-_ 3 CLOCORYUIS OCUTUS eos tee American, crocodile: = 3 il Crocodylus cataphractus____.________. Narrow-nosed crocodile____________ of Crocodylus niloticus __.__ = ATTICAn Crocodiles =.—2 = il Crocodylus patustris._ “oad? Crocogile== = = 25 2a eee 2 CrOCOdUUS NOrosuss 8 oe Salt-water crocodile_-+—- === == 1 Osteolaemus tetraspis_______.________ Broad-nosed crocodile______-_-_____ 2 Agamidae: SQUAMATA Physignathus lesueurit____.__________ Lesueur’s water dragon____________ 1 Gekkonidae: CGECIORUC CKO ee et ee nt ee ae ee GECKOS ae ae See eae ee ee ee 4 Iguanidae: oA NOUS CUT OUNENSS eee eer nts oe Halse ‘chameleons. e ees 25 PATO TESREITULCS LIAS 2 oe eet Giant Vanoligso 2s ee ee 1 LPR STS ELON OLLL (a rp ie a DA gv C0; ah hea ee ee il Phrynosoma cornutum____-_-_______-_. orned) lizard == 25. eee ee 25 Sauromalus obesusn 22 @huckwallae 222 ee eS 2 Sceloporus undulatus_______________. Hence Jizard=Ssecer a= ae sea Zz Anguidae: Onhssaurus apuss = 92 European glass snake________-____ 1 Ophisaurus ventralis________________ GIasst snakes. © see 2 ee Be 3 Helodermatidae: Heloderma horridum_______________- Mexican beaded lizard________ ee ye Heloderma suspectum______________- Gilat ON Sessa ene errr eee oe 6 104 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 Teiidae: Tupinambis nigropunctatus______---- Teo lizard< <== eee Tupinambdis rufescens_____-_-------- Red! tegu) lizards2e2ae) eek ee eae Tupimambis teguivin_-__-__----------- Yellow tegu lizard=2225 2.23225 Scincidae: Egernia cunninghami___------------ Cunningham’s) skink2222 sess see Tigua mgrolutea._-— se Mottled’ lizard222== 28022222225 Tiliqua. scincoides22 = Blue-tongued lizard-__-__--_-------- Varanidae: Varanus komodoensis___._----------- Komodo dracon] =- =) eee Varonus niloticus_2 2-82) ee African monitors ee WOranus) Salvatore: ase eee Sumatranemonitor—_- = OPHIDIA Boidae: BOW COOK ste ee ee eee Cook's stree Dod eee OConstrictor constrictor22— eee Boa constrictors] se eee EMPtCrates CONChTIS= wana e eee Rainbows DO ae ee eee Ei piCrates Chas susees i sas ee Salanrantas 22 2S Sesiee eee Bpicrates striatus. — = eee Haitian bod se eee (PATRON OUTS ae ee eee Indignirockspythoneee == PU LWOVT CO UUS a ee eee Balle py thonac == 2 ee ee eee PUTNON IT CUCH ICUS ne Regal pythone == ee PYLON SCONE rane eee ene Aftricanbrock python] ==——) see = Tropidophis melantrus___----------- Guban: bogs ee eee Colubridae: Acrochordus javanicus_______-______. HDlephant-trunk snake_--_-------__ Coliter:consticio eee Biack snake. .v2 hols ea ees ees Cyclagras 91903 EEE Cobra-de-Paraguay==— ee Diadophis punctatus___-.__-___--_---- Ring-necked snake___--_=--------- Dromicus dorsasz2 22 aes. James Island snake __---_-_______-- Dromicusisp ee es ee South Seymour Island snake__---_-_ Drymarchon corais couperi____------ Indigo: snake2= ee eee THONG ine snake_---~---------------—-- Night, snakes. 32S eee LRG NO OURTONG (0 ee ae snake_~--~----------------- White pilot: snakes22e ssl Hlphe quadrivitiata_______________.. Chickensnakes.2 tee eee Heterodon contortric-= == Hog-nosed snake___-----_-_--_---- Lampropeltis getulus floridana______- Mloridavking, snake2 0-20.22 eres Lampropeltis getulus getulus______-_-. ing) oruchain snakes22s-2 ee Lampropeltis triangulwm______------ Mabe Sake 3a LS I ieke ne eee Leimadophis poecilogyrus________-__- South American green snake______- TAODTUSE TU Se ee eee ie South American brown snake__-_-- Inopeltis vernalis.____________.--_-~- Smooth green snake__.___________ INGETAL I CUCLOPLON ae ee ee ae Water snakes: 2 202i 2a eae INGA D See err a rere She ane ea Waterisnake 2222525. Pituophis catentferi222- ae Western bullisnakes== sees Thamnophis ordinoides____________-_- California garter snake____-------- Thamnophis sirtalis concinnus____---~ Pacifiq garter snake___________---- Thamnophis sirtalis sirtalis_________- Garter ‘snakes: 22222223 Elapidae: NGF GSN TS Se a eT SE ee ae King cobras 22 ee eee Naja tripudians sumatrana_________- Sumatran: black-hooded cobra_----- NGIG Spa ee ew cree ee eS el ae African black cobra___---_-------- REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 105 Crotalidae: Agkistrodon mokasen_____~_-_----_-~ Copperhead. snake==-23es) Seek 2 Agkistrodon piscivorus..__.__....-_—-- Water moccasin 2222 sess where a Crotalus adamanteus_______-______-. Florida diamond-backed rattle- snake 222 Son Se eee eee 4 Crotalus. cerastese 2 2s! Bee Sidewinder rattlesnake__________--_ 7 Orotaius. cinereousi2— 22 ke Texas rattlesnake! 3222s ae 6 Orotalus: hornidugss as oe ress ee Banded. rattlesnakes =a 2 Ststrurus miliarius___.--________-_.. Pigmy, -ratvlesnakes== sess al Viperidae: BALESRGCUONACH a eS hee Gaboon viper: | eC eee eed 2 Bilis nasicornis.— toe) bye ee IUHINOCerOsi Vipera. ae 1 TESTUDINATA Chelydidae: Batrachemys nastta—__---—----_- = South American side-necked turtle__ 3 Chelodina longicollis___________---_- Australian snake-necked turtle___._. 2 Oheivarimondtace= = SS ees Matamata turtle 22.2 al HOG Ck ee See South American snake-necked turtle. 4 Hydromedusa tectifera_____._______-- South American snake-necked turtle. 16 Platysternidae: Platemys platycephala_____________- Miat-headed! turtles. seo ee 1 Platysternum megacephalum__——--~~- Large-headed Chinese turtle________ al Pelomedusidae: Pelomedusa qaleatas. Common African water tortoise____. 2 Podocnemis expansa—==—- —~~—=-—————-. South American river tortoise_____ il Kinosternidae : KAN OSTCTMNON Spe ee ee ee Central American musk turtle_____ 1 Kinosternon subrubrum____---------~ MUSK turtles oe eee cen eae 2 Chelydridae: Chelydra serpentina__________-_____. Snapping turtles sets ee eee 8 Macrochelys temminckii_______-----~- Alligator snapping turtle_____-____ 1 Testudinidae: ORGUSEM YS NCLO = see ~ = ae Painted: turtle2=2-—- eee 13 Olemmiysoutignis. ao as Spotted:turtle:--=* 220th See eet 6 Clemmys insculpta__.__._.___.__._._______ IWOOd tortoise =422 2 a eee 3 Clemmys muhlenbergii_____________- Muhlenberg’s tortoise______________ 1 Cyclemys amboinensis_______-______- keuraykura DoOxsturble see 6 Deirochelys reticularia____________—_ Chicken; tortoise == eae 1 Hmys blandingt-.- = Blanding s7turtlessss = =e eee 1 Gopherus polyphemus_______---___-_ Gopher turtles 2-423 Sa it Graptemys geographica_________-__-. Geographic turtle: 22222 al TRGVAD US FOTOS ets as a ee West African back-hinged tortoise__ 4 Malaclemmys centrata______________. Diamond-back terrapin____________ 9 Pseudemys concinna___________-___-. Cooter 2s soso S eee ee a ee ee 4 Pseudemys deoussata_—_ iHaihan: terrapinsese se ee al Pseudemys d@orbignyi____.__________. DOrbigny spout essa. a= eee 3 Rseudemys elegans= == Cumberland? terrapins = 8 Pseudemys floridana_______________ =) PL OTIG a terra pile = ese ore 2 Pseudemys malonei__.-.-. = Wresh-watergbuntlewe* ss. ee tee) 2 EESCALLENIVUS OT TULLE sea ee OUT AEG MEU ELC ee ee ee 2 Pseudemys rubriventris____________-. Red “bellicds turtle =ase ae es 1 PsCudemys rugosus____- Cubanaterra pins. = eee ee ee 1 Terrapene carolina___._____________- Box: tortolsess Se ee 15 106 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 Testudinidae—Continued. Terrapene ornata___-_--~------------ Ornate; hox:, turtles==)522-=s"2=22=5 5 Testudoichilensisice. See ee eee 9 Teshido dentiouldtan cece Se ee ee ee ee ee 2 Testudo elegats.= == Star tortoises-2- o>. eee 2 Testudo emis. 22 i ie See Sumatran land tortoise-______--__- ft Testudo ephippiuwm___-=--=—-=----=-- Duncan Island tortoise__-_____-_-_ 3 Testuda OOCenstg eee e ee ee Hood Island tortoise______--- _-__-- 3 Testudo stornien 2s eee eee Soft-shelled land tortoise_____-_--_- 4 TEStUdOr VI CING = Soe Se ee Albemarle Island tortoise_____-_-__ 3 Trionychidae: Amyda fenrot 22. eee see nee Soft-shelled turtle_---__.___-__-_-___-- 6 Amiyda triunguis_.--.—---=—--_____. West African soft-shelled turtle____ 2 Trionyx cartilagineus_______-_-----_ Asiatic soft-shelled turtle___.__---_~_ 1 AMPHIBIA CAUDATA Salamandridae: Triturus pyrrhogaster__ Red-bellied Japanese newt___--_--- 1 TUT US LOT OSS eee eae ee California newt.-2222 22 ese 12 Triturus viridescens___ ss Common) new t=ss— se ee Pe EPEC UT SUELO CLS ee eee Salamander pases Sees Be eee 2 Ambystomidae: Ambystoma maculatum_____________. Spotted salamander_____-_-_____-- 2 Megalobatrachus japonicus_________-. Giant) salamander 1 Amphiumidae: Amphiuma means___---_--_-__-----_- Blind eel or Congo snake_____-__--_ 2 Amphiuma tridactylum_______------_- Blind eel or Congo snake______-___- 1 SALIENTIA Discoglossidae: Bombina tombina______--_-____ -___. Bire-bellied® toad {==2 se ee eee 6 Dendrobatidae: ALCLODUS ISD ten sao ee ee eae Spotted atelopus#2222220 2 eee 1 Dendrobates auratus_______________. ATTOW-DOISOM LT Og eae eee 3 Bufonidae: BUT O GMCTICONUS 222 ae ee Common American toad_____-_---_- 1 BU OPC DUS US ae a a an ee ee ee Sapo'de concha!=2 2. ee 12 BULO MANNS eae ee Se ar eee Marine (0nd =a ss ae ee eee 10 Bufo peltocephalus_________________- Cubanigiant toada2= 2 5 Ceratophrydae: Ceratophrys ornata___________-____-_ Horned froge 22 eee ene 2 Ceraionnrys Varigeas ee Horned frogess 2.2 are ee Hylidae: YU CGCT Wed ee ce Australian tree frog_________--_-_-- 1 Gay VET StCOLOT sane ee ee ee Common treestr0 gs ee 1 Pipidae: Pipa GMeniCOnds. 22k ee Surinam (toa dss 222 2s 1 Ranidae: Rana catesbiana_______.___-_________ American bullfrog 2-3 3 RQ TULRCLONVELGIUS Sa rn ee ee Green irog ss ae ee 3 Rana) oceipitalis.2- = West African bullfrog____-______--_ 1 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 107 FISHES PARTON HISHOCELLCUUS ee ee eee en Sb hits) GRIM ose pare 3 Bona macracanthus.— oe, Clownwloach=2222 25 2 Oarnegieliatstrigata. 2225 eee = Stripedshatchetfish==== == 4 Corydoras melamistius —-_._-._.-__-.... Armored. cathsh=— es 2 ees oe see 5 Epalzeorhynchus talopterus___________. Black’shark® 222820) Sess Se sates 4 SEMESTU APE LIATLTTUALS RALTULRTUCUD CUE Game re 1 Hyphessobrycon innesi__________-____- Neon*tetra) fish==2 222) ee 16 Kryptopterus bicirrhus__________-__--- Glassteatiish!: 0 222 ee ee 4 Mmebistes reticulatus— 2) Guppy ee eee 25 Lepidosiren paradova__.____..___=.--- South American lungfish___________ 3 Benorinius fasciata==_ = eopard: fish? #2222222 2 a ee 1 Monocirrhus polyacanthus__________--- eget shi] 2e a2 os ee ee it RVIEPETUO SEOTTALSH CMLOTIVGTAES seen a rts ee NEY ln oo a a ed eee 4 INEUNGRLGINUS: MLALOUNGTUS ean eee ee ee oe en ae be eee tad Fy hy IMASPITORLOMLILS TERT IVEQ TALS cers. Sade a ee ee d= te ee a es ee 2 ITEP EDES ALTO RIS Cs, ea a ne a coe Dy ee Se SE ee ae ERE 2 Pantodon buchholzt_._.___._.-.-._~.~~- Butterily fish=] 222-2 2 eee 2 Platypoecitlus maculatus______-___-__-_.- Goldpleties=2 282 a ee 10 PCCOSCONMIS UND ae oe eee tee ee Window cleaner 222. Se + ReIRALC LUGE LC ant ee Pe «ee eer i es a ee eee 3 Pierophyltwm. scalare_.__----.--=----~-. ANI PO efi SNe nn ae ie = be 4 ELUM SLO LOU SIO U Gn ee Se a Ae ee eee eee il Puntius partipentazona________------~ iRed-inned! bak pa ee 3 Rasbora heteramorpha________-___-__- TRASDOU Ge es ee es ae 8 Rerrasaimus ternetzt_._______=-_____-_- Piranha or cannibal fish_____-___- 1 Tanichthys albonubes___.._-__-___--_- White Cloud Mountain fish_____-__- 20 LUTE Th CY ee Se et Mouth-breeding fish_________--___- 3 Trichogaster leeri_______- megs bot Fas SSpOb eourant 2 ee 272 ee es es 3 maghnophorus hetlert._____..-._______.. Sword=tanls 2 ete ores a Ee aes 1 ee ee ee Bladkiknife fishes 22.2 et soe oe ARACHNIDS UCN Spas n sos 22 ee ee AT aAN GU ae ee ee ee ee 2 Latrodectus mactans__-.-.__-._-___.._ Black widow spider________-__-_-_- il INSECTS Es Giant cockroach=.- 224.5), 2a) ces 26 MOLLUSKS moratina variegata___-___._____________. Glaritiliand snails t 22 ee ee 5 CRUSTACEANS Coenobita clypeatus___________________ and hermit: crabs 2-2-2 eee 3 Respectfully submitted. W. M. Mann, Director. Dr. C. G. Axor, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. APPENDIX 8 REPORT ON THE ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY Sm: I have the honor to submit the following report on the activities of the Astrophysical Observatory for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1941; WORK AT WASHINGTON Messrs. Aldrich and Hoover, with assistance of computers Mrs. A. M. Bond, Miss L. Simpson, and Miss N. M. McCandlish, prepared in manuscript the immense table of daily solar-constant observations from 1923 to 1939. The table contains all individual observations in detail for the three stations, Montezuma, Table Mountain, and Mount St. Katherine. A single day sometimes involves in itself alone a subtable of 10 lines, 10 columns wide. Every solar-constant deter- mination was scrutinized in detail from the original records before entry into the great table, and in very many instances recomputed to check discordant results. Mean values giving the most probable result of each day at each station were computed, and all were plotted on an extended scale. This plot made up a roll about 15 inches wide and 200 feet long. In this form every day’s values were scrutinized by C. G. Abbot, and discordances noted. As one result of his work in preparation of a paper entitled “An Important Weather Element Hitherto Generally Disregarded,”? Dr. Abbot had been strongly impressed by the fact that the solar variation is several times greater in percentage for blue- violet rays than for total radiation. This led him to investigate whether on discordant days the shorter wave length parts of the energy spectrum of the sun, as computed for outside our atmosphere, were also discordant. It proved that in many cases they were not, showing that errors had been made in other than the spectral parts of the determinations. Hence, the entire great table was gone through, , and for all discordant days the blue-violet extra-atmospheric spectrum was reduced to comparable units by bringing all days to equality in| the infrared region, where solar variation is nearly nil. Nearly ai hundred pages of newly computed manuscript tables were required | to set forth this information. | With this new information available, Dr. Abbot in many ia marked “improved preferred” daily values on the great chart for onee 1 Smithsonian Mise. Coll., vol. 101, No. 1, 1941. t 108 | | REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 109 or more of the stations, as dictated by the blue-violet spectrum. He then took the general mean for each day, not only of the untreated results, taking into account only the grades assigned by Messrs. Ald- rich and Hoover for the separate stations, but also an “improved pre- ferred” mean for perhaps one-fourth of all the days. These new means were the results preferred after considering the blue-violet spec- trum. Both of these daily means were entered in the great table, so that when it is published, readers may use either the preferred general mean or the “improved preferred” general mean, as they please. As the great table was thus being finished in manuscript, it was being typewritten by Miss M. A. Neill in preparation for the printer. By the end of the fiscal year it was almost finished for publication. In the meantime the rest of the manuscript for volume 6 of the Annals had been finished as far as possible by Dr. Abbot and typed by Miss Neill. But some changes and additions will be made after the inspec- tion of the great table is completed. There appears every reason to hope that the entire manuscript of volume 6, including the great table and its subsidiaries, tables of 10-day and monthly means, will be in the printer’s hands before New Year’s Day. The study of the great table led Dr. Abbot to reconsider whether the sun’s variation might not be more effectively followed by observa- tions limited to the blue-violet region of spectrum. He was at length able to devise a method which appears promising, and which has been introduced just at the end of the fiscal year at all three field stations. In brief, the method contemplates inserting in front of the spectro- bolometer slit a glass filter which restricts the radiation to the desired blue-violet region. An exactly similar glass filter is inserted before the aperture of the pyrheliometer. Knowing from the usual solar- constant work of the day the atmospheric transmission coefficients for blue-violet rays, it is possible to compute the extra-atmospheric energy spectrum of the restricted blue-violet spectrum given by the screened spectrobolometer. A comparison of the blue-violet energy spectra at the station and as computed for outside the atmosphere gives a factor to multiply the screened pyrheliometer reading to what it would be outside the atmosphere. In this way we restrict the observations to the most variable part of the observed solar spectrum, and avoid those spectral regions where ozone, water vapor, and extreme short and long wave lengths introduce great errors. We greatly hope that this new method will yield more reliable daily indications of the solar variation. The necessary instrumental changes for introducing the new method were done by A. Kramer. He has also prepared special apparatus for solar distillation of sea water after Dr. Abbot’s design, and many other required small jobs for the Observatory. 110 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 Dr. H. Arctowski continued his meteorological investigations re- lating to the effects of solar variation on atmospheric barometric pressure and temperature. His studies led to researches on the upper air. By courtesy of the Chief of the United States Weather Bureau a long series of daily nocturnal radio-meteorograph records were procured. Dr. Arctowski did very extensive computations and graphical representations with these data. At the end of about 18 months of strenuous investigation he prepared a paper illustrated by many plots and much tabular matter which will be found of source value hereafter. This paper will soon issue under a Roebling grant. Dr. Arctowski finds the important influence of solar variation on weather plainly obvious, but the manner of its operation extremely complex. He regards this first paper as merely introductory, and sees a great field for future investigation. FIELD STATIONS As far as possible daily determinations of the solar constant of radiation were made at three field stations, Montezuma, Chile, Table Mountain, Calif., and Tyrone, N. Mex. A commodious rein- forced concrete dwelling house was erected at Montezuma under H. B. Freeman’s direction. PERSONNEL L. A. Fillmen, for many years instrument maker in the Division of Radiation and Organisms under private support at the Smith- sonian Institution, was transferred to the Astrophysical Observatory Government roll. SUMMARY The immense task of preparing the solar-constant work of the past 20 years for final publication was practically finished. A new method of following solar variation was devised and installed at all field stations. An extensive research on the effects of solar vari- ation by Dr. H. Arctowski approached publication. Dr. Abbot pub- lished a paper entitled “An Important Weather Element Hitherto — Generally Disregarded,” in which many proofs of solar variation were assembled, and the effects of it on weather were shown, to- — gether with preliminary attempts at 3- to 5-year weather forecasts _ and verifications. These ambitious forecasts, while not as success- | ful as was hoped, are promising. Respectfully submitted. C. G. Assor, Director. THE SECRETARY, Smithsonian Institution. APPENDIX 9 REPORT ON THE DIVISION OF RADIATION AND ORGANISMS Str: I have the honor to submit the following report on the activities of the Division of Radiation and Organisms during the year ended June 30, 1941: The operations of the Division have been financially supported by funds of the Smithsonian Institution and in part by a grant from the Research Corporation of New York. For several months during the past year actual work in the laboratories was suspended during the construction of a new sewer system and the preparation and actual work of electrical rewiring throughout the building. Also three of the laboratories and the machine shop were repainted. Considerable time has been given by members of the division in the planning and construction of an exhibit now on display as part of the “Index Exhibit” in the Main Hall of the Smithsonian Building. A detailed description of this exhibit appears in the July 1941 number of the Scientific Monthly. INFLUENCE OF RADIATION ON RESPIRATION Following the preliminary experiments and improvement in tech- nique as reported last year on the project dealing with the genesis of chlorophyll and the beginning of photosynthesis, many data have been obtained on the respiration of etiolated barley seedlings. This information is highly desirable because of its bearing upon photo- synthesis as measured by the gaseous exchange method. Further- more, a comprehensive review of the literature on respiration as affected by radiation is being completed and will soon be made available. The rate of respiration (carbon dioxide evolution) of etiolated barley seedlings (i. e., seedlings grown in complete darkness and devoid of chlorophyll) increases following illumination, whether measured in dark or in light. Under favorable conditions this rise amounts to as much as 20 percent of the previous dark rate and is maintained for at least 7 hours after the light exposure. 111 112 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 The maximal effect of illumination for a 30-minute period occurs at a fairly low intensity (60 foot-candles or less). The magnitude of the effect produced by 60 foot-candles of light increases with the time of illumination up to an exposure period of about 20 min- utes and remains constant with longer light periods. These results are graphically illustrated in figure 1. In many of these studies it was observed that the rate of respira- tion was not as constant as one would desire during the periods prior to irradiation. It was thought that perhaps the metabolic reactions of the seedling were affected in transferring them from the germination conditions to those of the respiration chamber. A PIRCEAT MERC ASE 60 300 600 '200 1800 2400 3000 INTENSITY(F GC) OF ILLUMINATION (30 MIN) PERCENT INCREASE 50 100 200 300 400 $00 Ficurp 1.—Hffect of illumination on respiration of etiolated barley seedlings. Percentage increase in rate of respiration is plotted against intensity of illumination in upper graph and against duration of exposure in lower graph. number of changes were made in the germination conditions and in the preliminary treatment of the experimental plants in the respiration chamber. After many experiments of this nature it appears that the rate of respiration either increases or decreases continuously for a period of time following exposures of the seed- lings to low or high carbon dioxide concentrations respectively. For example, figure 2 shows the relative rates of respiration for succes- sive half-hour periods following a conditioning period of 5 percent carbon dioxide. From data of this type it would appear that conditions of car- bon dioxide storage or depletion develop in the plant tissue depend- ing upon the concentration of this gas surrounding the plants. In subsequent periods, when the respiration is measured there is an increase or decrease in the rate of CO, excretion (i. e., in the apparent REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 113 rate of respiration) until a state of equilibrium with the new environ- ment is attained. If this phenomenon is of widespread occurrence in green plants as well, it must be of considerable importance also in experiments in which rates of photosynthesis are measured. Considerable time has been spent during the late winter and spring in improving the performance of the spectrograph used in measuring carbon dioxide, for very short periods. A 15-cc. volume absorp- COND/TIONED nN 5% CO, FOR /7.5 ARS. aa 60 2 N x NS g Q S A 9 COz FREE AIR 9 EEE A AQq\ iWiMNQodWV01 WW se) LRQA A , WW .2) REE AAAQAQAA AWN is) WAGSAAA AQAAAAAWN SS S WS a Qa MDB ROAASSEKX¥XMA\ MGV ® © dx = Ficurb 2.—Effect of previous CO, environmental conditions on succeeding rates of respira- tion of etiolated barley seedlings. tion cell providing a 15-cm. optical path was made in the shop and installed on the instrument. The spectrograph case was lagged with 4 inches of rock wool and the whole room thermostated to maintain a temperature of 830° C. These features have improved the speed-sensitivity and stability of the set-up very materially. The assembly has been used recently in measuring the solubility of CO, in water at very low concentrations where a marked departure from Henry’s Law was discovered. Further experiments on this are in progress and will be published soon along with a detailed descrip- tion of the spectrographic method of CO, measurement. 114 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 INFLUENCE OF LIGHT IN EARLY GROWTH OF GRASS SEEDLINGS Further study of the spectral effectiveness of radiation for the growth inhibition of the oats mesocotyl has indicated that the maxi- mum response occurs at 6600 A. It is highly suggestive that both chlorophyll a and a pigment as yet unidentified which has been found in dark-grown oats seedlings exhibit an absorption band at this position. A comparative study has been undertaken of some other species of grasses that have been reported in the literature as having meso- cotyls insensitive to light. All of those so far investigated have been found to be suppressed by light although the intensities required are much greater than in the case of Avena. Since the growth of the oats mesocotyl is decreased, even in dark- ness, by higher temperatures it is of interest to compare the effects of temperature and of radiation. The high temperature inhibition appears to differ fundamentally from the light inhibition inasmuch as the growth of other organs of the seedling, notably the roots, is also greatly suppressed in the former case. Some preliminary experi- ments have indicated that in certain varieties of rice, on the other hand, mesocotyl growth is greater at higher temperatures. INFLUENCE OF CULTURAL CONDITIONS ON THE GROWTH OF ALGAE The influence of culture conditions on the photosynthetic behavior of the alga Chlorelia pyrenoidosa has been subjected to further investigation. The growth cycle of this organism has been studied in relation to light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration, and the composition of the nutrient solution. This work is far from com- plete but has suggested certain changes in the composition of the nutrient solution and in the design of the apparatus. Equipment is being constructed for the continuous culture of algae in order to obtain completely reproducible quantities of biological material for irradiation experiments. Experiments were also conducted to ascertain suitable light condi- tions and culture media for optimum growth of the alga Haema- tococcus pluvialis in preparation for research on the comparative effects of short wave lengths of the ultraviolet on the green pigment, chlorophyll, and the red pigment, haematochrome, in algae. As a result of inquiries regarding the use of algae in industry and because of its importance to producers of kelp, Irish moss, agar, and alginic acid in the defense program, a paper is being prepared containing the latest statistics and information about the economic uses of algae. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 115 PERSON NEL No changes have occurred in the status of the Division’s per- sonnel during the past year. Dr. Jack E. Myers has continued his work with algae and on photosynthesis under his National Research Fellowship grant. PAPERS PRESENTED AT MEETINGS Photosynthesis and fluorescence. Presented by E. D. McAlister at the Marine Biological Station, Pacific Grove, Calif., and at Stanford University, Palo Alto, Calif., in August 1940. Quantum efficiency of photosynthesis from fluorescence measurements. Pre- sented by E. D. McAlister before the Physics Colloquium, George Washington University, Washington, D. C., on October 28, 1940. Fluorescence and photosynthesis. Presented by HE. D. McAlister before the Philosophical Society of Washington, D. C., on October 26, 1940. The efficiency of photosynthesis in relation to fluorescence. Presented by E. D. McAlister before the Botanical Society of America, Philadelphia, Pa., December 30, 1940. Inhibition of first internode of Avena sativa by radiation. Presented by Robert L. Weintraub before the American Society of Plant Physiologists, Phil- adelphia, Pa., December 30, 1940. Influence of light on the respiration of etiolated barley seedlings. Pre- sented by Earl S. Johnston and Robert L. Weintraub before the American Society of Plant Physiologists, Philadelphia, Pa., December 30, 1940. Culture conditions for Chlorella in relation to its photosynthetic behavior. Presented by Jack Myers before the American Society of Plant Physiologists, Philadelphia, Pa., December 30, 1940. Photosynthesis in past ages. Presented by E. D. McAlister before the Paleontological Society of Washington in April 1941. PUBLICATIONS CHASE, FLoRENCcE Meter. Increased stimulation of the Alga Stichococcus bacillaris by successive exposures to short wave lengths of the ultraviolet. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 99, No. 17, pp. 1-16, 1941. McAttster, EH. D., and Myers, Jack. The time course of photosynthesis and fluorescence observed simultaneously. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 99, No. 6, pp. 1-87, 1940. McAtutster, BH. D., and Myers, Jack. Time course of photosynthesis and fluorescence. Science, vol. 92, No. 2385, pp. 241-248, 1940. McAlister, E. D., MATHESON, G. L., and SwEENEY, W. J. A large recording spectrograph for the infrared to 15yu. Rev. Scientific Instr., vol. 12, No. 6, pp. 314-319, 1941. MetEr, FLORENCE BE. Plankton in the water supply. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. for 1939, pp. 893-412, 1940. WEINTRAUB, Ropert L. Plant-tissue cultures. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. for 1940, pp. 357-368, 1941. Respectfully submitted. Earu 8S. Jounston, Assistant Director. Dr. C. G. ABgor, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. 430577—42—9 APPENDIX 10 REPORT ON THE LIBRARY Sm: I have the honor to submit the following report on the activities of the Smithsonian library for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1941: THE LIBRARY The library, or library system, of the Smithsonian is made up of 10 major and 35 minor units. The former consist of the main library of the Institution, which since 1866 has been in the Library of Congress and is known as the Smithsonian Deposit; the libraries of the United States National Museum, Bureau of American Eth- nology, Astrophysical Observatory, Freer Gallery of Art, National Collection of Fine Arts, National Zoological Park, Division of Radi- ation and Organisms; the Langley Aeronautical Library—deposited in 1980 in the Division of Aeronautics at the Library of Congress— and the Smithsonian office library. The minor units are the sec- tional libraries of the National Museum. Although the collections in these 45 libraries are on many subjects, they have to do chiefly with the matters of special moment to the Institution and its branches, namely, the natural and physical sciences and technology and the fine arts. They are particularly strong in their files of standard mono- graphs and serials and of the reports, proceedings, and transactions of the learned institutions and societies of the world. Cooperating with the Smithsonian library system, but independent of it, is the library of the National Gallery of Art, which, during the year just closed took its first steps, under a competent staff, to meet the reference needs of the Gallery personnel and of others outside. The libraries of the Institution welcome the opportunity to further, in every way possible, the interests of this new friendly neighbor. PERSON NEL The year brought an unusually large number of changes in the staff. Among these were the following: The retirement, on account of age, of Miss Gertrude L. Woodin, after long and valuable service as assistant librarian; the promotion of Miss Elisabeth P. Hobbs, 116 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY LEZ junior librarian, to succeed her, and the transfer of Miss Anna Moore Link from the editorial office in the Bureau of American Ethnology to the vacancy thus created; the advancement of Miss Nancy Alice Link to the position of editorial assistant in the Bureau; the resignation of Mrs. Dorothy E. Goodrich, under library assistant, and the selection of Miss Elizabeth Gordon Moseley as her successor. The position of minor library assistant was reclassified to that of junior clerk-typist and filled by the appointment of Miss Elizabeth Harriet Link. Charles McDowell served part of the year as assist- ant messenger. The temporary employees were Mrs. Georgeanna H. Morrill, library assistant, Mrs. Elizabeth C. Bendure, assistant clerk-stenographer, Miss Anna May Light, junior clerk-stenographer, Mrs. Marie Boborykine, special library assistant, and Arthur W. Gambrell, assistant messenger. EXCHANGE OF PUBLICATIONS The exchange work of the library was again carried on with the greatest difficulty, owing to abnormal world conditions. The pack- ages received through the International Exchange Service were only 515—fewer by 814 even than those of the year before, when there had been a similar decrease from the normal number; the packages that came by mail were 17,038, or 3,283 fewer than came the previous year. Most of the publications that failed to come were, of course, European and Asiatic. Fortunately, some of these are being held by the issuing agencies, to be sent to the library as soon as the wars are over; others have merely delayed publication; but a few have been discontinued. Altogether the influence of the disturbed condi- tions that prevailed was far from favorable to the increase and diffusion of knowledge by means of the exchange of learned publications. There were received, however, a number of rather large sendings, notably from the Clube Zoologico do Brasil, Sao Paulo; Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschaffen, Batavia; Royal Swedish Academy of Letters, Stockholm; Royal Society of Edinburgh, Edin- burgh; Royal Society of Tasmania, Hobart; and Wellington Accli- matisation Society, Wellington. Dissertations came from only 4 universities, 2 of which are in a neutral European country—Basel and Ziirich; and 2 in the United States—Johns Hopkins and Pennsylvania. These totaled 452—quite a contrast to the 5,190 received in 1939 from 34 foreign institutions and 3 American. Of the 452 dissertations 261 were assigned to the Smithsonian Deposit, and the rest, being on medical subjects, were turned over, as usual, to the library of the Surgeon General. rs ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 Most of the 2,316 letters written by the staff pertained to the exchange interests of the library. They naturally showed a de- crease from 1940, as did the new exchanges arranged for. There were 284 of the latter, however, nearly all of which were on behalf of the Smithsonian Deposit and the libraries of the National Museum, National Collection of Fine Arts, and Astrophysical Observatory. Although the number of want cards handled—795—was smaller by 87 than the year before, the publications obtained, both by special correspondence and by search among the recently organized and listed duplicates in the west stacks of the Institution, were 8,824, or 1,278 more than in 1940. The result of this successful effort was that a great many gaps—some of long standing—were filled in several of the Smithsonian libraries. In addition to these publications, which were assigned to the regular sets, others to the number of 6,112 were selected from the duplicate material and put in reserve for use in the future. Among these were many foreign items—not a few of them rare—closely related to the work of the Institution and its branches. Thus again did the surplus collection in the west stacks prove of no little value to the library system. And it bids fair to prove so for years to come, as this rich store of material is made increasingly available through listing and through checking against the needs of the various libraries. From time to time, too, during the year files of serials, long and short, not wanted by the libraries were exchanged for publications that otherwise would have had to be purchased. This plan of ex- changing duplicates for other publications essential to the Institu- tion was adopted by the library some years ago and has met with much success. It has added to the collections many valuable items and has placed a considerable number in other research institutions where, instead of standing useless on the Smithsonian shelves, they have contributed their part toward the advancement of knowledge. The year just closed brought to the library, under this special ex- change plan, a goodly number of important monographs and serials that could not be obtained by regular exchange. Among them were such works as Drawings in the Fogg Museum of Art, vols. I-III, by Agnes Mongan and Paul J. Sachs; The Material Basis of Evolution, by Richard Goldschmidt; The Ferns and Fern Allies of Wisconsin, by R. M. Tryon, Jr., N. C. Fassett, D. W. Dunlop, and M. E. Diemer; and Nomenclator Zoologicus, in 4 volumes, edited by Sheffield A. Neave. In connection with both its regular and its special exchange activities, the library continued its effort, in cooperation with the offices of publications, to replenish the depleted stock of Smith- sonian publications by encouraging the return of material from REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 119 libraries throughout the country in which it was not needed. It also continued to act as a clearing-house, thus sending out again much of this material to institutions that were waiting for it. The libraries of more than 25 museums, colleges, and universities eagerly shared in this give and take effort, which was to the advantage of all participants, but chiefly of the Smithsonian library, for by this means it was able not only to make many of the publications of the Institution more widely available to readers and investigators, but to increase in no small measure the supply of such publications—some of which had long been out of print—that could be used for future exchanges. GIFTS Many gifts came to the library during the year. Among these were 622 publications from the Geophysical Laboratory of the Car- negie Institution of Washington; 612 from the American Association for the Advancement of Science; 72 from the American Association of Museums; 66 from the Public Library of the District of Columbia; 42 from the National Institute of Health; and 94 from the recently discontinued Bureau of the International Catalogue of Scientific Literature. Among them, too, were a large number of publications from the Honorable Usher L. Burdick, Member of Congress from North Dakota, from the late Mrs. Charles D. Walcott—always a generous friend of the library—and from the Secretary and Assistant Secretary and other members of the Smithsonian staff. The largest gift, however, came from Mrs. Frederick E. Fowle—that of 942 sci- entific books and journals which had belonged to her husband, the late research assistant of the Astrophysical Observatory. Other gifts were Hiroshige, by Yoné Noguchi, from the Japanese Embassy; The Herbarist, Nos. 1-7 (1935-1941), from Mrs. Foster Stearns; Chinese Jade Carvings of the Sixteenth to the Nineteenth Century in the Collection of Mrs. Georg Vetlesen—an illustrated descriptive record compiled by Stanley Charles Nott, volume III, from Mrs. Georg Vetlesen; A Catalogue of Rare Chinese Jade Carv- ings (2 copies), compiled by Stanley Charles Nott, from the com- piler; Two Early Portraits of George Washington Painted by Charles Willson Peale, by John Hill Morgan, from the Princeton University Press; Bird Reserves, by E. C. Arnold, from the author; Moss Flora of North America North of Mexico, volume II, part 4, by Dr. A. J. Grout, from the author; The Young Mill-Wrights & Miller’s Guide (1807), by Oliver Evans, from Edna E. Switzer; Charles Goodyear—Connecticut Yankee and Rubber Pioneer—A Bi- ography, by P. W. Barker, from Godfrey L. Cabot, Inc.; The Shorter 120 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 Scientific Papers of Lee Barker Walton, with an Introduction by Herbert Osborn, edited by George P. Faust, from the editor; Genus Labordia, Hawaiian Euphorbiaceae, Labiatae and Compositae, by Dr. Earl Edward Sherff, from the author; Seventh Report of the Chester County Cabinet of Natural Science (1834), from Dr. Rob- ert B. Gordon; Barbed Fencing, by Charles G. Washburn—a type- written copy of an original in the possession of the donor, Reginald Washburn, who had the copy made especially for the Smithsonian Institution; Atlanta City Directory, 1940, from the Carnegie Library, Atlanta; Men and Volts, by John Winthrop Hammond, from the General Electric Company; The Cranial Bowl, by Dr. William G. Sutherland, from the author; Military Medals and Insignia of the United States, by J. McDowell Morgan, from the author; The Stapelieae, in 3 volumes, by Alain White and Boyd L. Sloane, from Alain White; The Old Bay Line, by Alexander Crosby Brown, from the Mariners’ Museum, Newport News; By Their Works, by H. Phelps Clawson, from the Buffalo Museum of Science; and Flora of Indiana, by Charles C. Deam, from the Indiana Department of Conservation. SOME STATISTICS The accessions to the libraries were as follows: Pare Appror Library Volumes phils Total hialanire charts seve Astrophysical ODServatOry.s220 oo eee ee on eee a ee 173 138 311 10, 156 Bureawof/American Ethnology. 222 Sen eye eee eee 378 1 33, 140 IP TOOT) Gallery Ol Att soe ae ae ek CN Sree 398 66 464 16, 225 Langley, AGronauticnly ec. ered ae gna sega ane Ble 32 20 52 38, 550 National pelecean Of Hine Arts 3) cee ei La 240 157 397 7, 689 WNationalIMiuseum = beet See ae a a 1,979 942 2, 921 219, 760 National Zoological Parker Tor Se ee ee a eee 36 34 70 3, 916 Radiation andiOrzanisms ssa eo eee ee ee ee 67 2 69 596 Smithsonian Deposit, Library of Congress____._-_._.________ 1, 350 758 2, 108 568, 662 Smithsonian ofhice essa ore ce ee ee a ee ee es 65 4 69 30, 961 TOTAL Ce ut eae oo Ssh Paes Sri ano SIE ens a lis Seek eMa| 4,718 2, 121 6, 839 894, 655 1 From this total have been omitted a large collection of pamphlets hitherto included in the holdings reported for the library of the Bureau of American Ethnology, and quite a number of other publications recently removed from the library as not being closely related to the work of the Bureau. The staff cataloged 6,693 volumes, pamphlets, and charts; prepared and filed 40,238 catalog and shelf-list cards; made 22,311 periodical entries; loaned 10,990 publications to the members of the Institu- tion and its bureaus; and conducted an interlibrary loan service with 45 libraries outside the Smithsonian system. They rendered more reference and bibliographical assistance than ever before, in response to requests in person, by telephone, and by mail, from the ktaff of the Smithsonian, other Government employees, visitors, REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 12] and correspondents far and near—requests often involving hours of search not only at the Institution but at the Library of Congress and elsewhere. They kept the index of Smithsonian publications up to date, and made considerable progress with the index of Smith- sonian explorations begun the previous year, and some with that of exchange relations. Their work on the union catalog may be sum- marized as follows: WalimesenCea tal OPOG me een ok ee pe Se ee See 2, 472 Pmnicis ang charts Catalogedo_o 3! 7'= eh eee oe ee ee 1, 947 ouse se Biel wen Ll OSs LG Ot te Es a Ts Sh ee ee 178 vine cards, agded to, catalog, and» shelf list== == 22s Se 3, 880 Library of Congress cards added to catalog and shelf list____________--- 13, 662 OTHER ACTIVITIES As has already been suggested, one of the main activities of the staff, apart from their routine duties, was that of making lists of the longer runs of surplus items in the west stacks and checking them against the needs of the Smithsonian libraries. Another task was that of bringing nearly to completion the checking of the serial holdings of several of the libraries, to be included in the forthcoming second edition of the Union List of Serials. When this work is finished, it will have involved the examination of the records of more than 7,000 sets of serial publications, not including, of course, the thousands in the Smithsonian Deposit and the Langley Aeronautical Library, which, as they are housed in the Library of Congress, are reported by that Library. Still another task was selecting consign- ments of duplicates for exchange, especially with such universities as Brown, Columbia, Harvard, Pennsylvania, Princeton, and Yale. And another was preparing the exhibition set of Smithsonian pub- lications—by completing it and having many of its volumes bound— for transfer to the shelves provided for it as an outstanding part of the exhibit of Smithsonian interests in the “Diffusion of Knowl- edge” room at the Institution. And, finally, among other tasks were the following: Sending a large number of foreign documents, which had come to light in course of checking the surplus material, to the Library of Congress; sorting 2,500 or more reprints by subject and assigning them to the appropriate sectional libraries of the National Museum; carrying forward the inventorying of the technological library, with revision of its catalog and shelf list, and the rearranging of the office library; and continuing, with excellent results, the work of reorganizing the library of the Bureau of American Ethnology. BINDING Again, lack of funds seriously limited the libraries in meeting their binding needs. This was true in respect both to the thousands of 122 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 older serial volumes still standing unbound on the shelves and to hundreds of new ones added the last fiscal year. As it was, the library of the National Museum sent to the bindery 800 volumes; that of the Astrophysical Observatory, 50; of the National Collection of Fine Arts, 59; of the Freer Gallery of Art, 38; and of the National Zoological Park, 11—a total of 958, only about one-half the number of volumes completed during the year by these libraries. NEEDS First among the needs, then, is adequate funds for binding, to the end that the publications—some of them almost priceless now, in the light of the destruction that is taking place abroad—may be safeguarded for the permanent use of the Institution. Another need, which has become acute, is that of more shelf room for the collections, especially those of the National Museum library. Unless this can soon be provided, it may be necessary to resort to the unfortunate measure of placing some of the less-used files in dead storage. And, finally, five new positions should be established, for the follow- ing: An assistant librarian, to take charge of the acquisition depart- ment; a junior librarian and a library assistant to strengthen the under-staffed preparation department, especially the catalog division; a junior typist, to relieve the catalogers of much clerical routine; a messenger, to serve primarily the libraries of the Institution proper. Respectfully submitted. Witiiam L. Corsin, Librarian. Dr. C. G. Axsgor, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. APPENDIX 11 REPORT ON PUBLICATIONS Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the publi- cations of the Smithsonian Institution and the Government branches under its administrative charge during the year ended June 30, 1941: The Institution published during the year 16 papers in the Smith- sonian Miscellaneous Collections series, and title page and table of contents of volume 98; 1 annual report and pamphlet copies of 27 articles in the report appendix; and 8 special publications. The United States National Museum issued 1 annual report; 19 Proceedings papers, and title page, table of contents, and index of volume 86; 1 Bulletin, and 1 volume and 1 part of a volume of Bul- letin 100; and title page, table of contents, and index of volume 26 of Contributions from the United States National Herbarium. The National Collection of Fine Arts issued 1 catalog, and the Freer Gallery of Art, 1 pamphlet. The Bureau of American Ethnology issued 1 annual report and 3 bulletins. Of the publications there were distributed 125,837 copies; which included 66 volumes and separates of the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, 32,031 volumes and separates of the Smithsonian Mis- cellaneous Collections, 24,022 volumes and separates of the Smith- sonian annual reports, 5,243 Smithsonian special publications, 52,170 volumes and separates of the National Museum publications, 11,882 publications of the Bureau of American Ethnology, 9 publications of the National Collection of Fine Arts, 3 publications of the Freer Gallery of Art, 16 reports on the Harriman Alaska Expedition, 12 Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory, and 383 reports of the American Historical Association. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS There were issued title page and table of contents of volume 98, and 15 papers of volume 99 and 1 paper of volume 101, making 16 papers in all, as follows: VOLUME 98 Title page and table of contents. (Publ. 3590.) 1 This does not include the Brief Guide to the Smithsonian Institution, the catalog of the National Collection of Fine Arts, or the pamphlet of the Freer Gallery of Art. 123 124 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 VOLUME 99 No. 6. The time course of photosynthesis and fluorescence observed simul- taneously, by E. D. McAlister and Jack Myers. 37 pp., 16 figs. (Publ. 3591.) August 28, 1940. No. 7. A systematic classification for the birds of the world, by Alexander Wetmore. 11 pp. (Publ. 3592.) October 10, 1940. No. 9. Recent Foraminifera from Old Providence Island collected on the Presidential Cruise of 1938, by Joseph A. Cushman. 14 pp., 2 pls. (Publ. 3594.) January 24, 1941. No. 10. Coelenterates collected on the Presidental Cruise of 1938, by Elisabeth Deichmann. 17 pp., 1 pl., 4 figs. (Publ. 3595.) January 27, 1941. No. 11. A new cephalopod mollusk from the Presidential Cruise of 1938, by Helen C. Stuart. 6 pp., 2 figs. (Publ. 3596.) February 4, 1941. No. 12. Acarina collected on the Presidential Cruise of 1938, by G. W. Wharton. 8 pp., 4 figs. (Publ. 3597.) January 29, 1941. No. 13. EHuphausiacea and Mysidacea collected on the Presidential Cruise of 1938, by W. M. Tattersall. 7 pp., 2 figs. (Publ. 8598.) January 31, 1941. No. 14. The male genitalia of Hymenoptera, by R. E. Snodgrass. 86 pp., 33 pls., 6 figs. (Publ. 3599.) January 14, 1941. No. 15. Evidence of early Indian occupancy near the Peaks of Otter, Bedford County, Virginia, by David I. Bushnell, Jr. 14 pp., 5 pls. 4 figs. (Publ. 3601.) December 23, 1940. No. 16. New fossil lizards from the Upper Cretaceous of Utah, by Charles W. Gilmore. 38 pp., 2 figs. (Publ. 3602.) December 9, 1940. No. 17. Increased stimulation of the alga Stichococcus bacillaris by suc- cessive exposures to short wave lengths of the ultraviolet, by Florence Meier Chase. 16 pp., 2 pls., 3 figs. (Publ. 3603.) January 10, 1941. No. 18. Two new races of passerine birds from Thailand, by H. G. Deignan. 4 pp. (Publ. 8605.) December 11, 1940. No. 19. Notes on Mexican snakes of the genus Geophis, by Hobart M. Smith. 6 pp. (Publ. 3629.) February 19, 1941. No. 20. Further notes on Mexican snakes of the genus Salvadora, by Hobart M. Smith. 12 pp. 7 figs. (Publ. 3630.) February 21, 1941. No. 21. A new shipworm from Panama, by Paul Bartsch. 2 pp., 1 pl. (Publ. 3632.) March 31, 1941. VOLUME 101 No. 1. An important weather element hitherto generally disregarded, by O. G. Abbot. 34 pp., 11 figs. (Publ. 3637.) May 27, 1941. SMITHSONIAN ANNUAL REPORTS Report for 1939.—The complete volume of the Annual Report of the Board of Regents for 1939 was received from the Public Printer in October 1940. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution show- ing the operations, expenditures, and condition of the Institution for the year ended June 30, 1939. xiii+567 pp., 139 pls., 58 figs. (Publ. 3555.) REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 125 The appendix contained the following papers: Is there life in other worlds? by H. Spencer Jones, F. R. S. Use of solar energy for heating water, by F. A. Brooks, The fringe of the sun: nebulium and coronium, by C. G. James. Our knowledge of atomic nuclei, by G. P. Harnwell, Ph. D. Spectroscopy in industry, by George R. Harrison, Ph. D. Physical science in the crime-detection laboratory, by J. Edgar Hoover. Physical interpretation of the weather, by Edgar W. Woolard. Hurricanes into New England: meteorology of the storm of September 21, 1938, by Charles F. Brooks. Humanity in geological perspective, by Herbert L. Hawkins, D. Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S. Geologie exhibits in the National Zoological Park, by R. 8S. Bassler. The structure of the earth as revealed by seismology, by Hrnest A. Hodgson. Our petroleum supply, by Hugh D. Miser. Biologic balance on the farm, by W. L. McAtee. On the frontier of British Quiana and Brazil, by Capt. H. Carington Smith, R. BE. The sea bird as an individual: results of ringing experiments, by R. M. Lockley. Birds and the wind, by Neil T. McMillan. Bookworms, by E. A. Back. The problem of conserving rare native plants, by M. L. Fernald, D. C. L., D. Se. Plankton in the water supply, by Florence BH. Meier. Trichinosis in swine and its relationship to public health, by Benjamin Schwartz. Closing the gap at Tepe Gawra, by H. A. Speiser. Sun worship, by Herbert J. Spinden. The use of soapstone by the Indians of the eastern United States, by David I. Bushnell, Jr. The modern growth of the totem pole on the northwest coast, by Marius Barbeau. Historic American highways, by Albert ©. Rose. Modern trends in air transport, by W. F. Durand. The story of the Time Capsule, by G. Edward Pendray. Report for 1940.—The report of the Secretary, which included the financial report of the executive committee of the Board of Regents, and which will form part of the annual report of the Board of Regents to Congress, was issued in January 1941. Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution and financial report of the executive committee of the Board of Regents for the year ended June 30, 1940. ix+115 pp., 4 pls. The report volume, containing the general appendix, was in press at the close of the year. SPECIAL PUBLICATIONS Brief guide to the Smithsonian Institution (fourth edition). 80 pp., 74 figs. (Publ. BL.) July 1, 1940. The Smithsonian Institution, by C. G. Abbot. 25 pp., 13 pls., (Publ. 3604.) January 18, 1941. 126 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 Explorations and field work of the Smithsonian Institution in 1940. 100 pp., 100 halftone figs. (Publ. 3631.) April 3, 1941. PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM The editorial work of the National Museum has continued during the year under the immediate direction of the editor, Paul H. Oehser. There were issued 1 annual report; title page, table of contents, and index of volume 86 of the Proceedings, and 19 separate Proceedings papers from volumes 87, 88, 89, and 90; 1 Bulletin, and 1 volume and 1 part of a volume of Bulletin 100; and title page, table of contents, and index of volume 26 of Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, as follows: MUSEUM REPORT Report on the progress and condition of the United States National Museum for the year ended June 30, 1940. iii+118 pp. January 1941. PROCEEDINGS : VOLUME 86 Title page, table of contents, and index. Pp. i-ix, 598-626. July 22, 1940. VOLUME 87 No. 3077. Further studies on the opalinid ciliate infusorians and their hosts, by Maynard M. Metcalf. Pp. 465-634, figs. 21-157. October 29, 1940. VOLUME 88 No. 3090. Seven new species and one new genus of hydroids, mostly from the Atlantic Ocean, by C. McLean Fraser. Pp. 575-580, pls. 32, 33. September 18, 1940. VOLUME 89 No. 30938. Two new anuran amphibians from Mexico, by Edward H. Taylor. Pp. 43-47, pls. 1-3. August 13, 1940. No. 3094. The West American Haliotis, by Paul Bartsch. Pp. 49-58, pls. 6-8. August 15, 1940. No. 3095. Revision of the scarabaeid beetles of the phyllophagan subgenus Listrochelus of the United States, with discussion of related subgenera, by Law- rence W. Saylor. Pp. 59-130, figs. 1-18. November 15, 1940. No. 3096. The Cuban operculate land mollusks of the family Annulariidae, exclusive of the subfamily Chondropominae, by Carlos de la Torre and Paul Bartsch. Pp. 131-885, i-x, pls. 9-57. April 2, 1941. No. 3097. Seven new crayfishes of the genus Cambarus from Florida, with notes on other species, by Horton H. Hobbs, Jr. Pp. 387-423, figs. 14-22. November 23, 1940. No. 3098. Echinoderms from Greenland collected by Capt. Robert A. Bart- lett, by Austin H. Clark. Pp. 425-433, pls. 58, 59. February 27, 1941. No. 3099. A revision of the keyhole urchins (Wellita), by Hubert Lyman Clark. Pp. 485-444, pls. 60-62. December 12, 1940. No. 3100. Hurhoptodes, a remarkable new genus of Philippine cryptorhynchine weevils, by Elwood C. Zimmerman. Pp. 445-448, fig. 23. November 1, 1940. No. 3101. The polyclad flatworms of the Atlantic coast of the United States and Canada, by Libbie H. Hyman. Pp. 449-495, figs. 24-31. February 27, 1941. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 127 No. 3102. New species of heterocerous moths in the United States National Museum, by William Schaus. Pp. 497-511. March 6, 1941. No. 3103. Dinotocrinus, a new fossil inadunate crinoid genus, by Edwin Kirk. Pp. 5138-517, pl. 68. February 28, 1941. No. 3104. A supposed jellyfish from the pre-Cambrian of the Grand Canyon, by R. S. Bassler. Pp. 519-522, pl. 64. February 27, 1941. No. 3105. Notes on birds of the Guatemalan highlands, by Alexander Wetmore. Pp. 5238-581. March 26, 1941. VOLUME 90 No. 3106. New fishes of the family Callionymidae, mostly Philippine, obtained by the United States Bureau of Fisheries Steamer Albatross, by Henry W. Fowler. Pp. 1-381, figs. 1-16. April 8, 1941. No. 3108. Synopsis of the tachinid flies of the genus TYachionmyia, with descriptions of new species, by Ray T. Webber. Pp. 287-804, fig. 17. June 30, 1941, No. 3111. The Chicora (Butler County, Pa.) meteorite, by F. W. Preston, EB. P. Henderson, and James R. Randolph. Pp. 387-416, pls. 54-59, fig. 19. June 17, 1941. No. 3114. A new genus of sea stars (Plazaster) from Japan, with a note of the genus Parasterina, by Walter K. Fisher. Pp. 447-456, pls. 66-70. June 18, 1941. BULLETINS No. 100, volume 13. The fishes of the groups Elasmobranchii, Holocephali, Isospondyli, and Ostariophysi obtained by the United States Bureau of Fisheries Steamer Albatross in 1907 to 1910, chiefly in the Philippine Islands and adjacent seas, by Henry W. Fowler. x + 879 pp., 30 figs. March 10, 1941. No. 100, volume 14, part 1. Report on the Echinoidea collected by the United States Fisheries Steamer Albatross during the Philippine Expedition, 1907- 1910. Part 2: The Echinothuridae, Saleniidae, Arbaciidae, Aspidodiadematidae, Micropygidae, Diadematidae, Pedinidae, Temnopleuridae, Toxopneustidae, and Echinometridae, by Theodor Mortensen. Pp. i-iv, 1-52, pl. 1, figs. 1-3. July 25, 1940. No. 176. Life histories of North American cuckoos, goatsuckers, hummingbirds, and their allies, by Arthur Cleveland Bent. viii + 506 pp., 73 pls. July 20, 1940. CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THF U. S. NATIONAL HERBARIUM: VOLUME 26 Title page, table of contents, and index. Pp. i-xii, 5381-554. March 6, 1941. PUBLICATIONS OF THE NATIONAL COLLECTION OF FINE ARTS Catalog of American and European paintings in the Gellatly Collection, com- piled by R. P. Tolman. 20 pp.,11 pls. 1940. PUBLICATIONS OF THE FREER GALLERY OF ART The Freer Gallery of Art of the Smithsonian Institution. 8 pp., 1 pl., 2 figs. 1940. 128 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 PUBLICATIONS OF THE BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY The editorial work of the Bureau has continued under the immediate direction of the editor, M. Helen Palmer. During the year the follow- ing Bulletins were issued : Bulletin 126. Archeological remains in the Whitewater District, eastern Ari- zona. Part II. Artifacts and burials, by Frank H. H. Roberts, Jr. With appendix, Skeletal remains from the Whitewater District, eastern Arizona, by T. D. Stewart. xi-++-170 pp., 57 pls., 44 figs. Bulletin 127. Linguistic material from the tribes of southern Texas and north- eastern Mexico, by John R. Swanton. v-+145 pp. Bulletin 128. Anthropological Papers, Nos. 13-18. No. 13, The mining of gems and ornamental stones by American Indians, by Sydney H. Ball. No. 14, Iroquois suicide: A study in the stability of a culture pattern, by William N. Fenton. No. 15, Tonawanda Longhouse ceremonies: Ninety years after Lewis Henry Morgan, . by William N. Fenton. No. 16, The Quichua-speaking Indians of the Province of Imbabura (Ecuador) and their anthropometric relations with the living popula- tions of the Andean area, by John Gillin. No. 17, Art processes in birchbark of the River Desert Algonquin, a circumboreal trait, by Frank G. Speck. No. 18, Ar- cheological reconnaissance of southern Utah, by Julian H. Steward. xii+368 pp., 52 pls., 77 figs. REPORT OF THE AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION The annual reports of the American Historical Association are transmitted by the Association to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution and are communicated by him to Congress, as provided by the act of incorporation of the Association. During the year there was issued the Annual Report for 1936, volume 2 (Writings on American History). At the close of the year the following were in press: Report for 1936, volume 3 (“Instructions of the British foreign secretaries to their envoys in the United States, 1791-1812”) ; Report for 1937, volume 2 (Writings on American His- tory, 1937-1938) ; Report for 1939, volume 1 (Proceedings) ; Report for 1940. REPORT OF THE NATIONAL SOCIETY, DAUGHTERS OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION The manuscript of the Forty-third Annual Report of the National Society, Daughters of the American Revolution, was transmitted to Congress, in accordance with law, December 9, 1940. ALLOTMENTS FOR PRINTING The congressional allotments for the printing of the Smithsonian Annual Reports to Congress and the various publications of the Gov- ernment bureaus under the administration of the Institution were REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 129 virtually used up at the close of the year. The appropriation for the coming year ending June 30, 1942, totals $88,500, allotted as follows: Smithsonian institution] se 4 oo ee ee ee ee $16, 000 INablon alvin se ui == ooh oe a ee ee Be 43, 000 BureaubofeAamerican Ethnology. ee eee 17, 480 National Collectionvof hinevArts=-— 22 ee 500 International: siixchangess-= 282228 ee weer) ee ee 200 NationaleZoolorical. Bark= 2.01 a ee Be 200 Astrophysical Observatory ss] sss oa) ee 500 American aHistorical Association== == 22 22s ee 10, 620 BO (een ee = carp i eee a ee 88, 500 Respectfully submitted. Dr. C. G. Axsor, W. P. Trust, Chief, Editorial Division. Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITH- SONIAN INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR ENDED JUNE 30, 1941 To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution: Your executive committee respectfully submits the following report in relation to the funds of the Smithsonian Institution, to- gether with a statement of the appropriations by Congress for the Government bureaus in the administrative charge of the Institution. SMITHSONIAN ENDOWMENT FUND The original bequest of James Smithson was £104,960 8s. 6d.— $508,318.46. Refunds of money expended in prosecution of the claim, freights, insurance, etc., together with payment into the fund of the sum of £5,015, which had been withheld during the lifetime of Madame de la Batut, brought the fund to the amount of $550,000. Since the original bequest the Institution has received gifts from various sources chiefly in the years prior to 1893, the income from which may be used for the general work of the Institution. To these gifts has been added capital from savings on income, gain from sale of securities, ete., and they now stand on the books of the Institution as follows: Avery, Robert S. and Lydia T., bequest fund___--__-________ $51, 445. 64 Hndowment fund, from gifts, income, ete_-__-__-_-______-_______ 258, 328. 92 Habels Ores: bequest fund) ee ee eee 500. 00 Hachenberg, George P. and Caroline, bequest fund__________ 4, 044. 06 Hamilton James, bequest tung === === eee 2, 905. 94 Henry, Caroline bequest. fund EEE 1, 216. 20 Hodgskins/e Phomasy Gs iui eee ea eee Sy era eS 146, 392. 62 DR UT STN Ne CNY ee EA a a ce 728, 867. 62 Rhees> William, Jones; bequest, fund=2 2222 2s ese 1, 065. 72 Santord)|George He, memorial fund ees eee 1, 995. 18 Witherspoon, Thomas A., memorial fund__-----___---_--_--- 129, 774. 35 Speelal fume == 223 Oe Oa re eo ee ee 1, 400. 00 Total endowment for general work of the Institution____- 1, 327, 936. 25 The Institution holds also a number of endowment gifts, the income of each being restricted to specific use. These are invested and stand on the books of the Institution as follows: Abbott, William L., fund, bequest to the Institution______.______ $103, 969. 99 Arthur, James, fund, income for investigations and study of the SUN Vand PlECEUre (Om Glee SU 40, 217, 77 Bacon, Virginia Purdy, fund, for a traveling scholarship to in- vestigate fauna of countries other than the United States____ 50, 381. 96 130 REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE Baird, Lucy H., fund, for creating a memorial to Secretary Barstow, Frederic D., fund, for purchase of animals for the A OLOS CHa Dicer Sie RE Oy ea ea a Canfield Collection fund, for increase and care of the Canfield COMUechiOnMORGMINerals: 294 2k aa ae So ae Casey, Thomas L., fund, for maintenance of the Casey collection and promotion of researches relating to Coleoptera___________ Chamberlain, Francis Lea, fund, for increase and promotion of Isaac Lea collection of gems and mollusks_________________ 2. Hillyer, Virgil, fund, for increase and care of Virgil Hillyer col- lechionvon lighting dob jects2 2 2k Wao a ee ae Hitcheock, Dr. Albert S., Library fund, for care of Hitchcock FACTS KORO RECN eat PSRs betes SES eee ele ee Hodgkins fund, specific, for increase and diffusion of more exact knowledge in regard to nature and properties of atmospheric Hughes, Bruce, fund, to found Hughes alcove_________________- Myer, Catherine Walden, fund, for purchase of first-class works of art for the use of, and benefit of, the National Gallery Pell, Cornelia Livingston, fund, for maintenance of Alfred Duane Pel eCOueGhiGit fe e1 55 2 ESN EE ies See obey ee ene eee Poore, Lucy T. and George W., fund, for general use of the Institution when principal amounts to the sum of $250,000___- Reid, Addison T., fund, for founding chair in biology in memory Ole A SHE Tes DUNS 15st. ue toe eS AS i ee eae eee ee Roebling fund, for care, improvement, and increase of Roebling ecollectionwor-mineralsses 2 iy Sah Sse oe eee Rollins, Miriam and William, fund, for investigations in physics PYAVEh | CLOTHS] ne AS OR ee eee eee ee Smithsonian employees retirement fund_--__-_-_____-________-_- Springer, Frank, fund, for care, etc., of Springer collection PUTGMIDEATY po = oe os Fee Se a eel ne oka Walcott, Charles D. and Mary Vaux, research fund, for develop- ment of geological and paleontological studies and publishing ERIM ES aR EITCLE OL en tae Sr ee eee eae vounrer, Helen Walcott, fund, held in trust_.-.-----—----\-.-__ Zerbee, Frances Brincklé, fund, for endowment of aquaria______ Special research fund, gift, in the form of real estate___________ Total endowment for specific purposes other than Freer end Gwen tits Shae oc oels Se pyle bh eee ee ee See 131 $16, 296. 07 764. 93 38, 461, 71 9, 223. 59 28, 318. 52 6, 609. 11 1, 375. 68 100, 000. 00 18, 248. 71 19, 062. 41 2, 427. 09 81, 367. 65 30, 134. 19 121, 359. 54 99, 963. 23 11, 651. 48 18, 033. 47 11, 635. 83 50, 112. 50 765. 33 20, 946. 00 881, 326. 76 The above funds amount to a total of $2,209,263.01, and are carried in the following investment accounts of the Institution: U. S. Treasury deposit account, drawing 6 percent interest_______ Consolidated investment fund (income in table below) -~-----_--_- SMPCMUHeOUS Special. funds. AS Se ee $1, 000, 000. 00 1, 093, 301. 51 115, 961. 50 430577—_42——_10 2, 209, 263. 01 132 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 CONSOLIDATED FUND Statement of principal and income for the last 10 years Fiscal year Capital Income apni Fiscal year Capital Income |? proud MOS2! 222 5-cee 3 $712, 156. 86 | $26, 142. 21 SiO Tigh OS (asa ns ee $738, 858. 64 | $33, 819. 43 4.57 LOSS ates eer 764, 077. 67 28, 185. 11 3.68 |} 1938..-.______ 867, 528.50 | 34, 679. 64 4.00 LOS te oe aS 754, 570. 84 26, 650. 32 B100ui| ehOsdes= sete 902, 801. 27 30, 710. 53 3. 40 19352520 o ee 706, 765.68 | 26, 808. 86 Ort ales rene eee 1, 081, 249, 25 38, 673. 29 3. 47 19362255220 723, 795. 46 26, 836. 61 GAMA) | PUOSIE See 955 Vee 1, 093, 301. 51 41, 167. 38 . 76 FREER GALLERY OF ART FUND Early in 1906, by deed of gift, Charles L. Freer, of Detroit, gave to the Institution his collection of Chinese and other Oriental objects of art, as well as paintings, etchings, and other works of art by Whistler, Thayer, Dewing, and other artists. Later he also gave funds for the construction of a building to house the collection, and finally in his will, probated November 6, 1919, he provided stock and securities to the estimated value of $1,958,591.42 as an endow- ment fund for the operation of the gallery. From the above date to the present time these funds have been increased by stock divi- dends, savings of income, etc., to a total of $6,030,586.91. In view of the importance and special nature of the gift and the requirements of the testator in respect to it, all Freer funds are kept separate from the other funds of the Institution, and the accounting in respect to them is stated separately. The invested funds of the Freer bequest are classified as follows: Coun and ero cy frie ee a aa ae ee ie $675, 573. 37 Court/and erounds maintenance: fume ee ee ee 169, 656. 83 Curator: fume sete a Oe eS ed eh NR ee te ae Peay Ba(eeae 687, 507. 68 Residuary legacy __-_____ NBA A mee Papa Deena Med Tae ges Byte 4, 497, 849. 03 MO tee See ee a eT ae eal Ble ca dae ee 6, 030, 586. 91 SUMMARY Invested endowment for general purposes_____-_______________ —— $1, 327, 936. 25 Invested endowment for specific purposes other than Freer endow- MYM TA Geb Ss os SA 2 he ad Pia a a ei eee A Seed le =e 881, 326. 76 Total invested endowment other than Freer endowment 2, 209, 263. 01 Freer invested endowment for specific purposes_________________ 6, 080, 586. 91 Total invested endowment for all purposes____________-- 8, 239, 849. 92 CLASSIFICATION OF INVESTMENTS Deposited in the U. S. Treasury at 6 percent per annum, as authorized in the United States Revised Statutes, sec. 5591____ $1, 000, 000. 00 REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 133 Investments other than Freer endowment (cost or market value at date acquired) : Bonds )(s0) different, groups) === =- == == $467, 455. 26 Stocks: (41> different groups) /=-——-=4. = 663, 791. 62 Real estate and first-mortgage notes________-_- 71, 249. 00 Uninvestedis capital sso 6 see een ee 6, 767. 13 $1, 209, 263. 01 Total investments other than Freer endowment___-------- 2, 209, 263. 01 Investments of Freer endowment (cost or market value at date acquired) : Bonds (48 different groups) —--------------_- $2, 483, 088. 10 Stocks (57 dilterent, groups) 222. oe 3, 584, 772. 34 Real estate first-mortgage notes____________-_ 9, 000. 00 uninvested) capital 22222 Saee ee Leese 3, 726. 47 6, 030, 586. 91 Motalsin Vestments oe ht 8, 239, 849. 92 OASH BALANCES, RECEIPTS, AND DISBURSEMENTS DURING THE FISCAL YEAR ? Cashepalancesonwhand June) o0,) 1040-2. 22 ae ee ee $391, 308. 66 Receipts: Cash income from various sources for general Wolk (OL the institutions ee eee $90, 769. 51 Cash gifts and contributions expendable for special scientific objects (not to be invested)__ 43, 063. 26 Cash gifts for special scientific work (to be TEL VGSUCC cee ee ee See 20, 713. 17 Cash income from endowments for specific use other than Freer endowment and from miscel- laneous sources (including refund of temporary AaVAanNCes) 2 =e A Se ee ae 59, 800. 48 Cash received as royalties from Smithsonian Scientific ‘Series. =_ ss Meee See — 28, 404. 41 Cash capital from sale, call of securities, ete. (to besreinvested)2- -- es Se ae es 157, 121. 07 Total receipts other than Freer endowment______________ 394, 871. 85 Cash income from Freer endowment___--_--_ 2338, 079. 22 Cash capital from sale, call of securities, ete. (ronbecreinvested) 222s a2 Sass See 1, 059, 382. 29 Total receipts from Freer endownment____.__---------__~ 1, 292, 411. 51 AUT) 67 Leh sees Lage a ce el de Lah ie ee anaes weg enna 2, 078, 592. 02 1This statement does not include Government appropriations under the administrative charge of the Institution. 134 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 Disbursements : From funds for general work of the Institu- tion : Buildings—care, repairs, and alterations__ $2, 852. 33 Hurmiture andetxtoTres sass ae eee 182. 43 General ‘administration 222 34, 184. 52 1 GL 0 oi a aN MMC ic pe aol A Eat tee. SELON e a Rs 2, 129. 85 Publications (comprising preparation, printing, and distribution) —___.. A hh 20, 378. 94 Researches and explorations_____--____-__ 28, 720. 74 —----- --- $88, 448. 81 From funds for specific use, other than Freer Endowment: Investments made from gifts, from gain from sale, ete. of securities and from Savings On NCOMCL seas ae eee ee 26, 774. 50 Other expenditures, consisting largely of research work, travel, increase, and care of special collections, ete., from income of endowment funds, and from cash gifts for specific use (including temporary ad- VELTIC ES) tae ee ee eee 90, 389. 94 Reinvestment of cash capital from sale, call Of securities) ele ics ass aes See eee 154, 138. 09 Cost of handling securities, fee of invest- ment counsel, and accrued interest on bonds! purchased 2212. ee es ee 2, 090. 48 ———_—_——_ 273, 243. 01 From I'reer Endowment: Operating expenses of the gallery, salaries, field’ expenses; @te@s2222-— 24-4 eae 43, 399. 19 Purchase of art objects2.--2 4. 8-2 96, 719. 64 Investments made from gain from sale, Cte: wok dsecurities Ss. riew lh a ee 15, 976. 19 Reinvestment of cash capital from sale, call of ‘securities, etest2.2-5)-=-- 1, 047, 577. 09 Cost of handling securities, fee of invest- ment counsel, and accrued interest on bonds purchased 222s eee eee 20, 986. 95 1, 224, 659. 06 Gashi(balance June 30, 1941s eee ee ee 497, 141. 14 TT tala es ee ee a Sn oe ee ee 2, 078, 592. 02 2 This includes salary of the Secretary and certain others. Included in the foregoing are expenditures for researches in pure science, publications, explorations, care, increase, and study of col- lections, etc., as follows: Expenditures from general funds of the Institution: uD lica thong yee Ee $20, 378. 94 Researches and explorations___________________ ==) (23, 620304 44, 099. 68 REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 135 Expenditures from funds devoted to specific purposes: Researches and explorations-—-=---==- = 2-2 Sees s- $60, 879. 90 Care, increase, and study of special collections____ 4,836.80 Rubies tions) yee a oes oe See ee ee 5, 470. 90 $71, 187. 60 TRU [a teapot altar ade ra Ali ee A ee aa nantes UE LE sae LE 115, 287. 28 The practice of depositing on time in local trust companies and banks such revenues as may be spared temporarily has been continued during the past year, and interest on these deposits has amounted to $715.42. The Institution gratefuliy acknowledges gifts or bequests from the following: Mrs. W. W. Daly, for Smithsonian endowment fund. Friends of Dr. Albert S. Hitchcock, for the Hitchcock Agrostological Library. Cornelia L. Pell, for the Pell Collection. Research Corporation, further contributions for research in radiation. John A. Roebling, further contributions for research in radiation. H. Nelson Slater, for investigations in connection with early cotton ma- chinery. Julia D. Strong, for National Collection of Fine Arts. Mrs. Mary Vaux Walcott, for purchase of certain specimens. All payments are made by check, signed by the Secretary of the Institution on the Treasurer of the United States, and all revenues are deposited to the credit of the same account. In many instances deposits are placed in bank for convenience of collection and later are withdrawn in round amounts and deposited in the Treasury. The foregoing report relates only to the private funds of the Institution. The following annual appropriations were made by Congress for the Government bureaus under the administrative charge of the Smithsonian Institution for the fiscal year 1941: Piste are xgienines 6.02 222 o nt es So ee ee a ees $386, 260. 00 (This combines under one heading the appropriations heretofore made for Salaries and Expenses, International Exchanges, American Ethnology, Astrophysical Observatory, and Na- tional Collection of Fine Arts of the Smithsonian Institution and for Maintenance and Operation of the United States National Museum.) BIeseLVa clone Ol COMCCHONS sae == eee oe a ee 627, 470. 00 PUG Save Cerin GaN aaa eS oe 5 A ey ke Pe 73, 000. 00 NEStLOn aE ZOOLOFI CAMP An ka wee e ae oe eae ele 239, 910. 00 Cooperation with the American Bepablicn (transfer to the Smith- SOT AT MORES CUCU LOT) ee tate el and Pe pe ee 28, 500. 00 AUG) el Go oat ENE bs BES SAD eo Ne nt SE a 1, 355,140. 00 136 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 The report of the audit of the Smithsonian private funds is printed below: SEPTEMBER 8, 1941. EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE, BOARD OF REGENTS, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. Simms: Pursuant to agreement we have audited the accounts of the Smith- sonian Institution for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1941, and certify the balance of cash on hand, including Petty Cash Fund, June 30, 1941, to be $499,041.14. We have verified the record of receipts and disbursements maintained by the Institution and the agreement of the book balances with the bank balances. We have examined all the securitites in the custody of the Institution and in the custody of the banks and found them to agree with the book records. We have compared the stated income of such securities with the receipts of record and found them in agreement therewith. We have examined all vouchers covering disbursements for account of the Institution during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1941, together with the au- thority therefor, and have compared them with the Institution’s record of expenditures and found them to agree. We have examined and verified the accounts of the Institution with each trust fund. We found the books of account and records well and accurately kept and the securities conveniently filed and securely cared for. All information requested by your auditors was promptly and courteously furnished. We certify the Balance Sheet, in our opinion, correctly presents the financial condition of the Institution as at June 30, 1941. Respectfully submitted, WruiiaAmM L, YArcrEr, Certified Public Accountant. Respectfully submitted. Freper1io A. DrLAno, VANNEVAR BusH, Executive Committee. GENERAL APPENDIX TO THE SMITHSONIAN REPORT FOR 1941 137 reg geet a es toh aN 29 ue ed bs ye ) a Waly ky yee thi haf —_ ot em a r ~s By dint ¥ } re ban ee | We htt ped pele Ys Md . Hiase. ieee ein 1 cn 4 errs Ms i WL AE dp VN i , ie OL ae Ck eae. Re oe Soy an ny any Pa neg Bee hicons a ep Gas aeaE ta mH i J ‘ r ivy ie . wet a f hy : ‘ Le va ALY ca it Lae mb Herel! hoe exible At her! Ta eae rene ; eT re Par Nr Dalen rea enth bes ptt AN, Vea aha © (ely b ia , ‘ : ; i A. Wal enirels 28 wht: VLA aati he eaneae ‘ - 1-4 r ARs hy y is iy Pi bee x mile ie i Teh f i hee ik the ee ity or ees ia ei h p a 2 pt hs ra, | a . & Pe ah fy 7 ; d x oP hai isl hha We ae L/ rae iS ‘ Ae - ee ee are ie jl Bea Manne 4 fiayh EE AOL RN BY ake i pare ) 1; o? « bi tr ety my \ ef Ai vy» 1 ] note PA Me ny ! 8) ' t i i y 4 ‘ i i uf } . 1 by i iM X i 5, J ' ) i eer he ADVERTISEMENT The object of the Generat Appenprx to the Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution is to furnish brief accounts of scientific dis- covery in particular directions; reports of investigations made by collaborators of the Institution; and memoirs of a general character or on special topics that are of interest or value to the numerous correspondents of the Institution. It has been a prominent object of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution from a very early date to enrich the annual report required of them by law with memoirs illustrating the more remarkable and important developments in physical and biological discovery, as well as showing the general character of the operations of the Institution; and, during the greater part of its history, this purpose has been carried out largely by the publication of such papers as would possess an interest to all attracted by scientific progress. In 1880, induced in part by the discontinuance of an annual sum- mary of progress which for 30 years previously had been issued by well-known private publishing firms, the secretary had a series of abstracts prepared by competent collaborators, showing concisely the prominent features of recent scientific progress in astronomy, geology, meteorology, physics, chemistry, mineralogy, botany, zoology, and anthropology. This latter plan was continued, though not altogether satisfactorily, down to and including the year 1888. In the report for 1889 a return was made to the earlier method of presenting a miscellaneous selection of papers (some of them original) embracing a considerable range of scientific investigation and discus- sion. This method has been continued in the present report for 1941. 139 WHAT LIES BETWEEN THE STARS? By WALTER S. ADAMS Carnegie Institution of Washington, Mount Wilson Observatory, Pasadena, Calif. [With 4 plates] We are accustomed to think of the material upon which the astron- omer works as consisting mainly of the sun and its planetary system, occasional comets, and the vast array of stars and nebulae which dot our skies at night. In other words the astronomer is largely con- cerned with matter in a sufficiently condensed form either to radiate light like the hot sun and stars or to reflect light like the cool planets and satellites. In recent years, however, new information has obliged us to consider more seriously what lies between the stars, and it is this subject which I should like to discuss briefly with you this evening. In the first place it is interesting to realize how much space there really is in our stellar universe and how little of it is actually occu- pied by the stars. If this room represented an average portion of space and we let a floating speck of dust represent a star, we could not allow another speck within the room to represent another star because no matter where we put it the two would be too near each other. The star nearest to the sun is about 25 million million miles away. Another way of realizing how much of space is compar- atively empty is through its average density. If we put together everything we can observe directly, such as the stars and nebulae, in the general neighborhood of our sun, and divide the total by the volume of the space in which it lies, we find for each cubic inch 1 grain of matter divided by 1 followed by 22 ciphers. At the center of our galaxy the density is probably 10 times greater. These values may perhaps be in error by a factor of 10 but we need not feel the deep concern of the individual who thought the lecturer gave 1 billion instead of 10 billion years for the possible life of our sun and was enormously relieved when he discovered his error. 1 Alexander F. Morrison Lecture. Reprinted by permission from Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, vol. 58, No. 312, April 1941. 141 142 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 If, at the turn of the century, a layman or even an astronomer had been asked what lies in the vast spaces between the stars he would probably have answered, “Little or nothing.” There might be an occasional wandering mass of cold rock like an asteroid or a meteorite or specks of dust such as produce our “shooting stars” when they strike the earth’s atmosphere; but in general, space was considered as essentially empty, with practically all the material in our galaxy condensed into the stars. About 1900 several observations raised serious questions regarding the supposed emptiness of space. The most important of these were Barnard’s photographs of the Milky Way which showed great lanes and holelike structures in the huge clouds of stars which compose this shining ring of light. To interpret these as real vacancies where no stars exist was the natural impulse, but gradually observations accumulated which made it impossible to retain this view. The “holes” were too sharply bounded and in many cases were associated with visible cloudlike luminosity which veiled the region. Moreover the presence of numerous long “tunnels” among the stars pointing toward the earth seemed altogether improbable. The final evidence was afforded by the photographs made at the Lick Observatory of the outer universes of stars, the extragalactic nebulae, many of which showed definite streaks of absorbing material crossing the main body of the nebula. The apparent vacancies were due to the presence of dark clouds of cosmic dust which absorb and scatter the light from the stars behind, either obliterating them completely or leaving them comparatively faint and inconspicuous. These cosmic clouds are composed of very finely divided particles of dust and are often of enormous extent, especially in the region of the Milky Way. When their thickness is great they blot out the stars behind them, and when thin they redden the starlight passing through them just as dust or smoke in the earth’s atmosphere red- dens sunlight, especially near sunrise or sunset when the path through the dust is long. The importance of these cosmic clouds in astron- omy is very great: they affect the brightness and color of every star whose light passes through them, and calculations of the distances of remote stars, the size of our universe, and the quantity of matter within it are all profoundly influenced by the absorption and scatter- ing of light in interstellar space. I shall not dwell longer on this most interesting question of dust clouds in space since many of you heard Dr. Seares give a lecture on this subject a few months ago on the occasion of the award to him of the Bruce Medal of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. To those of you who may not have heard him I can recommend a reading of his admirable presentation of the whole subject in the SS WHAT LIES BETWEEN THE STARS—ADAMS 143 Publications of the Society.2, Modern observations with blue and red color filters show the remarkable degree to which the presence of such obscuring clouds modifies the appearance of great areas of the sky, especially in the region of the southern Milky Way, and illustrate the use made by astronomers of the power of red light to penetrate cosmic dust. We now know at least three forms of solid matter in interstellar space. There are probably dark stars, that is, stars with temperatures so low that they give out little or no visible light. If we knew where to look we might be able to detect some of them with sensitive heat-measuring devices—which will measure the heat given out by a candle at a distance of many miles—but as it is we can only infer their existence. We know that in the descending scale of stellar temperature we find cooler and cooler stars until finally we observe objects which give out only a faint red light. It seems reasonable to assume that there may be many others with still lower temperatures which have become invisible and are gradually approaching the con- dition of cold bodies like our planets or asteroids. They are probably small stars which have gone through the successive temperature stages of stellar development at a rather rapid rate. In addition to these occasional dark stars there are in the spaces between the visible stars great numbers of smaller masses of matter, “chunks” as Dr. Hubble has called them, such as now and then fall upon the earth in the form of meteorites. They are cold bodies with the chill of the depths of space upon them, commonly ranging in mass from a few pounds to a few tons. Finally and most important, we have the dust of space, often gathered into huge cosmic clouds which weaken or even blot out the stars behind them and give us much of the variegated pattern of the Milky Way. There is, however, another form in which we find matter existing in space, matter not in the solid state but in the form of gas, consist- ing of molecules, atoms, and even portions of atoms, the tiny elec- trons of the physicist. Much of our knowledge of this subject is of very recent date, and because it is new and because it is certain to affect our views of the conditions in interstellar space I should like to discuss it in a simple way this evening. This brings us at once to a consideration of a few elementary facts about the spectrum, for it is from the spectrum that we gain essen- tially all our knowledge of matter in the gaseous state. As you all know, white light is a mixture of several primary colors and the eye combines them into an impression which we call white. The ? Publ. Astron. Soc. Pacific, vol. 52, p. 80, 1940. 144 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 spectrum is simply a map of the colors spread out into a band begin- ning with violet at one end and passing through blue, green, and yellow into red at the other. It can be produced in several dif- ferent ways, the simplest of which is by a triangular piece of glass called a prism. When white light passes through a prism the violet part of the light is bent a certain amount when it comes out, the green a little less, and the red still less. The final result is a con- tinuous band of color extending from violet to red. You have all seen flashes of such a spectrum when sunlight falls upon a cut-glass bow] or the edge of a beveled mirror. Now the important fact is that any chemical element, when heated to the point where it vaporizes and gives out light, gives it in a pattern of colored bright lines which is unique for each element and defines it absolutely. Some patterns are comparatively simple, while others are exceedingly complex. For example, sodium has relatively few lines in its spectrum and nearly all the light which sodium vapor emits is concentrated in two strong lines of orange color. These are so dominant that they define the color of a sodium lamp completely, as you all know who have ridden through the yellow glare of the street lights now in such common use. Similarly neon gas has its strongest lines in the red portion of the spectrum and hence neon signs are red to the eye, while mercury light with an exceedingly strong green line in its spectrum is predominantly green in color. On the other hand the vapor of iron produced in an electric arc has an extraordinarily rich spectrum consisting of some 2,000 lines distributed throughout all the colors of the spectrum. In the absence of predominant lines of one color, luminous iron gas appears nearly white to the eye. One other fact should be remembered before we pass to our immediate astronomical applications of the spectrum. A hot, solid body or one consisting of dense gases gives out a spectrum which is a continuous band of color, not one of bright lines. When the light from such a body, a star for example, passes through a gas of somewhat lower temperature the gas will absorb light of just the color of its characteristic lines, and we shall have a pattern of absorption or dark lines. For example, when the light from the filament of an ordinary incandescent lamp is passed through a slightly cooler tube of sodium vapor we see the two strong yellow lines of sodium as dark lines on the yellow background of light given by the filament. In astronomy we have almost a precise analogy to the filament and tube of sodium vapor. The body of the sun or of a star corresponds to the filament and gives out a continuous band of color, while the gaseous atmosphere corresponds to the sodium tube and produces the absorption lines. The principal difference is that the atmosphere of > ee WHAT LIES BETWEEN THE STARS—ADAMS 145 a star like our sun contains not only sodium but a great variety of other elements and so we get not only sodium lines but an immense number of other lines as well—such as those of hydrogen, calcium, iron, and some 60 other elements. It is hardly necessary to say that the spectra of the elements, these characteristic patterns of bright lines which define them uniquely and individually, have been studied with extraordinary care by physi- cists and astronomers alike for many years. Maps have been made, the intensities of the lines measured, and their positions determined with an almost uncanny degree of precision. Asa result astronomers know almost every element which enters into the composition of the sun and even the most distant stars, merely through comparison of the positions and intensities of the dark lines produced in their at- mospheres with the well-recognized bright lines of terrestrial elements. One other point should be considered. When we observe a star, its light comes to us through the earth’s atmosphere which is itself com- posed of various gases. These gases are cold and because they are cold remain in the form of molecules. Intense heat will break up molecules into atoms, and in the atmospheres of the hotter stars we find only the lines due to atoms. Molecules, however, can also emit and absorb light and give spectrum lines arranged in characteristic patterns, the principal difference from those produced by atoms being that molecules usually give an enormous number of closely packed lines arranged in the form of bands. Asa result when we observe the spectrum of a star we find superposed upon it the bands of gases such as oxygen, water vapor, and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of the earth. These bands lie mainly in the red and infared portion of the spectrum. About 40 years ago two very narrow sharp lines were observed in the violet part of the spectrum of a star in the constellation of Orion. They were at once identified with well-known lines of calcium, but their positions did not vary periodically as did those of the lines from the star, and it was clear that they were not of stellar origin. They were called provisionally “stationary” lines, and Sir Arthur Edding- ton suggested the bold hypothesis that they originated in the absorp- tion of the atoms of calcium gas in interstellar space. Some 20 years later two more such lines were discovered at the Lick Observatory in the yellow portion of the spectrum. These are due to sodium and are the characteristic lines to which we have already referred. In 1936, observations with a spectroscope on the 100-inch telescope at Mount Wilson led to the discovery of several additional lines, a few of which were identified as due to titanium and potassium. By this time the interstellar origin of all such lines had been fully established, 146 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 and through the work of Struve, of the Yerkes Observatory, the in- tensities of the calcium lines were being used as a measure of the distances of the stars in which they were observed. The greater the distance of the star, the greater the amount of interstellar gas through which its light passes, and the stronger the lines. Several broad hazy lines, apparently originating from interstellar gases but differing greatly in appearance from the normal sharp lines, had also been discovered by Merrill at Mount Wilson. Until recent months, accordingly, the situation was that the gases of calcium, sodium, titanium, and potassium had been identified in interstellar space but that the origin of several fairly conspicuous lines still remained unknown. The identified lines all arise from the atoms of the elements, and naturally astronomers searched for identi- fications of the remaining lines in the atomic spectra of other ele- ments. ‘This led to no success, however. The possibility was then considered whether the unidentified lines could arise from molecules instead of atoms. As I have already said, under ordinary conditions, molecules of compounds produce bands consisting of hundreds or even thousands of closely packed lines as contrasted with the simpler spectrum of relatively few lines arising from the atom. Under the conditions of interstellar space, however, with extraordinarily low densities and temperatures, the molecular spectrum might well be simplified and even reduced to a few observable lines. The suggestion that the broad diffuse lines observed by Merrill might have a molecu- lar origin was put forward by several investigators, and in the specific case of one of the sharp lines discovered at Mount Wilson a tentative identification with a line of the common hydrocarbon gas CH was offered by Swings and Rosenfeld. An identification resting upon a single line, however, necessarily remained somewhat doubtful. The next step was taken by McKellar at the Dominion Astro- physical Observatory. Applying to molecular spectra the principles derived from a study of some of the identified atomic lines, he was able to predict the positions of several additional lines for each molecular spectrum. Thus if the single relatively prominent line tentatively assigned to CH were correctly identified, there should be at least three other fainter lines present in another region of the spectrum. Similarly McKellar could predict the positions of certain lines of the familiar cyanogen gas CN. Hence the final solution of the question came back to the observer. Since the predicted lines were faint and narrow, it was clear that photographic plates of high contrast and fine grain must be used and that exposure times would be long. Fortunately a bright star was available, Zeta Ophiuchi, lying near the southern Milky Way. The 100-inch telescope and a spectroscope 114 inches long were used with WHAT LIES BETWEEN THE STARS—ADAMS 147 exposure times of about 4 hours. The results were conslusive. The predicted lines of hydrocarbon gas CH all appeared in their correct positions with their calculated intensities. In the case of cyanogen gas CN, the evidence is based upon fewer lines but is equally strong. Hence the existence of the gases CH and CN in interstellar space may be regarded as practically certain. After this brief description of how these discoveries were made, a few comments upon the meaning of the results may be of interest. In the first place, we have learned that several of the common ele- ments exist in space in the form of atoms; sodium, calcium, potas- sium, and titanium have been identified, and it is very probable that many if not all of the others could be recognized if only conditions were favorable for the appearance of their spectra. Then we have very recently found that two common gases, or at least two slightly modified common gases, are present, cyanogen and hydrocarbon gas. This is the first discovery of molecules in interstellar space. That hydrogen, the most abundant element of all in the universe, has not been discovered directly is due to the fact that the lines which it could show under the conditions present in space are in an inaccessi- ble part of the spectrum, and, like the lines of many other important elements, are cut off by the ozone in the earth’s atmosphere, which in the words of Russell “lies like a black pall upon the dreams of the astrophysicist.” However, we do find hydrogen combined with carbon in hydrocarbon gas and thus have ample evidence for its presence. Although the lines of hydrocarbon gas are well marked and at least one of them is fairly conspicuous, it is the enormous length of the path of light from the stars rather than the density of the gas which provides enough absorbing molecules. The actual density is extraordinarily low. In a cubic mile of space there are probably only a very few thousand molecules; and when we remember that the diameter of a molecule is less than one ten-millionth of an inch it is easy to see that very little of the space is occupied. But if the path is long enough, a good many molecules will be encountered by the light from a distant star, and observable absorption lines will result. The same reasoning holds true for lines originating from atoms such as sodium and calcium. Dunham estimates that there is one sodium atom in about 25 cubic yards of space, and yet in the spectra of very distant stars the interstellar sodium lines are conspicuous. A calculation by Russell of the average density of interstellar gas in general gives a value of about 2 preceded by 24 ciphers of the density of water. So great are the distances, however, that in the volume of space whose radius is equal to that of the nearest fixed star, the mass of the interstellar gas amounts to about one-fourth | 4805774211 148 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 the mass of the sun. So if we consider the huge dimensions of our galaxy, the amount of matter contributed by interstellar gases is by no means negligible. An interesting and somewhat amusing subject is that of the tem- perature of these gases in space. We are accustomed to dwell upon the intense cold of outer space far removed from the heat of any nearby star and we are quite right in doing so. A thermometer placed in interstellar space would show a temperature of about 3° above absolute zero on the Centigrade scale or about 455° below zero on the usual Fahrenheit scale. But this is by no means the temperature of the atoms or molecules of a highly diffuse gas. In such a gas the effect of the radiation of a star which falls upon an atom is to drive out electrons, or, to use a technical word, to ionize it. It is the same process which happens when light falls upon a photoelectric cell: — electrons are driven out and the energy of these electrons when ampli- fied rings a burglar alarm or opens a garage door. The electrons in space have a temperature depending upon the mean energy with — which they are driven out of the atom, and when they collide with the atom they raise its temperature. Thus the atoms and molecules of | gas are lifted to a high temperature estimated at some 10,000° to 20,000° on the Fahrenheit scale. The interesting feature about the process, as Eddington has shown, is that it depends upon the quality and not the quantity of the radiation, so that the temperature of a gas far in space will be just as high as if it were near a star. The rate of production of electrons will be slower but the temperature will not be affected. So we may say that we have two kinds of tempera-_ ture in space, one of space itself as registered by a thermometer, and a very different one for the gases, which through their remarkable — structure are able to build up and maintain a temperature of thou- sands of degrees in spite of the bitter cold of the medium which surrounds them. 3 There is one other interesting characteristic of the molecules and. atoms in our interstellar gases. Under ordinary conditions such as | about rapidly, colliding with one another and knocking off and picking up electrons in a fraction of a millionth of a second. In the) extremely rarefied conditions of gas in space, however, the situation | is quite different. Collisions are extremely rare and the atoms and| molecules can remain for weeks and perhaps even months in the least” excited state which the state of their being will allow them to have. | To use a homely comparison, if we touch a sleeping cat the cat! responds with a a twitch of an ear or a leg which represents the least | possible disturbance to its equilibrium. So the lazy molecules of! space when disturbed by a ray of light or heat from a star seek to” ' in a physical laboratory they are in a wild state of excitement, flying | | WHAT LIES BETWEEN THE STARS—ADAMS 149 move as little as possible from their condition of rest and the spec- trum lines which we observe are those due to transitions of this sort. This is the reason why the complicated spectrum of a gas like cyano- gen, consisting of hundreds of closely packed lines, is reduced to a meager three or four lines when observed in interstellar space. These are the only lines which the molecule in its lowest state of energy can absorb. In this brief outline we have discussed the gaseous material of space, how it is studied, and what we know about its composition, temperature, and density. We have seen that three of the most im- portant elements which enter into the composition of the universe, hydrogen, nitrogen, and carbon, are present in the form of compounds, and that others as yet unidentified are represented by spectral lines in the interstellar gases. If in most of our considerations we have had our ciphers on the left-hand side of the significant figures instead of the right, it is because we have been dealing with atoms and molecules instead of stars and universes. Even so, such is the volume of space that the mass of the dust and gas which lies between the stars may well exceed by several fold all the matter actually visible with our greatest telescopes. ate bi “7 eS ‘ Aiba Al Aloe er be mt 5 wihy: TR iss oi aC Mee ud ae in *} A im valet . ur m kun din ae ‘tnnws meh mbes a y “haeten sero f ygtet inhi teahae dwn : syyibie ss be why 2asivyh ip en tk oe a ply’ Smithsonian Report, 194].—Adams PLATE 1 Blue FIELD OF NGC 6553. Photographed by Baade in blue and in red light. The exposure times were so chosen that an unobscured field of normal color would have appeared similar on the two photographs. Clouds of cosmic dust be- tween_us and the stars scatter and absorb the blue light much more than the red. Smithsonian Report, 1941. Adams 4000 | 5000 l PLATE 2 “6000 7000 | CONTINUOUS st HYDROGEN ALCIUM STELLAR” (iid SODIUM OXYGEN | el GCavks A Na 1. DIAGRAM SHOWING THE ORIGIN OF THE CONTINUOUS SPECTRUM AND VARIOUS TYPES OF ABSORPTION LINES IN STELLAR SPECTRA a, 55 Cygni. b, € Ophiuchi. e. ©Onhiuchi. (CN). 3874.6 H and K lines due to interstellar ionized calcium, Interstellar lines \ 4232, unidentified, Interstellar lines of CH, \ 3886 and A ¢ 3886.4 3890.2 2. STELLAR SPECTRA SHOWING ABSORPTION LINES DUE TO INTERSTELLAR GASES. and diffuse lines due to stellar elements. and A 4300, hydrocarbon gas (CH). 3890; also \ 3874.6 and a trace of A 3874.0, both cyanogen “(V8EE “ZVZE WW) WOINVLIL GAaZINO| ANY (ZOEE XY) WNIGOS WWHLNAN OL ANG SANIT YVIISLSYSALNI DNIMOHS ‘SINOINO ;X 4O WNYLOAdS LATIOIAVYLIN AO NOILYOU bzove £z0¢ce PAY TT 47 € 3ALV1d sulepy—'|p6| ‘140deaxy UPIUOSYAIWIG “SOLTOOJOA JUOLOYIP APUYSIS YALA SULAOU SBS WINIO[VO JO spnoyo eyeIEdes 0} onp Alqeqoid oie S}UaMOdUL0d aU, I, avoluny * 4O WN Loads NI (MH GNV H) WNMID1VD GAZINO] AO SANIT YV1I1ISLSYALN] 3a718noqd vy ALVW1d sulepy— | $6] ‘J4oday uURTUOsYyzIUIS ARTIFICIAL CONVERTERS OF SOLAR ENERGY ? By H. C. Horren Massachusetts Institute of Technology A study of the literature on solar energy utilization has convinced me of the existence of an unalterable tradition among speakers and writers on the subject. One must always begin such a discussion by expressing the earth’s reception of solar energy in units no one has thought before to use, the more startling the better. In keeping with this tradition, I shall mention a few old figures and add my own. The earth and its atmosphere intercept the equivalent in energy of 21 billion tons of coal per hour; 6 million tons per second; the equivalent in 3 minutes of the annual American energy consump- tion of about 1 billion tons; energy at a rate sufficient each year to melt a layer of ice 114 feet thick; on an acre at noon the equivalent of the discharge of a healthy stream from a garden hose spouting fuel oil instead of water. Having made the conventional beginning, let me add what many of you know: that figures such as these are almost irrelevant to the problem of practical utilization of solar energy. They have attracted uncounted crank inventors who have approached the problem with little more mental equipment than a rosy optimism. Now, an in- formed pessimism is sometimes the healthiest mood in which to approach an engineering problem; and I want to use a little space in an endeavor to put you in that mood. Consider a solar power plant utilizing 1 acre of land, and operating on the principle of conversion of solar energy to heat in steam used to run an engine. There is incident at noon, normal to the sun’s rays and outside the earth’s atmosphere, 7,400 horsepower of solar energy. On a clear day, of this quantity about 5,000 horsepower arrives at the earth. Allowing for the efficiency of collection of the sunlight as heat in the working fluid to be used in the engine, the quantity drops to about 3,300 horse- power. Utilizing the highest achieved efficiency of conversion of solar heat to useful power (results of Dr. Abbot’s experiments), the 1 Presented before the symposium on Solar Energy, Harvard Chapter, Spring, 1940. Re- printed by permission from Sigma Xi Quarterly, vol. 29, No. 1, April 1941. 151 152 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 horsepower output drops to 490. These calculations have so far all been on the assumption of normal incidence of the sun on the collector systems. To achieve this the collector must be mounted to turn with the sun and must be far enough from its neighbor not to shade the latter in morning or afternoon. Introducing a ground-coverage fac- tor of one-third to allow for this, the output is cut to 163 horsepower. But this figure applies only to the hours when the sun shines with full intensity. Converting to a 24-hour basis of operation on clear days in summer in Arizona, the output drops to 83; or in winter to 46 horsepower; or for the year to 68 horsepower. Passing on to the average year of New York weather, the output is down to 30 horse- power. Even if one stops at a reasonably attainable value of 50 horsepower in Arizona, that figure is one one-hundred-and-fiftieth of the original 7,400 horsepower. For rough orientation as to the meaning of these figures, suppose the possibility of a 50-horsepower steady output from an acre in Arizona be accepted. ‘To evaluate this power, let it be assumed that electric power can be produced in a large modern steam plant at a cost of 0.6 cents per kw.-hr., or $53 a kilowatt year, making the out- put of our 1 acre worth $1,900 per year. In the absence of knowledge of labor costs, maintenance, etc., one can only guess the capital value of such an output. Capitalization at 15 percent is almost certainly overoptimistic, and even that yields but $18,000 to spend on the en- tire plant, or about $2.60 per square yard. Since the ground coverage is but one-third, $8 are available to build each square yard of re- flectors, mounts, and accessories. ‘The result is one so often encoun- tered in engineering projects: indecisive. It may be possible to build a plant for such an amount; much more exact knowledge of perform- ance and costs is necessary than was at hand in making the above rough estimate. What I have particularly wanted to emphasize by this preliminary consideration is perfectly obvious to the engineer, namely, that solar power is not there just for the taking! However, this preview has at least indicated that solar power is not completely outside the realm of economic feasibility. It is worth- while, then, to examine in more detail the problem of use of solar energy by conversion to heat, a problem which has commanded the attention of engineers for three-quarters of a century. First, a moment on some elementary principles of heat transmis- sion. If a black metal plate is exposed to the sun, and cooling water is run under the plate fast enough to keep the plate from rising appreciably above the surrounding air temperature, substantially all the energy of the sun’s rays intercepted by the plate shows up as energy in the water; the efliciency of collection of heat is nearly 100 percent, but the value of the heat is low because of its low tempera- CONVERTERS OF SOLAR ENERGY—HOTTEL 153 ture level. If the water enters 50° F. above the surrounding air temperature and flows through fast enough hardly to rise in tem- perature, there is the same interception and absorption of solar energy by the plate; but now much of it is used in keeping the plate up to temperature; it is lost to the surroundings by radiation and convection, and very little of the absorbed energy appears in the water stream. To improve the efficiency the losses must be cut down. There are several ways. ‘The back side of the plate may be insulated, since it never sees the sun. Or a plate of glass may be placed over the metal plate and parallel to it, with an inch or so of air space between. Then the plate receives and absorbs almost as much sun- light as before—the glass transmits about 90 percent—but the losses from the metal to the outer atmosphere are reduced: the convection loss because of the imposed stagnation of the air, and the radiation loss because glass, though transparent to the sun’s rays, is opaque to the long-wave infrared radiation emitted by the hot metal plate. Variations of this idea include the use of several glass plates and of glass vacuum chambers. Another method of cutting down losses is to reduce the area at which losses occur relative to the area of the interceptor of the energy to be collected. This may be done by choosing the most favorable orientation of the plate, that is, normal to the sun’s rays, or by use of a concentrating device, such as a mirror, which intercepts rays covering a large area and brings them to a focus on an object of much smaller area where the heat loss is consequently correspondingly small despite the high temperature. From this discussion there emerges a threefold basis of classifica- tion of solar energy collectors: (1) By nature of orientation of the collector (whether and how completely it follows the sun), (2) by amount of concentration achieved by mirrors, (3) by amount and type of insulation of the receiver surface. It is perfectly obvious that many of the early inventors and engineers in this field were familiar with these principles in a general way. One might now ask, “With all this work, have not the possibilities of energy production by conversion to heat been so thoroughly studied as to yield a definite answer?” Unfortunately, no. Qualitative familiarity with the principles involved, these men had certainly ; but with the exception of the work of Dr. Abbot, their experiments and records indicate inadequate quantitative knowledge of the problem. As an exemple, consider the simplest possible collector, the flat plate insulated with several air-spaced glass layers. Willsie’s work at Needles in 1909 indicated the possibilities of this simplest of solar plants, but it left unanswered the question of merit relative to the much more efficient—and more expensive—plant of Abbot, and did not yield data permitting the design of such a plant for any given 154 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 climate. Among the projects at M. I. T. made possible by Dr. God- frey Cabot’s endowment for research on utilization of solar energy is one having as its first objective the determination of the perform- ance characteristics of solar energy collectors of different types, the performance, of course, being correlated with records of incident solar energy so as to permit calculations of expected performance in any locality where sunlight records are available. The first and so far the only type of collector studied has been the flat plate, which will now be considered briefly. Since each additional layer of glass and air cuts down the losses from such a plate, it is apparent that with glass having perfect transmission one could build a collector which, without any focusing or concentrating device, would still collect efficiently at a very high temperature level. But the best glass is not perfect. It doesn’t ab- sorb much solar energy when one picks the right glass—and there is ample evidence that early experimenters were too casual in their choice of glass in that respect—but there is a reflection loss of about 4 per- cent at each surface. Consequently, as glass plates are added the point is ultimately reached where the reduction in heat loss from the metal plate is more than offset by the reduction in intensity of in- cident radiation due to reflection losses. The optimum number of plates to use will be less the more intense the sunlight, more the colder the weather and the higher the temperature of collection of heat. The controlling part played by reflection losses in the design of flat-plate collectors having been brought out, the desirability of a low reflecting glass was discussed with Professor Hardy, of our Physics Department. The result was the invention by Drs. Turner and Cart- wright of a method of processing glass to give it a permanent sur- face of reflectivity approaching zero at one point in the spectrum. The process has already demonstrated its importance in a great many uses ranging from spectacle lenses through bomb sights to high-speed cameras and the solar-corona camera which was described in the first article of this series. Here is an excellent example of a need in one field stimulating research, the results of which have many applica- tions in other fields. The special glass has not yet been used for an experimental solar-energy collector, but calculations indicate that its use should make possible the attainment of temperatures up to 800° F. without any mirrors or lenses or so-called concentrating devices. Another problem of flat-plate collectors is that of optimum tilt. Obviously they are too cheap a type of collector system to warrant being mounted to follow the sun, but they may profitably be tilted permanently toward the Equator. A little consideration will in- dicate that the optimum tilt depends very definitely on the use to CONVERTERS OF SOLAR ENERGY—-HOTTEL 155 which the collected heat is to be put. If the objective is the max- imum collection during the entire year, tilting should favor the sum- mer season. If, on the other hand, the objective is to supply heat for a load which varies throughout the year, the tilt should be chosen to favor that part of the year in which the load is highest. As to the use of such collectors, it has already been indicated that one must find first just what they cando. But speculation is permissi- ble. One might visualize a large artificial lake with sloped sides formed by throwing up an earthen ring around a surface-scraped cen- ter, the bottom and sloping sides being surfaced with asphalt. Float- ing on this lake, which is, say, 20 to 40 feet deep, is an enormous raft covering it completely. On the raft is a layer of insulation, then a sys- tem of flat-plate collectors. Forced circulation of lake water through the collectors whenever they attain a temperature above the reser- voir will produce a large body of hot water available for continuous operation of a power plant. The working fluid in the engine might be low-pressure steam or, to cut down engine size, a fluid which boils at lower temperatures. It is not possible to state at this time whether such an idea has possibilities. Another less ambitious use of flat-plate collectors might be that of house heating in relatively cold but sunny climates, or summer air conditioning. Some preliminary figures may indicate the prospects in this direction. Consider house heating in New England, and take as a basis the furnishing of one therm of heat throughout the heating season—100,000 B. t. u.: the heat obtained by burning 1 gallon of fuel oil with normal efficiency of combustion. If 1 square foot of flat-plate receiver covered with three plates of glass and tilted 40° southward is operated in connection with 114 cubic feet of water in a well-insulated tank, and the water is pumped from the tank to the receiver and back whenever the receiver is hotter than the tank, the combination will supply all but 15 percent of the 100,000 B. t. u. required during the season; the 15 percent has to be supplied as auxiliary heat in December, January, and February. The value of the heat saved is the cost of 0.85 gallons of fuel oil, or about 6 cents. Capitalizing this at 6 percent gives only $1 available to be spent on the roof collector and tank. This is plainly not enough, but the answer is interesting because we have not determined the optimum number of glass plates, or tilt, or ratio of roof to tank area, or considered the possibility of some day having treated glass of lower reflectivity. More particularly, the idea looks interesting for localities where the ratio of winter to summer sunshine is somewhat more favorable than in Boston, and the winter heating requirements somewhat lower. According to a recent publication of Dr. Abbot’s, Dr. F. G. Cottrell has proposed a somewhat similar storage system in which sand is to be used instead of water. Whether the ad- 156 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 vantages of low-cost installation and ability to store heat at a higher temperature would be offset by the disadvantage of lower efficiency of collection is a point requiring study. Whether the use of flat-plate collectors together with a storage system is economically possible for house heating or air conditioning in certain areas of the earth, whether other types of collector will prove cheaper for these uses or for power generation, whether power generation from solar heat demands the development of a new heat-engine cycle, and whether power generation by any process dependent on direct conversion of sunlight into heat with consequent unavoidable losses due to the degradation of energy is sound—these are questions which it is hoped this program will help to answer. Regardless of the result, the present considerable and increasing importance of solar heat for hot water in certain parts of this coun- try indicates the need for a comprehensive study of the factors involved in the design of collectors. Now to come to a second project, related to the one just dis- cussed. Conventional heat-power plants are characterized by a cost of power production depending enormously on the capacity of the plant; and we have seen that solar power does not now look very attractive when compared to large-scale operation of steam plants. If, on the other hand, it were possible to operate small solar plants with an efficiency comparable to large ones, the comparison with fuel-fired plants might lead to some very different conclusions. So far as the collectors of the sunlight are concerned there is little indication that the cost should be other than proportional to the amount of collector area. If then it were possible to devise an engine with moderate efficiency even in small units, one might have something worthwhile. The second project is, in effect, a study of a type of engine which may have just such desired characteristics. When two dissimilar conducting materials are joined to form a loop and the two junctions are kept at different temperatures, heat flows into the loop at the hot junction, a portion of its energy is converted to electrical energy and the rest flows out of the cold junction as heat. The phenomenon involved here has itself long been known; many investigators have been led to speculate upon it as a possibility for large-scale thermoelectric power production, but then to dismiss it as unimportant because the effect is small. Of the early experiments in this field, the best yielded an over-all efficiency of conversion of energy from gas to electricity of only 0.6 percent. Consequently, until recently, the: sole use of the phenomenon has been in the measurement of temperature. In trying to better these results, one naturally asks, first, the ques- tion “What property must a metal or alloy have besides high thermo- electric power if it is to be of interest for heat-power generation?” CONVERTERS OF SOLAR ENERGY—HOTTEL 157 Plainly, the material should have a low thermal conductivity to minimize the loss of heat flowing from the hot to the cold junction. Moreover, the electrical conductivity should be as high as possible in order not to dissipate an excessive amount of electrical energy as heat within the “engine.” The ratio of the two quantities, thermal conductivity to electrical conductivity, is known as the Wiedemann- Franz ratio; and it has just been shown that this ratio should be as low as possible. A correlation of data from the literature and a consideration of theoretical limitations indicate a sort of conspiracy on the part of Nature to prevent the finding of any material with a Wiedemann-Franz ratio less than a certain minimum value. A study of the properties of zinc-antimony alloys indicates that the thermoelectric power is a maximum for an alloy containing 36 per- cent zinc, but that, owing to the extremely abnormal value of the Wiedemann-Franz ratio in this alloy, there is an advantage in use of an alloy containing 48 percent zinc, since the thermoelectric power of such an alloy is almost as good as the best, and the Wiedemann- Franz ratio is very much more favorable. An “engine” consisting of an alloy of zinc and antimony contain- ing 48 percent zinc against the alloy copel has been found to produce a 5 percent useful conversion of heat to electrical power in the external circuit, when the temperature difference of the hot and cold junctions of the system is maintained at 400° C. To the layman this may not sound very imposing, but it is to be remembered that 25-percent efficiency is attained only in the best of modern steam power plants and that 5 percent would not be considered bad for a small engine. Moreover, it is to be remembered that a great many alloys and compounds exist, the thermoelectric properties of which are unknown, that it is not inconceivable that further study of the problem may produce a material increase in efficiency in this kind of an engine. With such an idea in mind, there has been initiated at M. I. T. a program of study of the thermoelectric properties of various compounds and alloys. The work is in too early a stage to justify consideration at the present time. So far in this discussion only the so-called heat engine has been considered as a means of conversion of solar enregy to useful power. The term, to an engineer, means a device which receives energy as heat at a certain temperature, converts part of that energy to useful power and throws away the rest to a so-called heat sink at a second lower temperature. That this discussion was concerned in the first instance with the use of steam in the engine and in the second in- stance with the use of a thermocouple for conversion to power is immaterial; in each case the first step has been the conversion of solar energy to heat. Now, there is available to the scientist and engineer a powerful tool, known as the second law of thermodynam- 158 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 ics, that permits him to appraise the possibilities of the heat engine; and it tells him, for example, that the enormous reservoir of heat which the earth’s atmosphere constitutes is not available for use in a heat engine. This same second law of thermodynamics states that, in the act of collecting sunlight and converting it to heat at a lower temperature level, a degradation of solar energy has occurred; the energy has been made less available for conversion to power even though none of it has been lost; and no process—no matter how clever the inventor—can restore the energy to a form as intrinsically useful as when it arrived here as solar energy just before its conver- sion to heat. In consequence of this important limitation on what can be ex- pected so long as one’s interest is restricted to heat engines, it is appropriate to consider other means of conversion of solar energy to power which do not involve as a first step the collection of the energy as heat, but which instead make use of the special nature of the energy as it arrives. Solar energy reaching the earth consists of a jumbled mass of radiations of wave lengths varying from the short ultraviolet through the visible spectrum and out into the infrared, roughly one-third of the total energy lying in the visible spectrum. The radiation might be likened, if the analogy is not pushed too far, to a shower of bullets—unit quantities of energy, known as quanta, each of a particular wave length. The quanta of shortest wave lengths have the greatest unit energy content; and almost two-thirds of the total energy consists of relatively impotent quanta in the infrared. If, instead of pouring all these quanta into the funnel of a heat engine, they are given a chance to show their individuality, what are their specialties? One, of particular interest to us at pres- ent, is the phenomenon of photoelectricity, the ability of light quanta of certain wave lengths to knock electrons out of atoms or atomic lattices in crystals and produce an electric current. Many of you have encountered this phenomenon in using that type of camera exposure meter which indicates on a dial the intensity of illumination. Light is there being converted into electrical energy which is in turn used to make the galvanometer needle move. The light-sensitive unit of such a device is one of two kinds, each referred to as a blocking-layer photocell. The copper oxide cell is typical; it consists of a massive plate of copper which has been oxidized on one face and then etched, to produce thereby a layer grading from cuprous oxide through all proportions of oxygen down to pure cop- per. The cuprous oxide surface is covered with a thin film of an- other metal, so thin as to be transparent to light quanta. There is thus produced a sandwich in which the outer layers are metal and the inside layers consist of material graded in character in a direc- tion normal to the surface. If a quantum of visible light strikes CONVERTERS OF SOLAR ENERGY—HOTTEL 159 the thin metal cover of the cuprous oxide, it passes through that and through the cuprous oxide layer, penetrating to some point in the structure where the composition lies between that of cuprous oxide and copper (the so-called blocking layer) ; and there the quantum— the bullet of energy—succeeds in knocking out an electron from the erystal lattice. The electron, being liberated in territory where the view depends on which way it looks, finds, in general, that the going is easier when it migrates toward the copper rather than through the cuprous oxide to the other metal film. This preferential movement of the electrons in one direction constitutes an electric current. How important is this phenomenon for power generation from sunlight? Tests on copper oxide photocells indicate that of the visible light quanta falling on such a cell only about 5 percent suc- ceed in causing an electron to show up in the external electric circuit, that, furthermore, the voltage efficiency of the system is only about 10 percent, with a consequent over-all efficiency of conversion of luminous energy to power of one-half of 1 percent. Preliminary calculations indicate that a tenfold increase in this efficiency would make copper oxide cells interesting for solar power production; and there is no present reason to believe such an accomplishment im- possible. It is not easy, however, for the physicist doesn’t really know just what goes on in the blocking layer of the photocell. Clearly the problem is one which demands a fundamental study com- pletely divorced from any present considerations of a practical nature. Such a project has been initiated in our Electrical Engineering Depart- ment in connection with a broad program of study of insulators and semiconductors—the cuprous oxide of our photocell is such—from the atomphysical viewpoint. The problem is really one of studying the laws of motion of electrons in semiconductors; the effect of crystal versus amorphous structure; of crystal structures in which there is strong ionic binding, such as sodium chloride versus crystal struc- tures in which the bonding is atomic, as in sulfur; the effect of tem- perature on conduction and break-down in insulators; the effect of an excess of one of the components of a crystalline compound present in the crystal. When the nature of the migration of electrons in semiconductors is better understood, when their interaction with the lattice structure is able to be formulated quantitatively, then one can attack with some hope of success the difficult barrier-layer photocell problem. Whether such an attack succeeds or not, the knowledge acquired in the course of the problem is certain to be of enormous value in a field of great practical importance, insulation research. I come now to the last of the M. I. T. solar-energy projects, one which like the previous one depends on the special properties of sunlight rather than its over-all energy content. Dr. Thimann 160 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 pointed out in his contribution ? our complete dependence on the proc- ess known as photosynthesis: the use by green plants of solar energy in the visible spectrum to produce carbohydrates out of carbon doxide and water. He also emphasized the extreme complexity of the proc- ess—the fact that no one has been able to extract the essential chlorophyll and carotenoids from a plant leaf and make the reaction go in atest tube. By some process, which we have hardly begun to understand, the leaf structure succeeds in capturing the energy of sunlight and transferring it to the reaction: carbon dioxidet+ water=carbohydrate+oxygen, a reaction absorbing 112 kilocal- ories per gram atom of carbon. But to store solar energy chemically one does not have to carry out the same reaction that nature does; any chemical reaction which absorbs energy and produces a fuellike product capable of later combustion to return the energy for use at the proper time would be acceptable. Chemical industry has often succeeded in competing with nature in the production of a material of desired characteristics, not by attempting a complete imitation of nature, but by focusing attention on those properties of the natural material important to its use and imitating them with a synthetic product, perhaps chemically quite different from nature’s product. In the photochemical field, then, a combination of sensitizers and catalysts might be attempted that would allow us to perform some relatively simple energy-storing reaction such as the decomposition of water. A major problem would be to provide suitable inter- mediate steps in the process in order that the relatively small energy quanta, which constitute visible light, could be used in stepwise fash- ion such as nature apparently uses them in the photosynthetic ap- paratus of green plants. The photochemical system would probably have one of the characteristics of the photochemical system of the plant, namly heterogeneity. But the heterogeneity might be accom- plished not by constructing some sort of imitation leaf, but rather, for example, by a colloidal solution. Another approach to the problem is possible. We may renounce the production of metastable products or mixtures with a high con- tent of chemical energy—fuels or explosives—and turn our attention to the utilization of the energy of the unstable intermediate products obtained in almost every photochemical reaction. Among the ways of utilizing these products is to convert their high energy content into electrical energy. A reaction must be found in which passage from the unstable to the stable state can be made to proceed as an electrode reaction in a galvanic cell. Examples of this kind are oxidation-reduction reactions in electrolytes. The properties of such a reaction, carried out in what is known as a photogalvanic cell, are *?Thimann, Kenneth V., The action of light on organisms. Sigma Xi Quart., vol. 29, No. 1, pp. 23-35, April 1941. CONVERTERS OF SOLAR ENERGY—HOTTEL 161 being studied at the Institute. The system chosen consists of an or- ganic dye, thionine, and ferrous iron in the form, for example, of a ferrous sulfate solution. The two components form in the solution a reversible oxidation-reduction system. (dyestuff) +Fet*= leukodyestuff-+Fett* (colorless) Ferric iron is a much stronger oxidizing agent than thionine; there- fore, in the dark, all the thionine is in the form of the dye, and all the iron in the ferrous form. If, however, the mixture is illuminated by the light absorbed by thionine—1i. e., visible light in the region 5000-7000 A. (green, yellow, red light)—the thionine molecules are activated by light and become capable of oxidizing ferrous iron. Since the reduced thionine is colorless, the reaction is recognized by a decoloration of the solution. This bleaching proceeds to a steady state, whose exact character depends on the intensity of illumination. In this state, the velocity of the photochemical bleaching reaction is exactly compensated by that of the back-reaction restoring the equilibrium. As soon as the light is switched off, the system reverts to its original state. Experiments have been conducted on the kinetics of this interesting photochemical process, using a photometric method for the determina- tion of the concentration of the dye under different conditions. Of more interest in the present connection is the electrochemical effect of light in the thionine-iron system. As the composition of the solution changes through illumination, its electrode potential is also changed; if two platinum electrodes are placed in the solution and the electro- lyte surrounding one of them is illuminated while the other is kept dark, a potential difference is established between the two electrodes and a current flows from the dark to the illuminated electrode. The problem of the photogalvanic effect demonstrated by this experi- ment has two elements: the first and simpler question is that of the electromotive force produced by a given illumination; the second is that of the current that can be.drawn from such a photogalvanic cell. So far, experiments have been concerned with the first part of the problem. The photogalvanic potential of the thionine-iron system has been measured in relation to the concentrations of all the compo- nents and the light intensity. A pronounced maximum of potential is found at a certain concentration of the dyestuff, and a strong in- crease in effect with decreasing acidity of the solution. From such experiments, it has been possible to develop a quantitative picture of the photogalvanic effect in satisfactory agreement with the experi- mental results. The next step is a study of the factors affecting cur- 162 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 rent withdrawal from such a device, a phase of the program which has just commenced. As to whether photogalvanic cells of this or similar types have practical importance as solar energy converters it is too early to hazard an opinion. Certainly their study has the merit of presenting problems in photochemistry which, while complex, are not so complex as to defy analytical treatment. In that respect they satisfy the condition which the scientist has learned to impose on himself, namely, not to ask questions of Nature which are so difficult that he cannot yet begin to understand her answer. In summary, I have tried to point out that the best-known method of utilizing solar energy by artificial means is the relatively simple one of first converting the energy to heat; that, today, engineering data are inadequate properly to determine the value of such heat, whether for conventional use as heat or for conversion to power; that, if heat is converted to power, we are limited in possible efficiency by the second law of thermodynamics; that consequently it is necessary to turn to the fields of photochemistry and photoelectricity where theoretical limitations on expected output are less severe; that in turning to these fields it is found that the problems which arise are of so complicated a nature as to point plainly to the need for a long- range program of research into fundamental phenomena, research divorced almost completely for the time being from any considera- tions of a practical nature. To summarize this summary, with respect to the future of solar energy utilization, your guess is as good as mine. REFERENCES ABBsorT, C. G. 1929. The sun and the welfare of man. Smithsonian Sci. Ser., vol. 2. New York. 1939. Utilizing heat from the sun. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 98, No. 5. ACKERMANN, A. S. E. 1915. The utilisation of solar energy. Journ. Roy. Soe. Arts, vol. 63, No. 3257, pp. 5388-562, April. BROOKS, F’. A. 1936. Solar energy and its use for heating water in California. Univ. Cali- fornia, Coll. Agr. Bull. 602, November. EPSTEIN, LEO F.., KARUSH, F., and RABINOWITCH, HE. A. 1941. A spectrophotometric study of thionine. Journ. Opt. Soc. Amer., vol. 31, No. 1, pp. 77-84. Hortet, H. C. and WoERrTz, B. B. 1942. The performance of flat-plate solar heat collectors. Trans. Amer. Soc. Mech. Eng. February. RABINOWITCH, EH. 1940a. The photogalvanic effect. I. The photochemical properties of the thionine-iron system. Journ. Chem. Phys., vol. 8, No. 7, pp. 551-559. 1940b. The photogalvanic effect. II. The photogalvanie properties of the thionine-iron system. Journ. Chem. Phys., vol. 8, No. 7, pp. 560-566. THE NEW FRONTIERS IN THE ATOM* By ERNEST O. LAWRENCE The University of California [With 9 plates] The anniversary celebration of a great university is indeed an important occasion, and it is appropriate to signalize the event by a symposium on “The University and the Future of America,” for a a great institution of learning is eternally youthful, and youth looks always to the future. I am greatly honored to be included in this dis- tinguished gathering, and it gives me especial pleasure to join in wish- ing our sister institution many happy returns. In a discussion bearing on the future, the scientist is always in some- thing of a dilemma. On the one hand, he is cautioned to make only very limited prognostications, for he has learned the very limited region of applicability of existing knowledge and the likelihood of error in speculation. On the other hand, he faces the future with eager excitement and curiosity about what is beyond the present frontiers of knowledge, and he is naturally tempted to speculate and indeed to indulge in day dreams. Perhaps I may convey something of what is in the minds of physicists these days by a brief discussion of somé recent developments of the current intensive attack on the new frontier in the atomic world—the nucleus of the atom. ATOMS The atomic constitution of matter has long been a keystone of natural science. At the beginning of this century it was a keystone in a structure having as pillars the principles of the conservation of energy and the indestructibility of matter. In the nineties, it was almost axiomatic to say that the building blocks of nature are the atoms—indivisible, indestructible entities, permanent for all time. But the discovery of radioactivity altered all this. There followed 1 An address delivered at the symposium on “The University and the Future of America,” on the occasion of the Fiftieth Anniversary Celebration of Stanford University, June 16-19, 1941. Reprinted by permission from volume entitled ‘The University and the Future of America,” published by Stanford University Press. 4305774212 163 164 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 the discovery of the electron and the proton as smaller and more fundamental constituents of matter and the atom itself became the happy hunting ground of the experimental physicist. Atomic physics developed rapidly; for the atom was found to be a domain of almost incredible richness, and today, thanks perhaps to the newspapers, our children speak knowingly of smashing atoms! To explain the wonderful phenomenon of radioactivity, Rutherford came forward in 1904 with a revolutionary hypothesis which reduced the complicated and mysterious observations of radioactivity to simple order. According to Rutherford, not all of the atoms have existed for ages and will exist for all time, but there are some atoms in nature that are energetically unstable and in the course of time, of their own accord, blow up with explosive violence. These are the natural radio- active substances, and the fragments given off in the atomic explosions are the observed penetrating rays. It was not long before Rutherford’s hypothesis was established as a law of nature and formed a greater keystone, replacing the chem- ists’ conception of the atom and serving as a foundation for a new science, the science of the atomic nucleus. Time does not permit an adequate historical résumé of the develop- ment of nuclear physics, but for the present purpose it is sufficient to say that the ideas of Rutherford and Bohr on the structure of atoms are now firmly established. There is an abundance of evidence that an atom consists of a nebulous cloud of planetary electrons whirling about a very dense sun, the positively charged nucleus, and that it is in the nucleus that the atomic explosions of radioactiv- ity occur. Indeed, our assurance that this is so rivals our confidence that the planets revolve about the sun! ATOMIC NUCLEUS Let us now proceed immediately to a consideration of the structure of the nucleus. The nucleus consists of a closely packed group of protons and neutrons, elementary building blocks of nature some 2,000 times heavier than the electrons. The neutrons are electri- cally neutral while the protons carry positive charges, and for each proton in the nucleus there is a corresponding negative electron out- side, for the atom as a whole is uncharged. Since the number of elec- trons outside determines the ordinary chemical and physical proper- ties of the atom, it follows that the nuclear charge determines the place of the atom in the periodic table of the elements. Thus, the nucleus is the body and soul of the atom. More than 99.9 percent of the atom’s mass is in the nucleus and the nuclear charge determines the nature of the atom, its chemical and physical properties. NEW FRONTIERS IN THE ATOM—LAWRENCE 165 TRANSMUTATION OF THE ELEMENTS These considerations reduce the age-old problem of alchemy to simple terms. For we see to change one element into another is sim- ply to change the nuclear charge, i. e., the number of protons, in the nucleus. The subject of transmutation of the elements has recently received a great deal of attention in the laboratory. All sorts of transmutations have been produced on a minute scale—helium has been made from lithium, magnesium from sodium, and even mercury has been turned into gold. The day may come when we will indeed possess the philosopher’s stone and will be able to transmute the ele- ments on a grand scale. But interesting as these developments are, I should like to draw your attention to two other subjects, artificial radioactivity and the question of tapping the vast reservoir of energy in the nucleus of the atom. ARTIFICIAL RADIOACTIVITY One of the early results of atomic bombardment was the discovery that neutrons could be knocked in or knocked out of the nucleus to produce radioactive isotopes of the ordinary elements. Thus, for example, the nucleus of the ordinary sodium atom contains 11 neu- trons and 12 protons, 23 particles in all, and so it is called sodium 238 (or Na*); and by bombardment it was found that a neutron could either be added to make sodium 24 or subtracted to make sodium 22, both isotopic forms not occurring in the natural state. The reason that these synthetic forms are not found in nature is that they are energetically unstable. They are radioactive and in the course of time blow up with explosive violence. Sodium 24 has a half-life of 14.5 hours, i. e., it has an even chance of disintegrating in that time, turning into magnesium by the emission of an electron. Sodium 22, on the other hand, has a half-life of 3 years and emits positive elec- trons to turn to stable neon 22. These artificial radioactive isotopes of the elements are indistin- guishable from their ordinary stable relatives until the instant they manifest their radioactivity. This fact deserves emphasis, and it may be illustrated further by the case of chlorine. Chlorine consists of a mixture of two isotopes, 76 percent of Ci®* and 24 percent of Cl", resulting in a chemical atomic weight of 35.46 which is the average weight of the mixture. By elaborate technique, to be sure, it is possible to take advantage of the extremely slight difference in chemical properties and bring about separation of these isotopes, but in ordinary chemical, physical, and biological processes, the chlorine isotopes are indistinguishable and inseparable. The artificial radio- active isotopes Cl* and Cl** are likewise indistinguishable. In fact, 166 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 Cl** is more nearly identical in properties to the natural isotope Cl** than is the other natural isotope Cl*’.. And again I would say that the radioactive characteristic of Cl®* becomes evident only at the moment it blows up to turn into the neighbor element sulfur. RADIOACTIVE TRACER ATOMS In these radioactive transformations of the artificial radioactive isotopes, the radiations given off are so energetic that the radiations from individual atoms can be detected with rugged and reliable instruments, called Geiger counters. Thus, radioactive isotopes can be admixed with ordinary chemicals to serve as tracer elements in complicated chemical or biological processes. As an illustration of the power of this new technique of labeling and tracing atoms, let us consider iodine in relation to the thyroid gland. It is well known that the thyroid takes up and stores iodine, and this fact can be demonstrated strikingly by feeding an individual iodine including a small quantity of radioactive iodine. Before the feeding, the radioactivity of the food can be measured by placing it near a Geiger counter, thereby giving a measure of the iodine con- tent. Later the progress of the iodine through the body can be observed by placing the Geiger counter next to various parts of the body. Likewise, the proportion of the fed iodine in the various body fluids at any time can be determined quickly by taking small samples of the fluids and measuring their radioactivity. After some hours it is found that a large part of the iodine taken in has col- lected in the thyroid, a fact that is readily established by placing a Geiger counter next to the gland (pl. 1, fig. 1) and observing the activity while finding no appreciable activity elsewhere. This tech- nique makes it possible to study the behavoir of the thyroid in health and in disease, and much interesting work along this line has been carried out recently. RADIO-AUTOGRAPHY Although the tracer elements are readily detected with the Geiger counter, there is a photographic method which for many purposes has obvious advantages. This method is sometimes called radio- autography and is illustrated by plate 1, figure 2. Here a minute amount of radioactive phosphorus in the form of sodium phosphate was added to the nutrient solution of a tomato plant, and after a day or so leaves were placed against a photographic film enclosed in a light tight paper envelope. The penetrating rays from the radio- active phosphorus produced the developed contact image shown in the figure, which gives an accurate and detailed picture of the uptake of phosphate by the plant. Now, indeed, the same method works NEW FRONTIERS IN THE ATOM—LAWRENCE 167 very well also for the thyroid, as is shown in plate 2, which is a photomicrograph of a thin section of thyroid tissue containing radio-iodine; alongside is the radio-autograph obtained from the same microsection by placing it against a photographic plate. The distribution of the iodine in various parts of the gland is shown in surprising detail. Similarly striking radio-autographs of the distribution of phos- phorus and strontium in rats are shown in plate 3, figure 1. Here two rats were fed radiophosphorus and radiostrontium respectively, and then some hours or days later they were sacrificed, and frozen sections of the entire bodies of the animals were placed against a photographic plate. The resulting radio-autographs show clearly that both strontium and phosphorus are selectively deposited in the bones, phosphorus being more widely distributed in other tissue. The distribution of the strontium in the bones also appears to be quite different from that of phosphorus as radio-autographs of the sections of bones clearly show (pl. 3, fig. 2). These examples serve to illustrate the power of the new technique of radioactive tracer atoms. It has often been said that the progress of science is the progress of new tools and new techniques, and I think we may look forward to accelerated developments in biology resulting from the tracer elements. ARTIFICIAL RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES IN THERAPY It is somewhat afield for me to discuss medical problems, but I should like to direct your atention to the possibilities of the artificial radioactive substances in the treatment of cancer and allied diseases. It is well known that at the present time there are two main ap- proaches to the treatment of neoplastic disease, surgery and radia- tion. It is sometimes possible to cut out a cancer completely and effect a cure, and in other circumstances, it is possible to destroy a tumor by irradiation with X-rays or radium. The mechanism whereby the radiation destroys the tumor without destroying an excessive amount of surrounding norma] tissue is doubtless extremely complicated, but in any case it is evidently important to localize the radiation to the tumor as much as possible. Perhaps the idea would be approached if a means were at hand to irradiate each and every malignant cell without irradiating a single normal cell. The artificial radioactive substances open for the first time the possibility of an approach to such selective irradiation of tissue. The above examples of tracers suggest the treatment of thyroid tumors with radioactive iodine, bone tumors with radioactive strontium and radioactive phosphorus. These possibilities are being investigated as is the more specific problem of finding a radioactive 168 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 substance that is selectively taken up by tumor tissue. If there were time, I should like to describe work along this line in progress in several laboratories, and especially to speak of the important progress that is being made in the treatment of leukemia, but I must content myself with only mentioning these new developments in medicine, which are so promising for the future. ATOMIC ENERGY For a long time astronomers have been vexed with a problem, the problem of the source of stellar energy, for there is evidence that the sun has been blazing at its present brilliance for thousands of millions of years, and no ordinary fuel could be responsible for such an eternal fire. The discovery of radium posed to the physicist a similar difficulty ; for it was found that radium gives off every hour enough energy to heat its own weight of water to boiling, and this it continues to do for more than a thousand years. Such a vast source of energy in the radium atom was as difficult to understand as the evidently limitless store of heat in the sun. The problem was of fundamental interest and all sorts of possibilities were considered even to the abandonment of the principle of the conservation of energy. But the first clue to the solution of the problem appeared in 1905 when Einstein announced the theory of relativity. One of the revo- lutionary consequences of the theory was that matter is a form of energy and that presumably in nature processes go on in which matter is destroyed and transformed into more familiar forms of energy such as heat, radiation, and mechanical motion. The rela- tivity theory gave as the conversion factor relating mass to equiva- lent energy, the square of the velocity of light—a very large number, even to an astronomer! Thus, the theory indicated that, if a glass of water were completely destroyed, more than a billion kilowatt hours of energy would be released, enough to supply a city with light and power for quite a time! This exciting deduction was immediately accepted by the astron- omers, who said, “Doubtless within the sun conditions are such that matter is being transformed to heat. Thus, slowly through the ages the sun is losing mass; its very substance is radiating into space.” Likewise, the physicists, who had other compelling reasons for accepting the Einstein theory, concluded that the source of the energy in the radium atom was a destruction of matter in the atomic explosion giving rise to the penetrating rays. Although the fundamental assumptions on which the relativity theory was based were evidently sound, and the explanations of the source of energy of the sun and stars and radioactivity were NEW FRONTIERS IN THE ATOM—LAWRENCE 169 most attractive, until direct experimental verification was forth- coming, Einstein’s great deduction could not be regarded as an established law of nature. The first direct evidence of the truth of this fundamental prin- ciple was obtained in the first atom-smashing experiments a decade ago. It was observed that, when the nucleus of a lithium atom is hit by a proton having a kinetic energy of less than a million electron- volts, the result is the formation of two helium nuclei which fly apart with an energy of more than 17 million electron-volts; thus in the nuclear reaction in which hydrogen and lithium unite to form two helium atoms, there is a great release of kinetic energy. Now one of the interesting and important occupations of the ex- perimental physicist has been the measurement of the masses of atoms and the weights of atoms are known with great precision— much greater than any individual knows his own weight. In par- ticular, it was known precisely that a lithium atom and a hydrogen atom have a total weight slightly greater than the weight of two helium atoms, and it was a great triumph for the Einstein theory when measurements showed that the excess kinetic energy with which the helium atoms flew apart in the hydrogen-lithium reaction corre- sponded exactly with the disappearance of mass according to the mass-energy relation. Literally hundreds of similar nuclear reactions have been studied in the intervening years, and in each instance the Kinstein relation has been verified. At the present time this great principle has as firm an experimental foundation as any of our laws of nature. URANIUM FISSION Now that it is an experimental fact that matter can be converted into energy, it becomes of great practical importance to inquire whether the vast store of energy in the atom will be tapped for useful purposes. This question has recently taken on added interest through the discovery of a new type of nuclear reaction involving the heavy element uranium. It has been known for some years that the heavy elements, such as lead, gold, and uranium, are relatively heavier than the middle- weight elements, such as copper and iron, or more precisely that the average weight of the neutrons, protons, and electrons in the heavy elements is greater than their average weight in the atoms near the middle of the periodic table. Accordingly it is to be expected that, if heavy atoms were split approximately in two forming correspond- ing middle-weight atoms, there would be a vast release of energy corresponding to the disappearance of matter in the transformation. Indeed, from known values of the masses, it can be calculated on the 170 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 basis of Einstein’s mass-energy relation that each splitting or fission, as the process is called, of a uranium atom into two approximately equal parts releases an energy of about 200 million electron-volts, which is millions of times more heat per atom than is given off when ordinary fuel is burned. Thus, calculations show that 100 pounds of uranium would yield a billion kilowatt hours, which at 1 cent per kilowatt-hour would be 10 million dollars’ worth of electrical energy. For some time these considerations were largely academic because no way was known for producing fission of the heavy elements. But interest in the matter has now become extremely lively as a result of the discovery that fission of uranium is actually brought about by bombarding it with neutrons. The phenomenon has, during the past 2 years, received intensive study in laboratories all over the world and several salient facts have emerged. First, the rare U?** isotope undergoes fission after absorp- tion of a slow neutron. Second, the energy released in the fission process has been measured; and, as expected, it is found that, when a neutron having an energy less than an electron-volt enters the U?** nucleus, about 200 million electron-volts of energy is released. Third, it is found also that the fission process is so violent that usually the U*** nucleus does not break up into two parts only, but more often several neutrons are given off in addition to the two large fragments. That neutrons are generated in the fission process is of the greatest interest because it opens up the possibility of a chain reaction, a series of nuclear reactions wherein the neutrons liberated in one fission process go to produce additional fissions in other atoms which in turn give rise to more neutrons which produce further fissions and so on. It is this possibility of a chain reaction that has excited the interest in uranium as a practical source of atomic energy. Without going into further detail, it is perhaps sufficient to say that there is some evidence now that, if U**® could be separated in quantity from the natural mixture of the isotopes, a chain reaction could, indeed, be produced. But herein lies the catch, for there is no practical large-scale way in sight of separating the isotopes of the heavy elements, and certainly it is doubtful if a way will be found. But I should not want to indicate that the uranium matter is a disappointment, that after all we shall never find a way to bring about fission of the heavy elements for useful purposes. Quite the contrary ! The present situation is not unlike the circumstances 50 years ago surrounding the then great question of whether man would ever be able to fly. In those days the fundamental laws of classical mecha- ; } NEW FRONTIERS IN THE ATOM—LAWRENCE 171 nics were known, and they allowed the possibility of heavier-than-air flight. Moreover, there was an abundance of supporting observa- tional evidence that flight should be possible; there were kites and there were the birds of the air. But man’s realization of the dream awaited primarily the development of the combustion engine, a cir- cumstance not so evidently connected with the fundamental problem of flight. Likewise the fundamental laws of nature recently revealed to us allow the possibility of obtaining useful nuclear energy, and radium and the sun and stars bear witness that this vast source of energy is being tapped in nature. Again success in this direction may await the development of a new intrument or technique just as the airplane depended on the gas engine. Perhaps the problem awaits a deeper understanding of the forces that hold nuclei together. That there are little-understood forces operative in the nucleus is more than evident; especially from obser- vations of the cosmic rays, it has been established that particles of matter called mesotrons of intermediate mass between electrons and protons play a dominant role in nuclear structure. Theoretical con- siderations suggest that the mesotrons may be connected with the primary forces in the nucleus, and accordingly, an understanding of mesotron forces may ultimately yield the solution of the practical problem of atomic energy. THE GIANT CYCLOTRON In order to study experimentally the mesotron problem, it is neces- sary to bombard nuclei with atomic projectiles having energies in the range of 100 million electron-volts rather than in the neighbor- hood of 10 million electron-volts at present available in cyclotron laboratories. To this end a giant cyclotron is now under construc- tion on Charter Hill in Berkeley; some pictures of this great machine are shown in plates 8 and 9. Whether it will be the key to the vast store of energy in the atom, what new discoveries, what new insight into nature it will bring—only the future will tell! THE PRINCIPLE OF THE CYCLOTRON The principle of the cyclotron has been described as follows in a popular article by Henry Schacht.? A circular chamber was placed between the poles of the magnet. Then all air was removed from the chamber and heavy hydrogen gas allowed to flow in. This so-called heavy hydrogen behaves in the same way as ordinary hydrogen. However, while the nuclei of ordinary hydrogen atoms contain one positively charged particle, or proton, heavy hydrogen nuclei contain two such particles 4Schacht, Henry, Lawrence’s cyclotron, Part I and Part II. California Monthly for May and June, 1940. 172 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 plus one electron. Consequently, they weigh just twice as much as the nuclei of ordinary hydrogen atoms. They are known as deuterons. The deuteron’s added weight makes it an ideal atomic bullet. And here is how Dr. Lawrence planned to send streams of deuterons crashing into the nuclei of other atoms in a constant, destructive barrage: Inside the cyclotron cham- ber was a heated filament that emitted streams of electrons. These particles would collide with the electrons surrounding the nuclei of the hydrogen atoms and in the ensuing mix-up the nuclei and their satellites would become sep- arated. The deuterons would be left free to float around the chamber. Bventually, the magnetic force set up by the cyclotron’s magnet would pull them between two metal grids separated by a space across which an alternating electrical current of 10 or 15 thousand volts would be operating. As the deuterons floated into this space, they would receive a heavy shock, and under this stimulus fly off toward the side of the chamber. But the magnetic field would pull them back again in a semicircular path until they again came between the two grids. Again they would be shocked and be sent flying out toward the side. And again the magnet would pull them back to complete one full circle of the chamber and be shocked again. At each jolt from the current the deuterons would gather more energy. This meant that they would go flying out from between the grids with constantly increasing force and in constantly widening circles. So you get the picture of the atomic bullets receiving shocks one right after the other from a weak electrical force. Each time the bullets receive a shock their energy is increased and they go on, describing wider and wider circles around the cyclotron chamber. Finally, they circle so widely that they reach a slit in the chamber wall and go flying out into the open air. The whole secret of the thing lies in making sure by means of the magnet that the atomic bullets are forced to come back for successive shocks until their energy is built up to the point where they can force their way to the exit. Dr. Lawrence figured that to bombard any Substance with his atomic bullets, all he had to do was clamp this sub- stance over the slit and let the onrushing stream of deuterons crash into it. This then was the theory put to the crucial test in 1934 at the Universiy Radiation Laboratory. Dr. Lawrence threw the switch that sent a high-pow- ered radio transmitter pumping energy into the cyclotron and the first experi- ment with the 85-ton machine had begun. Within a short time, physicists were amazed to hear that Lawrence and his cyclotron were not only changing familiar elements like platinum into other elements like iridium and gold, but were actually producing substances never before seen on earth. These were the artificially radioactive elements. Perhaps their character is best explained by illustration. One of the experiments performed with the cyclotron involved the bombard- ment of iron atoms with the high-speed deuterons produced by the cyclotron. When the deuterons crashed into them with a force of about 8 million volts, the iron atoms were broken up. Some changed into atoms of cobalt or man- ganese. But others were converted into a new form of iron which, like radium, emitted streams of electrically charged particles. In other words, this new iron was radioactive. Thirty-four different elements were subjected to bombard- ment with the 85-ton cyclotron and all of them underwent a transformation, many turning into radioactive substances. Among the artificial radioactive materials produced by the cyclotron were sodium, phosphorus, iron, and iodine. It was even possible by bombarding bismuth to produce a degenerate form of radium called Radium E. NEW FRONTIERS IN THE ATOM—LAWRENCE 173 Another interesting product of these atomic bombardments was the neutron, a particle often found in the atomic nucleus. It adds to the weight of the nucleus but has no electrical charge, hence its name. When atoms were smashed by the bullets from the cyclotron, they flew into two parts. One might be an atom of a new radioactive element, and another an atom of a light element such as hydrogen or helium. But more often than either of these two, a neutron would uppear. When the cyclotron was going full blast, 10 billion of these particles could be liberated every second. It was found that radioactive elements, such as sodium and phosphorus, had certain advantages over radium which might make them extremely valuable for treatment of human disease. Preliminary experiments indicated that radioactive phosphorus might solve the problem of leukemia, the wasting blood disease for which no cure has yet been found. Radioactive sodium, iodine, phosphorus, and many other of the newly created elements proved to be price- less instruments in the hands of scientists interested in finding out more about our fundamental body processes. Finally, streams of released neutrons gave every indication of being a more powerful weapon against cancer than the X-ray. These discoveries marked the end of the first cycle of the cyclotron’s career. So promising were the medical applications of its products that plans were laid to build a new 225-ton cyclotron. This machine was finished and housed in the William H. Crocker Radiation Laboratory on the University campus during the spring of 1939. In its first performance the new atom smasher produced deuteron beams with a strength of 17 million volts, and “alpha rays,’ or beams of helium atoms, with an intensity of 34 million volts. These voltages were greater than any obtained with the original machine even though the electric current used to energize the particles within the cyclotron chamber was only 60 kilowatts. Such results were entirely unexpected, far exceeding anything Dr. Lawrence had hoped for on the first trial run. On April 8, 1940, The Rockefeller Foundation of New York City announced its willingness, under certain conditions, to contribute $1,500,000 toward construction of a 4,900-ton cyclotron at the Uni- versity. It would be 56 feet long, 15 feet wide, and have an over-all height of approximately 30 feet. About 12 feet of the vertical struc- ture would be underground. It is estimated that 8,700 tons of steel and 300 tons of copper windings would be used in the construction. It is believed that such a machine could produce a deuteron beam 140 feet in length as compared with the 5-foot beam produced by the present 225-ton machine. This next cyclotron is now under con- struction at the University of California (see pls. 8 and 9) and when it is completed the problem of subatomic energy may be solved and a new power may be released to run the wheels of industry. ‘ hs i git 4 fi ae nue: Nella igs) “ fragt ne tay cia ee a + lh rT Wahi Hh: Wy) vi iy Phe tL etic aged Ad! 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Another early working model of the ‘“‘pan”’ in which the speed of the atomic bullets is generated. Photo- graph by Dr. Donald Cooksey, Assistant Director, Radiation Laboratory. 2. The chamber begins to assume somewhat its present form. Photograph by Dr. Donald Cooksey, Assist- ant Director, Radiation Laboratory. TWO PHASES OF THE EARLY HISTORY OF THE CYCLOTRON. Smithsonian Report, 1941.—Lawrence PLATE 6 1. THE FIRST LARGE CYCLOTRON WHICH IS STILL IN OPERATION IN THE RADIATION LABORATORY. Photograph by Dr. Donald Cooksey, Assistant Director, Radiation Laboratory. 2. THE 225-TON MEDICAL CYCLOTRON. Smithsonian Report, 194].—Lawrence PLATE 7 1. THE ‘WORKING SIDE"’ OF THE 225-TON MEDICAL CYCLOTRON, WHERE NEUTRON- RAY TREATMENTS FOR CANCER ARE ADMINISTERED. 2. THE CYCLOTRON RELEASES A BEAM OF DEUTERONS. THE ‘‘ATOMIC BULLETS’’ OF TRANSMUTATION. Smithsonian Report, 1941.—Lawrence PLATE 8 1. The first base plate being placed on the concrete foundation. The plate is 52 feet long, 75 inches wide, and 2 inches thick, and weighs 1314 tons. There is about 1,200 tons of reinforced concrete in the founda- tion. 2. The lower core of the magnet prior to placing of the final pole face. The diameter of the pole face is 184 inches, and the gap between the poles will be 40 inches. PROGRESS PICTURES OF THE NEW GIANT CYCLOTRON AT BERKELEY, CALIF. [0048 JO SUO} OLE UIBJUOD TIM JT “OPI SOyOU! PRT puB ‘YATY 100) OF “SUOT Joo] ge ST OUIeIJ JoUSvUI OY, “SooRy ofOd pue 9100 soddn oYyy Suryovy [[Ms ‘juosord 4 SI 4 se youseuL OY, “SAIIVD CAS TSEMYAG LV NOY LONIDAD LNVISD MAN AHL AO SYNLO!ld SSAYDOYd 6 ALV Id 20U9IMe]—"| $6] ‘J4Odayy URTUOSY AILS SCIENCE SHAPING AMERICAN CULTURE* By ArrHur H. CoMptTon Professor of Physics, University of Chicago In no other part of the world and at no previous time in history has life been so greatly influenced by science as in the United States today. This influence extends not only to the supplying of the means of living, but likewise to our thought, our amusements, our art, and our religion. American civilization is based upon science and technology. That civilization includes great cities, which need for their very existence mechanical transportation, steel rails and girders, electric elevators, refrigeration systems to preserve food, careful control of sanitation, and means of preventing the spread of communicable disease. It embraces great areas of thinly populated but highly productive farm land. Here farmers live relatively complete lives, and supply the nation with an unparalleled abundance and variety of food, because of the agricultural knowledge and tools and convenient communica- tion and transportation that science has supplied. With the help of science, labor and capital are efficient, the Government coordinates the activities of a widely spread people, and our continent has become a national community. American thinking is strongly influenced by science. Whereas at Oxford it remains doubtful whether science has yet earned a true place in education, at Chicago three of the four main divisions of the university are called sciences. Of the older learned professions, the minister needs to pay close attention to science if he would retain the respect of his congregation; the lawyer who would deal with pat- ents, or corporations, or even crime must acquaint himself with the rudiments of science, and, as for the doctor, the more science the better. Most of the newer professions, such as engineering and archi- tecture, are based upon science. A survey of current literature can leave no doubt but that in American society most of our creative thinking is in the field of science. 1Read April 19, 1940, Symposium on Characteristics of American Culture and Its Place in General Culture. Reprinted by permission from Proceedings of the American Philosophi- cal Society, vol. 83, No. 4, September 1940. 175 176 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 It is typical of contemporary American cultural life that good reproduction of the best paintings, and radio programs of the best music are available to nearly everyone. Here is an opportunity for widespread vicarious enjoyment of fine art and music. Yet the soul of art is in its individual expression. While the widespread use of color printing may seem to have discouraged the amateur painter, his place is perhaps taken by the amateur photographer, and the recent rapid growth of school orchestras and bands seems to be ascribable to the growing familiarity with orchestral music as heard over the radio. It is not impossible that use of the radio may mark the birth of a new era in American muscial expression. On the credit side of the ledger we can certainly count the intro- duction of new techniques in music and art. Among these may be mentioned the electric “organ,” which affords rich, new tone possibili- ties, and photography and motion pictures. Though the possibilities in these directions are only beginning to be explored, it is already clear that in both still and moving pictures there are new fields opening for both the professional and the amateur. In particular, the possibility of adding action and sound to pictures is comparable in importance with the discovery of representing a third dimension in perspective drawing. In our recreation we may try to live a primitive life. Having motored hundreds of miles over hard highways, we arrive at the cabin in the wildwood, cook Chicago bacon on a stove using oil from Texas refined in New Jersey, and go fishing with an outboard motor made in Michigan. Or it may be that we go so completely native as to canoe down the river, relying only on our Pittsburgh steel ax and matches made in Ohio from Louisiana sulfur to light our fires, fruit canned in California for our food, and mosquito netting woven in New England to keep off the pests. Though we want to be free from the ring of the telephone and to use the sun as our clock, we must take care that the milk we drink is pasteurized. Thus the American frees himself from technology! SCIENCE MAKES MEN HUMAN In his recent book, “Science and the New Humanism,” George Sarton shows how throughout history man’s cultural growth has followed the gradual growth of his scientific knowledge. In art, except for new pigments, tools, and photographic technique, the American certainly does not excel the Greek nor hardly even the prehistoric European who painted lifelike animals on the walls of his cave. In music the Russian peasants and the natives of Hawaii give us lessons. It is Sarton’s contention that those aspects of our culture which have been developing owe their growth primarily to SCIENCE SHAPING AMERICAN CULTURE—COMPTON 1 the advance of scientific knowledge. Thus by learning more and more about the world in which he lives, man has distinguished him- self from his animal cousins. If this claim is valid, it means that the primary responsibility for humanizing man les with science, and that the society in which scientific knowledge is most rapidly growing is the spear point of man’s advancing culture. Let us then examine Sarton’s argument more closely. He points out that each stage has been ushered in as some inquirer, more per- sistent or more fortunate than his predecessors, and building on the foundation of their techniques, has learned new facts regarding the properties of matter, the chemistry of metals, or the laws of mechanics. Thus when we speak of the stone age, the bronze age, the iron age, and the machine age, we are summarizing the growth of man in terms of the tools with which he does his work. Not that mechanical inventions are the only ones. Language and writing are among the most significant inventions of all, giving as they do means of thinking more clearly, of communicating ideas, and of remembering ideas with definiteness. When the invention of print- ing, telegraphy, the telephone, moving pictures, and the radio are added, it becomes possible for people to share thoughts widely, to become quickly aware of what is happening to all mankind, and to “remember” what has happened to men in the past. A great change thus comes in men’s attitudes toward each other. The world becomes almost a conscious unit, very similar to a living organism. Thus even the nonmechanical inventions have found their most effective application through the aid of scientific developments. Hand in hand with this development of invention has gone the increase in our knowledge of nature. Skillfully made lenses made possible a telescope, and Jupiter was found to be a miniature solar system. As high-vacuum pumps were developed, X-rays were dis- covered, giving new knowledge of the structure of matter, with resulting advances in metallurgy. “If I saw farther, twas because I stood on giant shoulders,” is the statement ascribed to Isaac Newton, who clearly recognized the way in which one advance makes possible another. The knowledge of nature, which from the beginning had been man’s gradually but accidentally increasing heritage, at length be- came the conscious objective of alert minds. Three centuries ago the hobby of a few amateurs, there are now in the United States nearly 2,000 research laboratories, equipped with refined apparatus, where men of the highest training are striving to enlarge our under- standing of the world. As a result, our life differs from that of two generations ago more than American life of that day differed from the civilized life at the dawn of written history. 178 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 The growing rate of this increase in knowledge and of the re- sulting social changes may be strikingly presented by using the historian’s device of compressing the time scale until the whole growth of man through a million years is concentrated within the lifetime of a middle-aged man of 50. It was then as a child that our man was learning how to use certain odd-shaped sticks and stones as tools. The meaning of sounds became definite as he learned to talk. By the time he was 40 he had developed the art of skill- fully shaping stones to fit his needs. Man soon became an artist, and by half a year ago had learned to use simplified pictures as symbolic writing. Some 6 weeks ago the Phoenicians introduced the alphabet, and within a fortnight came the brillant art and science of ancient Greece. Then came the fall of Rome, hiding for some weeks the values of civilized life. Less than a week ago, as the report has it, Galileo dropped the heavy and the light cannon balls from the Leaning Tower of Pisa, refuting a proposition of Aristotle and starting the period of modern science. Three or four days ago the first practical steam engine was built and it was at about this time that the United States came into being. Day before yesterday the laws of electromagnetism became known, which by yesterday had given us the telegraph, the telephone and incandescent electric light. Only last night X-rays were discovered, followed quickly by radium and wireless telegraphy. It was this morning that automobiles came into general use. Air mail began to be carried only at noon today. Popular short-wave broadcasts, practical color photography, and fluorescent lighting have been with us for only an hour. It is clear that our American scene is staged in the midst of a period of unparalleled advance in science and rapidity of social change. AMERICAN CULTURE IS THAT OF A CHANGING SOCIETY Even before the outbreak of the present wars, America had be- come the leader in most fields of scientific endeavor. The tradition of the pioneer has made it relatively easy for the American to alter his habits as required by the introduction of new techniques, with the result that in this country social changes have gone ahead with a speed not found elsewhere. Our culture is thus that of a new community, with our customs and ideas only partly adapted to the rapidly changing conditions of life. For a week I have been living in an apartment on a corner by which a streetcar clangs its noisy course. When first installed, these cars gave the rapid transportation that made the city possible. Now the demand is insistent that the streetcars be replaced by quieter buses that will permit conversation by day and sleep by night. Thus the first application of technology was to meet the primary SCIENCE SHAPING AMERICAN CULTURE—COMPTON 179 need of transportation; but eventually the refinements come that add to life’s enjoyment. Our older habits no longer fit the new conditions of life, and we have not yet learned how best to use the new possibilities placed at our disposal. Nor as long as such rapid changes in our social life continue can we hope to make a completely satisfactory adapta- tion of our mode of life. For as one aspect of the problem becomes solved, changes will lead to maladjustment somewhere else. It would for this reason be futile to hope to attain within the next generation an art of living in a technological world that can compare in re- finement with the classic culture initiated by the Greeks and developed through centuries of such tradition as that carried on by European and English society. In course of time, though it may require centuries, we may expect the development of science to approach a new plateau of knowledge and invention. Then we may hope again to refine our mode of living to fit precisely the conditions of our greater world. Does this prospect of generations of incomplete adaptation, with resultant discontent and hardship seem discouraging? One is reminded of the legend in which the people complain to Daedalus that the steel sword he has given to King Minas will bring not happi- ness but strife. Daedalus replies, “I do not care to make man happy, but to make him great.” For those who have courage, the new pow- ers thus given by science present a challenge to shape man’s life on a more heroic scale. Here is a vision of a new world which only the brave may enter. Yet we can thus appreciate the dread felt by those who have followed the tradition of classic culture as the life they have loved and whose values they have cherished is threatened by the advance of technology. They see science replacing the human interests pres- ent in literature, art, and music with technological developments in which the human factor becomes less and less significant. The most fundamental values of morality and religion are ruthlessly shaken, with the implication that their value is negligible. It is just because so many scientific men seem blind to these human difficulties that one feels the greater concern lest in following science mankind may lose its soul. There is a passage in Plato’s Phaedo in which Socrates describes his early interest in physics and how he had found that physics fails to account for the important things in life. Thus, he explained, Anaxagoras would say that Socrates sat on his cot waiting to drink the hemlock because of certain tensions of tendons acting on his bones. The true reason was rather because he had been condemned by the people of Athens, and as a man of honor he could not creep stealthily away. Such moral forces as honor were not to be explained 430577—42-—13 180 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 by science; yet it is these forces that shape men’s acts. Since it did not meet their human needs, the followers of Socrates and Plato abandoned science, and the study. of the truths of nature was for- gotten for a thousand years. We have now once more come to fear the unhuman implications and the inhuman abuses of science. Yet science has enriched our lives and has helped us catch a vision of a new and better world. Shall we then again give up science and with it the tools by means of which that better world may be attained ? The truth is that we cannot cast away science even if we would. In a time of intense social strife the knowledge of the world that we call science is a source of tremendous strength. Nothing is so clear as that a nation which abandons science must soon become weakened. The world’s leadership must go to those who are served by science and technology. That we shall live with science is thus decreed by the immutable laws of evolution. THE HUMAN MEANING OF SCIENCE For those who know science, its inhumanness is a fiction. It serves to satisfy the human hunger for a better understanding of man’s place in his world. In this age when men throughout the world are trying to formulate a philosophy by which they can live, it is to science that they are turning with confidence in its truth. But perhaps of great- est importance is the fact that science is making man develop into a social being. One of the most striking of biological phenomena is the change of man in a short thousand generations from an individualistic to a social animal. As has been indicated above, this change is due largely to the development of science and technology. If we would assess the cultural significance of science, it is thus important to consider what the more specific directions may be along which this social evolution will proceed. It is clear that we may expect those modifica- tions in our mode of life to survive which give strength to the social group. Among these strengthening factors three may be empha- sized. These are: knowledge, cooperation, and a common objective. In science and technology lies our approach to the laws of the world of nature and the application of these laws. Enough has been said regarding the strength that comes through such knowledge. In a highly competitive, warlike world, that society cannot long survive which neglects the truths of science. Without cooperation, knowledge cannot be made effective. If men divide into antagonistic groups, it becomes terribly destructive. Ex- perience as well as theory has shown the superior strength of those social groups which work together. The evolutionist thus sees as inevitable the growth of social cooperation. SCIENCE SHAPING AMERICAN CULTURE—COMPTON 181 Just as the automobile demands sobriety, or congested life makes necessary careful sanitation, so the mutual dependence of a techno- logical civilization implies consideration of the rights of others. Breasted has shown how the growth of community life along the Nile stimulated among the Egyptians the “dawn of conscience.” Cheyney, in his retiring presidential address before the American Historical Association, lists prominently among his “laws” of history the trend toward a greater consideration of one’s fellows as society grows more complex. Thus in the technological society of which American cul- ture is a supreme example, science and industry are emphasizing as never before the need of the will toward cooperation, that is, of the love of our neighbors. Perhaps the urgency of the universal accept- ance of this central doctrine of Christianity is not generally recognized. This is merely because the social implications of our increasingly complex life have not yet become evident within the brief decades of the world’s growing social unity. Most significant of the factors that give strength to man is, how- ever, the vision of a goal which he recognizes as worthy of his supreme effort. If we would truly live, we need a purpose. To many of its followers, science gives a basis for the appreciation of man’s place in the universe. It helps him to see himself as he is, a creature with animal limitations, but with godlike powers, sharing with his Creator the responsibility for making this world a fit place for life. The man of science may not feel qualified to choose for others that which gives life dignity and worth; but he can at least supply the data on which that choice must be made. How can we correctly orient ourselves without learning the facts about the world and dispassionately con- sidering their implications. It is, I believe, in just this direction that science must ultimately make its greatest human contribution. Science must clarify the vision of the seers who would point out to us the goal of life. It is noteworthy that these things which give strength to society are likewise those that make life worthwhile, the understanding of man and nature, the love of one’s neighbor with the acceptance of responsibility for his welfare, the finding of a goal worthy of our best efforts. Though American technological civilization may lack the refinements and nice adjustments which perfected the classic cul- ture, its growth is toward the greater social development of man. In this sense it is truly humanistic. The role of science in American culture is thus threefold. First, it supplies more adequate means of life, giving men longer life, better health, and a richer variety of experience. Second, it stimulates man’s social growth by rewarding more abundantly cooperative effort and 182 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 punishing more severely his antagonisms. Third, science serves as a direct means of expression of the human spirit. It was the greater variety of life that was the great reward of science seen by Francis Bacon as he wrote in his “New Atlantis”: The end of our society is the knowledge of causes, and the secret motions of things, and the enlarging of the bounds of human empire to the effecting of all things possible. After three and a half centuries of experience with modern science this aim has been so realized that the president of one of our leading technical institutes can say, In the last 50 years physics has exerted a more powerful beneficial influence on the intellectual, economic, and social life of the world than has been exerted in a comparable time by any other agency in history. It is its responsibility for man’s social evolution which leads Sarton to describe the growth of science as the central thread along which may be traced the biography of mankind. To the man of science himself, however, it is as an effective method of developing the human spirit that he values his science. His study affords exercise of imagination and broadening of perspective. Whereas to Plotinus it appears that It is through intuition rather than through reason that we may approach our highest aspirations, the scientist finds that in the discipline of unprejudiced search for truth lies the beginning of wisdom. Thus, in the words of Thomas Huxley: Science seems to me to teach in the highest and strongest manner the great truth which is embodied in the Christian conception of entire surrender to the will of God. Sit down before a fact as a little child, be prepared to give up every preconceived notion, follow humbly wherever and to whatever abysses nature leads, or you shall learn nothing. This is the aspect of science recognized by the Greek philosophers, who would seek “of what and how the world is made” in order that they might find a better way of life. To a certain degree this humanizing aspect of science is esoteric, since it can be fully appre- ciated only by those who have themselves submitted to the discipline required to share in the effort to widen the horizons of knowledge. Certain aspects of science, notably astronomy, have been more effec- tive than others in opening the way for many amateurs to take part in their enterprise. As in art and literature, here in advancing hu- man understanding is an opportunity for enriching life. With find- ing new knowledge comes the satisfaction of knowing that one has not only made a permanent addition to man’s heritage, but that the new knowledge is a seed that will grow from more to more. With Democritus the scientist can truly say, “I would rather learn the true cause of one fact than become King of the Persians.” MATHEMATICS AND THE SCIENCES? By J. W. LASLEY, JE. Department of Mathematics, The University of North Carolina INTRODUCTION At the outset I wish to express my very sincere appreciation for the evidence of trust on your part which makes this occasion possible for me. It is quite a surprise when a group of scientists so honor a teacher of mathematics, for it is a moot question as to whether mathematics is a science. It is more than a surprise when that teacher is your speaker, whose association with science has been more that of a worshiper from afar than he likes to have to admit. The duties of this office resolve themselves in large part to the retiring address which brings us here tonight. Upon asking myself what I might say to you that might in part compensate you for coming here, I thought it pertinent to consider with you the relation between mathematics and the sciences. With this purpose in mind I asked a philosopher colleague what he considered that relation to be. His reply was quick and pointed. “There is no relation,” he said, “science thinks a thing in terms of other things; mathematics thinks a thing in terms of itself.” Huis inference was that the two are mutually exclusive. This was very discouraging. The history of science, however, does not seem to bear out the philosopher’s contention. Until the time of Galileo (1600) that history is practically a history of mathematics. Although we have some knowled%e of perhaps 6,000 years of mankind’s intellectual ac- tivity, we search in vain for any trace of science before 2,500 years ago. True we have the pyramids, some 5,000 years old, and their structure indicates the employment of scientific ideas. We have, too, the Rhind papyrus, 3,500 years extant, and within its pages a kind of mathematical science. But the first scientist to emerge from the mists of antiquity was Thales, the mathematician of 2,500 years ago. Almost contemporary with him is Pythagoras, a strange mixture of scientist and pseudo scientist. Two centuries later came 1 Retiring address of the president of the North Carolina Academy of Science, Wake Forest, N. C., May 5, 1939. Reprinted by permission from the Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society, vol. 55, No. 2, December 1939. 183 184 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 Democritus with the beginnings of an atomic theory which even the opposition of an Aristotle could not down. Another century brings us to Euclid, but we must wait yet another century until, around 200 B. C., appeared that resplendent figure of old, Archimedes, bring- ing with him the law of buoyancy, the principle of the lever, the discovery of light reflection and the cry of “Eureka,” which White- head says should be celebrated as the awakening cry of mathematical physics. In the 17 centuries from that day to the time of Copernicus (1500) physics was to remain at practically a standstill. In another century these latent stirrings of the scientific spirit were brought to light for the first time in the father of modern science, Galileo Galilei, whom we know so well that we invariably call him by his first name. Im- portant it is that he should be the first to formulate inertia, to dis- cover the law of falling bodies, to invent the pendulum and the telescope, to discover the four satellites of Mercury and the sun- spots. More important still, says Millikan, that he should see “that force is proportional not to motion, but to the rate of change of motion, an idea the most profound in human thought.” I dwell on Galileo because he is generally regarded as the originator of the modern viewpoint in science. He, asserts Einstein, “saw that all knowledge of reality starts from experience and ends in it.” Thus, as Whitehead so aptly puts it, “the world waited 1,800 years from Archimedes to Galileo for someone who could relate abstract mathe- matical ideas to experimental investigation of natural phenomena.” Modern scientific inquiry as such seems to have begun with Roger Bacon in the thirteenth century. Leonardo da Vinci was indeed a voice crying in the scientific wilderness of the fifteenth century. Tycho Brahe’s tables of 1601 were a first step in scientific observa- tion. By means of them one could tell the position of the planets. It took a Kepler (1610) to see in them the three fundamental laws of planetary motion. Kepler could then tell us where the planets would be. In 3 inches he condensed the voluminous tables of Brahe, a tremendous scientific advance. And then came Newton! Whitehead says that science came of age that day with Newton in his garden. Einstein regards Newton’s laws of motion as expressed in differential equations as the “greatest advance in thought that a single individual has ever been privileged to make.” He says further that Newton was the first creator of a comprehensive, workable system of theoretical physics. This one man, he continues, gave intellectual guidance to science for 200 years.” Perhaps no man, then or since, has known Newton’s scientific view- point as has his modern prototype, Albert Einstein, who has done more than any man to supplement his work. He says of Newton, MATHEMATICS AND THE SCIENCES—LASLEY 185 “He believed that the basic laws and concepts of his system could be derived from experience. This is the meaning of ‘hypotheses non jingo.’ Newton was uncomfortable about absolute space, abso- lute rest and action at a distance, since he found no basis for them in experience. The successes of his theories prevented discovery of the fictitious character of his foundations.” Daniel Bernouli (1700) following shortly after Newton has been called the founder of mathematical physics. From this era dates the origin of organic chemistry. Lavoisier (1743-94) transmuted alchemy into a rational science. Perhaps, as his judges said when he faced the guillotine, the republic had “no need of savants.” Certain it is that chemistry had great need of Lavoisier. Mathematics through the calculus as we know it today was shaped largely by the hand of Euler (1707). Sedgwick and Tyler state in their history of science that at the beginning of the nineteenth century general physics and chemistry were “still in the preliminary stage of collecting and coordinating data, with attempts at quantitative interpretation, while in their train the natural sciences were following somewhat haltingly.” Geike adds that at this time “geology and biology were not yet inductive sciences.” But the stirrings of science in the eighteenth century projected themselves into the nineteenth. Dalton (1808) with his law of multiple proportions for the formation of compounds supplied the first scientific approach to the atomic theory. Lyell with his publication of his “Principles” in 1830 raised geology to the dignity of a science. Biology was admitted to the union of sciences in the Victorian age through the efforts of Darwin, Spencer, Huxley, Wallace, and others. By 1850 the older universities had founded scientific schools. Academies of science began to be formed. The public by the open- ing of the twentieth century was science-minded. A new era was about to dawn. This new era took the form of a new conception as to the structure of matter. There were significant undercurrents in the world of physics. Sir Humphrey Davy made what he called his greatest discovery, Michael Faraday. Faraday (1791-1867) discovered the principle of magneto-electricity, and originated the electromagnetic- field theory. The world was little aware of these tremendous hap- penings. Even at a time when the Atlantic cable was in operation Gladstone could (and did) ask Faraday whether electricity had a use. And Faraday replied, “Why Sir, there is every probability that you will soon be able to tax it.” 186 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 In 1850 Maxwell placed a mathematical support under Faraday’s theories, to be followed by the experimental verification of Hertz. Joule (1818-89) found a mechanical equivalent for heat, namely, energy, giving the world the first law of thermodynamics. Plank gave a description of radiation as incapable of emission in aught but units, the quanta. In this quantum theory fractions of a unit of energy simply do not exist. De Broglie and Schrodinger combined the energy theory of Einstein with the quantum theory of Plank and compelled the joint wave- particle view of the atom. (Since then the physicist has been accused of teaching the wave theory on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday, and the particle theory on Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday.) Heisenberg proclaimed the doctrine that nature abhors not a vacuum so much as it does accuracy and precision. Dirac extended the uncertainty principle of Heisenberg to the entire realm of atomic physics. Pauli furnished us with his exclusion principle. Millikan and Cameron gave us cosmic radiation. Minkowski offered his space-time world. Einstein supplemented the Newtonian mechanics, proclaimed the invariance of natural laws in inertial systems, the constancy of the velocity of light, the abandonment of simultaneity, the identity of mass and energy, claimed absolute motion incapable of detection, related time and motion, connected space and matter. Gravitation, that most elusive of concepts, appeared as the curvature, or crum- pling, of a space-time continuum. But the electromagnetic fields were not expressed in the field equations of general relativity. Later came a field theory in which gravitation and electromagnetic radia- tion were welded together. Only the expression of the atomic structure in terms of the field theory was, and still is, missing. Here we are, and what a long way we have come. Let us examine some of the high and low places along the path. Let us see again something of the view from a few of the peaks and depressions along the way. Let us inquire of Mathematics, the guide in this long and fascinating journey. CONTINUITY Perhaps we never realize its subtlety until we really try to find out the meaning of continuity. The writer of radio script uses the term to refer to his product. We have heard his programs. Can such an idea be hedged about with difficulty? As is so often the case, an understanding of the concept implies an understanding of its opposite. The opposite of the continuous is the discrete. Long ago there lived an excellent gentleman named Zeno. It was back in the time of the Pythagoreans, 500 years before Christ. This ’ MATHEMATICS AND THE SCIENCES—LASLEY 187 Zeno saw the conflict between these opposites, and used what he saw to deny the possibility of motion, to discourage placing bets on Achilles in his historic race with the tortoise, and for other strange and bewildering purposes. Even today one doesn’t just rush in to show where Zeno was wrong. In his antinomies are found the baffling ideas of the infinite, the deceiving implications of continual divisi- bility. Down the years we trace these difficulties like a colored skein in the pattern of scientific thought. They face the scientist in his effort to understand the constitution of matter. Is this paper from which I read smooth and unbroken, or is it made of discrete particles bounding about hither and yon—a veritable beehive? The physicist leans to the latter view. (This opinion may help explain the nature of what is being read from these pages.) What, then, about action at a distance? How are light, radiation, energy, gravitation con- veyed from here to there? What? No ether? Can we have ether without continuity? If the ether is a jellylike mass, is it not com- posed of particles? If it is composed of particles, will not the quantum behavior of matter nullify the continuity of the action? If we have a continuous exciting cause, is it not strange that energy should emerge in units (quanta), or not at all? Are there no frac- tions? The physicist says, “No, no fractions.” De Vries claimed that evolution proceeds by “explosions.” But Darwin, Newton, Kant, Leibniz all believed in continuity. Plank’s quantum theory replaces a continuum of states in an isolated system by a finite number of discrete states. The mathematician has been through—I should say, is in—this same turmoil. He has never fully recovered from the Pythagorean shock of the irrational. For a time it was thought that Weierstrass, Dedekind, and Cantor had laid the spectre, but the contrary views of Knonecker, Brouwer, and Weyl on the calculus of Leibniz and New- ton, the feeling that this calculus is making “bricks without straw,” must at least have a hearing. The critics of continuity claim that nothing which cannot actually be constructed by a finite number of steps can hope to lead to a discipline free of paradox. They maintain that all analysis must eventually subject itself to the domination of the positive integer. Karl Pearson, one of the nonmathematical scientists who shares this view, states the position thus, “No scientist has the right to use things unless their existence can be demonstrated.” Some may meet these difficulties by what has been called “a con- tinuous but discreet silence.” Certain it is that a Thomas Wolfe may write “Of Time and the River” with a much more glib assurance than may an Einstein. Simple things these—in time such a perfect continuity; in number such discreteness (I came near saying “discretion”), and in the shadows an infinity trying to bridge the gap. 188 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 CAUSATION Jeans maintains that the “steady onward flow of time is the essence of the cause and effect relation.” It is but natural, then, that when continuity is in question, causation should take its place under the microscope of scientific scrutiny. There is more at issue than the mere post hoc ergo propter hoc argument. We are so used to draw- ing inferences from data, that it is hard to realize on what flimsy grounds many of our conclusions rest. It is hard, too, to see how we may do intellectual business at all without the ability to infer effect from cause. The great seventeenth century of Galileo and Newton encouraged the scientist to think of causation as something on which he could definitely rely. Modern physics takes the position, so ably formulated by Pearson, that causation is intelligible only in the perceptual sphere as “antecedence in a routine of sense impressions.” With the precision of measurement in studying natural phenomena came the realization of the statistical character of those measure- ments. Into the relations connecting the numbers arising in this way began to enter questions of doubt. The descriptions of the phe- nomena exhibited by the relations were seen to be more exact than the uncertainty of the data warranted. It began to appear that the descriptions described little more than what Wey] has called “statisti- cal regularities.” Pearson has put it thus bluntly, “In the order of perceptions no inherent necessity can be demonstrated * * * necessity has a meaning in the field of logic, but not in the universe of perception * * * causation is neither a logical necessity, nor an actual experience.” This position seems at first glance to be at variance with the “if this, then that” of mathematical disciplines. The causation which inheres in logic, whose presence we so naively hope for in our scientific thinking, seems actually to emerge in the tenets of the mathemati- cian. How, then, may the scientist fit data patently statistical in character into mathematical form, clearly nonstatistical in character? If, as Pearson claims, “contingency and correlation replace causation in science,” how does the mathematical equation tell us a true story of natural phenomena? Pearson answers this in part by saying, “Con- tingency is expressed in a table with cell-dots forming a band. This band viewed through an inverted telescope gives a curve. This curve is the mathematical function.” In the language of the mathematician, the scientific relation ap- proaches the mathematical formulation asymptotically. Perhaps a more nearly correct statement is that both the scientific data and the mathematical description near each other in a process of successive approximation which would warm the heart of a Poincare. MATHEMATICS AND THE SCIENCES—LASLEY 189 Although many scientists feel, with Jeans, that the advent of Plank’s quantum mechanics has dethroned continuity and causation, they in large measure share his belief that the appeal to a purely statistical basis may be a cloak for ignorance and that cause and effect of an unknown character may actually be in operation. DETERMINISM One would expect that questions about cause and effect should have philosophical implications. There arise the old questions of deter- minism and freedom. Determinism, according to Dantzig, “consists of the assumption that, given any natural phenomenon, the various features that characterize it are completely determined by its ante- cedents. The present knowledge permits prediction of the future course.” “Each extension of the law of causation,” says Jeans, “makes belief in freedom more difficult.” Pearson claims that “our be- lief in determinism is the result of supposing sameness instead of likeness in phenomena.” Eddington asserts that “physics is no longer pledged to a scheme of deterministic law.” When asked why one magnet repels another, Whitney replied, “By the will of God,” and added “science can enslave us, or it can make us free, but it is we who make the choice.” Others hold the view that our bodies and our minds are as physical as inert matter, made of the same chemical ele- ments to be found in the remote stars, subject to the same inevitable laws; that the same determinism which holds for them holds also for us. Compton, speaking at the University last November, refuted the claim that man’s actions depend on physical law. But he claimed it a vital question for science to find out whether man’s actions are determined; and if so, by what factors. He maintained that it is no longer justifiable to use physical law as evidence against freedom. Into this confused picture comes mathematics with its Jaw of aver- ages and its probability theory. Almost within the last decade the uncertainties of the situation have been amplified by Heisenberg into an Uncertainty Principle, which says, “To any mechanical quantity @ there corresponds another quantity P in such a way that the product of the uncertainties in our knowledge of Q@ and of P can never be less than a certain constant , Plank’s constant; hence the more accurately we determine Q, the more ignorant we are of P.” In the Newtonian mechanics a knowledge of the position and of the velocity of an electron at an instant determines the future position of that electron, but Heisenberg assures us that we can never know both. The more accurately we determine the position, the less accu- rately we know the velocity; and vice versa. This concept of un- certainty seems to put the coup de grace on determinism. But who 190 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 shall say that the very law of averages which replaces determinism may not itself be as great a despot as the dictator which it displaces? May there not be still a new determinism dominated by probability, just as there may be a new causation whose source is unknown to us? Or shall we, with Compton and others, align ourselves with freedom because, as he says, “I find reason to believe in freedom, and wish to find whether such freedom is consistent with the recognized laws of physics.” It would be a fine irony, indeed, if science, the greatest liberator of men’s minds, denied to itself that freedom which it has so unstintingly given to mankind. LAW This outlook brings us to consider our ideas of law anew. When we say law, what do we mean? Do we think of brass buttons and a uniform? Do we think of statutes to which as citizens we owe obedience? Do we think of natural law, such as Newton’s universal law of gravitation, or of mathematical law, such as Gauss’ law of quadratic reciprocity, or of the philosopher’s definition: “Law is Unity in action difference”? Wey] tells us that the mathematical lawfulness of nature “is a rev- elation of Divine reason.” “The world,” he says, “is not a chaos, but a cosmos harmoniously ordered by inviolable mathematical laws.” We speak of Boyle’s law for a perfect gas, of Kepler’s three laws of planetary motion, of Dalton’s law of multiple proportions and many, many other laws. The scientist maintains that his chief concern is the discovery of nature’s laws. Just what does he mean by that? Is civil law one thing, and natural law another? Does law mean one thing to some of us, and quite another thing to others of us? Or, is there a philosophic pattern behind all law? In trying to understand the world we live in we observe and we experiment. We assume the validity of sense perception. We as- sume that normal human beings observe and experiment in much the same way. If we have ever listened to witnesses testify in court, we know just how much of an assumption that is. And furthermore, what, pray, is a normal human being? Many of us feel that all the knowledge that we obtain of natural phenomena comes through the senses, despite Pearson’s continued insistence that in thinking we deal not only with sense impressions but with stored-up opinions of for- mer sense impressions. We measure with all the uncertainties at- tendant thereto; we think, or try to, amid all the doubts above mentioned as to continuity and causation and determinism weighing upon us. How in this atmosphere can we get at law? The mathematician stands serene in his confusion. To him law is simply the matter of an invariant under a set of transformations. MATHEMATICS AND THE SCIENCES—LASLEY 191 This invariant incorporates the unity, if any, present in the differ- ences of action in the situation in question. This unity answers the question as to how we may see the permanent in the transitory. The scope of it tells us how we may see the general in what is particular. In civil law we have to make the statute. Whether we like it or not, that statute may be broken. Still in the changing pattern of civil law the statute formulates what unity is possible in the diversity of action which it seeks to control. In natural law these differences in action take the form of the great dissimilarities in observed phe- nomena. The unity is the common part, if such there be. The natural law expresses this unity amid the action differences. Its form is never final until it partakes of the form of the mathematical invariant. POSTULATION Reflections on the nature of law bring forcibly to our minds the postulational character of our thinking. We do well to examine the meaning of our most fundamental concepts as well as the lines of argument leading to our most important conclusions. Every science has its undefined terms. Aught else is an infinite regression. When analysis fails, we rely on the properties of our concept to define it for us. In setting up the discipline for a science, some of the prop- ositions must be accepted without proof for similar reasons. The criterion for choice is simplicity. This is not as simple as the name indicates. By simplicity, as used here, is meant logical simplicity. As Einstein so aptly words it, “By ‘simplest’? we mean that system which contains fewest possible mutually independent postulates, or axioms.” This attitude of modern science is far removed from New- ton’s hypotheses non fingo. It is an attitude undoubtedly provided by the mathematician. Einstein continues, “Nature is the realiza- tion of the simplest conceivable mathematical ideas. I am convinced that we can discover by means of purely mathematical constructions, the concepts and the laws connecting them with each other, which furnish the key to the understanding of natural phenomena. Exper- ience may suggest the appropriate mathematical concepts, but they most certainly cannot be deducted from it. Experience remains, of course, the sole criterion of the physical utility of a mathematical construction. But the creative principle resides in mathematics.” Such a postulational approach to mathematical thinking was seen by Euclid insofar as our inability to define satisfactorily all our terms. The fact that even a mathematician cannot prove every- thing was not formulated until Pasch, almost in our own time. Now the necessity of a postulational approach to both definitions and theorems is a universally accepted tenet of the mathematician. 192 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 SYMBOLISM Whether we agree to this postulational so-called simplicity, we can have no doubt of the existence and efficacy of symbolism in both mathematics and the sciences. The desire for constructibility, so ably championed by Knonecker, has found its way into our search for an understanding of the nature of matter. We hear Lord Kelvin exclaim that he “can understand nothing of which he cannot make a mechanical model.” To meet this desire we have the dynamic Ruth- erford-Bohr model of the atom and the static Lewis-Langmuir model. But we are told these are too simple and definite to be regarded as other than intellectual conveniences. The ether is symbolized for us as a jellylike mass with remarkable properties. We are warned, however, that the universe is not completely picturable in a graphical sense. Radiation and gravitation elude such a mechanical descrip- tion. We speak of particles and waves as describing the behavior of light and radiation, but we are reminded that the electron is only a symbol for convenience of speech. Eddington tells us that matter and all else in the physical world has been reduced to a “shadowy symbolism.” When we ask what the symbols stand for, the reply is that it doesn’t matter. (One is reminded of the story that is told of Professor Lefevre, of the University of Vir- ginia. He is said to have greeted his philosophy class one fine morn- ing with the startling pronouncement, “What is mind? No matter. What is matter? Never mind.”) “Physics,” continues Eddington, “has no means of probing beneath the symbolism. Nor does one have to understand the symbols. What we have to understand are the conditions to which the symbols are subjected.” The symbols themselves are dummies. Any other would do as well. The mathematician is thoroughly in accord with this use of sym- bolism. He has likened his subject to a game of chess. The rules of the game play the role of postulates. In such a game Beil tells us there is no question of “truth”; there is merely a question as to whether the rules have been complied with. To Hilbert mathematics is “a game played according to certain simple rules with meaningless marks on paper.” PREDICTION We have heard of old that a prophet is not without honor. For the man in the street the ability of science to predict the future holds a particular fascination. He is thrilled by the story of an Adams and a Leverrier working apart, each computing from the perturbing influences of an unknown source on Uranus, the position of a new planet, Neptune, just 52 minutes from where Galle later found it. He reads of the electromagnetic waves predicted by Faraday MATHEMATICS AND THE SCIENCES—LASLEY 193 and Maxwell and verified by Hertz. He has heard of the more recent prediction by Einstein of the shift toward the red end of the spec- trum, caused by the deflection of light in a gravitational field, verified in the solar eclipse of 1919. These and many others, such as Men- delejeff’s prophecy as to the discovery of gallium, scandium, and germanium, and such as Hamilton’s prediction of conical refraction, have cast science in the role of one of the major prophets. Even Pearson concedes science the ability to predict, as well as to describe. Mathematics provides in its differential laws a pattern for these predictions. “A differential law,” says Einstein, “tells us how the state of motion of a system gives rise to that which follows it in time.” “If we know how the velocities and accelerations depend on position, we can trace out the past and future of our universe,” says Pearson. This is done by means of differential equations with proper boundary value conditions. The chemist does it when he predicts the position of the electron in its orbit. The astronomer does it when he predicts the position of the planet in its orbit around the sun. Despite Heisenberg’s uncertainty as to our ability to measure both position and velocity, the schedules of the planets are much better known than are those of the crack Chicago to New York trains. INVENTION Science is known to many only for its inventions. Much of its popularity with the masses is due to the added comforts and en- joyments with which it supplies them. Their eye is open for the so-called practical things of science. The auto, the radio, and the thousands of gadgets which give us our arm-chair civilization, endear science to the heart of the multitude. But this has not been the path of scientific progress. These things have usually been but byproducts. Hertz little thought when he verified Maxwell’s electromagnetic waves that he was laying the foundation for radio. Perhaps as often the practical leads back into the fundamental principles, as do the principles lead to inven- tion. Again, when the scientist thinks himself most theoretical, he may be near a very useful practicality. “Indeed,” says Richards, “the developments of the wave mechanics now in progress may be fraught with graver practical consequences for humanity than the approaching commercialism of television or rapid transoceanic pas- senger flying.” It is an old story to the mathematician, whom the cry of “prac- ticality” fails to arouse. Archimedes, tracing his conics in the sand when Marcellus’ soldiers snuffed out his genius, had no thought of a Kepler using them to describe the paths of the planets. Argand, Gauss, Wessel in their abstract imaginings about the complex num- 194 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 ber little fancied that they would later im the hands of Maxwell place a firm footing under modern electrical theories. Riemann, Cayley, and Sylvester had no thought that they were preparing the way for Einstein. Sturm and Liouville had no concern for the wave mechanics of De Broglie, which their researchers made pos- sible. The meditations of Cayley appear in the modern theories of Heisenberg and Dirac. Fermat, Gauss, De Moivre, Pascal could not possibly have foreseen that their probability theory would one day revolutionize physics. Indeed, the theory of today is so often the practice of tomorrow. If it were not, it would be no great matter. But, as Philip has said, “it is only against the background provided by the pure research of yesterday that the technical problems of today can be viewed in their proper setting and tackled with a reason- able prospect of success. Work in the pure sciences, however remote from the practical issues of the moment, is building up a reserve of knowledge and technique for future workers to draw on.” COSMOGONY One of the reasons why one studies mathematics and the sciences is this: to obtain a better understanding of the world in which he finds himself. As the sciences and mathematics have developed, so have developed our views of the cosmos. To primitive man who thought of himself as the center of the universe, to men who with Ptolemy regarded the earth as the center, to men who with Coper- nicus placed the sun in this strategic position, the cosmos presented a very different view. This view colored many aspects of their thinking. It led to the formulation of a very different philosophy of life. So much so that someone has said “tell me a man’s view of the Universe, and I will tell you what sort of man he is.” There have been religious upheavals attendant upon man’s change in his views of the world about him. In our own day his view is suffering what is perhaps its greatest change. Not only has the sun been dis- placed from its central position, but in its place nothing has been substituted. We are told that there is no known center; no refer- ence frame in which to orient a path in the cosmos. We have myste- rious cosmic rays beating down upon us from an unknown source with unknown effects. Out in an unknown place somewhere, Milli- kan suspects cosmic radiation may be rebuilding matter—an inverse phenomenon never dreamed of until our time. These are tremendous disturbances in man’s view of the cosmos. That there have been no attendant religious disturbances is a conspicuous testimonial to intel- lectual freedom. The lay world is becoming accustomed to regard almost as commonplace views which former generations held to be impossible in some instances unintelligible. That the world can MATHEMATICS AND THE SCIENCES—LASLEY 195 achieve this transition complacently is due in large part to the tough intellectual fiber provided by mathematics and the sciences. SOCIAL IMPLICATION Einstein asserts that “concern for man himself and his fate must al- ways form the chief interest of all technical endeavors * * * in order that the creations of our minds shall be a blessing and not a curse to mankind.” That scientific findings have the potentiality of becoming the latter is the thought of many at this time when mod- ern warfare threatens the very existence of civilization. May not our very scientific endeavors prove a Frankenstein? It has even been suggested that science take a holiday in order to let the rest of the world, particularly the world of good will, catch up. But, as Hill has pointed out, the scientist is after all a human being. Can he know which of his discoveries will be put to harmful ends?) Mankind must learn to take the good and the bad together. “It is ironical,” says Gregory, “that greater productivity through invention should bring more distress anc unemployment rather than an increase in human welfare.” Soci..f progress has not kept pace with scientific progress. Russell takes the position that if mankind were rational, his conquest of nature would increase his happiness and well-being. “Only kindness,” he says, “can save the world, but even if we knew how to produce kindliness, we should not do so unless we were kindly.” This dilemma, many believe, is caused by our failure to apply to social and economic problems the same intelligent analysis that has been applied to scientific problems. They assert that scientific think- ing is definitely on a plane above thinking in other fields—and that this explains the fact that science has outdistanced nonscience. The ideal of thinking is presented in the perfectly welded chains of mathe- matical proofs. The sciences approximate this norm more closely than do the nonsciences. Social, as well as scientific progress, comes with the finding of truth. The pattern for the search for truth is mathematical thinking. FAITH One rarely thinks of faith as an element essential to the scientist. The scientist is by definition one who knows. What need then can he have of faith? Mark Twain says that, “Faith is believing what you know ain’t so.” Somewhere Hilaire Belloc exclaims, “Oh, one should never, never doubt what no one can be sure about.” Does this levity contain some truth? Does not the worker with facts need faith as a sort of whistle to keep up his courage? If he is never really sure, does he not need faith to bolster up this insecurity? Or is it that a calm, pervading faith is one of the necessary tools in the kit of the scientist ? 4306774214 196 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 That the latter is the attitude with which the scientist should ap- proach his task we are assured in the retiring address of President George D. Birkhoff, of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, delivered this past year at the Christmas meeting in Rich- mond. There one of America’s foremost mathematicians spoke to America’s scientists of the faith that is his. It is fitting that we here try to catch an overtone of that meeting. Mr. Birkhoff claimed that whether it is the mathematician dealing with number, or the physicist with matter, the biologist with organism, the psychologist with mind, or the sociologist with social values, there is behind one and all an inherent faith guiding the reasoned super- structure which they create upon intuitional concepts. Whether it is the mathematician’s belief in the existence of infinite classes, the phys- icist’s belief in the presence of a discontinuous process at work in the theory of radiation, the biologist’s belief in a vitalistic theory of life, the psychologist’s belief in a physiological accompaniment to every psychical fact, or the sociologist’s belief in societal progress, Birkhoff emphasizes faith as an “heuristically valuable, more general point of view, beyond reason, often in apparent contradiction, which the thinker regards as of supreme importance as he endeavors to give his conclusions the greatest possible scope.” Some think that there is an opprobrium attached to any belief, that belief and science are mutually exclusive. Do these same people believe in the processes of logic? Do they have faith in the rationality of the human mind, in the similarity of the perceptive and reasoning fac- ulties of normal, civilized beings? Is it not in their code that nature is orderly, and that there are spiritual values underlying material facts? CONCLUSION In the foregoing we have traced in broad outline the advance in scientific thought from the earliest time down to the present. We have pictured the scientist journeying down this path with his guide, the mathematician. We have noted some of the scenes from certain plateaus and valleys in the path. Continuity, causation, deter- minism, law, the postulational method, symbolism, prediction, inven- tion, cosmology, social implication, faith, have passed in review. We have endeavored to point out how the guiding hand of the mathema- tician has aided the traveler along the way. The physical aspects of science, particularly those relative to the structure of matter, have been stressed because they are better known and because of the major importance of matter as “the building blocks” of the universe. There has been no disposition to indulge in propaganda for mathematics. Mathematics needs no “sales talk” to the scientist. It has been rather MATHEMATICS AND THE SCIENCES—LASLEY 197 an effort to understand its function in the domain of scientific think- ing. This relation seems to be much like that of the guide to the mountain climber. Hardly could a guide be better fitted for his task. Bound to the traveler by a philosophical bond they rise or fall together. The assistance is by no means all on one side. Many are the instances in which the problems of the scientist have enriched the theories of the mathematician. Many are the instances in which the theories of the mathematician have aided in the solution of the prob- lems of the scientist. The equations of the mathematician are re- garded by many as the only language which nature speaks. Helm- holtz expressed this thought in the words, “the final aim of all na- tural science is to resolve itself into mathematics.” Jeans has this in mind in his statement, “all the pictures which science draws of nature, and which alone seem capable of according with observational fact, are mathematical pictures * * * the Universe seems to have been designed by a pure mathematician.” Even Galileo back in the beginning of what we are pleased to call modern science said, “Nature’s great book is written in mathematical language.” White- head maintains that the aim of scientific thought is, “to see what is general in what is particular and what is permanent in what is transitory.” In this vision science utilizes the general abstraction of mathematics and adopts its theory of invariants. The concept of progressive change is basic in the study of natural phenomena. This same idea is the mud sill of the calculus. “With the calculus as a key,” continues Whitehead, “mathematics can be successfully applied to the explanation of the course of nature.” When classical physics suffered the impact of the Michelson-Morley experiment it was forced by its own findings to reexamine its foundations. “In this emer- gency,” to quote Dantzig, “it was entirely due to the fiexible mental apparatus with which the mathematician supplied them, that the physical sciences have at all survived this drastic revision.” Rich- ards asserts that “when we reach the core of physical reality, the truth is presented in mathematical equations.” Weyl] claims that in the long ago the Pythagoreans held that the world was not “a chaos, but a cosmos harmoniously ordered by invariable mathematical laws.” Jeans expresses it in the words, “Nature seems to know the rules of mathematics as the mathematicians have formulated them in their studies without drawing on experience of the outer world.” We come now to the end of tonight’s account of this amazing jour- ney of the scientist. 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W. SMITH Member American Institute of Electrical Engineers, Vice President in Charge of Engineering, Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company [With 1 plate] Behind the phenomenal growth of the electrical industry lies an important fact: “The industry has consistently accepted and adapted to its own use the new ideas and developments of science.” The story of the electrical industry is one of growth in giant, breath-taking strides and great technical advances. Turbine- generator units have progressed to the stage where ratings of 100,000 ky.-a. at 3,600 r.p.m. and 300,000 kv.-a. at 1,800 r.p.m. can now be built. Hydraulic generators, the size of which may ultimately be limited by manufacturing facilities because of their large diameters, have exceeded 100,000-kw. rating. Efficiencies of some of the large hydrogen-cooled turbine generators, synchronous condensers, and frequency changers have approached 99 percent in individual units. Transformers have increased to present-day ratings of over 150,000 ky.-a. per bank, and efficiencies of well over 99 percent have been realized. Circuit breakers are capable of interrupting several million kilovolt-amperes—equal to that of the short-circuit capacity of some of the large interconnected systems. Lightning arresters? are avail- able with sufficient capacity to handle a direct lightning stroke of over 100,000 amperes and yet limit the voltage to safe values. Behind this growth, the rate of which has shown no diminution since the birth of the industry, lies a significant, important fact. The industry has consistently accepted and adapted to its own use the new ideas and developments of science. In fact the industry has fostered and encouraged fundamental research to the point that the research laboratory has become an integral part of the industry itself. It also recognizes the value and importance of the scientific accomplishments of the universities and other research institutions, and maintains a close contact with their work. 1 Reprinted by permission from Hlectrical Engineering, vol. 59, No. 2, February 1940. 2A lightning arrester is an electrical device used to protect electrical equipment from damage when exposed to lightning or other voltages that are higher than that for which the equipment was designed to operate, 199 200 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 Although the industrial laboratory has become the basic element in the electrical industry, the manner by which its fruits are put to practical use is complex. Not only are there many ways by which a new idea is transformed into a practical thing, but also there are many problems in connection with making the fullest use of scientific effort. These ways and these problems merit a closer examination. EFFICIENT USE OF SCIENCE PRESENTS MANY PROBLEMS The task of the industry is not only to uncover new principles and make new discoveries, but also to determine which ones can be put to practical, profitable use, and how. It is difficult to recognize the potential value of new discoveries and to determine at an early stage the possibilities of applying them to industrial processes and products. THE PROBLEM OF TIMING The rate of application of new ideas is not dependent solely upon the time necessary to conceive and develop them. It is also influenced by the time required for public acceptance. Household refrigeration, the basic principle of which is very old, required a relatively long time for both instrumentalities and public acceptance. Numerous problems had to be solved in the commercial development of such items as suitable refrigerants, sealed compressor shafts or the alterna- tive of hermetically sealed units, systems of proper lubrication that would be effective for a period of years, elimination of noise, quan- tity-production methods such as those previously developed in the automobile industry, electric-welding methods, and many other items, including even such things as a system of time payments. During the first two decades of radio the efforts of radio engineers were directed toward developing methods by which radio could be used as a means of private communication. It remained for a new idea, the opposite of this notion, to allow radio to assume its present stature. Public acceptance of radiobroadcasting was almost instan- taneous. This case is an exception to the rule that the exploitation of new products and devices usually results in unprofitable operation for prolonged periods. The course of carrier current* also supports this point. In the middle 20’s carrier current came into successful use for communica- *Carrier current is a term used to define currents that are superimposed on circuits such as transmission lines which are already carrying power currents. These carrier cur- rents are induced in, and collected from, these circuits by the use of high-frequency trans- mitting and receiving equipment which is not metallically connected to the circuits over which they are carried. These carrier currents are generally used for communication and control purposes, and this scheme of operation eliminates the necessity of providing parallel telephone or transmission circuits, ELECTRICAL INDUSTRY—SMITH 201 tion along transmission lines. Then came a quiet period of several years in its development, followed about 1935 by an intensified ac- tivity which shows no signs of any immediate slackening. The need for high-speed relaying of long lines, the development of better tubes, and other changes in the industry spurred engineers to adapt the fundamentals of carrier current to relaying and supervision as well as communication. Spot welding has been a practical, though limited, industrial tool for many years. However, some 6 or 8 years ago, the idea was con- ceived of using the ignitron* to control exactly the duration of the welding current. Since that time, spot welding has grown enor- mously both in total use and in diversity of applications. The ig- nitron, incidentally, was originally developed not with welding in mind but to increase the reliability of mercury-arc rectifiers. THE PROBLEM OF OBSOLESCENCE The industrial laboratory poses the inexorable problem of obsoles- cence. Fortunately the leaders of the electrical] industry have taken the far-sighted view that, in order to make sound progress, the seem- ing ruthlessness of obsolescence must be accepted. Unless one has studied the rates of development and consequently the rates of obso- lescence, it is seldom realized how relentless is the march of progress. A plant that is modern today may be out of date tomorrow. As a matter of fact, the more progressive companies attempt to antici- pate obsolescence. Capital expenditures are made on the basis of the time at which the new plant or equipment will be obsolete, not when it is worn out. The discovery of a new fact in sclence may completely upset an existing design. Even though the style or performance of a product may not be greatly modified, the practice of the art or process by which it is produced may be radically changed. With the steep rise of welding not long ago, in a few short years the method of con- structing most large machines swung from casting to welded fabri- cation. Neither the appearance nor the performance of the machines was fundamentally altered by this change; the principal motive is economy of time and of construction cost. It behooves all managements to keep themselves keenly alive to the necessity of meeting changes resulting from progress. Of all com- petition, there is none quite so ruthless as that which replaces. We all can remember that during the early stages of radiobroadcasting, several plants rapidly grew up for the making of radio headsets. “The ignitron is a special form of the mercury-arc rectifier, and is generally used to convert alternating current to direct current. 202 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 The development of the loud-speaker practically ruined this active business. The early sets used vaccuum tubes supplied by direct cur- rent, requiring plate and filament batteries. This created a heavy production of dry batteries that was subsequently curtailed by the development of plate-battery eliminators. Later, the development of the copper-oxide rectifier eliminated the use of the storage bat- tery for filaments, and still later, the development of a.-c. tubes so completely changed the design of radio receivers that it rendered many inventories and factory equipments obsolete. The most recent step in this evolution—and one that shows the cyclic character of many industrial developments—is the battery- operated portable set that has suddenly become so popular. It is additionally significant that although a tube development displaced the early battery set, another development of tubes brings the bat- tery back—the perfection of a tube that operates successfully on 114 volts. This last development also shows the rewards from the policy of letting the obsolescence caused by science take its seemingly ruthless course. The new battery-operated radios do not offer new competi- tion for established types of radio sets, but instead simply create or uncover an additional demand for radios. The demand for batteries and for tubes promises to reach an all-time peak. Similar successive steps of development occurred in illumination. A large kerosene-lamp industry was rendered obsolete, particularly in metropolitan districts, by the coming of the gas mantle. It, in turn, was replaced by the electric lamps. Now a new family of lamps—the gas-discharge lamps, which include sodium-vapor, high- pressure mercury-vapor, and fluorescent units—with efficiencies sev- eral times those of incandescent lamps, have demonstrated their practicability. It is still too soon to predict to what extent they will become the universal illuminants, but there is more than a hint that illuminant evolution is not at an end. No one in the industry thinks for a minute that the more efficient light sources presage a decrease in the requirements for energy or equipment. On the contrary, as in the past, this improvement should promote further expansion. INDUSTRY FINDS MANY BENEFITS FROM ORGANIZED RESEARCH The industrial laboratory has served the march of electrical prog- ress in many ways. Not the least of these is that it has served to bring the scientist, the design engineer, and the application engineer into closer contact. They now talk the same language and use the same tools. Universities are giving more attention to the training of industrial scientists, and within the last few years, important meetings have been devoted to discussions of the application of physics to industry. re ELECTRICAL INDUSTRY—SMITH 203 The cooperation of university and industrial scientific effort has also contributed much to the progress of development by bringing sci- entists of different training closer together on specific problems. For instance, much of the recent progress in the improvement of insula- tion for electrical apparatus has resulted from the combined efforts of physicists, chemists, and electrical engineers working harmoni- ously in close-knit groups. For many years, only a limited number of scientists in the universities had shown any interest in dielectrics, particularly solids. The engineer stumbled along rather blindly, and little progress was made until all phases of the problem were coor- dinated through the industrial laboratory. This relationship not only has served an important function in coordinating the efforts of individuals, but also has exerted a strong influence in bringing to- gether the various departments within an organization as well as outside agencies on problems of mutual interest. A new develop- ment for one department is often seen to be of value to another. Thus, research acts as a clearing house for information and stimu- lates its flow from one department to another. JOINT RESEARCH BETWEEN MANUFACTURER AND SUPPLIER Another coordinating function of the industrial laboratory is the cooperative work between electrical manufacturers and the suppliers of raw materials. For many years, electrical manufacturers have carried on cooperative research with manufacturers of steel, carbon brushes, insulating materials, and other raw materials. As a result greatly improved materials have been developed. These in turn enable the electrical manufacturer to build more reliable and more efficient apparatus, which can be extended into new and larger fields of application. INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH SHORTENS TIME BETWEEN DISCOVERY AND USE Another important accomplishment of the industrial laboratory has been to effect a marked reduction in the time between the dis- covery of a new idea and its commercial application. For example, only a few years ago scientists conceived the idea of using as a germicidal agent a certain type of lamp the rays from which are lethal to bacteria. In the last 2 or 3 years the resulting Sterilamp has been put to regular daily use in tenderizing meat, retarding spoilage of foods, killing bacteria on drinking glasses, helping to prevent infection following surgical operations, and many other important tasks. Even today, however, special attention must be given to this phase of the problem: After the research work has been completed and the theory or principle of operation has been verified, there still 204 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1944 remains the decision as to the commercial possibilities of the new device or product. Usually sufficient information is not available at this stage on whch to base an intelligent decision. Information as to probable costs (including equipment investment), processes, pro- duction methods, market analyses, and distribution methods must be obtained before a decision to manufacture and sell can be made. This requires that the new product be carried through some prelim- inary stage of development, where a study of these factors is made. Usually this takes the form of some kind of pilot-plant activity under the direction of a special experimental or development group that has the responsibility of carrying new products through this incubation stage following the completion of research work. This form of development is particularly conspicuous in the chemical industry. PATENT SYSTEM STIMULATES NEW DEVELOPMENTS Our patent system has had a stimulating influence on industrial research and developments in the electrical industry that should not be overlooked. It costs money to develop and exploit inventions. The protection afforded by patents provides an incentive to develop new things under conditions such that they may be exploited long enough to become established. Quite often a strong urge toward a particular development seems to become manifest and inventive effort starts simultaneously in many places. This seeming chaos that theorists would like to control from some central throne eventually turns into true cooperative effort through the practical necessity for cross-licensing of patents before a useful product can be obtained. Television is a present-day example. Patents themselves are pub- lished and the protection afforded does away with the necessity for secrecy. ‘The new progress that has been made impinges upon other minds, thereby starting new chains of ideas that result in coordinated group effort leading to rapid progress. Without the protection provided by patents, capital would be re- luctant to venture into new fields. Industrial research would become secretive, and because of the resulting lack of cooperation and coor- dinated group effort, our progress in technical accomplishments and standards of living would be seriously retarded. In the light of these advantages, many times verified by experi- ence, it is disturbing to observe the tendency in some political circles to propose legislation that would destroy these values and place seri- ous limitations on individual right. Even the uncertainties surround- ing such proposals create a lack of confidence, tending to retard initia- tive and technical progress. This same condition exists to a large extent throughout the industry, and particularly in the public-utility ELECTRICAL INDUSTRY—SMITH 205 field where political threats and limitations have seriously curtailed expansion and thus retarded the use of scientific developments di- rectly in the generation and distribution of electricity. ELECTRICAL INDUSTRY DRAWS FROM ALL BASIC SCIENCES Contributions to the development and progress of the electrical industry have come from practically every branch of the basic sciences. This is not surprising when we consider the large variety of materials used in the manufacture of electrical equipment. Metallurgy—tImprovement in electrical apparatus is largely de- pendent on the improvement made in the properties of the materials used. This applies to both physical and chemical properties of vari- ous kinds. The limitations in physical properties of materials are most likely to be encountered in high-speed rotating machinery such as steam turbines, where centrifugal and steam forces are likely to be large under conditions of high temperature, which in turn tends to lower permissible stress limits. Research work done in recent years by both electrical and steel manufacturers to determine and improve the fatigue, creep,’ cor- rosion, and other physical properties of various alloy steels used in highly stressed machines has resulted in such marked advances in design that output ratings have been more than doubled at the highest operating speed in less than 5 years. The electrical industry has also called on the metallurgist for new and improved magnetic steels and alloys. Magnetic steel, particularly electrical sheet steel, has been a subject of continued research by both electrical and steel manufacturers. This has involved studies of molecular and grain structures as well as of chemical compositions and purity. This work has resulted in a steady decrease in iron losses * in the cores of transformers and machines of such magnitude that they have been reduced by more than half in the last 20 years, with a saving to the industry of millions of dollars annually. Until recently, the improvement in electrical sheet steel was con- fined largely to iron losses. Practically no improvement in perme- 5 When a load or strain is applied to a structural member such as a steel bar, the bar elongates or stretches proportional to the load applied up to the elastic limit of the material. For most practical applications, this elongation for a given stress is presumed to remain fixed or constant. Actually, most materials will continue to elongate at a very slow rate (in some cases over a period of years), even though the stress remains constant at a value below its elastic limit. This property or characteristic of materials to slowly elongate on a constant stress with time is commonly referred to as “creep.” *In the iron cores of electrical devices, such as generators, motors, and transformers, which either generate or receive alternating current, the magnetic flux is subject to reversal at the same frequency as the generated or applied alternating current. This reversal of magnetism produces a molecular friction loss inside the iron core which results in an energy loss that appears in the form of heat. This energy loss is commonly referred to as “iron loss.” 206 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 ability had been accomplished. As a result of recent research and development we now have a magnetic steel that has not only lower iron loss but also much better permeability. New alloys are sometimes discovered and developed as byproducts of other research work. In the electrical industry, the need for new alloys with special characteristics often arises in connection with new electrical developments. It is therefore often necessary to de- velop special alloys to meet limitations encountered in electrical developments, particularly when the volume required is too small to be attractive to alloy manufacturers. For example, a recently developed alloy containing only a few percent iron, is stronger at 1,100° F. than any low-carbon steel at room temperature. It creeps very little. It survives a 6,000-hour creep test at 1,000° F. that causes cast carbon-molybdenum steel to fail and high-strength nickel- chromium steel to creep 100 times as much. As an amazing demon- stration of how it retains its elastic properties when hot, a bar of steel and one of this alloy were heated to 1,100° F. When struck with a hammer, the steel bar responded with a dull thud; the alloy with a clear, bell-like tone. Chemistry.—The application of chemistry to the electrical industry has been almost unlimited. Chemists have been called on principally to produce new and improved insulating materials, compounds, var- nishes, oils, etc. ‘There have been many other developments, however. For example, a fireproof chlorinated compound has been developed to replace transformer oil in applications where fire hazards exist. Many fireproof liquids have been made available, but a great amount of research and development work has been required in recent years to obtain a material that also had satisfactory electrical properties such as high dielectric strength, low power factor, and viscosities comparable with transformer oil, particularly at low temperature. Physics.—The foundation of the electrical industry is supported to a large extent on the laws of physics. Some of the most impor- tant scientific discoveries and applications therefore have come from this field. The discovery of electromagnetism, the electron, and the X-ray are outstanding examples. From researches on the mechanics of the ion came the principle of circuit interruption by deionization that has been applied to a whole family of interrupting devices from the giant circuit breakers that handle millions of kilovolt-amperes down to the new practical circuit breakers for the home that are little larger than a wall switch. In the field of electronics, numerous electrical developments of far-reaching importance have been based on these and similar discoveries. Mathematics.—Probably no other industry rests on such a precise mathematical basis as the electrical industry. From its very begin- ELECTRICAL INDUSTRY—SMITH 207 ning its every step in the design, construction, and operation of electrical apparatus has been guided by computation. In fact, the electrical engineer has invented several mathematical tools to serve his purposes, such as the complex quantity and symmetrical com- ponents. He has even placed his mathematics on a mechanical basis, such as that amazing creation, the calculating board. Pure mathematical concepts have given birth to many electrical devices. Particularly has this been true of relays for the protection of transmission lines and terminal equipment. A conspicuous recent example is a new, simplified pilot-wire relay that greatly extends the practical field of this type of relaying. This relay was conceived directly from the mathematical conception of positive, negative, and zero-sequence components of alternating currents. AS TO THE FUTURE We know so little about nature’s basic underlying principles that it is incredible that anyone should think that our knowledge of natural laws is anything but exceedingly small when compared with the vast amount that is listed in the unknown column. This alone should be encouraging, for if we can accomplish all that we have with such a poor understanding, it is reasonable to expect vastly better results as we obtain more basic knowledge. While our human limitations may prevent us from seeing very far into the future, present developments give us some idea of future trends and in what fields expansions are likely to occur. In the processing industries, electricity will probably assume an increasingly important role in the way of metering, regulating, and controlling numerous phases of new as well as existing processes. Recent improvements in electric furnaces and their controls, including the control of the atmosphere inside of the furnace as well, indicate various possibilities in this field. For instance, heat treatment of steel sheets for automobiles by continuous processes in less than 15 min- utes has been accomplished. In the presence of highly purified at- mospheres, various steels and alloys can now be bright-annealed. In controlled-atmosphere furnaces, dies can be heat-treated without oxidation or carburization, thus eliminating subsequent grinding. In the broad field of air conditioning, electricity will play an im- portant part, not only in applications requiring power but in the processing and treatment of the air itself. Electrical means are now available for cleaning and sterilizing air. These new aids in air conditioning, coupled with the available services of heating, cooling, and humidity control, make it possible to improve man’s living con- ditions so profoundly that he may live in a clean spring or fall atmosphere all the year around in any locality. 208 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 Lightningproof electrical systems were but the dreams of engineers a few years ago. They are still not a reality, but the day is coming when they will be.» Much has been done in this direction; more is yet to be done. The recent development of a device for recording natural lightning strokes that is relatively inexpensive and simple, so that dozens of them can be installed over wide areas, will be of tremendous assistance in collecting that quantity of statistical in- formation about lightning necessary for the construction of protective devices and self-protecting apparatus. We now have reason to believe that in the not too distant future lightning, once the great disturber of electrical systems, will be eliminated as a hazard to power continuity. Vast new vistas are being opened by high-frequency electric energy. High frequencies, which broadly include everything beyond 60 cycles, are already being used for numerous tasks of melting, heat-treating, and drying. Packaged raw materials are being dried without open- ing the containers; bearing surfaces of finished engine crankshafts are being given additional hardness by localized heating induced by high- frequency currents. With the rapid developments in high-frequency generators, both of the rotating and electron tube types, it is not in- conceivable that all gasoline and Diesel engines, machine tools, and other machines will be treated by high-frequency when assembled or partially assembled to harden the wearing surfaces. The great field of electronics, which is now best known in radio, television, and communication, can be expected to find a greater number of future applications in the electrical industry, particularly in those fields having to do with automatic machine operations, in- spection of materials and safety methods. Recent progress in the development of larger and more reliable metal-tank tubes indicates that electronics may also be expected to play an increasingly im- portant part in electric-power distribution, both in transformations and control. When it is considered that the power consumption in many small homes today is from 8 to 10 times the national average, due to the increasing acceptance of electric ranges, water heaters, forced air circulation, high lighting levels, and other conveniences, we can ex- pect domestic power consumption to double in a reasonable time. This indicates the need for an improved low-voltage distribution system as well as rewiring of homes. Agriculture is another field that has scarcely been touched by the electrical industry. In addition to the usual applications of power and light, there appear to be many possibilities of applying treat- ments and radiations for the stimulation of plant growth and control of insects that now infest grains, plants, and seeds. ELECTRICAL INDUSTRY—SMITH 209 Present researches in nuclear physics in many institutions may re- sult in obtaining information that will be just as extensive in its influence on the developments in the electrical industry as was the discovery of the electron. The production of radioactive substances, through the disintegration of the atom may provide a very useful tool. Naturally, one thinks of using these radiations instead of the X-ray for radiography or for radium in the treatment of disease. While they no doubt will be used to some extent for such purposes, the possibility of using these radiations as a means of studying certain atomic reactions and structures may be even more useful. For instance, by the use of electrical-detection methods, it appears feasible to follow the migration of radioactive atoms through a metal during heat-treating processes. Similarly, it is possible to trace the movement of radioactive substances through a plant or the human body and thus learn more about how and where these sub- stances are assimilated. In contrast to radium, most of these arti- ficial radioactive substances have such a short life that no permanent harm is done to the human system. The present methods of generating electric power are so well established that we are inclined to accept them as permanent. Gradual improvements in present methods have reduced the amount of coal used per kilowatt-hour to approximately one-fourth that required 20 years ago. While this improvement is indicative of real progress in steam-power generation, it is still small when compared with the theoretically possible energy that could be gotten from a highly efficient method of energy conversion. With an increasing knowledge of the fundamental properties of matter and a better understanding of the conduction of electricity in gases, recent calculations and experimental work indicate that it may be possible to use the electromagnetic properties of the rapidly moving ionized products of combustion of certain fuels in conjunc- tion with some suitable electrical transforming device as a means of generating electric energy. A practical development of this idea, which at least appears to be a possibility at the present time, would result in the use of static electrical devices extracting power from the kinetic energy of the gases of combustion without the intervention of rotating electrical machinery. Although these and many other prospective developments that might be mentioned are indefinite and difficult to evaluate, we can look forward with the expectation that the electrical industry will continue to grow under the stimulation and impetus of new scientific | discoveries and advances. % if ets Lap (y mee ny i bt i ‘ ns Cy we Ay +i vm. "i ¥ a “Hose yi HN oF \\ ye ‘a st ae Fs fi ih Mf a fit Ror ae siden te nee ae a ag hae Daaalies iho Lehuaih ‘cny so x iat as g3 esi ti A oe te MG one b> p ’ ' \ Re ir Doles ns sae ney ‘hoot wEM ) ig Himok ue ep ‘2 Mi, Smithsonian Report, 1941.—Smith RESEARCH STUDIES OF VIBRATION IN LARGE STEAM TURBINE BLADES. PLATE 1 THE NEW SYNTHETIC TEXTILE FIBERS? By Hersert R. MAUERSBERBGER Technical Editor, Rayon Tecatile Monthly We are living in a fast and progressive age as far as textiles are concerned, recently referred to as a “fiber revolution.” The old nat- ural fibers do not any longer limit the ability of the textile industry to create and supply new fabrics of unusual character, beauty, and usefulness. These new developments mark an advance in fiber tech- nology, which must be examined and evaluated with the greatest care by all who wish to keep up-to-date. They create both opportunities and hazards for the progressive textile manufacturer—opportunities for those awake to the possibilities they offer of meeting our human needs more fully; hazards for the ultraconservatives, who let prog- ress pass by. To the technical man, they are fascinating and worthy of careful examination and study. In my investigation of these new synthetic fibers I have not in- cluded the cellulosic filaments and fibers, such as rayon or modified rayons. I believe that the word synthetic has never been applicable to rayon in its various textile forms. True synthesis would involve the union of chemical elements to form the basic substances from which a textile fiber is obtained. This stage has not as yet been accomplished, but the new man-made fibers I shall discuss come very close to this ideal. My information has been obtained from sources I believe authentic, such as patents, chemical abstracts, newspapers, both local and foreign technical publications as well as private correspondence with the companies directly involved. In discussing them with you, I will take them up in the order of their present relative importance. I will also include a few in which research work has been practically completed but which have not been marketed as yet in this country for economic or other reasons, which I shall state. In each case I will state the origin, comparative 1 Paper presented before American Society for Testing Materials, Papers Session, October 17, 1940. Reprinted by permission from Rayon Textile Monthly, November and De- cember 1940. 211 430577—42——-15 212 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 properties as far as they could be ascertained, and their present or past uses. The importance of these new synthetic fibers may be more fully understood when it is considered that the supply of some of our natural fibers may be cut off or prices become prohibitive. At a recent technologists’ meeting, the Army, Navy, and Air Force have taken serious recognition of this and are making tests on substitution for silk and wool in particular. Through the courtesy of Mr. von Bergen, Director of Research Laboratories of Forstmann Woolen Co., prints of a number of new synthetic fibers, both in longitudinal and cross section, are found in the new Textile Fiber Atlas to be published soon. NYLON Nylon is the generic name chosen by the du Pont Co. for “a man- made proteinlike chemical product, which may be formed into fibers, bristles, filaments and sheets, and when drawn is characterized by extreme toughness, elasticity and strength,” to quote from the com- pany’s statements. This means that it has to some degree the same chemical composition as the proteins, of which silk, hair, and wool are common textile examples. The term “nylon” does not refer to any particular chemical form of the polyamide any more than glass refers to any particular form or item of glass. It is an outgrowth of considerable research begun by du Pont in 1928 and its success was announced by the company on October 27, 1938. ‘To explain how it was conceived and how it is made today would be a paper in itself. I shall confine myself only to the textile aspect and its various desirable properties. While nylon is com- monly stated to be made from “coal, air, and water,” much more is involved. To the technical man, it can be made from a dibasic acid derived from phenol and a diamine, likewise derived from phenol. Oxygen from the air is needed in the dibasic acid, and ammonia is used in making the diamine. Since phenol is commonly derived from bituminous coal and since ammonia is made synthetically by causing the hydrogen from water to unite with nitrogen from the air, it follows that this particular nylon is derivable from coal, air, and water. In regard to its physical and chemical properties, it must be said that nylon is the first synthetic textile fiber that has reached practical use and thereby has proved definitely that it is possible to make textile fibers synthetically and with raw materials other than cellu- lose. Nylon has a crystalline polyamide structure, can be drawn cold, and is exceedingly strong and elastic. This is attributed to SYNTHETIC TEXTILE FIBERS—MAUERSBERGER 213 the orientation of molecules in the drawing process, which can be altered to suit any particular condition or demand. It is the proper- ties of the yarn resulting from this control of molecular arrangement which caused the company to introduce it in the manufacture of fine hosiery. Nylon is also extremely tough, standing long wear and abuse, making it ideal for the bristles in tooth and hair brushes, fish- ing leaders and the like. It is resistant to abrasion. Its resistance to heat is good, 1.e., its melting point is around 480° F., which is above the temperature normally used in ironing fabrics. Nylon does not burn or blaze or propagate a flame. It merely melts. Hence, no fire hazards are involved in its use. It is not injured by water or any liquid commonly used in the home. It is attacked by phenol (carbolic acid) and certain mineral acids normally found in the laboratory only. It is readily wet out by water, but absorbs much less water than common textile materials. Hence, nylon articles dry extremely rapidly and are just as strong wet as when dry. Hot water and saturated steam impart a substantially “perma- nent set” to nylon yarn and fabricated materials, which serves to retain its shape. Of course, nylon can be made waterproof or water- repellent by customary treatments. Nylon, like all ordinary textile fibers, is subject to injury by ordinary light. It is claimed to be at least equally as resistant to indoor and outdoor light as corresponding unweighted silk fabrics. It can be stored in the absence of light for long periods without injury. Nylon is absolutely proof against attack by moths, fungi, and bacteria. Nylon has good insulating properties and high abra- sion resistance. Its refractive index in the textile form is 1.53 to 1.57 Nylon is doubly refractive and when examined between crossed Nicol prisms, all colors of the rainbow appear. Of its present 4,000,000-pound production, 90 percent goes into the manufacture of fine, full-fashioned women’s hosiery. It has found application in the manufacture of sewing thread known as “Neophil.” It is also used for corset fabrics and for shroud lines for parachutes, and is now being developed for the parachute fabric itself. As a mono- filament and bristle, it is used in “Exton” and “Miracle Tuft” tooth brushes and hair brushes; also as surgical sutures. While nylon is produced at Seaford, Del., with a capacity of 8,000,000 pounds, another plant is being started at Martinsville, Va., which will bring the production to 16,000,000 pounds by the spring of 1942. Much of this information is already available to technicians, sct- entific workers, and textile experts. It is merely repeated for the sake of A. S. T. M. records and also as a summary for you. Nylon serves as an excellent example of what can be done to construct and 214 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 manufacture textile filaments and fibers to suit specified needs and modern demands. VINYON This is probably the most promising new synthetic textile fiber. While already hinted at by Dr. Robert Hooke in 1664, and by René Reaumur, the production of a suitable and practical textile fiber from gums and resins did not become a reality until synthetic resins were made. Vinyon was originally made by Carbide & Carbon Chemicals Cor- poration and described in a United States patent, No. 2,161,766, granted to Rugeley, Field, Jr., and Conlon in 1937. Later in 1939 the American Viscose Corporation took up the manufacture of the filament yarn and fiber. Vinyon is the result of extensive research on vinyl polymers, specifically a copolymer of vinyl chloride and viny] acetate produced by polymerization rather than by condensation. The raw polymer in the form of a white fluffy powder is dispersed in acetone and a dope is obtained containing 23 percent of the copolymer by weight. After filtering and deaerating, this solution is spun the same as ace- tate and coagulated by the dry- or warm-air process. After condi- tioning on take-up bobbins the yarn is wet-twisted to 6 turns per inch, whereupon it is given a stretch of over 100 percent of its orig- inal length, giving the yarn its high tensile strength and true elas- ticity. It is also produced in the partially stretched condition for certain purposes at a lower price. They are now produced in 40, 60, 80, 120 deniers and up. Delustering is done by incorporation of pigments and a new process has been found to produce a mild delusterization directly in spinning. The yarn has no abrasive action and, owing to its high tensile strength of 1-4 grams per denier and elongation from 18-120 percent, will stand abrasion well. The tensile strength is the same when wet or dry. Dyes are rapidly being found so that it can now be colored in a wide variety of shades. These unusual properties have caused the yarn to be employed for many industrial fabrics, such as filter cloths, pressed felts, sewing threads and twines of various types, chemical workers’ clothing, sail and tarpaulin fabrics, fish nets, parachute cords, chemical-resistant hose, noninflammable fabrics, awnings, curtains, and upholstery. Vinyon staple fiber has been mixed with cotton, wool, and rayon, and fabrics made from it will retain their pressed shape, fold, or crease very well. Maximum concentrations of mineral acids, caustics, alka- lies, bleaching agents do not affect vinyon. It has no affinity for moisture, does not support bacteria and virus growth, and is not sub- ject to damp rot, mold, or mildew. SYNTHETIC TEXTILE FIBERS—MAUERSBERGER 215 it is truly a synthetic fiber, of truly amazing properties and not like any natural fiber—another excellent example of what can be done in creating fibers of special character to meet special needs. Modifications and further experimentation in this category of synthetic textile fibers have produced other very interesting and valuable materials in Europe known as Pe-Ce fiber, Synthofil, Igelite, and Permalon. The latter is a vinyldene chloride derivative which the producer, The Dow Chemical Co., calls Saran. According to Pierce Plastics, Inc., of Bay City, Mich., they take this white powder and exude it after heating through a die. When the filament issues from its die it is hot, and thence is passed through a tank of water. It is then taken to a stretching device, where the size of the threads is controlled and at the same time acquires a tensile strength of 40,000-50,000 pounds per square inch. When the company first started, it made Permalon threads solely for fishing-leader material. They now make small tubing, which is used for catheters in hospitals. A number of textile concerns are now making a narrow fabric and upholstery seat fabrics of Permalon threads—a very remarkable and interesting development of considerable importance. Dow Chemical has also made experiments with ethy! cellulose deriv- atives, known as Etho-raon, Ethocel, and Ethylfil. I am informed that Dow Chemical is not ready to disclose any details, but has stated that these materials are very similar to cellulose acetate rayon. It was first made known at the National Farm Chemurgic Council in Detroit. More information on these new textile fibers may be available later. CASEIN FIBERS AND FILAMENTS Probably the most extensive and costly research was done on the possibility of producing synthetic textile filaments and fibers from milk casein, first mentioned by Todtenhaupt in 1904. He dissolved casein, which is the coagulable portion of milk, in an alkaline fluid and then allowed the solution to fall, or pressed it in the form of thin threads, into an acid bath. Later the spinning solution was dissolved in zinc chloride, spun and insolubilized in a formaldehyde solution which made the filaments softer and more pliable. The principal objections and early difficulties were the proneness to swell, soften, and stick together at normal temperatures during dyeing. Many ex- periments were necessary to overcome this and finally resulted in the Ferretti process of Italy in 1935, which has produced a satisfactory commercial product known as Lanital. In Ferretti’s process the casein is dissolved in dilute aqueous alkali, allowed to stand 2 to 3 days until the solution becomes thick and viscous. A solvent is gradually added to the desired volume and viscosity, then spun, rendered insoluble, and deacidified. This fiber 216 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 has shown closer resemblance to wool than any other synthetic fiber yet produced. This fiber was imported into this country as Lanital until Italy entered the war. Owing to certain weaknesses in the casein fibers, particularly tensile strength in dyeing, attempts have been made to mix viscose and casein together. Such products as Railan and Cisalfa are the result of such experiments. Further, casein has been mixed with Latex and glue with some success in fibers known as Tiolan (German) and Lactofil (Dutch). In this country Whittier & Gould in their United States patent No. 2140274, of December 138, 1938, and later No. 2204535 in June 1940, offered a process of making casein fiber and assigned the patents for public use. Recently in this country a new synthetic staple fiber has been an- nounced by F. C. Atwood, president of the Atlantic Research Asso- ciates of Boston, under the trade name of Aralac. It was announced at the National Farm Chemurgic Conference in March 1940, at De- troit. This casein material is made in natural or opaque form, or in a delustered condition; also in a softened condition to simulate the softness of high-quality wool, as well as in an unsoftened con- dition, possessing a scroop. It is made in less than 20 microns and over 30 microns to match the thickness of every grade of wool. It is now being produced commercially by the Aratex Division plant of the National Dairy Products Corporation, at Bristol, R. I. The present physical and chemical properties are about the same as Lanital, reported on by von Bergen. It has a high affinity for all wool dyes. Its dry strength is about one-half that of wool and its wet strength is about one-fifth that of wool. Compared to viscose rayon it has about 10-20 percent less strength. Of course, lack of strength is not always a drawback to its introduction, as was the case with rayon. The longitudinal structure of Aralac is more or less smooth and shows no pronounced indentations or striations like rayon, but its surface is peculiarly “rippled,” the only word I can find to describe it. Its cross section is nearly circular and highly uniform. The contour shows hardly any deviation frem a smooth circle. Its dif- ferentiation from soybean and Lanital is not easy, because of its close chemical composition. The price of Aralac is now from 40 to 55 cents per pound. Its principal use at present is in the felt-hat industry, as an admixture with wool and rabbit hair. It is claimed that hats and hat bodies containing up to 50 percent of Aralac are already on the market. Experiments in other woolen fabrics and admixtures are now in progress and all uses will consume almost a million pounds in the first year of its existence. SYNTHETIC TEXTILE FIBERS—-MAUERSBERGER PLT. According to an announcement last week the National Dairy Products Corporation has a new casein fiber known as R-53? (finer than Aralac), which is furnished to the Hat Corporation’s three plants in long continuous strands of 15,000 filaments each. These are cut to 34-inch staple lengths and blended with natural fur in proportions of 10-15 percent casein fiber to 90-85 percent rabbit hair. They claim men’s hats made from this blend are the equal of ortho- dox felt hats in appearance, feel, resistance to wear and crushing, and superior in color fastness. SOYBEAN FILAMENTS AND FIBERS While the major part of research work in soybean has been in connection with the preparation of plastics, foods, paints, oils, and so forth, some work has been done to utilize the protein meal or pulp after the oi] has been extracted. The work on the casein pulp has been a side study, rather than a direct study on the part of chemists. Heberlein & Co., back in 1929, submitted the extracted protein from soybean to a swelling operation with water under pressure and heat or a dilute acid with simultaneous treatment with phenols, after which the filaments are formed by extrusion in the usual manner. In this country, the first announcement of research work on the production of a synthetic textile fiber from soybean pulp came with the opening of the World’s Fair in 1939. A part of the Ford exhibit was devoted to its manufacture. The Dearborn Laboratories of the Ford Motor Co. had been working since 1937 on the idea of producing a synthetic textile fiber that would simulate wool very closely. From 20,000 acres of soybeans under cultivation, they had been using the soybean oil for paints and the meal for plastics. The process used is about as follows: After the soybean is crushed under pressure and the oil extracted with hexane it is passed through a weakly alkaline solvent, which extracts the protein. The soybean meal is exceptionally rich in protein value—as high as 50 percent. The protein is then combined with various chemicals and/or dyestuffs in a secret process and made into a viscous solution. It is then forced through a spinnerette and coagulated into filaments in a bath con- taining sulfuric acid, formaldehyde, and sodium chloride or alumi- num sulfate. A formaldehyde solution is used to set the filaments during the winding process. They are bleached and dyed, if desired, 2 R-53 is the laboratory name used for this new fiber by the Hat Corporation of America during the present experimental state of its use. The R stands for research, and the number indicates that this was the fifty-third fiber tested by the company in the course of a 20-year search for a fiber that could be used in making top-quality felt hats. R—53, as used by the Hat Corporation, cannot be regarded as the same as Aralac, because while Aralac rovings are the original raw material from which the company produces R-53, much additional processing is necessary before the fiber is ready for hat making. It must be specially combed to remove noils and knots, and it must be cut to the proper staple length for blending with rabbit fur. 218 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 and are then ready for commercial use. The filaments are also cut to produce a staple fiber. The skeins have the consistency and texture of silk and wool, which are our present protein fibers. Ford officials have informed me that Henry Ford himself has shown considerable personal interest in these experiments. The yarn has been woven and knitted into goods and the company considers its suitability for auto upholstery definitely satisfactory and practical. Later, the Glidden Co. at Chicago set up a pilot plant for experimental purposes of fiber production for the textile trade. The physical and chemical properties of textile fiber produced from soybean are particularly interesting. I submitted a sample of the product to Mr. von Bergen, of the Forstmann Woolen Co., late in 1939. He reported that it closely resembled Lanital in color, lus- ter, touch, and crimp. Its tensile strength was 0.94 gram per denier dry and 0.26 gram per denier wet. The elongation of the filaments was 112 percent dry and 47 percent wet. This means that soybean fiber is about four times weaker than wool when dry and approxi- mately eight times weaker than wool when wet. The fineness and diameter of the soybean fiber is exceptionally uniform, approaching nylon in this respect. The fibers are more or less smooth with fine dots and streaks or short striations, presumably caused by air bubbles. Similar to protein fibers, soybean fiber does not burn, but chars and produces the same odor as wool, which is like burned feathers. He found traces of sulfur present and yellowish-brown alkali fumes issue when it is heated in a test tube. The fiber shows a high affinity for acid colors with no visible change in the fiber itself. For identification purposes Mr. von Bergen sug- gests a sulfur-content test to distinguish it from Lanital, if this is ever necessary. Water does not wet soybean fiber as readily as it does casein fiber and wool. Its specific gravity is 1.31. Recent samples are more resistant to carbonizing and to boiling in dilute acids and alkalies. Hence, the only deficiency is its tensile strength; the filaments and fibers otherwise show remarkable qualities. I am informed that in more recent samples from Ford and Glidden the strength had been improved. Development work on upholstery fabrics has progressed satisfactorily and it looks as if the soybean fiber will soon be a com- mercially practical textile fiber, ready for the textile trade to use. It is now used in hat felts, suitings, upholstery fabrics, etc. A com- mercial plant for the production of this fiber at the rate of about 1,000 pounds per day is now planned. FIBERS FROM CORN A protein fiber can be obtained from corn meal, which is a corn proteid, often called zein or maisin. It has received considerable SYNTHETIC TEXTILE FIBERS—-MAUERSBERGER 219 prominence since a patent was granted in May 1939 to Corn Products Refining Co., of Argo, Ill. Zein is obtained from corn and is soluble in 75 percent alcohol, phenol, mixed solvents such as alcohol and toluol, alcohol and xylene, and others. The zein, according to Swal- len, of Corn Products Refining Co., is dissolved in aqueous alcohol containing a proportion of formaldehyde, which is extruded into an aqueous coagulating medium and the withdrawn filaments subjected to a current of air heated to not above 100° C., skeined, then baked at 60°-90° C. for 8-10 hours. Up to the present time there have been no difficulties in spinning zein filaments, but the product obtained, when sufficiently insoluble in water, has been deficient in elasticity, resiliency, and tensile strength in the dry and wet condition. They can be dyed. Latest reports from Corn Products are that the work on it has been suspended but may be revived at a later date. FIBROIN FILAMENTS The idea of obtaining a merchantable fiber from fibroin, a proteid substance and the chief ingredient of raw silk, is in itself not new. It is composed mainly of two constituents—probably proteins—which comprise chemical combinations of alanine and glycocoll, with some tyrosine. The problem for a long time was to find solvents for this substance, which could be obtained from silk waste, old silk stockings, and silk threads. The Japanese did considerable work in this field and samples of some yarns, then termed “regenerated silk,” came to this country in 1937. Samples from Max Baker were analyzed and investigation showed that a patent and process had been devised in this country in 1923 by Abraham Furman. The patent was assigned to Corticelli Silk Co., of New London, on May 13, 1924. The company tried the process out and produced a 75-denier yarn on a small scale from cocoon waste and other raw and dyed silk noils and waste. The pro- cedure in brief was as follows: The silk waste was cut into very short lengths, boiled off twice, hydroextracted and dissolved in a chemical solution, probably copper or nickel sulfate. The solution was then forced through filters and piped to storage tanks. It was then de- aerated and spun on spinnerettes, similar to rayon, with refrigeration, and coagulated into an acid bath. Bleaching was not necessary and the yarn was washed and finished in skeins. The lack of sufficient strength and elasticity finally caused the Thames Artificial Silk Co. and the Corticelli Co. to discard the process. The Japanese samples, while a little better in strength, did not satisfy textile requirements. Many other investigators, such as Galibert, Hoshino, Millar, Lance, and others, are still trying to perfect this method, but so far none has succeeded or undertaken commercial production anywhere. 220 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 This is merely an instance of how many efforts have been made and what types of processes have fallen by the wayside. This does not mean that they are impractical or that under favorable conditions they would not be revived. GLASS FIBERS AND FILAMENTS Fiberglas (or glass fibers) has been lifted out of the category of curiosities, and is now a textile raw material, with many potential applications. It is being produced by two processes—the continuous- filament process and the staple-fiber method—by Owens-Corning Fiber Glas Corporation. In its manufacture glass marbles are fed into an electrically heated furnace, which has a trough or V-shaped bushing made of metals of a higher melting point than glass. In the continuous process, molten glass, entering the wide top end of the bushing, is “drawn” downward by gravity, the glass emerging from 102 tiny holes in the bottom of the bushing. The filaments, averaging 0.00017 to 0.00020 inch in diameter, are combined to make one strand measuring 0.024 inch in diameter for winding on bobbins. A number of strands can be plied together to produce a yarn of any size. In the staple process, the molten marbles are forced downward through holes of the same type as in the continuous process, but, in- stead of being “drawn,” they are blown downward by steam under high pressure. Passing through a burst of flame to eliminate moisture, the fibers, averaging 8 to 15 inches in length, gather upon, and are drawn from, a revolving drum. The accumulation of “sliver” follows grooved wheels to be wound on revolving spools. The subsequent spinning operation is carried out on regular textile machinery. Spun yarns have been made as fine as 100s cotton count. The yarn is put up on beams, cones, tubes, bobbins, and spools, as desired. The physical and chemical properties of glass filaments and fibers are very interesting. The fibers are produced in various colors which are not affected by heat, light, or weather. The fibers are solid, circular in cross sections, and smooth. Fiberglas is fireproof, resistant to acids (except hydrofluoric and phosphoric) , weatherproof, and mildewproof. Good dialectric properties and good thermal-insulating characteristics are very pronounced. Glass fiber is attacked by strong or hot solu- tions of caustic soda. Fiberglas has a high tensile strength which can be varied by chang ing the glass formula. In general, finer yarns have a greater tensile strength than coarser yarns of the same size. The tensile strength and elongation of the basic 102-filament fiberglas yarn are as follows: Tensile strength, 6.8 grams per denier; elongation, 1 to 2 percent. The strength expressed in grams per denier of yarns spun from the staple fiber type is somewhat lower and elongation is higher, 24% to 4 SYNTHETIC TEXTILE FIBERS—-MAUERSBERGER 22d percent. The fibers lose strength when abraded and hence, unless they are protected by a flexible coating, are not suitable for applications involving severe bending or creasing. While the fibers themselves are waterproof, fabrics woven from them are more susceptible to mechan- ical damage when wet than when dry. Resistance of yarns and fabrics to abrasion has been improved considerably since fiberglas was first introduced, and further progress along that line is expected. At temperatures above 600° F. there is a loss in tensile strength, and at 1,500° to 1,600° IF. the fibers start to soften or melt. Fiberglas yarns are approximately two to two and a half times as heavy as cotton yarns of the same diameter. Fiberglas yarns can be woven, braided, or knitted on the usual types of textile equipment. During manufacture a small amount of lubri- cant is added to the yarn. Special formulas for warp sizing have been worked out. Fiberglas cannot be dyed satisfactorily by any of the usual processes. Some experimental work has been carried out on printing fabrics with lacquer colors. For the present, fiberglas textiles have been confined to industrial and decorative purposes. Some knitted fabrics have been produced experimentally. Aside from shoe fabrics, no attempt has been made commercially to manufacture fabrics for wearing apparel. Among the more important industrial applications are filter fabrics; yarns, braids, tapes, and other materials for electrical insulation purposes; anode bags used in the electroplating industry; wicking for oil stoves and lamps; pump diaphragms, and belts for resisting high tempera- ture, fumes, and acids. Draperies made from fiberglas are now on the market in a wide range of designs and colors. Among other po- tential household uses are tablecloths, bedspreads, curtains, uphol- stery, wall coverings, and awnings. Still other applications are rope, twine, and sewing thread for sewing glass textiles. FILAMENTS AND FIBERS FROM CHITIN Chitin was discovered in 1811 by Braconnot and is a polysaccharide containing nitrogen, present in the cell walls of fungi and the skeletal structure of such invertebrates as crabs, lobsters and shrimps. Like cellulose it may be acetated, but has little resemblance to cellulose and is quite different from fibroin. Rigby in his United States patents deacetylated chitin in 1936, and the product as well as many of its salts may be used for the manufacture of films and filaments. He has used a 3-percent aqueous solution of medium viscosity deacetylated chitin acetate for films, filaments, and for cementing paper sheets, the product being insolubilized by exposure to ammonia fumes, 222 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 Kunike, of Germany, in 1926 found that purified chitin is soluble in acids, from which the filaments can be spun wet or dry. It hasa round or heart-shaped cross section and its tensile strength is 35 kilo- grams per square millimeter as against 25 kilograms per square milli- meter of cellulosic silk. The pale lustrous filaments resemble acetate rayon and real silk. He claims that the production of textiles from chitin offers no commercial difficulties. Thor and Henderson, of Visking Corporation of Chicago, IIl., have described the production of filaments from regenerated chitin products. The purified chitin in a modified process is xanthated and filaments are obtained by treating it with an alkali and then with carbon bisulfide, filtering, deaerating, and extruding through minute orifices into a setting bath. The films obtained from regenerated chitin resemble those of regenerated cellulose, but differ from the latter in their affinity for dyestuffs. Its dry tensile strength is some- what better than regenerated cellulose, but its wet strength is much lower. The only drawback to its commercial introduction is the insufficient supply of chitin, I understand. GELATIN SILKS The earliest attempt to produce a commercial textile fiber of a gelatin base was Vandura silk by Adam Miller of Glasgow in 1894, which was not successful owing to its partial solubility in water, and could not be dyed in filament form. This was followed by Bi- chromate silk by Fuchs and Bernstein, in which the glue or gelatin is insolubilized by potassium or sodium bichromate. Gerard, Men- del, and Ohl worked on producing a gelatin filament, but so far no satisfactory and economical textile filament has been produced as far as can be learned. OSSEIN FILAMENTS Ossein is closely related to gelatin and is obtained from bones by dissolving out the mineral part with phosphoric acid and recovering the ossein by evaporating the mother liquor. There are several methods of obtaining the ossein. Helbronner and Valee have pre- pared such filaments. Early difficulties were brittleness. Carbofil is a German protein fiber obtained by mechanical treatment of horse or ox muscle, previously treated chemically to remove the major portion of soluble proteins. The fibers are 3-8 centimeters long and resemble flax in structure. They are resistant to boiling water and have been used in surgery. The Swiss have made a protein fiber known as Marena fiber from jides and leather wastes, which may be mixed with wool in textiles, SYNTHETIC TEXTILE FIBERS—-MAUERSBERGER 223 FILAMENTS FROM LICHENIN, PECTIN, ICELAND MOSS, AND AGAR- AGAR Vegetable mucilages such as lichenin, pectin, Iceland moss, and agar-agar have been experimented with in England, for use in gauzelike fabrics. By incorporating into the viscous mass before extrusion glycerol, borax, or gluten the fibers become rather flexible. Such fibers are said to be sufficiently resistant to atmospheric moisture and to be nonhygroscopic. Colored fabrics are made by incorpora- tion of ground colored pigments or by spraying on dyes. ALGINIC ACID FILAMENTS A synthetic textile fiber has been produced in Germany by Goda from a jellylike substance containing algin (alginic acid) prepared from seaweed by dissolving it in ammoniacal copper solution con- taining alkali metal hydroxide, and spinning it into a bath containing a salt prepared from furfural and caustic soda, an aliphatic acid, alcohol and formaldehyde. The filaments are afterward treated with solution containing a sulfate and sulfite. Sarason, of Great Britain, also has a method of preparing such filaments; also the Japanese have a method for forming filaments. Nothing is known of their success or their commercial introduction. It is merely cited here to show the possibilities for future synthetic textile filaments and fibers. Pacis), Diane ? ame} Hi r Swi is y aE Hi 1 6 A i . rh pire bd ine ‘4 fy ate 7 wow Mo t i ae wh a eS Le ele pre sate era Kaiki y + GH rs Wi 7 a Yidh ela 9 cuties » nolaolos ) ‘ i ee i ¥ OFM “ Aa ‘ 4 i . ‘ i At i - x | 1 j 4 ‘ 4 ‘ ‘ 1) tt ha at i ’ Vv ‘ i- h PLASTICS? By Gordon M. KLine Chief, Organic Plastics Section, National Bureau of Standards {With 5 plates] The parade of new applications in plastics went on in 1940 as the industry continued its phenomenal growth, as evidenced by the increased volume of production and greater annual dollar value of the finished products. This progress can be aptly surveyed by a glance at the winners of the 1940 Annual Modern Plastics Competi- tion which drew approximately 1,000 entries, representing the com- bined contributions of chemists, engineers, designers, molders, and fabricators in extending the frontiers of the plastics industry. In the architectural classification awards were given for decorative and functional uses of plastics in the beauty salon and theater and for a crystal-clear doorknob resembling the expensive glass knobs formerly imported from Czechoslovakia and Belgium. In business and office equipment, new achievements in telephone equipment, hous- ings for portable sales registers, and drafting devices were recog- nized. Midget and portable radios in the communications group and ingenious seasonal displays in decorators’ accessories were out- standing. The judges selected the woven plastic porch and terrace furniture, transparent acrylic resin tables, and colorful “period” Pieces veneered with cast phenolic sheets for top awards in furniture applications. Such prosaic but essential items as bathroom scales, brooms, and shower heads revealed further extension of plastics into the household domain. Plastic diffuse reflectors for fluorescent lamps won most of the honors in the lighting group. Electrical and refrigerator equipment, soldering paddles, and nylon-bristle brushes for industrial purposes represented advances of plastics in machinery and appliances, and transparent oil containers, electric razor housings, and greeting cards were selected from a host of novelty and miscellaneous items. Laboratory dialyzers, portable mo- tion-picture projectors, and arch supports won recognition in the 1 Reprinted by permission from The Progress of Science, a Review of 1940. Published by the Grolier Society. 225 226 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 scientific group, and transparent plastic belts and suspenders, shoes, raincoats, and smocks topped the style and fashion group. In the sporting goods, games, and toys classification, model boats, chess- men, and harmonicas of exceptional interest were made of plastics. The shipping, airplane, and automotive industries were all repre- sented in the awards made in the transport group. Special listing was given to the development of resin-bonded plywood, which has expanded the market for this material to cover many outdoor ap- plications, such as home construction, boats, concrete forms, outdoor signs, airplanes, truck and bus bodies, farm silos, and refrigerator cars. A consideration of the classification of plastics and of some de- tails of each type will promote a better understanding of what plastics are and why they can take on many important tasks. SCOPE OF THE PLASTICS INDUSTRY The dictionary definition of plastics as materials which are “readily responsive to shaping influences” does not place a convenient limita- tion upon this field. It implies, but does not state, that the material should maintain its new form when the shaping influences are re- moved. Even this more limited definition of a plastic would include a great variety of materials—from the metals which are readily shaped when heated to the solid rocks of the earth which exhibit zones of flow at great depths because of the pressure of the overlying mass. The modern plastics industry deals chiefly with moldable materials manufactured from organic compounds, that is, combinations of carbon with hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and other elements. The inorganic molding materials, such as concretes, cements, and ceramics, and also rubber, an organic substance, are not generally included within the scope of the plastics trade as it is known today, inasmuch as the industries utilizing these materials are considerably older and were already individually organized and developed prior to the advent of the newer plastics. Classification on basis of chemical source-—The four principal types of organic plastics are (1) synthetic resins, (2) natural resins, (3) cellulose derivatives, and (4) protein substances. A brief de- scription of each of these groups will serve to indicate to the reader who is unacquainted with this field the essential characteristics of each type and the distribution of the various commercial plastics according to this classification. Synthetic resin plastics—Public interest has probably centered largely upon the synthetic resin plastics because of their multiplicity and versatility. ‘The chemist has been able to produce at will resin- PLASTICS—KLINE 227 ous materials having the hardness of stone, the transparency of glass, the elasticity of rubber, or the insulating ability of mica. These synthetic resins, in combination with suitable fillers, are readily molded into products characterized by excellent strength, light weight, dimensional stability, and resistance to moisture, moderate heat, sunlight, and other deteriorating factors. They lend them- selves especially to the rapid manufacture of large quantities of accurately sized parts by the application of heat and pressure to the material placed in suitable molds and to the use of original or imitative effects in a variety of colors. Some of the cheap raw materials used in their production include phenol, urea, formalde- hyde, glycerol, phthalic anhydride, acetylene, and petroleum. Syn- thetic resin plastics are known commercially under such trade names as Bakelite, Catalin, Beetle, Glyptal, and Vinylite. They are used in an ever-growing variety of applications, such as electrical parts, automotive parts, closures, containers; costume accessories in- cluding buttons, buckles, and jewelry; hardware, tableware, and kitchenware, and miscellaneous novelties. The powdered molding compositions are generally sold to custom molders who produce the finished parts. Casting resins and lam- inated resinous products, described in more detail later, are, how- ever, usually made into sheets, rods, or tubes by the manufacturer of the resin. Blanks are cut from these for the preparation of the finished product by machining operations. Natural resins —These are more familiarly known to the public by their common names, such as shellac, rosin, asphalt, and pitch, than by the proprietary names attached by manufacturers to mold- ing compositions prepared from them. ‘They are used in industry for the production of the fusible type of molded product as dis- tinguished from the infusible articles formed by some of the syn- thetic resins. Hot-molding compositions are prepared by mixing shellac, rosin, and asphalts with suitable fillers. Compositions con- taining chiefly shellac as the binder are used in electrical insulators for high-voltage equipment, in telephone parts, and in phonograph records. ‘The terms rosin and resin are often confused. Rosin is a natural resin recovered as a solid residue after distillation of turpen- tine from pine tree extracts. Cellulose derivatives.—The third type of organic plastics, the cellu- lose derivatives, is probably the most widely used and best known of any of these materials. To this group belong celluloid plastics used for making toys, toiletware, pen and pencil barrels, and the like; cellulose acetate commonly used in the Celanese type of rayon, safety film, and in place of the slightly less expensive nitrated cellu- lose when noninflammability is desired; and regenerated cellulose, 430577—42-—16 228 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 familiar to all as the wrapping material Cellophane and the common or viscose type of rayon. The basic raw material, cellulose, is obtainable in fairly pure, fibrous condition as either ordinary cotton or pulped wood. ‘Treat- ment with chemicals converts cellulose into compounds which are characterized by the ease with which they can be formed into desir- able shapes. Cellulose plastics excel in toughness and are especially useful in thin sheets which have remarkable flexibility. These plas- tics conduct heat slowly and can be made substantially tasteless, odorless, and transparent. Their principal applications, in addition to those mentioned above, include photographic film, safety glass, flexible window material, artificial leather, airplane dopes, and lacquers. Protein plastics.—These are perhaps best known according to the source of the raw material—for example, casein from skimmed milk and soybean meal from soybeans. These protein substances are thor- oughly kneaded into a colloidal mass, which is then formed into sheets, rods, or tubes by suitable presses or extrusion devices. The formed pieces are hardened by treatment with formaldehyde. The finished products, such as buttons, buckles, beads, and game counters, may be machined from blanks cut from the hardened material or may be shaped from the colloidal casein mass and then hardened. This latter process is now common practice because of the shorter curing time required for the thin pieces. Classification on basis of heat effect—The plastics used in the molding industry may be divided into two groups, based on their behavior toward heat, as (1) thermoplastic and (2) thermosetting. The thermoplastic materials are permanently fusible, that is to say, they alternately meit or soften when heated and harden when cooled. If they are subjected to very high temperatures, vaporization or decomposition takes place. The cellulose derivatives, some synthetic resins, and most of the natural resins are examples of this type. The thermosetting plastics, on the other hand, may be made permanently infusible. ‘This group is usually further subdivided into three stages on the basis of changes in physical and chemical properties. The product of stage (A) is called the initial condensation product and may be liquid or solid; it is both fusible and soluble. The inter- mediate or stage (B) product is insoluble and difficultly fusible, but it can be molded by the proper application of heat and pressure. This is the usual condition of the resin in the molding composition when it is received from the manufacturer. Further heating of this material, as in the process of molding, converts it to the final or stage (C) product, which has a permanent set and maximum PLASTICS—KLINE 229 hardness, strength, resistivity, and insolubility. Most of the molded products of synthetic resin composition which are on the market belong to the thermosetting type. HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF PLASTICS IN AMERICA A chronological survey of the development of plastics in America is presented in the following paragraphs. By discussing them in the order of their appearance on the market a better idea of the underlying needs which led to their production and their relative importance in the plastics industry today will be obtained. The spe- cial properties which characterized each new material and which in many instances were there by design and not by mere chance alone will be described. The important uses which have been made of these various plastics will be recounted. Cellulose nitrate plastic—The oldest of the synthetic plastics is the cellulose nitrate or pyroxylin type. It is amazing that a material so hazardous to handle and so readily decomposed by heat has held an important share of the plastics business for so many years. How- ever, it has many unique properties which until recently have made it the best available thermoplastic material for many purposes. Alexander Parkes, an Englishman, prepared various articles from a solution of cellulose nitrate and camphor during the period 1855 to 1865, but John Wesley Hyatt, an American, is generally credited with being the first to attempt to work with cellulose nitrate as a plastic mass rather than in solution. He is said to have been moti- vated by a desire to find a substitute for ivory in the manufacture of billiard balls, in order to win a prize offered for that achievement. Although unsuccessful in obtaining the award, Hyatt with his brother, Isaiah S. Hyatt, took out a patent in 1869 for making solid collodion with very small quantities of solvent, dissolving the pyroxylin under pressure, thus securing great economy of solvents and a saving of time. The Albany Dental Plate Company was or- ganized in 1870 to handle the first application of the cellulose-nitrate- camphor plastic. By January 28, 1871, the demand for the material for miscellaneous uses had become sufficiently great to bring about the formation of the Celluloid Manufacturing Co., which moved in 1872 from Albany to Newark, its present location. Today Celluloid is only one of a number of trade names, such as Nixonoid and Pyralin, that are used to designate cellulose nitrate plastics produced by various firms in America. Cellulose nitrate plastic was one of the first to be used in the auto- mobile, being employed in sheet form as windows in the side cur- tains of early models. Its flexibility and nonfragility were impor- 230 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 tant factors in this application, but its susceptibility in the trans- parent form to ultraviolet light resulted in rapid deterioration of these sheets. Typical applications of this plastic include bag frames, brushes, buckles, clock dials and crystals, drafting instru- ments, fountain pens, piano keys, shoe eyelets and lace tips, spectacle frames, toilet seats, tool handles, toothbrush handles, toys, and covers for wooden heels. The contributions of this first synthetic plastic to the plastics industry have been extensive and lasting. It not only paved the way for the advances which have been made in formulation and pigmentation of all thermoplastics, but it also supplied much of the mechanical and operative means of manufacture and fabrication. It was the real pioneer in the development of the market for plastics and in many of their uses. Shellac plastic_—The next plastic to become of importance in this country was shellac molding composition. Shellac is of natural origin, being produced by an insect which lives upon certain trees in India and southern Asia, and has been known and utilized for many centuries for various purposes, such as a component of sealing waxes, polishes, and varnishes. In 1888, Emile Berliner had worked out the details of the method that made it possible to engrave a sound groove on a flat disk, but means of duplicating these recordings in large numbers remained to be perfected. He tried both cellulose nitrate and hard rubber, but neither of these materials was satisfac- tory for his purpose. In 1895 he turned to a plastic composition containing shellac as a binder, and soon the technique of molding shellac-base phonograph records was under full development. It remains today the largest single outlet for shellac in the plastic molding field. The properties which make it especially suitable for the manufacture of records are ease of molding, toughness, hardness, fidelity of reproduction, low cost, and the possibility of reusing the scrap material. Developments in the past 20 years have been pri- marily in its application as a resinous binder for cloth, paper, silk, mica, and other electrical insulating components. Bitumen plastic——The third plastic to become industrially impor- tant in America was the bituminous type, more commonly known as cold-molded. Emile Hemming was the pioneer in its development in the United States and introduced it on the market in 1909. The raw materials used in the preparation of cold-molded plastics are asbestos, asphalts, coal tar, stearin pitches, natural and synthetic resin, and oils. The asbestos in the proportion of 70 to 80 percent contributes the body of the material and the bituminous or resinous ingredients in the proportion of 20 to 30 percent function as the binder. The molding is done at or near room temperature, hence the name cold-molded. The pieces are removed immediately from the PLASTICS—KLINE 231 mold and cured in electrically heated ovens to drive off the volatile constituents, oxidize or polymerize the oils or resins, and so trans- form the plastic into a hard, infusible state. The cold-molding operation is faster than hot-compression molding since the curing is not done in the mold, but the higher pressures required for cold molding and greater abrasive action of the mineral filler make mold maintenance much more of a problem than it is in hot molding. Typical applications of cold-molded plastics include connector plugs on household electrical equipment, heat-resistant handles and knobs for cooking utensils, and battery boxes. Phenol-formaldehyde resin.—The first and still the most versatile of the commercial synthetic resins, the phenol-formaldehyde con- densation product, was described and patented in 1909 by Leo Hendrik Baekeland. Thus, both the original thermoplastic material, cellulose nitrate plastic, and the original thermosetting material, phenol- formaldehyde resin, were first developed commercially in America. Johann Friedrich Baeyer had reported in 1872 that the reaction be- tween phenols and aldehydes leads to the formation of resins, but no products of industrial interest were obtained for the next 35 years because of the inability of investigators to control the reaction. Baekeland’s fifth-mol patent provided this essential feature, and his heat and pressure patent described the technique for converting this resin in a relatively short time into a molded article of excellent mechanical and electrical properties. The basic patents covering the preparation of solutions of this resin and their use in impregnating fibrous sheets to make laminated products were issued to Baekeland in 1910 and 1912, respectively. The manufacture of Bakelite phenolic plastics was begun in Baeke- land’s Yonkers, N. Y., laboratory in 1907. The General Bakelite Co. was organized in 1910 and was merged in 1922 with the Condensite Co. and the Redmanol Chemical Products Co. into the Bakelite Cor- poration. Since the expiration of the basic patent in 1926, many other firms have marketed phenolic resins under other trade names, for example, Durez and Resinox. An important modification of this general type of resin is the use of furfural, produced from waste oat hulls, in place of formaldehyde for the condensation reaction with phenol. Typical applications of phenolic plastics include distributor heads, coil parts, switches, and related elements in automobiles and _ air- planes, camera cases and other housings, corrosion-resistant apparatus, and telephone and radio equipment. In combination with paper and fabrics, phenolic resin produces laminated products which are used for gears, bearings, trays, table tops, refrigerator doors, wall coverings, doors, and counter and cabinet paneling. Zon ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 Casein plastic.—The discovery of the tough, insoluble, hornlike mass produced by the action of formaldehyde on milk casein is said to have been made by two men who were looking for a composition ma- terial to replace slate for blackboards. These two men, Wilhelm Krische and Adolph Spitteler, began production of casein plastic about 1900 in Germany and France, respectively, using the trade name Galalith, meaning milk stone. It was 1919 before successful produc- tion in America was realized, and its use has been limited because of the marked variations in climate throughout the year, which lead to warping and cracking of this plastic. Its use is confined to small articles like beads, buckles, buttons, game counters, novelties, and trimming accessories. Cellulose acetate plastic.—A period of very active development of new plastic materials in America started with the appearance of cellulose acetate in the form of sheets, rods, and tubes in 1927. The firm which pioneered in the development of pyroxylin plastic also introduced cellulose acetate plastics to the American market. This was accomplished by a combination in 1927 of the Celluloid Co. with the Celanese Corporation, already a large producer and consumer of cellulose acetate for rayon manufacture. In 1929 the first cellulose acetate molding powder was marketed for use in compression molding. The appearance of the injection molding press in the early thirties greatly increased the speed with which molded articles could be pro- duced with this thermoplastic material. Cellulose acetate plastics and molding powders are now available from several commercial sources and have outstripped the cellulose nitrate type in the quantity and dollar value of annual production. Cellulose acetate very early found use as a safety photographic film to replace the hazardous cellulose nitrate product. Many of the applications of this plastic—for example, protective goggles, oil gages, screw-driver handles, and flexible window material—have been brought about by the safety factor introduced by its high resistance to impact. It is employed in practically every make of automobile and the total number of acetate parts involved is well over 200, includ- ing such items as knobs, handles, switches, escutcheons, steering wheels, instrument panels, horn buttons, and dials. Some of the trade names for cellulose acetate plastics are Lumarith, Plastacele, and Tenite I. Urea-formaldehyde plastics —The appearance of the urea-formal- dehyde resinous molding compound on the American market in 1929 meant the extension of unlimited color possibilities into the field of thermosetting molding. Two such urea molding powders, Aldur and Beetle, became available that year, while another, Plaskon, was mar- keted in 1931. Extensive use of urea plastics in the illuminating in- PLASTICS—KLINE 233 dustry has resulted from their efficiency in providing a diffused light, plus their lightness in weight and shock resistance. The fact that they are insoluble, infusible, tasteless, and generally chemically inert has made possible their successful use for bottle closures and light- weight tableware. The urea-formaldehyde resins have also been in- troduced into the field of laminated plastics as paneling and trim for bathrooms, libraries, and hotel and theater lobbies, in order to take advantage of the many stable colors in which they are produced. Cast phenolic plastics—Phenolic resin for casting is prepared in the form of a viscous syrup which is poured into lead or rubber molds and hardened by heating. Products were made as early as 1910 from cast Bakelite resinoids, but in their modern form cast phenolics were first introduced in America in 1928. Cast phenolics are known by such trade names as Catalin, Gemstone, and Marblette. They owe their popularity quite largely to their beauty and decorative value, and this type of plastic is often referred to as the “gem of modern industry.” Typical application include advertising igns and dis- play, clock cases, game counters and pieces, radio housings, and lighting fixtures. More recently their ue in indutrial adhesives and laminating varnishes has been promoted. Vinyl resin plastics—Resins formed by copolymerization of vinyl chloride and vinyl acetate were first made in the United States by the Carbide and Carbon Chemicals Corporation under the trade name Vinylite in 1928. This type of resin has found its most important uses in phonograph records, coatings for concrete and metals, can linings, adhesives, and electrical insulation. In a highly plasticized form, it is now employed for making transparent belts, suspenders, and shoe uppers. The resins formed from the individual esters— vinyl chloride and vinyl acetate—are also important commercially for the manufacture of wire and cable coverings, coated fabrics, ad- hesives, and plastic wood-filled compositions. Polyvinyl butyral plas- tic has been found to be outstandingly superior for use as the binder in laminated glass for the automotive and aircraft industries. Three plants were built for its manufacture during 1937 and 1938, and it has now largely supplanted cellulose acetate in this particular appli- cation. Production of vinylidene chloride resin was initiated by the Dow Chemical Co. in 1939, and 1940 saw its successful use in fishing lines and seat coverings. Styrene resin—In 1937 the Dow Chemical Company made avail- able a synthetic monomeric styrene of high purity and a correspond- ing polymeric product, Styron, in clear, transparent form. The Bakelite Corporation also started to manufacture Bakelite poly- styrene this same year. The most significant properties of polysty- rene are its low power factor and practically zero water absorption. 234 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 These remarkable properties make styrene resin exceptionally well suited for radio-frequency insulation. Its transparency and chemical resistance are responsible for most of its other uses, such as bottle closures, refrigerator trim, automotive accessories, and indirect light- ing of mileage and other indicators. Acrylic resins.—The acrylic resins were first prepared industrially in America in 1931 for use in coatings and as a binder for laminated glass. The better-known and very interesting methyl methacrylate resin is a product of more recent origin. The cast resin, called Plexi- glas and Lucite, respectively, by its two manufacturers, reached the production stage during 1937-88. The airplane industry has found these cast sheets particularly well adapted to their requirements for gun turret and cockpit enclosures because of their lightness, weath- ering resistance, nonfragility, and clarity. The resin’s high internal reflection makes possible spectacular and useful lighting effects in edge-lighted signs and dental and surgical instruments. This type of resin has been found to be preeminently suited for dentures. Its optical qualities make it suitable for spectacle and camera lenses and for reflectors for indirect highway lighting. Cellulose acetate butyrate-—The Hercules Powder Co. introduced this material in 1932 as a protective coating base. The Tennessee Eastman Corporation started manufacture of a cellulose acetate butyrate molding composition in 1938 and designated it as Tenite IT, the original Tenite being their cellulose acetate molding compound. Cellulose acetate butyrate compositions are superior to cellulose acetate plastics in weathering resistance and in freedom from warp- ing. The requisite plasticity can be produced with a relatively low percentage of plasticizer and with comparatively nonvolatile and water-insoluble plasticizers. The applications of cellulose acetate butyrate plastic are primarily such as result from its combination of toughness and resistance to weathering, for example, woven furniture for exterior use, automobile accessories, and fishermen’s equipment. Its record of achieving new applications during 1940 was outstanding among the plastics. Ethylcellulose.—The first cellulose ether to be made commercially in America was ethylcellulose. The Hercules Powder Co. began making it in 1935 and the Dow Chemical Co. undertook its manu- facture in 1937, marketing their product under the trade name Etho- cel. Ethylcellulose plastic has not as yet come into general use for molded parts. Its chief applications to date have been in protective coatings, adhesives, paper and fabric coatings, wire insulation, and extruded strip. Another cellulose ether, methylcellulose, was an- nounced by the Dow Chemical Co. late in 1939. Methocel, as it is called, is water soluble, odorless, tasteless, and nontoxic. It yields films which are greaseproof and highly flexible. PLASTICS—-KLINE 235 Lignin plastics.—The utilization of waste wood and sawdust for the production of molding compositions has been the objective of a considerable number of investigators for the past 10 years. Wood contains approximately 25 percent of lignin, a complex and highly reactive organic compound. In 1937 a lignin plastic first became available under the trade name Benaloid, manufactured by the Ma- sonite Corporation. The development of lignin molding compo- sitions of both the thermoplastic and thermosetting types was announced in 1939 by the Marathon Chemical Co. The possible commercial applications of this type of plastic have just begun to be explored. The low cost of the necessary ingredients makes this plastic of interest for industrial applications which require large quantities of material, such as certain automotive parts, building units, furniture, and wall paneling. Alkyd resins —A survey of plastics would not be complete without mention of the alkyd resins. They are used primarily as coating materials which, incidentally, are the largest single outlet for syn- thetic resins. Over 75,000,000 pounds of these resins were produced in 1939, out of a total resin production of about 215,000,000 pounds for that year. They are made by the reaction of phthalic anhydride or maleic anhydride with glycerol or other polyhydric alcohols. Finishes based on these resins, Glyptal, Dulux, and Rezyl, are characterized by rapidity of drying, good durability outdoors, excel- lent flexibility, tenacious adhesion, and electrical insulating qualities. These resins during the thirties replaced the pyroxylin lacquers to a large extent for finishing the bodies and fenders of motor cars. Nylon resins —These polyamide resins are made from polyamines and polybasic acids. They could be called amkyd resins, following the terminology used in the name “alkyd” for resins made from polyhydric alcohols and polybasic acids. The basic raw materials for nylon resins are castor oil from which sebacic acid (a 10-carbon dibasic acid) is obtained, and phenol which by hydrogenation and oxidation yields adipic acid (a 6-carbon dibasic acid). Hexamethyl- ene diamine made from adipic acid, and decamethylene diamine made from sebacic acid are typical diamines used in synthesizing these resins. Nylon resin was made available on a large scale by E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company, Inc., during 1940. It has already proved its suitability to manufacturer and consumer alike for hosiery and has been accepted as a superior bristle material for tooth brushes, hair brushes, and brushes for miscellaneous industrial purposes. Coumarone-indene resins—The manufacture of this type of resin from certain coal-tar distillates was begun in 1919 by the Barrett Co. using the trade name Cumar. In 1929 the Neville Co. marketed such resins as Nevindene. The low softening points and brittleness of these resins have restricted their use to serving as plasticizing 236 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 agents and tackifiers with various organic binding materials in rubber compounding, floor-tile compositions, and other industrial applica- tions. Annual production in 1935 was 8,000,000 pounds and the output is said to have increased appreciably in recent years. Molding technique-—The discovery of the fundamental principle involved in the operation of the hydraulic press is generally conceded to have been made by Blaise Pascal in 1653. The adaptation of this principle to a practical machine is credited to Joseph Bramah in 1795. Little industrial use was made of it until after the discovery of the vulcanization of rubber by Charles Goodyear in 1839. A simple hydraulic rod-type press, between the platens of which a 2-piece mold was inserted, was developed for handling the manu- facture of rubber products and was subseqgently employed for molding the thermoplastics. The advent of the phenolic thermosetting resin in 1909 provided the stimulus for introducing features in the compression molding press which would increase the output from a given mold. However, realization of the fully automatic compression molding press has come about only in the last 2 to 3 years. These presses perform all the operations of routine molding of thermosetting plastics, consist- ing of measuring the charge of molding powder, preheating it, loading it into cavities, closing the mold, opening it slightly for breathing, that is, expulsion of gases, closing it again for a predetermined curing period, opening the mold, ejecting the finished pieces, blowing flash from the cavities and plungers, and then repeating this cycle hundreds and thousands of times with the only manual labor required being to keep the hopper supplied with the molding powder. The original conception of the injection molding principle is com- monly attributed to Edmond Pelouze, who in 1856 developed a die- casting machine for forcing molten metal into a die by mechanical or hydraulic means. The industrial history of the injection molding machine for plastics in the United States is only about 5 years old, a fact which seems almost incredible when one looks at the huge 1940 model capable of taking a mold 3 by 4 feet in cross section and turning out four 36-ounce moldings every minute. The need for the injection molding machine came with the com- mercial development in 1929 of the heat-stable thermoplastic mold- ing material, cellulose acetate, which required an uneconomical chilling period when molded by conventional compression methods. The cellulose acetate plastic, however, unlike the older cellulose nitrate type, could be kept hot for a relatively long period in a heating chamber and injected hot into a cold mold, wherein it cooled in a few seconds to a temperature at which it would maintain its shape and hence could be ejected from the mold. PLASTICS—KLINE o3% At the close of 1935 there were approximately 75 injection mold- ing machines in use in America, mostly of 14 to 114 ounces per cycle capacity and suitable only for the molding of small articles, such as buttons, pocket combs, and costume jewelry. The demands of molders for machines of increased capacity and sturdier construction to be used for turning out parts for industrial applications led domestic press manufacturers to construct injection molding machines with radical changes in the design of the heating cylinders, spreading de- vices, injection plungers, and clamping devices. By combining sev- eral cylinders, each feeding into a different inlet in the same mold, parts of considerable size weighing up to 36 ounces can be produced. It is estimated by the Institute of Plastics Research that at the close of 1940 there were in the United States 1,000 injection molding presses, 11,000 compression presses, 550 preform presses, and a rapid- ly growing number of plastic extruding machines. SUMMARY OF 1940 ADVANCES No really new plastics appeared on the market during 1940, but outstanding progress in developing increased volume and new mar- kets can be credited especially to the vinyl ester resins and cellulose acetate butyrate. Vinylidene chloride resin is commanding attention in its applications as high-strength fibers and seat coverings. Nylon resin is entering the industrial field as bristles for brushes used in the textile-printing trade. There was further activity in the manu- facture of melamine resins, which, in combination with the chemically similar urea resins, are finding ready acceptance by the automotive industry as a hard, durable, rapid-baking finish for car exteriors. Improvements in injection and compression molding presses have been concerned primarily with various operating features, partic- ularly heating and automatic controls. The technique of continuously extruding thermoplastic materials also advanced considerably dur- ing 1940, and extruded plastics are replacing reed and rattan in woven furniture. A process for forming molds by spraying metal against a model has been perfected to the point where production molds have been made and are being tested in service. The aircraft industry was spotlighted during the past year, and further important strides were made in the use of plastic plywood for molding airplane wings and fuselages. An outstanding develop- ment in this field was the laminated plastic tab for insertion in aileron, elevators, and rudders to aid in balancing and controlling the aircraft during flight. The reinforced plastic contributes a saving in weight and greater rigidity in this part. Other military applica- tions of plastics include transparent plastic windshields for airplanes, luminescent resins for various devices, cellulose acetate chutes for 238 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 conveying ammunition from boxes to machine guns, plastic face pieces and lenses for gas masks, molded parts for shells, and the use of synthetic fibers in parachutes. Resin-bonded plywood in 1940 expanded into many industrial fields. Refrigerator cars constructed largely of this material are said to be 6,000 pounds lighter than the previously used type and to provide an economy in fabrication costs because of an 86.5 percent reduction in the number of joints. Simplification of small-boat construction and improved weather-resistant decking and planking for larger craft have also marked the introduction of this material into the shipbuilding industry. The use of laminated plastic for bearings and cams in high-speed industrial machinery was further extended during 1940. Jigs and fixtures made of laminated plastic represent a new development for light milling operations. Laminated sheets, rods, bars, and tubes of various cross sections and lengths are avail- able so that these tools can be produced with very little machining. Progress in plastics applications during 1940 may be summed up by noting that many branches of industry, such as the automotive, radio, refrigerator, and mechanical handling fields, which had pre- viously made extensive use of plastics, added new molded parts to their products, and that other manufacturers of consumer goods, faced with military priorities for light and heavy metals, turned to the synthetic plastics as readily available and suitable materials for structural parts of many types of equipment. Smithsonian Report, 1941.—Kline PLATE 1 1, SUCCESSIVE STEPS IN THE MANUFACTURE OF A PLASTIC. At the starting line are these snowy cotton linters. Taken from the cottonseed after the spinnable cotton has been ginned, these short, fuzzy fibers are bleached and scoured to a fluffy mass of pure cellulose. 2. Into this acetylating mixer go the cotton linters, catalysts, and a vinegary solution of acetic anhydride and acetic acid. Powerful machinery stirs the mixture during reaction. 3. Drastic transformation. Acetylator tips up, and owt pours an entirely new substance—cellulose acetate. 4. The cellulose acetate is then hydrolyzed (or ripened) in huge storage jars. 5. Cellulose acetate reappears in cakes which may eventually become photographic film, transparent wrapping material, acetate rayon, or other plastics. 6. The plastic, Tenite, shown here is supplied in granular, blank, and sheet forms for molding. It is available in plain and variegated colors, and in all degrees of transparency from crystal clear to opaque. - = = Sk tpg oy ‘suoljelodo [BLysnpul AUBUE 10J ‘OUIUOT, JOST UMOYS 9UN OY, “oY JO VdUNSoId OY UL SNOpiezeByuoU AUIIGISIA pue WOT}00}01d YAOq sproye ‘Ose 0784908 OSOTN][90 B ‘afooBIse[q JO PlarysoAe SIY I, pue slo Aq pejooyRun ‘siop10 o[qvedTAJos 9YVU SoVse[d yUoredsuBIy pajUT] 10 Iva] Pela S Ost S2 PES alc ancG ISNVD AIO YOs SSILSVad! +1 <2 aALV 1d aUl| J—" | $6| ‘40dey ueruosyaIUICG Smithsonian Report, 1941.—Kline PLATE 3 1. WEAVING A PLASTIC MATERIAL. Woven Saran makes a rattanlike seat covering. how i OT ell 4 J 2. NYLON BRUSHES IN INDUSTRY. The operator is inserting new brushes into the machine which is used by a bottling company. ‘OMse[d opTAurA JO Sjeays poystfod ‘reopo wod poywolaqey [[B MOPUIM AReI PUR ‘oINsopoUA JIdyo0o ‘pyerysputa B sey euRTdoUOUT [RJOUT-[[B MOU STU, “NOILONYLSNOD ANV1dy lV NI SOILSV1d = Se vy 3ALV1d 2Ul[ J—" | p6| ‘W4oday ueruosyyruc ‘omseyd JUaITISet ‘Ysn0} “WYSIOMIYSI] B ‘AIIUaA TL, JO papyour si UMOYS VUO OU, ‘OFBI 9109], PAPlOUI-UOTDof[Ul 9B WaUISsOYd dsoy.p, JO [[BJ OY} UL OUT} ISI OY) IO} UOITPIAS OY UO UAVS BIOM SJOMPAY [[BqQ100] ISR NAWSSAHD DILSV 1d ‘2 “IAW IAH DILSV 1d ‘1 G 3aLV1d oull sI—" 1 6A 1 ‘110day7 URTUOsSUATUIC VITAMINS AND THEIR OCCURRENCE IN FOODS’ By Hazet H. MUNSELL Nutrition Chemist, Washington, D. C. INTRODUCTION The first vitamins were discovered less than 3 decades ago, but since then an almost phenomenal number of substances has been classified in this nutritionally important group. A complete listing at the present time would include as many as 40 or more and there are indications of the existence of still others. The presence of vitamins in foods was recognized from observa- tions of the almost spectacular effect certain foods have on growth, function, and general well-being of the body. For centuries it had been known that the juice of limes or lemons would prevent or cure scurvy, but there had never been an adequate explanation of this relation. When it was demonstrated that a substance in the outer coating of the whole rice grain would cure or prevent the disease known as beriberi, and that butter and egg yolk contained a sub- stance required for growth and for the prevention of a peculiar type of inflammation of the eye, it became apparent that foods contain certain substances other than protein, carbohydrate, fats, and min- erals which are likewise essential for normal nutrition. The substances in foods credited with these properties were dis- tinguished by descriptive terms as the antiscorbutic, antiberiberi, and antiophthalmic factors, respectively, or on the basis of their solubility, as water-soluble C, water-soluble B, and fat-soluble A. When the name “vitamin,” from the term “vitamine” originally used for the antiberiberi substance, was suggested for them as a group they were designated vitamin C, vitamin B, and vitamin A. Since the chemical composition of the vitamins became known, several of them have received names related to their chemical structure. Thus, vitamin C is now known as ascorbic acid, vitamin B, as thiamin, vitamin G or B, as riboflavin, and vitamin B, as pyridoxine. 1Reprinted by permission from The Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly, vol. 18, No. 4. October 1940. 239 240 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 For various reasons a number of the water-soluble vitamins have been grouped together as the vitamin-B complex. Vitamin B, and vitamin G were the orginal members of this group which now in- cludes nicotinic acid and vitamin B, as well as five or six other factors not mentioned in this discussion. The number of vitamins actually known to be essential in human nutrition is relatively small. The importance of vitamins A, B,, and C in the diet is now well known. It is certain that vitamin D is a requirement of children, and while it may be needed by adults as well, perhaps in lesser amounts, this is yet to be demonstrated. Evi- dence of the significance of riboflavin (vitamin G) in the diet of man has been obtained within the last 2 years, and we now have a clear picture of the external symptoms that follow the use of a diet deficient in this factor. Since the announcement in 1937 of the value of nicotinic acid in the cure of the disease in animals which is com- parable to pellagra in man, considerable information has accumu- lated to establish the value of this substance as a pellagra preventive. There is still some question as to whether nicotinic acid and/or nicotinamide can unreservedly be designated the pellagra-preventing or P-P factor or factors, but there can be no doubt that they are specific in their effect on certain symptoms of pellagra. The sub- stance in foods which is referred to as vitamin K helps promote the clotting of blood, and the supposition now is that it functions in man, aS well as in animals, in maintaining a normal level of pro- thrombin in the blood. An anemia which occurs in chicks given a diet deficient in vitamin K responds to treatment with extracts containing this vitamin. These are the vitamins definitely known to be required by man. There is also considerable evidence in favor of two others, vitamin E and vitamin B,. Vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol) has been shown to be important for normal reproduction in several species of animals and it may be required for successful reproduction in the human species as well. Both vitamin E and vitamin B, are being actively investigated at the present time. The importance of the vitamins to normal nutrition is now fully recognized, although there is still a great deal to learn about these substances. In planning foods for the day it is essential to know how to select them for vitamin values as well as for their content of protein, carbohydrate, fat, and minerals. The purpose of this article is to give a brief and not too technical presentation of our knowledge of the properties and food sources of these vitamins. A brief de- scription of the method of quantitative expression used for them and a table of values for vitamin A, vitamin B,, vitamin C, and riboflavin content of common foods are also included. VITAMINS—MUNSELL 241 PROPERTIES AND FOOD SOURCES GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS The most distinctive common characteristic of the vitamins is the fact that they occur in foods in almost infinitesimal quantities and are effective in the body in similarly small amounts. Beyond this they have little in common since they differ markedly both in their physical and chemical properties. Some are soluble in water while others dissolve only in fats and fat-solvents. Some are easily de- stroyed, especially at high temperatures and when oxygen is present, as when foods are heated in air. Others are fairly resistant to de- struction by heat even when heated for several hours at temperatures well above the boiling point of water. In the case of nearly all of them, however, destruction takes place more rapidly in alkaline than in acid solution. In estimating the vitamin value of foods in the diet it is essential to know and keep in mind the properties of the various vitamins in order to be able to take account of possible losses. Consideration of changes that occur in the vitamin content of foods during processes connected with preservation and preparation, such as storage, freez- ing, cooking and canning, and drying, is of as much importance as consideration of the vitamin content of the fresh or untreated food. A food which, in its original state, is a perfectly good source of one or more of the vitamins may have its content of one or all of these factors reduced to insignificance as a result of the treatments it un- dergoes during preparation for consumption. Loss of vitamin value may be brought about not only as a result of inactivation or destruc- tion of the vitamins but also through their mechanical removal by solution, the vitamin passing out of the food material into the sur- rounding liquid. While vitamins are found in foods of both plant and animal origin, plants—generally speaking—should be considered the pri- mary sources since animals depend upon plants for their supply of most of the vitamins. This does not mean that the substance re- sponsible for vitamin value in plant tissue is always the same as that having a similar function in animal tissue. Vitamin A, for instance, does not occur in plants, the vitamin-A value of plants being due to certain orange-yellow substances called carotenoids. These are broken down in the liver of the animal so that vitamin A is derived from them, and for this reason the carotenoids are sometimes called the “precursors” of vitamin A. It is now well known that foods show marked differences both in the kinds and amounts of vitamins they supply. Differences in the vitamin values of different foods do not constitute the only problem 242 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 of variation that must be considered, however. There is the equally important matter of variation from sample to sample of a single food item. While it may generally be taken for granted that samples of a given food, selected at different times, will contain the same kind or kinds of vitamins, it does not necessarily follow that they will contain equal quantities of any kind. The idea must not be held with respect to any natural food, that it has a definite and fixed content of any vitamin—unless, perchance, it is zero. The problem of sample variation in vitamin content of foods is responsible for some of the newer phases of vitamin research, espe- cially in connection with studies related to food production. Some of the factors associated with this variation have been identified but there is still much to be learned. In foods of plant origin, variety in a given kind is very often an important factor in relation to vitamin content. Age and maturity of the product, its size, the amount and kind of fertilizer used in cultivation, the amount of moisture present in the soil, and the degree of exposure to sunlight may also have considerable influence. In foods of animal origin the breed of the animal from which the food comes, as well as its age and physical condition, is sometimes of significance, but the most important fac- tors are the vitamin content of the animal’s food and, in the case of vitamin-D value, the length of time the animal was exposed to sun- shine. This sums up to the conclusion that values for vitamin con- tent can in no sense be considered exact unless correlated with an adequate knowledge of the conditions that might have had an influence on them. A point of considerable practical importance in dealing with vita- min values for foods is the fact that relative vitamin potency may easily be discussed by reference to food groups or food types. A diet can be planned on the basis of food groups rather than individual foods, thus lessening the tendency to place undue emphasis on one food that may have been shown to be very rich in a particular vitamin. VITAMIN A Properties.—Vitamin A belongs to the group of fat-soluble vita- mins and is practically insoluble in water. The pure vitamin, pre- pared by freezing it out of solution, is a pale yellow, viscous, oily substance. It is not readily broken down by heat but is inactivated by oxidation, especially when heated in a medium where there is free access of oxygen. As already explained, the vitamin-A value of foods of plant origin is due not to vitamin A, since this substance does not occur in plants, but to the presence of orange-yellow pigments called carotenoids— “precursors” of vitamin A. There are four of these substances: VITAMINS—MUNSELL 243 alpha-, beta-, and gamma-carotene, and cryptoxanthin. Beta-caro- tene is by far the most important and most widely distributed in natural food products. Cryptoxanthin occurs in only a few foods. The carotenoids, like vitamin A, are soluble in fats and fat-solvents and are not readily inactivated by heat except as oxygen is present. Food sources—The vitamin-A precursors may occur in any part of a plant root, stem, leaf, flower, fruit, and seed. There is con- siderable variation, however, in the amounts present in foods of plant origin. Many contain them in abundance, and some carry only small amounts or none at all. An orange-yellow color in foods of plant origin indicates the presence of one or all of the plant carotenoids from which vitamin A may be derived and furnishes a rough index of vitamin-A potency in many vegetables as well as in fruits. Carrots and sweet potatoes are outstanding examples of this relationship. This index holds good where there are yellow and white varieties of a given product. Yellow turnips, yellow peaches, yellow corn, and yellow tomatoes are sources of vitamin A whereas the corresponding white varieties are not. To avoid confusion as to the application of these findings a word of caution seems advisable here. The fact of the presence of vitamin A in yellow varieties of foods is no reason for ignoring the white varieties. They may have values the yellow ones do not have. There is a place in the diet for all types of foods and there is little or no reason for consistently using certain ones and excluding others. Care should be taken to avoid applying factual information on food values in a fanatical way. A yellow color is not invariably associated with vitamin-A po- tency, for there are yellow plant-pigments that do not yield vitamin A. A red color has no relation to vitamin-A value and is not indica- tive of it except that in some foods a red color may mask the orange- yellow of carotene. An example is the red-fleshed tomato containing carotene either in the flesh or the skin. Experience has led to the recognition that a green color? in plants indicates vitamin-A value. Green leaves, and more especially thin green leaves like those of spinach, kale, dandelion, and leaf lettuce, are among the richest sources of vitamin A. Other green foods that are notable in this respect are green string beans and green peppers. The stems of asparagus, celery, and broccoli, and many other plants, may be appraised for vitamin-A value on the basis of greenness. Bleached parts of plants that would normally be green but do not have the green color, either because the chlorophyll never developed 7Chlorophyll, the green coloring matter of plants, does not itself form any part of vitamin A, but the high concentration of this vitamin in parts of the plant where chlorophyll functions has led to the suggestion that it may play a role in the formation of the vitamin. Vitamin-A potency in other parts of the plant would in that case be due to substances transported to them for storage. 430577—42 17 244 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 or because it was destroyed as in the case of winter cabbage, the inner leaves of lettuce, and the bleached stems of asparagus and celery have practically no vitamin-A value. In general, roots and tubers may be accepted as low in vitamin-A value with the exception of carrots and sweet potatoes, as noted above. Seeds, including nuts, cereal grains, and legumes (peas and beans), are on the whole low in, or totally devoid of, vitamin-A value unless they have some green or yellow color as peas and yellow corn. Vegetable oils contain little or no vitamin A. Among the foods of animal origin, eggs and milk are important sources. The hen and the cow do not convert all of the carotene obtained from their feed into vitamin A, and eggs and milk contain both vitamin A and carotene. In both cases the proportion of vita- min A is much higher than that of carotene. The ratio between the quantities of these two substances in milk from different breeds of cows may be significantly different, some breeds, for instance, con- sistently giving milk which contains a higher proportion of carotene than others. Since vitamin A is soluble in fat and only slightly, if at all, soluble in water, the vitamin-A value of the egg is in the yolk and that of milk is in the cream. Butter is an important source of vitamin A, and other milk products, such as cheese, contain it in proportion to the quantity of milk fat present. Eggs and milk show wide variations in vitamin-A values. The total quantities of both vitamin A and carotene in eggs and milk are influenced by the quantities present in the feed of the respective ani- mals producing these foods. During the summer months, when green feed is available, milk and eggs may show radically higher values than during other months of the year, although present-day feeding practices, by the use of feeds of high vitamin-A value throughout the year, tend to eliminate seasonal variation. In contrast to its precursors, the carotenoids, vitamin A has very little color. Inasmuch as milk and eggs contain both carotene and vitamin A, color is of little value in judging their vitamin-A po- tency. This is especially true of eggs. If the hen derived vitamin-A value from green feed or products rich in carotene, the yolk of the eggs will be deep yellow in color and will have a high vitamin-A value. If the hen did not have access to green feed or other highly colored food, but was given feed containing cod-liver oil, which contains vitamin A but not carotene, then the yolk of the eggs will be very light in color and still will be rich in vitamin A. Meats vary considerably in their vitamin-A value since much more of this factor is stored by some tissues than by others. Liver, especially, retains large amounts of it when there is an abundance of the vitamin in the diet, which makes it a rich food-source but from the standpoint of cost it can hardly be considered an important one. VITAMINS—MUNSELL 245 Glandular organs, other than liver, contain fairly large amounts of the vitamin but, like liver, they are available in limited quantities. Lean muscle meats contain only small quantities of vitamin A. Losses of vitamin-A value.—Vitamin A and its precursors are not greatly affected by any of the processes connected with food preser- vation and preparation unless there is considerable chance for oxi- dation. Foods that are stored show a loss only after prolonged stor- age. This is greatest in foods that have been dried preparatory to storing, such as dried grasses and dried fruits. Even though such foods were good sources to begin with, they may lose as much as 50 percent of their vitamin-A value in a few months’ time. Boiling and steaming cause practically no diminution in vitamin-A content. Losses have been noted as a result of baking but they are not serious; in roasting, destruction of vitamin A is appreciable. As would be expected there is little or no loss of vitamin A when foods are canned. During storage the vitamin-A content of canned foods may decrease but this change takes place gradually and usually is not appreciable up to 9 months. VITAMIN B, (THIAMIN) Properties.—Vitamin B, is a white crystalline material that is solu- ble in water. In plants it seems to exist in relatively simple combina- tion and may be removed fairly easily by extraction with water. In animal tissue it is present in more complex form combined with phosphate. Vitamin B, is described as heat-labile—that is, unstable when heated. Inactivation depends entirely, however, upon conditions under which it is treated. In acid solution it is relatively stable but in neutral or alkaline solution it is readily broken down, the rate of destruction being higher with increase in alkalinity, temperature, and time of heating. The rate of destruction of the vitamin is also higher when it is heated in solution or in mixtures that are moist than when heated in dry mixtures. Food sources.—Vitamin B, occurs in practically all foods derived from plants with the exception of fats and oils, but there are very few concentrated sources. Vitamin-B, values of foods seem to be less subject to the influence of conditions of production and are therefore somewhat more constant than other vitamin values. The relatively low concentration of vitamin B, in foods and the lack of sensitivity of the methods for measuring it have not made it: possible to determine its distribution in the different parts of plants as closely as in the case of some other vitamins. Seeds, including grains, nuts, and legumes, are known to be among the richest sources. _ In grains, the vitamin is concentrated in the embryo and outer cover- 246 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 ing. In the process of refining, these parts are largely removed, hence the importance in the diet of whole-grain breads and cereals from the standpoint of vitamin B,. All fruits and vegetables contain some vitamin B,;. Although none of them is a rich source, they should be considered important sources since they comprise a part of all diets and are usually eaten in relatively large amounts. Potatoes should be considered especially in this respect. Milk is a good source of vitamin B, in that it is generally con- sumed without having been subjected to treatment other than pasteur- ization which entails little loss of the vitamin. Eggs are also a good source, the vitamin being in the yolk. Meats should probably be rated as good sources of vitamin B,, although there is considerable destruction during cooking. For reasons not yet determined pork has a vitamin-B, content two or three times greater than other meats, and the dark meat of chicken may be richer than the light meat. Glandular organs, liver and kid- neys for example, are somewhat richer than muscle meats. Fats and oils do not contain vitamin By. Losses of vitamin B,—In considering loss of vitamin B, in foods it is essential to keep certain facts clearly in mind: (1) The vitamin is soluble in water; (2) it exists in foods in different combinations which may have a bearing on the ease of removal and also on its destruction; and (3) inactivation of the vitamin depends upon con- ditions,’ and the quantity destroyed cannot very well be expressed by a definite percentage but is more a matter of rate of destruction. When foods are cooked by boiling, the proportion of vitamin B, destroyed is relatively small up to cooking periods as long as 1 hour, and generally does not exceed 10 to 15 percent unless the food is distinctly alkaline or has been made so by the addition of soda. The loss by solution, on the other hand, may be considerable, de- pending, in addition to other factors noted, upon the proportion of water used. Larger amounts of water remove more of the vitamin. The proportion of vitamin B, found in water in which food has been cooked has been reported as high as 50 percent of that origi- nally present in the food. If this water is used there will be little loss of the vitamin. Baking causes only slight, if any, destruction of vitamin B, but the higher temperature and longer time required for roasting results in appreciable destruction. 3 Acid solutions containing vitamin B, have been heated as long as 1 hour at 120° C. without appreciable deterioration of the vitamin. In slightly alkaline solutions losses ap- proximated 30 percent during 1 hour of heating at the boiling point of water. Dry mix- tures containing vitamin B, have been heated at 100° C. for as long as 48 hours and have shown no detectable change in their vitamin-B, content. VITAMINS—MUNSELL 3 247 In canning there is apparently no loss of vitamin B, from process- ing, the greatest loss taking place during blanching or other proce- dures where there is a chance for solution. There are very few data to support a statement concerning the effect of storage on vitamin B, in canned foods. Losses noted were determined after about 6 months’ storage and ranged around 40 percent. Practical information on the inactivation of vitamin B, in foods during drying is almost entirely lacking. The vitamin seems to be retained fairly well by foods dried at a temperature of 60° C. but at higher temperatures destruction is probably considerable. VITAMIN O (ASCORBIC ACID) Properities—Vitamin C in its pure form is a white crystalline material with an acid taste and is readily soluble in water. It is inactivated by oxidation and the rate of destruction increases rapidly with increase in temperature. The degree of acidity of the mixture also has a marked influence on the stability of vitamin C. In an acid mixture like tomato juice it is destroyed only slowly, but in less acid solutions the rate of destruction is much more rapid. Inactivation of vitamin C by oxidation proceeds in two steps. By mild oxidative processes a substance called dehydroascorbic acid is formed. This substance, which functions in the animal body as vita- min C but does not respond to the usual chemical] test, may be re- duced to ascorbic acid. Under more drastic conditions of oxidation the vitamin is completely inactivated and iis activity may not be restored. Food sources.—Vitamin C may well be called the vitamin of fresh foods. This does not mean fresh from the market, but fresh from the plant or animal that produced the food. One authority has said, “with the exception of ripe seeds, practically all fresh foods of either plant or animal origin contain generous amounts of vitamin C.” Fruits and vegetables are, on the whole, the richest sources of vitamin C. There is a tendency, however, to limit the emphasis to fruits and vegetables that can be eaten raw, and more especially to the citrus fruits and tomatoes. Since these specific products are not only outstandingly rich sources of the vitamin but also retain their potency remarkably well during the various treatments to which they may be subjected, they have come to be considered almost essential in the diet. This tendency should probably not be encour- aged to the extent of diverting attention from other fruits and vege- tables that are equally important for vitamin C. In some localities and at certain times of the year other fruits and vegetables, if handled so as to conserve their vitamin-C value, might be more economical than citrus fruits or tomatoes. 248 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 Other fruits that may be considered important from the stand- point of vitamin-C content are strawberries, blueberries, and cran- berries. Among the vegetables, peppers are outstanding in the quan- tity of vitamin C they contain. Cabbage and other members of the cabbage family, cauliflower and brussels sprouts, and turnips and rutabagas also contain large amounts. Vitamin C occurs in fairly high concentration in all leaves such as spinach, collards, turnip greens, and watercress. Variation in vitamin content according to variety has been studied more extensively with respect to vitamin C than for any of the other vitamins. Rather wide varietal differences have been shown for apples, tomatoes, oranges, and cabbage. In the case of oranges sev- eral other factors are known to influence vitamin-C content, making varietal differences as studied of lesser importance. Fully ripe fruit contains more of the vitamin than partially ripe fruit, and that ex- posed to sunlight is richer than that from the shaded side of the tree. The vitamin-C content of a given variety of orange decreases pro- gressively as the season advances although this change is less pro- nounced for some varieties than others. Conditions of cultivation also have an influence, but these are not as well defined as other factors. The extent of differences that exist in the vitamin-C content of oranges may be illustrated by values obtained in the Bureau of Home Economics on a dozen oranges examined individually. These oranges were of uniform size and appearance and were purchased at one time and came from a single bin in a store in Washington, D. C. The vitamin-C content ranged from 24 to 60 milligrams of ascorbic acid per 100 milliliters of juice. Factors other than variety that may influence vitamin-C content have also been studied with apples and tomatoes. With apples, size is significant. In this fruit the vitamin is concentrated in the skin and in the flesh just under the skin. Since the proportion of skin to flesh is greater in small than in large apples, a small apple contains more vitamin C in proportion to its weight than a large one. In tomatoes there is a gradual increase in vitamin-C content as the fruit matures while during the actual process of ripening there may be a decrease. Milk and meats should not be considered significant sources of vitamin C. Milk as it comes from the cow contains an appreciable amount, but this is inactivated rapidly as the milk stands. Meats are not important sources because whatever vitamin C they contain is destroyed during cooking. Eggs do not contain vitamin C. Vitamin C is not present in fats and oils since it is soluble in water and not in fats. VITAMINS—MUNSELL 249 Losses of vitamin @.—Loss of vitamin-C value from foods may occur as a result of inactivation by oxidation or removal of the vita- min by solution. Consideration of losses from oxidation require mention, at least, of factors pertaining especially to this vitamin. Some fruits and vegetables contain substances called oxidases that accelerate the rate of inactivation of vitamin C by oxidation. These substances in turn are inactivated by heat and are destroyed in a short time when kept at the boiling point of water. Small amounts of copper coming from utensils and containers also catalyze, or hasten the oxidation of vita- min ©. Some foods also contain within their tissues an amount of oxygen sufficient to be a factor in the oxidation process. Deterioration of vitamin C begins in all foods as soon as they are removed from the environment in which they were produced. This is the reason for indicating carefully what is meant by “fresh foods” from the standpoint of vitamin-C content. The rate of inactivation of vitamin C in fruits and vegetables that are allowed to stand seems to depend upon their physical characteristics. Thin leaves like spin- ach lose vitamin C rapidly and may retain no more than 50 percent after standing 2 or 3 days. Peppers having a smooth compact outer covering, show little loss. In apples the loss is gradual and ripe tomatoes may be stored as long as 10 days without detectable change in vitamin-C content. Rate of inactivation in all such prod- ucts increases with increase in temperature so that loss is less when they are kept under refrigeration. In plant products inactivation is more rapid when the plant cells have been opened up so that the vitamin is exposed to oxygen. De- crease in vitamin-C content takes place in vegetables that are pre- pared for cooking or canning and then allowed to stand. Foods that are chopped or crushed lose vitamin C rapidly and may contain ap- preciably less of the vitamin after standing only a few hours. The rate of destruction of the vitamin is less, however, at low tempera- tures in such cases. Expressed juices like orange juice and tomato juice may be stored in covered containers at household refrigerator temperatures for as long as 24 hours with no detectable change in vitamin-C content. Rate of destruction after that time depends upon whether the oxidases have been previously destroyed by heat- ing. Canned tomato juice, after the can is opened, shows little change in vitamin-C content after several days’ storage in a refrigerator. Heat markedly accelerates the rate of destruction of vitamin C and cooked foods are not dependable sources of this vitamin. Toma- toes are a notable exception since they are rich sources to begin with and due to their high acidity they show loss of the vitamin only 250 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 after prolonged heating. In foods that contain oxidases destruction of vitamin C during cooking is very rapid at first or until the tem- perature is reached at which the oxidase is destroyed when it pro- ceeds at a much slower rate. To preserve vitamin-C content during cooking, foods should be cooked quickly. They should also be served immediately since cooked foods lose vitamin C more rapidly when allowed to stand than do raw ones. When foods are boiled some of the vitamin C they contain may dissolve in the cooking water. This dissolved vitamin may be con- served, obviously, by using the water. The proportion of vitamin C destroyed in foods that are boiled averages 20 to 25 percent while 30 to 40 percent may be present in the cooking water depending upon the amount used. Foods that must be cooked at temperatures higher than that of boiling water do not retain enough vitamin C to require consideration. Reduction in vitamin-C content from canning is less than in foods cooked by other methods since air is largely excluded during proc- essing. Decrease in vitamin-C content is greater in foods that are preheated in an open kettle before they are put into the can than in those canned by the cold pack method. Blanching may cause some loss of vitamin C through solution, but this procedure at the same time effects inactivation of any ascorbic acid oxidase present. Canned foods may be stored several months without showing serious decrease in vitamin-C content, but when deterioration once begins it proceeds rapidly. Inactivation of vitamin C in canned goods is directly and specifically related to the size of the bead space, hence, this should be kept as small as possible. Conditions of stor- age do not seem to be closely related to rate of loss of vitamin C in canned foods. The question as to whether loss is greater in foods canned in tin or in glass is still in the controversial stage. In considering canned foods as sources of vitamin C, one impor- tant point must be kept in mind. Such foods have been cooked at a fairly high temperature and the cellular structure is largely broken down. If they are allowed to stand after removal from the can or are heated and then allowed to stand they will not have very much vitamin C. Tomatoes are an exception since they retain vita- min C well under most conditions because of their high acidity. Drying of foods is very destructive of vitamin C. Some dried products—fruits—have been reported as containing small quanti- ties, and sulfured foods are supposed to contain more than others; but the amounts left even in foods that have just been dried are so small that it seems safer on the whole to disregard dried foods as probable sources of this vitamin. VITAMINS—MUNSELL 251 VITAMIN D Properties.—At least 10 different substances are known to have vitamin-D activity but only two of these are of practical importance. They are vitamin D, or activated ergosterol, known also as calciferol, and vitamin D, or activated 7-dehydrocholesterol. Ergosterol which is found only in plant tissue, and 7-dehydrocholesterol, which is asso- ciated with cholesterol, the sterol in animal fats, are often called pro- vitamins. Under the influence of ultraviolet light (irradiation) they are changed into active forms of vitamin D. The commercial prep- aration known as Viosterol, is a solution of activated ergosterol in oil. The relative activity of these two forms of vitamin D is different for different species of animals. A preparation of vitamin D, or calciferol, judged by tests with rats to have the same activity as a given preparation of vitamin Ds, will be judged to be considerably less potent when examined by tests with chicks. Thus, while, for a given effect, chicks may require the same amount of vitamin Ds, they will require more vitamin D.. Vitamin D (D, and D;) is soluble in fats and is not affected by heat or oxidation. Food sources.—Vitamin D does not occur to any extent, if at all, in foods of plant origin, but plants do contain the provitamin, ergos- terol. Dried plant tissue containing ergosterol acquires properties of vitamin D on exposure to ultraviolet light. Yeast contains large amounts of ergosterol, and irradiated dried yeast is an important source of vitamin D. The only significant natural sources of vitamin D are among the foods of animal origin. These include milk, eggs, liver, and fish that are rich in oil, like salmon and herring. The value of these foods as sources of vitamin D may well be questioned, however. The quantities of the vitamin that they contain are so small compared to the quantities needed by children for protection against rickets as to be of little practical value in this respect, and if adults require vitamin D it is difficult to believe that the quantity is as small as that ordinarily supplied by the use of these foods. This statement does not apply to fish-liver oil, which is the richest natura] source of vitamin D. Since foods of animal origin are the only ones that contain vitamin D naturally, and they contain only vitamin D, this form of the vitamin is sometimes referred to as natural vitamin D. The vitamin-D content of milk and eggs may be increased by feeding the animals producing these foods some rich source of the vitamin. Cows may be given irradiated yeast. “Metabolized” vita- min-D milk is produced in this way. The greater proportion of 252 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 the vitamin D in such milk will be vitamin D, with the small quantity of natural vitamin D normally present. Eggs of high vitamin-D activity are obtained by including cod-liver oil in the hen’s feed so that eggs generally contain only natural vitamin D. Milk may also be enriched in vitamin D by irradiating the cow, by irradiating the milk, or by adding concentrates of the vitamin directly to the milk. Only the last two methods have been used to any extent commercially. RIBOFLAVIN (VITAMIN G) Properties.—Pure riboflavin is a yellow crystalline material readily soluble in water, giving a yellow green-fluorescent solution. Ribo- flavin is not readily destroyed by heating but is less stable in alkaline than in acid solution. As it occurs in nature, riboflavin forms part of a protein phos- phorie acid complex that must be broken down penne the pure vitamin can be obtained. Food sowrces—Food sources of riboflavin are less completely known than are sources of the other vitamins so far discussed. This is due partly to its later discovery but largely to the lack of a satisfactory method of measurement. Milk, eggs, and lean meats are the richest sources. The yolk and the white of eggs contain it in about the same concentration. As riboflavin occurs associated with protein, it is present in milk in the skimmed milk and not in the butterfat. In plants, riboflavin seems to be concentrated in the green parts. Thin green leaves are especially rich sources. Green stems are much richer than the flower or the root. Although the vitamin is more concentrated in the green parts, the bleached parts of plants are not devoid of it, as they are of vitamin A. Most root vegetables and tubers contain some riboflavin. In fact, riboflavin is present in practically all vegetables of one sort or another. Seeds vary considerably in the amounts of riboflavin they con- tain. Legumes, peas, beans, and especially soybeans are good sources, while nuts and cereal grains are not so rich. The germ portion of the seed usually contains a high concentration of riboflavin, as it does of vitamin By. In general, fruits are low in their content of riboflavin. The ma- jority can be rated only fair and some fruits such as grapes, lemons, oranges, and grapefruit, contain little more than a trace. If there is a basis for classifying fruits as to riboflavin content, it is not apparent in the few data now available. Fats and oils have already been described as not containing the water-soluble vitamins B, and C. They are also about the only foods that do not contain at least traces of riboflavin. VITAMINS—MUNSELL 2583 Losses of riboflavin—There is not a great deal of information available on losses of riboflavin in foods. From the fact that the vitamin is soluble in water it might be anticipated that there would be loss during boiling or any process where food is kept in contact with water for any length of time. It will be remembered, however, that in foods riboflavin is combined with other substances. The difficulty experienced in removing the vitamin from foods by those who have undertaken quantitative estimation by chemical tests indi- cates that probably no great amount would be removed during boiling, blanching, or soaking. Riboflavin is described as heat-stable, which again might lead one to think that losses during cooking would be small. Milk whey, having an acidity comparable to that of tomato juice, was found to lose only 10 percent of its riboflavin value when heated at the boiling point of water for 1 hour, and 4 hours of heating was required to reduce the original value by 30 percent. When the mixture was made only slightly alkaline, the rate of destruction reached 30 to 40 percent for 1 hour of heating. This is a clear indication that con- ditions within the medium influence inactivation of riboflavin as they do inactivation of vitamin B,. Under similar conditions, in a liquid medium the rate of destruction of riboflavin was found to be slightly less than the rate of destruction of vitamin B,. This relieves the situation relative to lack of specific information on loss of riboflavin in foods, since any measures designed to reduce losses of vitamin B, during boiling apparently would also operate to protect against losses of riboflavin. In contrast to vitamin B,, riboflavin is less stable when heated in a dry mixture than in one that is watery or even only moist. This may afford partial explanation of the fact that the most extensive losses noted have been in the baking, roasting, and frying of meats. These ranged from 30 to 60 percent. There is no indication that storage causes loss of riboflavin irre- spective of whether foods are fresh, canned, or dried. Canning per se does not seem to reduce the riboflavin content of foods or at least not significantly. Information on the effect of drying is not available. NICOTINIC ACID (PELLAGRA-PREVENTING FACTOR) Properties.—Nicotinic acid is a white crystalline substance soluble in water and fairly resistant to heat. The amide, nicotinamide, is also effective as a pellagra preventive. Like some of the other vita- mins discussed, nicotinic acid as present in foods is combined with other substances and is not easily removed until these complex compounds are broken up. 254 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 Food sources——No consistent effort has been made to determine the nicotinic acid content of foods accurately. Most of the studies along this line have been concerned with determination of pellagra- preventing value directly. Some of these studies have been made with dogs as subjects and some with human beings. It is difficult to correlate the two kinds of data. Appraisal of pellagra-preventing value of foods on the basis of content of nicotinic acid depends upon the quantity of this substance required for the cure and prevention of pellagra; and this has not yet been definitely determined, although it can be stated approximately. Milk, lean meats, eggs, fish, liver, and some vegetables have long been known to be valuable in the cure and prevention of pellagra. Among the vegetables, green leaves are especially effective, and the legumes (peas and beans) and tomatoes have some value. Losses of nicotinic acid.—The pellagra-preventing value of foods is not reduced easily. Foods have been heated in an autoclave or pressure cooker as long as 6 hours without showing a decrease in effectiveness. Canned foods seem to be equally as good as the corresponding fresh ones. VITAMIN K (THE ANTIHEMORRHAGIO VITAMIN ) Properties.—Vitamin K is one of the newer vitamins. It is a color- less or slightly yellowish crystalline substance soluble in fats but not in water. It seems to be resistant to heat but is destroyed by alkalies and certain substances that bring about oxidation. Food sources—Vitamin K is fairly widely distributed in foods. It occurs abundantly in green leaves, alfalfa having been one of the chief sources from which concentrates have been prepared. Flowers, roots, and stems of plants contain less than leaves. The vitamin is present in soybean oil and some other vegetable oils and in tomatoes. It is not present in fish-liver oils, but decomposed fish meal has been the source of a substance having vitamin K activity, differing slightly from the vitamin K of alfalfa. A number of compounds are known to have properties ascribed to vitamin K but how many of these occur naturally is not known. VITAMIN E Properties.—Vitamin-E activity is shown by several substances. The one of most importance from the standpoint of its natural occur- rence is alpha-tocopherol. This has been separated from wheat-germ oil and cottonseed oil as a light yellow viscous oil. Food sources.—Vitamin E occurs in many of the various types of foods considered essential in a well-balanced diet and it is not dif- ficult to obtain an adequate supply. Foods known to contain vita- VITAMINS—MUNSELL 255 min E in abundance are milk, meat, eggs, whole seeds, including both cereal grains and legumes, and lettuce. It is also present in many vegetable oils including, in addition to the two already mentioned, corn oil, rice oil, and Red Palm oil. Losses of vitamin E'.—Vitamin E is soluble in fat and occurs asso- ciated with oils. It is stable toward heat but is inactivated when oils containing it become rancid—presumably because of oxidation. VITAMIN Bg, OR PYRIDOXINE Properties —Vitamin B, is a white crystalline substance and is soluble in water. It is stable toward heat even in alkaline solution, but is destroyed by long exposure to light. Food sources.—Vitamin B, is found in seeds; in some vegetable fats and oils such as linseed oil, peanut oil, rice oil, soybean oil, cottonseed oil, corn oil, and wheat-germ oil; and in butterfat, beef fat, meats, and fish. Most vegetables and fruits are poor sources. THINGS TO REMEMBER The array of information relating to the vitamins is extensive and complex. Unless one is making almost constant use of it, it is next to impossible to keep even the essential details in mind, and very few people wish to be hampered by the need of a pocket handbook in order to remember their vitamins. In the selection and preparation of foods for a diet adequate in vitamin content a few rules or sum- mary statements are usually sufficient. Those given below are sug- gested as helpful and others may be formulated if need requires. 1. Use a variety of all types of foods giving especial attention to the use of milk, eggs, green leafy vegetables, fresh fruits and vegetables, lean meats, and whole-grain cereals and breads. 2. To avoid loss of vitamin value in cooking: Cook foods as quickly as possible. Use small amounts of water and use any that is left. Special utensils are not necessary for so-called waterless cookery. Steaming is an excellent way to cook many vegetables and some other foods. Do not peel vegetables or fruits and cut them up and then let them stand before cooking. Cooking them whole and with the outer covering on helps preserve vitamin content. Never add soda to vegetables during cooking. It serves no useful pur- pose and makes for destruction of vitamins. Cook green vegetables in an open kettle and they will stay green. Serve foods as soon as possible after they are cooked. Do not fry foods if they can be cooked in some other way. Frying and roasting are very destructive of vitamins. 3. Give very careful attention to sources of vitamin B: in the diet. It is more difficult to obtain an adequate amount of this vitamin than any of the others. It is probably the one in which American diets are most deficient. 256 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 Take special care to conserve the vitamin B: in foods during cooking. Many of the foods that contain an abundance of vitamin Bi are cooked before being eaten, and next to vitamin C, vitamin B: is the vitamin most likely to be lost when foods are cooked or canned. The precautions necessary to conserve vita- min B; will conserve other vitamins as well. 4. Store foods at low temperatures and in closed containers. 5. Do not chop or crush fresh fruits and vegetables and allow them to stand. They lose vitamin C rapidly. 6. Frozen foods have practically the same vitamin content as fresh ones. Care must be taken to conserve it during preparation for serving. Do not defrost and then allow to stand. If frozen foods are to be cooked put them on to cook while they are still frozen and use all of the liquid. 7. Dried foods are not especially recommended for vitamin value. 8. Canned foods retain vitamin value well, with the possible exception of vitamin C, provided they have not been stored too long. To obtain full value, use the entire contents of the can. Canned foods are cooked foods and should be treated accordingly. 9. In canning foods observe the same precautions for conserving vitamin content as suggested for cooking. VITAMIN VALUES As soon as the existence of any one of the vitamins was recognized it became a matter of concern to know not only in what foods it oc- curred but also in what quantities. The development of methods of measurement was, therefore, of considerable importance. Chemical identification of the vitamins has usually not been made until some time after their discovery and for this reason development of chemi- cal or physical methods of measurement proceeded uncertainly. Many of the studies on the physiological effects of the vitamins have been made with laboratory animals. It was natural in some of these studies for information to be obtained on the relation between the quantity which an animal ate of a food known to contain a par- ticular vitamin and the response of that animal in terms of growth, or cure or prevention of the disease associated with the vitamin. As these observations were made, consideration was given to the possi- bility of using a relationship of this kind as the basis of a quantita- tive method of measurement for the vitamin concerned. Methods of determination in which the reactions of animals are used are called biological methods. To determine actual vitamin content by a heel ieat method it is necessary to carry out a test in comparison with a substance con- taining a known amount of the vitamin in question. When the bio- logical methods were first suggested, this condition could not be met because the chemically pure vitamins had not yet been prepared and natural products vary too much to be used as reference mate- rials. As a result of this situation it became the custom to express content with respect to a particular vitamin in terms of the quantity VITAMINS—MUNSELL 257 required to produce a given response in the animal used and under the conditions specified for the test. Such a quantity was known as a “unit.” Several of these biological units have been defined and used but the best known are probably the Sherman units for vita- mins A, B,, and C, and vitamin G or B, (riboflavin). As interest in the importance of the vitamins increased, attempts were made to devise more satisfactory methods of evaluating them. A committee appointed by the Health Organization of the League of Nations has established standards of reference called Interna- tional Standards of Reference for vitamins A, B,, C, D, and E to be used in determining the content of these vitamins in foods and other materials. A definite quantity of each standard was specified as the International unit in terms of which the content of the respective vitamin was to be expressed. Definitions of the International Units for Vitamins A, B:, C, and D Vitamin A.—The International unit of vitamin A is the vitamin-A activity of 0.6 microgram (0.0006 milligram) of the International Standard beta-carotene. One U. S. P. (United States Pharmacopoeia) unit of vitamin A presumably has the same value as 1 International unit (I. U.) of vitamin A. Vitamin B,—The International unit of vitamin B: is the vitamin-B, activity of 3.0 micrograms (0.003 milligram) of the International Standard crystalline thiamin chloride (vitamin B:). One U. 8. P. (United States Pharmacopoeia) unit of vitamin B: has the same value as 1 International unit (I. U.) of vitamin B:. Vitamin C.—The International unit of vitamin C is the vitamin-C activity of 0.05 milligram of the International Standard crystalline ascorbic acid (vitamin C). One U. S. P. (United States Pharmacopoeia) unit of vitamin C has the same value at 1 International unit (I. U.) of vitamin C. Vitamin D.—The International unit of vitamin D is the vitamin-D activity of 1 milligram of the International Standard solution of irradiated ergosterol in oil. One U. S. P. (United States Pharmacopoeia) unit of vitamin D presumably has the same value as 1 International unit (I. U.) of vitamin D. Enumeration of vitamin potency in terms of International units is now the accepted mode of expression. As more satisfactory chemi- cal and physical methods of measuring vitamin content are developed, this somewhat cumbersome device will doubtless be abandoned for the more usual procedure of giving composition on the basis of weight of chemical substance. This is already the case with vitamin C where values are given more often in terms of milligrams of as- corbic acid per gram or per 100 grams of material than in terms of International units. No International Standard for riboflavin has been established. The Sherman or Sherman-Bourquin unit is frequently used for de- noting vitamin-G potency, otherwise riboflavin is given directly as milligrams or micrograms of riboflavin. 258 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 Values for vitamin-A, vitamin-B:, and vitamin-C content of foods and other materials determined prior to the adoption of the Inter- national Standards of Reference are for the most part expressed in terms of the Sherman units. For some foods the only values avail- able are expressed in these units and for this reason attempts have been made to derive factors showing the relation between the Sher- man and the International units. Since there has been some divided opinion as to what these should be, it seems well to reemphasize the fact that a biological unit does not have an exact value. These units are defined in terms of animal behavior which, however well controlled, is certain to vary. This simply means that the ratio be- tween an International unit and the corresponding biological unit varies according to conditions, and a fixed figure cannot be estab- lished for it. Values expressed in International units which have been derived from Sherman unit values by use of conversion factors cannot be considered more than rough approximations. International unit values so obtained should be clearly designated if pre- sented with other material. The ratios given below for these two units represent general experience with comparative values. Suggested Interrelation of Sherman Units for Vitamins A, B, C, and @ and the Corresponding International Units Vitamin A.—Sherman units of vitamin A corresponding to 1 International unit of vitamin A have been found to vary from 0.8 to 2.5. The ratio of 1.5 is suggested as most representative, that is, 1 Sherman unit of vitamin A=0.7 International unit. Vitamin B,—Sherman unit values of vitamin B: corresponding to 1 Inter- national unit of vitamin B; have been found to vary from 0.7 to 4 or 6 Sherman units. The most general relation for the majority of values obtained by the Sherman technique is suggested as 1 Sherman unit equivalent to 1 International unit. Vitamin C.—One Sherman unit of vitamin C is generally considered equivalent to 10 International units. Riboflavin.—One Sherman-Bourquin unit of vitamin G is equivalent to 3.0 to 3.5 micrograms of riboflavin. VALUES FOR THE VITAMIN CONTENT OF FOODS For some purposes, and especially for dietary calculations, it is desirable to have a set of values showing the quantities of the vari- ous vitamins in different foods. In the general discussion of food sources of the vitamins it was made clear that no food has a fixed and invariable content of any vitamin. Values for different samples of any food may vary over wide ranges depending upon the factors that influence the content of the vitamins it contains. The deriva- tion of average values, in the strict sense of this term, is not possible without using an unreasonable amount of descriptive material con- VITAMINS—MUNSELL 259 cerning each individual food item. In lieu of this it might seem advisable to indicate a range in place of a single value. The diffi- culty in that case is that anyone requiring a single value will use the median of the range which may not be in any sense the best value to use. This reduces the problem to one of arbitrarily select- ing what are considered the most representative values. The values in the table presented here, which is offered as an aid to those who must use single values expressive of vitamin con- tent, were selected on this basis. The selections were made from a summary of all of the data that could be obtained in the literature or elsewhere up to July 1, 1940. Careful consideration was given to the methods of analysis used and the nature of the food material studied. The values given should be taken as applying to foods that are reasonably fresh and of good quality. This is especially im- portant to keep in mind relative to vitamin-C values. “Market fresh” vegetables are often far from “fresh” as far as vitamin-C content is concerned. Adjustments should be made in the vitamin-C values for fruits and vegetables, especially leafy vegetables, when the products to which they are being applied are not strictly fresh. Some values in the table may differ materially from correspond- ing ones in other summaries. Too much concern should not be felt over such discrepancies, perhaps, since all values of this kind are, as explained, arbitrarily selected and their approximation to actual fact is problematical in any case. If specific information about a food is available, other values might be selected as more suitable. TABLE 1.— Values selected as representative of the vitamin-A, vitamin-B,, vitamin-C, vitamin-D, and riboflavin content of common foods [Unless otherwise stated, the values given are for the edible portion of the fresh food] t Vitamin a | VOSmIa) |Natamin Oh | ee Crees Food material Units per 100 grams! Int. Int.2 Int. Int. Sherman 4 Alfalfa leaf meal, dried___-___ SO ee ee Le eee 50 MenrReNiCh Ss M3 Sa en 2 ht 75 (ile re ae 0 | aes 200 30-40 oie ee 75| 15 { sae Mel cele 10 PeIeOb, eresn. 2 4, 000 10 LOBES 17 murncoat, dried 22) k 2S: 5, 000 30 GORE Ee ss 35 Artichoke, Globe__________- 200 60 a DF ial eee Fair Artichoke, Jerusalem. {== 2. toss... 8 50 1 3 ee ee Asparagus, green___________ 700 70 7 a 40 Asparagus, bleached__-_-_____ 0-50 50 6500/5054 Fair Pate LS oe OP ee 100 30 400: |e mee 30 bp 6 ae 300 15 200" 2ee=ee 30 pemete S Beh s os 0 120 alee a8 we 3 Beans, snap: Eecn eer e . SET AR 1, 000 25 300 j__=__- 40 Sth ale pile bal REDE | RR 25 SOO Neeser 40 See footnotes at end of table. 4305774218 260 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 TaBLE 1.—Values selected as representative of the vitamin-A, vitamin-B,, vitamin-C, vitamin-D, and riboflavin content of common foods—Continued Riboflavin vitamin G Vitamin A ba Vitamin C Vitamin Food material Units per 100 grams 1! Beans, shelled: INEVY ee oe eee eee eee Red kidneys Sess See Ses | bea seat ee Soy pean. See Lee Beet topsie See oo ee oe Blackbertyesot cease ee ee= Black-eyed peas (see Cow- peas). Bitebernye oreo eee eee erg hubtish: pear spe ele ae aie WEG Wil US Ws ieee ate ee ee ee Brazilmuteeess 5 asses Bread: Brussels sprouts_-==------- BB we kewihea te see ce ee ee or al ee pees Butter, average=...¢. 4... From cows on dry feed__-- From cows on green feed_-_ Cabbage, head: Young, partly green---_--- Mature, bleached__-_------ 1B 0 Lang wy a PSS GO EES ce IE a ey ere (ee C@hinese®scas. #422425 Cantaloupe.= 2. 3ssce oS se= OFF iar (0 rea AE wes ee ee Calitiowers 222 5-5-2. 225. = Celery stalks: Cheese: Cheddares 42/55) eee ee Cotiagete 2224. pb et os Cream sss ee eee Se hee Darke eee Sleek eae ea Le ee eS ea £5 Oa Na Mp ene earsi stor ees SES Excellent Waits Get 2 8 a ee te Se SO ke Pas es ah | rere Excellent God sliverolll. 6 ane (*) 0 OFC) 0 Collandae ve OMe Ley oe e 7, 000 50 SOOV aes 100 See footnotes at end of table. VITAMINS—MUNSELL 261 TaBLE 1,—Values selected as representative of the vitamin-A, vitamin-B,, vitamin-C, vitamin-D, and riboflavin content of common foods—Continued Vitamin A Se Vitamin C eae Ebonay G Food material Units per 100 grams! Int. Int.4 Int.3 Int. Sherman 4 Corn, sweet: Js a, ad eee 08 9 0-50 45 200 ee essu |e see Ree MEN OWE] st te eee eS 500 45 200 ues eo 20 Corn dried: LOU Sas Aig et Ine aS ahh ee pao 0 100 Ove. 2a Fair PIC ILON a eke ee Sie 550 100 Ose Fair @orn oil, refined... - 0 0 O ad Sar 0 Cottonseed oil, refined______ ) 0 0 0 0 owpea: RYO Tete seek Wee rereyal emer ESP LN es See Oe ee kee 2 {0 ese eee he Ah Diedaee ote. = 2 hee he 50 SOOR | Sasa es Se ae |e oe 100 Grauperrys (22. abt west, DOG eeet 5 = 225 0 0 Cream, 20 percent___.---.-_- 600 I po Ney rs Pracesi2iso 32 220 @ucumberso 2222 - es eee. 2 20 5 200b i EeSe se 8 Currant: BY FY) eects i eres (a Fs 400 10 S OOO NEAL Seas Oe oe UCC ee ee ee Le a ee 15 C200 al eens ce MeL Mandetion. = -.5-L. 255.2 12 000' 422.4. 2; 000! |= Se=3 Good Mates. cured=. 1202855). 150 25 ay eg td 15 Muck leaves: 2.22. 52625 205. 14 O00) |S see ee ae Good Pie, Wales x2 5 Book 2 1, 000 50 Oo eee 110 | OY ye Ae a ee 2 See ee 0 0 Ok | Seas 100 YOO 2s, Ae Lee Se | Se ee 2, 800 140 Oe Fon 115 7129 0) 721) es: 35 15 4 0018 aR 10 Endive (escarole) _....-.-..._ 15, 000 28 400 |___---_ 40 i et eae roofers LM Neng ata ar 4h a 20 Fig: a Se ee 50 25 30) |/s28 ise 15 iDance 2 22 eee Et eee 60 22 Oto oes2 25 Flour: White, patent_2..._..._-- 0 30 Ove. ee ee Wiholeawheaten. U.o 2. 2 2| se Lt eee 1 1CGY 0] A es s Fair Gardenicress. 22256 see Excellent OO! ee lg Fa rele a el All Rg RUSE UCEIV GS). atau os Sa ae BIS ee 500.) 5 SO Fete Sere) 0 ae ee eee Trace 15 COWS 2025 8 EDEL oe Es eae ee sae Sena | Ieee py ey a UENO a DR ee a 0 23 Sh0 A222 Trace WICH Sete a a 0 25 S00 Sees Trace @Wanned 2 = 22 2 tt Bee. ee Si 0 25 300) /22==—- Trace NAVA ee oo ee 200 14 1 SOOM =e 3 eRe OMe py I 5 OTT ooh od homtiaee Ollie ahs Good LE (ZOD ToL 0T ci, om De maar MS | Ee pape a lb 5510s Pena erea aa na trae eg Ag a zelnuteet sot Be Se 100 220) soo Se a eee a ee ae eart: leiyeis a ee Trace 200) |e soee sy Ue ee 300 LLP y aa oy Se 8 SR ee Trace 200 [ES 25 5se Se eee ee OT Wane tee eh eee en eN hs ere Bee Le SO) Spe 2 aes a Ria eg HR ED LIS Ca A a 0 0 0 0 0 EROTSELA CIS I Cene eax ty etons cs 3 | OR ee, 9) Aeab s ae diet 2000 | Sena a eee ee “EEG Sh fe a © Aer (CL Peer aa | 7a ey ss na Pale eere ee es EL Ne i Das 20, 000 50 2 O00} aee aes 200 Kidney, beef or veal_____-_- 1, 000 60 |S easosalsee Se 700 Wamp awe eee 1, 000 451) paper ree ye 25 (Aaa Ie es ee ae 1 Ex Gh eae SR EES PA Pepe Ce 222 ee 15032222 eee a 2 | LL TITS RS, BS APRONS) I OF 3) epee 20 1 200M PAST ack Mesmip.varuscie, lean. 258 Sole 80 Noo t esse ble eee 70 See footnotes at end of table. 262 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 TABLE 1.—Values selected as representative of the vitamin-A, vitamin-B,, vitamin-C, vitamin-D, and riboflavin content of common foods—Continued Riboflavin vitamin G Vitamin A Vitamin Vitemin |" vitamin © 1 Food material Units per 100 grams! BEG of WEY ie a ee Es eee Week auch Satu ccs 21a Oa bess tee Memonyjuice== == Se ee Bentilsvdried2 4522222222 — ettuce, green. 2. fase --2- + Bleaché@en 2 Be ee Romaine or cos AGIM| | UICC es eRe a La bs Ne ee Miverubeer eo eee eee 9, 000 75 | Fresh 750 45 600 Caltexs ld Site ct ti eo See 2 7, 000 70 | Fresh 650 15 550 Chickentis {ese e soe als Excellent 75 | Fresh 450 50 | Excellent 110) cS CoRR Bae Sogn Excellent 75 | Fresh 750 20 550 Pi ee A lye eee 2 2 Excellent 100 | Fresh 525 45 600 Man pO! ee ye a BNO or 1, 500 30 (a0 0 (ne eae 20 1s GLA Tae pet La gel vB aie LY BO FEE pen sa, 8 | a Be Raw 404) 22 eee Whele fresh, average mar- 110 20 Past. 25 2 75 et. From cows on dry feed_- 55 20 Raw 30 1 60 From cows on pasture-- 175 20 Raw 50 3 80 Whole dried: AV ETA TC Las sO eet 875 120 0 16 500 From cows on dry feed_- ASO boast 0 8:32 sete From cows on pasture -- 1 400M eee 2 0 DA 92 Cheep eee pe Lehto Wat a SE ek ey 2 15 (0) (ee Excellent DIM, iGried: oat eeage 20 120 Ly LCR a Molasses! Mine wanaee fae 0 0 Ogee S| eee MuUShroomen ees seca eee 0 30 ‘Traces|tes..4|2=2..=ae Mustard ereens . 28802 Excellent 45 2, 0008 ese =a Excellent Oats (rolled or oatmeal) _-_--- Trace 180 0 0 30 OS cfs ae be ON eR pe eee 400 40 400 ges Fair Olive, canned: (Ge; 2) 1 a ae BS SRY SOME SER HOO a cee Oo. aah fees. 1 RE) 0 oe eo ae ee esl ae =e 125 2 0 0 0 Olive oil, refined. 2232 -—_ 22 te) ENuee ea an |e Cot oh Po Olea eke Onion: Eh ere) «NON GE Deanne 1) eee See Bair se DAS) nee | Sra oh 2 Mapareu so. 22a mee Es 0 10 TEQn ee 30 @ranpe juices: 42 45-250 |), a0 182.20" \ nie 5 Oystere sae Pe 14 Qn eee 2 (pl eee ee (reer re BaDa Vast eos Suu cee eee eee 2, 500 25 GOO see Ss 60 Parsley = Scio se es Se SO; 000s Sasa =— 2; 000) )|=2222=|-s4-e6eee Parsi = oes oe See oie Trace 40 450 (0222 22)| ass see Pea: Green fresh eon 2 eee oe 1, 000 140 500) | 2222—= 65 Green dried sess = 22 1, 200 ise Se es 100 Peach: Witte fm ee ae re 5 10 200-22 22 2|kseeseees NWiellowes esos. See Rees 1, 000 10 200s pee 20 Willow. anied=]- 9a 30008 eaeea= Oa eee ee eee Peanut: Wi rADO 20 Seer ei OW. $320; pe. cee eal ee ae Good BLOBSGEOS 0) Oc tees nea 2 co QO es ee | les SPAnISh oe 2. ey tee ee ree BOO oe eee ee ee 250 Spanish, roasted ci oa) hs be BO ioe eee oe ee ee eee See footnotes at end of table. VITAMINS—MUNSELL 263 TABLE 1.—Values selected as representative of the vitamin-A, vitamin-B,, vitamin-C, vitamin-D, and riboflavin content of common foods—Continued Vitamin A |Vitamin! vitamin |Vitenin) oa Food material Units per 100 grams! Int. Int. Int.3 Int. Sherman 4 [EG ee Se a eee ee 10 ss 105 es 2 2 Tre Be ee ae UT UG, (aa +5, | Mi ee ne ae kal Ee 100 Pepper TKO) d=, eee Mieco eae 5, 000 10 20008 |2eee a 40 Reds aie s 5 eee 8. 3th 5, 000 10 3; 000 22222 ee Pumeanple se ers on 2 5 90 25 BOO. ey se 12 DNTICG SITES Hter tee ee en eee eee 30 6008 | Eas s|2 eee ane Wee veRMNet 2S se eee oe 25 BO sie eee ele Lae ee en ee 2 ee Pee ee eee 35 LOOT a2. —— 15 Pork; muscle, Jean. 2-22 2—— Trace 400 eae oe see 75 Potato, Average = 22} 4 222k 30 40 DAG 0 al (Eee ise 15 Ne eee en ere Sees 8 Le ee ee OUR eee [epee SHORE) Ol Ces ee eee | ae ee 1 0 a (ae em eras are ay Prune: Hires hype ool kerk tare Toe 1, 500 AY ecco Sea ole Nip Bia (mate alin pc Driedese ss 2 Pe 2, 500 50 5On eee a= Good LEU eh) SS a ee ae. 2, 500 15 1 Sera 15 PEST 0 Se Roc Ree ie Sela lee Oe iy SS ZION |e eae ag ees peices OOS ORV Pe oa Trace 20 A00s1e 22 22 10 EUSRIS Tree ee sey ete se 50 SOLS era OW 2s FE Be ee LED TT AE eg SS Cpe area pee ean (a Ryaaarel epee 10 GOGL w ees Oa eee ‘Draces|s22 2. AQQ "22s or S1 |e eae are ice: STO Wiles see sero ta Trace 75 UF ee es 50 Polished Saaern maeee ee 0 10 (Ut | Sapte tos Trace (OTS aS pp ne neg og a 2, 000 30 LOO 222 Fair Rutabaga: Rinnoess sees eS Mee 0 15 BOO TE Stes aes eae BYiellow iss 22212. ceri pl sees 25 5 A002 2 2225 | 4 Ss Biot lve. eee 0 140 On) Fair Salmon, canned: LE se tes es ery 2 Bens 8 3402) eee Oy 8 PCR eee 220922 skal 4 Whinogke ss. es eee ASLO] OS ey aes oe leaped Be DGD be eee ee ETN epee pe Pe RE NN OOS Ee oe eee eee 625):|U eet eee NER yf Fe a ys Se es 4 325 |Trace 0 800 75 Se Se eas Lee PONE re tes ie ee ees Good Good Soybean (see under Bean). Smaghe 68. 8 Be kt 25, 000 40 17500) 2s 2e= = 125 Squash Summers ies fe ae 1, 000 in) pee LS St) ees 15 Wiritenic 22: 26 Soe 2 ee Fee 4, 000 15 TOO) | eae 4s 25 SUE el a ae oe Trace |Trace 10008 | aaaes Trace Sweet potato. 2322 /.. fue. 3, 500 30 400 Fs eee. 30 puccrine SAE SONAR ete ORY (he Pee ETE EON 30 ZOO ph oe 10 omato, mature: [Bae eee 700%|0. 23) fo) orgy he 15 Biiied tented e Marais 2c 1,000:/) 26. |] agen (ieee 20 RTIRG AAPOR oe 1, 000 25 Page 51 dig Ie ag Mls ea le auiee, canned commercial -|2--- 222.52 2)225._- { Pek ae ee Ds | pe Spee Turnip Wihitectwie ots 2 bee 0 12 GOOH | 28a 12 TLS ee a cs en 20 12 6003/2222 12 aiwenip greens. 2 | 10, 000 40 3S; HOG) fees 120 See footnotes at end of table. 264 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 TABLE 1.—Values selected as representative of the vitamin-A, vitamin-B,, vitamin-C, vitamin-D, and riboflavin content of common foods—Continued Vitamin A Vitamin Vitamin C Vitamin evan e Food material Units per 100 grams! Int. Int. Int.3 Int. Sherman 4 Walnuts Bake wet ee hele ood 130 VO see SE Ah eee oe Bima iba ee fc 8021 dye aged 100 TSO sae ys 2 | 3 ee Watercress. 22. > BRE Se 4, 000 40 15500 u peaeee 90 Watermelon. 2) fee. fou Trace 20 150 0 10 Wiheater jb fi AAR od Trace 180 Ons sgoee 35 3 ; Where there are no values, data were not available for making estimates. 100 grams is approximately .5 ounces. 2 International units of vitamin B; multiplied by 3 give micrograms of thiamin. 3 International units of vitamin C multiplied by 0.05 give milligrams of ascorbic acid. 4 For the calculations made in this table, the relation of 1 Sherman unit equivalent to 3.0 micrograms (0.003 milligrams) of riboflavin was used. Sherman units multiplied by 3 give micrograms of riboflavin. *For vitamins A and D use values given on the container. t The author suggests the following revisions for table 1: A value of 100 for the vitamin-A content of cottage cheese instead of 500, a value of 10 for the vitamin-C content of dried prunes instead of 50, and a value of 78 for the riboflavin content of jumbo and roasted peanuts. SELECTING FOODS TO MEET VITAMIN REQUIREMENTS In planning or assessing diets for adequacy in vitamin content, it is obviously necessary to have information as to the quantities of each of the vitamins needed in the daily diet. Suggested values for vitamins A, B,, C, D, and riboflavin are summarized in table 2.4 At the present time considerable interest is being shown in studies to determine the requirement of the various vitamins known to be essential in the diet of man. The main problem has been the development of methods giving results that could be interpreted in relation to nutritional well-being. The first knowledge of the requirement of any vitamin came as a result of determining the quantity required to cure or prevent the disease associated with that vitamin. Such quantities have usually been referred to as minimum protective quantities. It soon became apparent that the quantity needed for normal nutrition was considerably in excess of the mini- mum protective quantity. As information and experience accumu- lated the aim has been to obtain values of vitamin requirements that apply more nearly to normal nutrition. 4See also the Table of Recommended Dietary Allowances prepared by the Committee on Food and Nutrition, National Research Council, May 1941, available through Nutrition Division, Federal Security Agency, Washington, D. C. VITAMINS—MUNSELL 265 TABLE 2.—Values suggested as expressive of the daily requirement for vitamins A, B, C, D, and riboflavin! For the average adult under average conditions a ee ee eee a ee During prer- 4 ; Vitamin kes nancy and lac- | F ee ene cten solute . tation anne Adequate Optimum /\ Ae eee 2,000 I.U____- oc to 5,000 a to*8;000))| (More: —---==2=-- 8,000 to 10,000 I.U. B,; (thiamin) -} 200 I.U. or 300 to 400 1.U. 500 to 600 I.U. | Several times al- Considerably more in 0.6 mg. or 0.9 to 1.2 or 1.5 to 1.8 lowance for proportion to their mg. mg. average adult weight than adults C (ascorbic | 20 to 25 mg. | 40to 60mg. or | 80mg.or1,600 | Twice that for | Only slightly less than acid). or 400 to 500 800 to 1,200 FU the average that for adults. I.U. I.U. adult. 1D TS ie eae ee IN OG WonO wanes Sao Se as ree 8001.U. suggest- | 300 to 400 I.U. suggest- ed as adequate ed as adequate for protection against rickets; 675 I.U. sug- gested for optimum growth. Riboflavin | Approximately 600 Sherman-Bourquin units |_.__..______-____- At least 400 Sherman- Gi tamin or 2 milligrams. Bourquin units. 1 Previously published. Munsell, Hazel E., Planning the day’s diet for vitamin content. Journ. Amer. Dietetic Assoc., vol. 15, p. 639, October 1939. In summarizing data on vitamin requirements, it seems desirable to give the quantities determined as minimum as well as those con- sidered adequate. In some instances data have been obtained indi- cating that nutritional well-being is enhanced by a diet supplying quantities of a vitamin in excess of that considered adequate. Such quantities have been designated as optimum. Studies to determine the requirement of the various vitamins are still in the preliminary stage. It is problematical whether the requirement of any vitamin can ever be expressed with precision. Many factors operate to influence the quantity of each that is needed. Data already at hand indicate that the requirements may vary from individual to individual according to sex, age, size, and activity, and vary in the same individual from day to day depending upon the physiological condition, activity, or environment. The material offered in table 2 should be used with certain con- siderations in mind. With the exception of vitamin D the values for the requirement of each of the vitamins represent quantities that may be supplied readily by the use of natural foods. These quantities indicate the daily requirement of the normal individual with no allowance made for variation in the vitamin value in dif- ferent foods or losses that may occur from cooking or other processes to which the food may be subjected. There is no evidence of harm from the ingestion of vitamins as they occur in foods in quantities considerably in excess of those given as requirements. In planning diets the aim should be to provide foods that will supply at least as much and preferably more than the adequate allowance of each vitamin and several times this allowance in cases where there is indication of a greater need. te penta “it: 4 F ‘ate on ue a: thay t Me wiaheinne! Ps ,. adeetelle sil tay ri rn Ds Da eon at Piscuins site nto jive evita PN if Pitd' he aN ne jist whim ag Paap mites ey Apaans cing ar acca safe loelyascaata sat Ma 7 Chnsoy Ose VA ‘on vis sal 6 0) paty ‘ha Pe P i ‘ ae a i t} ai; one + iu hin fe ce Wi rh Te aoe ys bt ul Mise ha Hess iv: \ i Ad stad hie mene ae oe ibn ix se > ees wre 4) yet Rubia (gi — f, ict ba ‘isl wht y ii cigiaNty ard ‘hi iain, Take 7 bd Bee vars, sevice Ste a awit nia, ack: aig dag at pains ae iy why! Nill ‘4 ae a ¥ He Ot eat 7 ¥ iP ae way Nu io “ae Shi mintistatdys ‘* To. stl os u, wai re ey sa bi bie wi ihe AD. ih WY, fh ie a) Cannio ‘ sobs SCIENCE AND HUMAN PROSPECTS? By Evior BLACKWELDER Stanford University On facing the duty of preparing the customary presidential address for this year, I gave some thought to the question of what contribution I could best make. Having been for many years a field geologist and at times even an explorer, I might have gathered up the results of many local studies and generalized them. Being engaged more re- cently in studying desert physiography and the Pleistocene history of the western States, I might have chosen one of those subjects—and indeed they are well worth considering. However, in such a fateful year as 1940, it seemed to me that the occasion called for a subject of greater importance and one that has a more direct relation to the welfare of this nation; and so I decided to ask your attention this evening to a subject that has long been one of my chief concerns—namely, education in science and its relation to the future welfare of humanity. It seems to me that a teacher of geology, or indeed of any other science, should devote himself not only to giving his students informa- - tion, and explaining processes and theories—however important those educational duties may be—but especially to training young people in the scientific way of thinking and helping them to acquire the scientific spirit. To my mind, that is his most important function. Since geology is considered a science—albeit not one of the so-called exact sciences—and since we call ourselves scientists, it may be well to ask at this point, what, essentially, is science? In general terms the dictionaries say that it is knowledge established, organized, and systematic. To me, however, this concept is not adequate. In the words of the great French mathematician, Poincaré: “A collection of facts is no more a science than a heap of stones is a house.” Verified knowledge is one element, organization and classification are necessary and so is the testing of hypotheses, but I cannot regard any of these 1 Address as retiring president of The Geological Society of America, delivered at the annual meeting of the Society in Austin, Tex., December 26, 1940. Reprinted by per- mission from the Bulletin of The Geological Society of America, vol. 52, Mar, 1, 1941. 267 268 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 as the core of science. Tome the basic thing about science is an attitude or habit of mind, a way of thinking which is characteristic of those entitled to be called scientists. If that is so, most subjects of human concern may be dealt with in a scientific way. The essential basic condition is freedom from bias and prejudice. The major objective of the scientist is truth, no matter how unpleasant it may be or how much discomfiture it may cause among those who hold cherished beliefs which happen, nevertheless, to be errors. Dr. Crapsey once remarked that: “Truth is a brand new virtue.” And it may be added that as such it is not yet as widely sought and valued as it should be. It has been well said that “the purpose of science is understanding.” This is only a modern version of the well-known admonition of King Solomon to “get understanding.” The scientific method is relatively new. As recently as four cen- turies ago it was a rarity even among the most learned thinkers of the time. Today it is used only incidentally by most of the people in even the most civilized countries. It is hardly an exaggeration to say that the majority of educated persons—even those with college degrees—do not really understand it. Often it is confused with in- vention or the mere cataloging and classifying of knowledge. Some years ago, in a nation-wide poll which was taken for the purpose of finding out who was popularly considered to be the greatest scientist in the United States, the choice fell upon Edison, the inventor. But inventions, however useful and ingenious, are only the outgrowth, the byproducts, of science. Although invention was originally a matter of mere cut-and-try experiment it now makes more and more use of science, until much of it is now highly scientific in the true sense. Even so, the one should not be confused with the other. Science is not invention. The purposes of scientists and inventors are fundamentally different, even when they use similar methods. As for the majority of mankind, in the less-developed countries, their lives have scarcely been touched by science except in the form of some of its tangible products such as machines, the radio, or by the services of the sanitarian; and their understanding of science is hardly greater than was that of their ancestors a thousand years ago. Even among the most cultured of civilized people some misunder- stand science so completely that they think they disapprove of it and consider it dangerous. Not infrequently do we hear the ills of the world today blamed upon the advances of science, by which is evidently meant inventions such as dynamite, poison gas, or the airplane. Some writers have even called for a moratorium on scientific research, lest the dangers they ascribe to science overwhelm our civilization. But we do not abolish automobiles just because criminals use them in bank robberies and child snatching. On the contrary, it would HUMAN PROSPECTS—BLACKWELDER 269 seem better to extend the scientific method to those fields of study which are not yet making the required progress. One might para- phrase a famous remark about democracy by saying: “The best cure for the evils of science is more science”’—at least better and more widespread science. The genuine scientist searches out the facts he requires, testing and evaluating them as he goes. He must try to discriminate the true from the false, and the trivial from the significant. His disciplined imagination, always at work even during the fact-gathering process, suggests explanations for the things observed—usually for the de- tails and later, as the picture takes shape, for phenomena of wider scope. All these ideas must be impartially tested before they can be either accepted or rejected, just as an engineer determines by calcu- lation the strength of the arches in a projected bridge, and for a similar reason. How high shall we appraise the value of the for- {unate speculator who happens without much evidence to hit upon the right explanation far ahead of others, as compared with the patient investigator who carries a firm structure of fact and con- trolled theory with him all the way? The former has uses, but it is chiefly to the latter that steady scientific progress is due. Loose speculation is an ingrained habit of humanity, but the careful scien- tist realizes that many problems are now insoluble because the nec- essary data are not yet obtainable. He will, therefore, restrain his fancy, devoting his efforts to objectives that are within his reach, content to leave to his better-informed successors those other ques- tions which are not yet ripe for consideration. The critical testing of ideas is a habit difficult for the average hu- man being to adopt. An original idea is a brain child and tends to be jealously cherished as such. To expose it to the cold light of reason takes a sort of Spartan courage that is too often undevel- oped and yet is one of the essential attributes of anyone who aspires to be called a real scientist. To be merely logical with facts selected for a purpose is much easier than to divest oneself of bias. Stead- fast courage and a renunciation of false pride are required in the search for opposing rather than supporting evidence. The unrealized assumptions hidden in his theory are the sunken rocks on which the ship of many a hopeful scientist is wrecked. Our literature affords examples without number, especially in the earlier times. Geologists will find a good illustration even in the writings of that thoughtful old Scot who is regarded as the founder of their science—James Hutton. Writing about the granite boulders from Mont Blanc that are sprinkled over the slopes of the Jura Moun- tains near Geneva, he concluded that the Rhone River must have excavated its valley after they were deposited. The erroneous as- 270 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 sumption, hidden in his mind and unrecognized, was that only streams could have moved the boulders, and he knew that streams cannot flow uphill. He overlooked the glaciers, although it is evident that he already knew something of their power and habits. Perhaps he assumed that those he saw around Mont Blanc had never been much larger than they were in his day. Failing to understand what the real scientist must be and what the essentials of science are, part of the public today is led to accept as science various elaborations of intuition, speculation, and fancy, such as were much more widely current a few centuries ago. To the practitioners of this pseudo science, David Starr Jordan (1924), in a humorous paper, once gave the name “Sciosophists.” The term, he explained in mock seriousness, comes from two Greek words, skzos meaning shadow, and sophos meaning wisdom, or in short “the shadow of wisdom.” Sciosophists, he said, are happily free from the ordinary limitations of science for they are not hindered by the need of evidence. To them one idea is as good as another, and so why go through the laborious process of examining facts, searching out all the evidence, and testing each explanation before accepting it? A glittering and imposing structure can be built up with ease by a sciosophist out of many such unverified suppositions; but, of course, Jordan scarcely needed to say that it is as vulnerable to critical analysis as a child’s tower of blocks is to a touch of the hand. It is regrettable, but in a free country perhaps unpreventable, that the cloak of science should be donned and worn by faith healers and other mystics who have no comprehension of the meaning of the term. As a result, however, it is hardly surprising that part of the general public has a rather confused impression about science, when it reads serious accounts of such absurdities as a “science of astrol- ogy,” “the science of phrenology,” and many others. That the scientific method had its beginning in the ancient Greek and probably even earlier civilizations is clear enough, but it was displayed by only a few of the philosophers of that era and not con- sistently even by that few. This is all the more strange in view of the fact that the art of reasoning—logic—was highly cultivated by the Greeks. True, men like Anaxagoras at Athens had many sound ideas and employed the scientific method to a notable extent, but at the same time they entertained, as firm beliefs, some notions that would now bring a laugh to any schoolboy. If one examines the writings of the founders of ancient Greek science in the sixth century B. C.—men like Thales and Anaximan- der—he finds that many of their opinions were mere suppositions, elaborated and bolstered with such support as labored argument and ingenuity of words could give. These men were the precursors of HUMAN PROSPECTS—BLACKWELDER 271 modern scientists but can hardly be called scientists themselves. No true scientist would have seriously put forth as a conclusion so fan- tastic and wholly unverified a notion as the great Aristotle’s dictum that earthquakes are due to the surging of the wind through caverns in the earth. Even allowing for the inaccuracies of translation from the Greek, one can find only the slenderest evidence to support this opinion. It was a result of pure speculation upon a subject about which the author had not even the most elementary knowledge. Yet it was quoted with approval for 20 centuries. This is all the more inexcusable because a considerable body of definite information about earthquakes was available in the Greek world of Aristotle’s day, and there were many pertinent observations on geology that could easily have been made in that epoch, even without modern instruments, if serious attention had been devoted to the problems. In its early stages the cultivation of science was often too largely a contest between champions of rival theories. In ancient Greece the celebrated master gathered about him a group of disciples who too often came to regard his pronouncements as infallible. In the school of such a man as Pythagoras of Sicily, to quote the leader was suf- ficient to settle any disputed point. The ideas of the master thus became dogmas and took on a kind of sanctity. It must be admitted that dogma has been the fashion of the past. For millions of the earth’s inhabitants it still remains so. Today we see the current of progress being reversed in the despot-ridden coun- tries of Europe, where the privilege of freely drawing conclusions from evidence is being restricted and the blind acceptance of official dogma is exalted as a duty, if not a necessity. Even in the last century or two the history of science was marred by many a bitter controversy between rival leaders and their followers over theories. A theory was defended like a home citadel, and doubters were considered enemies actuated by the darkest of motives. Among such bickerings there was by contrast the magnanimity of Charles Darwin who said, regarding the storm of criticism that raged after the publication of “The Origin of Species,” “If my book cannot stand the bombardment, why then let it go down and be forgotten.” Fortunately, rancorous disputes have nowadays largely ceased to afflict the relations of real scientists. Yet there is still far too much of that spirit in the world at large. It has been well said that “Most men think with their emotions rather than their intellects.” The ancient method of verbal combat is still employed in our law courts and legislative halls. Each participant adheres to his thesis. Search is then made for evidence to support it and at the same time to 272 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 refute its opponents. An equal effort is made to suppress or depreciate any facts that may prove to be embarrassingly adverse. The debating society may be a good place to train lawyers, but the partisan attitude of “win the argument and confound the opponent” is an unhealthy state of mind for a young scientist. Indeed, he can never become a true scientist until he outgrows that mental attitude. Rather he should cling to the advice of that wise old Quaker, William Penn: “In every debate, let truth be thy aim, not victory.” Per- haps it is our sporting instinct, derived, it may be, from our age-long struggles against each other, that makes us usually more interested in winning a contest than in finding the truth. By those who have not considered the matter thoroughly, scientists are often adversely criticized for devoting so much of their energy to problems that seem to lead to nothing of any human value. No doubt there is considerable merit in this charge. But we shall never know to what extent it is justified, because we can only guess what kind of knowledge and what kind of understanding may become useful in the future. The history of science is full of examples sup- porting this statement. Our huge electric motor industry grew out of the simple discovery by Faraday that when a magnet was moved in a loop of wire an electric current was generated in the wire. Why should the knowledge of that bare fact have been of much value, and why should the public have been impressed at the time? In fact, it was not. Only a few men of science gave it some attention, as revealing a new principle—that of electromagnetic induction. Sim- ilarly, the oil industry of Texas has been greatly aided by the in- telligent combining of many bits of scientific information no one of which by itself has much commercial value—such items as undula- tions in strata, earth vibrations, soil analyses, and Foraminifera in drill-hole samples. Although the gathering of facts cannot in itself develop a science, yet facts we must have, in infinite number and variety, even though they are only the bricks to be used by the builder. The mere multi- plication of facts, the piling up of observations closely similar to hun- dreds of others, is properly regarded as of less value than the search for explanations, principles, and laws. While the layman thinks of Major Powell as the intrepid explorer of the Colorado River and its Grand Canyon, discovering, even at the risk of death, the wild beauty of its scenery and the details of its geologic section, it is fitting that geologists should honor him even more for his clear exposition of the principles of the base level of stream erosion and the antecedent river. In view of the fact, already mentioned, that we can seldom foresee what utility any scientific fact or principle will eventually have, we HUMAN PROSPECTS—BLACKWELDER 273 cannot afford to neglect any aspect of science. Discoveries in one field often release obstructions that have held back progress in other branches of science, and thus permit further advances. On the other hand, by regimenting scientific work and even opinion, along with all other phases of life, for their own immediate purposes, modern tyrants are violating this principle. This they can do with some measure of success for a short time, but eventually their countries will almost surely suffer a degeneration of science, and therefore of the civilization which is based upon it. Along with the increasing complexity of modern life there has grown up an urgent need for the scientific expert. The demand is being met by many persons who are real scientists but unfortunately by others who do not deserve the name. On that score Dean Roscoe Pound lately said in sarcastic vein that “the administrator is not appointed to office because he is an expert but he is an expert because he has been appointed.” We all know of cases that fit this satire, but in all seriousness we may trust that they are not numerous and that they are decreasing. Since the public must depend on its experts, it is essential that it should be well justified in placing confidence in them, to the end that such respect will endure. That puts a heavy responsibility upon the individual expert. As Grover Cleveland once said, “a public office is a public trust,” no less so should any degree of leadership in science be regarded as a public trust; and so the expert scientist is under great obligation to deserve the confidence of the public. His intellectual honesty will need to be outstanding and unwavering. Today, in this country, the scientist has already won such esteem to a large degree, although he is compromised and discredited now and then by the shortcomings of the less conscientious and careful of his colleagues. Unfortunately, too, it is among the latter that the most vocal types are apt to appear, and it is they who often attract the most public attention. Perhaps it is expecting too much of man, as we know him, to hope that a time will some day arrive when our most influential leaders will be persons who have the true scientific spirit and have been trained expressly for the work they are to do, as humble in the face of their own limitations as they are wise and honest. Many years ago a former president of our Society, R. A. Daly, speaking informally as a visitor to one of my classes, advised the boys to “think to scale.” It would be hard indeed to pack more meaning into three words. The person who thinks to scale sees the relative value of each fact he uses and of each objective before him. He can then economize his time by confining his attention chiefly to the important and the significant problems. On that point the wisest 274 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 of the Roman emperors, Marcus Aurelius, is said to have remarked that “Every man is worth just so much as the things are worth to which he devotes his earnest efforts.” It might be somewhat dis- quieting to many of us if we should measure ourselves by that principle. More than three centuries ago Sir Francis Bacon urged the appli- cation of the scientific method, as he then conceived it, to human affairs and problems in general, but we are still far short of having adopted his advice, although all our experience since his day confirms its value. The greatest progress has been made thus far in the physical sciences and scarcely less in the biological. The scientific method and attitude of mind also pervade to a very large degree the related professions of engineering and medicine. Engineering and inven- tion, based in increasing measure upon science and pursued largely in the scientific spirit, have given us nearly all our modern transport and communication facilities, our great water control and power de- vices, our vast numbers of useful and convenient new materials such as rayon, plastics, alloy metals, and other benefits too well known and too numerous to mention. But for the application of medical science we should be decimated not only by typhoid, tuberculosis, and smallpox, but also by yellow fever, cholera, and even the plague. Were it not for the deficiency of science in politics, statecraft, and ethics we might not find ourselves today threatened by the plague of military despotism, which is more deadly in its modern form than any pestilence. We have used the scientific method in engineer- ing and medicine for a century and have found it good—far more effective than the old ways of speculation or of trial-and-error. In spite of the difficulties involved, why not then extend it to other fields? Is there any reason to suppose it will not bring great improve- ment there also ? In such fields of study as economics and sociology, the complex and fluid nature of the basic data that must be used and the influence of human prejudice, which closely touches these subjects, have greatly impeded their emergence from speculative philosophy and their rise toward the scientific level. In addition they need a more general adoption of the scientific attitude and method. Why not apply these to human affairs, subdue the emotional considerations, and brush away the cherished errors of the past? Then we should be able to move more rapidly toward a real understanding of principles, for we are justified in believing that such principles do exist. In ethics, which is in some respects the most important of all subjects of human inquiry, we have made no great progess beyond the Greeks of Aristotle’s day; and most of them were, except in HUMAN PROSPECTS—BLACKWELDER 275 mathematical studies, philosophers rather than scientists. Even to- day the study of human conduct is but slowly emerging from its age-long status as an appendage of religion. Would it not bring fruitful results to study ethics in the same scientific spirit that already pervades such a field of research as physiology? Without a firmly based and widely accepted science of ethics, the other natural sciences alone may lead us eventually to ruin for want of adequate control. Under the direction of the engineer, dynamite is an effective aid in construction and promotes industrial progress; but in the hands of the criminal it means murder and destruction. The differ- ence is only one of ethics. To have science flourish, there must be complete freedom of in- quiry and discussion. The beneficial influence of such freedom is indicated by the extraordinary development of philosophy and the sciences among the Greeks in the fourth to the sixth centuries B. C., in the Germany of the nineteenth century, and in modern America. Scholars properly insist on this necessity and guard their hard- earned right to intellectual liberty; nor is this freedom of research so firmly held but that it takes a little defending all the while from the bigots who would close to discussion certain trends of thought of which they chance to disapprove. But if the scientist is to deserve and therefore keep his freedom, even in a democracy, he should be equally scrupulous about his own responsibility to the public. He has no right to claim on the one hand immunity from restraint and on the other license to be unre- liable. It is the few irresponsible members of our profession who endanger our freedom of expression, for it is their words that tend to discredit the very science to which they are nominally attached and thus bring all science into disrepute. One of the best indicators of the scientific maturity of a nation is the standing accorded scientists in their own communities. In Greece science and philosophy flourished not only because they were free, but because they brought honor and even wealth to those who distinguished themselves in scholarship. In Germany 40 years ago the great scientist, like Helmholtz, was appointed a Geheimrat and on the whole stood higher in the social scale than the banker or the industrial magnate. In our own country we are lately beginning to appreciate our thinkers, but their value to the world is not widely comprehended, nor are we very discriminating in recognizing them. We are apt to rate too highly the man who makes a spectacular but very definite and easily apprehended discovery, as compared with another who slowly develops an idea or principle which in time unlocks for us another room of progress. 430577—42-—19 276 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 Jefferson, Franklin, and other founders of our American Union fully realized that a well-informed people was essential to the suc- cess of the republic. Although a lover of freedom, Goethe under- stood the difficulty of making a democracy succeed, remarking that “the trouble with democracy is that it has to wait for an enlightened public opinion.” More pessimistic commentators, like Disraeli, were confident that the experiment could end only in failure, because they believed that even the best popular education that was practically attainable would be inadequate. A system of education, to be good, must be suited to its time in history. The boys of ancient Persia were taught “to ride and to shoot and to speak the truth.” In their day, nearly 3,000 years ago, that was education enough, but now it would be of little avail, although the last item (speak the truth) has eternal value. If we were willing to accept the Nazi plan of society we should need only a small highly educated upper caste. The rest of the people would be given only training and indoctrination. But if we want freedom and the so-called democratic way of life, then we need the most widespread and effective education that our mental equipment will permit. In our own system, a few wise leaders would be help- less in the face of a grossly ignorant populace, swayed chiefly by its emotions and prejudices. Too often this has been true in democracies thus far, and in America it is still a dangerous factor. So I conclude that we must have, as soon as we can provide it, far better and more extensive education, and a general adoption of the scientific attitude of mind. Is that a large order? It surely is—perhaps too much to expect—but it may well be the price of our liberty and the survival of the American type of civilization. Hitler is quoted as having said that no people is capable of govern- ing itself or even of planning its own affairs. If the majority of the people are to be kept in ignorance, he is doubtless right. As our life becomes more complex our problems become more difficult. To solve them badly may mean disaster. To solve them well requires adequate knowledge and especially clear thinking. Bias and prejudice are lia- bilities or handicaps that we cannot well afford and hence should try by all means to reduce. If, in a republic, we are to have affairs well handled, we must rear millions of capable unbiased persons to make those varied problems their life concerns. That, it seems to me, demands the scientific attitude of mind and an efficient system of education expressly devised for that purpose; for it is not something which we gain by inheritance or in the common experiences of life. To insure a well-informed and intelligent people is a most difficult task. History affords no good example of such a nation. It is by HUMAN PROSPECTS—BLACKWELDER 277 no means certain that it is even possible. The eugenicists will prop- erly assert that their advice must be followed, and no doubt there is some hope in their principles and plans; but beyond that it seems evident that education is our best chance. It means educating more people and educating most of them longer—perhaps continuously throughout life. Most important of all, it means educating them far more wisely and efficiently. As a scientist I am perhaps biased in believing that the most important element in this education is the scientific attitude of mind. That does not mean that every person must become a scientist, but that he must acquire the habit of think- ing as a Scientist. It means that the great majority should under- stand what science is, what it stands for, and its value to society. They should then be able to recognize the true scientist and distin- guish him from the sciosophist or the imposter. It will also enhance their capacity to judge the merits of their leaders and the general issues of the day. Having harped at length on the importance of science, I must ask you not to misunderstand me as implying that science is all we need. It is no panacea for our troubles. Indeed, if we were exclusively scientific we should not be human at all. There are other things that are also necessary—love, art, imagination, intuition, loyalty, poetry, and many others. I merely emphasize the opinion that science is one of the most indispensable factors in civilization. We must become more scientific and especially more widely scientific. To say that one vital function of society is more important than another is as pointless as to say that the lungs are more important than the heart. We may, however, be sure that effective education is one of the indispensable concerns of a free civilized nation. In the opinion of Dr. Copeland (1928) “education is incomparably the most important function of society.” Without it the state could not en- dure for even a century, for in no other way can the long, slowly won progress of the past be effectively transmitted. Good education is one of the greatest means of national advancement. Poor education insures the decline of a people and even their disappearance as a nation. Many of the ablest thinkers in the past, from Plato down to our own day, have felt sure that democracy was an unworkable plan. Much as I hope that they were mistaken, I should feel constrained to agree with them if I did not have some grounds for hoping that we can devise and continually improve a process of education adequate for the requirements of the country; but it will need to be much better than anything we have had thus far. This hope is encouraged by the view of so experienced an educator as ex-President Morgan of 278 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 Antioch College, who has said that “results as revolutionary are possible in education as in engineering, and they are even more necessary.” Conditions in our schools and even in our colleges and universities today are far less satisfactory than they should be in view of our acute need of the best education we can provide. As recently remarked by Professor Curtis (1939) : Even in this so-called scientific age we find, among our high-school, college, and university graduates, many who believe nothing definite and have no convictions, while many others will believe anything, no matter how fantastic * * * there is little difference between many college graduates and those who have not gone beyond the eighth grade, insofar as their mental attitudes or judgments in the fields of science are concerned. This he is inclined to ascribe partly to the fact that many teachers, as well as students, have had little or no training in science and partly to the type of teaching that is all too prevalent, especially in our lower schools. Too much of it is dogmatic, and the student is not trained to think for himself. There is far too much emphasis upon the learning of facts, on the mistaken supposition that knowledge, as distinguished from understanding, is the chief object of schooling. Since in order to progress we must constantly improve our educa- tion, we shall have to have more teachers, especially better and wiser teachers, and teachers who are not only competent to train youth but who are allowed to utilize their competence in teaching, under a minimum of administrative control. In my opinion no mature teacher who needs to be told by a principal or dean how to teach deserves to be employed as a teacher. There has grown up in recent years a widespread tendency to overstress the importance of teaching methods and to give school executives wide powers of direction over the daily work of the individual teacher. Such practice overlooks the fact that good teaching is a matter of individuality, that the teacher to be successful must be a true scholar, and that scholars can- not be regimented. Also, our system has always been less effective than it should be, because we have left so much of the education of our rising generation to relatively inexperienced young persons. This seems almost as shortsighted, and in the long run as likely to prove disastrous to the Nation, as to leave our military defense largely to young recruits. The only apparent advantage to this is that it is less expensive than the alternative; but the cheapest system may prove in time to be the least economical. At this point it may be asked what results we can fairly expect from such improvements in our educational arrangements in the next decade or century. The experienced scientist will understand that sound improvement in human affairs will come only by evolution and after cautious experiments on a small scale rather than by sudden revolutionary changes on a large scale. HUMAN PROSPECTS—BLACKWELDER 279 One of our greatest dangers lies in the impatience of many people to gain great results quickly. This is natural enough, in view of the brevity of our individual lives. But it is inconsistent with the prin- ciples which govern all life. We are a part of Nature and, however much we may seem to influence natural processes, there is every rea- son to believe that we are in fact and on the longer view controlled by Nature. Whether we like it or not, slow evolution is Nature’s way. And so we can hardly hope to elaborate some theoretical new scheme of social or economic organization, put it into practice on a national or world-wide scale in a few years, and have any reasonable prospect of success. Hidden faults and weaknesses are likely to cause failure, and that in turn may exhaust for decades even the healthy impulse toward improvement. The fascination that these schemes have for our youth doubtless has a complex cause, but it may well be due in part to the faulty character of our current education, which has not given them the advantages of the scientific viewpoint. Again, as Daly said, they should learn to “think to scale.” However difficult it may be to forecast future trends more than a few years ahead, the geologist can hardly be expected to overlook the longer view; and so I may now raise a few questions about what may be in store for humanity in another epoch—not a matter of centuries but probably of tens or even hundreds of thousands of years. There are many who expect that man will make continuous progress toward higher and better things, becoming in the course of time so much wiser, more sensible, and reasonable that the world’s life will be vastly more happy than it has ever been in the past. War, sick- ness, and poverty would then be abolished. Cruelty, hate, and in- justice would become obsolete, and we should be living in a sort of Golden Age the like of which we have never even approached. That is a beautiful vision to contemplate, especially in these dark times. The lessons of historical paleontology may throw a beam of light ahead on this speculation, for of course it is no more than that. As we look back over the history of man we find evidence of great cul- tural progress since the time of the primitive cave man, who made crude stone implements but lived in isolated families competing with the wild beasts of the day for such food as could be found or seized. He was indeed only one of the beasts, and it is hard to point out more than a few respects in which he was superior to them. Did the early Stone Age men gradually develop, by slow practice and learning, into modern man? We do not know, but there is little reason to suppose so. All that we know today of human paleontology indicates that what we loosely refer to as man comprised a group of at least five and probably eight or more distinct animal species which are generally grouped by zoologists in several genera. These 280 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 may have originated in various parts of the world, each lived many tens of thousands of years, and then with one exception all became extinct. At certain times two or more such species may have co- existed, although probably in different regions. Perhaps they even- tually killed off each other, just as the white race in historic times has exterminated the Tasmanians and certain other primitive tribes. But today only one species survives, and he has apparently had the field all to himself since the middle of the last glacial epoch, or about 30,000-50,000 years ago, according to current estimates. Each of these species appears to have been as distinct from the others as species and genera of animals usually are. There is nothing to indicate that the very primitive Sinanthropus made much progress in culture during his long career in China. He learned to use fire—probably to make it—and to fashion a few simple tools of stone and bone; but that seems to have marked the limit of his inventive capacity. For shelter and safety from attack he seems to have crept into caves, like many another beast. Neanderthal man, generally placed in the genus Homo, shows evi- dence of a distinctly higher culture. He made more varied and better tools of chipped flint, of wood, bone, and other materials ready to his hand. But with a brain which appears to have been inferior, even his long career as a species seems not to have sufficed for him to invent pottery, polished or ground stone tools, to learn to domesticate and use other animals rather than to hunt them, or to grow crops, not to mention building houses or using metals. Apparently he had some ideas about spirits and a future life, for he buried his dead with some care and placed in their graves some of their ornaments and weapons; but we have no evidence that he developed any art of drawing or sculpture, and none of his tools were finely wrought. There is evidence of only slight progress during the long age through which he lived, and at his best his cultural level was dis- tinctly lower than that of the most primitive savages now known to anthropologists. How these various species of men came into existence is unknown and may well remain so. But there is nothing to suggest that their origin differed in any way from that of the other mammals. To suppose that it did would be gratuitous speculation. Indeed, had it not been for the achievements of the latest of these species, the Hominidae would never have been entitled to special notice as anything more than somewhat peculiar mammals. From biological friends whom I have consulted, I learn that they are not yet agreed upon the question of how a new species originates. In fact there is some difference of opinion as to just what constitutes a species, as contrasted with a race, a variety, or even a genus. While HUMAN PROSPECTS—-BLACKWELDER 281 waiting for the biologists to work out these problems, we may use the term “species” a bit vaguely in its current meaning, and we may tentatively adopt the now preponderant view that new species origi- nate not by gradual imperceptible changes but by sudden mutations, either extensive enough to produce a distinct species at once or occurring in series which eventually culminate in full specific status. However any new species actually originated, its parental species doubtless continued to exist for a time without much change. The new kind expanded in numbers and, if more effective, eventually over- ran and exterminated the older one. It then went on living without important physical change until it was in turn crowded out by more efficient animals or until it succumbed to other adverse factors in its environment. Have we any reason to suppose that Homo sapiens is not subject to the same process or that his fate will not be similar? He differed from earlier species of men very slightly in physical form and struc- ture. His achievements and the shapes of his crania suggest that he possessed, from the outset, not only a larger but probably also a dis- tinctly better brain, which has enabled him to learn more extensively, to devise complicated languages, and eventually to develop what we now call civilization. This progress seems to have gone forward on a steadily rising curve. For perhaps 20,000 years Homo sapiens was only a savage, a wandering hunter. In the next 5,000 years or more he advanced locally to the status of a shepherd and even a village farmer. In another 3,000 years he learned to extract and use metals, form city states and even nations, and become skillful in many of the finer arts. Accelerated advance in the next 1,000 years lead to books, commerce, literature, and philosophy. The last century or two has witnessed a rapidity of material progress in communication and far- flung organization that exceeds anything previously known; and with it has come much growth in ideas and in the complexity of eco- nomic and social arrangements. Are we justified in assuming from the contemplation of that curve that it will continue to rise indefi- nitely, and at a similar rate? Is there in all geologic or human his- tory any precedent for that? Other animal species of the past have followed career curves that involved a rise, culmination, and decline. We have seen the same law controlling the nations and even races of humanity. Will our own species also reach its climax and then deteriorate? And if that happens, how and when will it occur? As yet we have but little basis for answers to such questions. In contrast to his progress in ways and ideas, Homo sapiens seems to have undergone only slight physical changes, even in the estimated 30,000 years of which some records have come down to us. Anatom- ically there seems to be no evidence whatever of any progress—no 282 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1941 increase in cranial capacity, probably no appreciable change in brain anatomy. In the last 3,000 years, in which some evidence is available, there is no sign of any improvement in native intelligence. Man’s actions are still governed more by his emotions and subconscious mental elements than by his intellect. His savage instincts, that we like to think began to be conquered thousands of years ago, are still present beneath the surface and reappear at unexpected intervals even in civilized man. Among the more backward modern races of humanity they have scarcely changed. In short, our surviving species of Homo, being one of the mam- mals, is probably as definitely limited in his possibilities as are the other species of that class. Just as we do not expect a dog to learn algebra, although he can learn to open a door, so we probably ought not to expect more from present-day man than his brain is capable of attaining. As Hawkins (1930), the English paleontologist, sees it: “Our mental capacity is a specific character.” If this is the truth of the matter, it may be over-optimistic to expect our own species to rise far above his present stage of mentality. Notable improvement along lines already established, and a raising of the other two-thirds of the earth’s population to or above the level of the present civilized minority, may well take place over the centuries and thousands of years yet remaining in the expectable future life of this species. His contribution to biological progress will then have been made, and, if history is to repeat itself, he will then be ready for conquest, if not extermination, by some other type of being, perhaps some new species of the Hominidae that has more innate capacity for progress. Whence may such a higher species originate? Will it be an out- growth of the most highly civilized nations of today? The general testimony of history suggests the contrary. The ancestral mammals did not spring from the most advanced dinosaurs of the Mesozoic era. Man and the great apes are traced back, not to the large special- ized mammals of Eocene times, but to primitive generalized animals related to the humble insectivores. The extraordinarily successful Mongol dynasty of the Middle Ages arose not from the cultivated Chinese of Nanking, but from a tribe of barbaric nomads of the steppes. Likewise the most civilized nations of modern Europe did not spring from the Romans of Caesar’s day but from the forest bar- barians around the Baltic. Perhaps, therefore, the progenitors of the newer and better man will appear unnoticed in some remote and backward corner of the world, where they can develop in obscurity, while the well-known modern races of Homo sapiens contend with each other for a transient supremacy. Just as it would have been difficult for even a most intelligent trilobite to imagine the fish, which was destined to drive him from HUMAN PROSPECTS—BLACKWELDER 283 the scene, so it is not easy for us to forecast the nature and potential- ities of that new species of Homo which may appear in the distant future, unless indeed our genus itself has by that time run its course and it is not destined to offer the world anything further. It is of little consequence whether such a new species may have smaller teeth, a skin less hairy, or taller stature. The only way in which he is likely to outstrip Homo sapiens effectively is in the quality of his brain. Will he be able to absorb knowledge more rapidly and re- member it better? Will his imagination be keener; will he reason out his problems more effectively; and, above all, will his life and conduct be controlled by his intellect rather than by his feelings? If so, he may be able to take knowledge in larger doses, profit more by the stored-up experience of others, instead of merely his own, and by the lessons of history. He should be far more educable than any earlier species in the family. It may be objected that these speculations are hardly optimistic, that they do not present a hopeful picture, and that they do not neces- sarily envisage continued progress toward a far higher and better human world. To this I must reply that a scientist is under no obligation to be an optimist. His only concern must be to approach nearer to the truth. If the truth offers hope, we may rejoice. If it fails to do so, we are not thereby justified in denying or even ignoring it. As King Solomon long ago advised, let us get understanding, and by so doing we may reach a serenity of outlook that will fit us better to play a worthy part in the great drama of human evolution. REFERENCES COPELAND, E. B. 1928. Natural conduct. Stanford Univ. Press. Curtiss, O. F. 19389. Education by authority or for authority? Are science teachers teach- ing science? Science, n.s., vol. 90, pp. 100-101. Hawkins, H. L. 1930. A paleontologist looks at life. Cotteswold Nat. Field Club, Proc., vol. 23, p. 219. JORDAN, D. S. 1924. Science and sciosophy. Science, n.s., vol. 59, pp. 563-569. me bh (4 Me ult Grama aay jog alee gah pe We iat yr a tie hans : : ‘ae it? ae ee mie rates xt tara ni res Seg ak a ee Raia Susie Wirth: ‘notetata i 4 : ane DA ay its vive theta 4 Dever “4 gi fiiega oe tartan wget iste hed divs: pie it pe ai Tish ‘ave: "Doobie | 4 = eel Uh abel tlre ats 1. Mpa leis: ihe Pool aes, ieee ny eae: "ony pais Aydeegd pari ead wy, Shiota): phil 4 Svat cilpatiiy indoles , dis: i a ‘aevitio be Mipaart Be pgiviliwronnt: anny wt rosette \ fg bale Him slag mre es : nae ye ances eb, sels ivoy Ce a bougla's ila i" ahi pa biel iy bitsy uh ps when eek cued iitioda ty Cian er rer ld Pate dad Wr Oe aa Bet Da tae bag pia oe a ae pr 4) oy da: oH oe R Py ek eet: f ¥ ieee nin pirohial PRONE 0 a paele of botaaieth tus nti Ly 1) aaa ea beige iikaregelf hy uth SOWA ie dsgis ry : ; pshbeatad yank ‘ orks, Le da bad teed ate ROS fy aan | oa by dit ¥ IY yo abst ah aa’ lenin 4 ee san ut vty SNe, can a AY 43 a ares be prislegte en, Wa ve ata j ee | Leyak ori, i) athe ig Be +4 as EK! be A IN, my ip ar spe ; Nupur iy he ond Ae ob ep Ey CTSA PE aR ‘i hi aus ty eKiong sah ON anh halo # 8 Meee oe OM ATEN tag et yu a ehehietet yi cig “4 vi | ae altace Lerten, oe teeeioete O| 3LV1d 1Y4311\\—" | $61 *qaodayy uetuosyztUIG Smithsonian Report, 1941.—Wright PLATE 11 é 1. INTERIOR OF CURTISS-WRIGHT MODEL 20. 2. CURTISS-WRIGHT MODEL 20. Fuel tank size comparison. “ALID HYOA MAN YSAO LHOI14 NI O@ TISGOW LHSIYM-SSILYND cl 3LVW1d ISM —"|p6| ‘Oday weruosytwg Smithsonian Report, 194].—Wright PLATE 13 1. BOEING PAN AMERICAN CLIPPER. 2. DOUGLAS DC-4. Smithsonian Report, 1941.—Wright PLATE 14 1. INTERIOR OF PROPOSED SIKORSKY OCEAN AIRLINER. 2. PROPOSED SIKORSKY OCEAN AIRLINER. INDEX A Page Abbot, C. G., Secretary of the Institution-.--________-_----_---__--— = ix, x, xiii, 7, 9, 18, 36, 37, 46, 47, 108, 109, 110 INDIO Di 0 pi La ee eee eer 27 JMelrases SAU US 8s) 8 ee ee 2 5 ANEPYRIIEY, | BUGPA SH Re ee 47 Adams, Walter S. (What lies between the stars) -----_---__--------_-____ 141 Administrative assistant to the Secretary (Harry W. Dorsey) ~----------- ix Administrative: staff, National Museum=—22os2-22220 22 2 i xii PRS ea ELON aw a a ee 25 RIORRRINGR ast CHSC) ee an ee a ea = T4001 Aldrich, Loyal B., Assistant Director, Astrophysical Observatory_-_---- xiii, 108 ANTONE Sp ING A eee ee ee x NODS OV GLOSZ, (OEE) C0) 8 ee 78 JASCO TRS by ie nee ee ee ee = Senay) JMB aTS, AUDITS OTe ISS) ee eer 13 Arthucalecture: tenth 22522520 0i Ss eee i wees oe ee eee ele ae 13 Artificial converters of solar energy (Hottel) —------_---__-_----__---. 151 Assistant Secretary of the Institution (Alexander Wetmore) —~_----__-- 5 b.Gyp.¢ Associate Director, National Museum (John BH. Graf) —------------___.--- x ANERO DH SICAL © DSELVALOLY soe eee ee ee ee xiii, 7 BARS Y A GR 6S wes Fah TE ei i a i ee Se a eatin 54 ( PRCT SEAL LL OIA Seen cme ee Lie So Wi bal wn a Pek SO ae 110 TESS GG MNT Dice ree baa OY Ha I A hy I NE eNO EPPO) a el ee Sp ee 108 BS UTR A RD 2h 09 cai ee Se i ee oe 110 Atom-+The new. frontiers in’ the (Lawrence)/22-=- = 163 Attorney General (Robert H. Jackson, member of the Institution) _-__---- ix Ay eA TH Go Mi eerecens pes Bee eae a RURL TOA Rise Porte eet oe eee x SAT, TOT a NE a es ep OS tt rte 46 B Bacon shires, Virginia, Purdy, bequest. 22 he ee ee 11 Barkley, Alben W. (regent of the Institution) ---_-___-_---------------_---- ix, 8 SES ERTS pred epee ae i co es Se A Nae a eS x eine) eine, CE parerny Rrra Cope a fee Dit Voy Ve 20 Baptlent whopert’, Aq 22 os ee ee eee 16, 28 SEG wae A et ke a eee eee >. Ap 4 TES ECTS 1 ENC Se ee ee een ee ee ee xi Weeden lessietGe 622505 cl eee ee ee eee xi ietoail, (CMrday6 | ee ee ee eee eee 46 585 586 INDEX Page Belin, Ferdinand Lammot, Vice President, National Gallery of Ta a eR ee xii, 36, 37, 38, 44 MSOC EE 9 TE ae eS en eee a ee xii Bent, Arthur) (C22 oe che eae ea ae Sea DiS eee Oe = x Bequests 26 eo a ee ee eee 14 Bishop, Carl. Whiting 2 =< 2 oe eee Ae ee a xii Blackwelder, Eliot (Science and human prospects)_--_________________ 267 Blackwelder, Ey.) Mists SS ae eae ee se cel ne BEN Payal, Bliven, Bruce (The genes and the hope of mankind)_--______-_________ 293 Bolivian Mims teres oe esta ee ei a a SBN ey eA Ase Ae 4 ord, Mires (Al Mies See el ne 108 Borie; st: CHAT Te Ray sy Tee eS ake ee fae eae Beek yaaa 46, 47 SOS SPIN OL TIANN gE Ld eh A sk ee Ge xi SO y trig 5 AG) Gea oe ee Eh ee A at xi ESTEVE ON | EO Yao rare Ne is Li hs ee 60 Bridge, | Tos ie Tis seek od Pale Sable bite ihe NS eso Shi See i ee 30 Browmisy Wa Dook cae ee ek OE ee ee ee ed ee x, 16 Bruce, David K. E., President, National Gallery of Art_________ xii, 35, 36, 37, 38 Sy ek a Ge EN oS ae ee eas Pe ol ae xii BES Try SUT ED ry ee a Ee Se MTA 28 SUCH era earns? Tiga ee aE ae ed ee de ee 2 Ee x Bush, Vannevar (regent of the Institution) __________-______________ ix, 8, 9, 136 Bushnell, ‘Davids Ti) rss = oe ee eee ee 16 Cc aura fi eT ch Boa rn i ee ee 21 Cannon, Clarence (regent of the Institution) -__.___.________________ ix, 8,9 Care. of ‘captive: animalsia(Walker) 22222322 ee eee eee 305 @arey;) Charlee ae ar ear Ne ee xii Carrer SM Ay NS So I ee ee ce 26, 27 @ASSEC ys We wens Ce eae i eee es ee ee 67 Chamberlainsehrancesi Lea. hun dase eS ee eee 21 Chancellor of the Institution (Charles Evans Hughes, Chief Justice of the Unitedw States) oo2. 2 Ln ee eee ix Chapin; "Hdward! Aste eta ee ee eee x, 28 Chief Justice of the United States (Charles Evans Hughes, Chancellor Of; theeInstitutlon) 32 2 ae eee a ae ee ix, 3, 8, 9, 36, 37 Chief Justice of the United States (Harlan F. Stone) __---________-_____ 37 Chief Justice of the United States (Trustee, National Gallery of Art)-~- xii CaSO yA OS a a Sa er oe xi, 16 Chasey iMorence Mas soa oS ee ee eee ee eee xiii (Wseful-alzvae) use eee ae oo eee ee ee ee 401 @lark: Aq stim ? ioe a Sem ay ol wt ae he oh a PE a ee x, 16 Clark, Bennet Champ (regent of the Institution) ~--_---__-___-__________ ix, 8,9 CL ear Uk, Tie ht eae By i ig ie a a hel ar ls a Pas I xii Valk Bese earn 5 ee aca oe a i ee xiii Glark,“Robert: Sterling)... bea als Rs SES xi Clarke; + Gilmore Wart ee ee pe na le A eae ee 46, 47 @ochran; Doris ~Me wie eee ee le eee nee x Cole, William P., Jr. (regent of the Institution) -----_________________-___- ix, 8 Collins “Henry4Bi) Pe ee ee eee ee xiii, 5; Gil Commerford) os W222 520 2 22 6 en ee ee ee cs xii INDEX 587 Page Compton, Arthur H. (regent of the Institution) ______________-___-______ ix,8 (Sefence shaping..American. culture) oc-204..2022 25054 s 282 175 (Clay sVEjs (eh A OES 2 ne Es Ups SAE aE eh ee Re tere. CCP EN Reteter, Oe 63 CONSERVE AU hye eee ete ena eee ES A Mae ces ENS a ol xi Contacts between Iroquois herbalism and colonial medicine (Fenton) ___-__ 503 Cooks Oia es tes. Ble oe wilh oe arene oth Aw eye ey. nome Eat ae 5G 9d @oonerm Gustav, Arthurs 2 2) oe 5 eee a ad Peete Aes ote Eine xi, 16, 30 @orbiny William L., Librarianof the Institution=-222 222 eee ix; 122 Craighead, F. C. (The influence of insects on the development of forest Provechionvand forest management) See ee ee ee 367 [oto SSAA V0 10 1s ERA ces eve seeetioeeet aaae otaelh ee ee S P ON e UD ee ESTE Ua |e xi Gia banrAmpassad 0p Swe wets ands SOW cee hentia liber Sete Alan oh We 4 WoSDMANs OSC We Akt SE ae ese ee eee ee Sree nd iy ig ee x POMPETTETYSRTY: PERODGEE Ae amet mh the bel SE ll ie ely a be eta a x D WAV ROSON JO 2% se a a a ee a ek ee 43 Davis; Harvey N. (regent of ‘the! Institution) —2 2 aes ee ee Bb Hts PRS ar OTE trae se lee RT 62 Decipherment of the linguistic portion of the Maya hieroglyphs (Whorf)__ 479 Wefense swObke 6: 22s ee ee oe Zid Ca a | Weisnan wr. Ga 25 aoe cnet eet a secon EU Ue x Delano, Frederic A. (regent of the Institution) _________________=__ ix, 8, 9, 1386 WMCNSMOEC Tan COG= set es et ee ree __6, 63, 64 (hel study oft Indian Gmusie eee < seis si tee See ee ee 527 Dorsey, Harry W., Administrative assistant to the Secretary_______- ms ix Dorsey, Nicholas W., Treasurer of the Institution.____________-_______ ix, xii LFA TLELS 2) Ue 2711 | ¢ Ae Oe OS SRN see SRO A 5, 56 Wancan VWViallace.. West e es ae ee eee ee tt Se ee xi BH AE PLOT es GOT Mra ais a a ere pa ee IE 37 Hditoriall division; + Chiefs (wWebster Po True) 2ses es ix DR 9 SBS BN CEE TN 69 Se oe RET ee Au 35 Eickemeyer, Florence Brevoort, bequest-____._______-_-______--__--_-__ 15 Hinarsson, Vigfus (Iceland, land of frost and fire) _-____________________ 285 Electrical industry, The role of science in the (Smith) ---_____-__-______-_ 199 LEADS, hs 1c Re RN Se pay a Oe ee nd ee RE x DEALT SS TS SCOTT) Gof bets tn ad i ed 2 he oe A Le 27 LVS V a rede ccs CAAT TRY ty TR (8S fg or): | Pr 557 SEEMS TT ents y 4 Te ete Ba a ee eA ee 8 Hthnologys Bureau Of SAM er Cans tsk th i ee ee xiii, 5 (Oa) 1 Cre) 10) « = ener eee ee ees ee ie EIN CP AO Oren ve eS ORe tn ver acne es MA A a 67 Hditorialwork-cand publications 2322s 22 eee ee See eee 65 ) CURTIS geen Uo) a t= eeremen nee ett UTE SSG yO ae Se eS re Se RL eed 67 SUN RAN YG a a 2 ct os aoe lt nos Se LR 66 Miscellaneous 225s ee ee FOE LA ein 2 OAL BL BEE 68 PPG WSO rT Cau as eco A OE ES tS 68 RCT OT Ga ec a ge 2 cn Set dh ea a Oh SREY i 56 Special-aresearches’) 2:02 fre 4 Ses 0 Ae eae 63 Systematic; -researches22 stu 22 eee Se ee ee A ee a ee 56 Excavations of Solomon’s seaport: Ezion-geber, The (Glueck) -----._— a 453 588 INDEX Page Executive Committee. - a. len ei Mg’ ep ta Wome | ee ee oe ix, 130 | 27 1) 5 Sa eee ae ee ea RAE ESE TLS PLCS TE Nett WLS LP ae LE 130 A DDT ORTIAUION 3 ooo a eee We ce ee ee 185 551s |) nea ce Se Dea ee PNRM ER HL tieeb AB eS. cls 136 Bequeste: i. 24 heii stew to's Fas J ee Ae Cee aay pees ek oe 135 Cash balances, receipts, and disbursements during the fiscal year_. 133 Classification of. Investments - os ae eee 132 Consolidated. find == as totes) ly Ea ei SORRY 228 Ue eed 132 reer Galleryot Art: fand 122 23 el ee ar Tk 132 Smithsonian endowment fund 2 2 bey oe ie ae ee 130 Borman ary 2 So ce Ree see a si eth SES 132 Explorations and) field work. 222-2. 8 ee 15 Bzion-geber, The excavations of Solomon’s seaport: (Glueck)----_-______ 453 Fr Hiya sist) To Aline 0 MT I SIRI MOC DIER Cre oRavU NE ceri CTPA YN SID RUPE NWS SUI UR Tl xi Mentors, Wy uitaan: No ee eee oe a yes Pa ee We ee cna ee xiii, 5, 16, 62, 63 (Contacts between Iroquois herbalism and colonial medicine) __-___-_ 503 STEEN CRS ee 2 ee 2 ee Le 9 Finley, David E., Director, National Gallery of Art--__-__-____ xii, 37, 38, 46, 47 Hirestone Expedition, Smithsonian 2020) 8 3, 6, 20, 27, 81, 82 HITERtONe sire Gc, ERED DOT i Cipher 16, 81 MishcandisWildlife: ‘Services. 2206 snhesee hes eh ls eee 8, 16, 21, 27, 28 Baer pA Th See ee ae as ng |e a xi Forest protection and forest management, The influence of insects on the development of;(Craighead) 2+. S_0s.ties wane la epee dS Glee ae 367 BOSH) WW Fa has lea oe ke ek (aed eI IN ee Oe xi, 12, 21, 29 Wiraser, | James ghek ss 22 ise UIA GL Ly Ch, co Rel cei cae dae ee nee 46 Frederick.) William cAys 8o0 0 ot J ir es nie a 37 OCEANS 4) PB acct a ics UO ra AGM Gg 8) is LEN cae eel Dalal ae ev 110 Breer Gallery. GecArt sl 0) owl Ok yeas aC Ne 2 re ee xii, 4 Attendances se ae Pea VTA ERG a2 ne ee oe 53 Collections? 3a en 2 leg aes ee gee ah ee 51 Lectures, and docent services .2 = 30) 54 Personnel: 2-225) 8k ee oa ae ine ok pop ge eee 54 Reporte ee 2 A he a a a oD 51 Wisltorns oe 524 a os tea a a eae ee 54 Brey, Charles (Ei. . S02 ics a2 2 nS ch SR ae Ls Se 29 Hiriedmann, Perper t aie 2 te ee x, 12 G Garber} Paradis Hiss et a a oe eS xi Garner Jobe Nes cd 2s a ak) ea i te eee ORE ak a, ae 8 Gazin;: CisThe yy is ics s ie 8 Da nd 7 xi, 16, 30 Belen’, PALER i Fre i ea a ae a oe Edm 37 General) Append et ee eee i AS ee leg 137 Genes and the hope of mankind, The (Bliven)_--____-____________ 2 TA 293 Gifford, Charles L. (regent of the Institution) _-________________________ 8,9 Gilmore, Charles) Wei a0. 823228 ose nee le ee xi Glueck, Nelson (The excavations of Solomon’s seaport: Ezion-geber)—_-__ 453 Graf, John E., Associate Director, National Museum________---_____-____ x Graham, David: Cpe Sop a a a xi . INDEX 589 Page RR OT CUE CESS Pen Ae ee ae PEO cn OR, eee ee See ae See: ae 78 UD) ESTER Te 2S Sel Re a SE ce ee aS ETERS Re a EeTE AE FTN te. x Srawconnormonessin. plants) (Thimann)) <2) 2.8 2 ee a 393 Guest, Grace Dunham, Assistant Director, Freer Gallery of Art--__-_____ xii H CSTD VST 2 Se an ane ceed Wea Ce MOAT ADE: fee P xiii, 5, 16, 57, 58 PEP KANS ECUSSEL are a) a oS eee 16, 21 RUmINEPEE NNT TSTASSOU, DT oe A eas 16 LES SELEY gl LS a Se le eR Oe ee nS OPES oe ee ee 37 SREREARYCR SNES CON) ea SCL UV AT CU ee Yr i eT >.d | SRE MEU EV) Repl gees etn ee eS EL AE ee ae Ae te ae ne xi EAU Nes Hel. MroOperty Clerk == 8 Cohen ed ee ee ee ee ix 1S COGN ay ay NALD: Da WE ey ed Sree SEE PT — xiii, 108 Hopi Snake Dance, Snake bites and the (Stirling)__-_--________-________ 551 CE ESS gS 6 BE DEES SSS ene > Oe aN aes nee en ora = x Honmonessine plants, Growth, (‘Thimann) = =~ 22222 ee 393 Hottel, H. C. (Artificial converters of solar energy) _--__________________ 151 EXO REC ae ACM ES Zi Cees has 2d Mee ti hee he Ses ee es else nero Sao tee El ees 3S PE LER ERTCEG Bry Oi ga ee eh Nao ooh ew ce pe A RM x VE CET TPES TANT TVA a) DD af yi a a ee le a ee a 24 PERC aes epee ee ee a ee ee re eer eee Se x AOR MES LTT OMe TIC) eee he Se = es ce eS ee ee 557 Hughes, Charles Evans, Chief Justice of the United States (e@haneeion Ofachesinstitution)) Soa ee =a aikk eee ae Be roe a ix, 3, 8, 9, 36, 37 Hull, Cordell, Secretary of State (member of the Institution) __________ axa I Reeiaids Ane OL Trost ang efire; (i DATSSON)) 22 == oe ee ee eee 285 Ickes, Harold L., Secretary of the Interior (member of the Institution) —__ ix irre xan e xl Di Ge ee oe ae oee ln Sats ears at oe SN oe ee 1,12 indiangmusic: ‘The study, of (Densmore) 22 222s) oe Aes et BS eee Sy O20 Insects, The influence of, on the development of forest protection and LOrest manarement. (Craighead) sas sk nse = ee eee eee es rood international” xchange). Services. oa ae ee ee xiii, 26 A BEODE Tat ON a sts ee eee eset Ei eat ded ie ys ee 69 CONSIPTIMEN ESS LOS Gea a a ae All air) ae eer ate ea 71 Hepositories of Congressional Record 222. 22s) 228 ee eee 73 Foreign depositories of governmental documents__________________ fil Horeigny exchange va gencies. 25. mia aey ee oe e ee 75 Interparliamentary exchange of the official journal______._-____-__ 73 PAeCrg ees, TCCCLVed, ANG Bento oo 2 sa tae eee eee oe ee a ee 69 ROO Ui oa eee Ce, Re ee Se eee 69 Iroquois herbalism and colonial medicine, Contacts between (Fenton). 503 J Jackson, Robert H., Attorney General (member of the Institution) ——_ ix James, Macgill, Assistant Director, National Gallery of Art-_._______- pdb hay PERMETROV id 2s eee eee kee SBOE cs 81 Johnston, Earl S., Assistant Director, Division of Radiation and Organisms... fe snes ee eed es ee ek ee ee xiii, 115 590 INDEX Page Jones, Jesse H., Secretary of Commerce (member of the Institution) — ix Bi CIN a TV 2s eo a Ie a le x K Kellog serine ora Ss a ee a es Se Xi oro Keppel, (Rrederick) Pc: otis oe i eee eee 46 Beet eb cin pi iiredion rai (BS = ah a ae a xiii ROAM ip; HOU S wo rtlng Bese aa a ag ass xi Kiline,, .Gordon;, M... (PIasties) 2-223 2 ee I a 225 Knox, Frank, Secretary of the Navy (member of the Institution) _____ ix IKeramer, Ae 22 oho a a Se a ee ee 109 Bred eres Ee WV ak a x Reress' s@ollection xa a has he SE se Be 8, 35, 36 iKress; A Samuel He ae ee ea eee xii, 3, 4, 36, 37, 44 L Lasley, J. W., Jr. (Mathematics and the sciences) _____________________ 183 BF {cy 0 VEE] ESR (ge aS a a PPR a ip ad ee ate 79 DBs) 0 ea Fei ae pent Fe Wi 0} ae rh tag I Ao Ges nat ae poe Poel etn I ee ot IE 1 |g 26 UO MR RTL gh TCT oe ae re ey Ar ee ee ee ee a ee a xi DPE USP gC UA 8 Iota ln or ae ai a ie seen a hea ee aA bo ee ld Pee 28 Mew LOM, CMEC CLICK 1 Myst ei ey ge xi Librarian of the Institution (William 1 Corbin) ea ea ee ee ib.< DEPTH ay cB ah Re ae SON Feb A ek dic ce cups eed pe pea eee eases hese SeE A cece A ye ds ee = 17 (ACCESSIONS ce 22 SL aa SNe de ae Oe ee Oe ea ae 20 SU OG hn f= SAR ala a a Se te as an Ee ne po an a A eee ee Non aval WXchange or Publica ti Ons Ss essere MOS eee eee aya en eee eaten ee ees 117 CG a faaie g Ae coeeeagu ps ouetetel ut Ak Leu Ve tame nen 2b banning a ia. pee Ute he 119 AD rary {Sy SUC Tae te ee ee a Baer eee ee ee 116 DEC Sr 0 FPS a le ey hee Cake LN one yal ce Moe ia pal edt A Seay hg 122 OY CLAY SV Ee VC[ a Iglesias et oA eel eee peep Eh ene ety en eines ae es eae bk tas a 121 | Ye) egsfoy a0 0 2) kena ali eon wh eerie plies EGA ahaceladysls A CE mews elidel cee yA mde i 116 § G2) O09 | epee iad ah tea latte ey teaser Sececetabes p Seal hi alien bon lepayea se Aah eaten Ve 116 Statistics ere re ese See ae eee Ne ie ere ee ae ee eee ee 120 BOG) ye) bag I hii (ees hii peacoat mel nates asin lil iene ape ibe nyt ia wlpa eiatle ls aries 28 Lodge, John Ellerton, Director, Freer Gallery of Art___--_----_-_- xii, 46, 47, 55 DOr EEN Ohl OL he aka aap ape cr pn ee Se a he He ae et 79 TOO VOLT ee LD A See ere ai Sarl AIA ea RIE ig OY ee pee nN Ce ea NET ee 29 M Mac@urdy, = 2-2 ene ee ee ee ee ees 79 LEDER DY Tie KET TN 1 Veta I | ee ee Se xi Munsell, Hazel E. (Vitamins and their occurrence in food) ----__----_____ 239 MnASsinan Alfred. -Dequest=—22-— sae ee ee eee a ey, 15 Myers @atherine: Walden, fund 222-522 2 Se eee 4,47 N Wai onal broadcasting) (CQ = ee eee 9,10 Watonal Collection of WinevArts 2.2 oa ee es ae eee ee xii, 4 LaNP UFO) eC DY 0) eh LT C0) we a i te I ny a nae aon es eee EET te 45 1 BETA EL ESS a SS NSD re SN ee i ey ee 45 Catherine Walden, Myer tung ===" Sis ee eae ee ees 47 TB (SoM ea PON Bia Wd RUG Wks) em eb ha (0 Dae RARE a ae Seed eee ee 49 TOA SEA CCCDtCG M2 i a ee ee ee ee 48 Loans to other museums and organizations_____________-___________ 48 WOanS a returned: = aos Se CeO ee Sire ee Re ee 49 BEST a TUT C220 el OVS a oe ee 50 USENET eLSTA VETTE 0) EP os a a ac pe ae a Fe ps aoa Se pe ae 49 DIR Ys a ee 45 Smithsonian, Art (Commission =— 22202. ok a ee eae 46 Specialexbib ition sso oes ee ee a 49 Withdrawals. by OWners==— 32s ss eae ee ee eer 48 RatonaleG abley Otc Ate = se ees So ee ee ee xo PACHMISITON So ae ees oe ee ee ee eee 39 Commiitiee 222 5 a ee AN Mace ap ate ek EEE 2 ee 38 ADNTODTIA tO, = ee ee ae BE ee LE ee ES 38 PNT SCTIYS ET BY ERA 5 SA i Raat sy Fe Rh aPeE ee ep ere la Bele Oe 39 Audit of private funds__--_____- Os ae ae A ee emer raeee hs | | 44 Commemorative tablet on the erection of the building__-____________ 43 Completion and occupation of the gallery building._________________ 34 Curatorial Zdepa rtm eu te ee ee ee a 41 592 INDEX | Page j Dedication ceremonies and opening of the Gallery to the public________ 35 a Educational program ticcniett at aa treo ene ee eh 42 i Hxecutive..committee. 220444025 og ee ee Se 37 | WOK [bebo 0) ee ese se a 43 ‘| Expenditures .and -encumbrances.22.5222210 20.2522 ee 38 | Finance) committee 28¢.42)4s 5th beens |e ho aa Pe ea ee Bb 37 GUL as es ee A ee ah Be Ee UO age ee 39, 40 3 +) 1) A a le ee ES PET ee NENTS ne EMER OeE alc OM a/ LLP <) BAM gE 42 . Loan. of: works of art: bythe Gallery. 2.22222 oe 41 Loans of works of art to the Gallery-__.._-__.____________________ 40 Memorial panels to benefactors of the National Gallery of Art_______ 43 berries Cen lo le fics a a se 43 Witiela less. a a is oe ae xii Organization. and, .stath toe ee ee ee 36 Photographic:.department, 22 oo eae ee 42 Publications Lio ee se ee eg Ee 39 ERC POT Ea Eh EN ee Se 34 ‘ Restorationsand: repairs tonworks) ofiart=-222- eee ee ee 41 Salevor exchangeof works'of art=21 32) se ek ee ae 40 i National sMiusermr 2 a a a eT ee a a See 2 i Administrative). staft 220 EA Alecia at ayy Nae eae eee xii i PAOD EG BRIA ELON ae ee ae ak ce 19 Changes in organization and) Stall 2222 eee 32 Collections: 2222005 2) 22 boo oe ee eee 19 ; Hxplorations and: field) workecs ser) Bias fae es ee ee 23, Publicationssand printing <2. 22s Se ie eee 31 Reporte 22 25 2 eo Rae ee eee 19 Scientific’ sta fies. Se eee ce ee x Specialvexhibites i222 20 oo See ee eee pane 32 Visitorsscooe SSE a ee Ses Se DRA Te Sees ae 31 National Zoological’? Parks oso 2 a ee eae es — xiii, 6 ACC@SS1 ONS) 22 =o oo oe ee eee 81 Statement cote. 23S ee ne ee eee ee oe 89 Animals in, the:Zoo June. 30), 1941222 oS eae eee ee ee ae 89 Appropriation [222 eee iid I SS 78 1B) gel ¢¥< RUE ae ey ch A Aree Dap ere ae Uy Hee ab a RL kT 96 Donors: and: their gifts.2. Ses eee eee 83 FOX CHANCE Bee ee 87 Mieldi work. 2222 fer te eG ee ee ee 81 CRIB ga ee PE Dk ae eee 82, 83 Improvements 22220 ae ee a ee eee ee eee 78 Needs ‘of the Zoo.) -- 2222 2o ss ee oe ae ee eee 79 POT SONIC! Sa so eA ee eye eee ee 78 Purchases2522 2. 222 oe ee eee ee eee 87 TER Yr OV. Sis SNP Re LL SNS eee eee 88 Reporte eee oa a er ee ee 78 Species new to the history of the collection--_____-______-___------_- 88 Statusiof- theicollection se ee eee eee 89 Dh C= B= eS a eet Re Nat CANA LS ER Se ey 80 HINGE TTS Ns eS a ee Se ene ee eee 109 New frontiers in the atom, The (Lawrence) ~--_----_-__-__-----_--------- 163 INDEX 593 Page ORS Se RRA tee ee ee eee A a Se ee ee 81 O OI BTE RETRO 8 ol 2 6 Yee a IRS SI ARS RT EN ART Mie. ie oil ANS es 13 OVEN EI) EET Ni) 3 RR RS ray “OR es NR Ra ives | at lt ee xii, 126 MiHcialssOL the InStlCutiOns = 29s aus ete ieee ea ee ix COV ere lest Wien GO Lise 2 22 eae en sre hs ee ae GE pee ee xii COI VEEYSY 1a Ne Rk eC PR POSE TS RR pS NS Nee PE ove xii Ohusted: Helen A:, personnel officers. = 22s 2s oe a eee ae eee ix CUTER CHC OVEN Tees ee ee Ae Relea Sey eA eC ee ee 1 P 1 EU TUSS AD 8 RC a eR Sela pene a aap RS py ne Ca ak RS PE IN eee >¢ YEP AM BETES Rs eh BEAN S (CE) Sy oi SP ea ee le ed ea oe eet xiii, 65, 128 IMO, WEDCOUOLC) Sees ae ee ee ers eee ee ee eS eee ee eg xi HellCornellavdhivingston states. 2.2522 Soc se See ee ee 4, 45 Perkins, Frances, Secretary of Labor (member of the Institution) _________ ix VETS) Fa YS 5. Yc) LA ae Se ar RI ge tp OS Tee ue 28 DEES, RYE SM) SRE a ek SE eel pea 2 ae Ne elie amp Mu AN ae xi Of 1 EOE TEETER GE 1 ES SSS RSI ST SRE OE I eee SL SURLY 27 Herronnelwonicer. (Helen. A; Olmstead)=- 2 s-- == ee ix he Sa Wee ble as ee ee Sh eS oe, Ue eh a 26 Ce SUEUR: 217216) SR a a REESE eect ae eS xii, 36, 37, 38 BHilinssehey.. Zebarney, Thorne... 2a 2a se eee 36 PIASEICS ISIN G)) ee oe er en ee ke ae eee 225 Popes sohnwrusselles 252s ee oe hee ee Sa ee 35 Postmaster General (Frank C. Walker, member of the Institution) ___ ix President of the United States (Franklin D. Roosevelt) --__-_______ ix, 4, 36 Presiding officer ex officio (franklin D. Roosevelt, President of the OTE CEC Ve ESL IS a Se A OA a eae ee eee Sa ee ix Price a Waterhouse 4 6c) C06 a 23 ok ee See ee ee 44 rmperty cierk, (James 2. Hill) 28 otek se Se en ix TETP A CUO TI Ca 0 (Se Se ee ee ee ee eee als PMLLORMETICS LOT pT LMa Gl yn oe en a ee a oe ae eed 128 American) Historical, Associations 2.20 eee. ae ee eee 128 Mavehters of the, American; Revolutions. 2.22 — sesso eee eee 128 LOPES EL HO a Cy 0 Rese aR ee” Ee EL OER tt I 123 HMehnology,.bureauiol, AMerican==22.2 one ee ee ee eee 128 reer Gallery Of AS Gane ee ee er ee en eee 127 National Collection: of: Wine Arts-- 222224 2 = eee ee eee 127 Na tHonalliy MUSsenME S22 ne ae Pa ee ee 126 Anmnal Rep OrE sek oS ee ee ee 126 ret hn gis see eS alee ear ae eee 127 Contributions from the U. S. National Herbarium——-_--_--_--__ 127 IPTOCCCC In gee oe a ie ee ee 126 REINO Ge is ae cen ee ee he Ne ee 123 NOITMGM SON LAN ook eee ot ea ea ee READ Ae 123 Anal RepOrtss: aaa le Tene i Pe ee ee ote eee eee 124 Miscellaneous s(Collectionsisus= 2st. FY ont Fe ey ees ae eee 123 Special pnblicationsh say seus at Saad en ere tan rele tae ee a 125 594 INDEX R Page Radiation,and. Organisms, ‘Division of 3 ee eee xiii, 7 Hinanelal support. 2-2 22 ee 111 Influence of cultural conditions on the growth of algae______________ 114 Influence of light in early growth of grass seedlings________________ 114 iifluence or radiation: On respira tl OMe = ee ee titi Papers presented at meetings. = 2a oe ee ee ee ee 115 PGrsonne) a occ eo a ert ae eet ne ee 115 Publica tlons ae eee eee ee ees oe oa ee 115, FRO Gi a a ae ee 111 Leo 0 6) -9 cif ee ea ee eee eee 2, 9, 10, 11 Ranger, ,Henrye Ward, fund 2e 2 Sen ee a ee ee 2 eee 49 Rathbun ya rye See SS sas SB a eS Se a een ran rer ieee eee xi FECAL Gor RN IN en epee eh sear el ae ae eo ee ee ere ee eee xii Meberholt, =| Berielw Owase oi eres See ees Peewee se aaa ee ee RA ee xi TOG CTO): Eich yar Gai Vy meee en es ee ee Lo eee 46, 47 eed! Al exam Ger Meese eee RAE a ae en ence Oe 2 ROT Iles eet eee 37 Regents Ther Board: Of s s=5 et Se 2 Me ee ee es eee a 8 SIE TUT 1) GTS ee Se wee oS gs roe 2 is ee Te a Pe 1 EVO GEE CET CS ew ams sa td a ae vrs 0 ee ce Ree RR Ot 8 EGG TT Ce resp eek 1 aT LA wre rt pe fh LO A x DBRT CU pS en) Sh a si aa nh 0 Vo AU ee i Aen te x dE) 08) LO) 9 Datei (On & eee cath pea ee eat ee rater eee a De 30 EPCS SE epg COATES ye coh a ee es ee le I DL xi, 16, 29 THe Ae Gr Ua a a ate th Fak eh nd re te ee BT AB REED I ae x MERU ys reba eM es a ah a ae NAN ho SN ed EY pes Xs RobertssWrank Et.) Els Pree ee TS ee xiii, 2, 5, 16, 58, 59, 60 Rodrigue TZ JUVenal Valerio wes Ske RRR AE eS AcE es et BRAD ea eae eee 25 Roebling) fund Sees See ee Ae I ee ee 21 AERO Wy Crs Sh A saa = tae te ah RR at SA TR PER oe Xs Roosevelt, Franklin D., President of the United States (Presiding officer ex officio) and member of the Institution) 222222" 22 a eae ix, 36 FROSSOM; EE ZA DCT NW ae err es ewe i ee oe i ern Pepe aie SE ae ES >a Rubiano;--Alejandro 22a = eae ee ee ee bee a IE ee 26 MER UL SSO LE say cFis iy 1 Wy EMSS Cha aa Se re eA ON nth x: Ss Behatler,, W.Va ss ee en roe xi SST Uva co WVU gg rv a a rn en X Schmitt, Waldo 2 = 2 a! oo ee ae eee 5 taj Al} 10S Pall SCHULEZ. eo rnb 8 Te a ae a x, 28 SCH WALZ: bs Grey airy ee a eX: Science and human prospects (Blackwelder) —-_-------------__-------— E26 Science in the electrical inc istry, The role of (Smith) --_---_-____-_____-_ 199 Science shaping American culture (Compton) ~-_----________--__-_____-_- 175 Sclientifie stati. 2s Se ee eee eee aK Searle, Harriet Richardson--________________________________________ aes Xs Secretary of, Agriculture (Claude R. Wickard, member of the Institution) ix Secretary of Commerce (Jesse H. Jones, member of the Institution) —---_ i bie Secretary of the Interior (Harold L. Ickes, member of the Institution) -- ix Secretary of Labor (Frances Perkins, member of the Institution) —---__- ix Secretary of the Navy (Frank Knox, member of the Institution) —---__- ib Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution (Charles G. Abbot) —~-..- ix, xii, 36, 37 INDEX 595 Page Secretary of State (Cordell Hull, member of the Institution) -____ix, xii, 36, 37 Secretary of the Treasury (Henry Morgenthau, Jr., member of the Insti- [FORG KO) MA ce Ee eee eee Pe sa Me eS ck RMAC SEL eee jae mes Ot, ix, xii, 36, 37 Secretary of War (Henry L. Stimson, member of the Institution) _____ ix SIEtO2A Ley er 0 ce EM ES ore PAs SEE anh a AU LOR fe la ae OC VATOLIE ICG ATS Gs ieee eee: es RE Py De 387 “LCDS EIS [1S 19061 £7 0 be ee lap pa ERI ats er ae bot eee Bk Bea Puneet x: Shepard, Donald D., Secretary-Treasurer and General Counsel, National Galleri, OneAT tes ou. 2-2 hs eek ee ge ee xii, 35, 37 MHOPMIBIKEr ClarenGe Bes 6 oi) oie tes cee eg ee, X27 Shoemaker, Coates W., Chief Clerk, International Exchange Service______ 0H iy (ef PS aa OSOYOU | BP 22 RN aS nee eee eer OU ee NERR LIN ASAT'Y Que eons ee tuber 108 SS Dn OG Leading © Fa Stal OS ke 8 A ide i ea xii Sa GH ETON AT bMS =o Cae a cape ae eee ee, 11, 16, 20, 28 Se See ODE tan Mies = = ek oe ee ee ee 16 ISTE BED pee Rg Ea 0s 2 i ee EE el xi Smith, M. W. (The role of science in the electrical industry ) _-_______-_-__ 199 Smicosoniane Arts COMMISSION e = te ei be ee a 46 Smithsonian-Firestone Expedition_____________________ 3, 6, 20, 27, 81, 82 SSEHT GLU SOTNE UT CTIN TED Pea ea PT te se ee a Fe bs Snake bites and the Hopi Snake Dance (Stirling) _-____-_-_---_--_-------- 551 Solar energy, Artificial converters of (Hottel) ------____-__________---____ 151 Solomon’s seaport: Ezion-geber, The excavations of (Glueck) ~---------_- 453 SSS Tea OTD WV a a Nh a IE aa xi Stearns, Hoster (regent of the imstitntion)) 222 ee x 2,8 SrejMe Ber Mom AT iiss! oe a ph ee eS 02) tala hs Pe x; 12 RSS SRST SU WMO TN Aes ae a ae a ed ed xi CCW ECS UTLATY: FAS Sot ae oe ee ae a LS ee 5 xiii, 5, 16, 60, 61 Eevee ee oI) = ee a ee ee a a ee x, 16, 23, 24 Stirling, Matthew W., Chief, Bureau of American Ethnology______ xiii, 2, 5, 56, 68 (Snake bites! and the Hopi Snake Dance) 2-22 2- see 551 Stone, Harlan F. (Chief Justice of the United States) ____________________ 37 ferrets et: SD): ESS Te ti A Tk LN 4, 15, 45 Sindveor indian: music; ‘The: (Densmore) =— 255" a2 se ee ee 527 Summary of the year’s activities of the branches of the Institution_______ 2 Rywrencon ye OD WR. . oo ee eee ee ee ee xiii, 5, 57 SHOES ied A ee ee ee ee eee wt xi Synthetic textile fibers, The new (Mauersberger) ----_-----__________-__- 211 At, Ith AK) 29 0) S ee eee 12 SRN LOTS (Mt Hol a. es 8 Se ee ee ee eee ae xi AVIOP Walter W,;0lsasoo 28 oe ee eed oe x, 25 OLD ELEC) Gg ee ee 24 Thimann, Kenneth V. (Growth hormones in plants) ~---_---_________-___ 393 Tolman, R. P., Acting Director, National Collection of Fine Arts___ xii, 45, 46, 50 Treasurer of the Institution (Nicholas W..Dorsey) 22-202 ae ee ix PRS TAD LG) esc a Ee a ee ee xii True, wiebpsier &., hier. editorial (divisions 2220s eee eee ix, 12, 129 U DTTC aed Oe a a ee ee eee ee ee Se xi mibedastakes) OfieexoLmhGucatlones.=s-2e ee ee eee ee 9 Weehulral aver (CO HAGE) ewe ee eee ete ie te ee sl 401 430577—42——39 596 INDEX V: Page Vaughan;: "2.""Waylands 2222. 322 Shy BO aS 9a re al TO Ne xi Vice President of the United States (Henry A. Wallace, member of the Dx SUG uni ry) 2 es a i a a ah a ix Vitamins and their occurrence in foods (Munsell) __--__--____-__-_-__-_- 239 WwW Walcott, Charles D. and Mary Vaux, Research Fund_____________________ 9 Walcott. Mrs; Mary: Vaux; DEG es tas sooner oa ape 2S A a 2, 9, 14 Walker) Mebert. ice a= sales ee ee ae ee ee ee ee xi Walker, Ernest P., Assistant Director, National Zoological Park ________ xiii (Care.of captive;animals)) 1-044 os been a hee erie bey She ee 305 Walker, John, Chief Curator, National Gallery of Art____________________ Ron Wallace, Henry A., Vice President of the United States (member and regent OL Lhe TS Git ea Gory) oe aa a ren a IL, EA 1b. ype’ Walter Rathbone Bacon» scholarship sess eae ee ee ee 11, 16, 20, 28 SWVC SSVI ES Sora IN Se EBT ESL EE OE ENE INE SE a Ae xi Webbs DOR Tai Se OE a a nd ke ae oe Lee ER 27 Wrecklenv Usb ss Jee 2. ee Or aa x,3 Wiedels Wald oie 2202 eu ee ee ee x, 16, 24, 25 Wenley, ArchibaldiG ifs 20 22s 20 Sl) A eS a Le xii, 5, 54 Wetmore, Alexander, Assistant Secretary of the Institution (in charge of the National Museum)?! Sis Se ee eee oe ee ee ix, x, 16, 25, 26, 33 Wihab les thet ween thes Searsis (A cern!) esse ee eee ew 141 Winitebread "Charlee 2 ee rake oh pares egg ECE ee Te xii Whorf, Benjamin Lee (Decipherment of the linguistic portion of the Maya VEG TO SU yap nh Si) Ss ees Le he (ee 479 Wickard, Claude R., Secretary of Agriculture (member of the Institution) — ix Widener: VJOSep hy H) ss eae Se OS Se ee eee ees xii, 36, 38 Wallouehib ya! Marion: yt rete oe sea area PA eae ee xi Walson, (Charles Branch. saan eee | 20 See ve SR eee eee x Wings for transportation. (Recent developments in air transportation equipment). (GWtight) S22 226 ee ee ee 563 Wid: Casey) Ai 2) Seen eee SN re I Te Ee Lk AO ER ms Woodhouses:S arte ll Wyk eek eee ET EE ee eee ae x World as! Yours) Chex(radio: program) = ses ee ee eee 259) 105 19! WV ss ed ect She ae a Ed ete Lg ee ee ee ee eas hn 6, 78 Wright, Theodore P:. (Wings for transportation) 2222 eee 563 rs WA CCOPA VV UTA eke ase ele nal ed ie ee i ee es 136 Younes: Mahonris Mets ss=s2 tes ieee ee eee eee 46 Z FANSUCT 4 CHATICS =e S28 ease Aa TAR OS A ane eee ee eee ee 37 ype en whee EG Tat . AA nu y . ia bist Peay) tae AeA Ast mdb AP bina , “i one h: bak ; . Wael Ks Srennihte ee ate uD ’ ye! ——— _—— —— ——= ————— ——+ SS— ———<$—— ——$— —$ ~—$— ——— —— —_—_— ———{ —$$— ———$ — <<< —— < —— ——= ———$—— ee —$—> ——= ee ee _——— ——$ 9088 00944 9703